Dissenting opinion of Judge ad hoc Caron

Document Number
155-20160317-JUD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
155-20160317-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

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DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC CARON
Disagreement with dismissal by the Court of Colombia’s second preliminary
objection — Requirement that there be a “dispute” as a general limitation to the
contentious jurisdiction of the Court — Specific requirement for a “dispute” under
the Pact of Bogotá — Meaning of “dispute” — Unprecedented character of the
present case — Contention by Colombia that there is no dispute between the Parties
resting on the allegation that no “claim” was made by Nicaragua that was
capable of being “positively opposed” by Colombia — No capacity for Court to
infer the existence of a “claim” giving rise to a dispute — To have jurisdiction,
Court must find that Nicaragua made a “claim” on those points of law or fact to
which the present proceedings relate — Evidence as to the existence of a “dispute”
— No basis for a finding that there was a dispute between the Parties as to
the subject‑matter now before the Court prior to the filing of the Application.
Disagreement with dismissal by the Court of Colombia’s third preliminary
objection — Negotiation as a condition precedent to recourse to Court — Court’s
characterization of circumstances in which negotiation may be dispensed with —
Disagreement that those circumstances pertain in the present case — Evidentiary
record does not support conclusion that settlement not possible or contemplated by
the Parties — Interrelationship between second and third preliminary objection —
Importance of negotiations to defining the subject‑matter of the dispute ultimately
brought for judicial settlement.
I. Introduction
1. I respectfully dissent in respect of the Court’s finding on Colombia’s
second and third preliminary objections inasmuch as the Court’s reasoning
departs from its own jurisprudence and is not supported by the evidence
before it. Beyond the particulars of this case, it is of great concern
that in finding that it possesses jurisdiction, the Court’s reasoning undermines
in my opinion broader concepts underlying the peaceful settlement
of disputes.
2. The Court’s Judgment addresses its jurisdiction over the claims of
Nicaragua that base the Court’s competence first and foremost on Article
XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá. It is important to recall that the full title
of that Treaty is the “American Treaty on Pacific Settlement”. The Treaty
promotes the pacific settlement of disputes by setting forth various means
of doing so. The means set forth in the treaty begins with the “general
obligation to settle disputes by pacific means” (Chapter One, Articles I
to VIII), proceeds to “procedures of good offices and mediation” (Chap-
75 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
76
ter Two, Articles IX to XIV), sets forth a “procedure of investigation and
conciliation” (Chapter Three, Articles XV to XXX), and lastly reaches in
Chapter Four Article XXXI a “judicial procedure” of reference to this
Court, assuming that the parties have not provided instead for arbitration
(Chapter Five, Articles XXXVIII to XLIX). The Treaty is careful to
point out that the “order of the pacific procedures . . . does not signify the
parties may not have recourse to the procedure which they consider most
appropriate . . . or that any of them have preference over others except as
expressly provided” (Article III). But the phrase “except as expressly provided”
is important. The exceptions expressly provided in each means of
settlement are important and are the bedrock of my dissent to the Court’s
Judgment in respect of the second and third preliminary objections.
3. There may not be a regimented staircase of procedures in the Pact of
Bogotá, but peaceful settlement within the scheme of the Pact carefully
climbs from dialogue in which each State’s concerns are voiced to each
other, upwards to the various means by which settlement may be negotiated
and finally to the power of the Court or a tribunal to decide “disputes
of a juridical nature”. A disagreement is more than a pattern of
conduct that might imply a difference in views. As the Pact recognizes,
communication is essential because a disagreement cannot be settled
unless there is a dialogue that defines what is in dispute. Indeed, unless a
dispute in this sense “exists”, then it is difficult to envision what is to be
negotiated.
4. I dissent from the Court’s Judgment because it fundamentally weakens
this scheme, reducing the complexity of the scheme for the settlement
of disputes set out in the American Treaty on Pacific Settlement into
essentially a simple acceptance of the Court’s jurisdiction. The Judgment
in profoundly shifting the requirement that there be a dispute holds that
the Applicant to the Court need not have engaged in dialogue, and need
not have expressed its concerns to the other State. Without such dialogue,
the Parties will not have had the opportunity to define the dispute, refine
the dispute, and — one can hope — narrow or even settle the dispute. As
critically, if the Applicant need not have engaged in dialogue with the
other Party, then any duty to negotiate as a practical matter is substantially
weakened. International disputes are complex and boundary disputes
are amongst the most difficult to resolve. The law gives answers, but
not necessarily the most nuanced answers, in such complex situations. It
is essential that the Court or a tribunal possess the jurisdiction to give the
answer to a dispute when necessary or when called upon by both parties.
But it is only necessary when the dispute between two States “cannot be
settled by direct negotiations” — language in the Pact of Bogotá that the
Court’s jurisprudence holds to be a precondition to jurisdiction under the
Pact. It is regrettable that the present Judgment in its holdings regarding
the second and third preliminary objections formally reaffirms, yet sub-
76 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
77
stantively negates, the requirement that a dispute exists and the obligation
to pursue negotiations.
II. The Second Preliminary Objection
as to the Existence of a Dispute
1. The Requirement that a Dispute Exist
5. The Court reaffirms in its Judgment that the existence of a dispute is
a precondition to the Court’s exercise of jurisdiction over this, and indeed
any, case. The Court, however, simultaneously also departs from its own
jurisprudence on this requirement. That jurisprudence indicates the
importance of initiating an assessment of the existence of a “dispute” with
identification of both a “claim” and “positive opposition” to that claim
by the States party to the Court’s proceedings. Applying the Court’s previous
jurisprudence as to the meaning and existence of a dispute, I am
unable to see how a “dispute” as to the subject‑matter invoked by Nicaragua
in its Application existed at the requisite date. In these circumstances,
I am unable to agree with the Court’s claim to jurisdiction over
the present proceedings.
6. The requirement of a dispute between the parties is a general limitation
to the contentious jurisdiction of the Court. In the Nuclear Tests
cases, where partway through the proceedings the basis of the dispute was
found to have become moot, the Court stated: “the existence of a dispute
is the primary condition for the Court to exercise its judicial function”
(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974,
pp. 270‑271, para. 55 ; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 476, para. 58). Mootness involves the situation
where a dispute no longer exists. Ripeness asks whether a dispute exists,
that is, whether it has come into being. It is this latter situation that is at
issue in the second objection.
7. In addition to the requirement that a dispute exist as a general limitation
on the contentious jurisdiction of the Court, this limitation may
also arise from the particular instrument asserted to be the basis of the
Court’s jurisdiction. Thus, in this case, the Court’s Judgment refers also
to Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá, where the parties to the Pact
accept the Court’s jurisdiction in respect of “disputes of a juridical
nature . . .” (Judgment, paras. 15 and 50). The particular instrument may
place additional limitations on the jurisdiction of the Court, but these
further requirements are best viewed as additional requirements rather
77 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
78
than a change in the meaning of the term “dispute” itself. Such reasoning
is implicit in the Mavrommatis case where the Permanent Court of International
Justice (PCIJ) wrote :
“Before considering whether the case of the Mavrommatis concessions
relates to the interpretation of application of the Mandate and
whether consequently its nature and subject are such as to bring it
within the jurisdiction of the Court as defined in the article quoted
above, it is essential to ascertain whether the case fulfils all the other
conditions laid down in this clause. Does the matter before the Court
constitute a dispute between the Mandatory and another Member of
the League of Nations ? Is it a dispute which cannot be settled by
negotiation?” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2,
1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11 ; emphasis in the original.)
See also Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 29
(holding that “consistency of usage suggests that there is no reason to
depart from the generally understood meaning of ‘dispute’ in the compromissory
clause contained in Article 22 of CERD”).
8. The meaning of the term “dispute” is set forth reasonably fully in
the Court’s jurisprudence. In its Judgment in 1924 in the Mavrommatis
case, the PCIJ held that: “A dispute is a disagreement on a point of law
or fact, a conflict of legal views or of interests between two persons.”
(Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 11.) This Court’s later jurisprudence concerning the
elements of a dispute adds detail and precision to the view of the PCIJ.
The Court in the South West Africa cases held :
“[I]t is not sufficient for one party to a contentious case to assert
that a dispute exists with the other party. A mere assertion is not
sufficient to prove the existence of a dispute any more than a mere
denial of the existence of the dispute proves its non‑existence. Nor is
it adequate to show that the interests of the two parties to such a case
are in conflict.” (I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 328 ; emphasis added.)
If a mere conflict of interest as suggested in Mavrommatis is not “adequate”,
the Court refined the intensity element required of the dispute by
holding repeatedly that the claim of one State must be “positively
opposed” by another (South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa ; Liberia
v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1962, p. 328 ; Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application:
2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction
and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 40, para. 90 ; Application
of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
78 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
79
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 84‑85, para. 30).
9. Publicists examining the Court’s jurisprudence have elaborated
upon what in practice it means to require that the claim of one State is
“positively opposed” by another. Professor J. G. Merrills writes that: “A
dispute may be defined as a specific disagreement concerning a matter of
fact, law or policy in which a claim or assertion of one party is met with
refusal, counter‑claim or denial by another.” (J. G. Merrills, International
Dispute Settlement, 2nd ed., 1993, p. 1 ; emphasis added.) The idea that
“positive opposition” entails a rejection or denial by the opposing party
is implicit in the meaning of the word “opposed”. Likewise, in a leading
Commentary on the Statute of the ICJ, Professor Christian Tomuschat
writes that a dispute presupposes opposing views: “the Court has consistently
proceeded from the assumption that an applicant must advance a
legal claim” (Christian Tomuschat, “Article 36”, Andreas Zimmermann,
Christian Tomuschat, Karin Oellers‑Frahm and Christian J. Tams (eds.),
The Statute of the International Court of Justice. A Commentary, 2nd ed.,
2012, p. 642). Thus, the claim of legal violation by one party must be
positively opposed by the other party through that party’s rejection or
denial of the claim of legal violation.
10. In a minority of cases, the applicant’s claim of legal violation was
not met with “refusal”, but rather with silence. In such instances, the
Court has been practical rather than formalistic and indicated flexibility
as to how positive opposition is to be established. In 1927, for example,
the PCIJ observed that :
“In so far as concerns the word ‘dispute’, [. . .] according to the tenor
of Article 60 of the Statute, the manifestation of the existence of the
dispute in a specific manner, as for instance by diplomatic negotiations,
is not required.” (Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7 and 8 (Factory at
Chorzów), Judgment No. 11, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 13, p. 10.)
11. Similarly, the Court more recently in Georgia v. Russian Federation
summarizing its jurisprudence on the requirement stated :
“As the Court has recognized (for example, Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 315, para. 89),
the existence of a dispute may be inferred from the failure of a State
to respond to a claim in circumstances where a response is called for.”
(Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84,
para. 30.)
12. The practice of the Court in inferring opposition from “the failure
of a State to respond to a claim where a response is called for” reinforces
79 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
80
the conclusion that “positive opposition” generally requires a rejection or
denial by the other party. If this were not necessary, then the inference
made in the several cases of silence would not have been needed. In the
Hostages case, for example, the claim of legal violation by the Applicant,
the United States, was met with silence from the Respondent, Iran. The
Court in evaluating whether a dispute existed did not merely indicate that
the two Parties possessed different views or a conflict of interests. Rather,
the Court sifted through the statements of the United States so as to justify
the necessary inference that Iran, despite its silence, positively opposed
the claim of the United States (United States Diplomatic and Consular
Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1980, p. 25, para. 47).
13. The requirement that a dispute exist may thus be met where:
(1) there is a claim of legal violation by a State and such a claim is positively
opposed, that is, rejected, by another State ; or (2) there is a claim
of legal violation by a State where positive opposition may be inferred
from the failure of another State to reply to the first State’s claim of legal
violation where such a response is called for.
2. The Unprecedented Character of the Present Case
14. To the best of my knowledge, the way in which the requirement as
to the existence of a dispute arises in this case is unprecedented in the
Court’s history. In all of the cases cited in the Court’s Judgment and in
this opinion, the case involved a situation where the applicant State has
stated clearly its claim of legal violation to the respondent State prior to
the date of its Application. The issue in those cases was primarily whether
the respondent State positively opposed, that is, rejected, the claim of
legal violation by the applicant State.
15. For example : the claims of Greece, and as a secondary matter its
national, were formal and unequivocal in the Mavrommatis case. Similarly,
in the Hostages case, the claim of legal violation by the United
States was abundantly clear through its despatch of a special emissary,
the views expressed by its chargé d’affaires in Tehran, and its representations
before the United Nations Security Council (ibid., p. 25, para. 47).
16. In Georgia v. Russian Federation, the Court was confronted with
the question of whether the particular requirement for the existence of a
dispute under Article 22 of the 1965 International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (“CERD”) was met
(“[A]ny dispute between two or more States parties with respect to the
interpretation or application of this Convention”). The issue in that case
was not whether Georgia had made a claim of legal violation at all but
80 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
81
precisely when in a long series of statements or letters it could be said that
such a claim was made to the Russian Federation “with respect to the
interpretation or application” of CERD. The Court had no difficulty in
ultimately finding that statements by the Georgian President in a Press
Conference held on 9 August 2008, the statement of the Georgian Representative
to the United Nations Security Council on 10 August 2008, a
published statement of the Georgian Foreign Minister on 11 August
2008, and a televised interview with the Georgian President on 11 August
2008 “expressly referred to alleged ethnic cleansing by Russian Forces”.
On that basis, the Court concluded that those actions constituted “claims
[that] were made against the Russian Federation” (Application of the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 120, para. 113).
17. In the present proceeding, Colombia’s second preliminary objection
does not reach the point of arguing that it did not positively oppose
a claim of Nicaragua. Colombia’s second preliminary objection argues a
more fundamental point, namely, that Nicaragua never made a claim
which Colombia could oppose.
18. This difference is significant. However, it is a difference not
addressed by the Judgment. It is appropriate for the Court to infer positive
opposition to a claim. It is not in my view appropriate to infer the
assertion of the claim. First, such an inference eviscerates the requirement
that there be a dispute. Second, what does it mean for the requirement
that the respondent positively oppose a claim when the claim is not clear,
not to mention not explicit ? An inferred claim is not a claim. It is not
asking much of the applicant that they have formulated and communicated
in some fashion a claim. Third, to infer the claim itself leaves both
vague and unclear what the dispute is about. I agree that it is for the
Court to objectively determine what is in dispute and that it may thus
itself add clarity. For such an objective determination to be based upon
an assessment of the protests made, letters exchanged and later pleadings
is one thing. It is quite another matter for a court, however, to objectively
determine the existence of the dispute not from the articulation of a claim
by the applicant and response by (including unjustified silence of) the
respondent, but rather to infer it from the overall context in which the
parties co-exist. Such an attempt at objective determination is, in my
opinion, fraught with potential pitfalls for the parties and the Court and
could easily shade into an abuse of discretion. The dangers are evident in
the Court’s Judgment in this case.
19. The Court’s Judgment does not address the unprecedented character
of the present case. The Court reiterates at paragraph 50 of its Judgment
that it “must be shown that the claim of one party is positively
81 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
82
opposed by the other”, citing the South West Africa cases. The Court’s
Judgment, however, immediately adds a statement to the above quoted
text, that for the circumstances of this case, profoundly changes the applicable
law and masks the significant departure from its jurisprudence that
follows. The Court states that it “does not matter which one of them [i.e.,
the parties] advances a claim and which one opposes it”. Whether this
statement is correct depends upon the situation presented. It is starkly
incorrect for the situation presented in this case.
20. The overwhelming majority of contentious cases have involved disputes
where there has been a significant exchange of diplomatic protests
and letters between the parties concerning the subject of the dispute
before the Court. Even within those cases where a preliminary objection
is raised as to whether a dispute exists, that preliminary objection can
nevertheless be assessed against a factual background comprised of such
statements and protests. To the extent that the assertion in paragraph 50
refers to the situations just described, then I agree that it does not matter
in determining whether a dispute came into existence whether it is the
party who ultimately is applicant or respondent that initiated the exchange
of diplomatic protests and letters. All that matters is that the factual
record evidences that one party positively opposed the claim of the other.
But — critically — that is far from the situation presented in this case.
21. In particular, where one side has not positively opposed the claims
of the other but rather remained silent, it is the applicant who bears the
onus of demonstrating that that silence should nevertheless be taken as
an opposition to those claims. In cases involving such silence, it is always,
then, the applicant which will have made the requisite “claim” capable of
giving rise to a “dispute”. That is the situation presented by this case.
22. Before reviewing the outcome of the assessments by the Court of
the existence of the disputes that are the basis of Nicaragua’s claims, I
emphasize that Nicaragua does not dispute directly Colombia’s assertion
that there was no claim of legal violation as such by Nicaragua, not to
mention a formal claim by Nicaragua, prior to Nicaragua filing its Application.
Rather, Nicaragua argues that it is “obvious” that there is a dispute.
Nicaragua argues in its written statement at paragraph 3.5 that “[i]t
is perfectly obvious that Colombia and Nicaragua are in disagreement on
various points of law, and have a conflict of legal views and interests”.
Nicaragua, however, does not refer to evidence of a claim of legal violation
by it in any form. Rather, Nicaragua at paragraph 3.15 of its written
statement to the preliminary objections of the Republic of Colombia
writes: “one might ask why Colombia considers that the onus was on
Nicaragua . . .”. But this is a different way of stating precisely what is
unprecedented about this case. The issue in this case is not that presented
to the Court by other cases. If this case were like the others, the issue
would be whether the Respondent — Colombia — positively opposed or
rejected the claim of Nicaragua. This case does not reach that question.
82 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
83
The question in this case is whether the Applicant, having been bound by
Article 40 (1) of the Statute and Article 38 (2) of the Rules of Court to
state the “subject of the dispute” in its Application, ever communicated
the related claim of legal violation in any form so that it might be positively
opposed by the Respondent, thus establishing the existence of a
dispute.
23. In light of the above, it is my view that a dispute cannot be taken
to have arisen between the Parties unless Nicaragua made a “claim” capable
of rejection by Colombia and communicated it to Colombia in some
way. That is, Nicaragua must have — prior to filing its Application —
asserted against Colombia its views on those points of law or fact forming
the subject of the claims now before the Court.
3. What the Court Holds
24. The Judgment of the Court begins correctly by asking what are the
disputes that Nicaragua asserts are the subject of the proceeding ; recognizing
that it is for the Court to objectively assess and specifically articulate
the subject‑matter of the dispute. Looking to the Application and
Memorial of Nicaragua, the Court identifies two claims, each of which
rests on a distinct dispute. In the Application, the “Subject of the Dispute”
is described as first, “violations of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and
maritime zones declared by the Court’s Judgment of 19 November 2012”
and second, “the threat of the use of force by Colombia in order to implement
these violations” (Application of Nicaragua, p. 2, para. 2). The submissions
in the Memorial of Nicaragua confirm that these two claims are
the subject of this proceeding. Having identified two claims, the Judgment
of the Court proceeds to assess whether a dispute existed with respect to
either or both of them at the time of the Application.
25. As to whether a dispute existed as to the sovereign rights and maritime
zones of Nicaragua, the Court at paragraphs 69 to 74 concludes
that a dispute as to Nicaragua’s rights in the relevant maritime zones
existed at the time of the Application. In reaching this conclusion, the
Court’s Judgment refers to two specific items of evidence. What is striking
and deserving of emphasis at this point is the contrast with Georgia v.
Russian Federation where the Court — in seeking to identify at what
point in time it could be said that a claim had been made by Georgia
which the Russian Federation could have positively opposed — the Court
reviewed over 50 specific items of evidence, comprising letters, statements,
decrees and filings by the Applicant, Georgia.
26. As to whether a dispute existed as to the threat of the use of force,
the Court at paragraphs 75 to 78 concludes that a dispute did not exist.
83 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
84
The Court does not state that a dispute did not exist because Nicaragua
failed to claim, protest or object to a threat of the use of force by Colombia.
It could have done so because there is no such claim, protest or threat
in the record. But it does not. Rather, the Judgment refers to two pieces
of evidence in which representatives of the Nicaraguan Government
described the situation at sea as calm.
27. The above holdings that one dispute existed while the other did not
are both flawed. Before laying out this critique, this dissent first must do
what the Court does not do ; that is, engage fully with the evidence.
4. Assessing the Evidentiary Record
28. In assessing the evidence in this case, it is important at the outset
to point out what is not included. There is no diplomatic letter of protest
prior to the lodgment of Nicaragua’s Application. Although both sides
acknowledge there were meetings of the two Heads of State, there are no
minutes of those meetings nor are there any witness statements as to what
transpired at those meetings. Given that the requirement that a dispute
exists necessarily examines the claim of the applicant and the rejection or
denial of the respondent, it is particularly curious and telling that the
evidentiary record contains only a very limited number of statements
from Nicaraguan officials. In fact, there are only a handful of such statements
cited by the Parties. Moreover, the bulk of those derive from contemporaneous
press reporting. The Court therefore is not presented here
with the possibility it had in Georgia v. Russian Federation of limiting its
search for a “claim” by the Applicant to statements made by that State in
“official documents and statements” (Application of the International Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia
v. Russia Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2011 (I), p. 86, para. 33). Indeed, only a small number of documents in
the present proceedings have been proffered as a possible source of any
such “claim”.
29. In addition, it is important to observe that, temporally, the statements
made by Nicaraguan officials prior to the filing of the Application
fall into two sets : a first set covers the three months immediately following
the issuance of the Court’s November 2012 Judgment ; and a second
set commences six months later and spans less than two months in the
period leading up to the filing of Nicaragua’s Application in these proceedings.
In the following paragraphs, I assess whether any of the statements
disclose a “claim” which Colombia could “positively oppose” such
as to give rise to a “dispute” between the Parties. I furthermore assess
84 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
85
whether any such “claim” related to the subject of the claims now before
the Court.
30. On 21 November 2012, press reporting disclosed that President
Ortega had welcomed the 2012 Judgment as a “national victory”,
the reporting further indicating that President Ortega had “urged the
South American nation to respect the high court’s decision” (Memorial of
Nicaragua, Annex 26, “International court gives Nicaragua more waters,
outlying keys to Colombia”, Dialogo, 21 November 2012, pp. 355‑356). I
am unable to see in these statements any “claim” against Colombia of a
breach of its obligations, let alone a “claim” with respect to a breach of
those rights now invoked by Nicaragua in these proceedings.
31. On 26 November 2012, President Ortega made an address to “the
people of Nicaragua” (Memorial of Nicaragua, Annex 27, “Message
from President Daniel [Ortega] to the people of Nicaragua”, El 19 Digital,
26 November 2012, pp. 359‑362). In that address, the President
referred again to the 2012 Judgment to note “our concerns for the manner
in which [the President of Colombia] was reacting by rejecting the
ruling of the Court”, further noting that
“[d]uring the days following the ruling, President Santos toughened
his position by adding to his words, the mandate to the naval forces
of the Colombian armada to multiply their surveillance activities in
territories awarded by the International Court of Justice as maritime
territories to Nicaragua” (ibid., p. 359).
In that address, President Ortega went on to note that in response to
these words and acts “the Government of Nicaragua reacted very calmly”
and was “waiting and expect[s] the Government of Colombia to decide,
once and for all, to comply with the ruling of the Court”. He went on
to refer to Nicaragua’s desire to establish “new Conventions with Colombia
to combat drug trafficking and organized crime” and on “matters of
fisheries”.
32. Again, there is no claim in these statements concerning any threat
of the use of force by Colombia. There is, furthermore, no claim in respect
of a breach by Colombia of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime
spaces. At most, the statements made by President Ortega in this address
could constitute a claim in respect of Colombia’s implementation of the
2012 Judgment. As Nicaragua itself attests, however, the dispute it
invokes before the Court in the present proceedings “is not ‘a difference
of opinion or views between the parties as to the meaning or scope of a
judgment rendered by the Court’” (Memorial of Nicaragua, p. 17,
para. 1.33).
33. On 29 November 2012, President Ortega reportedly indicated — in
the lead‑up to a meeting between the two Presidents in Mexico — that he
wished to “shake hands with President Santos and say that I and the peo-
85 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
86
ple of Nicaragua want to fix this situation as fraternally as brothers”
(Memorial of Nicaragua, Annex 31, “Santos and Ortega will meet this
Saturday in Mexico City”, La República, 29 November 2012). There is no
official record of the exchanges between the Presidents at the meeting on
1 December 2012. Colombia cites a press statement of President Santos
that discloses some of what was discussed at that meeting, indicating that
President Santos had stated that :
“We — the Minister of Foreign Affairs and I — gathered with
President Ortega. We explained in the clearest way our position : we
want the Colombian rights, those of the raizales, not only with respect
to the rights of the artisanal fishermen but other rights, to be re‑established
and guaranteed. He [President Ortega] understood.
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We will keep looking for the mechanism that both the International
Court of The Hague and the international diplomacy have at their
disposal to re‑establish the rights infringed by the Judgment. That
does not exclude these channels of communication with Nicaragua. I
believe that those channels of communication are an important complement.
In this sense we will continue — and we said this clearly to President
Ortega — looking for the re-establishment
of the rights that this
Judgment breached in a grave matter for the Colombians.” (Preliminary
Objections of the Republic of Colombia, Annex 9, “Declaration
of the President of the Republic of Colombia”, 1 December 2012,
pp. 109‑110.)
34. A separate press report dated 3 December 2012 reports that President
Santos, after the meeting :
“announced that as a result of this meeting with the Nicaraguan President,
the two Governments will manage the matter of the ruling by
the Court in The Hague with forethought and discretion. ‘We are
going to manage this with prudence, with discretion, no insults by the
news media. If there is a problem, we will call each other’, he stated.”
(Written Statement of the Republic of Nicaragua to the Preliminary
Objections of the Republic of Colombia, Annex 5, “Government of
Colombia will not implement ICJ judgment until the rights of Colombians
have been restored”, El Salvador Noticias.net, 3 December 2012,
p. 103.)
35. Nicaragua observes that by this meeting it sought to “engage in a
constructive dialogue over implementation of the 19 November Judgment”
(Memorial of Nicaragua, para. 2.7). It further surmises that the
discussions between the Presidents at the meeting indicated that “President
Santos’s position was that his country would not abide by the Judgment
until ‘we see that Colombians’ rights, that have been violated, are
86 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
87
re‑established and guaranteed in the future’” (CR 2015/23, p. 12, para. 9
(Arguëllo) ; Memorial of Nicaragua, para. 2.7). Nicaragua does not, however,
tender any evidence as to the position taken by the Nicaraguan
President in the meeting, beyond asserting that :
“President Ortega stated Nicaragua’s position that, while the Judgment
of the Court had to be respected by both States, there was room
for discussion in regard to the manner of its implementation, and at
all events the matter had to be resolved peacefully and without confrontation.”
(Memorial of Nicaragua, para. 2.7, citing a press report
written before the meeting: “Santos and Ortega will meet this Saturday
in Mexico City”, La República, 29 November 2012 ; ibid.,
Annex 31, p. 379.)
36. In such a circumstance, it is impossible to infer that Nicaragua
made at that meeting any “claim” capable of giving rise to a “dispute”
between the Parties. Moreover, the contemporaneous public statements
by the Presidents focus upon Colombia’s compliance with the 2012 Judgment.
Any “claim” arising out of these statements, therefore, would pertain
to a subject‑matter different to the alleged breach of Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights and maritime zones and of Colombia’s obligations in
respect to the use of force that Nicaragua invokes in these proceedings.
37. On 5 December 2012, the Chief of Nicaragua’s army, General
Avilés, confirmed that Nicaragua was in communication with the
Colombian authorities, and that “there has been no boarding to fishing
vessels” (CR 2015/22, p. 33, para. 10 (Bundy)). On the same date, President
Ortega held further discussions with President Santos. Press reporting
of that meeting indicated that :
“President Ortega also said that the Nicaraguan Navy has been
instructed to not detain any Colombian fishermen during what he
calls ‘the period of transition in the zone’.
‘We have to do this gradually until there is full compliance with the
Court’s sentence, without affecting the reserve and without affecting
the fishermen and businesses on San Andres Island’, Ortega said.”
(Memorial of Nicaragua, Annex 33, “Nicaragua : no oil concessions
in Seaflower”, Nicaragua Dispatch, 6 December 2012, p. 387.)
Again, there is no indication in any of these statements of Nicaragua
claiming a breach by Colombia of its legal obligations, let alone a breach
of its obligations in respect of the use of force or of Nicaragua’s sovereign
rights and maritime zones.
38. The two Presidents met again in February 2013. Contemporaneous
press reporting indicates that :
87 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
88
“Ortega said that it is necessary to find mechanisms for consensus
through dialogue that will enable closer relations between the
two nations instead of confronting them. ‘I propose to the Government
of Colombia, to President (Juan Manuel) Santos, that the
sooner the better, we should organize these commissions to work so
that they can demarcate all of this in regard to the area where the
Raizal peoples can fish according to their historical rights’. . . Ortega
said that the issue has been manipulated in Colombia for ‘electoral’
purposes and that ‘there are powerful interests’ in having an armed
confrontation between Nicaragua and Colombia, in the waters
granted to his country by The Hague. [‘]I am certain that President
Santos and the People of Colombia know that the solution to the
ruling by the International Court of Justice is not the use of force ; it
is not the deployment of warships in the area, but rather to follow the
path to organize the ruling of the Court, organize it in terms of its
implementation, how to organize it, how to apply it’, he stated. Ortega
said that both in Mexico, during the takeover by President Enrique
Peña Nieto, and in the recent Summit of Latin American States in
Chile, he had the opportunity to discuss the issue with the Colombian
President and that they have always spoken of taking joint measures.
He said that his country has no interest in a confrontation with anyone,
and that the only thing its coast guard boats do is ‘to enforce the
ruling by The Hague ‘very firmly and with serenity’’, always watching
‘so that the dialogue comes first’’.” (Memorial of Nicaragua,
Annex 35, “Nicaragua asks Bogotá to form The Hague Commissions”,
La Opinion, 22 February 2013, pp. 395‑396.)
This is the first statement on the record addressing the possibility of an
armed confrontation between the States. Two observations are, however,
in order. First, it is not the President who refers to such a possibility, but
the reporter. The President appears on the contrary to recognize that “the
People of Colombia know that the solution to the ruling by the International
Court of Justice is not the use of force”. Second, the President
makes no specific allegation against Colombia of a breach of Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights or maritime zones or of Colombia’s obligations in respect
of the use of force. The statements simply cannot be read as a legal
“claim” against Colombia on these matters.
39. These statements make up the first set of evidence (November 2012
to February 2013). The second group of statements occur some
five months subsequent to the first group, in the lead‑up to the filing of
Nicaragua’s Application in these proceedings (August 2013 to November
2013).
40. A number of these statements indicate Nicaragua’s continued view
that the situation at sea was calm, disclosing no “claim” that Colombia
was violating Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime zones or threat-
88 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
89
ening the use of force against Nicaragua. On 14 August 2013, for example,
President Ortega stated that :
“[W]e must recognize that . . . the Naval Force of Colombia, which
is very powerful, that certainly has a very large military power, has
been careful, has been respectful and there has not been any kind
of confrontation between the Colombian and Nicaraguan Navy”
(Preliminary Objections of Colombia, Annex 11, “Declaration of the
President of the Republic of Nicaragua”, 14 August 2013, p. 118).
On 18 November 2013, the Chief of Nicaragua’s naval forces, Admiral
Corrales Rodríguez, further stated that “[t]here have not been any
conflicts and that is why I want to highlight that in one year of being
there we have not had any problems with the Colombian Navy” (ibid.,
Annex 43, “Patrolling the recovered sea”, El Nuevo Diario, 18 November
2013, p. 355).
41. Other statements in this period pertain to the implementation of
the 2012 Judgment. On 23 August 2013, for example, press reporting
indicated that:
“Nicaragua . . . say[s] that the ruling is already being implemented
and that a decision by the Colombian Government not to abide by it
makes no sense. ‘The judgment of the ICJ has been in effect since
19 November 2012. What has happened is that Colombia has hired
a number of law firms to analyse the resources in the territory’, said
Mauricio Herdocia, the lawyer representing Nicaragua in this case.
‘In the end all questions will be resolved by the ICJ, and according to
the Rules of the Court, when a State is preparing an appeal the judgment
must be respected’, added Herdocia.” (Memorial of Nicaragua,
Annex 38, “World Court ruling on maritime borders unenforceable
in Colombia : Vice-President”,
Colombia Reports, 23 August 2013,
pp. 407‑408.)
42. This is not a statement stemming from the Nicaraguan Executive,
but in any case does not comprise any particular “claim” about Colombia’s
conduct capable of rejection by that State.
43. On 10 September 2013, President Ortega reportedly stated that :
‘“The call that I make to President Santos, to the Government of
Colombia, to some Central American Governors that are throwing
out declarations talking about expansionism, is that these are times in
which law, and not force, must prevail . . . Going for force would mean
to go back to the Stone Age. If we take the lawful route that would
mean the strengthening of peace, if we go for force it would mean to
feed more wars in the world, if we go for law it would make wars go
away and to promote the peace in the world’, he assured. In that sense
he reaffirmed that Nicaragua is committed to peace, just like the countries
of Latin America and the Caribbean.” (Memorial of Nicaragua,
89 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
90
Annex 39, “Daniel: 40 years from the martyrdom of Allende, peace
must prevail”, El 19 Digital, 11 September 2013, p. 411.)
44. In response to Colombia’s insistence on the negotiation between
the two States of a treaty to implement the 2012 Judgment, President
Ortega further stated that :
“We understand the position taken by President Santos, but we
cannot say that we agree with the position of President Santos . . .
We do agree that it is necessary to dialogue, we do agree that it is
necessary to look for some kind of agreement, treaty, whatever we
want to call it, to put into practice in a harmonious way, like brother
peoples, the Judgment of the International Court of Justice . . .”
(Memorial of Nicaragua, Annex 39.)
He also stated :
“The Court’s decisions are obligatory . . . They are not subject to
discussion. It’s disrespectful to the Court. It is as if we decided not to
abide by the ruling because we didn’t receive 100 percent of what we
asked, which in this case was the San Andrés archipelago.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Nicaragua wants peace . . . We have no expansionist aims . . . we
only want what the Court at The Hague granted us in its ruling.”
(Written Statement of the Republic of Nicaragua to the Preliminary
Objections of the Republic of Colombia, Annex 7, “Colombia will
Challenge Maritime Border with Nicaragua”, ABC News, 10 September
2013, p. 115.)
45. Three points are striking about these 10 September remarks. First,
President Ortega, in discussing the preference of Nicaragua for “peace”
does not make any allegation against Colombia that Colombia is threatening
that “peace” nor any claim that Nicaragua’s legal rights were being
infringed by Colombia. Second, the statements were made a day after
Colombia passed Decree No. 1946, yet that Decree is not referred to by
President Ortega even though it now forms a core part of the “dispute”
said to have arisen before the two Parties at this time (Memorial of Nicaragua,
pp. 26‑33). Third, to the extent that these statements disclose any
“claim” by Nicaragua or disagreement between the Parties, it would
appear only to relate to the actions necessary for the Parties to give effect
to the 2012 Judgment and specifically, as Nicaragua notes, the “legal
requirement for a treaty in order to make the November 2012 Judgment
effective or binding on the Parties” (ibid., para. 2.59). They do not, however,
disclose any “claim” in respect of an alleged violation by Colombia
of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights or maritime zones nor any threat of the
use of force.
90 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
91
46. On 12 September 2013, the National Assembly of Nicaragua
declared “its full endorsement of the position of the Government of Nicaragua
for a peaceful solution through a treaty implementing the Judgment”
(Memorial of Nicaragua, para. 2.59 and Annex 40, “Assembly of
Nicaragua supports dialogue with Colombia”, El Universal, 12 September
2013). It furthermore “urge[d] Colombia to comply with international
law and to abide by the ruling of the International Court of Justice, which
is final and of unavoidable compliance”. This declaration, at most, could
imply a claim that Colombia had yet to comply with the 2012 Judgment,
but does not indicate any “claim” that Colombia was breaching Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights or maritime zones nor threatening the use of force
as a result of any such alleged non‑compliance.
47. On 13 September 2013, President Ortega reiterated his call for the
creation of a commission to oversee implementation of the 2012 Judgment,
stating :
“We are ready, we are willing to create the corresponding commission
to meet with a commission from our brother country Colombia,
from the Colombian Government, and that together we can work to
make possible the implementation of the Court’s Judgment, and this
will be supported, ratified ; because the Judgment has been delivered
already, it is just about laying it down, so that it will be laid down in
what will be a treaty between Colombia and Nicaragua . . . In that
treaty, Colombia and Nicaragua will be proceeding with the Judgment’s
compliance, with the ICJ’s Judgment. This is the Peace path,
the Unity path, the Fraternity path.” (Preliminary Objections of
Colombia, Annex 41, “Ortega says that Nicaragua is ready to create
a Commission to ratify the Judgment of the ICJ”, La Jornada, 13 September
2013, p. 345.)
48. This is the last statement of President Ortega cited by the Parties
prior to the filing of Nicaragua’s Application on 26 November 2013.
49. None of the above statements is — either alone or collectively —
capable of being read to constitute a “claim” capable of rejection by
Colombia. What is telling is the silence in these statements, and the statements
which have not been adduced. Two points bear emphasizing.
50. First, there is no evidence that Nicaragua ever framed claims
against Colombia’s acts by reference to the legal rights now before the
Court. In fact, the statements made by Nicaraguan officials were generally
vague and unspecific. To the extent that they were specific, they
referred not to the subject‑matter of the claims now before the Court
but rather to the steps necessary to ensure compliance with the 2012
Judgment.
51. Second, a number of the statements tend to indicate the opposite
91 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
92
conclusion : that the Parties did not consider that their claims were “positively
opposed”, rather indicating their constructive attempts to implement
the 2012 Judgment.
52. While it might be appropriate, as I stated earlier, to infer that a
respondent’s conduct impliedly rejected claims raised by an applicant, the
converse cannot be true. It is not possible for Colombia to reject — either
expressly or impliedly — claims that were never raised. In the circumstances
of this case, it is difficult to see how any of the above statements
constituted a “claim” capable of being “positively opposed” by Colombia,
or capable of resulting in a “disagreement on a point of law or fact”
between the Parties in relation to the rights now in dispute.
53. I conclude from my review of the factual record that, prior to filing
its Application, Nicaragua made no claim that Colombia had breached
its sovereign rights or maritime spaces or had unlawfully threatened the
use of force. In such a circumstance, there could be no “dispute” between
the Parties with respect to these matters at the requisite date. To the
extent that any dispute did arise, that dispute could only be characterized
as relating to the Parties’ interpretation of, or compliance with, the 2012
Judgment. That is not a matter brought by Nicaragua before the Court
for determination in these proceedings.
5. The Court’s Analysis Is Contradicted by the Evidentiary Record
54. Having assessed the evidentiary record before the Court, I return
to the Court’s holdings, summarized above, that one dispute existed while
the other did not.
55. The Court begins its analysis of whether a dispute existed as to
Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces in paragraph 69 by
observing that :
“following the delivery of the 2012 Judgment, the President of Colombia
proposed to Nicaragua to negotiate a treaty concerning the effects
of that Judgment, while the Nicaraguan President, on a number of
occasions, expressed a willingness to enter into negotiations for the
conclusion of a treaty to give effect to the Judgment, by addressing
Colombia’s concerns in relation to fishing, environmental protection
and drug trafficking”.
A logical conclusion of this circumstance in my opinion would be that
following the delivery of the 2012 Judgment there was no dispute between
the Parties as regards Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces.
Oddly, in my view, the Court, anticipating its conclusion, concludes in
paragraph 69 that “the fact that the Parties remained open to a dialogue
does not by itself prove that, at the date of the filing of the Application,
there existed no dispute between them”.
92 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
93
56. As stated at paragraph 25 (above), the Court proceeds in paragraph
69 to refer to two pieces of evidence. One is a 1 December 2012 statement
of President Santos of Colombia and the other is a 10 September
2013 statement of President Ortega of Nicaragua. These are the only pieces
of evidence the Court references to support its conclusion that “[i]t is apparent
from these statements that the Parties held opposing views on the question
of their respective rights in the maritime areas covered by the
2012 Judgment” and therefore that a dispute existed. In particular, it
reaches the conclusion that “the Parties held opposing views” by juxtaposing
the December 2012 statement of President Santos of Colombia with the
September 2013 reported statement of President Daniel Ortega of Nicaragua.
Three deficiencies in the Court’s reasoning need to be emphasized :
— First, jurisprudentially, the question is whether Nicaragua ever stated
a claim which Colombia could have positively opposed. In this sense,
only one of the two pieces of evidence is relevant. The question is not
whether statements by two States separated by almost a year should
be read to suggest a conflict of interests.
— Second, the statements cited at most suggest a conflict of interests as
to compliance with the 2012 Judgment. But non‑compliance with the
2012 Judgment is a matter that both Nicaragua and the Court repeatedly
state is not the dispute before the Court. The statements of President
Ortega (there are two on 10 September 2013), as quoted fully
and discussed at paragraphs 43 to 45 above, in discussing the preference
of Nicaragua for “peace” does not make any allegation against
Colombia that Colombia is threatening that “peace” nor make any
claim that Nicaragua’s legal rights were being infringed by Colombia.
In addition, the statements were made a day after Colombia passed
Decree No. 1946, yet that Decree is not referred to by President Ortega
even though it now forms a core part of the “dispute” said to have
arisen before the two Parties at this time (Memorial of Nicaragua,
pp. 26‑33). The 10 September 2013 statements do not communicate
any “claim” in respect of an alleged violation by Colombia of
Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights or maritime zones nor any threat of the
use of force.
— Third, it is striking that the Court chooses to juxtapose two statements
made almost a year apart. Arguably more relevant than the
1 December 2012 statement of President Santos (made only days after
the delivery of the Judgment) is the interview that took place with the
Colombian Minister for Foreign Affairs on 15 September 2013 shortly
after President Ortega’s statement of 10 September 2013. Minister
María A. Holguín’s views are reported as follows :
93 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
94
“María A. Holguín speaks about the four pillars for the defence of
National sovereignty in the Caribbean.
The Minister of Foreign Affairs María Angela Holguín explained
to El Tiempo the scope of the ‘integral strategy’ to defend the Colombian
sovereignty in the Caribbean Sea. She stated that the Government
does not disregard the Court of The Hague’s Judgment — in
which this Tribunal recognized greater rights to Nicaragua over those
waters, but that the country ‘is facing a legal obstacle’ to apply it.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
How and when would you dialogue with Nicaragua to sign a border
treaty ?
Colombia is open to a dialogue with Nicaragua to sign a treaty that
establishes the boundaries and a legal regime that contributes to the
security and stability in the region. The Government has said that it
awaits the decision of the Constitutional Court before initiating any
action.” (Preliminary Objections of Colombia, Annex 42, “The
Minister
of Foreign Affairs explains in detail the strategy vis‑à‑vis
Nicaragua”, El Tiempo, 15 September 2013, p. 349.)
The Court fails to engage with these contemporaneous statements by
Minister Holguín. The above statements contextualize the earlier statements
of President Santos, and indicate that Colombia was not “opposing”
the implementation of the 2012 Judgment, nor contesting its binding
character, but rather questioning the legal steps necessary to apply it.
57. In paragraph 70 of the Judgment, referring to “Colombia’s proclamation
of an ‘Integral Contiguous Zone’”, the Court writes that “the Parties
took different positions on the legal implications of such action in
international law”. In so asserting, however, the Court does not cite any
evidence indicating in what form or by which means those “different positions”
were expressed. And nor could it : such evidence is simply not in
the record before the Court.
58. The Court in paragraph 72 observes that a “formal diplomatic protest”
is not a prerequisite. I agree. However, the problem in the instant
case is that there also is not an informal protest or any statement that is
a claim by Nicaragua of violation of a legal right. The Judgment does not
address Colombia’s objection that there was no such claim or complaint
in any form. Instead, the Judgment — again without reference to the
record — states that :
“in the specific circumstances of the present case, the evidence clearly
indicates that . . . Colombia was aware that its enactment of
Decree 1946 and its conduct in the maritime areas declared by the
94 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
95
2012 Judgment to belong to Nicaragua were positively opposed by
Nicaragua” (Judgment, para. 73).
This statement by the Court turns completely on its head its jurisprudence
as to the requirement that a dispute exist at the time an Application
is filed. In this case, the Court does not ask whether the Applicant —
Nicaragua — made in any form a claim of legal violation prior to the
lodgment of the Application. Rather, it infers that the Respondent must
have been “aware” that the Applicant positively opposed actions that the
Respondent had taken. With all due respect, this reasoning misapprehends
the Court’s jurisprudence regarding the requirement that a dispute
exist. This reasoning through its silence does not accurately represent the
record. This holding in practice signals the end of the application of a
reasoned requirement that a dispute exist.
59. Turning to the assessment by the Court of whether a dispute
existed as to the threat of the use of force, the Court does not state that a
dispute does not exist because Nicaragua failed to claim, protest or object
to a threat of the use of force by Colombia. It could have done so because
there is no such claim, protest or threat in the record. But it does not.
Rather, the Judgment refers to evidence in which representatives of the
Nicaraguan Government described the situation at sea as calm. A statement
of the President of Nicaragua on 14 August 2013 that “there has not
been any kind of confrontation” between the naval forces of the
two States. A statement by the Chief of the Nicaraguan Naval Force on
18 November 2013 that there were neither problems nor conflicts with the
Colombian navy. Surprisingly, the Judgment does not discuss whether
there was a claim of legal violation in the first instance. The Judgment
confuses the identification of a claim of legal violation by the Applicant
with the perhaps necessary inference of a positive opposition to such a
claim by the Respondent. Putting aside why statements that the situation
is calm or that there are no conflicts are relevant to an asserted dispute as
to the threat of force, the fact is that there is no claim, in any form, by
Nicaragua prior to the lodgment of the Application objecting to a threat
of the use of force by Colombia.
60. If the Judgment had found that there was no dispute as to the
threat of the use of force because there was no claim of legal violation in
that regard by Nicaragua, then the same reasoning should lead to the
same conclusion that there was no dispute in regard to Nicaragua’s rights
in the relevant maritime zones.
95 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
96
III. The Third Preliminary Objection as to the Possibility
of Negotiations
61. Article II of the Pact of Bogotá provides in part that “in the event
that a controversy arises between two or more signatory States which, in
the opinion of the parties, cannot be settled by direct negotiations through
the usual diplomatic channels, the parties bind themselves to use the procedures
established in the present Treaty . . .”. The Court in its Judgment
proceeds from the basis of its 1988 holding that the reference to direct
negotiation in Article II of the Pact “constitutes . . . a condition precedent
to recourse to the pacific procedures of the Pact in all cases” (Border and
Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 94, para. 62). In so proceeding,
the Court in paragraph 95 holds that the test for determining
whether settlement is not possible is “whether the evidence provided demonstrates
that, at the date of Nicaragua’s filing of the Application, neither
of the Parties could plausibly maintain that the dispute between them
could be settled by direct negotiations through the usual diplomatic
channels”
(Judgment, para. 95).
62. The Court finds that “[n]o evidence submitted to the Court indicates
that, on the date of Nicaragua’s filing of the Application, the Parties
had contemplated, or were in a position, to hold negotiations to settle the
dispute concerning the alleged violations by Colombia of Nicaragua’s
rights in the maritime zones” and on that basis rejects Colombia’s third
preliminary objection (ibid., paras. 100‑101).
63. I agree with the Court that an obligation to negotiate is satisfied if
there is no prospect of settlement. The PCIJ in Mavrommatis articulated
such an exception to the negotiations requirement present in that case as
follows :
“Negotiations do not of necessity always presuppose a more or less
lengthy series of notes and despatches ; it may suffice that a discussion
should have been commenced, and this discussion may have been very
short ; this will be the case if a dead lock is reached, or if finally a
point is reached at which one of the Parties definitely declares himself
unable, or refuses, to give way, and there can therefore be no doubt
that the dispute cannot be settled by diplomatic negotiation.” (Mavrommatis
Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 2, p. 13.)
64. The Court’s conclusion in paragraph 100, however, that “[n]o evidence”
indicates that “the Parties had contemplated, or were in a position,
to hold negotiations to the settle the dispute” (Judgment, para. 100)
is not only not supported by the evidence, it is contradicted by the evidence.
65. The Court at the outset of its reasoning observes that “through
96 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
97
various communications between the Heads of State of the two countries
since the delivery of the 2012 Judgment, each Party had indicated that it
was open to dialogue to address some issues raised by Colombia as a
result of the Judgment” (Judgment, para. 97). This statement is a correct
reflection of the evidence.
66. The Court also observes that
“[t]he issues that the Parties identified for possible dialogue include
[1] fishing activities of the inhabitants of San Andrés, Providencia and
Santa Catalina in waters that have been recognized as appertaining
to Nicaragua by the Court, [2] the protection of the Seaflower Biosphere
Marine Reserve, and [3] the fight against drug trafficking in
the Caribbean Sea” (ibid.).
This statement is also a correct reflection of the evidence.
67. As an initial matter therefore, the Court’s statement that there is
“[n]o evidence” to indicate that the Parties contemplated negotiation is
inconsistent with the record.
68. The Court’s holding, however, is more subtly worded, focusing as
it does on there being no evidence that the Parties contemplated negotiations
“to settle the dispute” (ibid., para. 100 ; emphasis added).
69. Examined more closely, the Court’s reasoning relies upon its view
that, although the Parties expressed a willingness to discuss substantive
issues, they had each imposed certain preconditions to any such negotiations
that were so diametrically opposed that the Parties did not contemplate,
or were not in a position to negotiate, a settlement. The Court
constructs these preconditions in paragraph 98 of the Judgment.
70. Regarding Nicaragua’s asserted preconditions, the Court in paragraph
98 appears to refer to its own characterization of what it has held
to be Nicaragua’s dispute. The Court writes “for Nicaragua, such negotiations
had to be restricted to the modalities or mechanisms for the
implementation of the [2012] Judgment”. It does not rely on any statement
of Nicaragua. Indeed, it offers no citation to any piece of evidence.
71. Regarding Colombia’s asserted preconditions, the Court in paragraph
98 states that Colombia did not “define” the subject‑matter of the
negotiations in the same way. In doing so, it quotes the interview with the
Colombian Minister for Foreign Affairs María A. Holguín on 15 September
2013 that is reproduced in full at paragraph 56 above. The Court at
paragraph 98 uses the Minister’s statement that Colombia is open to a
dialogue with Nicaragua to “sign a treaty that establishes the boundaries”
to make its point that while the two nations may have been open to dialogue
they held quite different views about the content of such dialogue
that made the prospects for settlement extremely unlikely.
72. The Court’s juxtaposition of negotiating objectives is unfounded
both in the record and in law.
— First, the Court repeatedly, and with good reason, in the Judgment
elsewhere refers to the importance of examining substance and not
97 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
98
form. Yet in this holding its reasoning rests on formalities of negotiation
rather than their substance. As described above, the Parties
repeatedly indicated they were open to discuss many areas of substance
with fishing rights being a particularly significant one. Settlement
of any of the substantive areas may have resolved matters.
Settlement of any of the substantive areas certainly would have narrowed
matters. Preconditions (if there were any) themselves may be
simply a part of a negotiating stance and for this reason need to be
appraised carefully.
— Second, perhaps a juxtaposition of negotiating preconditions could
indicate that the chances of a negotiated settlement were remote if
there were clear statements indicating that a party was open to dialogue
only if the particular issue of concern was resolved first. But that
is not the case here. There are no such statements in the record by
Colombia (or Nicaragua) in the relevant months leading up to the filing
of the Application of Nicaragua.
— Third, and most strikingly, the record directly contradicts the Court’s
holding. It is true that the Colombian Foreign Minister’s statement
did “define” in some sense an aim of the negotiations from Colombia’s
perspective. But it did not do so in a way different from that of
Nicaragua and certainly did not do so in the way the Court suggests.
The Court quotes this statement to support the idea that Colombia
sought a treaty that would re‑establish the boundaries it had prior to
the 2012 Judgment. It is that assertion which would be incompatible
with the Court’s unsupported construction of Nicaragua’s negotiating
position in the same paragraph. But that assertion also is flatly contradicted
by the record. The Foreign Minister’s statement clearly does
not seek to re‑establish the boundaries that existed before the Judgment
but rather to establish the boundaries of the Judgment through
an implementing treaty that will satisfy the internal legal requirements
of Colombian constitutional law. She states :
“[T]he Government does not disregard the Court of The Hague’s
Judgment — in which this Tribunal recognized greater rights to Nicaragua
over those waters —, but that the country ‘is facing a legal
obstacle’ to apply it.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Colombia is open to a dialogue with Nicaragua to sign a treaty that
establishes the boundaries and a legal regime that contributes to the
security and stability in the region. The Government has said that it
awaits the decision of the Constitutional Court before initiating any
action.” (Preliminary Objections of Colombia, Annex 42, “The Minister
of Foreign Affairs Explains in Detail the Strategy vis‑à‑vis Nicaragua”,
El Tiempo, 15 September 2013, p. 349.)
98 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
99
73. Having reaffirmed the obligation to pursue negotiations under
Article II of the Pact of Bogotá, the Court finds contrary to the statements
of the Parties that there was no prospect of settlement. I dissent.
This conclusion is not supported by the evidence, and is more broadly of
concern, for the Court in so doing undermines the centrality of a duty to
negotiate both as a part of the peaceful settlement of disputes and specifically
as a part of the scheme set out by the Pact of Bogotá. It is important
to recall the insights of the PCIJ in this respect :
“The Court realizes to the full the importance of the rule laying
down that only disputes which cannot be settled by negotiation should
be brought before it. It recognizes, in fact, that before a dispute can
be made the subject of an action at law, its subject-matter
should have
been clearly defined by means of diplomatic negotiations.” (Mavrommatis
Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 2, p. 15.)
IV. Concluding Observation
74. The Court in objectively determining the subject‑matter of the disputes
before it can be called upon to make fine distinctions. In the present
case, it has distinguished very finely between a claim for non‑compliance
with a judgment of the Court and a claim for violation of the rights
granted by such judgment. This dissent makes clear that the Court is not
nearly as adept at distinguishing whether a certain piece of evidence bears
on non‑compliance with the 2012 Judgment or on a violation of sovereign
rights and maritime spaces defined in the 2012 Judgment. The ease with
which these two claims overlap and the difficulty the Court has in assessing
the evidence will likely complicate the Court’s task at the merits phase
of this case.
(Signed) David D. Caron.

Bilingual Content

74
75
DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC CARON
Disagreement with dismissal by the Court of Colombia’s second preliminary
objection — Requirement that there be a “dispute” as a general limitation to the
contentious jurisdiction of the Court — Specific requirement for a “dispute” under
the Pact of Bogotá — Meaning of “dispute” — Unprecedented character of the
present case — Contention by Colombia that there is no dispute between the Parties
resting on the allegation that no “claim” was made by Nicaragua that was
capable of being “positively opposed” by Colombia — No capacity for Court to
infer the existence of a “claim” giving rise to a dispute — To have jurisdiction,
Court must find that Nicaragua made a “claim” on those points of law or fact to
which the present proceedings relate — Evidence as to the existence of a “dispute”
— No basis for a finding that there was a dispute between the Parties as to
the subject‑matter now before the Court prior to the filing of the Application.
Disagreement with dismissal by the Court of Colombia’s third preliminary
objection — Negotiation as a condition precedent to recourse to Court — Court’s
characterization of circumstances in which negotiation may be dispensed with —
Disagreement that those circumstances pertain in the present case — Evidentiary
record does not support conclusion that settlement not possible or contemplated by
the Parties — Interrelationship between second and third preliminary objection —
Importance of negotiations to defining the subject‑matter of the dispute ultimately
brought for judicial settlement.
I. Introduction
1. I respectfully dissent in respect of the Court’s finding on Colombia’s
second and third preliminary objections inasmuch as the Court’s reasoning
departs from its own jurisprudence and is not supported by the evidence
before it. Beyond the particulars of this case, it is of great concern
that in finding that it possesses jurisdiction, the Court’s reasoning undermines
in my opinion broader concepts underlying the peaceful settlement
of disputes.
2. The Court’s Judgment addresses its jurisdiction over the claims of
Nicaragua that base the Court’s competence first and foremost on Article
XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá. It is important to recall that the full title
of that Treaty is the “American Treaty on Pacific Settlement”. The Treaty
promotes the pacific settlement of disputes by setting forth various means
of doing so. The means set forth in the treaty begins with the “general
obligation to settle disputes by pacific means” (Chapter One, Articles I
to VIII), proceeds to “procedures of good offices and mediation” (Chap-
74
75
OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC CARON
[Traduction]
Désaccord avec le rejet par la Cour de la deuxième exception préliminaire de la
Colombie — Condition de l’existence d’un « différend » constituant une restriction
générale à la compétence contentieuse de la Cour — Condition particulière de
l’existence d’un « différend » énoncée dans le pacte de Bogotá — Sens du terme
« différend » — Caractère inédit de la présente affaire — Argument de la Colombie
selon lequel l’absence de différend entre les Parties tient à l’absence de réclamation
du Nicaragua susceptible de se heurter à son « opposition manifeste » — Impossibilité
pour la Cour d’inférer l’existence d’une « réclamation » donnant naissance à un
différend — Cour tenue de conclure, pour se déclarer compétente, que le Nicaragua
a formulé une « réclamation » au sujet des points de droit ou de fait soulevés en
l’espèce — Eléments démontrant l’existence d’un « différend » — Absence d’élément
permettant de conclure à l’existence, avant le dépôt de la requête, d’un différend
entre les Parties concernant l’objet de l’affaire portée devant la Cour.
Désaccord avec le rejet par la Cour de la troisième exception préliminaire de la
Colombie — Négociations constituant une condition préalable à la saisine de la
Cour — Définition par la Cour des situations où l’abandon des négociations est
permis — Désaccord avec la Cour ayant ainsi défini la situation en l’espèce — Eléments
versés au dossier ne corroborant pas la conclusion selon laquelle un règlement
n’était ni possible ni envisagé par les Parties — Corrélation entre les deuxième
et troisième exceptions préliminaires — Importance des négociations pour
définir l’objet du différend finalement soumis au règlement judiciaire.
I. Introduction
1. Malgré tout le respect que je dois à la Cour, je suis en désaccord
avec les conclusions auxquelles elle est parvenue au sujet des deuxième et
troisième exceptions préliminaires de la Colombie, dans la mesure où elle
a suivi un raisonnement qui s’écarte de sa propre jurisprudence et qui
n’est pas étayé par les éléments de preuve dont elle disposait. Au‑delà des
particularités de l’espèce, j’estime très préoccupant que ce raisonnement,
par lequel la Cour conclut à sa compétence, sape les concepts plus généraux
qui sous‑tendent le règlement pacifique des différends.
2. Dans le présent arrêt, la Cour statue sur la question de sa compétence
pour connaître des demandes du Nicaragua, lequel fonde ladite
compétence avant tout sur l’article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá. Il convient
de rappeler que l’intitulé complet de cet instrument est « Traité américain
de règlement pacifique ». Le pacte de Bogotá vise à promouvoir le règlement
pacifique des différends et prévoit à cet effet divers moyens : pour
s’acquitter de l’« obligation générale de régler les différends par des
moyens pacifiques » (chapitre premier, art. I à VIII), les Etats parties
75 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
76
ter Two, Articles IX to XIV), sets forth a “procedure of investigation and
conciliation” (Chapter Three, Articles XV to XXX), and lastly reaches in
Chapter Four Article XXXI a “judicial procedure” of reference to this
Court, assuming that the parties have not provided instead for arbitration
(Chapter Five, Articles XXXVIII to XLIX). The Treaty is careful to
point out that the “order of the pacific procedures . . . does not signify the
parties may not have recourse to the procedure which they consider most
appropriate . . . or that any of them have preference over others except as
expressly provided” (Article III). But the phrase “except as expressly provided”
is important. The exceptions expressly provided in each means of
settlement are important and are the bedrock of my dissent to the Court’s
Judgment in respect of the second and third preliminary objections.
3. There may not be a regimented staircase of procedures in the Pact of
Bogotá, but peaceful settlement within the scheme of the Pact carefully
climbs from dialogue in which each State’s concerns are voiced to each
other, upwards to the various means by which settlement may be negotiated
and finally to the power of the Court or a tribunal to decide “disputes
of a juridical nature”. A disagreement is more than a pattern of
conduct that might imply a difference in views. As the Pact recognizes,
communication is essential because a disagreement cannot be settled
unless there is a dialogue that defines what is in dispute. Indeed, unless a
dispute in this sense “exists”, then it is difficult to envision what is to be
negotiated.
4. I dissent from the Court’s Judgment because it fundamentally weakens
this scheme, reducing the complexity of the scheme for the settlement
of disputes set out in the American Treaty on Pacific Settlement into
essentially a simple acceptance of the Court’s jurisdiction. The Judgment
in profoundly shifting the requirement that there be a dispute holds that
the Applicant to the Court need not have engaged in dialogue, and need
not have expressed its concerns to the other State. Without such dialogue,
the Parties will not have had the opportunity to define the dispute, refine
the dispute, and — one can hope — narrow or even settle the dispute. As
critically, if the Applicant need not have engaged in dialogue with the
other Party, then any duty to negotiate as a practical matter is substantially
weakened. International disputes are complex and boundary disputes
are amongst the most difficult to resolve. The law gives answers, but
not necessarily the most nuanced answers, in such complex situations. It
is essential that the Court or a tribunal possess the jurisdiction to give the
answer to a dispute when necessary or when called upon by both parties.
But it is only necessary when the dispute between two States “cannot be
settled by direct negotiations” — language in the Pact of Bogotá that the
Court’s jurisprudence holds to be a precondition to jurisdiction under the
Pact. It is regrettable that the present Judgment in its holdings regarding
the second and third preliminary objections formally reaffirms, yet sub-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 75
76
peuvent avoir recours à la « procédure des bons offices et de médiation »
(chapitre deux, art. IX à XIV), à la « procédure d’enquête et de conciliation
» (chapitre trois, art. XV à XXX) ou encore à une « procédure judiciaire
» de saisine de la Cour (chapitre quatre, art. XXXI et suiv.), à moins
qu’ils n’aient choisi l’arbitrage (chapitre cinq, art. XXXVIII à XLIX). Les
auteurs du traité ont pris soin de souligner que l’« ordre des procédures
pacifiques … ne signifie pas que les parties ne peuvent recourir à celle
qu’elles considèrent le plus appropriée … ni qu’il … existe, sauf disposition
expresse à cet égard, une préférence pour l’une d’elles » (art. III).
L’expression « sauf disposition expresse à cet égard » revêt néanmoins une
importance particulière. Les exceptions expressément prévues pour
chaque moyen de règlement sont essentielles, et ce sont elles qui motivent
mon dissentiment avec l’arrêt de la Cour en ce qui concerne les deuxième
et troisième exceptions préliminaires.
3. Les procédures de règlement pacifique prévues dans le pacte de
Bogotá, même si elles ne sont pas hiérarchisées, suivent néanmoins une
progression prudente, allant du dialogue où les Etats s’informent mutuellement
de leurs préoccupations jusqu’à la saisine de la Cour ou d’un tribunal
pour obtenir le règlement de « différends d’ordre juridique », en
passant par diverses voies de négociations. Un désaccord ne saurait se
résumer à une ligne de conduite susceptible de traduire une divergence de
vues. Ainsi qu’il est reconnu dans le pacte, la communication est essentielle,
parce qu’un désaccord ne peut être réglé sans qu’un dialogue n’ait
été préalablement engagé pour définir ce qui est en litige. En effet, à moins
qu’il n’« existe » un différend à proprement parler, il est difficile d’appréhender
ce qui doit être négocié.
4. Je ne peux souscrire à l’arrêt de la Cour parce que celui‑ci affaiblit
considérablement cette conception du règlement des différends, réduisant
le dispositif complexe prévu à cet effet dans le traité américain de règlement
pacifique à une simple acceptation de la compétence de la Cour.
Modifiant fondamentalement la condition de l’existence d’un différend, la
Cour considère dans son arrêt qu’un demandeur ne doit pas nécessairement
avoir engagé un dialogue avec l’autre Etat, ni avoir fait part à
celui‑ci de ses préoccupations. Or, faute d’un tel dialogue, les parties n’auront
pas eu la possibilité de définir le différend, de le circonscrire ou
— dans le meilleur des cas — de le ramener à des proportions moindres,
voire de le régler. Tout aussi important est le fait que, s’il n’était pas
nécessaire que le demandeur ait engagé un dialogue avec l’autre partie,
toute obligation de négocier s’en trouverait, en pratique, considérablement
amoindrie. Les différends internationaux sont complexes, et ceux
qui concernent des frontières comptent parmi les plus difficiles à résoudre.
Le droit offre des réponses, mais celles‑ci ne sont pas toujours les plus
nuancées dans des situations d’une telle complexité. Il est crucial que la
Cour, ou tout autre tribunal, ait le pouvoir d’apporter la réponse voulue
à un différend en cas de besoin ou lorsque les deux parties en font la
demande. Cependant, au regard du pacte de Bogotá, cela n’est nécessaire
que si le différend entre deux Etats « ne p[eut] être résolu au moyen de
76 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
77
stantively negates, the requirement that a dispute exists and the obligation
to pursue negotiations.
II. The Second Preliminary Objection
as to the Existence of a Dispute
1. The Requirement that a Dispute Exist
5. The Court reaffirms in its Judgment that the existence of a dispute is
a precondition to the Court’s exercise of jurisdiction over this, and indeed
any, case. The Court, however, simultaneously also departs from its own
jurisprudence on this requirement. That jurisprudence indicates the
importance of initiating an assessment of the existence of a “dispute” with
identification of both a “claim” and “positive opposition” to that claim
by the States party to the Court’s proceedings. Applying the Court’s previous
jurisprudence as to the meaning and existence of a dispute, I am
unable to see how a “dispute” as to the subject‑matter invoked by Nicaragua
in its Application existed at the requisite date. In these circumstances,
I am unable to agree with the Court’s claim to jurisdiction over
the present proceedings.
6. The requirement of a dispute between the parties is a general limitation
to the contentious jurisdiction of the Court. In the Nuclear Tests
cases, where partway through the proceedings the basis of the dispute was
found to have become moot, the Court stated: “the existence of a dispute
is the primary condition for the Court to exercise its judicial function”
(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974,
pp. 270‑271, para. 55 ; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 476, para. 58). Mootness involves the situation
where a dispute no longer exists. Ripeness asks whether a dispute exists,
that is, whether it has come into being. It is this latter situation that is at
issue in the second objection.
7. In addition to the requirement that a dispute exist as a general limitation
on the contentious jurisdiction of the Court, this limitation may
also arise from the particular instrument asserted to be the basis of the
Court’s jurisdiction. Thus, in this case, the Court’s Judgment refers also
to Article XXXI of the Pact of Bogotá, where the parties to the Pact
accept the Court’s jurisdiction in respect of “disputes of a juridical
nature . . .” (Judgment, paras. 15 and 50). The particular instrument may
place additional limitations on the jurisdiction of the Court, but these
further requirements are best viewed as additional requirements rather
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 76
77
négociations directes » — condition dont la Cour considère, dans sa jurisprudence,
qu’elle est un préalable à l’établissement de sa compétence au
titre du pacte. Il est regrettable qu’en l’espèce la Cour, dans ses conclusions
sur les deuxième et troisième exceptions préliminaires, réaffirme formellement,
et pourtant méconnaisse sur le fond, la condition de l’existence
d’un différend et l’obligation de négocier.
II. La deuxième exception préliminaire relative
à l’existence d’un différend
1. La condition de l’existence d’un différend
5. Dans son arrêt, la Cour réaffirme que l’existence d’un différend est
une condition préalable à l’exercice de sa compétence pour connaître de
la présente affaire, comme de n’importe quelle affaire d’ailleurs. Pourtant,
dans le même temps, elle s’écarte de sa propre jurisprudence en ce qui
concerne cette condition. Sa jurisprudence a montré combien il importait
d’apprécier l’existence d’un « différend » en mettant en évidence à la fois
une « réclamation » et une « opposition manifeste » à cette réclamation de
la part des parties à l’instance. Au vu de la jurisprudence de la Cour relative
au sens du mot « différend » et à l’existence d’un différend, je ne vois
pas comment l’on pourrait affirmer qu’il existait, à la date requise, un tel
« différend » concernant l’objet de la requête du Nicaragua. Dès lors, je ne
puis être d’accord avec la Cour lorsqu’elle se déclare compétente pour
connaître de la présente affaire.
6. La condition de l’existence d’un différend entre les parties constitue
une restriction générale à la compétence contentieuse de la Cour. Dans
l’affaire des Essais nucléaires, dans laquelle le fondement du différend est
devenu sans objet en cours de procédure, la Cour a rappelé que « [l]’existence
d’un différend [était] … la condition première de l’exercice de sa
fonction judiciaire » (Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 270‑271, par. 55 ; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle‑Zélande
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 476, par. 58). Il y a
défaut d’objet lorsque le différend cesse d’exister ; mais l’on peut aussi se
demander si un différend a jamais existé, c’est‑à‑dire s’il s’est suffisamment
cristallisé. C’est de ce dernier cas qu’il est question dans la deuxième
exception.
7. En plus de la condition de l’existence d’un différend qui constitue une
restriction générale à la compétence contentieuse de la Cour, une restriction
analogue peut découler de l’instrument spécifique qui est invoqué
comme base de cette compétence. Ainsi, en l’espèce, la Cour fait également
référence à l’article XXXI du pacte de Bogotá, dans lequel les parties au
pacte acceptent [sa] juridiction à l’égard des « différends d’ordre juridique…
» (arrêt, par. 15 et 50). Il se peut que l’instrument sur lequel est
fondée la compétence de la Cour impose des conditions supplémentaires,
mais il faut alors considérer celles-
ci comme visant à restreindre davantage
77 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
78
than a change in the meaning of the term “dispute” itself. Such reasoning
is implicit in the Mavrommatis case where the Permanent Court of International
Justice (PCIJ) wrote :
“Before considering whether the case of the Mavrommatis concessions
relates to the interpretation of application of the Mandate and
whether consequently its nature and subject are such as to bring it
within the jurisdiction of the Court as defined in the article quoted
above, it is essential to ascertain whether the case fulfils all the other
conditions laid down in this clause. Does the matter before the Court
constitute a dispute between the Mandatory and another Member of
the League of Nations ? Is it a dispute which cannot be settled by
negotiation?” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2,
1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11 ; emphasis in the original.)
See also Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84, para. 29
(holding that “consistency of usage suggests that there is no reason to
depart from the generally understood meaning of ‘dispute’ in the compromissory
clause contained in Article 22 of CERD”).
8. The meaning of the term “dispute” is set forth reasonably fully in
the Court’s jurisprudence. In its Judgment in 1924 in the Mavrommatis
case, the PCIJ held that: “A dispute is a disagreement on a point of law
or fact, a conflict of legal views or of interests between two persons.”
(Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 11.) This Court’s later jurisprudence concerning the
elements of a dispute adds detail and precision to the view of the PCIJ.
The Court in the South West Africa cases held :
“[I]t is not sufficient for one party to a contentious case to assert
that a dispute exists with the other party. A mere assertion is not
sufficient to prove the existence of a dispute any more than a mere
denial of the existence of the dispute proves its non‑existence. Nor is
it adequate to show that the interests of the two parties to such a case
are in conflict.” (I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 328 ; emphasis added.)
If a mere conflict of interest as suggested in Mavrommatis is not “adequate”,
the Court refined the intensity element required of the dispute by
holding repeatedly that the claim of one State must be “positively
opposed” by another (South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa ; Liberia
v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1962, p. 328 ; Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application:
2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction
and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 40, para. 90 ; Application
of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 77
78
l’exercice de cette compétence et non à donner un sens nouveau au terme
« différend ». La Cour permanente de Justice internationale (CPJI) avait
suivi implicitement ce raisonnement en l’affaire Mavrommatis :
« Avant de rechercher si l’affaire des concessions Mavrommatis
concerne l’interprétation ou l’application du Mandat et si, dès lors,
elle rentre, par sa nature et par son objet, dans la juridiction prévue
au texte reproduit ci‑dessus, il est indispensable d’examiner si elle
satisfait aux autres prévisions, à toutes les autres prévisions de ce
texte. Est‑on bien en présence d’un différend entre l’Etat mandataire
et un autre Membre de la Société des Nations ? D’un différend qui ne
soit pas susceptible d’être réglé par des négociations ? » (Concessions
Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A no 2,
p. 11 ; les italiques sont dans l’original.)
Voir aussi Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de
toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 84, par. 29
(où la Cour a dit que l’« uniformité d’usage laisse à penser qu’il n’y a pas
de raison de s’écarter du sens généralement admis du terme « différend »
dans la clause compromissoire contenue dans l’article 22 de la CIEDR »).
8. Le sens du terme « différend » est établi de manière raisonnablement
détaillée dans la jurisprudence de la Cour. Dans son arrêt de 1924 en
l’affaire Mavrommatis, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale dit
ce qui suit : « Un différend est un désaccord sur un point de droit ou de
fait, une contradiction, une opposition de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts
entre deux personnes. » (Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt
no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A no 2, p. 11.) Par sa jurisprudence ultérieure, la
Cour a développé et précisé la position de sa devancière sur les éléments
constitutifs d’un différend. Dans les affaires du Sud‑Ouest africain, elle a
ainsi conclu :
« [I]l ne suffit pas que l’une des parties à une affaire contentieuse
affirme l’existence d’un différend avec l’autre partie. La simple affirmation
ne suffit pas pour prouver l’existence d’un différend, tout
comme le simple fait que l’existence d’un différend est contestée ne
prouve pas que ce différend n’existe pas. Il n’est pas suffisant non plus
de démontrer que les intérêts des deux parties à une telle affaire sont en
conflit. » (C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 328 ; les italiques sont de moi.)
Si l’affaire Mavrommatis laisse entendre qu’un simple conflit d’intérêts
n’est pas « suffisant », la Cour a pour sa part précisé le degré nécessaire de
cristallisation du différend en affirmant, à maintes reprises, que la réclamation
d’un Etat doit se heurter à « l’opposition manifeste » de l’autre
(Sud‑Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud ; Libéria c. Afrique du
Sud), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 328 ; Activités
armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle requête : 2002) (République
démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2006, p. 40, par. 90 ; Application de la convention inter6
78 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
79
Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 84‑85, para. 30).
9. Publicists examining the Court’s jurisprudence have elaborated
upon what in practice it means to require that the claim of one State is
“positively opposed” by another. Professor J. G. Merrills writes that: “A
dispute may be defined as a specific disagreement concerning a matter of
fact, law or policy in which a claim or assertion of one party is met with
refusal, counter‑claim or denial by another.” (J. G. Merrills, International
Dispute Settlement, 2nd ed., 1993, p. 1 ; emphasis added.) The idea that
“positive opposition” entails a rejection or denial by the opposing party
is implicit in the meaning of the word “opposed”. Likewise, in a leading
Commentary on the Statute of the ICJ, Professor Christian Tomuschat
writes that a dispute presupposes opposing views: “the Court has consistently
proceeded from the assumption that an applicant must advance a
legal claim” (Christian Tomuschat, “Article 36”, Andreas Zimmermann,
Christian Tomuschat, Karin Oellers‑Frahm and Christian J. Tams (eds.),
The Statute of the International Court of Justice. A Commentary, 2nd ed.,
2012, p. 642). Thus, the claim of legal violation by one party must be
positively opposed by the other party through that party’s rejection or
denial of the claim of legal violation.
10. In a minority of cases, the applicant’s claim of legal violation was
not met with “refusal”, but rather with silence. In such instances, the
Court has been practical rather than formalistic and indicated flexibility
as to how positive opposition is to be established. In 1927, for example,
the PCIJ observed that :
“In so far as concerns the word ‘dispute’, [. . .] according to the tenor
of Article 60 of the Statute, the manifestation of the existence of the
dispute in a specific manner, as for instance by diplomatic negotiations,
is not required.” (Interpretation of Judgments Nos. 7 and 8 (Factory at
Chorzów), Judgment No. 11, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 13, p. 10.)
11. Similarly, the Court more recently in Georgia v. Russian Federation
summarizing its jurisprudence on the requirement stated :
“As the Court has recognized (for example, Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 315, para. 89),
the existence of a dispute may be inferred from the failure of a State
to respond to a claim in circumstances where a response is called for.”
(Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 84,
para. 30.)
12. The practice of the Court in inferring opposition from “the failure
of a State to respond to a claim where a response is called for” reinforces
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 78
79
nationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale
(Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 84‑85, par. 30).
9. Les publicistes qui se sont penchés sur la jurisprudence de la Cour
ont explicité ce que signifie concrètement le fait d’exiger que la réclamation
d’un Etat se heurte à « l’opposition manifeste » d’un autre. Le professeur
J. G. Merrills écrit ainsi que « tout différend peut se définir comme un
désaccord concret au sujet d’un point de fait, de droit ou de stratégie dans
le cadre duquel une réclamation ou une prétention d’une partie se heurte à
un refus, à une demande reconventionnelle ou à une contestation de la part
de l’autre » (J. G. Merrills, International Dispute Settlement, 2e éd., 1993,
p. 1 ; les italiques sont de moi). L’idée selon laquelle « l’opposition manifeste
» suppose un rejet ou une contestation de la partie adverse découle
implicitement du sens du mot « opposition ». De la même manière, dans un
commentaire bien connu du Statut de la Cour, le professeur Christian
Tomuschat souligne qu’un différend présuppose une divergence de vues :
« la Cour est toujours partie du principe qu’un demandeur devait formuler
une réclamation juridique » (Christian Tomuschat, « Article 36 », dans
Andreas Zimmermann, Christian Tomuschat, Karin Oellers‑Frahm et
Christian J. Tams (dir. publ.), The Statute of the International Court of
Justice. A Commentary, 2e éd., 2012, p. 642). Ainsi, toute réclamation pour
violation du droit formulée par une partie doit se heurter à l’opposition
manifeste de l’autre partie, exprimée par un rejet ou une contestation.
10. Il est arrivé, quoique rarement, que la réclamation du demandeur
pour violation du droit se soit heurtée non pas à un « refus », mais à un
silence. En pareil cas, la Cour est plus pragmatique que formaliste, et fait
preuve de souplesse quant à la manière dont il convient d’établir qu’il y a
opposition manifeste. En 1927, par exemple, sa devancière avait souligné
ce qui suit :
« Pour ce qui est du terme « contestation », la Cour constate que l’article
60 du Statut, d’après sa teneur, n’exige pas que l’existence de la
contestation se soit manifestée d’une certaine manière, par exemple
par des négociations diplomatiques. » (Interprétation des arrêts nos 7
et 8 (Usine de Chorzów), arrêt no 11, 1927, C.P.J.I. série A no 13, p. 10.)
11. Plus récemment, la Cour, résumant sa jurisprudence en l’affaire
Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie, a fait une constatation analogue :
« Comme la Cour l’a reconnu (voir, par exemple, Frontière terrestre
et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 315,
par. 89), l’existence d’un différend peut être déduite de l’absence de
réaction d’un Etat à une accusation dans des circonstances où une
telle réaction s’imposait. » (Exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 84, par. 30.)
12. La pratique de la Cour consistant à inférer l’opposition de « l’absence
de réaction d’un Etat à une accusation [là] où une telle réaction
79 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
80
the conclusion that “positive opposition” generally requires a rejection or
denial by the other party. If this were not necessary, then the inference
made in the several cases of silence would not have been needed. In the
Hostages case, for example, the claim of legal violation by the Applicant,
the United States, was met with silence from the Respondent, Iran. The
Court in evaluating whether a dispute existed did not merely indicate that
the two Parties possessed different views or a conflict of interests. Rather,
the Court sifted through the statements of the United States so as to justify
the necessary inference that Iran, despite its silence, positively opposed
the claim of the United States (United States Diplomatic and Consular
Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1980, p. 25, para. 47).
13. The requirement that a dispute exist may thus be met where:
(1) there is a claim of legal violation by a State and such a claim is positively
opposed, that is, rejected, by another State ; or (2) there is a claim
of legal violation by a State where positive opposition may be inferred
from the failure of another State to reply to the first State’s claim of legal
violation where such a response is called for.
2. The Unprecedented Character of the Present Case
14. To the best of my knowledge, the way in which the requirement as
to the existence of a dispute arises in this case is unprecedented in the
Court’s history. In all of the cases cited in the Court’s Judgment and in
this opinion, the case involved a situation where the applicant State has
stated clearly its claim of legal violation to the respondent State prior to
the date of its Application. The issue in those cases was primarily whether
the respondent State positively opposed, that is, rejected, the claim of
legal violation by the applicant State.
15. For example : the claims of Greece, and as a secondary matter its
national, were formal and unequivocal in the Mavrommatis case. Similarly,
in the Hostages case, the claim of legal violation by the United
States was abundantly clear through its despatch of a special emissary,
the views expressed by its chargé d’affaires in Tehran, and its representations
before the United Nations Security Council (ibid., p. 25, para. 47).
16. In Georgia v. Russian Federation, the Court was confronted with
the question of whether the particular requirement for the existence of a
dispute under Article 22 of the 1965 International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (“CERD”) was met
(“[A]ny dispute between two or more States parties with respect to the
interpretation or application of this Convention”). The issue in that case
was not whether Georgia had made a claim of legal violation at all but
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 79
80
s’impos[e] » confirme la conclusion selon laquelle « l’opposition manifeste
» suppose en général rejet ou contestation de la partie adverse. Si tel
n’était pas le cas, alors il n’aurait pas été nécessaire, bien souvent, de voir
une opposition dans le silence de l’Etat en cause. Dans l’affaire dite des
Otages, par exemple, la réclamation pour violation du droit formulée par
le demandeur, les Etats‑Unis, s’était heurtée au silence du défendeur,
l’Iran. La Cour, pour déterminer s’il existait un différend, ne s’est pas
bornée à constater que les deux parties avaient des points de vue divergents,
ou un conflit d’intérêts ; elle a passé au crible les déclarations des
Etats‑Unis afin de fonder l’inéluctable conclusion selon laquelle l’Iran,
malgré son silence, s’opposait de manière manifeste à la réclamation
des Etats‑Unis (Personnel diplomatique et consulaire des Etats‑Unis à
Téhéran (Etats‑Unis d’Amérique c. Iran), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1980, p. 25,
par. 47).
13. La condition de l’existence d’un différend peut donc être remplie si :
1) un Etat a formulé une réclamation pour violation du droit et cette
réclamation se heurte à l’opposition manifeste de l’autre Etat, c’est‑à‑dire
que celui‑ci la conteste ; ou 2) un Etat a formulé une réclamation pour
violation du droit et l’opposition manifeste de l’autre Etat peut être inférée
de l’absence de réaction de celui‑ci alors que pareille réaction
s’imposait.
2. Le caractère inédit de la présente affaire
14. A ma connaissance, jamais dans l’histoire de la Cour la question de
l’existence préalable du différend ne s’était posée de cette façon. Dans
toutes les affaires auxquelles l’arrêt de la Cour et la présente opinion font
référence, l’Etat demandeur avait clairement fait part d’une violation du
droit à l’Etat défendeur avant d’introduire sa requête. Dans ces affaires,
la question était essentiellement de savoir si l’Etat défendeur avait exprimé
une opposition manifeste à l’égard de la réclamation pour violation du
droit formulée par l’Etat demandeur, c’est‑à‑dire s’il l’avait rejetée.
15. Par exemple, en l’affaire Mavrommatis, les réclamations de la Grèce
et, dans une moindre mesure, de son ressortissant avaient été faites sous
une forme officielle et sans équivoque. De même, dans l’affaire dite des
Otages, les Etats‑Unis avaient fait connaître leur réclamation pour violation
du droit de manière parfaitement claire, par l’envoi d’un représentant
spécial, par l’intervention de leur chargé d’affaires à Téhéran et par leurs
protestations devant le Conseil de sécurité de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies (ibid., p. 25, par. 47).
16. Dans l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie, la Cour devait se
poser la question de savoir si la condition particulière de l’existence d’un
différend au sens de l’article 22 de la convention internationale de 1965
sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale était remplie
(« Tout différend entre deux ou plusieurs Etats parties touchant l’interprétation
ou l’application de la présente Convention »). La question
était non pas de savoir si la Géorgie avait formulé une quelconque récla-
80 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
81
precisely when in a long series of statements or letters it could be said that
such a claim was made to the Russian Federation “with respect to the
interpretation or application” of CERD. The Court had no difficulty in
ultimately finding that statements by the Georgian President in a Press
Conference held on 9 August 2008, the statement of the Georgian Representative
to the United Nations Security Council on 10 August 2008, a
published statement of the Georgian Foreign Minister on 11 August
2008, and a televised interview with the Georgian President on 11 August
2008 “expressly referred to alleged ethnic cleansing by Russian Forces”.
On that basis, the Court concluded that those actions constituted “claims
[that] were made against the Russian Federation” (Application of the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(Georgia v. Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 120, para. 113).
17. In the present proceeding, Colombia’s second preliminary objection
does not reach the point of arguing that it did not positively oppose
a claim of Nicaragua. Colombia’s second preliminary objection argues a
more fundamental point, namely, that Nicaragua never made a claim
which Colombia could oppose.
18. This difference is significant. However, it is a difference not
addressed by the Judgment. It is appropriate for the Court to infer positive
opposition to a claim. It is not in my view appropriate to infer the
assertion of the claim. First, such an inference eviscerates the requirement
that there be a dispute. Second, what does it mean for the requirement
that the respondent positively oppose a claim when the claim is not clear,
not to mention not explicit ? An inferred claim is not a claim. It is not
asking much of the applicant that they have formulated and communicated
in some fashion a claim. Third, to infer the claim itself leaves both
vague and unclear what the dispute is about. I agree that it is for the
Court to objectively determine what is in dispute and that it may thus
itself add clarity. For such an objective determination to be based upon
an assessment of the protests made, letters exchanged and later pleadings
is one thing. It is quite another matter for a court, however, to objectively
determine the existence of the dispute not from the articulation of a claim
by the applicant and response by (including unjustified silence of) the
respondent, but rather to infer it from the overall context in which the
parties co-exist. Such an attempt at objective determination is, in my
opinion, fraught with potential pitfalls for the parties and the Court and
could easily shade into an abuse of discretion. The dangers are evident in
the Court’s Judgment in this case.
19. The Court’s Judgment does not address the unprecedented character
of the present case. The Court reiterates at paragraph 50 of its Judgment
that it “must be shown that the claim of one party is positively
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 80
81
mation pour violation du droit, mais de savoir précisément quand, dans
une longue série de déclarations ou lettres, l’on pouvait dire que pareille
réclamation avait été exprimée à l’encontre de la Fédération de Russie au
sujet de « l’interprétation ou l’application » de la convention. La Cour n’a
eu aucune difficulté à constater, en fin de compte, que les déclarations
faites par le président géorgien lors d’une conférence de presse le
9 août 2008, la déclaration du représentant de la Géorgie au Conseil de
sécurité de l’Organisation des Nations Unies le 10 août 2008, le communiqué
publié par le ministre géorgien des affaires étrangères le 11 août 2008
et une interview télévisée du président géorgien le même jour « se référaient
… expressément à un prétendu nettoyage ethnique perpétré par les
forces russes ». Elle en a conclu que ces interventions exprimaient des
« griefs visa[nt] … la Fédération de Russie » (Application de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale
(Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 120, par. 113).
17. En l’espèce, par sa deuxième exception préliminaire, la Colombie ne
soulevait même pas la question de savoir s’il y avait eu opposition manifeste
à une quelconque réclamation du Nicaragua. Elle avançait un argument
bien plus fondamental, à savoir que le Nicaragua n’avait jamais formulé de
réclamation susceptible de se heurter à une opposition de sa part.
18. Il s’agit là d’une différence notable, qui n’est pourtant pas traitée
dans l’arrêt. La Cour est fondée à inférer qu’il y a opposition manifeste
à une réclamation ; mais, selon moi, elle ne saurait inférer qu’une réclamation
a été formulée. Premièrement, une telle inférence vide de sa substance
la condition relative à l’existence d’un différend. Deuxièmement,
qu’advient‑il de la condition de l’opposition manifeste du défendeur à une
réclamation si celle‑ci n’est pas claire, voire seulement implicite ? Une
réclamation qui ne serait qu’inférée n’est pas une réclamation. Il n’est pas
exagéré d’attendre du demandeur qu’il fasse connaître son grief d’une
manière ou d’une autre. Troisièmement, même si l’on infère l’existence de
la réclamation en soi, l’objet du différend demeure vague et imprécis. Je
reconnais qu’il appartient à la Cour de déterminer, de manière objective,
ce qui constitue l’objet du différend, et qu’elle peut donc apporter
elle‑même un éclairage. Mais si procéder à pareille détermination objective
par une analyse des protestations émises, des lettres échangées et des
arguments avancés ultérieurement est une chose, cela en est une autre que
de déterminer objectivement l’existence d’un différend non pas sur la base
d’une réclamation formulée par le demandeur et de la réponse exprimée
par le défendeur (y compris sous la forme d’un silence injustifié), mais en
l’inférant du contexte général dans lequel évoluent les parties. Procéder de
cette manière pour tenter une détermination objective est, à mon avis, très
risqué, pour les parties comme pour la Cour, et pourrait aisément se
transformer en abus de pouvoir. En l’espèce, les dangers sont évidents.
19. Dans son arrêt, la Cour ne s’arrête pas sur le caractère inédit de la
présente instance. Au paragraphe 50, elle rappelle qu’« [i]l doit avoir été
établi « que la réclamation de l’une des parties se heurte à l’opposition
81 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
82
opposed by the other”, citing the South West Africa cases. The Court’s
Judgment, however, immediately adds a statement to the above quoted
text, that for the circumstances of this case, profoundly changes the applicable
law and masks the significant departure from its jurisprudence that
follows. The Court states that it “does not matter which one of them [i.e.,
the parties] advances a claim and which one opposes it”. Whether this
statement is correct depends upon the situation presented. It is starkly
incorrect for the situation presented in this case.
20. The overwhelming majority of contentious cases have involved disputes
where there has been a significant exchange of diplomatic protests
and letters between the parties concerning the subject of the dispute
before the Court. Even within those cases where a preliminary objection
is raised as to whether a dispute exists, that preliminary objection can
nevertheless be assessed against a factual background comprised of such
statements and protests. To the extent that the assertion in paragraph 50
refers to the situations just described, then I agree that it does not matter
in determining whether a dispute came into existence whether it is the
party who ultimately is applicant or respondent that initiated the exchange
of diplomatic protests and letters. All that matters is that the factual
record evidences that one party positively opposed the claim of the other.
But — critically — that is far from the situation presented in this case.
21. In particular, where one side has not positively opposed the claims
of the other but rather remained silent, it is the applicant who bears the
onus of demonstrating that that silence should nevertheless be taken as
an opposition to those claims. In cases involving such silence, it is always,
then, the applicant which will have made the requisite “claim” capable of
giving rise to a “dispute”. That is the situation presented by this case.
22. Before reviewing the outcome of the assessments by the Court of
the existence of the disputes that are the basis of Nicaragua’s claims, I
emphasize that Nicaragua does not dispute directly Colombia’s assertion
that there was no claim of legal violation as such by Nicaragua, not to
mention a formal claim by Nicaragua, prior to Nicaragua filing its Application.
Rather, Nicaragua argues that it is “obvious” that there is a dispute.
Nicaragua argues in its written statement at paragraph 3.5 that “[i]t
is perfectly obvious that Colombia and Nicaragua are in disagreement on
various points of law, and have a conflict of legal views and interests”.
Nicaragua, however, does not refer to evidence of a claim of legal violation
by it in any form. Rather, Nicaragua at paragraph 3.15 of its written
statement to the preliminary objections of the Republic of Colombia
writes: “one might ask why Colombia considers that the onus was on
Nicaragua . . .”. But this is a different way of stating precisely what is
unprecedented about this case. The issue in this case is not that presented
to the Court by other cases. If this case were like the others, the issue
would be whether the Respondent — Colombia — positively opposed or
rejected the claim of Nicaragua. This case does not reach that question.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 81
82
manifeste de l’autre » », citant les affaires du Sud‑Ouest africain. Puis,
immédiatement après avoir rappelé ce critère, elle ajoute une phrase qui,
dans les circonstances de l’espèce, suppose une modification radicale du
droit applicable et occulte le fait qu’elle s’écarte ensuite de manière significative
de sa jurisprudence. Elle dit en effet ce qui suit : « Il importe peu
de savoir laquelle d’entre elles [c’est‑à‑dire les parties] est à l’origine de la
réclamation, et laquelle s’y oppose. » Selon la situation propre à l’affaire,
cela peut être exact. En l’espèce, il est très clair que tel n’est pas le cas.
20. L’écrasante majorité des procédures contentieuses concerne des différends
dans le cadre desquels un grand nombre de protestations et de
lettres diplomatiques a été échangé par les parties au sujet de l’objet du
différend soumis à la Cour. Même si une exception préliminaire est soulevée
relativement à l’existence du différend, elle peut être examinée dans le
contexte factuel que constituent ces déclarations et protestations. Pour
autant que l’exigence énoncée au paragraphe 50 fasse référence aux
affaires dans lesquelles se présente pareille situation, je suis d’accord pour
dire qu’il importe peu, pour rechercher si un différend s’est fait jour, de
savoir si, en définitive, c’est le demandeur ou le défendeur qui était à l’origine
de l’échange de protestations et de lettres diplomatiques. Ce qui
compte, c’est que les éléments factuels du dossier établissent que la réclamation
de l’une des parties s’est heurtée à l’opposition manifeste de
l’autre. Or, et c’est là un point essentiel, c’est loin d’être le cas en l’espèce.
21. En particulier, lorsqu’une partie a gardé le silence plutôt que d’exprimer
une opposition manifeste aux réclamations de l’autre partie, c’est
à celle‑ci qu’il appartient de démontrer que ce silence doit néanmoins être
compris comme une opposition auxdites réclamations. Ainsi, dans les
affaires où l’une des parties est restée silencieuse, ce sera toujours le
demandeur qui sera à l’origine de la « réclamation » propre à faire naître
le « différend ». Telle est la situation en l’espèce.
22. Avant de me pencher sur les conclusions de la Cour quant à l’existence
des griefs qui fondent les demandes du Nicaragua, j’insiste sur le fait
que celui‑ci ne conteste pas directement l’affirmation de la Colombie selon
laquelle il ne s’est pas plaint, à proprement parler, d’une violation du droit,
et encore moins de manière officielle, avant de déposer sa requête. Le Nicaragua
s’est borné à dire qu’il était « clair » qu’il existait un différend. Au
paragraphe 3.5 de son exposé écrit sur les exceptions préliminaires de la
Colombie, il affirmait qu’ « [i]l est parfaitement clair que les deux Parties
sont en désaccord sur différents points de droit, et que leurs thèses juridiques
et intérêts s’opposent ». Mais il ne disait rien qui prouvât qu’une
réclamation pour violation du droit avait été formulée par ses représentants,
sous quelque forme que ce soit. Au contraire, au paragraphe 3.15 de
son exposé écrit, il notait que l’« on peut se demander pourquoi la Colombie
considère [que la responsabilité en] incombait au Nicaragua… ». Mais cela
n’est qu’une autre manière de dire précisément ce que cette affaire a d’inédit.
La question qui se pose en l’espèce n’est pas la même que dans d’autres
affaires. Si la présente instance était semblable aux autres, la question à
trancher serait celle de savoir si le défendeur — la Colombie — a fait part
82 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
83
The question in this case is whether the Applicant, having been bound by
Article 40 (1) of the Statute and Article 38 (2) of the Rules of Court to
state the “subject of the dispute” in its Application, ever communicated
the related claim of legal violation in any form so that it might be positively
opposed by the Respondent, thus establishing the existence of a
dispute.
23. In light of the above, it is my view that a dispute cannot be taken
to have arisen between the Parties unless Nicaragua made a “claim” capable
of rejection by Colombia and communicated it to Colombia in some
way. That is, Nicaragua must have — prior to filing its Application —
asserted against Colombia its views on those points of law or fact forming
the subject of the claims now before the Court.
3. What the Court Holds
24. The Judgment of the Court begins correctly by asking what are the
disputes that Nicaragua asserts are the subject of the proceeding ; recognizing
that it is for the Court to objectively assess and specifically articulate
the subject‑matter of the dispute. Looking to the Application and
Memorial of Nicaragua, the Court identifies two claims, each of which
rests on a distinct dispute. In the Application, the “Subject of the Dispute”
is described as first, “violations of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and
maritime zones declared by the Court’s Judgment of 19 November 2012”
and second, “the threat of the use of force by Colombia in order to implement
these violations” (Application of Nicaragua, p. 2, para. 2). The submissions
in the Memorial of Nicaragua confirm that these two claims are
the subject of this proceeding. Having identified two claims, the Judgment
of the Court proceeds to assess whether a dispute existed with respect to
either or both of them at the time of the Application.
25. As to whether a dispute existed as to the sovereign rights and maritime
zones of Nicaragua, the Court at paragraphs 69 to 74 concludes
that a dispute as to Nicaragua’s rights in the relevant maritime zones
existed at the time of the Application. In reaching this conclusion, the
Court’s Judgment refers to two specific items of evidence. What is striking
and deserving of emphasis at this point is the contrast with Georgia v.
Russian Federation where the Court — in seeking to identify at what
point in time it could be said that a claim had been made by Georgia
which the Russian Federation could have positively opposed — the Court
reviewed over 50 specific items of evidence, comprising letters, statements,
decrees and filings by the Applicant, Georgia.
26. As to whether a dispute existed as to the threat of the use of force,
the Court at paragraphs 75 to 78 concludes that a dispute did not exist.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 82
83
de son opposition manifeste à la réclamation du Nicaragua ou a rejeté
celle‑ci. Or, cette question ne se pose pas ; ce qu’il faut déterminer ici, c’est
si le demandeur, tenu aux termes du paragraphe 1 de l’article 40 du Statut
et du paragraphe 2 de l’article 38 du Règlement de la Cour de définir
l’« objet du différend » dans sa requête, a jamais formulé, sous quelque forme
que ce soit, la moindre réclamation pour violation du droit en lien avec le
différend, de sorte que ladite réclamation ait pu se heurter à l’opposition
manifeste du défendeur, établissant par là même l’existence du différend.
23. Compte tenu de ce qui précède, on ne saurait considérer, me
semble‑t‑il, qu’un différend s’était fait jour entre les Parties si le Nicaragua
n’avait pas formulé de « réclamation » susceptible d’être rejetée par la
Colombie, et n’avait pas fait part à celle‑ci de cette réclamation, sous
quelque forme que ce soit. Autrement dit, le Nicaragua devait, avant le
dépôt de sa requête, avoir communiqué à la Colombie ses vues sur les
points de droit ou de fait constituant l’objet des réclamations qu’il a
ensuite portées devant la Cour.
3. Les conclusions de la Cour
24. Dans son arrêt, la Cour commence, à juste titre, par se demander
quels sont les griefs qui constituent selon le Nicaragua l’objet de l’instance
; elle reconnaît ainsi que c’est à elle qu’il appartient d’évaluer objectivement
et d’énoncer précisément l’objet du différend. Examinant la
requête et le mémoire du Nicaragua, la Cour recense deux demandes,
dont chacune repose sur un grief distinct. Dans la requête, l’« objet du
différend » est décrit, premièrement, comme des « violations des droits
souverains et des espaces maritimes du Nicaragua reconnus à celui‑ci par
la Cour dans son arrêt du 19 novembre 2012 » et, deuxièmement, comme
« la menace de la Colombie de recourir à la force pour commettre ces
violations » (requête du Nicaragua, p. 3, par. 2). Les conclusions formulées
dans le mémoire du Nicaragua confirment que ces deux griefs constituent
l’objet de la présente instance. Une fois ces deux griefs mis en
évidence, la Cour examine le point de savoir s’il existait un différend au
sujet de l’un ou l’autre, ou des deux, au moment du dépôt de la requête.
25. S’agissant du premier grief, la Cour conclut, aux paragraphes 69
à 74, qu’il existait bien un différend portant sur les droits du Nicaragua
dans les espaces maritimes en question au moment du dépôt de la requête.
Pour parvenir à cette conclusion, elle se réfère à deux éléments de preuve
en particulier. Ce qui est frappant, et mérite d’être souligné à ce stade,
c’est le contraste avec l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie, dans
laquelle la Cour, cherchant à déterminer à quel moment il pouvait être dit
que la Géorgie avait formulé une réclamation susceptible de se heurter à
l’opposition manifeste de la Fédération de Russie, avait examiné plus de
50 éléments distincts, notamment des lettres, des déclarations, des décrets
et d’autres documents déposés par le demandeur, la Géorgie.
26. S’agissant du point de savoir s’il existait un différend portant sur la
menace de recours à la force, la Cour conclut, aux paragraphes 75 à 78,
83 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
84
The Court does not state that a dispute did not exist because Nicaragua
failed to claim, protest or object to a threat of the use of force by Colombia.
It could have done so because there is no such claim, protest or threat
in the record. But it does not. Rather, the Judgment refers to two pieces
of evidence in which representatives of the Nicaraguan Government
described the situation at sea as calm.
27. The above holdings that one dispute existed while the other did not
are both flawed. Before laying out this critique, this dissent first must do
what the Court does not do ; that is, engage fully with the evidence.
4. Assessing the Evidentiary Record
28. In assessing the evidence in this case, it is important at the outset
to point out what is not included. There is no diplomatic letter of protest
prior to the lodgment of Nicaragua’s Application. Although both sides
acknowledge there were meetings of the two Heads of State, there are no
minutes of those meetings nor are there any witness statements as to what
transpired at those meetings. Given that the requirement that a dispute
exists necessarily examines the claim of the applicant and the rejection or
denial of the respondent, it is particularly curious and telling that the
evidentiary record contains only a very limited number of statements
from Nicaraguan officials. In fact, there are only a handful of such statements
cited by the Parties. Moreover, the bulk of those derive from contemporaneous
press reporting. The Court therefore is not presented here
with the possibility it had in Georgia v. Russian Federation of limiting its
search for a “claim” by the Applicant to statements made by that State in
“official documents and statements” (Application of the International Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia
v. Russia Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2011 (I), p. 86, para. 33). Indeed, only a small number of documents in
the present proceedings have been proffered as a possible source of any
such “claim”.
29. In addition, it is important to observe that, temporally, the statements
made by Nicaraguan officials prior to the filing of the Application
fall into two sets : a first set covers the three months immediately following
the issuance of the Court’s November 2012 Judgment ; and a second
set commences six months later and spans less than two months in the
period leading up to the filing of Nicaragua’s Application in these proceedings.
In the following paragraphs, I assess whether any of the statements
disclose a “claim” which Colombia could “positively oppose” such
as to give rise to a “dispute” between the Parties. I furthermore assess
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 83
84
que tel n’est pas le cas. Elle ne dit pas qu’il n’existait pas de différend
parce que le Nicaragua n’avait formulé aucune réclamation,
protestation
ou objection relativement au recours à la force dont l’aurait
menacé la Colombie ; elle pouvait pourtant le faire, étant donné qu’il n’y
a trace dans le dossier d’aucune réclamation, protestation ou menace ;
mais elle ne le fait pas. Au lieu de cela, elle renvoie à deux éléments qui
prouvent que, pour les représentants du Nicaragua, le calme régnait
en mer.
27. Les conclusions qui précèdent, selon lesquelles il existait un différend
sur un point mais pas sur l’autre, sont à mon sens erronées. Avant
d’expliquer les raisons de mon dissentiment, il me faut commencer par
faire ce que la Cour n’a pas fait, à savoir examiner les éléments de preuve
de manière approfondie.
4. L’examen des éléments de preuve
28. Avant d’examiner l’ensemble des éléments de preuve produits en
l’espèce, il importe de relever ce qui n’y figure pas : il n’y a aucune lettre
de protestation diplomatique antérieure au dépôt de la requête du Nicaragua.
Bien que les deux pays aient reconnu que leurs chefs d’Etat respectifs
s’étaient réunis à plusieurs reprises, il n’y a aucun procès‑verbal de ces
réunions, ni de témoignages des personnes y ayant assisté. Etant donné
que, pour déterminer si la condition de l’existence d’un différend est remplie,
il est nécessaire d’examiner la réclamation du demandeur et le rejet
ou la contestation du défendeur, il est particulièrement étonnant et révélateur
que les éléments versés au dossier n’incluent qu’un nombre très
limité de déclarations de responsables nicaraguayens. En réalité, seules
quelques déclarations de ce type ont été invoquées par les Parties. En
outre, la plupart d’entre elles proviennent d’articles de presse publiés à
l’époque. La Cour n’a donc pas eu la possibilité, comme dans l’affaire
Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie, de se borner à rechercher une « réclamation
» contenue dans des déclarations du demandeur parmi des « documents
et déclarations qui revêtent un caractère officiel » (Application de la
convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination
raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 86, par. 33). En l’espèce, seul un petit
nombre de documents susceptibles d’exprimer pareille « réclamation » a
été présenté.
29. Il importe de souligner également que les déclarations faites par des
responsables nicaraguayens avant le dépôt de la requête du Nicaragua se
divisent, du point de vue chronologique, en deux catégories : la première
comprend les trois mois qui ont immédiatement suivi le prononcé de l’arrêt
de la Cour en novembre 2012 ; et la seconde débute six mois plus tard
pour prendre fin moins de deux mois avant le dépôt de la requête. Dans
les paragraphes qui suivent, j’examinerai le point de savoir si l’une quelconque
de ces déclarations contenait une « réclamation » susceptible de se
heurter à l’« opposition manifeste » de la Colombie, de manière à engen-
84 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
85
whether any such “claim” related to the subject of the claims now before
the Court.
30. On 21 November 2012, press reporting disclosed that President
Ortega had welcomed the 2012 Judgment as a “national victory”,
the reporting further indicating that President Ortega had “urged the
South American nation to respect the high court’s decision” (Memorial of
Nicaragua, Annex 26, “International court gives Nicaragua more waters,
outlying keys to Colombia”, Dialogo, 21 November 2012, pp. 355‑356). I
am unable to see in these statements any “claim” against Colombia of a
breach of its obligations, let alone a “claim” with respect to a breach of
those rights now invoked by Nicaragua in these proceedings.
31. On 26 November 2012, President Ortega made an address to “the
people of Nicaragua” (Memorial of Nicaragua, Annex 27, “Message
from President Daniel [Ortega] to the people of Nicaragua”, El 19 Digital,
26 November 2012, pp. 359‑362). In that address, the President
referred again to the 2012 Judgment to note “our concerns for the manner
in which [the President of Colombia] was reacting by rejecting the
ruling of the Court”, further noting that
“[d]uring the days following the ruling, President Santos toughened
his position by adding to his words, the mandate to the naval forces
of the Colombian armada to multiply their surveillance activities in
territories awarded by the International Court of Justice as maritime
territories to Nicaragua” (ibid., p. 359).
In that address, President Ortega went on to note that in response to
these words and acts “the Government of Nicaragua reacted very calmly”
and was “waiting and expect[s] the Government of Colombia to decide,
once and for all, to comply with the ruling of the Court”. He went on
to refer to Nicaragua’s desire to establish “new Conventions with Colombia
to combat drug trafficking and organized crime” and on “matters of
fisheries”.
32. Again, there is no claim in these statements concerning any threat
of the use of force by Colombia. There is, furthermore, no claim in respect
of a breach by Colombia of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime
spaces. At most, the statements made by President Ortega in this address
could constitute a claim in respect of Colombia’s implementation of the
2012 Judgment. As Nicaragua itself attests, however, the dispute it
invokes before the Court in the present proceedings “is not ‘a difference
of opinion or views between the parties as to the meaning or scope of a
judgment rendered by the Court’” (Memorial of Nicaragua, p. 17,
para. 1.33).
33. On 29 November 2012, President Ortega reportedly indicated — in
the lead‑up to a meeting between the two Presidents in Mexico — that he
wished to “shake hands with President Santos and say that I and the peo-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 84
85
drer un « différend » entre les Parties. Je rechercherai également si une
telle « réclamation », à supposer qu’elle existe, avait trait à l’objet des
demandes à présent soumises à la Cour.
30. Le 21 novembre 2012, un article de presse révélait que le président
Ortega avait qualifié l’arrêt de 2012 de « victoire nationale », et exhorté
son voisin sud‑américain « à respecter la décision de la Cour » (mémoire
du Nicaragua, annexe 26, « La Cour internationale attribue davantage
d’espaces maritimes au Nicaragua et les cayes les plus éloignées, à la
Colombie », Diálogo, 21 novembre 2012, p. 355‑356). Je ne discerne dans
ces déclarations aucune « réclamation » par laquelle il serait reproché à la
Colombie de manquer aux obligations lui incombant, et encore moins de
« réclamation » par laquelle il lui serait reproché de violer les droits que le
Nicaragua invoque maintenant en la présente instance.
31. Le 26 novembre 2012, le président Ortega a adressé un discours au
« peuple nicaraguayen » (mémoire du Nicaragua, annexe 27, « Message
adressé par le président Daniel [Ortega] au peuple nicaraguayen »,
El 19 Digital, 26 novembre 2012, p. 359-362), dans lequel il mentionnait
de nouveau l’arrêt de 2012, faisant état de « [ses] inquiétudes quant à la
manière dont [le président colombien] a[vait] réagi en rejetant la décision
de la Cour », ajoutant que,
« [d]urant les jours qui ont suivi cette décision, le président Santos a
durci sa position en ajoutant à ses propos que les forces navales de
l’Armada colombienne avaient pour mission de multiplier leurs activités
de surveillance dans les territoires maritimes accordés par la
Cour internationale de Justice au Nicaragua » (ibid., p. 359).
Le président Ortega poursuivait son discours en relevant que, en réponse
à ces propos et actes, « le Gouvernement du Nicaragua a[vait] réagi très
posément », et qu’il a[vait] « attendu, et escompt[é], que le Gouvernement
colombien décide une fois pour toutes de se conformer à la décision de la
Cour internationale de Justice ». Il ajoutait que la volonté du Nicaragua
était d’établir de « nouvelles conventions avec la Colombie afin de combattre
le trafic de drogue et le crime organisé », et évoquait les questions
liées à la pêche.
32. Dans ces déclarations non plus, aucune accusation n’est formulée
concernant une quelconque menace de recours à la force qu’aurait proférée
la Colombie. Qui plus est, aucune accusation n’est formulée concernant une
quelconque violation, par la Colombie, des droits souverains ou des espaces
maritimes du Nicaragua. Tout au plus, les propos tenus par le président
Ortega pourraient‑ils constituer une réclamation relative à l’exécution,
par la Colombie, de l’arrêt de 2012 ; mais le Nicaragua reconnaît lui‑même
que le différend qu’il invoque devant la Cour « ne concerne pas une « divergence
d’opinions ou de vues entre les parties quant au sens et à la portée
d’un arrêt rendu par la Cour » » (mémoire du Nicaragua, p. 17, par. 1.33).
33. Le 29 novembre 2012, le président Ortega aurait indiqué, peu avant
une rencontre avec son homologue à Mexico, qu’il souhaitait « tendre la
main au président Santos et lui dire que la population nicaraguayenne et
85 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
86
ple of Nicaragua want to fix this situation as fraternally as brothers”
(Memorial of Nicaragua, Annex 31, “Santos and Ortega will meet this
Saturday in Mexico City”, La República, 29 November 2012). There is no
official record of the exchanges between the Presidents at the meeting on
1 December 2012. Colombia cites a press statement of President Santos
that discloses some of what was discussed at that meeting, indicating that
President Santos had stated that :
“We — the Minister of Foreign Affairs and I — gathered with
President Ortega. We explained in the clearest way our position : we
want the Colombian rights, those of the raizales, not only with respect
to the rights of the artisanal fishermen but other rights, to be re‑established
and guaranteed. He [President Ortega] understood.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
We will keep looking for the mechanism that both the International
Court of The Hague and the international diplomacy have at their
disposal to re‑establish the rights infringed by the Judgment. That
does not exclude these channels of communication with Nicaragua. I
believe that those channels of communication are an important complement.
In this sense we will continue — and we said this clearly to President
Ortega — looking for the re-establishment
of the rights that this
Judgment breached in a grave matter for the Colombians.” (Preliminary
Objections of the Republic of Colombia, Annex 9, “Declaration
of the President of the Republic of Colombia”, 1 December 2012,
pp. 109‑110.)
34. A separate press report dated 3 December 2012 reports that President
Santos, after the meeting :
“announced that as a result of this meeting with the Nicaraguan President,
the two Governments will manage the matter of the ruling by
the Court in The Hague with forethought and discretion. ‘We are
going to manage this with prudence, with discretion, no insults by the
news media. If there is a problem, we will call each other’, he stated.”
(Written Statement of the Republic of Nicaragua to the Preliminary
Objections of the Republic of Colombia, Annex 5, “Government of
Colombia will not implement ICJ judgment until the rights of Colombians
have been restored”, El Salvador Noticias.net, 3 December 2012,
p. 103.)
35. Nicaragua observes that by this meeting it sought to “engage in a
constructive dialogue over implementation of the 19 November Judgment”
(Memorial of Nicaragua, para. 2.7). It further surmises that the
discussions between the Presidents at the meeting indicated that “President
Santos’s position was that his country would not abide by the Judgment
until ‘we see that Colombians’ rights, that have been violated, are
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 85
86
[lui]‑même av[aient] à coeur de régler le problème en toute fraternité »
(mémoire du Nicaragua, annexe 31, « MM. Santos et Ortega se rencontreront
samedi à Mexico », La República, 29 novembre 2012). Il n’existe pas
de compte rendu officiel de la rencontre des deux présidents, qui eut lieu
le 1er décembre 2012. La Colombie se réfère à un communiqué de presse
dans lequel le président Santos révèle une partie des échanges :
« Nous — la ministre des affaires étrangères et moi‑même — nous
sommes réunis avec le président Ortega. Nous lui avons exposé notre
position dans les termes les plus clairs : nous voulons que soient rétablis
et garantis les différents droits des Colombiens, ceux des raizales,
des droits qui incluent, mais sans s’y limiter, ceux des pêcheurs pratiquant
la pêche artisanale. Il nous a entendus.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Nous allons également continuer d’explorer les mécanismes qui
sont à la disposition de la Cour internationale de La Haye et de la
diplomatie internationale pour rétablir les droits auxquels cet arrêt a
porté atteinte. Cela n’exclut pas ces voies de communication avec le
Nicaragua, qui, à mon sens, constituent un important complément.
En ce sens, nous continuerons à rechercher — et nous l’avons dit
clairement au président Ortega — le rétablissement des droits auxquels
cet arrêt a porté atteinte sur une question chère aux Colombiens
». (Exceptions préliminaires de la République de Colombie,
annexe 9, « Déclaration du président de la République de Colombie
», 1er décembre 2012, p. 109-110.)
34. D’après un autre article publié le 3 décembre 2012, M. Santos
aurait déclaré après la réunion que,
« à la suite de cette rencontre, les deux gouvernements aborderaient
la question de l’arrêt de la Cour de La Haye avec discernement et
circonspection : « Nous procéderons avec discernement et circonspection,
sans nous insulter par médias interposés. S’il y a un problème,
nous nous consulterons par téléphone. » » (Exposé écrit de la République
du Nicaragua sur les exceptions préliminaires de la République
de Colombie, annexe 5, « Le Gouvernement de la Colombie
ne mettra pas en oeuvre l’arrêt de la CIJ tant que les droits des
Colombiens n’auront pas été rétablis », El Salvador Noticias.net,
3 décembre 2012, p. 103.)
35. Le Nicaragua a souligné qu’il cherchait, par cette réunion, à « engager
un dialogue constructif sur l’exécution de l’arrêt du 19 novembre »
(mémoire du Nicaragua, par. 2.7). Selon lui, il ressort des propos échangés
à cette occasion entre les présidents que « [l]a position du président
Santos était que son pays ne se conformerait pas à l’arrêt de la Cour tant
que « les droits des Colombiens, qui [avaient] été bafoués, n’aur[aient] pas
86 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
87
re‑established and guaranteed in the future’” (CR 2015/23, p. 12, para. 9
(Arguëllo) ; Memorial of Nicaragua, para. 2.7). Nicaragua does not, however,
tender any evidence as to the position taken by the Nicaraguan
President in the meeting, beyond asserting that :
“President Ortega stated Nicaragua’s position that, while the Judgment
of the Court had to be respected by both States, there was room
for discussion in regard to the manner of its implementation, and at
all events the matter had to be resolved peacefully and without confrontation.”
(Memorial of Nicaragua, para. 2.7, citing a press report
written before the meeting: “Santos and Ortega will meet this Saturday
in Mexico City”, La República, 29 November 2012 ; ibid.,
Annex 31, p. 379.)
36. In such a circumstance, it is impossible to infer that Nicaragua
made at that meeting any “claim” capable of giving rise to a “dispute”
between the Parties. Moreover, the contemporaneous public statements
by the Presidents focus upon Colombia’s compliance with the 2012 Judgment.
Any “claim” arising out of these statements, therefore, would pertain
to a subject‑matter different to the alleged breach of Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights and maritime zones and of Colombia’s obligations in
respect to the use of force that Nicaragua invokes in these proceedings.
37. On 5 December 2012, the Chief of Nicaragua’s army, General
Avilés, confirmed that Nicaragua was in communication with the
Colombian authorities, and that “there has been no boarding to fishing
vessels” (CR 2015/22, p. 33, para. 10 (Bundy)). On the same date, President
Ortega held further discussions with President Santos. Press reporting
of that meeting indicated that :
“President Ortega also said that the Nicaraguan Navy has been
instructed to not detain any Colombian fishermen during what he
calls ‘the period of transition in the zone’.
‘We have to do this gradually until there is full compliance with the
Court’s sentence, without affecting the reserve and without affecting
the fishermen and businesses on San Andres Island’, Ortega said.”
(Memorial of Nicaragua, Annex 33, “Nicaragua : no oil concessions
in Seaflower”, Nicaragua Dispatch, 6 December 2012, p. 387.)
Again, there is no indication in any of these statements of Nicaragua
claiming a breach by Colombia of its legal obligations, let alone a breach
of its obligations in respect of the use of force or of Nicaragua’s sovereign
rights and maritime zones.
38. The two Presidents met again in February 2013. Contemporaneous
press reporting indicates that :
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 86
87
été rétablis et leur respect, garanti » » (CR 2015/23, p. 12, par. 9 (Arguëllo) ;
mémoire du Nicaragua, par. 2.7). Il n’a présenté toutefois aucun élément
qui attesterait de la position adoptée par le président nicaraguayen au
cours de la réunion, se contentant d’affirmer que
« le président Ortega a[vait] exposé la position du Nicaragua, soulignant
que, s’il était essentiel que les deux Etats respectent l’arrêt de
la Cour, les modalités de sa mise en oeuvre pouvaient encore se discuter
; quoi qu’il en fût, la question devait être réglée de manière
pacifique et sans confrontation » (mémoire du Nicaragua, par. 2.7,
citant un article de presse publié avant la rencontre : « MM. Santos et
Ortega se rencontreront samedi à Mexico », La República,
29 novembre 2012 ; ibid., annexe 31, p. 379).
36. Dès lors, il est impossible d’inférer que le Nicaragua avait, au cours
de cette réunion, formulé une quelconque « réclamation » susceptible de
donner naissance à un « différend » entre les Parties. En outre, les déclarations
publiques qu’ont faites les deux présidents à la même époque portaient
essentiellement sur le respect de l’arrêt de 2012 par la Colombie. Toute
« réclamation » qui se dégagerait de ces déclarations porterait donc sur un
objet autre que la violation alléguée des droits souverains et des espaces
maritimes du Nicaragua ou que le manquement de la Colombie à ses obligations
relatives à l’emploi de la force, que le Nicaragua invoque en l’espèce.
37. Le 5 décembre 2012, le général Avilés, commandant en chef de l’armée
nicaraguayenne, a confirmé que les autorités de son pays étaient en
contact avec leurs homologues colombiennes, et qu’« il n’y a[vait] eu
aucune tentative d’arraisonnement de bateaux de pêche » (CR 2015/22,
p. 33, par. 10 (Bundy)). Le même jour, le président Ortega s’est de nouveau
entretenu avec le président Santos. Selon un article de presse consacré
à cette réunion,
« le Président Ortega a également dit que la marine nicaraguayenne
avait reçu l’ordre de ne pas arraisonner de pêcheurs colombiens au
cours de ce qu’il a qualifié de « période de transition ».
« Nous devons procéder pas à pas, jusqu’à ce que l’arrêt de la Cour
soit pleinement respecté, sans porter atteinte à la réserve ni provoquer
d’incidence sur les pêcheurs ou les activités menées sur l’île de
San Andrés », a‑t‑il affirmé. » (Mémoire du Nicaragua, annexe 33,
« Nicaragua : pas de concessions pétrolières dans la réserve Seaflower
», Nicaragua Dispatch, 6 décembre 2012, p. 387.)
Là encore, rien dans ces déclarations n’indique que le Nicaragua ait fait
grief à la Colombie d’avoir manqué aux obligations juridiques qui lui
incombent, et encore moins que cette dernière ait manqué à ses obligations
en ce qui concerne l’emploi de la force ou les droits souverains et les
espaces maritimes du Nicaragua.
38. Les deux présidents se sont de nouveau réunis en février 2013. Un
article de presse a rapporté ce qui suit :
87 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
88
“Ortega said that it is necessary to find mechanisms for consensus
through dialogue that will enable closer relations between the
two nations instead of confronting them. ‘I propose to the Government
of Colombia, to President (Juan Manuel) Santos, that the
sooner the better, we should organize these commissions to work so
that they can demarcate all of this in regard to the area where the
Raizal peoples can fish according to their historical rights’. . . Ortega
said that the issue has been manipulated in Colombia for ‘electoral’
purposes and that ‘there are powerful interests’ in having an armed
confrontation between Nicaragua and Colombia, in the waters
granted to his country by The Hague. [‘]I am certain that President
Santos and the People of Colombia know that the solution to the
ruling by the International Court of Justice is not the use of force ; it
is not the deployment of warships in the area, but rather to follow the
path to organize the ruling of the Court, organize it in terms of its
implementation, how to organize it, how to apply it’, he stated. Ortega
said that both in Mexico, during the takeover by President Enrique
Peña Nieto, and in the recent Summit of Latin American States in
Chile, he had the opportunity to discuss the issue with the Colombian
President and that they have always spoken of taking joint measures.
He said that his country has no interest in a confrontation with anyone,
and that the only thing its coast guard boats do is ‘to enforce the
ruling by The Hague ‘very firmly and with serenity’’, always watching
‘so that the dialogue comes first’’.” (Memorial of Nicaragua,
Annex 35, “Nicaragua asks Bogotá to form The Hague Commissions”,
La Opinion, 22 February 2013, pp. 395‑396.)
This is the first statement on the record addressing the possibility of an
armed confrontation between the States. Two observations are, however,
in order. First, it is not the President who refers to such a possibility, but
the reporter. The President appears on the contrary to recognize that “the
People of Colombia know that the solution to the ruling by the International
Court of Justice is not the use of force”. Second, the President
makes no specific allegation against Colombia of a breach of Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights or maritime zones or of Colombia’s obligations in respect
of the use of force. The statements simply cannot be read as a legal
“claim” against Colombia on these matters.
39. These statements make up the first set of evidence (November 2012
to February 2013). The second group of statements occur some
five months subsequent to the first group, in the lead‑up to the filing of
Nicaragua’s Application in these proceedings (August 2013 to November
2013).
40. A number of these statements indicate Nicaragua’s continued view
that the situation at sea was calm, disclosing no “claim” that Colombia
was violating Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime zones or threat-
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 87
88
« Selon le président Ortega, il est nécessaire de trouver, par le dialogue,
des mécanismes permettant de parvenir à un consensus, grâce
auxquels nos deux nations se rapprocheront au lieu de s’affronter :
« Je propose au Gouvernement colombien et au président (Juan
Manuel) Santos de mettre en place ces commissions au plus tôt afin
qu’elles puissent procéder à la démarcation dans la zone où les Raizals
peuvent pêcher conformément à leurs droits historiques »…
Ortega soutient que la question a été instrumentalisée par la Colombie
à des fins « électorales » et que « de puissants intérêts » incitent à un
affrontement armé entre le Nicaragua et la Colombie, dans les eaux
que La Haye a attribuées à son pays. « Je suis persuadé que le président
Santos et les Colombiens savent bien que recourir à la force en
déployant des navires de guerre dans la zone concernée n’est pas la
solution face à l’arrêt de la Cour internationale de Justice ; il faut au
contraire s’organiser, organiser la mise en oeuvre de cette décision, son
application », a‑t‑il affirmé. Le président Ortega a indiqué qu’il avait
pu évoquer la question avec son homologue colombien à plusieurs
reprises, au Mexique, lors de l’investiture du président Enrique Peña
Nieto, et au cours du récent sommet des Etats latino‑américains tenu
au Chili, et qu’il avait toujours été question de prendre des mesures
conjointes. Il a affirmé que son pays n’avait aucun intérêt à rechercher
le conflit avec qui que ce soit, et que les gardes‑côtes nicaraguayens se
bornaient à « faire respecter la décision de La Haye « fermement et
calmement », en veillant à donner « la priorité au dialogue ». »
(Mémoire du Nicaragua, annexe 35, « Le Nicaragua demande à
Bogotá de constituer des commissions chargées de l’application de
l’arrêt de La Haye », La Opinión, 22 février 2013, p. 395-396.)
Cette déclaration est la première pièce versée au dossier qui évoque l’hypothèse
d’un affrontement armé entre les deux Etats. Elle appelle toutefois deux
commentaires. Premièrement, c’est non pas le président qui fait cette supposition,
mais le journaliste. Le président semble au contraire reconnaître que
« les Colombiens savent bien que recourir à la force … n’est pas la solution ».
Deuxièmement, M. Ortega ne formule à l’encontre de la Colombie aucune
accusation précise de violation des droits souverains ou des espaces maritimes
du Nicaragua, ou des obligations internationales relatives à l’emploi de
la force. Ces déclarations ne peuvent tout simplement pas être interprétées
comme une « réclamation » juridique adressée à la Colombie à cet égard.
39. De par la date à laquelle elles ont été faites (entre novembre 2012
et février 2013), ces déclarations relèvent de la première catégorie des éléments
de preuve. La deuxième catégorie de déclarations comprend celles
faites environ cinq mois après les premières, peu de temps avant le dépôt
de la requête du Nicaragua en la présente instance (soit entre août et
novembre 2013).
40. Il ressort de plusieurs de ces déclarations que le Nicaragua a toujours
considéré que le calme régnait en mer, et qu’il n’« accusait » nullement
la Colombie de violer ses droits souverains ou ses espaces maritimes
88 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
89
ening the use of force against Nicaragua. On 14 August 2013, for example,
President Ortega stated that :
“[W]e must recognize that . . . the Naval Force of Colombia, which
is very powerful, that certainly has a very large military power, has
been careful, has been respectful and there has not been any kind
of confrontation between the Colombian and Nicaraguan Navy”
(Preliminary Objections of Colombia, Annex 11, “Declaration of the
President of the Republic of Nicaragua”, 14 August 2013, p. 118).
On 18 November 2013, the Chief of Nicaragua’s naval forces, Admiral
Corrales Rodríguez, further stated that “[t]here have not been any
conflicts and that is why I want to highlight that in one year of being
there we have not had any problems with the Colombian Navy” (ibid.,
Annex 43, “Patrolling the recovered sea”, El Nuevo Diario, 18 November
2013, p. 355).
41. Other statements in this period pertain to the implementation of
the 2012 Judgment. On 23 August 2013, for example, press reporting
indicated that:
“Nicaragua . . . say[s] that the ruling is already being implemented
and that a decision by the Colombian Government not to abide by it
makes no sense. ‘The judgment of the ICJ has been in effect since
19 November 2012. What has happened is that Colombia has hired
a number of law firms to analyse the resources in the territory’, said
Mauricio Herdocia, the lawyer representing Nicaragua in this case.
‘In the end all questions will be resolved by the ICJ, and according to
the Rules of the Court, when a State is preparing an appeal the judgment
must be respected’, added Herdocia.” (Memorial of Nicaragua,
Annex 38, “World Court ruling on maritime borders unenforceable
in Colombia : Vice-President”,
Colombia Reports, 23 August 2013,
pp. 407‑408.)
42. This is not a statement stemming from the Nicaraguan Executive,
but in any case does not comprise any particular “claim” about Colombia’s
conduct capable of rejection by that State.
43. On 10 September 2013, President Ortega reportedly stated that :
‘“The call that I make to President Santos, to the Government of
Colombia, to some Central American Governors that are throwing
out declarations talking about expansionism, is that these are times in
which law, and not force, must prevail . . . Going for force would mean
to go back to the Stone Age. If we take the lawful route that would
mean the strengthening of peace, if we go for force it would mean to
feed more wars in the world, if we go for law it would make wars go
away and to promote the peace in the world’, he assured. In that sense
he reaffirmed that Nicaragua is committed to peace, just like the countries
of Latin America and the Caribbean.” (Memorial of Nicaragua,
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 88
89
ni de le menacer de recours à la force. Le 14 août 2013, par exemple, le
président Ortega déclarait ce qui suit :
« [N]ous devons reconnaître que … la marine colombienne, qui est
très puissante, qui dispose assurément d’une très grande puissance
militaire, s’est montrée prudente et respectueuse, et qu’aucune
confrontation n’a eu lieu entre les forces navales colombiennes et
nicaraguayennes. » (Exceptions préliminaires de la Colombie,
annexe 11, « Déclaration du président de la République du Nicaragua
», 14 août 2013, p. 118.)
Le 18 novembre 2013, le commandant en chef de la marine nicaraguayenne,
l’amiral Corrales Rodríguez, a également déclaré ce qui suit :
« Il n’y a pas eu le moindre conflit, et je tiens par conséquent à souligner
que, en une année de présence, nous n’avons rencontré aucun problème
avec les forces navales colombiennes. » (Ibid., annexe 43, « En patrouille
dans la mer reconquise », El Nuevo Diario, 18 novembre 2013, p. 355.)
41. D’autres déclarations faites à cette époque se rapportent à l’exécution
de l’arrêt. Le 23 août 2013, par exemple, on pouvait lire ce qui suit
dans la presse :
« Le Nicaragua … affirme que la décision est déjà mise en oeuvre et
que la décision du Gouvernement colombien de ne pas la respecter
défie le bon sens. « L’arrêt de la CIJ produit ses effets depuis le
19 novembre 2012. En fait, la Colombie a fait appel à un certain
nombre de cabinets juridiques pour recenser les ressources territoriales
», a affirmé Mauricio Herdocia, l’avocat qui représente le Nicaragua
dans cette affaire. « Toutes les questions seront, en fait, réglées
par la Cour, dont le Règlement dispose qu’un arrêt doit être respecté
même lorsque qu’un recours est envisagé », a ajouté Herdocia. »
(Mémoire du Nicaragua, annexe 38, « Selon le vice‑président, la décision
de la Cour mondiale sur les frontières maritimes est inapplicable
en Colombie », Colombia Reports, 23 août 2013, p. 407-408.)
42. Outre qu’elle n’émane pas d’un représentant du Gouvernement
nicaraguayen, cette déclaration ne contient de toute façon aucune « réclamation
» particulière concernant le comportement de la Colombie, qui
serait susceptible d’être rejetée par cette dernière.
43. Le 10 septembre 2013, le président Ortega aurait déclaré ce qui suit :
« L’appel que je lance au président Santos, au Gouvernement de
Colombie, à certains gouverneurs d’Amérique centrale qui font des
déclarations parlant d’expansionnisme, c’est qu’à l’heure actuelle le
droit doit prévaloir, et non la force… Recourir à la force équivaudrait
à un retour à l’âge de pierre. Choisir la voie de la légalité entraînerait
un renforcement de la paix ; opter pour la force reviendrait à créer une
nouvelle zone de conflit dans le monde. Choisir la légalité permettra
d’éloigner la guerre et d’oeuvrer pour la paix dans le monde », a‑t‑il
assuré. Ainsi, il a réaffirmé que le Nicaragua était attaché à la paix,
comme les pays d’Amérique latine et les Caraïbes. » (Mémoire du
89 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
90
Annex 39, “Daniel: 40 years from the martyrdom of Allende, peace
must prevail”, El 19 Digital, 11 September 2013, p. 411.)
44. In response to Colombia’s insistence on the negotiation between
the two States of a treaty to implement the 2012 Judgment, President
Ortega further stated that :
“We understand the position taken by President Santos, but we
cannot say that we agree with the position of President Santos . . .
We do agree that it is necessary to dialogue, we do agree that it is
necessary to look for some kind of agreement, treaty, whatever we
want to call it, to put into practice in a harmonious way, like brother
peoples, the Judgment of the International Court of Justice . . .”
(Memorial of Nicaragua, Annex 39.)
He also stated :
“The Court’s decisions are obligatory . . . They are not subject to
discussion. It’s disrespectful to the Court. It is as if we decided not to
abide by the ruling because we didn’t receive 100 percent of what we
asked, which in this case was the San Andrés archipelago.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Nicaragua wants peace . . . We have no expansionist aims . . . we
only want what the Court at The Hague granted us in its ruling.”
(Written Statement of the Republic of Nicaragua to the Preliminary
Objections of the Republic of Colombia, Annex 7, “Colombia will
Challenge Maritime Border with Nicaragua”, ABC News, 10 September
2013, p. 115.)
45. Three points are striking about these 10 September remarks. First,
President Ortega, in discussing the preference of Nicaragua for “peace”
does not make any allegation against Colombia that Colombia is threatening
that “peace” nor any claim that Nicaragua’s legal rights were being
infringed by Colombia. Second, the statements were made a day after
Colombia passed Decree No. 1946, yet that Decree is not referred to by
President Ortega even though it now forms a core part of the “dispute”
said to have arisen before the two Parties at this time (Memorial of Nicaragua,
pp. 26‑33). Third, to the extent that these statements disclose any
“claim” by Nicaragua or disagreement between the Parties, it would
appear only to relate to the actions necessary for the Parties to give effect
to the 2012 Judgment and specifically, as Nicaragua notes, the “legal
requirement for a treaty in order to make the November 2012 Judgment
effective or binding on the Parties” (ibid., para. 2.59). They do not, however,
disclose any “claim” in respect of an alleged violation by Colombia
of Nicaragua’s sovereign rights or maritime zones nor any threat of the
use of force.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 89
90
Nicaragua, annexe 39, « Daniel : 40 ans après le martyre d’Allende, la
paix doit prévaloir », El 19 Digital, 11 septembre 2013, p. 411.)
44. Devant l’insistance de la Colombie à négocier avec le Nicaragua un
traité permettant d’exécuter l’arrêt de 2012, le président Ortega a
répondu :
« Nous comprenons la position du président Santos, mais nous ne
pouvons dire que nous l’approuvons… Nous convenons que le dialogue
est nécessaire et qu’il faut rechercher un genre d’accord ou de
traité — qu’importe le nom qu’on lui donnera — afin d’assurer la
mise en oeuvre harmonieuse de l’arrêt de la Cour internationale de
Justice. » (Mémoire du Nicaragua, annexe 39.)
Le président Ortega a également déclaré :
« Les décisions de la Cour sont obligatoires… Elles ne souffrent
pas de discussion car cela reviendrait à manquer de respect à la Cour.
C’est comme si nous décidions de ne pas exécuter une décision au
motif que nous n’avons pas obtenu tout ce que nous avions demandé,
c’est‑à‑dire, en l’espèce, l’archipel de San Andrés.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Le Nicaragua aspire à la paix… Nous n’avons pas d’ambitions
expansionnistes … nous ne voulons rien d’autre que ce qui nous a été
accordé par l’arrêt de la Cour de La Haye. » (Exposé écrit de la
République du Nicaragua sur les exceptions préliminaires de la
République de Colombie, annexe 7, « La Colombie entend remettre
en cause la frontière maritime avec le Nicaragua », ABC News,
10 septembre 2013, p. 115.)
45. Trois points ressortent clairement de ces déclarations faites par le
président Ortega le 10 septembre. Premièrement, s’il rappelle que le Nicaragua
aspire à la « paix », le président n’accuse nullement la Colombie de
menacer cette « paix », ni d’enfreindre les droits du Nicaragua. Deuxièmement,
bien que ces déclarations aient été faites le lendemain de la promulgation
par la Colombie du décret 1946, le président Ortega n’y fait
nullement référence, alors que ce texte est à présent au coeur du « différend
» qui serait né entre les deux Parties à l’époque (mémoire du Nicaragua,
p. 26‑33). Troisièmement, à supposer que ces déclarations contiennent
une quelconque « réclamation » du Nicaragua ou révèlent un désaccord
entre les Parties, la mésentente ne porterait que sur les mesures à mettre
en oeuvre pour donner effet à l’arrêt de novembre 2012 et, plus précisément,
comme le souligne le Nicaragua, à l’« obligation de conclure un
traité pour donner à l’arrêt de novembre 2012 un caractère exécutoire ou
contraignant vis‑à‑vis des Parties » (ibid., par. 2.59). Ces déclarations, en
revanche, ne contiennent aucune accusation de violation par la Colombie
des droits souverains ou des espaces maritimes du Nicaragua, ni ne font
état d’une quelconque menace de recours à la force.
90 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
91
46. On 12 September 2013, the National Assembly of Nicaragua
declared “its full endorsement of the position of the Government of Nicaragua
for a peaceful solution through a treaty implementing the Judgment”
(Memorial of Nicaragua, para. 2.59 and Annex 40, “Assembly of
Nicaragua supports dialogue with Colombia”, El Universal, 12 September
2013). It furthermore “urge[d] Colombia to comply with international
law and to abide by the ruling of the International Court of Justice, which
is final and of unavoidable compliance”. This declaration, at most, could
imply a claim that Colombia had yet to comply with the 2012 Judgment,
but does not indicate any “claim” that Colombia was breaching Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights or maritime zones nor threatening the use of force
as a result of any such alleged non‑compliance.
47. On 13 September 2013, President Ortega reiterated his call for the
creation of a commission to oversee implementation of the 2012 Judgment,
stating :
“We are ready, we are willing to create the corresponding commission
to meet with a commission from our brother country Colombia,
from the Colombian Government, and that together we can work to
make possible the implementation of the Court’s Judgment, and this
will be supported, ratified ; because the Judgment has been delivered
already, it is just about laying it down, so that it will be laid down in
what will be a treaty between Colombia and Nicaragua . . . In that
treaty, Colombia and Nicaragua will be proceeding with the Judgment’s
compliance, with the ICJ’s Judgment. This is the Peace path,
the Unity path, the Fraternity path.” (Preliminary Objections of
Colombia, Annex 41, “Ortega says that Nicaragua is ready to create
a Commission to ratify the Judgment of the ICJ”, La Jornada, 13 September
2013, p. 345.)
48. This is the last statement of President Ortega cited by the Parties
prior to the filing of Nicaragua’s Application on 26 November 2013.
49. None of the above statements is — either alone or collectively —
capable of being read to constitute a “claim” capable of rejection by
Colombia. What is telling is the silence in these statements, and the statements
which have not been adduced. Two points bear emphasizing.
50. First, there is no evidence that Nicaragua ever framed claims
against Colombia’s acts by reference to the legal rights now before the
Court. In fact, the statements made by Nicaraguan officials were generally
vague and unspecific. To the extent that they were specific, they
referred not to the subject‑matter of the claims now before the Court
but rather to the steps necessary to ensure compliance with the 2012
Judgment.
51. Second, a number of the statements tend to indicate the opposite
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 90
91
46. Le 12 septembre 2013, le Parlement nicaraguayen a déclaré
« approuver pleinement la position du Gouvernement du Nicaragua qui
permettra une solution pacifique, via la conclusion d’un traité donnant
effet à l’arrêt de la CIJ » (mémoire du Nicaragua, par. 2.59 ; et annexe 40,
« L’Assemblée nicaraguayenne favorable au dialogue avec la Colombie »,
El Universal, 12 septembre 2013). Les députés ont aussi appelé la Colombie
à « respecter le droit international et [à] se conformer à la décision de
la Cour internationale de Justice, qui est définitive et d’exécution obligatoire.
» Cette déclaration peut tout au plus laisser entendre que la Colombie
devait encore respecter l’arrêt de 2012, mais ne contient aucune
« réclamation » concernant une quelconque violation des droits souverains
ou des espaces maritimes du Nicaragua, ni une quelconque menace
de recours à la force liées à ce non‑respect présumé de l’arrêt.
47. Le 13 septembre 2013, le président Ortega a demandé de nouveau
la création d’une commission chargée de veiller à l’exécution de l’arrêt
de 2012 :
« Nous sommes disposés à créer une commission qui se réunirait
avec une commission équivalente du Gouvernement de la Colombie,
notre pays frère. Ainsi, nous pourrons, ensemble, rendre possible la
mise en oeuvre de l’arrêt de la Cour, et nous y veillerons en mettant
les moyens nécessaires. En effet, l’arrêt a déjà été rendu, il n’y a plus
qu’à lui donner effet, et ce, par un traité entre la Colombie et le Nicaragua…
Par ce traité, nos deux pays se mettront en conformité avec
l’arrêt de la CIJ. C’est la voie qui mène à la paix, à l’unité et à la
fraternité. (Exceptions préliminaires de la Colombie, annexe 41,
« M. Ortega déclare que le Nicaragua est disposé à créer une commission
visant à ratifier l’arrêt rendu par la CIJ », La Jornada, 13 septembre
2013, p. 345.)
48. Cette déclaration est, parmi celles invoquées par les Parties, la dernière
du président Ortega avant le dépôt de la requête du Nicaragua, le
26 novembre 2013.
49. Aucune des déclarations susmentionnées — qu’elles soient prises
individuellement ou dans leur ensemble — ne peut être interprétée comme
constituant une « réclamation » susceptible d’être rejetée par la Colombie.
Ce qui est révélateur, c’est ce que ces déclarations ne disent pas, tout
comme l’absence d’autres qui n’ont pas été produites. Deux points
méritent d’être soulignés.
50. Premièrement, rien ne prouve que le Nicaragua ait jamais fait grief
à la Colombie de ses agissements en invoquant les droits juridiques à présent
en cause devant la Cour. En réalité, les déclarations faites par des
responsables nicaraguayens sont en général vagues et imprécises ; et celles
qui sont précises font référence non pas à l’objet des réclamations portées
devant la Cour, mais aux mesures qu’il était nécessaire de prendre pour
exécuter l’arrêt de 2012.
51. Deuxièmement, un certain nombre de ces déclarations laissent pen-
91 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
92
conclusion : that the Parties did not consider that their claims were “positively
opposed”, rather indicating their constructive attempts to implement
the 2012 Judgment.
52. While it might be appropriate, as I stated earlier, to infer that a
respondent’s conduct impliedly rejected claims raised by an applicant, the
converse cannot be true. It is not possible for Colombia to reject — either
expressly or impliedly — claims that were never raised. In the circumstances
of this case, it is difficult to see how any of the above statements
constituted a “claim” capable of being “positively opposed” by Colombia,
or capable of resulting in a “disagreement on a point of law or fact”
between the Parties in relation to the rights now in dispute.
53. I conclude from my review of the factual record that, prior to filing
its Application, Nicaragua made no claim that Colombia had breached
its sovereign rights or maritime spaces or had unlawfully threatened the
use of force. In such a circumstance, there could be no “dispute” between
the Parties with respect to these matters at the requisite date. To the
extent that any dispute did arise, that dispute could only be characterized
as relating to the Parties’ interpretation of, or compliance with, the 2012
Judgment. That is not a matter brought by Nicaragua before the Court
for determination in these proceedings.
5. The Court’s Analysis Is Contradicted by the Evidentiary Record
54. Having assessed the evidentiary record before the Court, I return
to the Court’s holdings, summarized above, that one dispute existed while
the other did not.
55. The Court begins its analysis of whether a dispute existed as to
Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces in paragraph 69 by
observing that :
“following the delivery of the 2012 Judgment, the President of Colombia
proposed to Nicaragua to negotiate a treaty concerning the effects
of that Judgment, while the Nicaraguan President, on a number of
occasions, expressed a willingness to enter into negotiations for the
conclusion of a treaty to give effect to the Judgment, by addressing
Colombia’s concerns in relation to fishing, environmental protection
and drug trafficking”.
A logical conclusion of this circumstance in my opinion would be that
following the delivery of the 2012 Judgment there was no dispute between
the Parties as regards Nicaragua’s sovereign rights and maritime spaces.
Oddly, in my view, the Court, anticipating its conclusion, concludes in
paragraph 69 that “the fact that the Parties remained open to a dialogue
does not by itself prove that, at the date of the filing of the Application,
there existed no dispute between them”.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 91
92
ser l’inverse, à savoir que les Parties ne considéraient pas que leurs griefs
« se heurtaient à l’opposition manifeste » de l’autre, et soulignent au
contraire les efforts constructifs déployés pour mettre en oeuvre l’arrêt
de 2012.
52. S’il peut être justifié, comme je l’ai dit plus haut, d’inférer du comportement
d’un défendeur un rejet implicite des réclamations formulées
par un demandeur, l’inverse ne saurait être vrai. La Colombie ne peut
rejeter — ni expressément ni implicitement — des réclamations qui n’ont
jamais été formulées. Dans les circonstances de l’espèce, on voit mal en
quoi l’une quelconque des déclarations citées plus haut a pu constituer
une « réclamation » susceptible de « se heurter à l’opposition manifeste »
de la Colombie ou d’engendrer un « désaccord sur un point de droit ou de
fait » entre les Parties au sujet des droits à présent en litige.
53. Après avoir examiné avec attention les éléments factuels de l’affaire,
je conclus que le Nicaragua, avant de déposer sa requête, n’avait
jamais reproché à la Colombie d’avoir violé ses droits souverains ou ses
espaces maritimes, ni d’avoir enfreint l’interdiction de recourir à la
menace de la force. Dès lors, il ne pouvait exister entre les Parties de « différend
» sur ces questions à la date requise. A supposer qu’un différend se
soit fait jour, il ne pouvait porter que sur la manière dont les Parties interprétaient
ou appliquaient l’arrêt de 2012. Or ce n’est pas la question que
le Nicaragua a demandé à la Cour de trancher en l’espèce.
5. L’analyse de la Cour est infirmée par les éléments versés au dossier
54. Ayant examiné les éléments de preuve produits en l’espèce, j’en
reviens aux conclusions de la Cour, résumées plus haut, selon lesquelles
l’un des différends existait, mais pas l’autre.
55. Au paragraphe 69, la Cour commence son analyse quant à l’existence
d’un différend sur les droits souverains et les espaces maritimes du
Nicaragua en ces termes :
« [A] la suite du prononcé de l’arrêt de 2012, le président colombien
a proposé au Nicaragua de négocier un traité concernant
les effets dudit arrêt, et … le président nicaraguayen s’est, quant
à lui, maintes fois montré disposé à engager des négociations
en vue de conclure un traité qui permettrait de donner effet à l’arrêt,
en tenant compte des préoccupations de la Colombie en
matière de pêche, de protection de l’environnement et de trafic de
drogue. »
J’en déduis logiquement que, à la suite du prononcé de l’arrêt de 2012, il
n’existait pas de différend entre les Parties à l’égard des droits souverains
et des espaces maritimes du Nicaragua. Cependant, la Cour anticipe cette
déduction en tirant, dans le même paragraphe, la conclusion — singulière,
à mon sens — que « le fait que les Parties restaient disposées à dialoguer
ne prouve pas en soi que, à la date du dépôt de la requête, il
n’existait pas entre elles de différend ».
92 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
93
56. As stated at paragraph 25 (above), the Court proceeds in paragraph
69 to refer to two pieces of evidence. One is a 1 December 2012 statement
of President Santos of Colombia and the other is a 10 September
2013 statement of President Ortega of Nicaragua. These are the only pieces
of evidence the Court references to support its conclusion that “[i]t is apparent
from these statements that the Parties held opposing views on the question
of their respective rights in the maritime areas covered by the
2012 Judgment” and therefore that a dispute existed. In particular, it
reaches the conclusion that “the Parties held opposing views” by juxtaposing
the December 2012 statement of President Santos of Colombia with the
September 2013 reported statement of President Daniel Ortega of Nicaragua.
Three deficiencies in the Court’s reasoning need to be emphasized :
— First, jurisprudentially, the question is whether Nicaragua ever stated
a claim which Colombia could have positively opposed. In this sense,
only one of the two pieces of evidence is relevant. The question is not
whether statements by two States separated by almost a year should
be read to suggest a conflict of interests.
— Second, the statements cited at most suggest a conflict of interests as
to compliance with the 2012 Judgment. But non‑compliance with the
2012 Judgment is a matter that both Nicaragua and the Court repeatedly
state is not the dispute before the Court. The statements of President
Ortega (there are two on 10 September 2013), as quoted fully
and discussed at paragraphs 43 to 45 above, in discussing the preference
of Nicaragua for “peace” does not make any allegation against
Colombia that Colombia is threatening that “peace” nor make any
claim that Nicaragua’s legal rights were being infringed by Colombia.
In addition, the statements were made a day after Colombia passed
Decree No. 1946, yet that Decree is not referred to by President Ortega
even though it now forms a core part of the “dispute” said to have
arisen before the two Parties at this time (Memorial of Nicaragua,
pp. 26‑33). The 10 September 2013 statements do not communicate
any “claim” in respect of an alleged violation by Colombia of
Nicaragua’s
sovereign rights or maritime zones nor any threat of the
use of force.
— Third, it is striking that the Court chooses to juxtapose two statements
made almost a year apart. Arguably more relevant than the
1 December 2012 statement of President Santos (made only days after
the delivery of the Judgment) is the interview that took place with the
Colombian Minister for Foreign Affairs on 15 September 2013 shortly
after President Ortega’s statement of 10 September 2013. Minister
María A. Holguín’s views are reported as follows :
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 92
93
56. Comme je l’ai indiqué précédemment (par. 25), la Cour fait référence,
au paragraphe 69, à deux éléments de preuve : la déclaration du
président colombien, M. Santos, en date du 1er décembre 2012 et celle du
président nicaraguayen, M. Ortega, en date du 10 septembre 2013. Ce
sont les seuls éléments sur lesquels elle s’appuie pour conclure qu’« [i]l
ressort de ces déclarations que les Parties avaient des points de vue opposés
sur la question de leurs droits respectifs dans les espaces maritimes
visés par l’arrêt de 2012 » et qu’il existait donc un différend. La Cour
conclut en particulier que « les Parties avaient des points de vue opposés »
après avoir juxtaposé la déclaration du président Santos de décembre 2012
et celle du président Ortega de septembre 2013. Or, il y a lieu de souligner
trois failles dans ce raisonnement :
— Premièrement, conformément à la jurisprudence, il s’agissait de
déterminer si le Nicaragua avait jamais formulé une quelconque
réclamation susceptible de se heurter à une opposition manifeste
de la part de la Colombie. A cet égard, seul l’un des deux éléments
de preuve était réellement pertinent. La question n’était pas de
savoir si les déclarations des deux Etats faites à près d’un an
d’intervalle devaient être interprétées comme traduisant un conflit
d’intérêts.
— Deuxièmement, les déclarations citées laissent tout au plus apparaître
un conflit d’intérêts concernant l’exécution de l’arrêt de 2012. Or,
comme le Nicaragua et la Cour l’ont répété maintes fois, la question
de l’inexécution de cet arrêt n’est pas l’objet du différend en l’espèce.
Les déclarations du président Ortega (il y en a deux en date du
10 septembre 2013), citées in extenso et examinées aux paragraphes 43
à 45 ci-
dessus,
témoignent de la préférence du Nicaragua pour la
« paix » et ne contiennent aucune allégation selon laquelle la Colombie
menacerait cette « paix », ni ne dénoncent une quelconque atteinte aux
droits du Nicaragua. De plus, elles ont été formulées le jour suivant la
promulgation, par la Colombie, du décret 1946, qui n’est pas même
mentionné par le président Ortega alors qu’il occupe maintenant une
place centrale dans le « différend » qui aurait existé entre les deux
Parties à cette date (mémoire du Nicaragua, p. 26‑33). Les déclarations
du 10 septembre 2013 ne font état d’aucune « réclamation » à l’égard
de la Colombie concernant une violation des droits souverains et des
espaces maritimes du Nicaragua ou une quelconque menace de
recours à la force.
— Troisièmement, il est frappant que la Cour ait choisi de mettre en
parallèle deux déclarations faites à près d’un an d’intervalle. L’entretien
accordé à la presse le 15 septembre 2013 par la ministre colombienne
des affaires étrangères, peu après la déclaration faite par le président
Ortega le 10 septembre 2013, semble plus pertinent que la déclaration
faite par le président Santos le 1er décembre 2012 (soit quelques jours
seulement après le prononcé de l’arrêt). Tel était en effet le point de
vue de la ministre, María A. Holguín :
93 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
94
“María A. Holguín speaks about the four pillars for the defence of
National sovereignty in the Caribbean.
The Minister of Foreign Affairs María Angela Holguín explained
to El Tiempo the scope of the ‘integral strategy’ to defend the Colombian
sovereignty in the Caribbean Sea. She stated that the Government
does not disregard the Court of The Hague’s Judgment — in
which this Tribunal recognized greater rights to Nicaragua over those
waters, but that the country ‘is facing a legal obstacle’ to apply it.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
How and when would you dialogue with Nicaragua to sign a border
treaty ?
Colombia is open to a dialogue with Nicaragua to sign a treaty that
establishes the boundaries and a legal regime that contributes to the
security and stability in the region. The Government has said that it
awaits the decision of the Constitutional Court before initiating any
action.” (Preliminary Objections of Colombia, Annex 42, “The
Minister
of Foreign Affairs explains in detail the strategy vis‑à‑vis
Nicaragua”, El Tiempo, 15 September 2013, p. 349.)
The Court fails to engage with these contemporaneous statements by
Minister Holguín. The above statements contextualize the earlier statements
of President Santos, and indicate that Colombia was not “opposing”
the implementation of the 2012 Judgment, nor contesting its binding
character, but rather questioning the legal steps necessary to apply it.
57. In paragraph 70 of the Judgment, referring to “Colombia’s proclamation
of an ‘Integral Contiguous Zone’”, the Court writes that “the Parties
took different positions on the legal implications of such action in
international law”. In so asserting, however, the Court does not cite any
evidence indicating in what form or by which means those “different positions”
were expressed. And nor could it : such evidence is simply not in
the record before the Court.
58. The Court in paragraph 72 observes that a “formal diplomatic protest”
is not a prerequisite. I agree. However, the problem in the instant
case is that there also is not an informal protest or any statement that is
a claim by Nicaragua of violation of a legal right. The Judgment does not
address Colombia’s objection that there was no such claim or complaint
in any form. Instead, the Judgment — again without reference to the
record — states that :
“in the specific circumstances of the present case, the evidence clearly
indicates that . . . Colombia was aware that its enactment of
Decree 1946 and its conduct in the maritime areas declared by the
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 93
94
« María A. Holguín s’exprime sur les quatre axes de la défense de la
souveraineté nationale dans la mer des Caraïbes.
La ministre des affaires étrangères, Mme María Angela Holguín,
a expliqué à El Tiempo la portée de la « stratégie globale »
visant à défendre la souveraineté colombienne dans la mer des
Caraïbes. Elle a indiqué que le gouvernement n’avait pas désavoué
l’arrêt de la Cour de La Haye — dans lequel celle-
ci a
reconnu davantage
de droits au Nicaragua sur ces eaux —, mais que
le pays se heurtait « à un obstacle juridique » l’empêchant de l’appliquer.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Quand et comment entendez-vous dialoguer avec le Nicaragua afin
de signer un traité de limites ?
La Colombie est prête à dialoguer avec le Nicaragua en vue de
signer un traité qui établisse les frontières et un régime juridique
contribuant à la sécurité et à la stabilité de la région. Le gouvernement
a indiqué qu’il attendait la décision de la Cour constitutionnelle
avant de prendre la moindre mesure. » (Exceptions préliminaires de
la Colombie, annexe 42, « La ministre des affaires étrangères explique
en détail la stratégie adoptée contre le Nicaragua », El Tiempo,
15 septembre 2013, p. 349.)
La Cour ne s’est pas penchée sur les propos de la ministre María A. Holguín,
qui sont contemporains de ceux du président Ortega et qui remettent
dans leur contexte les déclarations antérieures du président Santos, indiquant
que la Colombie ne « s’opposait » pas à la mise en oeuvre de l’arrêt
de 2012, ni n’en contestait le caractère contraignant, mais s’interrogeait
sur les mesures juridiques nécessaires à son application.
57. Au paragraphe 70 de l’arrêt, faisant référence à « la proclamation,
par la Colombie, d’une « zone contiguë unique » », la Cour relève que « les
Parties ont adopté des positions différentes quant aux implications de cet
acte en droit international ». Elle ne cite cependant aucun élément qui
montrerait sous quelle forme ou par quel moyen ces « positions différentes
» se sont exprimées, et pour cause : elle ne disposait tout simplement
pas de tels éléments.
58. Au paragraphe 72, la Cour fait observer qu’une « protestation
diplomatique officielle » n’est pas une condition préalable. J’en conviens.
Toutefois, en la présente affaire, il n’y a pas davantage de protestation
officieuse, ni de déclaration qui constituerait une réclamation de la part
du Nicaragua quant à la violation d’un droit. La Cour ne traite pas dans
l’arrêt de l’exception soulevée par la Colombie en raison de l’absence
d’une telle réclamation ou plainte sous quelque forme que ce soit. Au
contraire, elle dit — à nouveau sans s’appuyer sur le dossier — que
« les éléments de preuve indiquent clairement, dans les circonstances
propres à l’affaire, que… la Colombie savait que la promulgation du
décret 1946 et son comportement dans les espaces maritimes que la
94 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
95
2012 Judgment to belong to Nicaragua were positively opposed by
Nicaragua” (Judgment, para. 73).
This statement by the Court turns completely on its head its jurisprudence
as to the requirement that a dispute exist at the time an Application
is filed. In this case, the Court does not ask whether the Applicant —
Nicaragua — made in any form a claim of legal violation prior to the
lodgment of the Application. Rather, it infers that the Respondent must
have been “aware” that the Applicant positively opposed actions that the
Respondent had taken. With all due respect, this reasoning misapprehends
the Court’s jurisprudence regarding the requirement that a dispute
exist. This reasoning through its silence does not accurately represent the
record. This holding in practice signals the end of the application of a
reasoned requirement that a dispute exist.
59. Turning to the assessment by the Court of whether a dispute
existed as to the threat of the use of force, the Court does not state that a
dispute does not exist because Nicaragua failed to claim, protest or object
to a threat of the use of force by Colombia. It could have done so because
there is no such claim, protest or threat in the record. But it does not.
Rather, the Judgment refers to evidence in which representatives of the
Nicaraguan Government described the situation at sea as calm. A statement
of the President of Nicaragua on 14 August 2013 that “there has not
been any kind of confrontation” between the naval forces of the
two States. A statement by the Chief of the Nicaraguan Naval Force on
18 November 2013 that there were neither problems nor conflicts with the
Colombian navy. Surprisingly, the Judgment does not discuss whether
there was a claim of legal violation in the first instance. The Judgment
confuses the identification of a claim of legal violation by the Applicant
with the perhaps necessary inference of a positive opposition to such a
claim by the Respondent. Putting aside why statements that the situation
is calm or that there are no conflicts are relevant to an asserted dispute as
to the threat of force, the fact is that there is no claim, in any form, by
Nicaragua prior to the lodgment of the Application objecting to a threat
of the use of force by Colombia.
60. If the Judgment had found that there was no dispute as to the
threat of the use of force because there was no claim of legal violation in
that regard by Nicaragua, then the same reasoning should lead to the
same conclusion that there was no dispute in regard to Nicaragua’s rights
in the relevant maritime zones.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 94
95
Cour avait reconnus au Nicaragua dans son arrêt de 2012 se heurtaient
à l’opposition manifeste du Nicaragua » (arrêt, par. 73).
Ce faisant, la Cour va complètement au rebours de sa jurisprudence
concernant la condition selon laquelle il doit exister un différend au
moment du dépôt de la requête. En l’espèce, elle ne cherche pas à savoir
si le demandeur — le Nicaragua — s’est plaint de quelque manière que ce
soit d’une violation du droit avant le dépôt de la requête ; mais elle déduit
que le défendeur devait « savoir » que les mesures qu’il avait prises se
heurtaient à l’opposition manifeste du demandeur. Malgré tout le respect
que je lui dois, force m’est de constater que la Cour, dans ce raisonnement,
méconnaît sa jurisprudence relative à la condition de l’existence
d’un différend. Par ce qu’il tait, ce raisonnement ne rend pas fidèlement
compte de tous les éléments existants. Cette conclusion de la Cour met
de fait un terme à l’application de la condition justifiée de l’existence
d’un différend.
59. S’agissant de la question de savoir si un différend existait au sujet
de la menace de recours à la force, la Cour ne conclut pas à l’absence d’un
tel différend au motif que le Nicaragua n’a pas formulé de réclamation, ni
de protestation ou objection face à une quelconque menace de la Colombie
de recourir à la force. Elle aurait pu le faire, puisqu’il n’y a effectivement
aucune trace de réclamation, protestation ou menace dans le dossier.
Au contraire, l’arrêt renvoie à des éléments qui prouvent que, pour
les représentants du Gouvernement nicaraguayen, la situation en mer
était calme. D’après une déclaration faite par le président du Nicaragua le
14 août 2013, « aucune confrontation n’a eu lieu entre les forces navales »
des deux Etats. Le 18 novembre 2013, le commandant en chef de la
marine nicaraguayenne déclarait qu’il n’y avait aucun problème ou conflit
avec les forces navales colombiennes. Il est singulier que la Cour ne se soit
pas penchée sur la question de savoir si, pour commencer, il y avait eu
une réclamation pour violation présumée du droit. Il y a dans l’arrêt une
confusion entre la tâche qui consiste à établir l’existence d’une réclamation
formulée par le demandeur au sujet d’une violation du droit et
celle, éventuellement nécessaire, qui consiste à inférer l’existence d’une
opposition manifeste à cette réclamation par le défendeur. En dehors de
la question de savoir en quoi des déclarations faisant état d’une situation
calme ou d’une absence de conflit sont pertinentes pour apprécier
l’existence
d’un différend qui concernerait la menace de la force, le fait est
qu’il n’existe pas de réclamation que le Nicaragua aurait formulée,
sous quelque forme que ce soit, avant le dépôt de sa requête, dans laquelle
il reproche à la Colombie de l’avoir menacé de recourir à la force.
60. Si la Cour avait conclu dans l’arrêt qu’il n’existait aucun différend
relativement à la menace de la Colombie de recourir à la force parce que
le Nicaragua n’avait formulé à cet égard aucune réclamation pour violation
du droit, alors le même raisonnement devrait conduire à la même
conclusion, à savoir qu’il n’existait aucun différend relativement aux
droits du Nicaragua dans les espaces maritimes en cause.
95 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
96
III. The Third Preliminary Objection as to the Possibility
of Negotiations
61. Article II of the Pact of Bogotá provides in part that “in the event
that a controversy arises between two or more signatory States which, in
the opinion of the parties, cannot be settled by direct negotiations through
the usual diplomatic channels, the parties bind themselves to use the procedures
established in the present Treaty . . .”. The Court in its Judgment
proceeds from the basis of its 1988 holding that the reference to direct
negotiation in Article II of the Pact “constitutes . . . a condition precedent
to recourse to the pacific procedures of the Pact in all cases” (Border and
Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and
Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1988, p. 94, para. 62). In so proceeding,
the Court in paragraph 95 holds that the test for determining
whether settlement is not possible is “whether the evidence provided demonstrates
that, at the date of Nicaragua’s filing of the Application, neither
of the Parties could plausibly maintain that the dispute between them
could be settled by direct negotiations through the usual diplomatic
channels”
(Judgment, para. 95).
62. The Court finds that “[n]o evidence submitted to the Court indicates
that, on the date of Nicaragua’s filing of the Application, the Parties
had contemplated, or were in a position, to hold negotiations to settle the
dispute concerning the alleged violations by Colombia of Nicaragua’s
rights in the maritime zones” and on that basis rejects Colombia’s third
preliminary objection (ibid., paras. 100‑101).
63. I agree with the Court that an obligation to negotiate is satisfied if
there is no prospect of settlement. The PCIJ in Mavrommatis articulated
such an exception to the negotiations requirement present in that case as
follows :
“Negotiations do not of necessity always presuppose a more or less
lengthy series of notes and despatches ; it may suffice that a discussion
should have been commenced, and this discussion may have been very
short ; this will be the case if a dead lock is reached, or if finally a
point is reached at which one of the Parties definitely declares himself
unable, or refuses, to give way, and there can therefore be no doubt
that the dispute cannot be settled by diplomatic negotiation.” (Mavrommatis
Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 2, p. 13.)
64. The Court’s conclusion in paragraph 100, however, that “[n]o evidence”
indicates that “the Parties had contemplated, or were in a position,
to hold negotiations to the settle the dispute” (Judgment, para. 100)
is not only not supported by the evidence, it is contradicted by the evidence.
65. The Court at the outset of its reasoning observes that “through
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 95
96
III. La troisième exception préliminaire sur la question
d’éventuelles négociations
61. L’article II du pacte de Bogotá dispose notamment que, « au cas où
surgirait, entre deux ou plusieurs Etats signataires, un différend qui, de
l’avis de l’une des parties, ne pourrait être résolu au moyen de négociations
directes suivant les voies diplomatiques ordinaires, les parties s’engagent
à employer les procédures établies dans ce Traité… ». Dans le
présent arrêt, la Cour s’appuie sur sa conclusion de 1988, selon laquelle la
référence aux négociations directes qui est faite dans cet article « constitue
dans tous les cas une condition préalable du recours aux procédures pacifiques
du pacte » (Actions armées frontalières et transfrontalières (Nicaragua
c. Honduras), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1988,
p. 94, par. 62). Ce faisant, la Cour conclut au paragraphe 95 que le critère
permettant de déterminer si un règlement est impossible est celui de savoir
« si les éléments de preuve qui lui ont été soumis démontrent que, à la date
du dépôt de la requête du Nicaragua, aucune des deux Parties ne pouvait
soutenir de manière plausible que le différend qui les opposait pouvait
être résolu au moyen de négociations directes suivant les voies diplomatiques
ordinaires » (arrêt, par. 95).
62. La Cour estime qu’aucun des éléments qui lui ont été soumis « n’indique
que, à la date du dépôt de la requête du Nicaragua, les Parties
avaient envisagé, ou étaient en mesure, de tenir des négociations en vue
de régler le différend relatif à de prétendues violations par la Colombie
des droits du Nicaragua dans les zones maritimes » concernées ; c’est pour
ce motif qu’elle rejette la troisième exception préliminaire de la Colombie
(ibid., par. 100-101).
63. Je conviens avec la Cour qu’une obligation de négocier est réputée
satisfaite dès lors qu’il n’y a aucune perspective de règlement. Dans
l’affaire
Mavrommatis, sa devancière avait décrit comme suit l’exception à
l’obligation de mener des négociations qui incombait aux parties :
« Une négociation ne suppose pas toujours et nécessairement une
série plus ou moins longue de notes et de dépêches ; ce peut être assez
qu’une conversation ait été entamée ; cette conversation a pu être très
courte : tel est le cas si elle a rencontré un point mort, si elle s’est
heurtée finalement à un non possumus ou à un non volumus péremptoire
de l’une des Parties et qu’ainsi il est apparu avec évidence que
le différend n’est pas susceptible d’être réglé par une négociation diplomatique.
» (Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924,
C.P.J.I. série A no 2, p. 13.)
64. Toutefois, les éléments de preuve en l’espèce non seulement
n’étayent pas la conclusion de la Cour, selon laquelle « [a]ucun élément …
n’indique que… les Parties avaient envisagé, ou étaient en mesure, de
tenir des négociations en vue de régler le différend » (arrêt, par. 100), mais
au contraire l’infirment.
65. La Cour commence son raisonnement en constatant que, « par
96 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
97
various communications between the Heads of State of the two countries
since the delivery of the 2012 Judgment, each Party had indicated that it
was open to dialogue to address some issues raised by Colombia as a
result of the Judgment” (Judgment, para. 97). This statement is a correct
reflection of the evidence.
66. The Court also observes that
“[t]he issues that the Parties identified for possible dialogue include
[1] fishing activities of the inhabitants of San Andrés, Providencia and
Santa Catalina in waters that have been recognized as appertaining
to Nicaragua by the Court, [2] the protection of the Seaflower Biosphere
Marine Reserve, and [3] the fight against drug trafficking in
the Caribbean Sea” (ibid.).
This statement is also a correct reflection of the evidence.
67. As an initial matter therefore, the Court’s statement that there is
“[n]o evidence” to indicate that the Parties contemplated negotiation is
inconsistent with the record.
68. The Court’s holding, however, is more subtly worded, focusing as
it does on there being no evidence that the Parties contemplated negotiations
“to settle the dispute” (ibid., para. 100 ; emphasis added).
69. Examined more closely, the Court’s reasoning relies upon its view
that, although the Parties expressed a willingness to discuss substantive
issues, they had each imposed certain preconditions to any such negotiations
that were so diametrically opposed that the Parties did not contemplate,
or were not in a position to negotiate, a settlement. The Court
constructs these preconditions in paragraph 98 of the Judgment.
70. Regarding Nicaragua’s asserted preconditions, the Court in paragraph
98 appears to refer to its own characterization of what it has held
to be Nicaragua’s dispute. The Court writes “for Nicaragua, such negotiations
had to be restricted to the modalities or mechanisms for the
implementation of the [2012] Judgment”. It does not rely on any statement
of Nicaragua. Indeed, it offers no citation to any piece of evidence.
71. Regarding Colombia’s asserted preconditions, the Court in paragraph
98 states that Colombia did not “define” the subject‑matter of the
negotiations in the same way. In doing so, it quotes the interview with the
Colombian Minister for Foreign Affairs María A. Holguín on 15 September
2013 that is reproduced in full at paragraph 56 above. The Court at
paragraph 98 uses the Minister’s statement that Colombia is open to a
dialogue with Nicaragua to “sign a treaty that establishes the boundaries”
to make its point that while the two nations may have been open to dialogue
they held quite different views about the content of such dialogue
that made the prospects for settlement extremely unlikely.
72. The Court’s juxtaposition of negotiating objectives is unfounded
both in the record and in law.
— First, the Court repeatedly, and with good reason, in the Judgment
elsewhere refers to the importance of examining substance and not
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 96
97
divers échanges qu’ont eus leurs chefs d’Etat depuis le prononcé de l’arrêt
de 2012, l’une et l’autre des Parties avaient indiqué être prêtes à engager
un dialogue pour examiner certaines questions soulevées par la Colombie
conséquemment à l’arrêt » (arrêt, par. 97). C’est en effet ce que montrent
les éléments de preuve.
66. La Cour observe également ce qui suit :
« Parmi les questions au sujet desquelles les Parties envisageaient
de dialoguer, figuraient notamment [1] les activités de pêche des
habitants de San Andrés, Providencia et Santa Catalina dans des
eaux dont la Cour a reconnu qu’elles appartenaient au Nicaragua,
[2] la protection de la réserve de biosphère marine Seaflower et [3] la
lutte contre le trafic de drogue dans la mer des Caraïbes. » (Ibid.)
Là encore, cette constatation est corroborée par les éléments de preuve.
67. Ainsi, d’entrée de jeu, la constatation de la Cour selon laquelle il
n’existe « [a]ucun élément » indiquant que les Parties avaient envisagé de
tenir des négociations n’est pas cohérente avec les éléments disponibles.
68. Cependant, la Cour s’exprime de manière plus subtile et met
l’accent
sur le fait qu’il n’existe pas d’élément de preuve indiquant que
les Parties envisageaient de tenir des négociations « en vue de régler le
différend
» (ibid., par. 100 ; les italiques sont de moi).
69. A y regarder de plus près, le raisonnement de la Cour repose sur
l’idée que les Parties, bien qu’elles se soient déclarées prêtes à aborder les
questions de fond, subordonnaient toutes deux les négociations à des
conditions si diamétralement opposées qu’elles n’envisageaient pas de
négocier un règlement ou n’étaient pas en mesure de le faire. La Cour
évoque ces conditions au paragraphe 98 de l’arrêt.
70. S’agissant des conditions qu’aurait imposées le Nicaragua, la Cour
semble, au paragraphe 98, renvoyer à sa propre définition de ce qu’elle
estime être le différend du Nicaragua. Elle écrit que « [les négociations]
devaient, dans [l’]esprit [du Nicaragua], se limiter aux modalités ou mécanismes
d’exécution de [l’]arrêt [de 2012] », mais elle ne s’appuie sur aucune
déclaration du Nicaragua et ne cite, de fait, aucun élément de preuve.
71. S’agissant des conditions qu’aurait imposées la Colombie, la Cour
déclare, au paragraphe 98, que celle‑ci n’a pas « circonscri[t] » ainsi l’objet
des négociations, et cite l’entretien accordé le 15 septembre 2013 par la
ministre colombienne des affaires étrangères, Mme María A. Holguín, qui
est reproduit plus haut au paragraphe 56. Elle reprend les propos de la
ministre, qui déclarait que la Colombie était ouverte à un dialogue avec le
Nicaragua pour « signer un traité qui établ[ît] les frontières », afin de
démontrer que, si les deux nations étaient peut‑être ouvertes au dialogue,
leurs positions étaient relativement différentes sur le contenu de celui‑ci,
ce qui rendait très improbables les perspectives de règlement.
72. Le parallèle que fait la Cour entre les objectifs de négociation est
infondé, tant au vu du dossier qu’en droit.
— Premièrement, à maintes reprises ailleurs dans l’arrêt, la Cour rappelle
à juste titre l’importance d’examiner le fond et non la forme. Pourtant,
97 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
98
form. Yet in this holding its reasoning rests on formalities of negotiation
rather than their substance. As described above, the Parties
repeatedly indicated they were open to discuss many areas of substance
with fishing rights being a particularly significant one. Settlement
of any of the substantive areas may have resolved matters.
Settlement of any of the substantive areas certainly would have narrowed
matters. Preconditions (if there were any) themselves may be
simply a part of a negotiating stance and for this reason need to be
appraised carefully.
— Second, perhaps a juxtaposition of negotiating preconditions could
indicate that the chances of a negotiated settlement were remote if
there were clear statements indicating that a party was open to dialogue
only if the particular issue of concern was resolved first. But that
is not the case here. There are no such statements in the record by
Colombia (or Nicaragua) in the relevant months leading up to the filing
of the Application of Nicaragua.
— Third, and most strikingly, the record directly contradicts the Court’s
holding. It is true that the Colombian Foreign Minister’s statement
did “define” in some sense an aim of the negotiations from Colombia’s
perspective. But it did not do so in a way different from that of
Nicaragua and certainly did not do so in the way the Court suggests.
The Court quotes this statement to support the idea that Colombia
sought a treaty that would re‑establish the boundaries it had prior to
the 2012 Judgment. It is that assertion which would be incompatible
with the Court’s unsupported construction of Nicaragua’s negotiating
position in the same paragraph. But that assertion also is flatly contradicted
by the record. The Foreign Minister’s statement clearly does
not seek to re‑establish the boundaries that existed before the Judgment
but rather to establish the boundaries of the Judgment through
an implementing treaty that will satisfy the internal legal requirements
of Colombian constitutional law. She states :
“[T]he Government does not disregard the Court of The Hague’s
Judgment — in which this Tribunal recognized greater rights to Nicaragua
over those waters —, but that the country ‘is facing a legal
obstacle’ to apply it.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
Colombia is open to a dialogue with Nicaragua to sign a treaty that
establishes the boundaries and a legal regime that contributes to the
security and stability in the region. The Government has said that it
awaits the decision of the Constitutional Court before initiating any
action.” (Preliminary Objections of Colombia, Annex 42, “The Minister
of Foreign Affairs Explains in Detail the Strategy vis‑à‑vis Nicaragua”,
El Tiempo, 15 September 2013, p. 349.)
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 97
98
dans son raisonnement sur le point qui nous occupe ici, elle s’arrête
aux aspects formels des négociations, sans s’intéresser au fond.
Comme je l’ai souligné précédemment, les Parties se sont à plusieurs
occasions déclarées prêtes à examiner de nombreuses questions de
fond, en particulier celles des droits de pêche. Le règlement de l’une
quelconque de ces questions aurait pu permettre de régler le litige ou,
certainement, d’au moins le circonscrire. Il est possible que les
conditions imposées (si tant est qu’il y en ait eu) ne soient qu’un
élément d’une stratégie de négociation et doivent à ce titre être
appréciées avec précaution.
— Deuxièmement, la comparaison des conditions imposées pour les
négociations pouvait peut‑être montrer que les chances étaient faibles
de parvenir à un règlement négocié, si une Partie avait clairement
déclaré n’envisager le dialogue qu’à la seule condition que la question
qu’elle invoquait soit réglée préalablement. Or tel n’est pas le cas ici.
Le dossier de l’affaire ne contient aucune déclaration de ce genre de la
part de la Colombie (ni du Nicaragua) dans les mois précédant le
dépôt de la requête.
— Troisièmement, et c’est plus frappant encore, les éléments du dossier
infirment directement la conclusion de la Cour. Certes, la déclaration
de la ministre colombienne des affaires étrangères « circonscrivait » en
un sens l’objectif des négociations tel que l’envisageait la Colombie,
mais pas d’une manière différente de celle du Nicaragua et certainement
pas comme le laisse entendre la Cour. Celle-
ci cite ladite déclaration
pour étayer l’idée selon laquelle la Colombie souhaitait un traité qui
rétablît les frontières antérieures à l’arrêt de 2012. Cette thèse serait
incompatible avec l’interprétation infondée que fait la Cour, au même
paragraphe, de la position du Nicaragua sur les négociations. Mais
elle est aussi catégoriquement infirmée par le dossier. Dans sa
déclaration, la ministre des affaires étrangères parlait manifestement
non pas de rétablir les frontières antérieures à l’arrêt, mais d’établir
celles définies par l’arrêt, au moyen d’un traité qui répondrait aux
exigences juridiques internes du droit constitutionnel de son pays. Elle
déclarait ce qui suit :
« [L]e Gouvernement n’[a] pas désavoué l’arrêt de la Cour de
La Haye — dans lequel celle-
ci a reconnu davantage de droits au
Nicaragua sur ces eaux —, mais … le pays se heurt[e] « à un obstacle
juridique » l’empêchant de l’appliquer.
�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������
La Colombie est prête à dialoguer avec le Nicaragua en vue de
signer un traité qui établisse les frontières et un régime juridique
contribuant à la sécurité et à la stabilité de la région. Le gouvernement
a indiqué qu’il attendait la décision de la Cour constitutionnelle
avant de prendre la moindre mesure. » (Exceptions préliminaires de
la Colombie, annexe 42, « La ministre des affaires étrangères explique
en détail la stratégie adoptée contre le Nicaragua », El Tiempo,
15 septembre 2013, p. 349.)
98 sovereign rights and maritime spaces (diss. op. caron)
99
73. Having reaffirmed the obligation to pursue negotiations under
Article II of the Pact of Bogotá, the Court finds contrary to the statements
of the Parties that there was no prospect of settlement. I dissent.
This conclusion is not supported by the evidence, and is more broadly of
concern, for the Court in so doing undermines the centrality of a duty to
negotiate both as a part of the peaceful settlement of disputes and specifically
as a part of the scheme set out by the Pact of Bogotá. It is important
to recall the insights of the PCIJ in this respect :
“The Court realizes to the full the importance of the rule laying
down that only disputes which cannot be settled by negotiation should
be brought before it. It recognizes, in fact, that before a dispute can
be made the subject of an action at law, its subject-matter
should have
been clearly defined by means of diplomatic negotiations.” (Mavrommatis
Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 2, p. 15.)
IV. Concluding Observation
74. The Court in objectively determining the subject‑matter of the disputes
before it can be called upon to make fine distinctions. In the present
case, it has distinguished very finely between a claim for non‑compliance
with a judgment of the Court and a claim for violation of the rights
granted by such judgment. This dissent makes clear that the Court is not
nearly as adept at distinguishing whether a certain piece of evidence bears
on non‑compliance with the 2012 Judgment or on a violation of sovereign
rights and maritime spaces defined in the 2012 Judgment. The ease with
which these two claims overlap and the difficulty the Court has in assessing
the evidence will likely complicate the Court’s task at the merits phase
of this case.
(Signed) David D. Caron.
droits souverains et espaces maritimes (op. diss. caron) 98
99
73. Ayant réaffirmé l’obligation de poursuivre des négociations en
vertu de l’article II du pacte de Bogotá, la Cour conclut, contrairement
aux déclarations des Parties, qu’il n’existait aucune perspective de règlement.
Je ne suis pas de cet avis. Outre qu’elle n’est pas étayée par des
éléments de preuve, cette conclusion pose plus largement problème, car la
Cour sape ainsi le caractère central d’une obligation de négocier dans le
cadre du règlement pacifique des différends et en particulier dans celui
prévu par le pacte de Bogotá. Il est important de rappeler la position de
sa devancière à cet égard :
« La Cour se rend bien compte de toute l’importance de la règle
suivant laquelle ne doivent être portées devant elle que des affaires
qui ne sont pas susceptibles d’être réglées par négociations ; elle
reconnaît, en effet, que, avant qu’un différend fasse l’objet d’un
recours en justice, il importe que son objet ait été nettement défini au
moyen de pourparlers diplomatiques. » (Concessions Mavrommatis
en Palestine, arrêt no 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A no 2, p. 15.)
IV. Conclusion
74. La Cour peut être appelée, lorsqu’elle détermine objectivement
l’objet des différends qui lui sont soumis, à faire de subtiles distinctions.
En l’espèce, elle a opéré une distinction très subtile entre une demande
pour inexécution d’un de ses arrêts et une demande pour violation des
droits accordés par ledit arrêt. Il ressort clairement de la décision rendue
aujourd’hui que la Cour n’a pas mis autant de soin à distinguer si un
élément de preuve donné confirmait l’inexécution de l’arrêt de 2012 ou la
violation des droits souverains et des espaces maritimes définis dans cet
arrêt. La facilité avec laquelle ces deux demandes se recoupent et la difficulté
qu’a eue la Cour à évaluer les éléments de preuve risquent de rendre
l’examen au fond de l’affaire ardu.
(Signé) David D. Caron.

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Dissenting opinion of Judge <i>ad hoc</i> Caron

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