Dissenting opinion of Judge Bennouna

Document Number
158-20161005-JUD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
158-20161005-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

D ISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE B ENNOUNA

Exercise in pure formalism  Introduction of a subjective criterion in determining the
existence of the dispute  Sound administration of justice  Realism and flexibility of the case
law of the Court  The existence of the dispute, a question to be objectively decided.

The Court has declared that it lacks jurisdiction in the three cases brought by the Marshall
Islands against India, Pakistan and the United Kingdom respectively, on the same grounds: the
non-existence of a dispubetween the Parties. Consistently, I have voted against each of the three
Judgments adopted by the Court, and for the same reasons set forth in this opinion.

Naturally, the Marshall Islands has invoked the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons (NPT) as well as customary international law in the proceedings against the

United Kingdom, these two States being parties to the treaty. However, the Marshall Islands has
referred only to customary international law regarding India and Pakistan, which are not parties to
the NPT.

The reasoning of the Court, however, does not address the issue of the customary nature of
Article VI of the NPT which goes to the merits of the case. The same applies to the Court’s
consideration of whether or not the Respondents have complied with the obligation to negotiate,

which is the subject-matter of the proceedings brought by the Marshall Islands.

Yet, with regard to the existence of a dispute, the Court has followed the same approach to
achieve a similar result in each of the three Judgments.

*

* *

The Marshall Islands has brought before the Court a dispute between itself and nine

countries which hold, or are presumed to hold, nuclear weapons, regardless of whether those
countries are parties to the NPT. The Court listed three cases against India, Pakistan and the
United Kingdom, which have made declarations recognizing the jurisdiction of the Court, pursuant
to Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute. The Court has found that it lacks jurisdiction in these
three cases, on the grounds that no disputes exist between each of the three States and the Marshall
Islands.

This is the first time that the International Court of Justice has found that it has no
jurisdiction on the sole basis of the non-existence of a dispute between the Parties. A reading of
the Judgment of the Court reflects the fact that the majority came to this conclusion only by an
exercise in pure formalism, artificially stopping the time of law and analysis at the date of
submission of the request by the Marshall Islands. And as if that were not enough, the majority has
resorted to a “criterion” bearing no relation to the well-established case law whereby in order for a

dispute to exist, the respondent must have been “aware, or could not have been unaware, that its
views were ‘positively opposed’ by the applicant” (paragraph 38). - 2 -

The introduction of this criterion, linked to the subjective views of the Respondent and of
those conducting the analysis, clearly goes against the entire case law of the ICJ and PCIJ,

according to which the existence of a dispute is determined objectively by the Court on the basis of
the evidence available to it, when it adopts its judgment. The Court has thus been able to
administer justice soundly and avoid the absurd situation in which it now finds itself after declaring
that it lacks jurisdiction in the three Judgments on Obligations concerning Negotiations relating to
Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament. Indeed, the Parties have
disagreed clearly before the Court on points of fact and law, thereby demonstrating the existence of
legal disputes on the questions submitted to it.

In other words, the disputes are indeed there  and it would be sufficient for the Marshall
Islands to file fresh applications before the Court in order to prevent the ground of lack of
jurisdiction on which it has based itself in handing down its Judgments from being invoked again!

The Court, when faced with such situations, has first noted that its jurisdiction must normally
be ascertained at the time of the institution of the proceedings. But it has gone further and recalled

that “like its predecessor, [it] has also shown realism and flexibility in certain situations in which
the conditions governing the Court’s jurisdiction were not fully satisfied when proceedings were
initiated but were subsequently satisfied, before the Court ruled on its jurisdiction” (Application of
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia,
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 438, para. 81).

In particular, the Court refused to declare itself incompetent when it was sufficient for the
Applicant to “file a new application, identical to the present one, which would be unassailable in

this respect” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, para. 26). Many
more instances could be cited in which the PCIJ, and then the ICJ, have rejected resorting to a
formalism that is excessive and contrary to the sound administration of justice.

In the relationship between international law and time, there is a rational element, namely the
determination of a point in time beyond which, theoretically, one must stop the watch, and a

pragmatic element in order to take into account the particular circumstances of the situation. The
judge in exercising its art, has to strike the right balance between these elements, so that justice is
done and seen to be done.

International judges had a duty to be even more vigilant in the present case, which concerns
a question of crucial importance for security in the world. That is another reason for the principal
judicial organ of the United Nations to undertake its role fully. Indeed, how can it shelter behind
purely formalistic considerations which both legal professionals and ordinary citizens would find

difficult to understand, rather than contributing, as it should do, to peace through international law,
which is the raison d’être of the Court.

The only issue here was the scope of the obligation to negotiate laid down in Article VI of
the NPT, an obligation that is also part of customary international law according to the Marshall
Islands:

“Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotiations in good

faith on effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early
date and to nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete
disarmament under strict and effective international control.” - 3 -

This obligation is well known to all those who have attended the meetings of States parties to
the NPT, which have been held regularly for more than 40 years or so. It is also known to the

Court, which, in its famous Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996 on Legality of the Threat or Use of
Nuclear Weapons, pronounced clearly on the subject as follows:

“[t]he legal import of that obligation goes beyond that of a mere obligation of conduct;
the obligation involved here is an obligation to achieve a precise result  nuclear
disarmament in all its aspects  by adopting a particular course of conduct, namely,

the pursuit of negotiations on the matter in good faith” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 264,
para. 99).

For the background to the dispute in question, its human substance, we have to consider a
small State, the Marshall Islands, whose population of a few tens of thousands of people has
suffered terribly from the nuclear testing carried out in an area of its territory. This State has turned
to the principal judicial organ of the United Nations to seek justice, so that such suffering does not
occur again in future, through compliance with a conventional and/or customary obligation under

international law. That, however, is a matter which the Court would have had to deal with when
considering this case on the merits. And we have not reached that point, we are simply at the stage
of jurisdiction.

But what is the Court doing? Something novel, by concluding that no dispute exists, so that
it does not have to consider the merits of the case. In a sense, the Court is setting little store by its
jurisprudence, which is nonetheless what ensures that it is both visible and credible.

Judge Abraham referred to the well-established approach of the Court, in his separate
opinion appended to the Judgment in the Georgia v. Russian Federation case (Judgment on
Preliminary Objections of 1 April 2011):

“I shall first observe that until the present case the Court, whenever required to
decide on a preliminary objection based on the respondent’s contention that there was
no dispute, has made its decision  rejecting the objection  in a few short

paragraphs, and has made the determination as of the date on which it was ruling,
finding that the parties held clearly conflicting views at that date on the matters
constituting the subject of the application and consequently that a dispute existed
between them.” (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 226, para. 8.)

However, the Court did not change its position when dealing with that case between Georgia
and the Russian Federation in 2011. In fact, it accepted that a dispute existed between the Parties

about the interpretation or application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), as Judge Abraham acknowledged. But it was obliged to
decline jurisdiction in the case because the compromissory clause in the Convention on which the
case was based (Art. 22) relates to “[a]ny dispute . . . which is not settled by negotiation or by the
procedures expressly provided for in this Convention”. It was this prior condition for referral to the
Court which had not been satisfied, and not that of the existence of the dispute.

We therefore do indeed have a jurisprudence which takes “a strictly realistic and practical

view, free of all hints of formalism”, as Judge Abraham put it in his opinion (I.C.J.
Reports 2011 (I), p. 228, para. 14), and which allows the Court to determine the existence of a
dispute not only on the basis of acts that took place prior to the filing of the Application, but also - 4 -

on that of the positions adopted by the Parties in the course of the written and oral proceedings.
The important thing is to establish “a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal

views or of interests”, to use the classic wording of the PCIJ’s Judgment in the Mavrommatis
Concessions case in 1924 (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11).

In the cases brought before the Court by the Marshall Islands, the latter has placed emphasis
on the statement that it made, before the filing of its Application, at the Second Conference on the
Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons, held in Narayit (Mexico) on 13 and 14 February 2014,
when it declared:

“Indeed we believe that States possessing nuclear arsenals are failing to fulfil
their legal obligations in this regard. Immediate commencement and conclusion of
such negotiations is required by legal obligation of nuclear disarmament resting upon
each and every State under Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty and customary
international law. It also would achieve the objective of nuclear disarmament long
and consistently set by the United Nations, and fulfil our responsibilities to present
and future generations while honouring the past ones.”

The Court has recalled on numerous occasions that its determination of the existence of a
dispute “must turn on an examination of the facts”, and that “[t]he matter is one of substance, not of
form” which requires “objective determination”. Such a dispute “may be inferred from the failure
of a State to respond to a claim in circumstances where a response is called for” (Georgia v.
Russian Federation, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30). Hence in the present case, in order for
the Court to determine objectively that the dispute exists, it is sufficient to establish that the

Marshall Islands has clearly accused the “nuclear” States of failing to comply with Article VI of the
NPT or the corresponding customary obligation, and that the Respondent countries have
maintained, each for its own part, that they were fulfilling the obligation in question.

In its previous case law, the Court took account of the positions adopted by the Parties
during the proceedings when it sought to determine the dispute objectively. If it had not proceeded
in such a way, the Court could have arrived at an absurd conclusion by making time stand still on
the date when the Application was filed; the subject of the dispute might have changed, or even

disappeared, according to the positions set forth before the Court. Let us even suppose that the
premises of a dispute have taken shape before the filing of the Application and that the opposing
views have been expressed clearly during the proceedings, can the Court then declare that it lacks
jurisdiction on the basis of a question of form and not of substance or content? At the risk, as in the
present case, of seeing the Applicant file a new application immediately after the finding of lack of
jurisdiction is announced! Where is the sound administration of justice in all of that?

The Court has in fact operated in a “realistic and practical” way, and with pragmatism, since
its function is to settle disputes when they are established before it, and not to shelter behind some
kind of formalism, at the risk of witnessing a deterioration in the situation between the Parties.

Thus, in the Judgment on Preliminary Objections delivered on 11 July 1996 in the case
concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Yugoslavia contested the existence of a dispute
with Bosnia and Herzegovina regarding violation of the Convention on the Prevention and - 5 -

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The Court found that Yugoslavia had “wholly denied all of
Bosnia and Herzegovina’s allegations, whether at the stage of proceedings relating to the requests

for the indication of provisional measures, or at the stage of the . . . proceedings relating to
[preliminary] objections” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, para. 28), i.e., after the date when the
Application was filed.

In the Judgment on Preliminary Objections delivered on 10 February 2005 in the case
concerning Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), the Court referred to the Parties’
positions during the proceedings in order to determine the existence of a dispute. It thus found that

“in the present proceedings complaints of fact and law formulated by Liechtenstein against
Germany are denied by the latter”, concluding that “[i]n conformity with well-established
jurisprudence . . . there is a legal dispute . . . between Liechtenstein and Germany”. The Court
relied in this respect on the precedent from the Genocide case in 1996, as cited above. For the sake
of completeness, it should be mentioned that:

“[t]he Court further notes that Germany’s position taken in the course of bilateral
consultations and in the letter . . . of 20 January 2000 [before the filing of the

Application] has evidentiary value in support of the proposition that Liechtenstein’s
claims were positively opposed by Germany” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, pp. 18-19,
para. 25).

In other words, the Court took note of the positions of the Parties prior to the filing of the
Application only once it had determined the existence of a dispute on the basis of the exchanges
between them during the proceedings. All of this serves to reinforce the practical, realistic and

pragmatic nature of the Court’s jurisprudence, in accordance with the principle of consent upon
which its jurisdiction is founded and with the principle of equality between the Parties.

In light of the Court’s well-established jurisprudence on the existence of a dispute, which
takes account of all the evidence available to the Court at the point when it decides on and adopts
its judgment, one might have thought that the positive opposition between the respective views of
the Marshall Islands and each of the Respondents should logically have led the Court to dismiss the
objection of lack of jurisdiction based on the absence of a dispute. However, the matters at stake in

these cases are such that the majority has sought to adduce another argument, of a subjective
nature, which has nothing to do with that jurisprudence. This is said to be the “determination” that
the Respondent “was aware or could not have been unaware that its views were ‘positively
opposed’ by the Applicant”. The majority relies in this respect on the Judgment on Preliminary
Objections delivered on 17 March 2016 in the case concerning Alleged Violations of Sovereign
Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Colombia). First, however, the
Marshall Islands and the respondent States had no knowledge of that Judgment, since it was handed

down on 17 March 2016, after the closure of the oral proceedings in the present case, which took
place from 9 to 16 March 2016. And, second, it concerned a case in which, in the face of all the
evidence, Colombia argued that it was unaware of Nicaragua’s position with regard to the
implementation of and compliance with a judgment of the Court.

The second Judgment invoked in support of this subjective argument employed in order to
conclude that there is no dispute is taken from the Georgia v. Russian Federation case. In that

case, however, the point at issue was the application of a compromissory clause, Article 22 of
CERD, which lays down, as a precondition for the Court’s jurisdiction, the existence of a dispute
that falls within the scope of that Convention and, above all, the holding of negotiations on the
matter beforehand between the Parties. - 6 -

To my mind, the so-called determination of “being aware or having been aware” cannot be

used as a lifeline for a decision which is in no way related to the well-established case law of the
Court on this question. The majority has tried to remove these two cases from their contexts. In
the Nicaragua v. Colombia case, the latter could not have been unaware of the problem posed by
the application of a judgment in a case to which it had been party. In putting forward, on that basis,
a new criterion for the existence of a dispute, the majority is seriously compromising the approach
of the Court in future to the question of whether a dispute exists.

By placing itself, in this way, in a difficult position which it has attempted to justify, but
without success, the majority is consequently not allowing the Court to fulfil its function as the
principal judicial organ of the United Nations, whose task is to assist the Parties in settling their
disputes and thereby to contribute to peace through the implementation of international law.

(Signed) Mohamed B ENNOUNA .

___________

Bilingual Content

314

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE BENNOUNA

[Original English Text]

Exercise in pure formalism — Introduction of a subjective criterion in determining the
existence of the dispute — Sound administration of justice — Realism and flexibility of the case
law of the Court — The existence of the dispute, a question to be objectively decided.

The Court has declared that it lacks jurisdiction in the three cases brought by the
Marshall Islands against India, Pakistan and the United Kingdom respectively, on the same
grounds: the non-existence of a dis- pute between the Parties. Consistently, I have voted
against each of the three Judgments adopted by the Court, and for the same reasons set forth in
this opinion.
Naturally, the Marshall Islands has invoked the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of
Nuclear Weapons (NPT) as well as customary inter- national law in the proceedings against the
United Kingdom, these two States being parties to the treaty. However, the Marshall
Islands has referred only to customary international law regarding India and Pakis- tan,
which are not parties to the NPT.
The reasoning of the Court, however, does not address the issue of the customary nature of
Article VI of the NPT which goes to the merits of the case. The same applies to the Court’s
consideration of whether or not the Respondents have complied with the obligation to negotiate,
which is the subject-matter of the proceedings brought by the Marshall Islands.
Yet, with regard to the existence of a dispute, the Court has followed the same approach to
achieve a similar result in each of the three Judg- ments.

* * *

The Marshall Islands has brought before the Court a dispute between itself and nine countries
which hold, or are presumed to hold, nuclear weapons, regardless of whether those countries are
parties to the NPT. The Court listed three cases against India, Pakistan and the United King-
dom, which have made declarations recognizing the jurisdiction of the Court, pursuant to
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute. The Court has found that it lacks jurisdiction in these
three cases, on the grounds that no disputes exist between each of the three States
and the Marshall Islands.
This is the first time that the International Court of Justice has found that it has no
jurisdiction on the sole basis of the non-existence of a dis-

63
314

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE BENNOUNA

[Texte original français]

Exercice de pur formalisme — Introduction d’un facteur subjectif dans la détermination de
l’existence du différend — Bonne administration de la justice — Réalisme et souplesse de la
jurisprudence de la Cour — L’existence du différend, une question qui doit être établie
objectivement.

La Cour s’est déclarée incompétente dans les trois affaires qui ont été engagées par les Iles
Marshall, respectivement contre l’Inde, le Pakistan et le Royaume-Uni, sur le même fondement :
l’inexistence d’un différend entre les Parties. Dans une attitude cohérente, j’ai voté
contre chacun de ces trois arrêts adoptés par la Cour et pour les mêmes raisons que
j’expose dans la présente opinion.
Bien entendu, les Iles Marshall ont invoqué le traité de 1968 sur la non-prolifération des
armes nucléaires (TNP), ainsi que le droit interna- tional coutumier, dans leur recours
contre le Royaume-Uni, ces deux Etats étant parties à ce traité. Cependant, les Iles
Marshall se sont réfé- rées uniquement au droit international coutumier pour ce qui est de
l’Inde et du Pakistan, qui ne sont pas parties au TNP.
Mais le raisonnement de la Cour n’aborde pas la question du caractère coutumier de l’article VI
du TNP qui relève du fond de l’affaire. Il en va ainsi également de l’appréciation par la
Cour du respect ou non par les défendeurs de l’obligation de négocier, objet du
recours des Iles Marshall.
Il reste que, en ce qui concerne l’existence du différend, la Cour a suivi la même démarche
pour aboutir à un résultat similaire dans chacun des trois arrêts.

* * *

La Cour a été saisie par les Iles Marshall d’un différend l’opposant aux neuf pays détenteurs
ou présumés détenteurs d’armes nucléaires, parties ou non au TNP. Elle a inscrit, à son rôle,
les requêtes des Iles Marshall concernant trois d’entre eux (l’Inde, le Pakistan et le
Royaume-Uni) qui étaient liés respectivement par des déclarations d’acceptation de la juri-
diction de la Cour, conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 36 du Sta- tut. La Cour s’est
déclarée incompétente dans ces trois affaires, au motif de l’inexistence d’un différend entre
chacun de ces trois Etats et les Iles Marshall.
C’est la première fois que la Cour internationale de Justice se déclare incompétente sur le
seul fondement de l’inexistence d’un différend entre

63
315 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. bennouna)

pute between the Parties. A reading of the Judgment of the Court reflects the fact that the
majority came to this conclusion only by an exercise in pure formalism, artificially stopping
the time of law and analysis at the date of submission of the request by the Marshall
Islands. And as if that were not enough, the majority has resorted to a “criterion” bearing
no relation to the well-established case law whereby in order for a dispute to exist, the
respondent must have been “aware, or could not have been unaware, that its views were
‘positively opposed’ by the applicant” (para. 38).
The introduction of this criterion, linked to the subjective views of the Respondent and of those
conducting the analysis, clearly goes against the entire case law of the ICJ and PCIJ, according
to which the existence of a dispute is determined objectively by the Court on the basis of the
evidence available to it, when it adopts its judgment. The Court has thus been able to administer
justice soundly and avoid the absurd situation in which it now finds itself after
declaring that it lacks jurisdiction in the three Judgments on Obligations concerning
Negotiations relating to Cessation of the Nuclear Arms Race and to Nuclear Disarmament. Indeed,
the Parties have disagreed clearly before the Court on points of fact and law, thereby
demonstrating the existence of legal disputes on the questions submitted to it.
In other words, the disputes are indeed there — and it would be suffi- cient for the
Marshall Islands to file fresh applications before the Court in
order to prevent the ground of lack of jurisdiction on which it has based itself in handing down
its Judgments from being invoked again!
The Court, when faced with such situations, has first noted that its jurisdiction must normally
be ascertained at the time of the institution of the proceedings. But it has gone further and
recalled that “like its prede- cessor, [it] has also shown realism and flexibility in
certain situations in which the conditions governing the Court’s jurisdiction were not fully
sat- isfied when proceedings were initiated but were subsequently satisfied, before the
Court ruled on its jurisdiction” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2008, p. 438, para. 81).
In particular, the Court refused to declare itself incompetent when it was sufficient for the
Applicant to “file a new application, identical to the present one, which would be unassailable
in this respect” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judg- ment, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, para. 26). Many more instances could be cited in which the PCIJ,
and then the ICJ, have rejected resort- ing to a formalism that is excessive and contrary to
the sound administra- tion of justice.
In the relationship between international law and time, there is a ratio- nal element, namely
the determination of a point in time beyond which, theoretically, one must stop the watch, and
a pragmatic element in order

64
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. bennouna)
315

les Parties. La lecture de l’arrêt de la Cour montre que la majorité n’est parvenue à ce
résultat qu’au terme d’un exercice de pur formalisme consistant à arrêter artificiellement
le temps du droit et de l’analyse à la date de la soumission de la requête par les Iles
Marshall. Et comme si cela ne suffisait pas, la majorité a recouru à un « critère », sans rapport
avec la jurisprudence bien établie, selon lequel pour qu’un différend existe le défendeur
devait avoir « connaissance, ou ne pouvait pas ne pas avoir connaissance, de ce que ses vues
se heurtaient à l’« opposition manifeste » du demandeur » (par. 38).
L’introduction de ce facteur, lié à la subjectivité du défendeur et de l’analyste, va
manifestement à l’encontre de toute la construction juris- prudentielle de la CIJ et de la CPJI,
selon laquelle l’existence du différend est déterminée objectivement par la Cour sur la base
des éléments dont elle dispose, au moment où elle adopte son jugement. La Cour a pu ainsi
exercer une bonne administration de la justice et éviter la situation absurde où elle
se trouve désormais après s’être déclarée incompétente dans les trois arrêts portant sur les
Obligations relatives à des négociations concernant la cessation de la course aux armes nucléaires
et le désarmement nucléaire. En effet, les Parties se sont opposées clairement devant elle sur
des points de droit et de fait manifestant ainsi l’existence de différends juridiques sur les
questions soumises à la Cour.
Autrement dit, les différends sont bien là, il suffirait que les Iles Marshall déposent de
nouvelles requêtes devant la Cour pour que le chef d’incom- pétence sur lequel celle-ci s’est
fondée pour rendre ses arrêts ne puisse être
invoqué de nouveau !
La Cour, lorsqu’elle a été confrontée à de telles situations, a commencé par souligner que sa
compétence doit normalement s’apprécier à la date du dépôt de l’acte introductif d’instance.
Mais, elle ne s’est pas arrêtée là, elle a tenu à rappeler que, « comme sa devancière, [elle] a
aussi fait preuve de réalisme et de souplesse dans certaines hypothèses où les conditions de la
compétence de la Cour n’étaient pas toutes remplies à la date de l’intro- duction de l’instance
mais l’avaient été postérieurement, et avant que la Cour décide sur sa compétence »
(Application de la convention pour la pré- vention et la répression du crime de génocide (Croatie
c. Serbie), excep- tions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 438, par. 81).
En particulier, la Cour a refusé de se déclarer incompétente lorsqu’il suffisait au demandeur
de « déposer une nouvelle requête, identique à la présente, qui serait de ce point de
vue inattaquable » (Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614, par. 26). On pourrait multiplier les exemples
où la CPJI puis la CIJ ont rejeté le recours à un formalisme excessif et contraire à une
bonne administration de la justice.

Dans la relation du droit international au temps, il y a la part du rationnel, la
détermination d’un moment au-delà duquel on arrête en principe la montre, et la part du
pragmatisme, afin de tenir compte des

64
316 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. bennouna)

to take into account the particular circumstances of the situation. The judge in exercising
its art, has to strike the right balance between these elements, so that justice is done
and seen to be done.
International judges had a duty to be even more vigilant in the present case, which concerns a
question of crucial importance for security in the world. That is another reason for the
principal judicial organ of the United Nations to undertake its role fully. Indeed, how
can it shelter behind purely formalistic considerations which both legal professionals and
ordinary citizens would find difficult to understand, rather than con- tributing, as it should
do, to peace through international law, which is the raison d’être of the Court.
The only issue here was the scope of the obligation to negotiate laid down in Article VI of
the NPT, an obligation that is also part of custom- ary international law according to the
Marshall Islands:

“Each of the Parties to the Treaty undertakes to pursue negotia- tions in good faith on
effective measures relating to cessation of the nuclear arms race at an early date and to
nuclear disarmament, and on a treaty on general and complete disarmament under strict and
effective international control.”

This obligation is well known to all those who have attended the meet- ings of States parties
to the NPT, which have been held regularly for more than 40 years or so. It is also
known to the Court, which, in its famous Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996 on Legality of the
Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, pronounced clearly on the subject as follows:

“[t]he legal import of that obligation goes beyond that of a mere obligation of conduct; the
obligation involved here is an obligation to achieve a precise result — nuclear disarmament in
all its aspects — by adopting a particular course of conduct, namely, the pursuit of
negotiations on the matter in good faith” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 264, para. 99).

For the background to the dispute in question, its human substance, we have to consider a
small State, the Marshall Islands, whose population of a few tens of thousands of people has
suffered terribly from the nuclear testing carried out in an area of its territory. This State
has turned to the principal judicial organ of the United Nations to seek justice, so that such
suffering does not occur again in future, through compliance with a con- ventional and/or
customary obligation under international law. That, however, is a matter which the Court would
have had to deal with when considering this case on the merits. And we have not reached that
point, we are simply at the stage of jurisdiction.
But what is the Court doing? Something novel, by concluding that no dispute exists, so that
it does not have to consider the merits of the case. In a sense, the Court is setting little
store by its jurisprudence, which is nonetheless what ensures that it is both visible and
credible.

65
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. bennouna)
316

caractéristiques de telle ou telle situation. L’art du juge est de parvenir au bon dosage afin
que justice soit faite et qu’elle soit perçue comme telle.

Le juge international se devait d’être encore plus vigilant dans la pré- sente affaire qui
concerne une question d’une importance cruciale pour la sécurité dans le monde. C’est une
raison de plus pour que l’organe judi- ciaire principal des Nations Unies assume pleinement la
fonction qui est la sienne. En effet, comment peut-il s’abriter derrière des considérations de
pure forme, que les professionnels du droit et les simples citoyens auraient du mal à
comprendre, et ne pas contribuer, comme il le doit, à la paix par le droit international, ce qui
est la raison d’être de la Cour.
L’enjeu concernait uniquement la portée de l’obligation de négocier inscrite à l’article VI du
TNP, laquelle relève également selon les Iles Marshall du droit international coutumier :

« Chacune des Parties au Traité s’engage à poursuivre de bonne foi des négociations sur des
mesures efficaces relatives à la cessation de la course aux armements nucléaires à une date
rapprochée et au désarmement nucléaire, et sur un traité de désarmement général et complet sous
un contrôle international strict et efficace. »

Cette obligation est bien connue de tous ceux qui ont fréquenté les assemblées des Etats
parties au TNP, qui se sont tenues régulièrement depuis plus d’une quarantaine d’années.
Elle est bien connue aussi de la Cour, qui, dans son célèbre avis consultatif du 8 juillet 1996
sur la Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi des armes nucléaires, s’est prononcée claire- ment à ce
sujet de la sorte :

« [l]a portée juridique de l’obligation considérée dépasse celle d’une simple obligation de
comportement ; l’obligation en cause ici est celle de parvenir à un résultat précis — le
désarmement nucléaire dans tous ses aspects — par l’adoption d’un comportement déterminé, à
savoir la poursuite de bonne foi de négociations en la matière » (C.I.J. Recueil 1996
(I), p. 264, par. 99).

Quant à l’arrière-plan du différend en question, sa consistance humaine, il nous ramène à un
petit Etat, les Iles Marshall, dont la population, quelques dizaines de milliers de
personnes, a souffert terriblement des essais nucléaires perpétrés dans une zone de son
territoire. Cet Etat s’est adressé à l’organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies pour
demander justice afin que de telles souffrances ne se renouvellent pas à l’avenir, pour le respect
d’une obligation conventionnelle et/ou coutumière de droit international. Mais, c’est là une
question que la Cour aurait eu à traiter lors de l’examen au fond de cette affaire. Et nous
n’en sommes pas là, nous sommes au stade simplement de la compétence.
Or, que fait la Cour ? Elle innove en concluant à l’absence de différend pour ne pas avoir à
examiner le fond de l’affaire. En quelque sorte, la Cour fait ici peu de cas de sa
jurisprudence, garante pourtant de sa visibi-
lité et de sa crédibilité.

65
317 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. bennouna)

Judge Abraham referred to the well-established approach of the Court, in his separate opinion
appended to the Judgment in the Georgia v. Rus- sian Federation case (Judgment on preliminary
objections of 1 April 2011):

“I shall first observe that until the present case the Court, whenever required to decide on a
preliminary objection based on the respond- ent’s contention that there was no dispute, has
made its decision — rejecting the objection — in a few short paragraphs, and has made the
determination as of the date on which it was ruling, finding that the parties held clearly
conflicting views at that date on the matters con- stituting the subject of the application and
consequently that a dispute existed between them.” (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 226, para. 8.)

However, the Court did not change its position when dealing with that case between Georgia and
the Russian Federation in 2011. In fact, it accepted that a dispute existed between the
parties about the interpreta- tion or application of the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), as Judge Abraham acknowledged. But it
was obliged to decline jurisdiction in the case because the compromissory clause in the
Convention on which the case was based (Art. 22) relates to “[a]ny dispute . . . which is
not settled by negotiation or by the procedures expressly provided for in this Conven- tion”.
It was this prior condition for referral to the Court which had not been satisfied, and not
that of the existence of the dispute.

We therefore do indeed have a jurisprudence which takes “a strictly realistic and
practical view, free of all hints of formalism”, as Judge Abraham put it in his opinion
(Application of the International Conven- tion on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 228, para. 14), and which allows the Court to
deter- mine the existence of a dispute not only on the basis of acts that took place
prior to the filing of the Application, but also on that of the positions adopted by
the parties in the course of the written and oral proceedings. The important thing is to
establish “a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or of
interests”, to use the classic wording of the PCIJ’s Judgment in the Mavrommatis Concessions case
in 1924 (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11).

In the cases brought before the Court by the Marshall Islands, the lat- ter has placed emphasis
on the statement that it made, before the filing of its Application, at the Second Conference on
the Humanitarian Impact of Nuclear Weapons, held in Narayit (Mexico) on 13 and 14 February 2014,
when it declared:

“Indeed we believe that States possessing nuclear arsenals are fail- ing to fulfil their
legal obligations in this regard. Immediate com- mencement and conclusion of such negotiations
is required by legal obligation of nuclear disarmament resting upon each and every State

66
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. bennouna)
317

Le juge Abraham s’est référé à l’attitude constante de la Cour, dans son opinion individuelle
jointe à l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie (arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires en date
du 1er avril 2011) :

« J’observe d’abord que jusqu’à la présente affaire, chaque fois que la Cour a eu à répondre à
une exception préliminaire tirée, par la partie défenderesse, de l’absence de différend,
elle l’a fait — pour rejeter l’exception — en quelques brefs paragraphes, en se plaçant à la
date où elle statuait et en relevant qu’à cette date les vues des parties étaient
nettement opposées sur les questions formant l’objet de la requête, de sorte qu’il
existait un différend entre elles. » (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 226, par. 8.)

Or, la Cour n’a pas changé de position en 2011 dans cette affaire Géor- gie c Fédération de
Russie. Elle a admis, en effet, l’existence d’un différend entre les parties relatif à
l’interprétation ou à l’application de la conven- tion internationale sur l’élimination de toutes
les formes de discrimination raciale (CIEDR), ainsi que le reconnaît le juge Abraham. Seulement,
elle a dû décliner sa compétence en cette affaire dans la mesure où la clause compromissoire de
la convention sur laquelle elle est fondée (art. 22) concerne « [t]out différend … qui
n’aura pas été réglé par voie de négocia- tion ou au moyen des procédures expressément prévues
par ladite Convention ». C’est cette condition préalable à la saisine de la Cour qui n’a pas
été satisfaite, avant le dépôt de la requête, et non l’existence du différend.
Dès lors, nous nous trouvons bien en présence d’une jurisprudence
« réaliste et concrète [qui] ne comporte pas la moindre dose de forma- lisme », selon les
termes du juge Abraham dans son opinion (Application de la convention internationale sur
l’élimination de toutes les formes de dis- crimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de
Russie), exceptions prélimi- naires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 228, par. 14), et qui
permet à la Cour de constater l’existence du différend en se fondant aussi bien sur des actes
préalables au dépôt de la requête que sur les positions adoptées par les parties au cours de
la procédure écrite et orale. L’essentiel est de constater « un désaccord sur un point de
droit ou de fait, … une opposi- tion de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts », pour reprendre la
terminologie classique de l’arrêt de la CPJI dans l’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis en
Palestine en 1924 (arrêt no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A no 2, p. 11).
Dans les affaires portées par les Iles Marshall devant la Cour, cet Etat
a mis l’accent sur la déclaration qu’il a faite, avant le dépôt de sa requête, à la deuxième
conférence sur l’impact humanitaire des armes nucléaires, tenue à Nayarit (Mexique), les 13 et
14 février 2014, aux termes de laquelle il affirme :

« Nous estimons en effet que les Etats possédant un arsenal nucléaire ne respectent
pas leurs obligations à cet égard. L’obligation d’œuvrer au désarmement nucléaire qui
incombe à chaque Etat en vertu de l’article VI du traité de non-prolifération
nucléaire et

66
318 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. bennouna)

under Article VI of the Non-Proliferation Treaty and customary international law. It also would
achieve the objective of nuclear dis- armament long and consistently set by the United Nations,
and fulfil our responsibilities to present and future generations while honouring the past ones.”

The Court has recalled on numerous occasions that its determination of the existence of a
dispute “must turn on an examination of the facts”, and that “[t]he matter is one of
substance, not of form” which requires “objective determination”. Such a dispute “may be
inferred from the fail- ure of a State to respond to a claim in circumstances where a response
is called for” (Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 30). Hence in the present case, in order for the Court to
determine objectively that the dispute exists, it is sufficient to establish that the Marshall
Islands has clearly accused the “nuclear” States of failing to comply with Arti- cle VI of
the NPT or the corresponding customary obligation, and that the Respondent countries have
maintained, each for its own part, that they were fulfilling the obligation in question.
In its previous case law, the Court took account of the positions adopted by the
parties during the proceedings when it sought to deter- mine the dispute objectively. If
it had not proceeded in such a way, the Court could have arrived at an absurd conclusion by
making time stand still on the date when the Application was filed; the subject of the dispute
might have changed, or even disappeared, according to the positions set forth before the Court.
Let us even suppose that the premises of a dispute have taken shape before the filing of the
Application and that the oppos- ing views have been expressed clearly during the
proceedings, can the Court then declare that it lacks jurisdiction on the basis of a question
of form and not of substance or content? At the risk, as in the present case, of seeing the
Applicant file a new application immediately after the find- ing of lack of jurisdiction is
announced! Where is the sound administra- tion of justice in all of that?
The Court has in fact operated in a “realistic and practical” way, and with pragmatism, since its
function is to settle disputes when they are established before it, and not to shelter behind
some kind of formalism, at the risk of witnessing a deterioration in the situation
between the parties.
Thus, in the Judgment on preliminary objections delivered on 11 July
1996 in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Preven- tion and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Yugoslavia contested the existence
of a dispute with Bosnia and Herzegovina regarding violation of the Convention on the Preven-
tion and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. The Court found that Yugoslavia had “wholly
denied all of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s allega-

67
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. bennouna)
318

du droit international coutumier impose l’ouverture immédiate et l’aboutissement de telles
négociations. Celles-ci permettraient égale- ment d’atteindre l’objectif de désarmement nucléaire
établi depuis longtemps et réaffirmé sans relâche par les Nations Unies, et d’hono- rer nos
responsabilités envers les générations présentes et futures, tout en rendant hommage aux
générations passées. »

La Cour a maintes fois rappelé que, pour se prononcer sur l’existence d’un différend, elle
doit « s’attacher aux faits » et qu’il « s’agit d’une ques- tion de fond et non de forme » qui
demande « à être « établie objective- ment » ». Une telle question « p[ouvait] être
déduite de l’absence de réaction d’un Etat à une accusation dans des circonstances où une
telle réaction s’imposait » (Application de la convention internationale sur l’éli- mination de
toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédéra- tion de Russie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 84, par. 30). Dès lors, dans l’affaire
qui nous concerne, il suffit de constater que les Iles Marshall ont clairement accusé les Etats
« nucléaires » de ne pas respecter l’article VI du TNP ou l’obligation coutumière corres-
pondante et que les pays défendeurs ont soutenu, chacun en ce qui le concerne, qu’ils respectaient
l’obligation en question pour que la Cour établisse objectivement l’existence du différend.
Dans sa jurisprudence antérieure, la Cour a pris en compte les posi- tions adoptées par les
parties au cours de la procédure, lorsqu’elle cher- chait à établir objectivement le différend.
Si elle n’avait pas procédé ainsi, la Cour aurait pu aboutir à un résultat absurde en arrêtant
le temps à la date du dépôt de la requête ; le différend pourrait changer d’objet ou
même ne plus en avoir, en fonction des positions défendues devant la Cour. Supposons même
que les prémisses du différend se soient dessinées avant le dépôt de la requête et que les
positions opposées se soient claire- ment affirmées au cours de la procédure, la Cour peut-elle
se déclarer incompétente en se fondant sur une question de forme et non de fond ou de substance
? Au risque de voir, comme dans la présente affaire, le demandeur introduire, aussitôt
après le prononcé de la décision d’incom- pétence, une nouvelle requête ! Où est la bonne
administration de la jus- tice dans tout cela ?
La Cour a, en effet, opéré de façon « réaliste et concrète », et avec prag- matisme dans la
mesure où sa fonction est de régler les différends lors- qu’ils s’affirment devant elle et
non de s’abriter derrière un quelconque
« formalisme » au risque d’assister à une détérioration de la situation entre les parties.
C’est ainsi que, dans l’arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires, en date du
11 juillet 1996, rendu en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), la Yougoslavie
contestait l’existence d’un différend relatif à la violation de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide, avec la Bosnie-Herzégovine. La Cour a
constaté que la Yougoslavie avait « globalement rejeté toutes les allégations de la

67
319 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. bennouna)

tions, whether at the stage of proceedings relating to the requests for the indication of
provisional measures, or at the stage of the . . . proceedings relating to [preliminary]
objections” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, para. 28), i.e., after the date when the
Application was filed.

In the Judgment on preliminary objections delivered on 10 Febru- ary 2005 in the case
concerning Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Ger- many), the Court referred to the parties’
positions during the proceedings in order to determine the existence of a dispute. It thus found
that “in the present proceedings complaints of fact and law formulated by Liechten- stein
against Germany are denied by the latter”, concluding that “[i]n conformity with
well-established jurisprudence . . . there is a legal dis- pute . . . between Liechtenstein
and Germany”. The Court relied in this respect on the precedent from the Genocide case in 1996,
as cited above. For the sake of completeness, it should be mentioned that:

“[t]he Court further notes that Germany’s position taken in the course of bilateral consultations
and in the letter . . . of 20 January 2000 [before the filing of the Application] has
evidentiary value in support of the proposition that Liechtenstein’s claims were positively opposed
by Germany” (I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19, para. 25).

In other words, the Court took note of the positions of the parties prior to the filing
of the Application only once it had determined the exis- tence of a dispute on the basis of the
exchanges between them during the proceedings. All of this serves to reinforce the practical,
realistic and pragmatic nature of the Court’s jurisprudence, in accordance with the principle of
consent upon which its jurisdiction is founded and with the principle of equality between
the parties.
In light of the Court’s well-established jurisprudence on the existence of a dispute, which takes
account of all the evidence available to the Court at the point when it decides on and
adopts its judgment, one might have thought that the positive opposition between the
respective views of the Marshall Islands and each of the Respondents should logically have led
the Court to dismiss the objection of lack of jurisdiction based on the absence of a dispute.
However, the matters at stake in these cases are such that the majority has sought to adduce
another argument, of a subjective nature, which has nothing to do with that jurisprudence. This
is said to be the “determination” that the Respondent “was aware or could not have been unaware
that its views were ‘positively opposed’ by the Applicant”. The majority relies in this respect
on the Judgment on preliminary objections delivered on 17 March 2016 in the case concerning
Alleged Violations of Sovereign Rights and Maritime Spaces in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v.
Colombia) (I.C.J. Reports 2016 (I), p. 3). First, however, the Marshall Islands and the
respondent States had no knowledge of that Judgment, since it was handed down on 17 March
2016, after the closure of the oral proceedings in the present case, which took place from 9 to
16 March 2016. And, second, it concerned a case in which, in the face of all the evidence,

68
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. bennouna)
319

Bosnie-Herzégovine, que ce soit au stade des procédures afférentes aux demandes en
indication de mesures conservatoires, ou au stade de la … procédure relative aux …
exceptions [préliminaires] » (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614, par. 28), c’est-à-dire
postérieurement à la date du dépôt de la requête.
Dans l’arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires, en date du 10 février 2005, rendu en l’affaire
relative à Certains biens (Liechtenstein c. Allemagne), la Cour s’est référée à la position des
parties au cours de la procédure pour constater l’existence d’un différend. Elle a ainsi relevé
que, « dans la pré- sente instance, les griefs formulés en fait et en droit par le
Liechtenstein contre l’Allemagne sont rejetés par cette dernière » et elle conclut, « [c]onfor-
mément à sa jurisprudence bien établie … il existe un différend d’ordre juridique entre le
Liechtenstein et l’Allemagne » (C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 19, par. 25). La Cour s’est appuyée à
ce propos sur le précédent déjà cité de l’affaire du Génocide en 1996. Pour être complet, on doit
mentionner que

« [l]a Cour note par ailleurs que la position adoptée par l’Allemagne dans le cadre de
consultations bilatérales et dans la lettre du 20 jan- vier 2000 … [avant le dépôt de la
requête] conforte l’affirmation selon laquelle les revendications du Liechtenstein se sont heurtées
à l’oppo- sition manifeste de l’Allemagne » (ibid.).

Autrement dit, la Cour n’a noté les positions des parties, avant le dépôt de la requête, qu’une
fois qu’elle a conclu à l’existence du différend à par- tir des échanges intervenus entre elles
au cours de la procédure. Tout cela renforce le caractère concret, réaliste et pragmatique de
la jurisprudence de la Cour dans le respect du principe du consentement qui fonde sa com- pétence
et du principe de l’égalité entre les parties.

En présence d’une jurisprudence bien établie de la Cour sur l’existence du différend qui prend
en compte tous les éléments dont elle dispose au moment où elle décide et adopte son arrêt,
on aurait pu penser que l’op- position manifeste entre les positions des Iles Marshall et celle,
respective- ment de chacune des Parties défenderesses, aurait dû logiquement amener la Cour à
rejeter l’exception d’incompétence fondée sur l’absence de diffé- rend. Mais les enjeux dans
ces affaires sont tels que la majorité est allée rechercher, en renfort, un autre élément
d’appréciation, de caractère sub- jectif, qui n’a rien à voir avec cette jurisprudence. Il
s’agirait du « constat » que le défendeur « avait connaissance, ou ne pouvait pas ne pas
avoir connaissance, de ce que ses vues se heurtaient à l’« opposition manifeste » du demandeur ».
Elle s’appuie pour cela sur l’arrêt sur les exceptions pré- liminaires du 17 mars 2016 rendu
en l’affaire des Violations alléguées de droits souverains et d’espaces maritimes dans la mer des
Caraïbes (Nicara- gua c. Colombie) (C.I.J. Recueil 2016 (I), p. 3). Or, d’une part, cet arrêt
était inconnu des Iles Marshall et des Etats défendeurs puisqu’il a été rendu, le 17 mars
2016, après la clôture des plaidoiries orales dans cette affaire qui se sont déroulées du 9 au
16 mars 2016. D’autre part, il s’agis- sait d’une affaire où, contrairement à toute évidence, la
Colombie plaidait

68
320 nuclear arms and disarmament (diss. op. bennouna)

Colombia argued that it was unaware of Nicaragua’s position with regard to the implementation of
and compliance with a judgment of the Court.
The second Judgment invoked in support of this subjective argument employed in order to
conclude that there is no dispute is taken from the Georgia v. Russian Federation case. In
that case, however, the point at issue was the application of a compromissory clause, Article
22 of CERD, which lays down, as a precondition for the Court’s jurisdiction, the exis- tence of
a dispute that falls within the scope of that Convention and, above all, the holding of
negotiations on the matter beforehand between the parties.
To my mind, the so-called determination of “being aware or having been aware” cannot be
used as a lifeline for a decision which is in no way related to the well-established case law of
the Court on this question. The majority has tried to remove these two cases from their
contexts. In the Nicaragua v. Colombia case, the latter could not have been unaware of the
problem posed by the application of a judgment in a case to which it had been party. In putting
forward, on that basis, a new criterion for the exis- tence of a dispute, the majority is
seriously compromising the approach of the Court in future to the question of whether a dispute
exists.
By placing itself, in this way, in a difficult position which it has attempted to
justify, but without success, the majority is consequently not allowing the Court to fulfil its
function as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, whose task is to assist the
parties in settling their disputes and thereby to contribute to peace through the
implementation of international law.

(Signed) Mohamed Bennouna.

69
armes nucléaires et désarmement (op. diss. bennouna)
320

qu’elle n’avait pas connaissance de la position du Nicaragua en ce qui concerne la mise en
œuvre et le respect d’un arrêt de la Cour.
Le deuxième arrêt invoqué en faveur de cet élément de caractère subjec- tif, destiné à conclure
à l’absence du différend, est tiré de l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie. Or, il s’agit
dans cette affaire de la mise en œuvre d’une clause compromissoire, l’article 22 de la CIEDR, qui
impose comme condition à la compétence de la Cour l’existence d’un différend qui rentre dans les
perspectives de cette convention et, surtout, l’engagement de négociations préalables, à ce
sujet, entre les parties.

A mon avis, le prétendu constat du fait de « connaître ou avoir eu connaissance » ne peut
servir de bouée de sauvetage à une décision qui ne se rattache d’aucune façon à la jurisprudence
bien établie de la Cour en la matière. La majorité a tenté de sortir les deux affaires de
leur contexte. Dans l’affaire Nicaragua c. Colombie, cette dernière ne pouvait ignorer le
problème posé par l’application d’un arrêt dans une affaire à laquelle elle était partie. En
avançant, à partir de là, un nouveau critère pour l’exis- tence d’un différend, la majorité
compromet sérieusement la démarche de la Cour à l’avenir, en ce qui concerne l’existence d’un
différend.
En se plaçant ainsi dans une position bien difficile qu’elle a essayé de justifier sans y
parvenir, la majorité ne permet pas, en conséquence, à la Cour de remplir sa fonction
d’organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies qui doit assister les parties dans le
règlement de leurs différends et contribuer ainsi à la paix par la mise en œuvre du droit
international.

(Signé) Mohamed Bennouna.

69

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion of Judge Bennouna

Links