Dissenting opinion of Judge Bennouna

Document Number
141-20100722-ADV-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
141-20100722-ADV-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE BENNOUNA

[Translation]

Propriety of the Court giving an advisory opinion — Respect for the integrity
of the Court’s judicial function — Frivolous requests for advisory opinions —
Substitution of the Court for the Security Council in exercising its political

responsibilities — Scope and meaning of the question put to the Court —
Accordance with international law of the declaration of independence adopted in
the context of a territory under United Nations administration — Identity of the
authors of the unilateral declaration of independence — Consequences of the
stalemate in the Security Council — Interpretation of “silence” in international
law — Lex specialis and general international law — Constitutional Framework
established by UNMIK.

1. Before turning to the reasons which have prevented me from con-
curring with the Opinion of the Court, I should first like to consider the

propriety of the Court embarking on an exercise that is so hazardous for
it, as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, by responding to
the request for an advisory opinion submitted to it by the General
Assembly in resolution 63/3 of 8 October 2008.
2. That resolution was adopted in circumstances that are without prec-
edent in the history of the United Nations. It is the first time that the

General Assembly has sought an advisory opinion on a question which
was not, as such, on its agenda and which it had until then dealt with
essentially in terms of authorizing the expenditure of the United Nations
Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK). It is recognized that, in substance, the
whole of this question had fallen under the exclusive jurisdiction of the
Security Council for at least ten years or so, in particular since the latter

decided to place the territory of Kosovo under international administra-
tion (resolution 1244 of 10 June 1999) — with the exception, however, of
General Assembly resolution 54/183 on the Situation of Human Rights in
Kosovo, of 17 December 1999 (Advisory Opinion, para. 38).

3. I believe that if it had declined to respond to this request, the Court
could have put a stop to any “frivolous” requests which political organs
might be tempted to submit to it in future, and indeed thereby protected
the integrity of its judicial function. What is at issue above all in this case
is protecting the Court itself against any attempts to exploit it in a poli-

tical debate, rather than protecting the balance between the prin-
cipal political organs of the United Nations (the General Assembly and
Security Council), a matter which the Court discusses at some length
(ibid., paras. 37-48), or indeed the question of the self-determination and
independence of Kosovo, which has rightly been disregarded as lying

101beyond the scope of the request for an opinion (Advisory Opinion,

para. 83).

1. T HE PROPRIETY OF THE C OURT G IVING AN A DVISORY O PINION

4. It should be recalled that, when the Court receives a request for an
advisory opinion, pursuant to Article 65 of its Statute, it is not obliged to
comply with the request if it considers that giving a reply to the question
posed would be “incompatible with the Court’s judicial character” (West-

ern Sahara, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1975 , p. 25, para. 33).

5. It is true that the Court has recalled on several occasions in its juris-
prudence that it has discretion to consider the propriety of giving an

advisory opinion (since the case concerniInterpretation of Peace Treaties
with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1950), but it has hitherto never exercised that authority,
to the extent that scholarly opinion has begun to cast doubt on whether

it actually exists. The Court is reaching the point of making the propriety
of giving its opinion dependent on the requesting organ itself, thereby
depriving itself of its own discretionary power (Robert Kolb, “De la pré-
tendue discrétion de la Cour internationale de Justice de refuser de don-

ner un avis consultatif”, The International Legal System in Quest of
Equity and Universality: Liber Amicorum Georges Abi-Saab , 2001,
pp. 609-627). The Court has shown itself to be very reluctant to decline to
participate in United Nations action when asked to do so by one of the
organs of the United Nations. It has thus strictly circumscribed its discre-

tion, stipulating as a condition for exercising it the existence of “compel-
ling reasons” for not giving an opinion, yet without making clear what it
means by that.
6. However, the question of the compatibility of a request for an opin-

ion with the functions of the Court and its judicial character still stands,
even if no case of incompatibility has yet been recorded.
7. In the Kosovo case, the Court has been confronted with a situation
that has never occurred before, since it has ultimately been asked to set

itself up as a political decision-maker, in the place of the Security Coun-
cil. In other words, an attempt has been made, through this request for
an advisory opinion, to have it take on the functions of a political organ
of the United Nations, the Security Council, which the latter has not

been able to carry out.
8. The Court has been asked to give its opinion on whether the uni-
lateral declaration of independence (UDI) of 17 February 2008 by the
Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo is in accordance
with international law; however, the reply to this question cannot be

restricted to an analysis of the declaration as a formal act — it is neces-
sary for the Court to consider its content and scope, as well as the cir-
cumstances in which it was adopted. In this respect, the Court may not

102confine itself to general reflections according to which it cannot substitute
its own assessment for that of the requesting organ or is unable to form

a view as to whether its opinion would be likely to have an adverse effect
(Advisory Opinion, para. 35).
9. As will be seen below, the declaration was adopted by the
Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo established by res-
olution 1244 of the Security Council. It follows the mission which the

Secretary-General of the United Nations, Mr. Kofi Annan, gave to
his Special Envoy, Mr. Martti Ahtisaari, in November 2005, which was
to lead the political process aimed at determining the future status of
Kosovo, in the context of resolution 1244, by means of a negotiated set-

tlement.
10. Mr. Martti Ahtisaari was thus called upon to act as a mediator
between Serbia and the representatives of the institutions of Kosovo (the
Assembly) so that they reach an agreement on the future status of the
territory; such an agreement would then have to be endorsed by the

Security Council.
11. In his final report of 26 March 2007 on Kosovo’s future status,
transmitted to the Security Council by Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon
and with his support, Mr. Ahtisaari took the view that “[i]ndependence is
the only option for a politically stable and economically viable Kosovo”,

and proposed that such independence should be supervised and sup-
ported for an initial period by international civilian and military pres-
ences. Mr. Ahtisaari concluded by urging the Security Council to endorse
his proposal (Report transmitted to the President of the Security Council
by letter from the Secretary-General, 26 March 2007, S/2007/168).

12. In the end, it was the Assembly of Kosovo that did so, thereby
substituting itself for the Security Council. Serbia then asked the Court,
through the General Assembly of the United Nations, to pronounce on
the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008, whereby that sub-

stitution occurred, in order to establish whether it is in accordance with
international law. It is therefore clear that, by giving the advisory opinion
which has been requested of it, the Court is assessing, albeit indirectly,
the validity of the conclusions of the Ahtisaari Report, a role which
belongs solely to the Security Council, a political organ on which the

United Nations Charter confers primary responsibility for the main-
tenance of international peace and security. That organ, by adopting
resolution 1244 on the basis of Chapter VII of the Charter, established an
interim administration in Kosovo and has initiated, after some ten years,
a process for bringing it to an end, at the same time determining the final

status of the territory.
13. How, in these circumstances, can the Court pronounce on the
accordance with international law of Kosovo’s declaration of independ-
ence, when such an assessment is a matter for the Security Council alone

and that organ has not sought its opinion on the question?
14. That is why the Court, in this case, should have exercised its dis-

103cretionary power and declined to give its opinion on a question which is
incompatible with its status as a judicial organ. Beyond the question of

the accordance with international law of the declaration of independence,
what is at issue here is the exercise of the powers of a political organ of
the United Nations, the Security Council. As for the Ahtisaari Report, as
long as the Security Council makes no finding in this respect, it commits
only its author.

15. It is essential for the Court to ensure, in performing its advisory
function, that it is not exploited in favour of one specifically political
strategy or another, and, in this case in particular, not enlisted either in
the campaign to gather as many recognitions as possible of Kosovo’s

independence by other States, or in the one to keep these to a minimum;
whereas the Security Council, which is primarily responsible for pro-
nouncing on the option of independence, has not done so.

16. I am aware of the fact that the Court has a duty to contribute to

United Nations action in legal terms, but here, the decision on the future
status of Kosovo is not a matter for the General Assembly, which has
submitted the request for an opinion to the Court, but for the Security
Council. In this case, the Court cannot pronounce on the legality of the
declaration of independence without interfering in the political process of

maintaining peace established by the Security Council some ten years
ago, which that organ has been unable to bring to a conclusion.
17. A response from the Court would have been conceivable if the
substantive debate on Kosovo had moved from the Security Council to
the General Assembly, for example through the convening of an emer-

gency special session of the General Assembly under the terms of resolu-
tion 377 A (V), entitled “Uniting for peace”, as was the case with
the request for an advisory opinion by the General Assembly concerning
the Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied
Palestinian Territory (Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,

pp. 145-146, paras. 18-19). In that case, however, the General Assembly
had been continuously involved in the debate on the issue of the Middle East
and the Palestinian question since the partition plan of 1947, and these
were included year after year on its agenda. In contrast, the Kosovo case
has been solely the responsibility of the Security Council since the armed

intervention by NATO forces in Serbia in 1999.
18. Consequently, while Serbia initiated the inclusion on the General
Assembly’s agenda of a request for an advisory opinion of the Court,
that was not in order to allow the Court to pronounce on certain legal
aspects of the debate which the General Assembly had started on the

Kosovo case, but because it saw in this the only opportunity still avail-
able to it to challenge the unilateral declaration of independence of
17 February 2008. What is involved here is not the “motives of individual
States which sponsor . . . a resolution requesting an advisory opinion”,

which “are not relevant to the Court’s exercise of its discretion”
(Advisory Opinion, para. 33), but rather an assessment of the situation in

104Kosovo and of the handling of it, by the United Nations, at the point
when the General Assembly adopted the request for an opinion on

8 October 2008.
19. Moreover, there was no real debate on the question of the status of
Kosovo when the General Assembly adopted resolution 63/3 requesting
an advisory opinion of the Court (General Assembly, Sixty-third session,
A/63/PV.22, 8 October 2008).

20. It may be questioned, therefore, whether the request for an advi-
sory opinion adopted by the General Assembly (by 77 votes to six, with
74 abstentions) is compatible with the Court’s functions as a judicial
organ, as defined by the Charter of the United Nations and by the Stat-

ute of the Court.
21. Furthermore, whatever the Court’s response to the question put by
the General Assembly, it will not in any way assist that political organ,
which cannot, in the light of the opinion, either modify Security Council
resolution 1244 or interpret it accordingly, since that task falls to the organ

which adopted it. It is not enough to say that only the Assembly can
appreciate the reasons which have led it to request an advisory opinion
(Advisory Opinion, para. 34), since that would mean the Court abandon-
ing outright the exercise of its discretion as to the propriety of giving such
an opinion. All the protagonists in the Kosovo case have stated in advance,

in particular before the Court, that the opinion, whatever it may be, will
have no impact on their position in relation to the declaration of independ-
ence. Therefore, the advisory opinion can only be used as an argument in
the political debate taking place between the supporters of recognizing
Kosovo’s independence and those who are against it.

22. By becoming enlisted in this way, the Court has everything to lose
in this political contest, without contributing in any real way either to
reducing the tensions caused by the unilateral declaration of independ-
ence or to clarifying the functions and responsibility of the United
Nations in respect of a territory placed under its administration.

23. In addition, since the declaration of independence of 17 February
2008, the fait accompli of the creation of Kosovo as an independent
entity has been reflected on the ground, with the increasing de facto mar-
ginalization of the United Nations presence and its administration. Such
a situation makes the propriety of responding to the question posed by

the General Assembly yet more dubious and problematic, while the
United Nations has given the impression of adapting to the new state of
affairs (though how could it do otherwise?).
24. The Court itself has to make sure the integrity of its judicial func-
tion is respected, in contentious as well as in advisory matters, as it made

very clear in its Judgment of 2 December 1963 in the case concerning
Northern Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objec-
tions:

“both the Permanent Court of International Justice and this Court
have emphasized the fact that the Court’s authority to give advisory

105 opinions must be exercised as a judicial function. Both Courts have

had occasion to make pronouncements concerning requests for advi-
sory opinions, which are equally applicable to the proper role of the
Court in disposing of contested cases; in both situations, the Court
is exercising a judicial function. That function is circumscribed by
inherent limitations which are none the less imperative because they

may be difficult to catalogue, and may not frequently present them-
selves as a conclusive bar to adjudication in a concrete case. Never-
theless, it is always a matter for the determination of the Court
whether its judicial functions are involved. This Court, like the Per-

manent Court of International Justice, has always been guided by
the principle which the latter stated in the case concerning the Status
of Eastern Carelia on 23 July 1923:

‘The Court, being a Court of Justice, cannot, even in giving

advisory opinions, depart from the essential rules guiding their
activity as a Court.’ (P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 5 , p. 29.)” (Northern
Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963 , p. 30.)

25. While the Court cannot substitute itself for the Security Council in

exercising its responsibilities, nor can it stand legal guarantor for a policy
of fait accompli based simply on who can gain the upper hand. Its duty
is to preserve its role, which is to state the law, clearly and independently.
That is how it will safeguard its credibility in performing its functions, for
the benefit of the international community.

26. Those are the reasons which led me to vote against the Court’s
decision to give an advisory opinion in this case. Having said that, the
Court’s response to the request of the General Assembly did not strike

me as convincing, and I shall now explain why.

2. THE SCOPE AND M EANING OF THE QUESTION POSED

27. This second aspect of the opinion is of course linked with the first.
Whereas the Court declines to consider either the motivation of the Gen-
eral Assembly or the aims it was pursuing by means of its request for an
opinion, it has nonetheless deemed itself authorized to modify the word-

ing of the request, to the point of completely altering its meaning and
scope.
28. The Court relies on the fact that neither the agenda item under
which resolution 63/3 was debated, nor the title of the resolution specified
the identity of the authors of the unilateral declaration of independence,

and that the question of their identity was not raised during the debate
on the draft resolution. The Court then concludes that it is “free to . . .
decide for itself whether that declaration was promulgated by the Provi-

106sional Institutions of Self-Government or some other entity” (Advisory
Opinion, para. 54).

29. However, the General Assembly’s question could not be more
clear, and there is nothing in the debate which preceded the adoption of
resolution 63/3 of 8 October 2008 to suggest that the General Assembly’s
only concern was the accordance with international law of the declara-
tion of independence, regardless of who the authors were. Does the fact

that the participants in the debate on the draft resolution (A/63/PV.22)
did not raise the question of the identity of the authors of the declaration
imply that it is not a relevant consideration for the requesting organ, or is
it rather precisely because the question is such an obvious one for all the

United Nations Member States that they consequently did not consider it
necessary to discuss or contest it? As for the difference noted by the
Court between the title of the agenda item, the title of the resolution, and
the question submitted to the Court, it is hard to see any significance in
this since what matters for the Court is the content of the question put by

the General Assembly.
30. This question therefore does not need to be interpreted in any way.
And the Court acknowledges this: “the question posed by the General
Assembly is clearly formulated. The question is narrow and specific.”
(Advisory Opinion, para. 51.) The General Assembly did not request the

Court to give its opinion on just any declaration of independence, but on
the one adopted on 17 February 2008 by the Provisional Institutions of
Self-Government of Kosovo, which were established with specific com-
petences by the United Nations. On 2 October 2008, however, before the
adoption of resolution 63/3, the representative of the United Kingdom

addressed a note of issues to the President of the General Assembly in
which he indicated that:

“It would be useful to know whether Serbia is seeking to focus on
a narrower question about the competence of the Provisional Insti-
tutions of Self-Government of Kosovo, and, if so, precisely how that
question relates to Kosovo’s status at the present time.” (A/63/461 of

2 October 2008.)
31. The answer to that question has been given by Serbia and by the

General Assembly. It is indeed a matter of assessing an act adopted by
the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo, and not just
any act emanating from a hundred or so persons who supposedly declared
themselves to be representing the people.
32. At that point in time, the only institution recognized by the United

Nations as representing the people of Kosovo was the elected Assembly
of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government. Even supposing that
the Court comes to the conclusion that the declaration of independence
was not adopted by the Assembly of the Provisional Institutions of Self-

Government of Kosovo, acting as such, contrary to the assertion of the
General Assembly of the United Nations, should it not then exercise its

107discretionary power and decline to respond to a question that would no

longer have any content or scope? Ultimately, the General Assembly
does not expect the Court to provide its legal opinion on a question
which it has not put to it, i.e., a declaration issued by a hundred or so
persons, unconnected with the United Nations.

33. The Court has in the past extended the question posed in order to
reply to it as fully as possible (Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March
1951 between the WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1980, pp. 88-89, para. 35). It took the same approach in the Advisory

Opinion on Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, para-
graph 2, of the Charter) (I.C.J. Reports 1962, pp. 156-157), in which it
set out to “examine Article 17 in itself and in its relation to the rest of the
Charter”; likewise, the Court was obliged to clarify the question posed

when this appeared to be “infelicitously expressed and vague” (Applica-
tion for Review of Judgement No. 273 of the United Nations Administra-
tive Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1982 , p. 348, para. 46). In
these instances, however, the Court remained within the bounds of its

judicial functions in taking account of all the applicable law or interpret-
ing a confused or imprecise text.
34. Never, though, has the Court amended the question posed in a
manner contrary to its object and purpose, which in this case are to

determine whether the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008
did or did not fall within the competence of the Provisional Institutions
of Self-Government of Kosovo, as indicated by the United Kingdom
representative in his above-mentioned note of 2 October 2008 to the

President of the General Assembly.
35. If the Court were able to employ discretion to such an extent, by
replying in the end to a question which it has itself adjusted beforehand
in order to make it fit a certain mould, then it would seriously prejudice

the sense of judicial security that ought to prevail among the States and
organs of the United Nations applying to the Court.

3. ACCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL LAW
OF THE U NILATERAL D ECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

36. The General Assembly made a point of characterizing the declara-
tion of independence as unilateral to make it clear that it issued from
only one of the parties (the Assembly of the Provisional Institutions of
Self-Government of Kosovo) involved in the political process, based on

Security Council resolution 1244 of 10 June 1999, for the determination
of Kosovo’s final status.
37. The Court was requested by the General Assembly to give its
opinion on the accordance of the declaration with international law. In

rendering its opinion, the Court should first of all have ascertained the
international law applicable in this area.

108 38. But, while the Court does describe the legal régime established by
the Security Council through resolution 1244 and regulations adopted by

the Secretary-General’s Special Representative and UNMIK (Advisory
Opinion, paras. 58-63), it fails first to identify the applicable rules of gen-
eral international law and to explain how it will go about determining
whether the unilateral declaration is in accordance with these two sets of
standards. Ordinarily, the Court should first look into the applicable lex

specialis (that is to say the law of the United Nations) before considering
whether the declaration is in accordance with general international law.
As observed by the Chairman of the International Law Commission’s
Study Group on the Fragmentation of International Law: “[P]reference

was often given to a special standard because it not only best reflects the
requirements of the context, but because it best reflected the intent of
those who were to be bound by it.” (Report of the International Law
Commission, 2004, A/59/10, p. 286.)
39. The Court has chosen instead to examine “the lawfulness of dec-

larations of independence under general international law” (Advisory
Opinion, para. 78). The General Assembly did not however ask the
Court to opine in the abstract on declarations of independence generally
but rather on a specific declaration adopted in a particular context —
that of a territory which the Council has placed under United Nations

administration — and this at a time when Security Council resolu-
tion 1244 was in force, and it still is. It would moreover make no sense to
assess the accordance with international law of a declaration of inde-
pendence without regard to who the author(s) are or to the background
against which it was adopted. Likewise, the Court’s conclusion in this

respect is itself meaningless:
“the Court considers that general international law contains no

applicable prohibition of declarations of independence. Accordingly,
it concludes that the declaration of independence of 17 Febru-
ary 2008 did not violate general international law.” (Ibid., para. 84.)

40. This is at best a sophism, in other words reasoning that is logical in
appearance alone, because it proceeds from the proposition that what is
valid for the whole is valid for the part. Since the principles of general

international law, i.e., territorial integrity and self-determination, call
here for analysis in the context of a territory under United Nations
administration, the Court could not announce its conclusion before
examining the law governing the territory as it relates to the declaration
of independence.

41. It is only in a second stage that the Court reaches the conclusion
that: “Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and the Constitutional
Framework form part of the international law which is to be considered

in replying to the question posed by the General Assembly in its request
for the advisory opinion” (ibid., para. 93).

109 42. While resolution 1244 was indeed concerned with setting up an
interim framework of self-government for Kosovo, as the Court notes, I

do not see anything to justify the assertion the Court then makes: “at the
time of the adoption of the resolution, it was expected that the final
status of Kosovo would flow from, and be developed within, the frame-
work set up by the resolution” (Advisory Opinion, para. 104).
43. It was simply a matter of UNMIK facilitating a political process

designed to determine Kosovo’s future status, taking into account the
Rambouillet accords. That political process is what the Special Envoy,
Mr. Ahtisaari, was asked by the Security Council to lead through nego-
tiations between Serbia and the elected representatives of Kosovo (the

Assembly); as the two parties were unable to reach agreement,
Mr. Ahtisaari proposed a settlement plan to the Council, but the Council
never approved it.
44. The facts that the authors of the Declaration, members of the
Assembly of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo,

cited the breakdown of negotiations and that they did not intend to act
within the framework of the interim régime of self-government (ibid.,
para. 105) do not by themselves change the legal nature of an act adopted
by the Assembly of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of
Kosovo. In law, it is not merely because an institution has adopted an act

exceeding its powers (ultra vires) that the legal bond between the insti-
tution and the act is broken. In such a case, the institution must be con-
sidered to be in breach of the legal framework that justifies and legiti-
mizes it.
45. Similarly, it is not because the Assembly trespassed on the powers

of the Special Representative (ibid., para. 106) by involving itself in mat-
ters of Kosovo’s external relations that it must be considered as acting in
a different capacity or as an entity no longer related to the Provisional
Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo. Here as well, the Assembly
simply committed an act which is illegal under international law.

46. The Court’s reasoning, aimed at dispelling any inkling of the
declaration’s illegality under the law of the United Nations, consisted of
severing it from the institution (the Assembly) that was created within
this framework:

“the authors of the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008
did not act as one of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Govern-

ment . . . but rather as persons who acted together in their capacity
as representatives of the people of Kosovo outside the framework of
the interim administration” (ibid., para. 109).

To reach this conclusion, the Court relies upon the language used and the
procedure employed (ibid., para. 107). Thus it was enough for the authors
of the declaration to change the appearance of the text, and to hold

themselves out as “the democratically-elected leaders of [the] people” in
order for them to cease to be bound by the Constitutional Framework

110for Kosovo, which states that “[t]he Provisional Institutions of Self-Gov-
ernment and their officials shall . . . [e]xercise their authorities consistent

with the provisions of UNSCR 1244 (1999) and the terms set forth in this
Constitutional Framework”. If such reasoning is followed to its end, it
would be enough to become an outlaw, as it were, in order to escape
having to comply with the law.
47. With a view to shedding light on this aspect of the question, during

the oral proceedings I asked participants generally, and the authors of
the declaration of independence specifically (CR 2009/33, p. 24), whether
the question of adopting such a declaration had been raised in any form
during the campaign for election to the Assembly of the Provisional Insti-

tutions in November 2007. A response in the negative was received both
from the authors of the declaration of independence and from Serbia
(replies by the authors of the declaration of independence and by the
Republic of Serbia, dated 22 December 2009). If the members of the
Assembly, who had been elected on 17 November 2007, had wished to

express the “will of [their] people” in a declaration made on 17 Febru-
ary 2008, they should at least have told their electors so.
48. It is very significant that when he reported to the Security Council
at the meeting held on 18 February 2008 (S/PV.5839), the day after the
adoption of the declaration of independence of Kosovo dated 17 Febru-

ary 2008, the Secretary-General of the United Nations did so as follows:
“Yesterday, my Special Representative for Kosovo informed me that the
Assembly of Kosovo’s Provisional Institutions of Self-Government held
a session during which it adopted a declaration of independence, which
declares Kosovo an independent and sovereign State.”

49. On the other hand, in his report of 28 March 2008 to the Security
Council on the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in
Kosovo (S/2008/211) the Secretary-General added, after noting that the
electoral process in Kosovo had concluded on 19 December 2007 and that

the members of the Assembly of Kosovo had taken their oath on 4 Janu-
ary 2008: “On 17 February, the Assembly of Kosovo held a session dur-
ing which it adopted a ‘declaration of independence’, declaring Kosovo
an independent and sovereign State.” I would infer that the Secretary-
General as well as his special representative were also relying on the

address by the Prime Minister of Kosovo on 17 February 2008, when he
spoke before the extraordinary meeting of the Assembly of Kosovo:

“Today, the President of Kosovo and myself, as the Prime Minister
of Kosovo, have officially requested from the President of the Assembly,
Mr. Krasniqi; to call for a special session with two agenda items,
This invitation for a special session is extended in accordance with

the Kosovo Constitutional Framework, whereby we present two
items on the agenda:

1. Declaration of independence for Kosovo, and

111 2. Presentation of Kosovo State symbols.” (Written Contribution
of the Authors of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence,

17 April 2009, Ann. 2.)
50. Thus, there was no doubt in the minds of the Secretary-General

and his Special Representative in Kosovo that the declaration was in fact
the work of the recently elected Assembly of the Provisional Institutions
of Self-Government of Kosovo.
51. Of course, the serious problem the declaration raised in respect of
the United Nations Mission and the mandate it had been given by the

Security Council did not escape the Secretary-General:

“I immediately drew this development to the attention of the
Security Council, so that it could consider the matter. In doing so, I
reaffirmed that, pending guidance from the Security Council, the
United Nations would continue to operate on the understanding
that resolution 1244 (1999) remains in force and constitutes the legal

framework for the mandate of UNMIK, and that UNMIK would
continue to implement its mandate in the light of the evolving cir-
cumstances.” (Report of the Secretary-General on the United
Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, S/2008/211 of
28 March 2008.)

52. It must also be kept in mind that when, in its resolution on
7 November 2002, the Assembly of Kosovo had previously asserted the

right to determine Kosovo’s future status, the Special Representative of
the United Nations Secretary-General stated on the same day:

“Kosovo is under the authority of UN Security Council resolu-
tion 1244 (1999). Neither Belgrade nor Pristina can prejudge the
future status of Kosovo. Its future status is open and will be decided
by the UN Security Council. Any unilateral statement in whatever
form which is not endorsed by the Security Council has no legal

effect on the future status of Kosovo.”

53. Accordingly, no unilateral declaration affecting Kosovo’s future
status, whatever the form of the declaration or the intentions of its
authors, has any legal validity until it has been endorsed by the Security
Council. Contrary to what the Court implies, it is not enough for the
authors simply to step beyond the bounds of the law to cease being sub-

ject to it.
54. The Court believes the inaction of the Security Council, the Secretary-
General and his Special Representative, in response to the declaration
of independence, to be confirmation that the declaration was not the work

of the Assembly of Kosovo, and it contrasts this inertia with the actions
taken between 2002 and 2005, when

“the Special Representative had qualified a number of acts as being
incompatible with the Constitutional Framework on the ground that

112 they were deemed to be ‘beyond the scope of [the Assembly’s] com-
petencies’ (United Nations dossier No. 189, 7 February 2003) and

therefore outside the powers of the Assembly of Kosovo” (Advisory
Opinion, para. 108).

55. However, the Security Council was prevented, by a lack of
agreement among its permanent members, from taking a decision on the

Kosovo question after receiving the Ahtisaari Report in March 2007.
And, as is often the case within the United Nations, this deadlock in the
Council had a reverberating effect on the Secretary-General, charged with
implementing its decisions, and his Special Representative.

56. A stalemate in the Security Council does not release either the
parties to a dispute from their obligations or by consequence the mem-
bers of the Assembly of Kosovo from their duty to respect the Constitu-
tional Framework and resolution 1244. Were that the case, the credibility
of the collective security system established by the United Nations Char-

ter would be undermined. This would, in fact, leave the parties to a dis-
pute to face off against each other, with each being free to implement its
own position unilaterally. And in theory the other party, Serbia, could
have relied on the deadlock to claim that it was justified in exercising full
and effective sovereignty over Kosovo in defence of the integrity of its

territory.
57. In my view, stalemate within the Security Council at a particular
point cannot justify unilateral acts performed, or faits accomplis created,
by either party, or be deemed tacit approval of them. A failure by the
Council to take a decision on account of the veto power of one of its

permanent members is contemplated in the Charter. Its legal effect ends
there; inaction is itself a political act.
58. On the other hand, although unable to reach a decision on the
Ahtisaari Report, referred to it in March 2007, the Council nevertheless
encouraged attempts at mediation between the parties, in particular when

it decided to send a mission, made up of members of the Council and led
by Johan C. Verbeke, representative of Belgium, to Belgrade and Pris-
tina, in April 2007 (S/2007/220 of 20 April 2007), and when it supported
the attempts by the troika (made up of the European Union, United
States and Russia) created by the Contact Group to reconcile the two

parties (from July to December 2007).
59. This being the case, I cannot endorse the Court’s interpretation of the
“silence” of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General, which
supposedly confirms that the declaration of independence was not the
work of the Assembly of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government

of Kosovo.
60. We know just how delicate it can be to interpret an actor’s “silence”
in international law. In all events, silence must be interpreted by reference
to the entirety of the direct context and its background. Here, the dead-

lock in the United Nations bodies during the process to determine
Kosovo’s future status does not justify the conclusion that a unilateral

113declaration of independence hitherto not in accordance with international
law is suddenly deserving of an imprimatur of compliance. In fact, the

reason why the Special Representative of the Secretary-General took no
action was not that he considered the declaration to be in accordance
with international law, but simply that the political body to which he was
answerable was unable to reach a decision on advancing in the process
under way to determine the future status of Kosovo.

61. The Court then reflects on resolution 1244 and arrives at the con-
clusion that the resolution does not contain a prohibition binding on the
authors of the declaration of independence (Advisory Opinion, para. 118).

And for good reason, since the Provisional Institutions had yet to be cre-
ated and the authors in question could not yet be identified. In reality,
the issue at this juncture is not establishing whether resolution 1244 was
aimed at prohibiting action by the authors of the declaration of inde-
pendence, but simply recalling the mandatory force of this text, which is

binding on the institutions to be created “to provide an interim adminis-
tration . . . under which the people of Kosovo can enjoy substantial
autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia” (paragraph 10 of
resolution 1244 (1999) of the Security Council).

62. UNMIK thus adopted the Constitutional Framework and set up
the interim administration on the basis of the mandate it had received
from the Security Council in resolution 1244. A violation of the Consti-
tutional Framework therefore entails a simultaneous violation of the
Security Council resolution, which is binding on all States and non-State

actors in Kosovo as a result of the territory having been placed under
United Nations administration. This being the case, it is difficult to see
how the Court could find that “Security Council resolution 1244
(1999) did not bar the authors of the declaration of 17 February 2008 from
issuing a declaration of independence from the Republic of Serbia”

(Advisory Opinion, para. 119). In my view, it does establish such a bar,
on at least two counts: because the declaration is not within the Consti-
tutional Framework established pursuant to the mandate given to
UNMIK in the resolution; and because the declaration is unilateral,
whereas Kosovo’s final status must be approved by the Security Council.

63. Finally, even if it is assumed that the declaration of 17 February
2008 was issued by a hundred or so individuals having proclaimed them-
selves representatives of the people of Kosovo, how is it possible for them
to have been able to violate the legal order established by UNMIK under
the Constitutional Framework, which all inhabitants of Kosovo are sup-

posed to respect?
64. The Court responds merely by asserting that, when adopting the
declaration of independence, the authors were not bound by the Consti-
tutional Framework and that the declaration was not an act intended to

take effect within the legal order put in place by the United Nations
(ibid., para. 121). But then what legal order governed the authors and the

114declaration itself? It was not, in any case, the legal order of Serbia nor
that of a new sovereign State. And not being part of the interim institu-

tions does not exempt the authors from the legal order established by
UNMIK regulation 1999/1, providing that “[a]ll legislative and executive
authority with respect to Kosovo, including the administration of the
judiciary, is vested in UNMIK and is exercised by the Special Repre-

sentative of the Secretary-General”. This simply means that all those liv-
ing in Kosovo are subject to such authority and must comply with the
régime of self-government established by the United Nations. Hence, in
my opinion, it does not matter whether or not the authors of the declara-
tion of independence are considered to be members of the Assembly of

Kosovo; under no circumstances were they entitled to adopt a declara-
tion that contravenes the Constitutional Framework and Security Coun-
cil resolution 1244 by running counter to the legal régime for the admin-
istration of Kosovo established by the United Nations.

65. That said, the Court has minimized the purport and scope of its
Opinion, since it has limited it to the declaration as such, severed from its
legal effects. It may therefore be asked: how can this Opinion, wherein it
is concluded that a declaration adopted by some one hundred individu-
als, self-proclaimed representatives of the people, does not violate inter-

national law, guide the requesting organ, the General Assembly, in
respect of its own action?
66. This remains a complete mystery, even if the Opinion will be
exploited for political ends.

67. Expressing my personal view, I would be tempted to say that the
result is that the Court’s assistance to the General Assembly has emerged
trivialized, and this is yet another reason why the Court should have
exercised its discretion by refraining from acceding to the request for an
opinion.

68. Finally, the Court in this case has not identified the rules, general
or special, of international law governing the declaration of independence
of 17 February 2008; according to the Opinion, general international law
is inoperative in this area and United Nations law does not cover the

situation the Court has chosen to consider: that of a declaration arising
in an indeterminate legal order. Accordingly, there is apparently nothing
in the law to prevent the United Nations from pursuing its efforts at
mediation in respect of Kosovo in co-operation with the regional organi-
zations concerned.

69. Such declarations are no more than foam on the tide of time; they
cannot allow the past to be forgotten nor a future to be built on frag-
ments of the present.

(Signed) Mohamed B ENNOUNA .

115

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE BENNOUNA

Opportunité pour la Cour de donner un avis consultatif — Respect de l’inté-
grité de la fonction judiciaire de la Cour — Demandes frivoles d’avis consulta-
tifs — Substitution de la Cour au Conseil de sécurité dans l’exercice de ses

responsabilités politiques — Sens et portée de la question posée à la
Cour — Conformité au droit international de la déclaration d’indépendance
adoptée dans le contexte d’un territoire administré par les Nations Unies — Iden-
tité des auteurs de la déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance — Conséquences du
blocage du Conseil de sécurité — Interprétation du «silence» en droit interna-
tional — Lex specialis et droit international général — Cadre constitutionnel
établi par la MINUK.

1. Avant d’en venir aux raisons qui ne m’ont pas permis de me rallier
à l’avis de la Cour, je voudrais tout d’abord examiner l’opportunité

même pour celle-ci de s’engager dans un exercice aussi périlleux pour elle,
en tant qu’organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies, en répondant à
la demande d’avis consultatif qui lui a été adressée par l’Assemblée géné-
rale dans sa résolution 63/3 du 8 octobre 2008.
2. Cette résolution a été adoptée dans des conditions sans précédent
dans l’histoire des Nations Unies. En effet, c’est la première fois que

l’Assemblée générale demande un avis consultatif sur une question qui
n’était pas, en tant que telle, à son ordre du jour et qu’elle traitait, jusque-
là, essentiellement sous l’angle de l’autorisation des dépenses de la
Mission d’administration intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo
(MINUK). Il est admis que l’ensemble de cette question relevait, en
substance, de la compétence exclusive du Conseil de sécurité depuis

au moins une dizaine d’années, en particulier depuis que cet organe a
décidé de placer le territoire du Kosovo sous administration interna-
tionale (résolution 1244 du 10 juin 1999); à l’exception cependant
de la résolution 54/183 de l’Assemblée générale, en date du 17 décembre
1999, sur la situation des droits de l’homme au Kosovo (avis,

par. 38).
3. Je pense que, si elle avait refusé de répondre à cette demande, la
Cour aurait pu donner un coup d’arrêt à toutes les demandes «frivoles»
d’avis que des organes politiques pourraient être tentés, à l’avenir, de lui
adresser et de protéger par là même l’intégrité de sa fonction judiciaire.
Ce qui est surtout en cause dans cette affaire, c’est la protection de la

Cour elle-même contre des tentatives visant à l’instrumentaliser dans un
débat politique, plutôt que la protection de l’équilibre entre les organes
politiques principaux des Nations Unies (Assemblée générale et Conseil
de sécurité), question à laquelle la Cour a consacré des développements
étendus (ibid., par. 37-48), ou encore la question de l’autodétermination

101 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE BENNOUNA

[Translation]

Propriety of the Court giving an advisory opinion — Respect for the integrity
of the Court’s judicial function — Frivolous requests for advisory opinions —
Substitution of the Court for the Security Council in exercising its political

responsibilities — Scope and meaning of the question put to the Court —
Accordance with international law of the declaration of independence adopted in
the context of a territory under United Nations administration — Identity of the
authors of the unilateral declaration of independence — Consequences of the
stalemate in the Security Council — Interpretation of “silence” in international
law — Lex specialis and general international law — Constitutional Framework
established by UNMIK.

1. Before turning to the reasons which have prevented me from con-
curring with the Opinion of the Court, I should first like to consider the

propriety of the Court embarking on an exercise that is so hazardous for
it, as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, by responding to
the request for an advisory opinion submitted to it by the General
Assembly in resolution 63/3 of 8 October 2008.
2. That resolution was adopted in circumstances that are without prec-
edent in the history of the United Nations. It is the first time that the

General Assembly has sought an advisory opinion on a question which
was not, as such, on its agenda and which it had until then dealt with
essentially in terms of authorizing the expenditure of the United Nations
Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK). It is recognized that, in substance, the
whole of this question had fallen under the exclusive jurisdiction of the
Security Council for at least ten years or so, in particular since the latter

decided to place the territory of Kosovo under international administra-
tion (resolution 1244 of 10 June 1999) — with the exception, however, of
General Assembly resolution 54/183 on the Situation of Human Rights in
Kosovo, of 17 December 1999 (Advisory Opinion, para. 38).

3. I believe that if it had declined to respond to this request, the Court
could have put a stop to any “frivolous” requests which political organs
might be tempted to submit to it in future, and indeed thereby protected
the integrity of its judicial function. What is at issue above all in this case
is protecting the Court itself against any attempts to exploit it in a poli-

tical debate, rather than protecting the balance between the prin-
cipal political organs of the United Nations (the General Assembly and
Security Council), a matter which the Court discusses at some length
(ibid., paras. 37-48), or indeed the question of the self-determination and
independence of Kosovo, which has rightly been disregarded as lying

101et de l’indépendance du Kosovo, qui a été écartée, à juste titre, comme ne
relevant pas de la demande d’avis (avis, par. 83).

1. L’ OPPORTUNITÉ POUR LA COUR DE DONNER UN AVIS CONSULTATIF

4. Il convient de rappeler que, lorsque la Cour est saisie d’une demande
d’avis consultatif, conformément à l’article 65 de son Statut, la Cour n’est
pas tenue d’y donner suite si elle considère qu’une réponse de sa part à la
question posée serait «incompatible avec le caractère judiciaire de la
Cour» (Sahara occidental, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1975 ,p .,

par. 33).
5. Certes, la Cour a rappelé à maintes reprises, dans sa jurisprudence,
son pouvoir discrétionnaire d’apprécier l’opportunité de donner un avis
consultatif (depuis l’affaire de l’Interprétation des traités de paix conclus

avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie, première phase, avis consul-
tatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950 ), mais elle ne l’a, jusqu’à présent, jamais exercé,
au point que la doctrine s’est mise à douter de son existence réelle. En
effet, la Cour en vient, en fin de compte, à faire dépendre l’opportunité de
donner son avis de l’organe requérant lui-même, se privant ainsi de son

pouvoir propre d’appréciation (Robert Kolb, «De la prétendue discré-
tion de la Cour internationale de Justice de refuser de donner un avis
consultatif», dans L’ordre juridique international, un système en quête
d’équité et d’universalité : liber amicorum Georges Abi-Saab , 2001, p. 609-

627). La Cour s’est montrée très réticente pour refuser de participer à
l’action des Nations Unies lorsqu’elle lui est demandée par l’un de ses
organes. Elle a ainsi encadré de façon stricte son pouvoir discrétionnaire,
en posant comme condition à son exercice l’existence de «raisons déci-
sives» (compelling reasons) pour ne pas donner un avis, sans d’ailleurs

préciser ce qu’elle entend par là.
6. Cependant, la question de la compatibilité d’une demande d’avis
avec les fonctions de la Cour et son caractère judiciaire reste entière,
même si, jusqu’à présent, aucun cas d’incompatibilité n’a été relevé.

7. La Cour a été confrontée dans l’affaire du Kosovo à une situation
inédite puisqu’il lui est demandé finalement de s’ériger en décideur poli-
tique, au lieu et place du Conseil de sécurité. En d’autres termes, on a
cherché, au travers de cette demande d’avis consultatif, à lui faire assu-
mer les fonctions d’un organe politique des Nations Unies, le Conseil de

sécurité, fonctions auxquelles celui-ci n’a pas pu faire face.

8. Il est demandé à la Cour de donner son avis sur le point de savoir si
la déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance (DUI), du 17 février 2008, des

institutions provisoires d’administration autonome du Kosovo est
conforme au droit international; mais la réponse à cette question ne peut
se limiter à l’analyse de la déclaration en tant qu’acte formel, la Cour doit
nécessairement examiner son contenu et sa portée, ainsi que les circons-
tances dans lesquelles elle a été adoptée. De ce point de vue, la Cour ne

102beyond the scope of the request for an opinion (Advisory Opinion,

para. 83).

1. T HE PROPRIETY OF THE C OURT G IVING AN A DVISORY O PINION

4. It should be recalled that, when the Court receives a request for an
advisory opinion, pursuant to Article 65 of its Statute, it is not obliged to
comply with the request if it considers that giving a reply to the question
posed would be “incompatible with the Court’s judicial character” (West-

ern Sahara, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1975 , p. 25, para. 33).

5. It is true that the Court has recalled on several occasions in its juris-
prudence that it has discretion to consider the propriety of giving an

advisory opinion (since the case concerniInterpretation of Peace Treaties
with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1950), but it has hitherto never exercised that authority,
to the extent that scholarly opinion has begun to cast doubt on whether

it actually exists. The Court is reaching the point of making the propriety
of giving its opinion dependent on the requesting organ itself, thereby
depriving itself of its own discretionary power (Robert Kolb, “De la pré-
tendue discrétion de la Cour internationale de Justice de refuser de don-

ner un avis consultatif”, The International Legal System in Quest of
Equity and Universality: Liber Amicorum Georges Abi-Saab , 2001,
pp. 609-627). The Court has shown itself to be very reluctant to decline to
participate in United Nations action when asked to do so by one of the
organs of the United Nations. It has thus strictly circumscribed its discre-

tion, stipulating as a condition for exercising it the existence of “compel-
ling reasons” for not giving an opinion, yet without making clear what it
means by that.
6. However, the question of the compatibility of a request for an opin-

ion with the functions of the Court and its judicial character still stands,
even if no case of incompatibility has yet been recorded.
7. In the Kosovo case, the Court has been confronted with a situation
that has never occurred before, since it has ultimately been asked to set

itself up as a political decision-maker, in the place of the Security Coun-
cil. In other words, an attempt has been made, through this request for
an advisory opinion, to have it take on the functions of a political organ
of the United Nations, the Security Council, which the latter has not

been able to carry out.
8. The Court has been asked to give its opinion on whether the uni-
lateral declaration of independence (UDI) of 17 February 2008 by the
Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo is in accordance
with international law; however, the reply to this question cannot be

restricted to an analysis of the declaration as a formal act — it is neces-
sary for the Court to consider its content and scope, as well as the cir-
cumstances in which it was adopted. In this respect, the Court may not

102peut se contenter de considérations d’ordre général selon lesquelles elle ne
peut se substituer à l’appréciation de l’organe demandeur ou elle n’est pas

à même d’apprécier le risque des conséquences négatives que son avis
pourrait avoir (avis, par. 35).
9. Ainsi qu’on le verra plus loin, la déclaration a été adoptée par les
institutions provisoires d’administration autonome du Kosovo mises en
place par la résolution 1244 du Conseil de sécurité. Elle fait suite à la mis-

sion confiée par le Secrétaire général des Nations Unies, M. Kofi Annan,
en novembre 2005, à son envoyé spécial, M. Martti Ahtisaari, afin de
conduire le processus politique, dans le contexte de la résolution 1244,
visant à déterminer le statut futur du Kosovo, au travers d’un règlement

négocié.
10. M. Martti Ahtisaari a été appelé ainsi à servir de médiateur entre
la Serbie et les représentants des institutions (l’Assemblée) du Kosovo
pour qu’ils parviennent à un accord sur le statut futur du territoire,
accord qui devra être entériné par le Conseil de sécurité.

11. Dans son rapport final du 26 mars 2007 sur le statut futur du
Kosovo, transmis au Conseil de sécurité par le Secrétaire général,
M. Ban Ki-moon, et avec le soutien de celui-ci, M. Ahtisaari a considéré
que «[l]’indépendance est la seule option qui permettrait d’assurer la sta-

bilité politique et la viabilité économique du Kosovo», et il a proposé que
cette indépendance s’exerce, dans un premier temps, sous la supervision
et avec l’appui d’une présence civile et militaire internationale. Enfin,
M. Ahtisaari a exhorté le Conseil de sécurité à approuver sa proposition
(rapport transmis au président du Conseil de sécurité par lettre du Secré-

taire général, en date du 26 mars 2007, S/2007/168).
12. Il reviendra finalement à l’Assemblée du Kosovo de le faire, en se
substituant ainsi au Conseil de sécurité. Par la suite, la Serbie en est
venue à solliciter, au travers de l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies,
cette Cour pour se prononcer sur la déclaration d’indépendance du

17 février 2008, par laquelle une telle substitution est intervenue, afin de
dire si elle est conforme au droit international. Dès lors, il est clair que,
en donnant l’avis consultatif qui lui est demandé, la Cour apprécie, même
indirectement, la validité des conclusions du rapport Ahtisaari, rôle qui
revient à titre exclusif au Conseil de sécurité, organe politique, investi par

la Charte des Nations Unies de la responsabilité principale en matière de
maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales. En effet, cet organe,
en adoptant la résolution 1244, sur la base du chapitre VII de la Charte,
a institué une administration intérimaire au Kosovo et initié, au bout
d’une dizaine d’années, un processus pour y mettre un terme, tout en

décidant du statut définitif du territoire.
13. Comment, dans ces conditions, la Cour peut-elle se prononcer sur
la conformité au droit international de la déclaration d’indépendance du
Kosovo, alors qu’une telle appréciation relève du Conseil de sécurité et

de lui seul, et que cet organe ne lui a pas demandé son avis à ce sujet?
14. C’est pour cela que la Cour aurait dû, dans cette affaire, user de

103confine itself to general reflections according to which it cannot substitute
its own assessment for that of the requesting organ or is unable to form

a view as to whether its opinion would be likely to have an adverse effect
(Advisory Opinion, para. 35).
9. As will be seen below, the declaration was adopted by the
Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo established by res-
olution 1244 of the Security Council. It follows the mission which the

Secretary-General of the United Nations, Mr. Kofi Annan, gave to
his Special Envoy, Mr. Martti Ahtisaari, in November 2005, which was
to lead the political process aimed at determining the future status of
Kosovo, in the context of resolution 1244, by means of a negotiated set-

tlement.
10. Mr. Martti Ahtisaari was thus called upon to act as a mediator
between Serbia and the representatives of the institutions of Kosovo (the
Assembly) so that they reach an agreement on the future status of the
territory; such an agreement would then have to be endorsed by the

Security Council.
11. In his final report of 26 March 2007 on Kosovo’s future status,
transmitted to the Security Council by Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon
and with his support, Mr. Ahtisaari took the view that “[i]ndependence is
the only option for a politically stable and economically viable Kosovo”,

and proposed that such independence should be supervised and sup-
ported for an initial period by international civilian and military pres-
ences. Mr. Ahtisaari concluded by urging the Security Council to endorse
his proposal (Report transmitted to the President of the Security Council
by letter from the Secretary-General, 26 March 2007, S/2007/168).

12. In the end, it was the Assembly of Kosovo that did so, thereby
substituting itself for the Security Council. Serbia then asked the Court,
through the General Assembly of the United Nations, to pronounce on
the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008, whereby that sub-

stitution occurred, in order to establish whether it is in accordance with
international law. It is therefore clear that, by giving the advisory opinion
which has been requested of it, the Court is assessing, albeit indirectly,
the validity of the conclusions of the Ahtisaari Report, a role which
belongs solely to the Security Council, a political organ on which the

United Nations Charter confers primary responsibility for the main-
tenance of international peace and security. That organ, by adopting
resolution 1244 on the basis of Chapter VII of the Charter, established an
interim administration in Kosovo and has initiated, after some ten years,
a process for bringing it to an end, at the same time determining the final

status of the territory.
13. How, in these circumstances, can the Court pronounce on the
accordance with international law of Kosovo’s declaration of independ-
ence, when such an assessment is a matter for the Security Council alone

and that organ has not sought its opinion on the question?
14. That is why the Court, in this case, should have exercised its dis-

103son pouvoir discrétionnaire et refuser de donner son avis sur une ques-
tion qui est incompatible avec sa qualité d’organe judiciaire. En effet,

par-delà la question de la conformité au droit international de la décla-
ration d’indépendance, ce qui est en jeu c’est l’exercice de ses pouvoirs
par un organe politique des Nations Unies, le Conseil de sécurité. Quant
au rapport Ahtisaari, on sait que, tant que le Conseil ne s’est pas pro-
noncé à son sujet, il n’engage que son auteur.

15. Il est essentiel pour la Cour de veiller, dans l’exercice de sa fonc-
tion consultative, à ce qu’elle ne soit pas instrumentalisée en faveur de
telle ou telle stratégie proprement politique, et en particulier, dans cette
affaire, à ne pas être enrôlée soit dans la campagne visant à rassembler le

maximum de reconnaissances de l’indépendance du Kosovo par d’autres
Etats, soit dans celle tendant à les restreindre au minimum ; alors que le
Conseil de sécurité, auquel il revenait en premier de se prononcer sur
l’option de l’indépendance, ne l’a pas fait.
16. Je suis conscient du fait que la Cour a le devoir de contribuer, sur

le plan juridique, à l’action des Nations Unies, mais, en l’occurrence, la
décision sur le statut futur du Kosovo ne relève pas de l’Assemblée géné-
rale, d’où émane la demande d’avis adressée à la Cour, mais du Conseil
de sécurité. La Cour, en effet, ne peut, dans cette affaire, se prononcer sur
la légalité de la déclaration d’indépendance sans s’ingérer dans le proces-

sus politique de maintien de la paix mis en place par le Conseil de sécurité
il y a une dizaine d’années et que cet organe n’a pu mener à son terme.
17. La réponse de la Cour aurait été concevable si le débat au fond sur
le Kosovo s’était déplacé du Conseil de sécurité à l’Assemblée générale à
la faveur, par exemple, de la convocation d’une session extraordinaire

d’urgence de l’Assemblée générale, conformément à la résolution 377 A
(V) intitulée «L’union pour le maintien de la paix», comme ce fut le cas
pour la demande d’avis consultatif par l’Assemblée générale concernant
l’affaire des Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le ter-
ritoire palestinien occupé (avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) , p. 145-

146, par. 18-19). Encore que, dans ce dernier cas, l’Assemblée générale a
été en permanence associée au débat sur la question du Moyen-Orient et
la question palestinienne, depuis le plan de partage de 1947, qui ont été
inscrites année après année à son ordre du jour. Par contre, l’affaire du
Kosovo a été placée, depuis l’intervention armée des forces de l’OTAN

en Serbie, en 1999, sous l’unique responsabilité du Conseil de sécurité.
18. Dès lors, si la Serbie a initié l’inscription à l’ordre du jour de
l’Assemblée générale d’une demande d’avis consultatif de la Cour, c’était
non pas pour que celle-ci puisse se prononcer sur certains aspects juridi-
ques du débat engagé par l’Assemblée au sujet de l’affaire du Kosovo,

mais parce qu’elle y voyait la seule possibilité qui lui était encore offerte
pour remettre en cause la déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance
du 17 février 2008. Il ne s’agit pas, en l’occurrence, des «motifs ayant ins-
piré les Etats qui sont à l’origine ... [de la] demande d’avis consultatif» et

qui «ne sont pas pertinents au regard de l’exercice par la Cour de son
pouvoir discrétionnaire» (avis, par. 33); mais plutôt de l’appréciation de

104cretionary power and declined to give its opinion on a question which is
incompatible with its status as a judicial organ. Beyond the question of

the accordance with international law of the declaration of independence,
what is at issue here is the exercise of the powers of a political organ of
the United Nations, the Security Council. As for the Ahtisaari Report, as
long as the Security Council makes no finding in this respect, it commits
only its author.

15. It is essential for the Court to ensure, in performing its advisory
function, that it is not exploited in favour of one specifically political
strategy or another, and, in this case in particular, not enlisted either in
the campaign to gather as many recognitions as possible of Kosovo’s

independence by other States, or in the one to keep these to a minimum;
whereas the Security Council, which is primarily responsible for pro-
nouncing on the option of independence, has not done so.

16. I am aware of the fact that the Court has a duty to contribute to

United Nations action in legal terms, but here, the decision on the future
status of Kosovo is not a matter for the General Assembly, which has
submitted the request for an opinion to the Court, but for the Security
Council. In this case, the Court cannot pronounce on the legality of the
declaration of independence without interfering in the political process of

maintaining peace established by the Security Council some ten years
ago, which that organ has been unable to bring to a conclusion.
17. A response from the Court would have been conceivable if the
substantive debate on Kosovo had moved from the Security Council to
the General Assembly, for example through the convening of an emer-

gency special session of the General Assembly under the terms of resolu-
tion 377 A (V), entitled “Uniting for peace”, as was the case with
the request for an advisory opinion by the General Assembly concerning
the Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied
Palestinian Territory (Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,

pp. 145-146, paras. 18-19). In that case, however, the General Assembly
had been continuously involved in the debate on the issue of the Middle East
and the Palestinian question since the partition plan of 1947, and these
were included year after year on its agenda. In contrast, the Kosovo case
has been solely the responsibility of the Security Council since the armed

intervention by NATO forces in Serbia in 1999.
18. Consequently, while Serbia initiated the inclusion on the General
Assembly’s agenda of a request for an advisory opinion of the Court,
that was not in order to allow the Court to pronounce on certain legal
aspects of the debate which the General Assembly had started on the

Kosovo case, but because it saw in this the only opportunity still avail-
able to it to challenge the unilateral declaration of independence of
17 February 2008. What is involved here is not the “motives of individual
States which sponsor . . . a resolution requesting an advisory opinion”,

which “are not relevant to the Court’s exercise of its discretion”
(Advisory Opinion, para. 33), but rather an assessment of the situation in

104la situation au Kosovo et de son traitement par les Nations Unies, au
moment de l’adoption par l’Assemblée générale de la demande d’avis

le 8 octobre 2008.
19. D’ailleurs, il n’y a pas eu de véritable débat sur la question du sta-
tut du Kosovo lors de l’adoption de la résolution 63/3 de l’Assemblée
générale demandant à la Cour un avis consultatif (Assemblée générale,
soixante-troisième session, A/63/PV.22, le 8 octobre 2008).

20. On peut se demander, dès lors, si la demande d’avis adoptée par
l’Assemblée (par 77 voix contre 6, avec 74 abstentions) est compatible
avec les fonctions de la Cour en tant qu’organe judiciaire, telles qu’elles
ont été définies par la Charte des Nations Unies et par le Statut de cette

juridiction.
21. D’ailleurs, quelle que soit la réponse de la Cour à la question de
l’Assemblée générale, elle n’assistera en aucune façon cet organe politique,
lequel ne peut, à la lumière de l’avis, ni modifier la résolution 1244 du
Conseil de sécurité ni l’interpréter en conséquence; cette tâche revenant à

l’organe qui l’a adoptée. Il ne suffit pas de dire que seule l’Assemblée est à
même d’apprécier les raisons qui l’ont amenée à demander un avis consul-
tatif (avis, par. 34); car ce serait, de la part de la Cour, renoncer, pure-
ment et simplement, à l’exercice de son pouvoir d’appréciation de l’oppor-
tunité de donner un tel avis. Or, l’ensemble des protagonistes de l’affaire

du Kosovo ont tenu à préciser à l’avance, notamment devant la Cour, que
l’avis, quel qu’il soit, n’aura aucun impact sur leur position par rapport à
la déclaration d’indépendance. Dès lors, l’avis consultatif ne pourra que
servir d’argument dans le débat politique en cours entre les partisans de la
reconnaissance de l’indépendance du Kosovo et ceux qui s’y opposent.

22. En étant enrôlée de cette façon, la Cour a tout à perdre dans ce jeu
politique, sans contribuer réellement ni à l’atténuation des tensions sus-
citées par la déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance, ni à la clarification
des fonctions et de la responsabilité des Nations Unies à l’égard d’un ter-
ritoire placé sous leur administration.

23. Par ailleurs, depuis la déclaration d’indépendance du 17 février
2008, le fait accompli de la création du Kosovo en tant qu’entité indé-
pendante s’est inscrit sur le terrain, en marginalisant de facto et de plus
en plus la présence des Nations Unies et de leur administration. Une telle
situation rend encore plus problématique et douteuse l’opportunité de

répondre à la question posée par l’Assemblée générale, alors que l’Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies a donné l’impression de s’accommoder du
nouvel état des choses (mais pouvait-elle faire autrement?).
24. La Cour doit veiller elle-même au respect de l’intégrité de sa fonc-
tion judiciaire aussi bien en matière contentieuse qu’en matière consulta-

tive, comme elle l’a rappelé avec force dans son arrêt du 2 décembre 1963
dans l’affaire du Cameroun septentrional (Cameroun c. Royaume-Uni),
exceptions préliminaires :

«la Cour permanente de Justice internationale et la Cour actuelle
ont toutes deux souligné que le pouvoir conféré à la Cour de rendre

105Kosovo and of the handling of it, by the United Nations, at the point
when the General Assembly adopted the request for an opinion on

8 October 2008.
19. Moreover, there was no real debate on the question of the status of
Kosovo when the General Assembly adopted resolution 63/3 requesting
an advisory opinion of the Court (General Assembly, Sixty-third session,
A/63/PV.22, 8 October 2008).

20. It may be questioned, therefore, whether the request for an advi-
sory opinion adopted by the General Assembly (by 77 votes to six, with
74 abstentions) is compatible with the Court’s functions as a judicial
organ, as defined by the Charter of the United Nations and by the Stat-

ute of the Court.
21. Furthermore, whatever the Court’s response to the question put by
the General Assembly, it will not in any way assist that political organ,
which cannot, in the light of the opinion, either modify Security Council
resolution 1244 or interpret it accordingly, since that task falls to the organ

which adopted it. It is not enough to say that only the Assembly can
appreciate the reasons which have led it to request an advisory opinion
(Advisory Opinion, para. 34), since that would mean the Court abandon-
ing outright the exercise of its discretion as to the propriety of giving such
an opinion. All the protagonists in the Kosovo case have stated in advance,

in particular before the Court, that the opinion, whatever it may be, will
have no impact on their position in relation to the declaration of independ-
ence. Therefore, the advisory opinion can only be used as an argument in
the political debate taking place between the supporters of recognizing
Kosovo’s independence and those who are against it.

22. By becoming enlisted in this way, the Court has everything to lose
in this political contest, without contributing in any real way either to
reducing the tensions caused by the unilateral declaration of independ-
ence or to clarifying the functions and responsibility of the United
Nations in respect of a territory placed under its administration.

23. In addition, since the declaration of independence of 17 February
2008, the fait accompli of the creation of Kosovo as an independent
entity has been reflected on the ground, with the increasing de facto mar-
ginalization of the United Nations presence and its administration. Such
a situation makes the propriety of responding to the question posed by

the General Assembly yet more dubious and problematic, while the
United Nations has given the impression of adapting to the new state of
affairs (though how could it do otherwise?).
24. The Court itself has to make sure the integrity of its judicial func-
tion is respected, in contentious as well as in advisory matters, as it made

very clear in its Judgment of 2 December 1963 in the case concerning
Northern Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objec-
tions:

“both the Permanent Court of International Justice and this Court
have emphasized the fact that the Court’s authority to give advisory

105 des avis consultatifs doit s’exercer dans le cadre de la fonction judi-
ciaire. Les deux Cours ont eu l’occasion de formuler, à propos de

demandes d’avis consultatifs, des observations qui s’appliquent éga-
lement au rôle que doit jouer la Cour en matière contentieuse; dans
les deux cas, la Cour exerce une fonction judiciaire. Cette fonction
est soumise à des limitations inhérentes qui, pour n’être ni faciles à

classer, ni fréquentes en pratique, n’en sont pas moins impérieuses en
tant qu’obstacles décisifs au règlement judiciaire. Quoi qu’il en soit,
c’est toujours à la Cour qu’il appartient de déterminer si ses fonc-
tions judiciaires sont en jeu. La Cour actuelle s’est toujours inspirée,
comme la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, du principe

posé par celle-ci le 23 juillet 1923 dans l’affaire du Statut de la Caré-
lie orientale :

«La Cour, étant une Cour de Justice, ne peut pas se départir des
règles essentielles qui dirigent son activité de tribunal, même

lorsqu’elle donne des avis consultatifs.» (C.P.J.I., série B n° 5,
p. 29.)» (Cameroun septentrional (Cameroun c. Royaume-Uni),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1963 , p. 30.)

25. Si la Cour ne peut se substituer au Conseil de sécurité dans l’exer-
cice de ses responsabilités, elle ne peut non plus servir de caution légale à
une politique de fait accompli fondée sur le simple rapport de forces. Elle

se doit de préserver son rôle, qui est de dire le droit avec clarté et en toute
indépendance. Et c’est là que se trouve la garantie de sa crédibilité, dans
l’exercice de ses fonctions judiciaires au service de la communauté inter-
nationale.

26. Ce sont là autant de raisons qui m’ont amené à voter contre la
décision de la Cour de donner un avis consultatif dans cette affaire. Cela
étant, la réponse de la Cour à la demande de l’Assemblée générale ne m’a
pas paru convaincante et je vais maintenant m’en expliquer.

2. LA PORTÉE ET LE SENS DE LA QUESTION POSÉE

27. Ce deuxième aspect de l’avis est bien entendu lié au précédent. En
effet, alors que la Cour refuse d’apprécier aussi bien les motivations de
l’Assemblée générale que les objectifs qu’elle poursuivait au travers de sa

demande d’avis, elle s’est crue autorisée néanmoins à modifier l’intitulé
de celle-ci, au point d’en bouleverser le sens et la portée.

28. La Cour tire argument du fait que le point de l’ordre du jour sous

lequel la résolution 63/3 a été examinée ainsi que l’intitulé de celle-ci ne
mentionnent pas l’identité des auteurs de la déclaration unilatérale d’indé-
pendance, et que, lors du débat consacré au projet de résolution, cette
dernière question n’a pas été soulevée, pour conclure qu’elle est libre «de
déterminer elle-même si cette déclaration a été prononcée par les insti-

106 opinions must be exercised as a judicial function. Both Courts have

had occasion to make pronouncements concerning requests for advi-
sory opinions, which are equally applicable to the proper role of the
Court in disposing of contested cases; in both situations, the Court
is exercising a judicial function. That function is circumscribed by
inherent limitations which are none the less imperative because they

may be difficult to catalogue, and may not frequently present them-
selves as a conclusive bar to adjudication in a concrete case. Never-
theless, it is always a matter for the determination of the Court
whether its judicial functions are involved. This Court, like the Per-

manent Court of International Justice, has always been guided by
the principle which the latter stated in the case concerning the Status
of Eastern Carelia on 23 July 1923:

‘The Court, being a Court of Justice, cannot, even in giving

advisory opinions, depart from the essential rules guiding their
activity as a Court.’ (P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 5 , p. 29.)” (Northern
Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963 , p. 30.)

25. While the Court cannot substitute itself for the Security Council in

exercising its responsibilities, nor can it stand legal guarantor for a policy
of fait accompli based simply on who can gain the upper hand. Its duty
is to preserve its role, which is to state the law, clearly and independently.
That is how it will safeguard its credibility in performing its functions, for
the benefit of the international community.

26. Those are the reasons which led me to vote against the Court’s
decision to give an advisory opinion in this case. Having said that, the
Court’s response to the request of the General Assembly did not strike

me as convincing, and I shall now explain why.

2. THE SCOPE AND M EANING OF THE QUESTION POSED

27. This second aspect of the opinion is of course linked with the first.
Whereas the Court declines to consider either the motivation of the Gen-
eral Assembly or the aims it was pursuing by means of its request for an
opinion, it has nonetheless deemed itself authorized to modify the word-

ing of the request, to the point of completely altering its meaning and
scope.
28. The Court relies on the fact that neither the agenda item under
which resolution 63/3 was debated, nor the title of the resolution specified
the identity of the authors of the unilateral declaration of independence,

and that the question of their identity was not raised during the debate
on the draft resolution. The Court then concludes that it is “free to . . .
decide for itself whether that declaration was promulgated by the Provi-

106tutions provisoires d’administration autonome ou par une autre entité»
(avis, par. 54).

29. Pourtant, la question de l’Assemblée générale est on ne peut plus
claire et rien dans le débat qui a précédé l’adoption de la résolution 63/3
du 8 octobre 2008 ne permet de considérer que l’Assemblée générale ne
s’intéressait qu’à la conformité de la déclaration d’indépendance au droit
international, quels que soient les auteurs de cette déclaration. Est-ce

parce que les participants au débat consacré au projet de résolution
(A/63/PV.22) n’ont pas soulevé la question de l’identité des auteurs de la
déclaration que cette question ne serait pas essentielle pour l’organe
demandeur, ou est-ce plutôt parce que précisément elle va de soi pour

l’ensemble des Etats Membres de l’ONU que ceux-ci n’ont, de ce fait, pas
jugé nécessaire de la discuter ou de la contester? Quant à la différence
relevée par la Cour entre l’intitulé du point de l’ordre du jour, celui de la
résolution, et la question soumise à la Cour, on ne voit pas quelle peut
être sa pertinence puisque, ce qui compte pour la Cour, c’est bien le

contenu de la question posée par l’Assemblée générale.
30. Or, cette question n’a nul besoin d’être interprétée. La Cour
d’ailleurs le reconnaît: «la question posée par l’Assemblée générale est
clairement formulée. C’est une question circonscrite et précise.» (Avis,
par. 51.) Or, l’Assemblée générale n’a pas demandé à la Cour de donner

son avis sur la conformité en droit international de n’importe quelle
déclaration d’indépendance, mais de celle qui a été adoptée le 17 février
2008 par les institutions provisoires d’administration autonome du
Kosovo, institutions qui ont été créées par l’Organisation des
Nations Unies avec des compétences précises. Pourtant, le représentant

de la Grande-Bretagne avait adressé, le 2 octobre 2008, préalablement à
l’adoption de la résolution 63/3, une note explicative au président de
l’Assemblée générale dans laquelle il a indiqué:

«Il serait utile de savoir si la Serbie cherche à se concentrer sur la
question plus étroite de la compétence des institutions provisoires
d’administration autonome du Kosovo et, dans l’affirmative, de se
demander précisément de quelle manière cette question est liée au

statut actuel du Kosovo.» (A/63/461 du 2 octobre 2008.)
31. La réponse à cette question a été donnée par la Serbie et par

l’Assemblée générale. Il s’agit bien de l’appréciation d’un acte adopté par
les institutions provisoires d’administration autonome du Kosovo et non
de n’importe quel acte provenant d’une centaine de personnes qui se
seraient autoproclamées représentantes du peuple.
32. La seule institution reconnue par l’ONU, à ce moment-là, comme

représentant le peuple du Kosovo était l’Assemblée élue des institutions
provisoires d’administration autonome. En supposant même que la Cour
en arrive à la conclusion que la déclaration d’indépendance n’a pas été
adoptée par l’Assemblée des institutions provisoires d’administration

autonome du Kosovo en tant que telle, contrairement à l’affirmation de
l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies, ne devrait-elle pas alors user de

107sional Institutions of Self-Government or some other entity” (Advisory
Opinion, para. 54).

29. However, the General Assembly’s question could not be more
clear, and there is nothing in the debate which preceded the adoption of
resolution 63/3 of 8 October 2008 to suggest that the General Assembly’s
only concern was the accordance with international law of the declara-
tion of independence, regardless of who the authors were. Does the fact

that the participants in the debate on the draft resolution (A/63/PV.22)
did not raise the question of the identity of the authors of the declaration
imply that it is not a relevant consideration for the requesting organ, or is
it rather precisely because the question is such an obvious one for all the

United Nations Member States that they consequently did not consider it
necessary to discuss or contest it? As for the difference noted by the
Court between the title of the agenda item, the title of the resolution, and
the question submitted to the Court, it is hard to see any significance in
this since what matters for the Court is the content of the question put by

the General Assembly.
30. This question therefore does not need to be interpreted in any way.
And the Court acknowledges this: “the question posed by the General
Assembly is clearly formulated. The question is narrow and specific.”
(Advisory Opinion, para. 51.) The General Assembly did not request the

Court to give its opinion on just any declaration of independence, but on
the one adopted on 17 February 2008 by the Provisional Institutions of
Self-Government of Kosovo, which were established with specific com-
petences by the United Nations. On 2 October 2008, however, before the
adoption of resolution 63/3, the representative of the United Kingdom

addressed a note of issues to the President of the General Assembly in
which he indicated that:

“It would be useful to know whether Serbia is seeking to focus on
a narrower question about the competence of the Provisional Insti-
tutions of Self-Government of Kosovo, and, if so, precisely how that
question relates to Kosovo’s status at the present time.” (A/63/461 of

2 October 2008.)
31. The answer to that question has been given by Serbia and by the

General Assembly. It is indeed a matter of assessing an act adopted by
the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo, and not just
any act emanating from a hundred or so persons who supposedly declared
themselves to be representing the people.
32. At that point in time, the only institution recognized by the United

Nations as representing the people of Kosovo was the elected Assembly
of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government. Even supposing that
the Court comes to the conclusion that the declaration of independence
was not adopted by the Assembly of the Provisional Institutions of Self-

Government of Kosovo, acting as such, contrary to the assertion of the
General Assembly of the United Nations, should it not then exercise its

107son pouvoir d’opportunité et ne pas répondre à une question qui aurait

été vidée de son contenu et de sa portée? Car, enfin, l’Assemblée générale
n’attend pas de la Cour qu’elle lui donne son avis juridique sur une ques-
tion qu’elle ne lui a pas posée, à savoir la déclaration émise par une cen-
taine de personnes, sans lien avec l’organisation universelle.
33. Il est arrivé à la Cour d’élargir la question posée afin d’y répondre

le plus complètement possible (Interprétation de l’accord du 25 mars 1951
entre l’OMS et l’Egypte, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1980 , p. 88-89,
par. 35). Elle a procédé de même dans l’avis consultatif sur Certaines
dépenses des Nations Unies (article 17, paragraphe 2, de la Charte)

(C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 156-157), où elle s’est proposé «d’examiner l’ar-
ticle 17 en lui-même et dans ses relations avec le reste de la Charte»; de
même a-t-elle dû clarifier la question posée lorsqu’elle lui paraissait «mal
posée et vague» (Demande de réformation du jugement n° 273 du Tribu-

nal administratif des Nations Unies, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1982 ,
p. 348, par. 46). Mais nous restons là dans les limites des fonctions judi-
ciaires de la Cour consistant à prendre en compte l’ensemble du droit
applicable ou à interpréter un texte confus ou imprécis.

34. Nulle part, cependant, la Cour n’a requalifié la question posée
d’une façon contraire à son objet et à son but, qui sont, en l’espèce, de
savoir si la déclaration d’indépendance du 17 février 2008 relève ou non

de la compétence des institutions provisoires d’administration autonome
du Kosovo, ainsi que l’avait souligné le représentant de la Grande-
Bretagne dans sa lettre précitée du 2 octobre 2008 au président de
l’Assemblée générale.
35. Si la Cour pouvait discrétionnairement aller jusque-là, en répon-

dant finalement à une question qu’elle a elle-même, au préalable, calibrée
pour la faire entrer dans un certain moule, alors elle porterait sérieuse-
ment atteinte au sentiment de sécurité juridique qui devrait prévaloir au
sein des Etats et des organes de l’Organisation des Nations Unies qui

s’adressent à elle.

3. L A CONFORMITÉ AU DROIT INTERNATIONAL

DE LA DÉCLARATION UNILATÉRALE D INDÉPENDANCE

36. L’Assemblée générale a tenu à qualifier la déclaration d’indépen-
dance unilatérale pour bien préciser qu’elle émane d’une seule des parties

(l’Assemblée des institutions provisoires d’administration autonome du
Kosovo), engagée dans le processus politique, sur la base de la résolu-
tion 1244 du Conseil de sécurité, en date du 10 juin 1999, en vue de déter-
miner le statut définitif du Kosovo.
37. La Cour était invitée par l’Assemblée générale à donner son avis

sur la conformité d’une telle déclaration au droit international. Pour ce
faire, elle aurait dû, tout d’abord, déterminer le droit international appli-
cable en la matière.

108discretionary power and decline to respond to a question that would no

longer have any content or scope? Ultimately, the General Assembly
does not expect the Court to provide its legal opinion on a question
which it has not put to it, i.e., a declaration issued by a hundred or so
persons, unconnected with the United Nations.

33. The Court has in the past extended the question posed in order to
reply to it as fully as possible (Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March
1951 between the WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1980, pp. 88-89, para. 35). It took the same approach in the Advisory

Opinion on Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, para-
graph 2, of the Charter) (I.C.J. Reports 1962, pp. 156-157), in which it
set out to “examine Article 17 in itself and in its relation to the rest of the
Charter”; likewise, the Court was obliged to clarify the question posed

when this appeared to be “infelicitously expressed and vague” (Applica-
tion for Review of Judgement No. 273 of the United Nations Administra-
tive Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1982 , p. 348, para. 46). In
these instances, however, the Court remained within the bounds of its

judicial functions in taking account of all the applicable law or interpret-
ing a confused or imprecise text.
34. Never, though, has the Court amended the question posed in a
manner contrary to its object and purpose, which in this case are to

determine whether the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008
did or did not fall within the competence of the Provisional Institutions
of Self-Government of Kosovo, as indicated by the United Kingdom
representative in his above-mentioned note of 2 October 2008 to the

President of the General Assembly.
35. If the Court were able to employ discretion to such an extent, by
replying in the end to a question which it has itself adjusted beforehand
in order to make it fit a certain mould, then it would seriously prejudice

the sense of judicial security that ought to prevail among the States and
organs of the United Nations applying to the Court.

3. ACCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL LAW
OF THE U NILATERAL D ECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

36. The General Assembly made a point of characterizing the declara-
tion of independence as unilateral to make it clear that it issued from
only one of the parties (the Assembly of the Provisional Institutions of
Self-Government of Kosovo) involved in the political process, based on

Security Council resolution 1244 of 10 June 1999, for the determination
of Kosovo’s final status.
37. The Court was requested by the General Assembly to give its
opinion on the accordance of the declaration with international law. In

rendering its opinion, the Court should first of all have ascertained the
international law applicable in this area.

108 38. Or, si la Cour relate le régime juridique mis en place par le Conseil
de sécurité, par le moyen de la résolution 1244 et des règlements adoptés

par le représentant spécial du Secrétaire général et par la MINUK (avis,
par. 58-63), elle ne définit, au préalable, ni les règles de droit international
général applicables, ni comment elle devrait procéder pour apprécier la
conformité de la déclaration unilatérale à ces deux séries de normes. Elle
devrait normalement se pencher d’abord sur la lex specialis applicable

(soit le droit des Nations Unies) avant de s’interroger sur la conformité
de la déclaration au droit international général. Ainsi que l’avait souligné
le président du groupe d’études de la Commission du droit international
sur la fragmentation du droit international: «La priorité était souvent

accordée à une norme spéciale parce qu’elle prenait mieux en compte non
seulement les impératifs du contexte mais aussi l’intention de ceux qui
devaient être liés par elle.» (Rapport de la Commission du droit interna-
tional, 2004, A/59/10, p. 289.)
39. La Cour a choisi, au contraire, de se pencher sur «la licéité des

déclarations d’indépendance en droit international général» (avis,
par. 78). Or, l’Assemblée générale n’a pas demandé à la Cour de se pro-
noncer, dans l’abstrait, sur les déclarations d’indépendance en général,
mais sur une déclaration particulière adoptée dans un contexte déterminé
— celui d’un territoire placé, par le Conseil, sous administration des

Nations Unies — alors que la résolution 1244 du Conseil de sécurité
était, et est toujours, en vigueur. D’ailleurs cela n’aurait aucun sens
d’apprécier la conformité au droit international d’une déclaration d’indé-
pendance quels qu’en soient le ou les auteurs et quel que soit le contexte
de son adoption. De même, la conclusion de la Cour à ce propos est elle-

même dénuée de signification:
«la Cour estime que le droit international général ne comporte

aucune interdiction applicable des déclarations d’indépendance. En
conséquence, elle conclut que la déclaration d’indépendance du
17 février 2008 n’a pas violé le droit international général.» (Ibid.,
par. 84.)

40. Il s’agit là tout au plus d’un sophisme, soit un raisonnement qui
n’est logique qu’en apparence, puisqu’il part de l’idée que ce qui est va-
lable pour le tout est valable pour la partie. En effet, dans la mesure où

les principes du droit international général, l’intégrité territoriale et l’auto-
détermination, devraient s’analyser, en l’occurrence, dans le contexte
d’un territoire administré par les Nations Unies, la conclusion de la Cour
ne pouvait être émise avant que le droit régissant ce territoire n’ait été
examiné, au préalable, dans sa relation avec la déclaration d’indépen-

dance.
41. Ce n’est que dans un deuxième temps que la Cour parvient à la
conclusion selon laquelle «la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécu-
rité et le cadre constitutionnel font partie du droit international qu’il

convient de considérer pour répondre à la question posée par l’Assemblée
générale dans sa demande d’avis consultatif» (ibid., par. 93).

109 38. But, while the Court does describe the legal régime established by
the Security Council through resolution 1244 and regulations adopted by

the Secretary-General’s Special Representative and UNMIK (Advisory
Opinion, paras. 58-63), it fails first to identify the applicable rules of gen-
eral international law and to explain how it will go about determining
whether the unilateral declaration is in accordance with these two sets of
standards. Ordinarily, the Court should first look into the applicable lex

specialis (that is to say the law of the United Nations) before considering
whether the declaration is in accordance with general international law.
As observed by the Chairman of the International Law Commission’s
Study Group on the Fragmentation of International Law: “[P]reference

was often given to a special standard because it not only best reflects the
requirements of the context, but because it best reflected the intent of
those who were to be bound by it.” (Report of the International Law
Commission, 2004, A/59/10, p. 286.)
39. The Court has chosen instead to examine “the lawfulness of dec-

larations of independence under general international law” (Advisory
Opinion, para. 78). The General Assembly did not however ask the
Court to opine in the abstract on declarations of independence generally
but rather on a specific declaration adopted in a particular context —
that of a territory which the Council has placed under United Nations

administration — and this at a time when Security Council resolu-
tion 1244 was in force, and it still is. It would moreover make no sense to
assess the accordance with international law of a declaration of inde-
pendence without regard to who the author(s) are or to the background
against which it was adopted. Likewise, the Court’s conclusion in this

respect is itself meaningless:
“the Court considers that general international law contains no

applicable prohibition of declarations of independence. Accordingly,
it concludes that the declaration of independence of 17 Febru-
ary 2008 did not violate general international law.” (Ibid., para. 84.)

40. This is at best a sophism, in other words reasoning that is logical in
appearance alone, because it proceeds from the proposition that what is
valid for the whole is valid for the part. Since the principles of general

international law, i.e., territorial integrity and self-determination, call
here for analysis in the context of a territory under United Nations
administration, the Court could not announce its conclusion before
examining the law governing the territory as it relates to the declaration
of independence.

41. It is only in a second stage that the Court reaches the conclusion
that: “Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and the Constitutional
Framework form part of the international law which is to be considered

in replying to the question posed by the General Assembly in its request
for the advisory opinion” (ibid., para. 93).

109 42. Certes, la résolution 1244 visait, comme le rappelle la Cour, à
mettre en place un cadre provisoire pour l’administration autonome du

Kosovo, mais je ne vois pas ce qui permet ensuite à la Cour de considérer
que, «lors de l’adoption de la résolution, la conviction prévalait que
le statut final du Kosovo découlerait du cadre institutionnel établi par
celle-ci et serait élaboré dans ce cadre» (avis, par. 104).
43. Il s’agit simplement pour la MINUK de faciliter un processus poli-

tique visant à déterminer le statut futur du Kosovo en tenant compte des
accords de Rambouillet. C’est le processus politique que l’envoyé spécial,
M. Ahtisaari, a été appelé, par le Conseil de sécurité, à conduire par le
moyen d’une négociation entre la Serbie et les représentants élus du

Kosovo (Assemblée); les deux parties n’étant pas parvenues à se mettre
d’accord, M. Ahtisaari a proposé au Conseil un plan de règlement que
celui-ci n’a jamais approuvé.
44. Que les auteurs de la déclaration, membres de l’Assemblée des ins-
titutions provisoires d’administration autonome du Kosovo, se soient

référés à l’échec des négociations et qu’ils n’aient pas entendu agir dans le
cadre du régime intérimaire d’administration autonome (ibid., par. 105),
ces éléments ne peuvent en eux-mêmes changer la nature juridique d’un
acte adopté par l’Assemblée des institutions provisoires d’administration
autonome du Kosovo. En droit, il ne suffit pas pour une institution

d’adopter un acte qui excède ses compétences (ultra vires) pour que le
lien juridique entre cette institution et l’acte en question soit rompu.
Dans un tel cas, l’institution doit être considérée comme ayant enfreint le
cadre légal qui la justifie et la légitime.
45. De même, ce n’est pas parce que l’Assemblée a empiété sur les pou-

voirs du représentant spécial (ibid., par. 106), en opérant dans le domaine
des relations extérieures du Kosovo, qu’elle doit être considérée comme
agissant à un autre titre ou en tant qu’entité qui n’a plus rien à voir
avec les institutions provisoires d’administration autonome du Kosovo.
Là aussi, elle a tout simplement commis, en droit international, un acte

illicite.
46. La démonstration de la Cour, tendant à laver la déclaration de tout
soupçon d’illégalité par rapport au droit des Nations Unies, a consisté
à la détacher de l’institution (l’Assemblée) qui a été créée dans ce cadre:

«la déclaration d’indépendance du 17 février 2008 n’est pas le fait de
l’Assemblée du Kosovo ... mais est celui de personnes ayant agi de

concert en leur qualité de représentants du peuple du Kosovo, en
dehors du cadre de l’administration intérimaire» (ibid., par. 109).

Et, pour cela, la Cour s’appuie sur la terminologie employée et la procé-
dure suivie (ibid., par. 107). Ainsi, il suffirait pour les auteurs de la décla-
ration de modifier la présentation de leur texte et de se présenter comme

«les dirigeants démocratiquement élus du peuple» pour qu’ils ne soient
plus tenus par le cadre constitutionnel du Kosovo, qui dispose pourtant

110 42. While resolution 1244 was indeed concerned with setting up an
interim framework of self-government for Kosovo, as the Court notes, I

do not see anything to justify the assertion the Court then makes: “at the
time of the adoption of the resolution, it was expected that the final
status of Kosovo would flow from, and be developed within, the frame-
work set up by the resolution” (Advisory Opinion, para. 104).
43. It was simply a matter of UNMIK facilitating a political process

designed to determine Kosovo’s future status, taking into account the
Rambouillet accords. That political process is what the Special Envoy,
Mr. Ahtisaari, was asked by the Security Council to lead through nego-
tiations between Serbia and the elected representatives of Kosovo (the

Assembly); as the two parties were unable to reach agreement,
Mr. Ahtisaari proposed a settlement plan to the Council, but the Council
never approved it.
44. The facts that the authors of the Declaration, members of the
Assembly of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo,

cited the breakdown of negotiations and that they did not intend to act
within the framework of the interim régime of self-government (ibid.,
para. 105) do not by themselves change the legal nature of an act adopted
by the Assembly of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of
Kosovo. In law, it is not merely because an institution has adopted an act

exceeding its powers (ultra vires) that the legal bond between the insti-
tution and the act is broken. In such a case, the institution must be con-
sidered to be in breach of the legal framework that justifies and legiti-
mizes it.
45. Similarly, it is not because the Assembly trespassed on the powers

of the Special Representative (ibid., para. 106) by involving itself in mat-
ters of Kosovo’s external relations that it must be considered as acting in
a different capacity or as an entity no longer related to the Provisional
Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo. Here as well, the Assembly
simply committed an act which is illegal under international law.

46. The Court’s reasoning, aimed at dispelling any inkling of the
declaration’s illegality under the law of the United Nations, consisted of
severing it from the institution (the Assembly) that was created within
this framework:

“the authors of the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008
did not act as one of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Govern-

ment . . . but rather as persons who acted together in their capacity
as representatives of the people of Kosovo outside the framework of
the interim administration” (ibid., para. 109).

To reach this conclusion, the Court relies upon the language used and the
procedure employed (ibid., para. 107). Thus it was enough for the authors
of the declaration to change the appearance of the text, and to hold

themselves out as “the democratically-elected leaders of [the] people” in
order for them to cease to be bound by the Constitutional Framework

110que «les institutions provisoires d’administration autonome du Kosovo
et leurs fonctionnaires ... exercent leurs attributions conformément aux

dispositions de la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité et à celles
énoncées dans le cadre constitutionnel». Si on suivait jusqu’au bout un
tel raisonnement, il suffirait, en quelque sorte, de se mettre hors la loi
pour ne plus avoir à respecter la loi.
47. En vue de clarifier cet aspect de la question, j’avais demandé, au

cours des plaidoiries orales, aux participants et, en particulier, aux auteurs
de la déclaration d’indépendance (CR 2009/33, p. 24) si, lors de la cam-
pagne pour l’élection de l’Assemblée des institutions provisoires, en
novembre 2007, la question de l’adoption d’une telle déclaration avait été

évoquée d’une manière ou d’une autre. La réponse a été négative, de
la part aussi bien des auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance que de la
Serbie (réponses des auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance et de la
République de Serbie, datées du 22 décembre 2009). En effet, si les mem-
bres de l’Assemblée, élus le 17 novembre 2007, entendaient exprimer la

«volonté du peuple» le 17 février 2008 dans une déclaration, il aurait
fallu, pour le moins, qu’ils en aient fait état devant leurs électeurs.
48. Il est très significatif que, lorsqu’il a rendu compte au Conseil
de sécurité, lors de la séance qu’il a tenue le 18 février 2008 (S/PV.5839),
au lendemain de l’adoption de la déclaration d’indépendance du Ko-

sovo du 17 février 2008, le Secrétaire général des Nations Unies l’a fait
de la sorte: «Hier, mon représentant spécial pour le Kosovo m’a infor-
mé que l’Assemblée des institutions provisoires d’administration auto-
nome du Kosovo s’était réunie pour adopter une déclaration d’indé-
pendance par laquelle le Kosovo a été proclamé Etat souverain et

indépendant.»
49. D’autre part, dans son rapport au Conseil de sécurité sur la Mis-
sion d’administration intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo du
28 mars 2008 (S/2008/211), le Secrétaire général, après avoir rappelé la
clôture du processus électoral au Kosovo, le 19 décembre 2007, et la céré-

monie de prestation de serment par les membres de l’Assemblée du
Kosovo, le 4 janvier 2008, a ajouté: «Lors d’une séance tenue le 17 février,
l’Assemblée du Kosovo a adopté une «déclaration d’indépendance» pro-
clamant le Kosovo Etat indépendant et souverain.» Je suppose que le
Secrétaire général ainsi que son envoyé spécial se sont appuyés également

sur le discours du premier ministre du Kosovo lui-même, le 17 février 2008,
lorsqu’il s’est adressé à la session extraordinaire de l’Assemblée du
Kosovo:

«Today, the President of Kosovo and myself, as the Prime Minister
of Kosovo, have officially requested from the President of the Assem-
bly, Mr Krasniqi; to call for a special session with two agenda items,
This invitation for a special session is extended in accordance with

the Kosovo Constitutional framework, whereby we present two
items on the agenda:

1. Declaration of independence for Kosovo, and

111for Kosovo, which states that “[t]he Provisional Institutions of Self-Gov-
ernment and their officials shall . . . [e]xercise their authorities consistent

with the provisions of UNSCR 1244 (1999) and the terms set forth in this
Constitutional Framework”. If such reasoning is followed to its end, it
would be enough to become an outlaw, as it were, in order to escape
having to comply with the law.
47. With a view to shedding light on this aspect of the question, during

the oral proceedings I asked participants generally, and the authors of
the declaration of independence specifically (CR 2009/33, p. 24), whether
the question of adopting such a declaration had been raised in any form
during the campaign for election to the Assembly of the Provisional Insti-

tutions in November 2007. A response in the negative was received both
from the authors of the declaration of independence and from Serbia
(replies by the authors of the declaration of independence and by the
Republic of Serbia, dated 22 December 2009). If the members of the
Assembly, who had been elected on 17 November 2007, had wished to

express the “will of [their] people” in a declaration made on 17 Febru-
ary 2008, they should at least have told their electors so.
48. It is very significant that when he reported to the Security Council
at the meeting held on 18 February 2008 (S/PV.5839), the day after the
adoption of the declaration of independence of Kosovo dated 17 Febru-

ary 2008, the Secretary-General of the United Nations did so as follows:
“Yesterday, my Special Representative for Kosovo informed me that the
Assembly of Kosovo’s Provisional Institutions of Self-Government held
a session during which it adopted a declaration of independence, which
declares Kosovo an independent and sovereign State.”

49. On the other hand, in his report of 28 March 2008 to the Security
Council on the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in
Kosovo (S/2008/211) the Secretary-General added, after noting that the
electoral process in Kosovo had concluded on 19 December 2007 and that

the members of the Assembly of Kosovo had taken their oath on 4 Janu-
ary 2008: “On 17 February, the Assembly of Kosovo held a session dur-
ing which it adopted a ‘declaration of independence’, declaring Kosovo
an independent and sovereign State.” I would infer that the Secretary-
General as well as his special representative were also relying on the

address by the Prime Minister of Kosovo on 17 February 2008, when he
spoke before the extraordinary meeting of the Assembly of Kosovo:

“Today, the President of Kosovo and myself, as the Prime Minister
of Kosovo, have officially requested from the President of the Assembly,
Mr. Krasniqi; to call for a special session with two agenda items,
This invitation for a special session is extended in accordance with

the Kosovo Constitutional Framework, whereby we present two
items on the agenda:

1. Declaration of independence for Kosovo, and

111 2. Presentation of Kosovo State symbols.» (Contribution écrite des
auteurs de la déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance, en date du

17 avril 2009, annexe 2.)
50. Par conséquent, il ne faisait aucun doute, pour le Secrétaire géné-

ral et son représentant spécial au Kosovo, que la déclaration émanait
bien de l’Assemblée des institutions provisoires d’administration auto-
nome du Kosovo récemment élue.
51. Le sérieux problème posé par une telle déclaration, par rapport à
la Mission des Nations Unies et au mandat que lui a confié le Conseil de

sécurité, n’a pas, bien entendu, échappé au Secrétaire général:

«J’ai immédiatement porté cette information à l’attention du
Conseil de sécurité. Ce faisant, j’ai réaffirmé qu’en attendant un avis
du Conseil l’ONU considérerait que la résolution 1244 (1999) restait
en vigueur et constituait le cadre juridique de l’exercice du mandat
de la MINUK, laquelle continuerait de s’acquitter de sa mission à la

lumière de l’évolution de la situation.» (Rapport du Secrétaire géné-
ral sur la Mission d’administration intérimaire des Nations Unies au
Kosovo, S/2008/211 du 28 mars 2008.)

52. Il ne faut d’ailleurs pas perdre de vue que, par le passé, lorsque
l’Assemblée du Kosovo s’est reconnu, dans sa résolution du 7 novembre

2002, le droit de déterminer le statut futur du Kosovo, le représentant spé-
cial du Secrétaire général des Nations Unies a déclaré le même jour:

«Le Kosovo est placé sous l’autorité de la résolution 1244 (1999)
du Conseil de sécurité. Ni Belgrade ni Pristina ne peuvent préjuger
du futur statut du Kosovo. Celui-ci reste à déterminer et le sera par
le Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies. Toute déclaration unilaté-
rale, sous quelque forme que ce soit, qui n’est pas approuvée par le

Conseil de sécurité n’a aucun effet juridique sur le statut futur du
Kosovo.»

53. Par conséquent, toute déclaration unilatérale affectant le statut
futur du Kosovo n’a aucune validité juridique tant qu’elle n’a pas été
approuvée par le Conseil de sécurité et cela quelle qu’en soit la forme et
quelles que soient les intentions de ses auteurs. Il ne suffirait pas, comme
le laisse entendre la Cour, que ceux-ci sortent du cadre de la loi pour ne

plus être soumis à celle-ci.
54. La Cour estime que l’absence de réaction du Conseil de sécurité,
du Secrétaire général ou de son représentant spécial face à la déclaration
d’indépendance confirme que celle-ci n’émane pas de l’Assemblée du

Kosovo, et elle oppose cette absence de réaction à celles intervenues
auparavant entre 2002 et 2005, lorsque

«le représentant spécial avait jugé plusieurs actes incompatibles avec
le cadre constitutionnel au motif qu’ils «dépass[aient] le champ de

112 2. Presentation of Kosovo State symbols.” (Written Contribution
of the Authors of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence,

17 April 2009, Ann. 2.)
50. Thus, there was no doubt in the minds of the Secretary-General

and his Special Representative in Kosovo that the declaration was in fact
the work of the recently elected Assembly of the Provisional Institutions
of Self-Government of Kosovo.
51. Of course, the serious problem the declaration raised in respect of
the United Nations Mission and the mandate it had been given by the

Security Council did not escape the Secretary-General:

“I immediately drew this development to the attention of the
Security Council, so that it could consider the matter. In doing so, I
reaffirmed that, pending guidance from the Security Council, the
United Nations would continue to operate on the understanding
that resolution 1244 (1999) remains in force and constitutes the legal

framework for the mandate of UNMIK, and that UNMIK would
continue to implement its mandate in the light of the evolving cir-
cumstances.” (Report of the Secretary-General on the United
Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, S/2008/211 of
28 March 2008.)

52. It must also be kept in mind that when, in its resolution on
7 November 2002, the Assembly of Kosovo had previously asserted the

right to determine Kosovo’s future status, the Special Representative of
the United Nations Secretary-General stated on the same day:

“Kosovo is under the authority of UN Security Council resolu-
tion 1244 (1999). Neither Belgrade nor Pristina can prejudge the
future status of Kosovo. Its future status is open and will be decided
by the UN Security Council. Any unilateral statement in whatever
form which is not endorsed by the Security Council has no legal

effect on the future status of Kosovo.”

53. Accordingly, no unilateral declaration affecting Kosovo’s future
status, whatever the form of the declaration or the intentions of its
authors, has any legal validity until it has been endorsed by the Security
Council. Contrary to what the Court implies, it is not enough for the
authors simply to step beyond the bounds of the law to cease being sub-

ject to it.
54. The Court believes the inaction of the Security Council, the Secretary-
General and his Special Representative, in response to the declaration
of independence, to be confirmation that the declaration was not the work

of the Assembly of Kosovo, and it contrasts this inertia with the actions
taken between 2002 and 2005, when

“the Special Representative had qualified a number of acts as being
incompatible with the Constitutional Framework on the ground that

112 compétences [de l’Assemblée]» (dossier déposé par l’Organisation
des Nations Unies, pièce n 189, 7 février 2003) et excédaient donc

les pouvoirs de l’Assemblée du Kosovo» (avis, par. 108).

55. Or, le Conseil de sécurité était empêché de décider, depuis qu’il a

été saisi du rapport Ahtisaari, en mars 2007, au sujet de la question du
Kosovo, faute d’accord entre ses membres permanents. Et, comme cela
est courant aux Nations Unies, cette paralysie du Conseil se répercutait
sur le Secrétaire général, chargé de mettre en Œuvre ses décisions, et sur
son représentant spécial.

56. Le blocage du Conseil de sécurité ne décharge pas les parties à un
différend de leurs obligations, ni par conséquent les membres de l’Assem-
blée du Kosovo du respect du cadre constitutionnel et de la résolu-
tion 1244. Si tel était le cas, ce serait porter atteinte à la crédibilité du

système de sécurité collective établi par la Charte des Nations Unies. Ce
serait, en effet, laisser les parties à un différend face à face, chacun pou-
vant mettre en Œuvre unilatéralement sa position. Et, théoriquement,
l’autre partie, la Serbie, aurait pu, se fondant sur la même paralysie, se
dire justifiée à exercer pleinement et effectivement la souveraineté sur le

Kosovo, dans le cadre de la défense de l’intégrité de son territoire.

57. A mon avis, la situation de blocage, à un moment donné, du
Conseil de sécurité ne peut justifier les actes unilatéraux ou les faits

accomplis de la part de l’une ou de l’autre des parties, ni leur approbation
tacite. La non-prise de décision par le Conseil, du fait du droit de veto de
l’un des membres permanents, est prévue par la Charte. Son effet juridi-
que s’arrête là; l’absence d’action est un acte politique en soi.
58. D’autre part, bien que ne pouvant se prononcer sur le rapport Ahti-

saari, dont il a été saisi en mars 2007, le Conseil n’en a pas moins encou-
ragé des tentatives de médiation entre les parties, notamment lorsqu’il a
décidé d’envoyer une mission, composée des membres du Conseil et
conduite par Johan C. Verbeke, représentant de la Belgique, en avril 2007,

à Belgrade et à Pristina (S/2007/220 du 20 avril 2007) et lorsqu’il a sou-
tenu l’initiative de la troïka (Union européenne, Etats-Unis et Russie)
créée par le groupe de contact pour rapprocher les deux parties (de juillet
à décembre 2007).
59. Dans ces conditions, je ne peux partager l’interprétation que la

Cour fait du «silence» du représentant spécial du Secrétaire général, qui
confirmerait ainsi que la déclaration d’indépendance n’émane pas de
l’Assemblée des institutions provisoires d’administration autonome du
Kosovo.

60. On sait à quel point l’interprétation en droit international du
«silence» des acteurs concernés est délicate. En tous cas, le silence doit
être interprété par référence à l’ensemble du contexte en question et de
son arrière-plan. En l’occurrence, la paralysie des instances des Nations
Unies dans le déroulement du processus visant à déterminer le statut

113 they were deemed to be ‘beyond the scope of [the Assembly’s] com-
petencies’ (United Nations dossier No. 189, 7 February 2003) and

therefore outside the powers of the Assembly of Kosovo” (Advisory
Opinion, para. 108).

55. However, the Security Council was prevented, by a lack of
agreement among its permanent members, from taking a decision on the

Kosovo question after receiving the Ahtisaari Report in March 2007.
And, as is often the case within the United Nations, this deadlock in the
Council had a reverberating effect on the Secretary-General, charged with
implementing its decisions, and his Special Representative.

56. A stalemate in the Security Council does not release either the
parties to a dispute from their obligations or by consequence the mem-
bers of the Assembly of Kosovo from their duty to respect the Constitu-
tional Framework and resolution 1244. Were that the case, the credibility
of the collective security system established by the United Nations Char-

ter would be undermined. This would, in fact, leave the parties to a dis-
pute to face off against each other, with each being free to implement its
own position unilaterally. And in theory the other party, Serbia, could
have relied on the deadlock to claim that it was justified in exercising full
and effective sovereignty over Kosovo in defence of the integrity of its

territory.
57. In my view, stalemate within the Security Council at a particular
point cannot justify unilateral acts performed, or faits accomplis created,
by either party, or be deemed tacit approval of them. A failure by the
Council to take a decision on account of the veto power of one of its

permanent members is contemplated in the Charter. Its legal effect ends
there; inaction is itself a political act.
58. On the other hand, although unable to reach a decision on the
Ahtisaari Report, referred to it in March 2007, the Council nevertheless
encouraged attempts at mediation between the parties, in particular when

it decided to send a mission, made up of members of the Council and led
by Johan C. Verbeke, representative of Belgium, to Belgrade and Pris-
tina, in April 2007 (S/2007/220 of 20 April 2007), and when it supported
the attempts by the troika (made up of the European Union, United
States and Russia) created by the Contact Group to reconcile the two

parties (from July to December 2007).
59. This being the case, I cannot endorse the Court’s interpretation of the
“silence” of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General, which
supposedly confirms that the declaration of independence was not the
work of the Assembly of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government

of Kosovo.
60. We know just how delicate it can be to interpret an actor’s “silence”
in international law. In all events, silence must be interpreted by reference
to the entirety of the direct context and its background. Here, the dead-

lock in the United Nations bodies during the process to determine
Kosovo’s future status does not justify the conclusion that a unilateral

113futur du Kosovo ne permet pas de considérer qu’une déclaration unila-
térale d’indépendance, qui était jusque-là non conforme au droit interna-

tional, aurait tout d’un coup gagné un brevet de conformité. En effet, le
représentant spécial du Secrétaire général n’a pas manqué de réagir parce
qu’il aurait jugé la déclaration conforme au droit international, mais tout
simplement parce que l’instance politique, dont il dépend, était dans
l’incapacité de se prononcer sur le déroulement du processus en cours

pour le règlement du statut futur du Kosovo.
61. La Cour se livre ensuite à des considérations sur la résolution 1244
pour en conclure que celle-ci ne renferme pas d’interdiction liant les
auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance (avis, par. 118). Et pour cause,

puisque les institutions provisoires n’avaient pas encore été créées et que
les auteurs en question ne pouvaient encore être identifiés. Le problème,
en réalité, n’est pas, à ce stade, de savoir si la résolution 1244 a entendu
imposer une interdiction d’agir aux auteurs de la déclaration d’indépen-
dance, mais seulement de rappeler le caractère obligatoire de ce texte qui

s’impose aux institutions futures créées pour «assurer une administration
intérimaire dans le cadre de laquelle la population du Kosovo pourra
jouir d’une autonomie substantielle au sein de la République fédérale de
Yougoslavie» (paragraphe 10 de la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de
sécurité).

62. La MINUK a adopté ainsi le cadre constitutionnel et mis en place
l’administration intérimaire sur la base du mandat que lui a confié le
Conseil de sécurité dans sa résolution 1244. Dès lors, la violation du
cadre constitutionnel entraîne en même temps celle de la résolution du
Conseil de sécurité qui s’impose à tous les Etats et aux acteurs non éta-

tiques au Kosovo, puisque ce territoire a été placé sous administration
des Nations Unies. Il est difficile dans ces conditions de comprendre que
la Cour puisse conclure que «la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de
sécurité ne faisait pas obstacle à ce que les auteurs de la déclaration du
17 février 2008 proclament l’indépendance du Kosovo vis-à-vis de la

République de Serbie» (avis, par. 119). A mon sens, elle y fait obstacle,
au moins à un double titre, parce qu’elle sort du cadre constitutionnel
établi sur la base du mandat donné à la MINUK par cette résolution, et
parce qu’elle procède unilatéralement alors que le statut définitif du
Kosovo doit être approuvé par le Conseil de sécurité.

63. Enfin, comment comprendre, à supposer même que la déclaration
du 17 février 2008 émane d’une centaine de personnes qui se sont auto-
proclamées représentantes du peuple du Kosovo, que celles-ci puissent
enfreindre l’ordre juridique établi par la MINUK dans le cadre constitu-
tionnel et auquel tous les habitants du Kosovo sont censés se conformer?

64. A cela, la Cour se contente d’affirmer que, lors de l’adoption de la
déclaration d’indépendance, ses auteurs n’étaient pas liés par le cadre
constitutionnel et que cette déclaration n’était pas un acte destiné à pren-

dre effet dans l’ordre juridique mis en place par les Nations Unies (ibid.,
par. 121). Mais alors de quel ordre juridique relevaient les auteurs et la

114declaration of independence hitherto not in accordance with international
law is suddenly deserving of an imprimatur of compliance. In fact, the

reason why the Special Representative of the Secretary-General took no
action was not that he considered the declaration to be in accordance
with international law, but simply that the political body to which he was
answerable was unable to reach a decision on advancing in the process
under way to determine the future status of Kosovo.

61. The Court then reflects on resolution 1244 and arrives at the con-
clusion that the resolution does not contain a prohibition binding on the
authors of the declaration of independence (Advisory Opinion, para. 118).

And for good reason, since the Provisional Institutions had yet to be cre-
ated and the authors in question could not yet be identified. In reality,
the issue at this juncture is not establishing whether resolution 1244 was
aimed at prohibiting action by the authors of the declaration of inde-
pendence, but simply recalling the mandatory force of this text, which is

binding on the institutions to be created “to provide an interim adminis-
tration . . . under which the people of Kosovo can enjoy substantial
autonomy within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia” (paragraph 10 of
resolution 1244 (1999) of the Security Council).

62. UNMIK thus adopted the Constitutional Framework and set up
the interim administration on the basis of the mandate it had received
from the Security Council in resolution 1244. A violation of the Consti-
tutional Framework therefore entails a simultaneous violation of the
Security Council resolution, which is binding on all States and non-State

actors in Kosovo as a result of the territory having been placed under
United Nations administration. This being the case, it is difficult to see
how the Court could find that “Security Council resolution 1244
(1999) did not bar the authors of the declaration of 17 February 2008 from
issuing a declaration of independence from the Republic of Serbia”

(Advisory Opinion, para. 119). In my view, it does establish such a bar,
on at least two counts: because the declaration is not within the Consti-
tutional Framework established pursuant to the mandate given to
UNMIK in the resolution; and because the declaration is unilateral,
whereas Kosovo’s final status must be approved by the Security Council.

63. Finally, even if it is assumed that the declaration of 17 February
2008 was issued by a hundred or so individuals having proclaimed them-
selves representatives of the people of Kosovo, how is it possible for them
to have been able to violate the legal order established by UNMIK under
the Constitutional Framework, which all inhabitants of Kosovo are sup-

posed to respect?
64. The Court responds merely by asserting that, when adopting the
declaration of independence, the authors were not bound by the Consti-
tutional Framework and that the declaration was not an act intended to

take effect within the legal order put in place by the United Nations
(ibid., para. 121). But then what legal order governed the authors and the

114déclaration elle-même? Ce n’est en tout cas ni l’ordre juridique serbe ni
celui d’un nouvel Etat souverain. Et ce n’est pas parce qu’ils ne feraient

pas partie des institutions intérimaires que les auteurs échapperaient à
l’ordre juridique établi par le règlement 1999/1 de la MINUK, selon
lequel «tous les pouvoirs législatifs et exécutifs afférents au Kosovo, y
compris l’administration de l’ordre judiciaire, sont conférés à la MINUK

et exercés par le représentant spécial du Secrétaire général». Cela signifie
simplement que tous les habitants du Kosovo sont soumis à ces pouvoirs
et doivent respecter le régime d’autonomie institué par les Nations Unies.
Dès lors, à mon avis, peu importe que les auteurs de la déclaration
d’indépendance soient considérés comme membres ou non de l’Assem-

blée du Kosovo; ils ne pouvaient de toute façon adopter une déclaration
contraire au cadre constitutionnel et à la résolution 1244 du Conseil de
sécurité, dans la mesure où elle va à l’encontre du régime juridique
d’administration du Kosovo mis en place par les Nations Unies.

65. Cela étant, la Cour a minimisé le sens et la portée de son avis
puisqu’elle l’a limité à la déclaration en tant que telle, détachée de ses
effets juridiques. Dès lors, on peut se demander en quoi cet avis qui
conclut qu’une déclaration, adoptée par une centaine de personnes auto-
proclamées représentantes du peuple, n’a pas violé le droit international,

peut-il éclairer l’organe demandeur, l’Assemblée générale, dans son action
propre future.
66. Le mystère est total, même si l’avis fera l’objet d’une exploitation
politique.

67. Je serais tenté de dire, en ce qui me concerne, qu’il en résulte que
l’assistance de la Cour à l’Assemblée générale en vient, de la sorte, à
devenir insignifiante et qu’il s’agit là d’une raison supplémentaire qui
aurait dû amener la Cour à user de son pouvoir discrétionnaire et à ne
pas répondre à la demande d’avis.

68. Finalement, dans cette affaire, la Cour n’a pas relevé de règles de
droit international, générales ou spéciales, régissant la déclaration d’indé-
pendance du 17 février 2008; le droit international général serait inopé-
rant en la matière et le droit des Nations Unies ne couvrirait pas l’hypo-

thèse retenue par la Cour d’une déclaration née dans un ordre juridique
indéterminé. Dès lors, on ne voit pas ce qui empêcherait, en droit, les
Nations Unies de poursuivre l’Œuvre de médiation relative au Kosovo en
coopération avec les organisations régionales concernées.

69. Il en va de telles déclarations comme de l’écume des jours; elles ne
permettent ni de rejeter le passé dans l’oubli, ni de construire l’avenir sur
les fragments du présent.

(Signé) Mohamed B ENNOUNA .

115declaration itself? It was not, in any case, the legal order of Serbia nor
that of a new sovereign State. And not being part of the interim institu-

tions does not exempt the authors from the legal order established by
UNMIK regulation 1999/1, providing that “[a]ll legislative and executive
authority with respect to Kosovo, including the administration of the
judiciary, is vested in UNMIK and is exercised by the Special Repre-

sentative of the Secretary-General”. This simply means that all those liv-
ing in Kosovo are subject to such authority and must comply with the
régime of self-government established by the United Nations. Hence, in
my opinion, it does not matter whether or not the authors of the declara-
tion of independence are considered to be members of the Assembly of

Kosovo; under no circumstances were they entitled to adopt a declara-
tion that contravenes the Constitutional Framework and Security Coun-
cil resolution 1244 by running counter to the legal régime for the admin-
istration of Kosovo established by the United Nations.

65. That said, the Court has minimized the purport and scope of its
Opinion, since it has limited it to the declaration as such, severed from its
legal effects. It may therefore be asked: how can this Opinion, wherein it
is concluded that a declaration adopted by some one hundred individu-
als, self-proclaimed representatives of the people, does not violate inter-

national law, guide the requesting organ, the General Assembly, in
respect of its own action?
66. This remains a complete mystery, even if the Opinion will be
exploited for political ends.

67. Expressing my personal view, I would be tempted to say that the
result is that the Court’s assistance to the General Assembly has emerged
trivialized, and this is yet another reason why the Court should have
exercised its discretion by refraining from acceding to the request for an
opinion.

68. Finally, the Court in this case has not identified the rules, general
or special, of international law governing the declaration of independence
of 17 February 2008; according to the Opinion, general international law
is inoperative in this area and United Nations law does not cover the

situation the Court has chosen to consider: that of a declaration arising
in an indeterminate legal order. Accordingly, there is apparently nothing
in the law to prevent the United Nations from pursuing its efforts at
mediation in respect of Kosovo in co-operation with the regional organi-
zations concerned.

69. Such declarations are no more than foam on the tide of time; they
cannot allow the past to be forgotten nor a future to be built on frag-
ments of the present.

(Signed) Mohamed B ENNOUNA .

115

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Dissenting opinion of Judge Bennouna

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