Dissenting Opinion of Judge Alvarez (translation)

Document Number
012-19510528-ADV-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
012-19510528-ADV-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ

1
[Translationj

The General Assembly of the United Nations, at its plenary
session of November 16th, 1950, asked the International Court of
Justice for an Opinion upon certain questions concerning reser-
vations to the Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide ;the admission of these reservations had evoked
objections on the part of certain Staets, as well as differences of
opinion among the representatives of the United Nations themselves.
As was well said by the Attorney-General of the United Kingdom
in his oral statement before the Court, this Court has the power
and the duty both to devote itself in the first place to the examin-
ation of questions relating to the Convention on Genocide and to
formulate its conclusions in such a manner that they may be, as
far as possible, applicable, not only to conventions of this type
which may be drawn up within the framework ofthe United Nations
but also to multilateral conventions in general.

Moreover, it is natural that the Court should proceed in this
manner : it should, in order that its Opinion may be properly
founded, view the subject from a broader angle than that indicated
in the Request transmitted to it by the Assembly of the United
Nations.
It has been pointed out, in the course of the discussions which
have taken place upon this subject, that there are no precise rules
or precedents well established in international law regarding reser-
vations to multilateral conventions in general ; three kinds of
practices have been mentioned to us, one of which was called the
Pan-American practice.
Up to the present time, multilateral conventions have been
established under the individualist system, based upon the absolute
sovereignty of States. According to this system, States are only
bound to the extent to which they consent to be obliged ;conse-
quently, they are free to make reservations to these conventions
as they please. Furthermore, these conventions have become more

and more numerous since the beginning of this century and relate
to a wide diversity of matters ; they constitute an important part
of what is called international legislution.
The multiplicity of reservations made to these multilateral
conventions, together with the adhesions to them and the denun-
ciations of them, has produced much uncertainty, because it is
difficult to be sure as to the States between which these conventions
38are in force. A real crisis, to which some persons-including myself
-have drawn attention for some time past, has thus arisen in
international treaty law. The task of the Secretary-General of the
League of Nations and after that the United Nations in connection

with the registration of these conventions has become extremely
complicated ; and it is without doubt partly to remedy this
situation that the General Assembly of the United Nations has
sent to the Court the Request for an Opinion which is now before us.

In appraising multilateral conventions-and specifically that on
genocide-in the future, we shall be forced to abandon traditional
criteria, because we are now confronted with an international
situation very different from that which existed before the last
social cataclysm ; the latter hze caused a profound and rapid
evolution of facts and ideas in the international sphere.
Consequently, a very important point invites the consideration
of the Court.
According to current opinion, this Court has to apply the
principles of international law deemed to be in existence at the
moment when it delivers its judgment or opinion, without consider-

ing whether they have undergone any more or less sudden changes,
or whether they are in accord with the new conditions of inter-
national life ; it appertains-we are told-to the International
Law Commission created by the United Nations to determine
what modifications should be made in international law.
That is a view which it is impossible to accept. As a result of
the great changes in international life that have taken place since
the last social cataclysm, it is necessary that the Court should
determine the present state of law in each case which is brought
before it and, when needed, act constructively in this respect, al1
the more so because in virtue of Resolution 171 of the General
Assembly of the United Nations of 1947 ,t is at liberty to develop
international law, and indeed to create law, if that is necessary,
for it is impossible to define exactly where the development of
this law ends and its creation begins. To proceed otherwise would
be to fail to understand the nature of international law, which must
always reflect the international life of which it is born, if it is not
to be discredited.

The method 1 have just indicated is that applied to domestic
constitutional law. If, for example, consequentlyupon a revolution,
a new republican political régime establishes itself in the place of
a monarchy, it is obvious that both old and new institutions must
at once be applied and interpreted in conformity with the new
régime.
There are stroriger reasons why the same course should be
followed in regard to international law. After the social cataclysm
39which we have just passed through, a new order has arisen and,
with it, a new international law. We must therefore apply and
interpret both old and new institutions in conformity with both
this new order and this new law.

III

In order not to go outside the scope of the Request for an Opinion,
1 will confine myself to indicating the characteristics of the new
international law, so far as concerns multilateral conventions of
a special character.
In this respect, this law includes within its domain four categories
of multilateral conventions, three of which were formerly unknown :
(a) those which seek to develop world international organization

or to establish regional organizations, such as the European organ-
ization which is of such great p~~sent-day interest ;(b) those which
seek to determine the territorial status of certain States ; such
conventions have existed in Europe since the beginning of the
x~xth century, and have constituted what may be called "European
public law" ; (c) conventions which seek to establish new and
important principles of international law ; (d) conventions seeking
to regulate matters of a social or humanitarian interest with a
view to improving the position of individuals.
It is among the conventions referred to under (c) and (d) above
that we find the Convention on Genocide. The new international
law, reflecting the new orientation of the legal conscience of the
nations, condemns genocide-as it condemns war-as a crime
against civilization, although this was not admitted till quite
recently.

Conventions of the above four categories present characteristics
~vhich differentiate them markedly from ordinary multilateral
conventions.
To begin with, they have a universal character ;they are, in a
sense, the Constitution of international society, the new international
constitz~tionallaw. They are not established for the benefit of private
interests but for that of the general interest ; they impose obliga-
tions upon States without granting them rights, and in this respect
are unlike ordinary multilateral conventions which confer rights
as well as obligations upon their parties.
Furthermore, these conventions are not merely formulated under
the auspices of the United Nations, but in its Assemblies ; they are
discussed there at length by al1 States, who have the opportunity
to comment upon them as they see fit; and the conventions which

are proposed by these Assemblies can be modified by them up to
the last moment.
The decisions of these Assemblies are taken upon a majority vote
(Art. 18 of the Charter). The old unanimity rule is thus abolished,
or rather it exists only in the exceptional cases mentioned in thesaid Article 18. This riile of the majority vote is, moreover, in
conformity with Our ideas of international organization, of the
interdependence of States and of the general interest; national
sovereignty has to bow before the will of the majority by which
this general interest is represented.
(Let us note, in passing, that the judgments and opinions of this
Court are given on a majority vote.)

Thus, in fact, these Assemblies of the United Nations are, in
these cases, fulfilling a legislative function.
It is convenient to recall that at times certain States have given
the General Assembly of the United Nations truly legislative
powers by submitting themselves in advance to its decisions upon
questions which they have referred to it. We find a typical case in
the peace treaty signed between Italy and the four Great Powers,
in the part which relates to thefuture of the former Italian colonies.
The General Assembly of 1949 determined their fate ; and its
resolution concerning Eritrea contains the broad outline of a
Constitution.
In addition to the multilateral conventions which have just been
mentioned, the Assemblies of the United Nations pass Declarations
and Resolutions of a very important nature. These Declarations do
not require ratification, and, by reason of their nature, are not
susceptible to reservations ; they have not yet acquired a binding
character, but they may acquire it if they receive the support of
public opinion, which in several cases has condemned an act con-
trary to a Declaration with more force than if it had been a mere

breach of a convention of minor importance.
Finally, the General Assembly of the United Nations is the
meeting place where States discuss political matters of general
interest (open diplomacy) ; in doing so, the Assembly is in a good
position to reconcile Law and Politics.
In short, the Assembly of the United Nations is tending to
become an actual international legislative power. In order that it
may actually become such a power, al1that is needed is that govern-
ments and public opinion should give it support. Public opinion
is an important factor which comes into play in the new inter-
national law.
Certain consequences of great practical importance ensue from
the nature of the four categories of multilateral conventions which
have just been mentioned, and from the manner in which they
were drawn up.
To begin with, the said conventions are almost real international
laws.
Secondly, these conventions signed by a great majority of States

ought to be binding upon the others, even though they have not
expressly accepted them : such conventions establish a kind of
binding custom, or rather principles which must be observed byal1 States by reason of their interdependence and of the existence
of an international organization.
It follows from the foregoing that the said conventions must
not be interpreted with reference to the preparatory work which
preceded them ;they are distinct from that work and have acquired
a life of their own ;they can be compared to ships which leave the
yards in which they have been built, and sail away independently,
no longer attached to the dockyard. These conventions must be
interpreted without regard to the past, and only with regard to the
future.

Nor must they be interpreted in the light of arguments drawn
from domestic contract law, as their nature is entirely different.

Let us next consider the particular question of the reservations
to which the conventions of which 1 have just spoken-and in
particular that on genocide-may be subjected.
These conventions, by reason of their nature and of the manner
in which they have heen formulated, constitute an indivisible
whole. Therefore, they must not be made the subject of reser-
vations, for that would be contrary to the purposes at which they
are aimed, namely, the gentral interest and also the social interest.
To support this view, one may refer to what has happened in
the case of certain instruments of our international organization,
in particular the Charter of the United Nations and the Statute

of the International Court of Justice. After long discussionspreced-
ing their formulation, these instruments were accepted without
reservation by al1 participating States ;and, at the present time,
countries which desire to take part in the United Nations are
prepared to sign this Charter and this Statute upon the same terms.
These instruments, to be sure, have given occasion to many
criticisms, and if the States had been allowed to make reservations
in regard to them they would have done so ; nevertheless, they
accepted them as they stood, because they could not do othenvise.
A psychological factor, in fact, comes into consideration in regard
to these instruments : States are unwilling to remain aloof from
these conventions, for, if they did so, they would find themselves
in an awkward position in international Society.
Those who advocate the admissibility of reservations even in
the four categories of statements to which 1 have referred, argue
that States desire to make reservations, and that if they were not
allowed to, they would not sign these instruments.

To this it can be replied that, when the said conventions were
debated in the Assemblies of the United Nations, the States had
an opportunity of making criticisms or objections on any points
that they pleased, and that, consequently, they cannot afterwards DISS. OPIN. M. ALVAREZ (RESERVATIONS GENOCIDE CONV.)
54
return to those points. It would be inadmissible that an instrument
approved by the Assembly of the United Nations and designed
to form one of the foundations of Our international life could be
destroyed, or even shaken, by the independent action of one or
more States, which actually took part in drawing up the conven-
tions concerned.
To avoid these difficulties, conventions of the kind referred to
above.ought to be established in their essential points svithout

going into details, so that they can be accepted by the greatest
possible number of States ;a less ambitious pact, upon which al1
parties are in agreement, is preferable to a more elaborate pact
to which numerous reservations have been made.
As regards the Convention on Genocide in particular, it is
contended that it may be made the subject of reservations because
this possibility was mentioned in the General Assembly of the
United Nations ;and because certain States gave their adhesion
to this Convention subject to reservations, and, finally, because
the matter of reservations is mentioned in the Request for the
opinion of the Court.
To this it can be replied that if reservations to this Convention
are contemplated, that is a consequence of the survival of old-
fashioned ideas on multilateral conventions ; people are still
considering this subject in relation to the old criterion, without
taking its new aspect into consideration.
It has been proposed to seek a solution of the problem stated
in the Request by having recourse to doctrinal or practical systems.

According to one point of view, reservations, to be valid, must be
accepted by al1 the contracting States. Following another more
recent system-that adopted by this Court-reservations are
inadmissible if they are not compatible with the aims and objects
of the Convention.
Neither of these points of view is satisfactory. So far as the latter
is concerned, States making reservations could argue that their
reservations were not in conflict with the aim of the Convention,
while States objecting tothe reservations might allege the opposite.
And, when one realizes that in this event it would be the duty of
the International Court of Justice to settle the dispute, this tribunal
will find itself so overburdened with controversies of this nature
that its functions would be utterly distorted.
The best solution would be to establish ~lainlv that reservations
are inadmissible in the four categories of kultifateral conventions
which have been mentioned, and in particular in that on genocide :
the psychological factor which has been referred to would then
come into play, and States would sign these conventions without

reservations.
If. however. the admissibilitv of reservations in these conven-
tions is to be iaintained, it wouid be necessary that the conventions
should state this fact expressly, and explain the legal effect thatthey would possess. In that event the said conventions would
become ordinary multilateral conventions ; and they would no
longer be fundamental conventions of international law.
If the scope of the reservations were not determined in the
convention itself, it would have to be admitted that theywould
only involve the minimum legal result.
These results could then be as follows :

If the reservations proposed by a State are not accepted by one
or several others of the States parties to the convention, the reserv-
ing State is not to be considered as a party to the convention.
If the reservations are accepted by the majority of other States,
then the convention is transformed, and another convention takes
its place ;the States which have not accepted the reservations are
not parties to the new convention.
Finally, if the reservations are accepted by certain States but
objected to by others, then there is no convention at all.

The foregoing considerations regarding the new international
law concerning multilateral conventions of the kinds indicated
above, and in particular the Convention on Genocide, provide a new

criterion which we must employ in finding a solution to the questions
put to the Court in the Request.
To the first ofthese questions, 1 repIy with a categorical NO :as
1 have just said, the Convention on Genocide cannot admit of
reservations. In any event, even if they were allowed, they should
produce the minimum of legal effect in favour of the States making
the reservation.
The second question does not fall to be considered, in view of
the reply given to Question 1.
As regards Question III, 1 reply that legal effect must be given
to objections made to reservations by a State coming within the
categories stated in my paragraphs (a) and (b).
The conclusions which 1 have set forth may assist in preventing
States from making reservations to the Convention.

(Siened) A. ALVAREZ.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

L'Assembléegénérale desNations Unies, dans sa séance plénière
du 16novembre 1950, a demandéàla Cour internationale de Justice
un avis sur des questions concernant les réserves à la Convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide,l'admis-
sion de ces réserves ayant provoqué des objections de la part de
quelques États, ainsi que des divergences au sein des Commissions
de 1'O.N.U.
Comme l'a très bien rer.arqué l'Attorney-General du Royaume-
Uni dans son exposé oral devant la Cour, celle-ci a le pouvoir et
le devoir, tout en se consacrant en premier lieu à l'examen des
questions relatives à la Convention sur le génocide, de rédiger ses
conclusions de façon qu'elles soient, autant que possible, appli-
cables non seulement aux conventions de ce type qui pourront être

élaboréesdans le cadre de l'organisation des Nations Unies, mais
aussi aux conventions multilatérales en général.
Il est naturel, du reste, que la Cour procède ainsi :pour fonder
dûment son avis, elle doit envisager le sujetàun point de vue plus
étendu que celui indiqué dans la demande que lui a adressée
l'Assembléedes Kations Unies.

Au cours des discussions quiont eu lieu sur ce sujet, on a observé
qu'il n'y a dans le droit internationalni règles précisesni précédents
bien établis concernant les réserves aux conventions multilatérales
en général ;et on a indiquéjusqu'à trois sortes de pratiques parmi
lesquelles celle appelée panaméricaine.

Jusqu'à aujourd'hui, les conventions multilatéral<:s ont été

établies sous, le régime individualiste fondé sur la souveraineté
absolue des Etats. D'après ce régime, ceux-cine sont liésque dans
la mesure où ils le veulent par suite, ils peuvent faire librement des
réserves à ces conventions. En outre, celles-ci sont devenues de
plus en plus nombreuses depuis le début de ce siècleet portent sur
des matières très diverses ;elles constituent une partie importante
de ce qu'on appelle la législationilzternationale.

La multiplicité des réserves à ces conventions plurilatérales,
ainsi que les adhésions et dénonciations dont elles sont l'objet, a
produit une grande incertitude, car il est difficile de savoir entre
quels Etats ces conventions sont en vigueur. Une vérit;-iblecrise

38 DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ

1
[Translationj

The General Assembly of the United Nations, at its plenary
session of November 16th, 1950, asked the International Court of
Justice for an Opinion upon certain questions concerning reser-
vations to the Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide ;the admission of these reservations had evoked
objections on the part of certain Staets, as well as differences of
opinion among the representatives of the United Nations themselves.
As was well said by the Attorney-General of the United Kingdom
in his oral statement before the Court, this Court has the power
and the duty both to devote itself in the first place to the examin-
ation of questions relating to the Convention on Genocide and to
formulate its conclusions in such a manner that they may be, as
far as possible, applicable, not only to conventions of this type
which may be drawn up within the framework ofthe United Nations
but also to multilateral conventions in general.

Moreover, it is natural that the Court should proceed in this
manner : it should, in order that its Opinion may be properly
founded, view the subject from a broader angle than that indicated
in the Request transmitted to it by the Assembly of the United
Nations.
It has been pointed out, in the course of the discussions which
have taken place upon this subject, that there are no precise rules
or precedents well established in international law regarding reser-
vations to multilateral conventions in general ; three kinds of
practices have been mentioned to us, one of which was called the
Pan-American practice.
Up to the present time, multilateral conventions have been
established under the individualist system, based upon the absolute
sovereignty of States. According to this system, States are only
bound to the extent to which they consent to be obliged ;conse-
quently, they are free to make reservations to these conventions
as they please. Furthermore, these conventions have become more

and more numerous since the beginning of this century and relate
to a wide diversity of matters ; they constitute an important part
of what is called international legislution.
The multiplicity of reservations made to these multilateral
conventions, together with the adhesions to them and the denun-
ciations of them, has produced much uncertainty, because it is
difficult to be sure as to the States between which these conventions
38 que certains - dont moi-même - ont dénoncée depuislongtemps
s'est ainsi produite dans le droit international conventionnel. La
tâche du Secrétairegénéralde la Société desNations, et maintenant
de l'organisation des Nations Unies, pour l'enregistrement de ces
conventions est devenue extrêmement compliquée ; et c'est sans
doute, en partie, pour remédier à cette situation que l'Assemblée
générale desNations Unies a adressé à la Cour la demande d'avis
dont elle est actuellement saisie.

Pour apprécier à l'avenir les conventions multilatérales et, dans
le cas concret, celle sur le génocide, il faut abandonner le critère
traditionnel, car on se trouve actuellement en présence d'une
situation internationale bien différente de ce au'elle était avant le
dernier cataclysme social : celui-ci a produit une profonde et rapide

évolution des faits et des idéesdans le domaine international.
Par suite, un point très important se présente à la considération
de la Cour.
D'après l'opinion courante, ce tribunal doit appliquer les pré-
ceptes du droit international considérés commeexistant au moment
où il doit prononcer sa sentence ou son avis, sans se soucier de
savoir s'ils ont subi des changements plus ou moins soudains ou
s'ilscorrespondent aux nouvelles conditionsde la vie internationale ;
c'est, dit-on, à la Commission du droit international crééepar
l'organisation des Nations Unies qu'appartient la tâche de déter-
miner les modifications qu'il y a lieu d'apporter au droit des gens.
Il n'est pas possible d'accepter ce point de vue. Par suite des
grands changements survenus dans la vie internationale depuis le
dernier cataclysme social, la Cour doit, dans chaque cas qui se
présente, déterminer l'état actuel du droit et, s'il y a lieu, faire
Œuvre constructive à cet égard, d'autant plus qu'en vertu de la
résolution 171 de l'Assemblée générale desNations Unies de 1947,

elle a la faculté de développer le droit des gens et, par suite, de le
créer si c'est nécessaire, car il est impossible de délimiter exacte-
ment où finit le développement de ce droit et où commence sa créa-
tion. Procéder autrement serait méconnaître la nature du droit
des gens, qui doit toujours refléter la vie internationale d'où il
naît, sous peine d'êtrediscrédité.

Le procédéqui vient d'être indiqué est appliqué dans le droit
public interne. Si, à la suite d'une révolution, un nouveau régime
politique, la république par exemple, s'établit à la place de la
monarchie, il est évident que les institutions tant anciennes que
nouvelles doivent être immédiatement appliquées et interprétées
conformément au nouveau régime.
Il doit en êtrede même,et àplus forte raison, dans le droit inter-
national. Après les cataclysmes sociaux que nous venons de tra-

39are in force. A real crisis, to which some persons-including myself
-have drawn attention for some time past, has thus arisen in
international treaty law. The task of the Secretary-General of the
League of Nations and after that the United Nations in connection

with the registration of these conventions has become extremely
complicated ; and it is without doubt partly to remedy this
situation that the General Assembly of the United Nations has
sent to the Court the Request for an Opinion which is now before us.

In appraising multilateral conventions-and specifically that on
genocide-in the future, we shall be forced to abandon traditional
criteria, because we are now confronted with an international
situation very different from that which existed before the last
social cataclysm ; the latter hze caused a profound and rapid
evolution of facts and ideas in the international sphere.
Consequently, a very important point invites the consideration
of the Court.
According to current opinion, this Court has to apply the
principles of international law deemed to be in existence at the
moment when it delivers its judgment or opinion, without consider-

ing whether they have undergone any more or less sudden changes,
or whether they are in accord with the new conditions of inter-
national life ; it appertains-we are told-to the International
Law Commission created by the United Nations to determine
what modifications should be made in international law.
That is a view which it is impossible to accept. As a result of
the great changes in international life that have taken place since
the last social cataclysm, it is necessary that the Court should
determine the present state of law in each case which is brought
before it and, when needed, act constructively in this respect, al1
the more so because in virtue of Resolution 171 of the General
Assembly of the United Nations of 1947 ,t is at liberty to develop
international law, and indeed to create law, if that is necessary,
for it is impossible to define exactly where the development of
this law ends and its creation begins. To proceed otherwise would
be to fail to understand the nature of international law, which must
always reflect the international life of which it is born, if it is not
to be discredited.

The method 1 have just indicated is that applied to domestic
constitutional law. If, for example, consequentlyupon a revolution,
a new republican political régime establishes itself in the place of
a monarchy, it is obvious that both old and new institutions must
at once be applied and interpreted in conformity with the new
régime.
There are stroriger reasons why the same course should be
followed in regard to international law. After the social cataclysm
39verser, un ordrenouveau s'est établi et, avec lui, un droit interna-
tional nouveau. Il faut donc donner aux institutions anciennes,
ainsi qu'aux nouvelles, une application et une interprétation
conformes àce nouvel ordre ainsi qu'à cenouveau droit.

III

Pour ne pas sortir du cadre de la demande d'avis, je me bornerai
à indiquer les caractéristiques du droit international nouveau en
ce qui concerne la matière des conventions multilatérales de carac-

tère spécial.
A cet égard, ce droit comprend dans son domaine quatre caté-
gories de conventions multilatérales, dont trois étaient inconnues
auparavant : a) celles qui se proposent de développerl'organisation
internationale mondiale ou d'établirdesorganisationscontinentales,
notamment l'organisation européenne qui est de grande actualité ;
b) celles qui ont pour but de fixer le statut territorial de certains
Etats ; ces conventions ont existé en Europe depuis le début du
xlxme siècle et elles ont constitué ce qu'on appelle le «droit public
européen » ;c) les conventions qui ont pour objet d'établir de nou-
veaux et grands préceptes du droit des gens ; d) celles qui se pro-
posent de régler des matières d'intérêtsocial ou humanitaire,
tendant à améliorerla condition des individus.
Parmi les conventions indiquées aux lettres c) et d) figure pré- ,

cisément celle sur le génocide. Le droit international nouveau, se
faisant l'échode la nouvelle orientation de la conscience juridique
des peuples, condamne le génocide - de mêmeque la guerre -
comme un crime contre la civilisation, alors que jusqu'à une époque
récente il n'en était pas ainsi.
Ces quatre catégories de conventions présentent des caractéris-
tiques qui les différencient profondément des conventions multi-
latérales ordinaires.
Et d'abord, elles ont un caractère universel ; elles sont, en
quelque sorte, la Constitution de la sociétéinternationale, le Droit
.publicinternationalnouveaN.Elles sont établies au bénéficenon pas
d'intérêts partic~liers mais de l'intérêtgénéral ; elles imposent des
obligations aux Etats sans leur donner des droits, à la différence
des conventions multilatérales ordinaires qui confèrent aux parties
des obligations, en mêmetemps que des droits.

D'autre part, lesdites conventions sont élaborées non seulement
sous les auspices de l'Organisation des Nations Unies, mais dans
ses Assemblées ;ellesy sont longuement discutées par tous les États
qui peuvent librement présenter toutes les observations qu'ils
jugent utiles ; et jusqu'au dernier moment, les projets préparés
par ces Assemblées-peuvent êtremodifiéspar elles.
Les décisionsde ces Assembléessont prises à la majorité des voix
(art. 18 de la Charte). L'ancienne règle de l'unanimité est donc
abolie, ou plutôt elle ne subsiste que pour les cas exceptionnels

40which we have just passed through, a new order has arisen and,
with it, a new international law. We must therefore apply and
interpret both old and new institutions in conformity with both
this new order and this new law.

III

In order not to go outside the scope of the Request for an Opinion,
1 will confine myself to indicating the characteristics of the new
international law, so far as concerns multilateral conventions of
a special character.
In this respect, this law includes within its domain four categories
of multilateral conventions, three of which were formerly unknown :
(a) those which seek to develop world international organization

or to establish regional organizations, such as the European organ-
ization which is of such great p~~sent-day interest ;(b) those which
seek to determine the territorial status of certain States ; such
conventions have existed in Europe since the beginning of the
x~xth century, and have constituted what may be called "European
public law" ; (c) conventions which seek to establish new and
important principles of international law ; (d) conventions seeking
to regulate matters of a social or humanitarian interest with a
view to improving the position of individuals.
It is among the conventions referred to under (c) and (d) above
that we find the Convention on Genocide. The new international
law, reflecting the new orientation of the legal conscience of the
nations, condemns genocide-as it condemns war-as a crime
against civilization, although this was not admitted till quite
recently.

Conventions of the above four categories present characteristics
~vhich differentiate them markedly from ordinary multilateral
conventions.
To begin with, they have a universal character ;they are, in a
sense, the Constitution of international society, the new international
constitz~tionallaw. They are not established for the benefit of private
interests but for that of the general interest ; they impose obliga-
tions upon States without granting them rights, and in this respect
are unlike ordinary multilateral conventions which confer rights
as well as obligations upon their parties.
Furthermore, these conventions are not merely formulated under
the auspices of the United Nations, but in its Assemblies ; they are
discussed there at length by al1 States, who have the opportunity
to comment upon them as they see fit; and the conventions which

are proposed by these Assemblies can be modified by them up to
the last moment.
The decisions of these Assemblies are taken upon a majority vote
(Art. 18 of the Charter). The old unanimity rule is thus abolished,
or rather it exists only in the exceptional cases mentioned in thementionnés dans ledit article 18. Cette règle de la majorité est,
du reste, conforme aux notions d'organisation internationale,
d'interdépendance des Etats et d'intérêtgénéral ;les souverainetés
nationales doivent d'incliner devant la volonté de la majorité qui
représente cet intérêt.
(Remarquons, en passant, que les sentences et avis de la Cour
sont rendus à la majorité des voix.)
Ces Assembléesde l'Organisation des Nations Unies font donc,
en réalité,dans ces cas, Œuvre législativ~.
Il convient de rappeler que certains Etats ont donné parfois à
I'Assemblée générale de l'organisation des Nations Unieç des
facultésvraiment législativesen se soumettant d'avance à ses déci-
sions dans les matières qu'ils lui ont soumises. Nous en trouvons
un cas typique dans le traité de paix signéentre l'Italie et les quatre
Grandes Puissances, dans la partie relative au sort des anciennes
colonies italiennes. L'Assemblee généralede 1949 a fixé ce sort ;
et sa résolution concernant 1'Erythrée contient les grandes lignes
d'une Constitution.

En dehors des conventions plurilatérales dont nous venons de
parler, lesAssembléesde l'Organisation des Nations Unies votent des
Déclarations et des Résolutions très importantes. Ces Déclarations
n'ont pas besoin d'êtreratifiées,et, en raison de leur nature, ne sont
pas susceptibles de réserves ; elles n'ont pas encore un caractère
obligatoire, mais elles pourront l'avoir si elles reçoivent l'appui de
l'opinion publique. Celle-ci actuellement condamne parfois un
acte contraire à une Déclaration avec plus de force qu'une infraction
à une convention peu importante.
Enfin, l'Assembléegénéralede l'Organisation des Nations Unies
est le lieu de réunion où les Etats discutent de matières politiques
d'intérêtgénéral (diplomatie ouverte) ;de ce fait, elle peut, dans
les meilleures conditions, harmoniser le Droit et la Politique.
Bref, l'Assembléede l'organisation des Nations Unies tend à
devenir un véritable pouvoir législatif international. Pour qu'elle
le devienne effectivement, il suffirait que les gouvernements et

l'opinion publique lui donnent leur appui. Cette opinion est un
facteur important qui entre en jeu dans le droit international
nouveau.
De la nature des quatre catégoriesde conventions multilatérales
dont il vient d'êtreparléet de la manière dont elles sont élaborées
résultent certaines conséquencesde grande importance pratique.

Et d'abord, lesdites conventions sont presque de véritables lois
internationales.
Ensuite, ces conventions signéespar un très grand nombre d'États
devraient obliger tous les autres, même s'ilsne les ont pas acceptées
expressément :de telles conventions établissent, en quelque sorte,
une coutume obligatoire, ou plutôt des préceptes qui doivent êtresaid Article 18. This riile of the majority vote is, moreover, in
conformity with Our ideas of international organization, of the
interdependence of States and of the general interest; national
sovereignty has to bow before the will of the majority by which
this general interest is represented.
(Let us note, in passing, that the judgments and opinions of this
Court are given on a majority vote.)

Thus, in fact, these Assemblies of the United Nations are, in
these cases, fulfilling a legislative function.
It is convenient to recall that at times certain States have given
the General Assembly of the United Nations truly legislative
powers by submitting themselves in advance to its decisions upon
questions which they have referred to it. We find a typical case in
the peace treaty signed between Italy and the four Great Powers,
in the part which relates to thefuture of the former Italian colonies.
The General Assembly of 1949 determined their fate ; and its
resolution concerning Eritrea contains the broad outline of a
Constitution.
In addition to the multilateral conventions which have just been
mentioned, the Assemblies of the United Nations pass Declarations
and Resolutions of a very important nature. These Declarations do
not require ratification, and, by reason of their nature, are not
susceptible to reservations ; they have not yet acquired a binding
character, but they may acquire it if they receive the support of
public opinion, which in several cases has condemned an act con-
trary to a Declaration with more force than if it had been a mere

breach of a convention of minor importance.
Finally, the General Assembly of the United Nations is the
meeting place where States discuss political matters of general
interest (open diplomacy) ; in doing so, the Assembly is in a good
position to reconcile Law and Politics.
In short, the Assembly of the United Nations is tending to
become an actual international legislative power. In order that it
may actually become such a power, al1that is needed is that govern-
ments and public opinion should give it support. Public opinion
is an important factor which comes into play in the new inter-
national law.
Certain consequences of great practical importance ensue from
the nature of the four categories of multilateral conventions which
have just been mentioned, and from the manner in which they
were drawn up.
To begin with, the said conventions are almost real international
laws.
Secondly, these conventions signed by a great majority of States

ought to be binding upon the others, even though they have not
expressly accepted them : such conventions establish a kind of
binding custom, or rather principles which must be observed byobservéspar tous les États en raison de l'interdépendance de ceux-ci

et de l'existence d'une organisation internationale.
Par suite de ce qui précède,lesdites conventions ne doivent pas
êtreinterprétéesen prenant en considération les travaux prépara-
toires ; elles se détachent de tels travaux et acquièrent une vie
propre ; elles peuvent êtrecomparées aux navires qui quittent les
chantiers où ils ont été constmits et naviguent par eux-mêmes,
sans plus avoir d'attaches avec ces chantiers. Ces conventions
doivent êtreinterprétées enregardant non pas en arrière, mais en
avant.
Elles ne doivent pas, non plus, être interprétées à l'aide d'argu-
ments tirés du droit civil relatif aux contrats, leur nature étant
toute différente.

Il convient d'examiner spécialement la question des réserves
dont peuvent êtresusceptibles les conventions dont il vient d'être
parléet, en particulier, celle sur le génocide.
Ces conventions, en raison de leur nature et de la manière dont
elles sont élaborées,forment un tout indivisible ; par suite, elles
ne doivent pas faire l'ohjet de réserves, car cela serait contraire
aux fins qu'elles poursuivent, qui est l'intérêtgénéral,l'intérêt
social.
A l'appui de cette affirmation, on peut invoquer ce qui s'est
produit pour certains actes d'organisation internationale, notam-
ment pour la Charte des Nations Unies et pour le Statut de la Cour
internationale de Justice. Après avoir étélonguement discutés lors
de leur é'aboration, ces actes ont étéacceptés sans réserves par
tous les Etats participants ; et actuellement les pays qui désirent

faire partie de l'O.N.U. sont disposés à signer cette Charte et ce
Statut dans les mêmes conditions.
Certes, ces aetes donnent lieu à bien des critiques, et si on laissait
aux Etats la faculté de formuler des réserves à leur égard, ils le
feraient ; cependant, ils les ont acceptés tels quels parce qu'ils ne
pouvaient pas faire autrement, Dans ces actes, en effet, intervient
un facteur psychologique :les Etats ne veulent pas rester en dehors
d'eux, car ils se trouveraient alors dans une situation difficile
dans la sociétéinternationale.

Les partisans de l'admission des réserves mêmedans les quatre
catégories de conyentions dont il a été parlé précédemment,
allèguent que les Etats tiennent à faire des réserves et que, si on
les prohibait, ils ne signeraient pas ces actes.

A cela on peut répondre que, lors de l'élaboration desdites
conventions aux Assemblées de l'O.N.U., les États ont pu faire
toutes les critiques ou objections qu'ils jugeaient utiles et que,
par suite, ils ne peuvent plus revenir sur elles. On ne peut admettre
42al1 States by reason of their interdependence and of the existence
of an international organization.
It follows from the foregoing that the said conventions must
not be interpreted with reference to the preparatory work which
preceded them ;they are distinct from that work and have acquired
a life of their own ;they can be compared to ships which leave the
yards in which they have been built, and sail away independently,
no longer attached to the dockyard. These conventions must be
interpreted without regard to the past, and only with regard to the
future.

Nor must they be interpreted in the light of arguments drawn
from domestic contract law, as their nature is entirely different.

Let us next consider the particular question of the reservations
to which the conventions of which 1 have just spoken-and in
particular that on genocide-may be subjected.
These conventions, by reason of their nature and of the manner
in which they have heen formulated, constitute an indivisible
whole. Therefore, they must not be made the subject of reser-
vations, for that would be contrary to the purposes at which they
are aimed, namely, the gentral interest and also the social interest.
To support this view, one may refer to what has happened in
the case of certain instruments of our international organization,
in particular the Charter of the United Nations and the Statute

of the International Court of Justice. After long discussionspreced-
ing their formulation, these instruments were accepted without
reservation by al1 participating States ;and, at the present time,
countries which desire to take part in the United Nations are
prepared to sign this Charter and this Statute upon the same terms.
These instruments, to be sure, have given occasion to many
criticisms, and if the States had been allowed to make reservations
in regard to them they would have done so ; nevertheless, they
accepted them as they stood, because they could not do othenvise.
A psychological factor, in fact, comes into consideration in regard
to these instruments : States are unwilling to remain aloof from
these conventions, for, if they did so, they would find themselves
in an awkward position in international Society.
Those who advocate the admissibility of reservations even in
the four categories of statements to which 1 have referred, argue
that States desire to make reservations, and that if they were not
allowed to, they would not sign these instruments.

To this it can be replied that, when the said conventions were
debated in the Assemblies of the United Nations, the States had
an opportunity of making criticisms or objections on any points
that they pleased, and that, consequently, they cannot afterwardsqu'un acte approuvé par l'Assemblée de 1'O.N.U. et destiné à
êtreune des assises de la vie internationale puisse être détruitou
même ébranlépar l'action d'un ou de plusieurs Etats agissant
individuellement et qui, du reste, ont pris part à l'élaboration
dudit acte.

Pour éviterces inconvénients, les conventions ci-dessus indiquées
doivent êtreétablies seulement dans leurs points essentiels, sans
entrer dans les détails, de fa~on qq'elles puissent être acceptées
par le plus grand nombre possible d'Etats ;un pacte modeste mais
sur lequel toutes les parties sont d'accord est préférable à un pacte
plus développé maisauquel ont étéfaites de nombreuses réserves.
Pour ce qui concerne spécialement la Convention sur le génocide,

on soutient qu'elle peut faire l'objet de réserves, en se fondant
sur le fait que dans l'+semblée générale de1'O.N.U. on y a fait
allusion ;que certains Etats ont donné leur adhésion à cette Conven-
tion en y faisant des réserves ;enfin, que dans la demande d'avis
adressée à la Cour il est question de réserves.

A cela on peut répondre que si l'on envisage des réserves à cette
Convention, c'est par suite de la survivance des idées anciennes
sur les conventions multilatérales ; on continue à considérer ce
sujet avec le critère traditionnel, sans prendre en considération
l'aspect nouveau qu'il présente.
Pour la solution de la question posée dans la demande d'avis,
on a voulu appliquer divers systèmes existant dans la doctrine
ou dans la pratique. D'après l'un d'eux, les réserves, pour être

valables, doivent êtreacceptées par tous les Etats contractants.
Suivant un autre système plus récent - celui adoptépar la Cour -,
lesréservesne sont admissibles que si elles ne sont pas incompatibles
avec les buts et objectifs de la Convention.
Ni l'un ni l'autre de ces systèmes ne sont satisfaisants. Pour
ce qui concerne le dernier, les Etats présentant des réservespourront
soutenir qu'elles ne sont pas contraires au but de la Convention,
tandis que ceux qui s'y opposent pourront prétendre le contraire.
Et, comme on estime que, dans cette éventualité, c'est la Cour
internationale de Justice qui devrait trancher le différend, ce
tribunal se trouverait alors surchargé de controverses de cette
nature et son rôle serait entièrement défiguré.
La meilleure solution consisterait à établir clairement dans les
quatre catégories de conventions multilatérales précédemment
indiquées, notamment dans celle sur le génocide, que les réserves

ne sont pas admises :le facteur psychologique dont il a étéparlé
plus haut entrerait alors en jeu et les Etats signeraient ces conven-
tions sans présenter de réserves.
Si, cependant, on insistait pour que les réserves soient admises
dans ces conventions, il faudrait que celles-ci le déclarent expressé-
ment et qu'elles précisent leurs effets juridiques. Dans ce cas, DISS. OPIN. M. ALVAREZ (RESERVATIONS GENOCIDE CONV.)
54
return to those points. It would be inadmissible that an instrument
approved by the Assembly of the United Nations and designed
to form one of the foundations of Our international life could be
destroyed, or even shaken, by the independent action of one or
more States, which actually took part in drawing up the conven-
tions concerned.
To avoid these difficulties, conventions of the kind referred to
above.ought to be established in their essential points svithout

going into details, so that they can be accepted by the greatest
possible number of States ;a less ambitious pact, upon which al1
parties are in agreement, is preferable to a more elaborate pact
to which numerous reservations have been made.
As regards the Convention on Genocide in particular, it is
contended that it may be made the subject of reservations because
this possibility was mentioned in the General Assembly of the
United Nations ;and because certain States gave their adhesion
to this Convention subject to reservations, and, finally, because
the matter of reservations is mentioned in the Request for the
opinion of the Court.
To this it can be replied that if reservations to this Convention
are contemplated, that is a consequence of the survival of old-
fashioned ideas on multilateral conventions ; people are still
considering this subject in relation to the old criterion, without
taking its new aspect into consideration.
It has been proposed to seek a solution of the problem stated
in the Request by having recourse to doctrinal or practical systems.

According to one point of view, reservations, to be valid, must be
accepted by al1 the contracting States. Following another more
recent system-that adopted by this Court-reservations are
inadmissible if they are not compatible with the aims and objects
of the Convention.
Neither of these points of view is satisfactory. So far as the latter
is concerned, States making reservations could argue that their
reservations were not in conflict with the aim of the Convention,
while States objecting tothe reservations might allege the opposite.
And, when one realizes that in this event it would be the duty of
the International Court of Justice to settle the dispute, this tribunal
will find itself so overburdened with controversies of this nature
that its functions would be utterly distorted.
The best solution would be to establish ~lainlv that reservations
are inadmissible in the four categories of kultifateral conventions
which have been mentioned, and in particular in that on genocide :
the psychological factor which has been referred to would then
come into play, and States would sign these conventions without

reservations.
If. however. the admissibilitv of reservations in these conven-
tions is to be iaintained, it wouid be necessary that the conventions
should state this fact expressly, and explain the legal effect thatlesdites conventions deviendraient des conventions multilatérales
ordinaires ;elles ne seraient plus ces conventions fondamentales
du droit international.
Et si la portée desréservesn'étaitpas déterminéedans la conven-

tion, il faudrait alors considérer qu'elles devront produire le
minimum d'effets juridiques.
Ces effets pourraient êtrealors les,suivants :
Si les réserves proposéespar un Etat ne sont pas acceptées par
un ou plusieurs autres, ledit Etat n'est pas partie à la convention.

Si les réserves sont acceptées par la majorité des autres États,
alors ily a une transformation de la convention, une autre conven-
tion ; les États qui n'ont pas accepté ces réserves se trouvent en
dehors de cette convention.
Enfin, si les réserves sont acceptées par quelques États mais
refuséespar d'autres, alors il ne doit pas y avoir de convention.

Les considérations précédentesrelatives au Droit international
nouveau dans la matière des conventions multilatérales indiquées
précédemment,et notamment de celle sur le génocide, fournissent
le critère qu'il faut employer pour donner une solution aux ques-
tions poséesà la Cour dans la demande d'avis.
A la première de ces questions, je réponds catégoriquement
NON :comme il vient d'être dit, la Convention sur le génocidene
doit pas comporter de réserves. En tout cas, si on les admettait,
elles devraient produire le minimum d'effets juridiques au bénéfice
de 1'Etat qui les formulerait.
La seconde question ne doit pas êtreconsidérée,étant donné
la réponse faiteà la question 1.
Quant à la question III,je réponds qu'il faut donner des effets
juridiques aux objections faites aux réserves par un Etat qui
se trouve dans les conditions prévues aux paragraphes a) et b).

Les conclusions précédentespourront contribuer à empêcherles
États de formuler des réservesà la Convention.

(Signé ). ALVAREZ.they would possess. In that event the said conventions would
become ordinary multilateral conventions ; and they would no
longer be fundamental conventions of international law.
If the scope of the reservations were not determined in the
convention itself, it would have to be admitted that theywould
only involve the minimum legal result.
These results could then be as follows :

If the reservations proposed by a State are not accepted by one
or several others of the States parties to the convention, the reserv-
ing State is not to be considered as a party to the convention.
If the reservations are accepted by the majority of other States,
then the convention is transformed, and another convention takes
its place ;the States which have not accepted the reservations are
not parties to the new convention.
Finally, if the reservations are accepted by certain States but
objected to by others, then there is no convention at all.

The foregoing considerations regarding the new international
law concerning multilateral conventions of the kinds indicated
above, and in particular the Convention on Genocide, provide a new

criterion which we must employ in finding a solution to the questions
put to the Court in the Request.
To the first ofthese questions, 1 repIy with a categorical NO :as
1 have just said, the Convention on Genocide cannot admit of
reservations. In any event, even if they were allowed, they should
produce the minimum of legal effect in favour of the States making
the reservation.
The second question does not fall to be considered, in view of
the reply given to Question 1.
As regards Question III, 1 reply that legal effect must be given
to objections made to reservations by a State coming within the
categories stated in my paragraphs (a) and (b).
The conclusions which 1 have set forth may assist in preventing
States from making reservations to the Convention.

(Siened) A. ALVAREZ.

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Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Alvarez (translation)

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