Separate opinion of Judge Owada

Document Number
159-20161005-JUD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
159-20161005-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE O WADA

1. I concur with the conclusions of the Judgment as contained in its operative part (dispositif)
(Judgment, paragraph 56). Yet I am particularly sensitive to the tragic history of the Republic of
the Marshall Islands (hereinafter the “RMI”), which as a nation suffered as a consequence of the
extensive nuclear testing that took place on its territory. As recognized in the present Judgment,
this experience has created reasons for special concern about nuclear disarmament on the part of

the RMI, including its compelling interest with respect to the obligation of nuclear-weapon States
under Article VI of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (Judgment,
paragraph 41). It is for this reason not too difficult to comprehend the position adopted by the RMI
in the present case in relation to the duties of the nuclear-weapon States under Article VI of the
NPT. And yet, when it comes to the question of whether this court of law is able to exercise
jurisdiction in relation to the claim advanced by the Applicant, something more than a mere
divergence of positions between the Applicant and the Respondent is required as a matter of law.

More specifically, it has to be demonstrated that this factual divergence of positions between the
Parties has crystallized into a concrete legal dispute capable of adjudication by this Court at the
time of the filing of the Application.

2. The task of the Court in the present case is therefore to ascertain, not the existence vel non
of a divergence of opinions between the Parties, but whether this divergence had developed into a

concrete legal dispute by the time the Application was filed. The International Court of Justice, as
a court of law, has to confine its role strictly to the legal examination of the claim submitted to it.
It is for this reason that I feel it is incumbent upon me to elaborate upon a few key issues in the
present Judgment, with a view to clarifying the reasoning of the Court in this legal, though
politically charged, context.

I. The criteria for ascertaining the existence of a dispute

3. The first issue concerns the standard applied by the Court in determining whether or not a
dispute existed at the time of the filing of the Application by the RMI. Relying on the established
jurisprudence of the Court, the Judgment begins with the definition of a dispute as a disagreement
on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or of interests, and states that, for the purpose of
establishing the existence of a dispute, it must be shown that the claim of one party is positively
opposed by the other (Judgment, paragraph 34). However, beyond this generally accepted

statement of principle, which is an abstract and general formulation, the case law of the Court does
not reveal much more in terms of the concrete legal standard to be applied in determining how this
requirement of “positive opposition” could be established.

4. It is important to recognize in this context that, as stated by the Judgment, the
“determination of the existence of a dispute is a matter of substance, and not a question of form or
procedure” (Judgment, paragraph 35). Indeed this point is not a mere formality but a matter of

cardinal significance as an indispensable precondition for the seisin of the Court by the Applicant.
The filing of an application concerning a claimed dispute can stand only on the basis of the consent
of the parties, particularly when carried out through the parties’ declarations accepting the
compulsory jurisdiction of the Court under the Optional Clause. In fact, these declarations endow
the Court with jurisdiction to entertain only those disputes falling within the scope of the
declarations of the parties (Judgment, paragraph 33). This means that a dispute must first of all be

shown to exist between the parties in the sense of, and to the extent of, these declarations. It is for
this reason that the Court has held that “[a] mere assertion is not sufficient to prove the existence of
a dispute any more than a mere denial of the existence of the dispute proves its non-existence”
(South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 328). In this way, the precondition of the existence of a dispute
goes to the very heart of the exercise of jurisdiction by the Court. In this sense, this is not a mere

technicality. - 2 -

5. It may be recalled, on the other hand, that the Permanent Court of International Justice
observed that the Court, as an international court, “is not bound to attach to matters of form the

same degree of importance which they might possess in municipal law” (Mavrommatis Palestine
Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 34). The Permanent Court in that
case determined on that basis that “[e]ven if the grounds on which the institution of proceedings
was based were defective for the reason stated, this would not be an adequate reason for the
dismissal of the applicant’s suit” inasmuch as “it would always have been possible for the applicant
to re-submit his application in the same terms” (ibid., p. 34). It is also true that this Court, as its
successor institution, has from time to time accepted this approach (see, e.g., Application of the

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, pp. 438-440, paras. 81-82). Yet in the
present case there is in my view no place for the application of this doctrine. The absence of the
alleged dispute at the time of the filing of an application is an essential flaw that serves to
invalidate the very cause of action which constitutes the legal basis on which the application is
founded, and as such is not a mere procedural imperfection that could be cured by a subsequent
supplementary act of perfection, as was the case with the Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions

precedent. In finding that a dispute did not exist at the time of the filing of the Application, the
Court is therefore bound to conclude that it cannot proceed to an examination of the merits of the
case.

6. A legal dispute for this purpose must be clearly distinguished from a mere divergence or
difference in the views or positions that could exist in fact between the respective parties on the
subject-matter at issue. In international relations between States, as is so often the case between

individuals, States frequently adopt different or divergent positions on a given issue. Such
differences or divergences, even when they are well established, do not ipso facto represent a legal
dispute of which a court of law can be seised for adjudication.

7. Judge Morelli cogently highlighted this important distinction between a divergence of
views as a matter of fact and a conflict of legal interests as a matter of law in his Opinion in the
South West Africa cases, as follows:

“a dispute consists, not of a conflict of interests as such, but rather in a contrast
between the respective attitudes of the parties in relation to a certain conflict of
interests. The opposing attitudes of the parties, in relation to a given conflict of
interests, may respectively consist of the manifestations of the will by which each of
the parties requires that its own interest be realized . . . It follows from what has been
said that a manifestation of the will, at least of one of the parties, consisting in the
making of a claim or of a protest is a necessary element for a dispute to be regarded as

existing.” (South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962; dissenting opinion of
Judge Morelli, p. 567, para. 2.)

It is this positive opposition manifested between the parties which transforms a mere factual
disagreement into a legal dispute susceptible of adjudication.

8. As the Court has repeatedly confirmed in its jurisprudence, the existence of a legal dispute

in this sense is a matter for objective determination by the Court (Alleged Violations of Sovereign
Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 17 March 2016, para. 50). In making this objective
determination, the Court has always been led to consider whether the party claiming the existence
of a dispute (i.e., the applicant) has established by credible evidence that its claim is positively
opposed by the other party (i.e., the respondent).

9. It must be emphasized that the context in which this issue of the existence of a dispute

vel non has arisen is unique in each case. By my calculation, there are 19 cases throughout the case - 3 -

history of the PCIJ and the ICJ in which this issue has been raised. An analysis of the
jurisprudence of the Court could create the impression that the Court has applied changing criteria

in assessing whether there is a dispute for the purpose of its jurisdiction in these cases. In each of
these cases, however, the Court has carefully considered the specific facts and unique
circumstances of the case and assessed the evidence as presented by the parties, leading to a careful
assessment of factors such as the existence vel non of any notification of the dispute through prior
diplomatic exchanges, of an exhaustion of negotiations between the parties on the subject-matter at
issue, and even of any reaction to certain statements of one party by the other party.

10. It might be tempting to conclude from these cases that the Court’s reliance on each of
these factors evidences a certain threshold that must be met in order to establish the existence of a
dispute. Such an interpretation of the jurisprudence of the Court might appear to offer a neat legal
standard deliberately developed over time by the Court and applicable to all cases, including the
present one. Yet, in my view, the jurisprudence of the Court on this issue is not quite so linear.
These cases, many of which are discussed in the present Judgment, simply represent case-specific
instances in which the evidence presented by the parties was adjudged by the Court to be

sufficient — or insufficient, as the case may be — to establish the existence of a dispute. There is
thus an inherent danger in any attempt to formulate the Court’s consideration of these case-specific
types of evidence into a threshold capable of serving as a litmus test determinative of the existence
of a legal dispute in each case.

11. This point must be borne in mind when appreciating the true meaning of the element of
the respondent’s awareness, as introduced by the present Judgment. The Judgment states that what
is required is that the “evidence must show that . . . the respondent was aware, or could not have

been unaware, that its views were ‘positively opposed’ by the applicant” (Judgment, paragraph 38).
The Judgment could appear to introduce this element of “awareness” out of the blue, as if it were a
new yardstick to be applied in the context of the present case. This could invite the criticism that
the Court has conjured up yet another new criterion for judging whether or not there is a legal
dispute. In my view, however, this aspect of the Judgment must be understood in the context of
what has been stated above.

12. The reality, as stated earlier, is that the issue of the existence of a dispute has arisen in
cases with diverse factual and legal claims. The evidence presented by the applicants in these cases
includes direct diplomatic exchanges between the parties, statements made in multilateral fora, and
inferential conduct. The Court has demonstrated its willingness to weigh each of these disparate
factors in their respective contexts. In the case concerning the Application of the International
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian
Federation), for example, the Court examined statements made in multilateral settings, but paid

“primary attention” to statements made by the Executive because “it is the Executive of the State
that represents the State in its international relations and speaks for it at the international level”
(Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 87, para. 37). In other words, it was
only those statements that could serve to make the respondent aware of the claims that were
considered relevant; positive opposition could also be inferred from “the failure of a State to
respond to a claim in circumstances where a response is called for” (ibid., p. 84, para. 30;
emphasis added). On the other hand, in considering the conduct of the parties in assessing the

existence of a dispute, the Court has observed that “the position or the attitude of a party can be
established by inference, whatever the professed view of that party” in order to establish the
requisite positive opposition between the parties (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon
and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 315,
para. 89). It should thus be clear that the Court has considered a wide array of multifarious factors
in answering the question as to whether a dispute existed at the time of the filing of the
Application.

13. The crucial point is that the common denominator running through these diverse cases is
the element of awareness; as stated in the Judgment, it is the awareness of the respondent which - 4 -

demonstrates the transformation of a mere disagreement into a true legal dispute between the
parties. This principle requires the applicant to establish that the respondent “was aware, or could

not have been unaware, that its views were ‘positively opposed’ by the applicant” (Judgment,
paragraph 38). It may not strike one as a strict legal standard that is easy to establish in all concrete
situations, but it nevertheless forms an essential common denominator underlying the reasoning of
the Court in its analysis of the existence of a dispute throughout its case history.

14. I have tried to demonstrate that this element of awareness is not being introduced in the
present Judgment as another new criterion that could be used as an alternative to other factors to

establish the existence of a dispute. In my view, this element is critical, inasmuch as it is the
“objective awareness” of the parties that transforms a disagreement into a legal dispute. The
element of awareness therefore constitutes an essential minimum common to all cases where the
existence of a dispute is at issue.

II. The critical date for determining the existence of the dispute

15. Another important aspect of the present case is the time at which a dispute must be

shown to exist. As stated in the Judgment, the Court has made clear that “the date for determining
the existence of a dispute is the date on which the application is submitted to the Court” (Judgment,
paragraph 39). However, the RMI argued that the Judgments of the Court in several previous cases
support its contention that statements made during the proceedings may serve as evidence to
establish the existence of a dispute. In addition to the example of the Certain Property
(Liechtenstein v. Germany) case, the RMI relies on the Judgment of the Court in the case
concerning the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide

(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia) (Judgment, paragraph 50). The Court cogently explained
the correct meaning of these precedents in the Judgment, but the latter case would seem to require a
more detailed account of the unique circumstances presented by that case in order to correct this
understanding of the Applicant.

16. It is true that the Court in its 1996 Judgment in the Genocide case did not make an
explicit reference to any evidence before the filing of the Application in affirming the existence of
a dispute. However, it is important to highlight the two key elements unique to that case. They are

both highly relevant and serve to distinguish this 1996 Judgment from the rest of the Court’s
jurisprudence on the issue of the existence of a dispute at the time of the filing of the application.
The first is that, in that case, Bosnia and Herzegovina invoked the Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide as the source of the Court’s jurisdiction. Article IX of
the Convention provides that:

“‘Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpretation,

application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including those relating to the
responsibility of a State for genocide or for any of the other acts enumerated in
article III, shall be submitted to the International Court of Justice at the request of any
of the parties to the dispute.’” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, para. 27.)

Yugoslavia, as the Respondent, argued that there was no “international dispute” falling under the

terms of Article IX of the Genocide Convention. In other words, in this case Yugoslavia did not
contest the “existence of a dispute” for the purposes of the seisin of the Court, but rather questioned
the “existence of a dispute for the purposes of the compromissory clause of the Convention
(i.e., Article IX)”, as in its view this was not an international dispute for the purposes of the
Convention. This clearly serves to distinguish that case from other cases, where the issue was
purely “the existence of a legal dispute”. - 5 -

17. Furthermore, in weighing the statements made by the parties during the course of the
proceedings, the Court “note[d] that there persists” a situation of opposing views, thus signifying

that a dispute had been in existence at the time of the filing of the Application (Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614,
para. 29; emphasis added). The use of this language could be taken as an indication of the position
taken by the Judgment that the statements made after the filing of the Application were referred to
only as an affirmation of the continuation of a pre-existing dispute.

18. In sum, the mixed questions of law and fact tied to the merits of that case made the
question to be decided by the Court very different from the question at issue in the present
proceedings. In light of these factors, the reference in that Judgment to statements made after the
filing of the Application were due to the special circumstances of that case and therefore should not
be understood as signalling a departure from the Court’s consistent jurisprudence on this subject.

III. The question of the evidence presented by the Marshall Islands

19. Finally, the Judgment of the Court in this case may appear to some to adopt a piecemeal
approach with regard to the evidence presented by the Applicant. Specifically, some may feel that
the Court considers and ultimately rejects as insufficient each individual category of evidence
submitted by the RMI, but does not weigh the evidence in a comprehensive way. It may be
recalled in this context that the Applicant argued that:

“the RMI and Pakistan, by their opposing statements and conduct both prior to and
after the submission of the Application, have manifested the existence of a dispute

over Pakistan’s non-compliance with its obligation to pursue in good faith, and bring
to a conclusion, negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under
strict and effective international control” (Memorial of the Marshall Islands, para. 54).

In other words, the Applicant argued that the evidence when taken as a whole demonstrated the
existence of a dispute.

20. It is my view, however, that the Court did examine all of the evidence presented and did

correctly determine that the evidence — even when taken as a whole — was not sufficient to
demonstrate the existence of a dispute.

21. Having stated this, however, it may be useful to add that a new legal situation might
emerge as a result of the present proceedings in which the existence of a dispute could be said to
have crystallized. A new Application could be filed on this basis, which might not be subject to the
same preliminary objection to jurisdiction as upheld in the present case. This would be the case to

the extent that the present Judgment reflects the position of the Court with respect to the legal
situation that existed at the time of the filing of the Application in the present case. In this sense,
the present Judgment arguably might not automatically constitute a legal bar to the examination of
a new claim on its merits in the future. The viability of such a new application would naturally
remain an open question and its fate would depend upon the Court’s examination of all of the
objections to jurisdiction and to the admissibility of the claim. The Court would only be in a
position to examine the merits if it were satisfied that it had jurisdiction and the claim was

admissible with regard to such a new case.

(Signed) Hisashi O WADA .

___________

Bilingual Content

586
38
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE OWADA
1. I concur with the conclusions of the Judgment as contained in its
operative part (dispositif) (para. 56). Yet I am particularly sensitive to
the tragic history of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (hereinafter the
“RMI”), which as a nation suffered as a consequence of the extensive
nuclear testing that took place on its territory. As recognized in the present
Judgment, this experience has created reasons for special concern
about nuclear disarmament on the part of the RMI, including its compelling
interest with respect to the obligation of nuclear‑weapon States under
Article VI of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation
of Nuclear Weapons
(Judgment, para. 41). It is for this reason not too difficult to comprehend
the position adopted by the RMI in the present case in relation to the
duties of the nuclear‑weapon States under Article VI of the NPT. And
yet, when it comes to the question of whether this court of law is able to
exercise jurisdiction in relation to the claim advanced by the Applicant,
something more than a mere divergence of positions between the Applicant
and the Respondent is required as a matter of law. More specifically,
it has to be demonstrated that this factual divergence of positions between
the Parties has crystallized into a concrete legal dispute capable of adjudication
by this Court at the time of the filing of the Application.
2. The task of the Court in the present case is therefore to ascertain,
not the existence vel non of a divergence of opinions between the Parties,
but whether this divergence had developed into a concrete legal dispute by
the time the Application was filed. The International Court of Justice, as
a court of law, has to confine its role strictly to the legal examination of
the claim submitted to it. It is for this reason that I feel it is incumbent
upon me to elaborate upon a few key issues in the present Judgment,
with a view to clarifying the reasoning of the Court in this legal, though
politically charged, context.
I. The Criteria for Ascertaining
the Existence of a Dispute
3. The first issue concerns the standard applied by the Court in determining
whether or not a dispute existed at the time of the filing of the
Application by the RMI. Relying on the established jurisprudence of the
Court, the Judgment begins with the definition of a dispute as a disagreement
on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or of interests, and
states that, for the purpose of establishing the existence of a dispute, it
must be shown that the claim of one party is positively opposed by the
586
38
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE OWADA
[Traduction]
1. Je souscris aux conclusions énoncées dans le dispositif de l’arrêt
(par. 56). Cela ne m’empêche pas d’être particulièrement touché par l’histoire
tragique de la République des Iles Marshall (ci‑après dénommée les
« Iles Marshall »), qui a tant souffert en tant que nation des conséquences
des importants essais nucléaires conduits sur son territoire. Comme le
reconnaît le présent arrêt, cette expérience a donné aux Iles Marshall des
raisons particulières de se préoccuper du désarmement nucléaire, et
notamment un intérêt essentiel à voir respecter l’obligation mise à la
charge des Etats dotés d’armes nucléaires par l’article VI du traité sur la
non‑prolifération des armes nucléaires (arrêt, par. 41). On comprend sans
difficulté, dans ces conditions, la position que les Iles Marshall ont adoptée
en l’espèce au sujet de cette obligation. Cependant, pour que la Cour
puisse exercer sa juridiction à l’égard de la requête déposée par le demandeur,
il fallait, en droit, quelque chose de plus qu’une simple divergence
d’opinions entre le demandeur et le défendeur. Plus spécifiquement, il fallait
démontrer que la divergence factuelle de positions entre les Parties
s’était cristallisée, à la date de dépôt de la requête, en un différend juridique
concret susceptible d’être tranché par la Cour.
2. La tâche de la Cour en la présente espèce était donc de déterminer
non pas s’il existait ou non une divergence d’opinions entre les Parties,
mais si cette divergence s’était transformée en un différend juridique
concret à la date de dépôt de la requête. En sa qualité d’organe judiciaire,
la Cour internationale de Justice est tenue de limiter strictement son intervention
à l’examen juridique de la demande dont elle est saisie. Telle est
la raison pour laquelle je crois devoir commenter quelques points importants
du présent arrêt, afin de clarifier le raisonnement suivi par la Cour
dans un contexte certes juridique, mais aussi à forte charge politique.
I. Les critères permettant de constater
l’existence d’un différend
3. Le premier point est celui du critère appliqué par la Cour pour
déterminer s’il existait ou non un différend à la date à laquelle les Iles Marshall
ont déposé leur requête. S’appuyant sur la jurisprudence bien établie
de la Cour, l’arrêt commence par définir un différend comme un désaccord
sur un point de droit ou de fait, une opposition de thèses juridiques
ou d’intérêts ; il est précisé que, pour établir l’existence d’un différend, il
faut démontrer que la réclamation de l’une des parties se heurte à
587 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. owada)
39
other (Judgment, para. 34). However, beyond this generally accepted
statement of principle, which is an abstract and general formulation, the
case law of the Court does not reveal much more in terms of the concrete
legal standard to be applied in determining how this requirement of “positive
opposition” could be established.
4. It is important to recognize in this context that, as stated by the
Judgment, the “determination of the existence of a dispute is a matter of
substance, and not a question of form or procedure” (ibid., para. 35).
Indeed this point is not a mere formality but a matter of cardinal significance
as an indispensable precondition for the seisin of the Court by the
Applicant. The filing of an application concerning a claimed dispute can
stand only on the basis of the consent of the parties, particularly when carried
out through the parties’ declarations accepting the compulsory jurisdiction
of the Court under the Optional Clause. In fact, these declarations
endow the Court with jurisdiction to entertain only those disputes falling
within the scope of the declarations of the parties (ibid., para. 33). This
means that a dispute must first of all be shown to exist between the parties
in the sense of, and to the extent of, these declarations. It is for this
reason that the Court has held that “[a] mere assertion is not sufficient to
prove the existence of a dispute any more than a mere denial of the existence
of the dispute proves its non‑existence” (South West Africa (Ethiopia
v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 328). In this way, the precondition of
the existence of a dispute goes to the very heart of the exercise of jurisdiction
by the Court. In this sense, this is not a mere technicality.
5. It may be recalled, on the other hand, that the Permanent Court of
International Justice observed that the Court, as an international court,
“is not bound to attach to matters of form the same degree of importance
which they might possess in municipal law” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions,
Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 34). The Permanent
Court in that case determined on that basis that “[e]ven if the
grounds on which the institution of proceedings was based were defective
for the reason stated, this would not be an adequate reason for the dismissal
of the applicant’s suit” inasmuch as “it would always have been
possible for the applicant to re‑submit his application in the same terms”
(ibid.). It is also true that this Court, as its successor institution, has from
time to time accepted this approach (see, e.g., Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia
v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008,
pp. 438‑440, paras. 81-82). Yet in the present case there is in my view no
place for the application of this doctrine. The absence of the alleged dispute
at the time of the filing of an application is an essential flaw that
serves to invalidate the very cause of action which constitutes the legal
basis on which the application is founded, and as such is not a mere procedural
imperfection that could be cured by a subsequent supplementary
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. owada) 587
39
l’opposition manifeste de l’autre (arrêt, par. 34). Cependant, au‑delà de ce
principe généralement accepté, formulé en termes généraux et abstraits, la
jurisprudence de la Cour ne révèle aucun critère juridique concret dont
l’application permettrait de déterminer comment la condition de l’« opposition
manifeste » peut être remplie.
4. Il importe de reconnaître dans ce contexte que, comme il est dit dans
l’arrêt, « [l]a détermination par la Cour de l’existence d’un différend est
une question de fond, et non de forme ou de procédure » (ibid., par. 35).
Effectivement, loin d’être une simple formalité, ce point revêt une importance
considérable en tant que condition préalable nécessaire à la saisine
de la Cour par le demandeur. Le dépôt d’une requête relative à un différend
allégué ne peut aboutir que sur la base du consentement des parties,
en particulier lorsque la requête se fonde sur les déclarations par lesquelles
les parties ont accepté comme obligatoire la juridiction de la Cour en
vertu de la clause facultative. En fait, ces déclarations donnent compétence
à la Cour pour statuer uniquement sur les différends qui entrent
dans leur champ d’application (ibid., par. 33). Il s’ensuit qu’il faut d’abord
démontrer qu’il existe entre les parties un différend au sens desdites déclarations
et entrant dans le champ d’application de celles-
ci. C’est pour
cette raison que la Cour a pu déclarer que « [l]a simple affirmation ne
suffit pas pour prouver l’existence d’un différend, tout comme le simple
fait que l’existence d’un différend est contestée ne prouve pas que ce différend
n’existe pas » (Sud‑Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria
c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962,
p. 328). De ce point de vue, la condition préalable selon laquelle il doit
exister un différend touche au coeur même de l’exercice de la compétence
de la Cour ; il ne s’agit donc pas d’une pure formalité.
5. On se rappellera cependant que la Cour permanente de Justice internationale
a fait observer que la Cour, en tant que juridiction internationale,
n’était « pas tenue d’attacher à des considérations de forme la même
importance qu’elles pourraient avoir dans le droit interne » (Concessions
Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A no 2, p. 34).
Dans cette affaire, la Cour permanente avait conclu sur ce fondement
que, « [m]ême si la base de l’introduction d’instance était défectueuse pour
la raison mentionnée, ce ne serait pas une raison suffisante pour débouter
le demandeur de sa requête », dans la mesure où « il aurait été toujours
possible, pour la partie demanderesse, de présenter à nouveau sa requête,
dans les mêmes termes » (ibid.). Il est également vrai que la Cour internationale
de Justice, qui a succédé à la Cour permanente de Justice internationale,
a parfois admis une telle approche (voir, par exemple, l’affaire
relative à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression
du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 438-440, par. 81-82). Cela dit, il ne me semble pas
que la présente espèce se prêtait à l’application de cette doctrine. L’inexistence,
à la date du dépôt de la requête, du différend allégué était en effet
un vice rédhibitoire qui invalidait dès son origine le motif juridique sur
lequel elle se fondait ; il ne s’agissait pas d’un simple vice de procédure
588 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. owada)
40
act of perfection, as was the case with the Mavrommatis Palestine
Concessions
precedent. In finding that a dispute did not exist at the time of the
filing of the Application, the Court is therefore bound to conclude that it
cannot proceed to an examination of the merits of the case.
6. A legal dispute for this purpose must be clearly distinguished from a
mere divergence or difference in the views or positions that could exist in
fact between the respective parties on the subject‑matter at issue. In
international
relations between States, as is so often the case between
individuals, States frequently adopt different or divergent positions on
a given issue. Such differences or divergences, even when they are well
established, do not ipso facto represent a legal dispute of which a court
of law can be seised for adjudication.
7. Judge Morelli cogently highlighted this important distinction
between a divergence of views as a matter of fact and a conflict of legal
interests as a matter of law in his opinion in the South West Africa cases,
as follows:
“a dispute consists, not of a conflict of interests as such, but rather in
a contrast between the respective attitudes of the parties in relation
to a certain conflict of interests. The opposing attitudes of the parties,
in relation to a given conflict of interests, may respectively consist of
the manifestations of the will by which each of the parties requires
that its own interest be realized . . .
It follows from what has been said that a manifestation of the will,
at least of one of the parties, consisting in the making of a claim or
of a protest is a necessary element for a dispute to be regarded as
existing.” (South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia
v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1962; dissenting opinion of Judge Morelli, p. 567, para. 2.)
It is this positive opposition manifested between the parties which transforms
a mere factual disagreement into a legal dispute susceptible of adjudication.
8. As the Court has repeatedly confirmed in its jurisprudence, the existence
of a legal dispute in this sense is a matter for objective determination
by the Court (Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime
Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 26, para. 50). In making this
objective determination, the Court has always been led to consider
whether the party claiming the existence of a dispute (i.e., the applicant)
has established by credible evidence that its claim is positively opposed by
the other party (i.e., the respondent).
9. It must be emphasized that the context in which this issue of the
existence of a dispute vel non has arisen is unique in each case. By my
calculation, there are 19 cases throughout the case history of the PCIJ
and the ICJ in which this issue has been raised. An analysis of the juris-
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. owada) 588
40
auquel il aurait pu être facilement remédié par une correction ultérieure,
comme dans le précédent des Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine.
Ayant constaté qu’il n’existait pas de différend entre les parties à la date
du dépôt de la requête, la Cour était tenue d’en conclure qu’elle ne pouvait
passer à l’examen de l’affaire sur le fond.
6. Un différend juridique doit se distinguer nettement d’une simple différence
ou divergence de vues qui pourrait exister entre les parties sur la
question en cause. Dans les relations internationales interétatiques,
comme souvent dans les relations entre individus, les Etats adoptent fréquemment
des positions différentes ou divergentes sur telle ou telle question.
Ces différences ou divergences, même quand elles sont bien établies,
ne constituent pas ipso facto un différend d’ordre juridique qu’une cour
ou un tribunal pourrait être appelé à trancher.
7. Dans l’exposé de son opinion sur l’arrêt de la Cour dans les affaires
du Sud‑Ouest africain, le juge Morelli a souligné avec force cette importante
distinction entre une divergence de vues en tant que question de fait
et un conflit d’intérêts juridiques en tant que question de droit :
« un différend consiste, non pas dans un conflit d’intérêts en tant que
tel, mais plutôt dans un contraste entre les attitudes respectives des
parties par rapport à un certain conflit d’intérêts. Les attitudes opposées
des parties, par rapport à un conflit d’intérêts donné, peuvent
consister, l’une et l’autre, dans des manifestations de volonté par lesquelles
chacune des parties exige que son propre intérêt soit réalisé…
Il résulte de ce qu’on vient de dire que la manifestation de volonté,
au moins de l’une des parties, manifestation de volonté consistant
dans une prétention ou bien dans une protestation, constitue un élément
nécessaire pour qu’on puisse considérer qu’il existe un différend.
» (Sud‑Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria
c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 ;
opinion dissidente de M. le juge Morelli, p. 567, par. 2.)
C’est donc une nette opposition manifestée entre les parties qui transforme
un simple désaccord factuel en un différend juridique susceptible
d’être soumis à une juridiction.
8. Comme l’a confirmé la Cour à plusieurs reprises dans sa jurisprudence,
l’existence d’un tel différend juridique demande à être établie
objectivement par elle (Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces
maritimes dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Colombie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 26, par. 50). Pour
établir objectivement cette existence, la Cour a toujours été conduite à
examiner si la partie qui prétend qu’un différend existe (le demandeur) a
prouvé de façon crédible que sa prétention se heurtait à une nette opposition
de la part de l’autre partie (le défendeur).
9. Il convient de souligner que le contexte dans lequel la question de
l’existence d’un différend se pose est propre à chaque affaire. Selon mes
calculs, au fil de l’histoire de la Cour et de sa devancière, cette question a
été soulevée dans dix‑neuf affaires. Une analyse de la jurisprudence de la
589 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. owada)
41
prudence of the Court could create the impression that the Court has
applied changing criteria in assessing whether there is a dispute for the
purpose of its jurisdiction in these cases. In each of these cases, however,
the Court has carefully considered the specific facts and unique circumstances
of the case and assessed the evidence as presented by the parties,
leading to a careful assessment of factors such as the existence vel non of
any notification of the dispute through prior diplomatic exchanges, of an
exhaustion of negotiations between the parties on the subject‑matter at
issue, and even of any reaction to certain statements of one party by the
other party.
10. It might be tempting to conclude from these cases that the Court’s
reliance on each of these factors evidences a certain threshold that must
be met in order to establish the existence of a dispute. Such an interpretation
of the jurisprudence of the Court might appear to offer a neat legal
standard deliberately developed over time by the Court and applicable to
all cases, including the present one. Yet, in my view, the jurisprudence of
the Court on this issue is not quite so linear. These cases, many of which
are discussed in the present Judgment, simply represent case‑specific
instances in which the evidence presented by the parties was adjudged by
the Court to be sufficient — or insufficient, as the case may be — to establish
the existence of a dispute. There is thus an inherent danger in any
attempt to formulate the Court’s consideration of these case‑specific types
of evidence into a threshold capable of serving as a litmus test determinative
of the existence of a legal dispute in each case.
11. This point must be borne in mind when appreciating the true
meaning of the element of the respondent’s awareness, as introduced by
the present Judgment. The Judgment states that what is required is that
the “evidence must show that . . . the respondent was aware, or could not
have been unaware, that its views were ‘positively opposed’ by the applicant”
(Judgment, para. 38). The Judgment could appear to introduce this
element of “awareness” out of the blue, as if it were a new yardstick to be
applied in the context of the present case. This could invite the criticism
that the Court has conjured up yet another new criterion for judging
whether or not there is a legal dispute. In my view, however, this aspect
of the Judgment must be understood in the context of what has been
stated above.
12. The reality, as stated earlier, is that the issue of the existence of a
dispute has arisen in cases with diverse factual and legal claims. The evidence
presented by the applicants in these cases includes direct diplomatic
exchanges between the parties, statements made in multilateral fora, and
inferential conduct. The Court has demonstrated its willingness to weigh
each of these disparate factors in their respective contexts. In the case
concerning the Application of the International Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation),
for example, the Court examined statements made in multilateral
settings, but paid “primary attention” to statements made by the Execu-
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. owada) 589
41
Cour pourrait donner l’impression que celle‑ci a appliqué des critères
variables pour rechercher s’il existait un différend aux fins d’établir sa
compétence dans ces affaires. Toutefois, dans chacune d’entre elles, la
Cour a examiné attentivement les faits spécifiques et les circonstances particulières
de l’espèce et apprécié les éléments de preuve produits par les
parties, en procédant à une évaluation approfondie de facteurs tels que la
notification ou le défaut de notification préalable du différend par voie
d’échanges diplomatiques, l’épuisement des négociations entre les parties
sur le sujet en cause, voire les éventuelles réactions d’une partie aux déclarations
de l’autre.
10. On pourrait être tenté de conclure de toutes ces affaires que, à force
d’examiner les différents facteurs susmentionnés, la Cour a pu en dégager
un critère qui permettrait d’établir l’existence d’un différend. Une telle
interprétation de la jurisprudence de la Cour semble promettre un critère
juridique parfait, délibérément mis au point par la Cour au fil des années,
et applicable tel quel à toutes les affaires, y compris la présente espèce. Or,
selon moi, la jurisprudence de la Cour sur ce point n’est pas aussi
constante qu’elle le semble. Ces affaires, dont bon nombre sont évoquées
dans le présent arrêt, concernent simplement des situations spécifiques,
dans lesquelles les différents éléments de preuve présentés par les parties
ont été jugés par la Cour soit suffisants soit insuffisants pour établir l’existence
d’un différend. Il est donc intrinsèquement hasardeux de vouloir
déduire de cet examen d’éléments de preuve particuliers à chaque espèce
un critère universel qui permettrait de déterminer dans tous les cas s’il
existe ou non un différend juridique.
11. Il importe de ne pas oublier ce point quand on veut comprendre le
sens véritable de l’élément de « connaissance du différend par le défendeur
» introduit par l’arrêt. Il est dit dans celui‑ci que « [l]es éléments de
preuve doivent montrer que … le défendeur avait connaissance, ou ne
pouvait pas ne pas avoir connaissance, de ce que ses vues se heurtaient à
l’« opposition manifeste » du demandeur » (arrêt, par. 38). L’arrêt paraîtra
peut-être avoir introduit ex nihilo cet élément de la « connaissance »,
comme s’il s’agissait d’une nouvelle unité de mesure à appliquer dans le
contexte de l’espèce. La Cour risque donc de se faire reprocher d’avoir
sorti de son chapeau encore un autre critère de détermination de l’existence
d’un différend juridique. Or, à mon avis, cet aspect de l’arrêt doit
s’interpréter en tenant compte des considérations qui précèdent.
12. La réalité, comme je l’ai dit plus haut, est que la question de l’existence
d’un différend a été soulevée dans des affaires présentant la plus
grande diversité de circonstances de fait et de droit. Les éléments de
preuve produits par les demandeurs en ces affaires comprennent des
échanges diplomatiques entre les parties, des déclarations faites dans des
enceintes multilatérales et des preuves par déduction. La Cour a montré
qu’elle était disposée à apprécier chacun de ces facteurs disparates en le
replaçant dans son contexte. Dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de la
convention internationale
sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), par exemple, elle a certes
590 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. owada)
42
tive because “it is the Executive of the State that represents the State in its
international relations and speaks for it at the international level” (Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 87, para. 37).
In other words, it was only those statements that could serve to make the
respondent aware of the claims that were considered relevant; positive
opposition could also be inferred from “the failure of a State to respond
to a claim in circumstances where a response is called for” (ibid., p. 84,
para. 30; emphasis added). On the other hand, in considering the conduct
of the parties in assessing the existence of a dispute, the Court has
observed that “the position or the attitude of a party can be established
by inference, whatever the professed view of that party” in order to establish
the requisite positive opposition between the parties (Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 315, para. 89).
It should thus be clear that the Court has considered a wide array of
multifarious
factors in answering the question as to whether a dispute
existed at the time of the filing of the Application.
13. The crucial point is that the common denominator running through
these diverse cases is the element of awareness; as stated in the Judgment,
it is the awareness of the respondent which demonstrates the transformation
of a mere disagreement into a true legal dispute between the parties.
This principle requires the applicant to establish that the respondent “was
aware, or could not have been unaware, that its views were ‘positively
opposed’ by the applicant” (Judgment, para. 38). It may not strike one as
a strict legal standard that is easy to establish in all concrete situations,
but it nevertheless forms an essential common denominator underlying
the reasoning of the Court in its analysis of the existence of a dispute
throughout its case history.
14. I have tried to demonstrate that this element of awareness is not
being introduced in the present Judgment as another new criterion that
could be used as an alternative to other factors to establish the existence
of a dispute. In my view, this element is critical, inasmuch as it is the
“objective awareness” of the parties that transforms a disagreement into
a legal dispute. The element of awareness therefore constitutes an essential
minimum common to all cases where the existence of a dispute is at
issue.
II. The Critical Date for Determining the Existence
of the Dispute
15. Another important aspect of the present case is the time at which a
dispute must be shown to exist. As stated in the Judgment, the Court has
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. owada) 590
42
examiné les déclarations faites dans des enceintes multilatérales, mais a
accordé « [u]ne attention toute particulière » aux déclarations de l’exécutif
de chacune des parties, parce que « c’est en règle générale l’exécutif qui
représente l’Etat dans ses relations internationales et s’exprime en son
nom sur le plan international » (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2011 (I), p. 87, par. 37). Autrement dit, d’une part, seules ces
déclarations de l’exécutif peuvent donner connaissance au défendeur des
prétentions considérées comme pertinentes, une opposition manifeste
pouvant également « être déduite de l’absence de réaction d’un Etat à une
accusation dans des circonstances où une telle réaction s’imposait » (ibid.,
p. 84, par. 30 ; les italiques sont de moi), mais, d’autre part, la Cour a fait
observer que, lorsqu’elle examine le comportement des parties pour déterminer
l’existence d’un différend, « il est possible … d’établir par inférence
quelle est en réalité la position ou l’attitude d’une partie » afin de constater
la nécessaire « opposition manifeste » entre les parties (Frontière terrestre
et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 315, par. 89). Il
apparaît donc clairement que la Cour tient compte d’un large éventail de
facteurs pour répondre à la question de savoir s’il existait un différend à
la date du dépôt de la requête.
13. Le point crucial à retenir est que le dénominateur commun de ces
différentes affaires est l’élément de connaissance ; comme il est dit dans le
présent arrêt, c’est la connaissance du différend par le défendeur qui
manifeste la transformation d’un simple désaccord en un véritable différend
juridique entre les parties. Ce principe impose au demandeur de
démontrer que « le défendeur avait connaissance, ou ne pouvait pas ne
pas avoir connaissance, de ce que ses vues se heurtaient à l’« opposition
manifeste » du demandeur » (arrêt, par. 38). Il ne ressemble peut-être pas
à un strict critère juridique qu’il serait facile d’appliquer dans toutes les
situations concrètes, mais il n’en constitue pas moins un dénominateur
commun essentiel du raisonnement qu’a tenu la Cour dans son analyse de
l’existence d’un différend, et cela tout au long de sa jurisprudence.
14. J’ai essayé de montrer que l’arrêt en l’espèce n’a pas introduit cet
élément de connaissance comme un nouveau critère supplémentaire que
l’on pourrait substituer à d’autres facteurs pour établir l’existence d’un
différend. Selon moi, il s’agit d’un élément qui présente une importance
cruciale, dans la mesure où c’est la « connaissance objective » des parties
qui transforme un désaccord en différend juridique. Cet élément de
connaissance constitue par conséquent un minimum essentiel qui est commun
à toutes les affaires où l’existence d’un différend est contestée.
II. La date critique aux fins de la détermination
de l’existence du différend
15. La date à laquelle il doit être démontré que le différend existait
constituait un autre aspect important de la présente espèce. Dans son
591 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. owada)
43
made clear that “the date for determining the existence of a dispute is the
date on which the application is submitted to the Court” (Judgment,
para. 39). However, the RMI argued that the Judgments of the Court in
several previous cases support its contention that statements made during
the proceedings may serve as evidence to establish the existence of a dispute.
In addition to the example of the Certain Property (Liechtenstein v.
Germany) case, the RMI relies on the Judgment of the Court in the case
concerning the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia) (ibid.,
para. 50). The Court cogently explained the correct meaning of these
precedents in the Judgment, but the latter case would seem to require a
more detailed account of the unique circumstances presented by that case
in order to correct this understanding of the Applicant.
16. It is true that the Court in its 1996 Judgment in the Genocide case
did not make an explicit reference to any evidence before the filing of the
Application in affirming the existence of a dispute. However, it is important
to highlight the two key elements unique to that case. They are both
highly relevant and serve to distinguish this 1996 Judgment from the rest
of the Court’s jurisprudence on the issue of the existence of a dispute at
the time of the filing of the application. The first is that, in that case, Bosnia
and Herzegovina invoked the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide as the source of the Court’s jurisdiction.
Article IX of the Convention provides that:
“‘Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpretation,
application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including
those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any
of the other acts enumerated in article III, shall be submitted to the
International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to
the dispute.’” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v.
Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 614, para. 27.)
Yugoslavia, as the Respondent, argued that there was no “international
dispute” falling under the terms of Article IX of the Genocide Convention.
In other words, in this case Yugoslavia did not contest the “existence
of a dispute” for the purposes of the seisin of the Court, but rather
questioned the “existence of a dispute for the purposes of the compromissory
clause of the Convention (i.e., Article IX)”, as in its view this was
not an international dispute for the purposes of the Convention. This
clearly serves to distinguish that case from other cases, where the issue
was purely “the existence of a legal dispute”.
17. Furthermore, in weighing the statements made by the parties during
the course of the proceedings, the Court “note[d] that there persists”
a situation of opposing views, thus signifying that a dispute had been in
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. owada) 591
43
arrêt, la Cour a dit clairement que « la date à laquelle doit être appréciée
l’existence d’un différend est celle du dépôt de la requête » (arrêt, par. 39).
Les Iles Marshall ont cependant argué que les arrêts rendus par la Cour
dans plusieurs affaires antérieures étayaient leur affirmation, selon laquelle
les déclarations faites en cours d’instance pouvaient permettre de démontrer
l’existence d’un différend. Outre l’affaire relative à Certains biens
(Liechtenstein c. Allemagne), les Iles Marshall ont invoqué l’arrêt de la
Cour dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie)
(ibid., par. 50). Bien que la Cour ait expliqué de façon convaincante
dans le présent arrêt le sens véritable de ces deux précédents, il semble que
le second d’entre eux appelle un exposé plus détaillé des circonstances
uniques qui le caractérisaient, afin de corriger l’interprétation qu’en a
donnée le demandeur.
16. Il est vrai que, dans son arrêt de 1996 en l’affaire du Génocide, la
Cour n’a évoqué expressément aucune preuve antérieure au dépôt de la
requête pour affirmer l’existence d’un différend. Il importe cependant, à
ce sujet, de souligner deux éléments essentiels qui n’appartiennent qu’à
cette affaire. Ces deux éléments sont très pertinents et détachent l’arrêt
de 1996 du reste de la jurisprudence de la Cour sur cette question de
l’existence d’un différend à la date du dépôt de la requête. Le premier
élément est que, dans cette affaire, la Bosnie‑Herzégovine avait invoqué la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
comme source de la compétence de la Cour. L’article IX de cette convention
dispose que
« [l]es différends entre les Parties contractantes relatifs à l’interpréation,
l’application ou l’exécution de la présente convention, y compris
ceux relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide
ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à l’article III, seront
soumis à la Cour internationale de Justice, à la requête d’une partie
au différend » (Application de la convention pour la prévention et la
répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614,
par. 27).
La Yougoslavie, défendeur à l’instance, avait fait valoir qu’il n’existait
« aucun différend international » entrant dans les prévisions de l’article IX
de la convention sur le génocide. En d’autres termes, elle contestait non
pas l’« existence d’un différend » aux fins de la saisine de la Cour, mais
« l’existence d’un différend aux fins de la clause compromissoire de la
convention (c’est‑à‑dire de son article IX) », puisque, selon elle, le différend
en cause n’était pas un différend international au sens de cet instrument.
C’est là précisément ce qui distingue cette affaire d’autres, dans lesquelles
la question est uniquement celle de « l’existence d’un différend juridique ».
17. De plus, analysant les déclarations faites par les parties au cours de
la même procédure, la Cour a constaté que « persist[ait] » une situation
dans laquelle les points de vue étaient nettement opposés, signifiant par là
592 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. owada)
44
existence at the time of the filing of the Application (Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, para. 29; emphasis added). The use
of this language could be taken as an indication of the position taken
by the Judgment that the statements made after the filing of the Application
were referred to only as an affirmation of the continuation of a
pre‑existing dispute.
18. In sum, the mixed questions of law and fact tied to the merits of
that case made the question to be decided by the Court very different
from the question at issue in the present proceedings. In light of these factors,
the reference in that Judgment to statements made after the filing of
the Application were due to the special circumstances of that case and
therefore should not be understood as signalling a departure from the
Court’s consistent jurisprudence on this subject.
III. The Question of the Evidence Presented
by the Marshall Islands
19. Finally, the Judgment of the Court in this case may appear to some
to adopt a piecemeal approach with regard to the evidence presented by
the Applicant. Specifically, some may feel that the Court considers and
ultimately rejects as insufficient each individual category of evidence submitted
by the RMI, but does not weigh the evidence in a comprehensive
way. It may be recalled in this context that the Applicant argued that:
“the RMI and Pakistan, by their opposing statements and conduct
both prior to and after the submission of the Application, have manifested
the existence of a dispute over Pakistan’s non‑compliance with
its obligation to pursue in good faith, and bring to a conclusion,
negotiations leading to nuclear disarmament in all its aspects under
strict and effective international control” (Memorial of the Marshall
Islands, p. 22, para. 54).
In other words, the Applicant argued that the evidence when taken as a
whole demonstrated the existence of a dispute.
20. It is my view, however, that the Court did examine all of the evidence
presented and did correctly determine that the evidence — even
when taken as a whole — was not sufficient to demonstrate the existence
of a dispute.
21. Having stated this, however, it may be useful to add that a new
legal situation might emerge as a result of the present proceedings in which
the existence of a dispute could be said to have crystallized. A new Application
could be filed on this basis, which might not be subject to the same
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. owada) 592
44
qu’un différend existait déjà à la date du dépôt de la requête (Application
de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614, par. 29 ; les italiques sont de moi). Le
choix du verbe « persister » semble indiquer que la Cour considérait que
les déclarations faites après le dépôt de la requête n’avaient été évoquées
que pour affirmer la persistance d’un différend préexistant.
18. En somme, le mélange d’éléments de droit et de fait touchant au
fond de cette affaire faisait de la question que devait alors trancher la
Cour une question très différente de celle qu’elle devait trancher en la
présente espèce. Compte tenu de ces facteurs, le fait que, dans l’arrêt précité,
la Cour ait évoqué des déclarations faites après le dépôt de la requête
s’explique par les circonstances particulières de cette affaire et ne doit pas
s’interpréter comme un indice que la Cour serait prête à s’écarter de sa
jurisprudence constante sur ce sujet.
III. La question des éléments de preuve produits
par les Îles Marshall
19. Enfin, d’aucuns estimeront peut-être que, dans son arrêt en la présente
affaire, la Cour a fait preuve d’une certaine inconséquence dans son
examen des éléments de preuve présentés par le demandeur. Plus précisément,
d’aucuns reprocheront peut‑être à la Cour d’avoir examiné, puis
rejeté individuellement pour insuffisance, chaque catégorie d’éléments de
preuve introduite par les Iles Marshall, sans avoir examiné ces éléments
dans leur ensemble. Or, on se rappellera dans ce contexte que le demandeur
avait fait valoir que,
« par leurs déclarations et comportements antinomiques tant avant
qu’après le dépôt de la requête, la République des Iles Marshall et le
Pakistan [avaient] manifesté l’existence d’un différend quant au
non‑respect par ce dernier de son obligation de poursuivre de bonne
foi et de mener à terme des négociations conduisant au désarmement
nucléaire dans tous ses aspects, sous un contrôle international strict
et efficace » (mémoire des Iles Marshall, p. 22, par. 54).
Autrement dit, le demandeur prétendait que, considérés dans leur
ensemble, les éléments de preuve démontraient l’existence d’un différend.
20. Je suis d’avis, cependant, que la Cour a bel et bien examiné tous les
éléments de preuve qui lui avaient été présentés et a conclu à juste titre
que ceux-
ci — même considérés dans leur ensemble — n’étaient pas suffisants
pour démontrer l’existence d’un différend.
21. Cela dit, il serait bon d’ajouter qu’une nouvelle situation juridique
est peut‑être née de la présente instance, dont il est permis de penser
qu’elle a vu se cristalliser l’existence d’un différend. Une nouvelle requête
pourrait être déposée sur ce fondement, qui pourrait ne pas être exposée
593 nuclear arms and disarmament (sep. op. owada)
45
preliminary objection to jurisdiction as upheld in the present case. This
would be the case to the extent that the present Judgment reflects the position
of the Court with respect to the legal situation that existed at the time
of the filing of the Application in the present case. In this sense, the present
Judgment arguably might not automatically constitute a legal bar to the
examination of a new claim on its merits in the future. The viability of
such a new application would naturally remain an open question and its
fate would depend upon the Court’s examination of all of the objections
to jurisdiction and to the admissibility of the claim. The Court would only
be in a position to examine the merits if it were satisfied that it had jurisdiction
and the claim was admissible with regard to such a new case.
(Signed) Hisashi Owada.
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. ind. owada) 593
45
à la même exception préliminaire que celle qui a été retenue dans le présent
arrêt. Ce serait le cas dans la mesure où ledit arrêt exprime la position
de la Cour sur la situation juridique qui existait à la date du dépôt de
la requête. On pourrait alors soutenir que le présent arrêt ne constituerait
pas automatiquement un obstacle juridique à l’examen futur d’une nouvelle
réclamation sur le fond. La viabilité d’une nouvelle requête de ce
genre resterait naturellement à déterminer, et la suite qui lui serait donnée
dépendrait de l’examen par la Cour de toutes les exceptions d’incompétence
et d’irrecevabilité. La Cour ne pourrait passer à l’examen de cette
nouvelle affaire au fond qu’après s’être assurée qu’elle est compétente et
que la nouvelle requête est recevable.
(Signé) Hisashi Owada.

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Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Owada

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