Separate opinion of Judge Kooijmans

Document Number
131-20040709-ADV-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
131-20040709-ADV-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE KOOIJMANS

Reasonsfor negative vote onoperativesubparagraph (3) (D) - Background
and context of request for advisory opinion - Needfor halancedtreatment -
Jurisdictional issues - Article 12, paragraph 2, ofthe Charter and General
Assembly resolution377 A (V) - Question ofjudicial propriety - Purpose of
request - Merits - Self-determination - Proportionality - SeCfldefence -
Legal consequences - Obligationsfor other States - Article 41 of the Znter-
national Law Commission Articles on State Responsibility - Duty of non-

recognition - Duty of abstention - Duty to ensure respect for humanitarian
law - Common Article 1 of'the Geneva Conventions.

1. 1have voted in favour of al1paragraphs of the operative part of the
Advisory Opinion with one exception, viz. subparagraph (3) (D) dealing

with the legal consequences for States.
1 had a number of reasons for casting that negative vote which 1will
only briefly indicate at this stage, since 1 will come back to them when
commenting on the various parts of the Opinion.

My motives can be summarized as follows.
First, the request as formulated by the General Assembly did not make
it necessary for the Court to determine the obligations for States which
ensue from the Court's findings. In this respect an analogy with the struc-

ture of the Opinion in the Narrzihia case is not appropriate. In that case
the question about the legal consequences for States was at the heart of
the request and logically so since it was premised on a decision of the
Security Council. That resolution, and in particular its operative para-

graph 5 which was addressed to "al1States", was considered by the Court
to be "essential for the purposes of the present advisory opinion" (Legal
Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in
Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolu-

tion 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, 1.C. J. Reports 1971, p. 51,para. 108).

A similar situation does not exist in the present case, where the Court's
view is not asked on the legal consequences of a decision taken by a

political organ of the United Nations but of an act committed by a Mem-
ber State. That does not prevent the Court from considering the issue of
consequences for third States once that act has been found to be illegal
but then the Court's conclusion is wholly dependent upon its reasoning

and not upon the necessary logic of the request. It is, however, this reasoning that in my view is not persuasive (see
paras. 39-49, below) and this was my second motive for casting a nega-
tive vote.

And, third, 1 find the Court's conclusions as laid down in sub-
paragraph (3) (D) of the disposit rafer weak; apart from the Court's
finding that States are under an obligation "not to render aid or
assistance in maintaining the situation created by [the] construction
[of the wall]" (a finding 1 subscribe to) 1 find it difficult to envisage
what States are expected to do or not to do in actual practice. In my

opinion a judicial body's findings should have a direct bearing on the
addressee's behaviour; neither the first nor the last part of operative
subparagraph (3) (D) meets this requirement.

2. Although 1am in general agreement with the Court's Opinion, on

some issues 1 have reservations with regard to its reasoning.1 will, in
giving my comments, follow the logical order of the Opinion:
(LI) jurisdictional issues;

(h) the question of judicial propriety;
(c) the merits;
(d) the legal consequences.
Before doing so 1wish, however, to make some remarks about the

background and context of the request.

II.BACKGROU NND CONTEX OF THE REQUES OR THE ADVISORO YPINION

3. In paragraph 54 of the Opinion the Court observes (in the context
of judicial propriety) that it is aware that the question of the wall is part
of a greater whole but that that cannot be a reason for it to decline to
reply to the question asked. It adds that this wider context will be care-
fully taken into account. 1fully share the Court's view as laid down in
that paragraph including the Court's observation that it can nevertheless

only examine other issues to the extent that is necessary for the con-
sideration of the question put to it.

4. In my opinion the Court could and should have given more explicit
attention to the general context of the request in its Opinion. The situa-

tion in and around Palestine has been for a number of decades not only
a virtually continuous threat to international peace and security but also
a human tragedy which in many respects is mind-boggling. How can a
society like the Palestinian one get used to and live with a situation where
the victims of violence are often innocent men, women and children'?
How can a society like the Israeli society get used to and live with a situa-

tion where attacks against a political opponent are targeted at innocent
civilians, men, women and children, in an indiscriminate way? 5. The construction of the wall is explained by Israel as a necessary
protection against the latter category of acts which are generally con-
sidered to be international crimes. Deliberate and indiscriminate attacks
against civilians with the intention to kill are thecore element of terror-
ism which has been unconditionally condemned by the international
community regardless of the motives which have inspired them.
Every State, including Israel, has the right and even the duty (as the
Court says in paragraph 141)to respond to such acts in order to protect
the life of its citizens, albeit the choice ofns in doing so is limited by
the norms and rules of international law. In the present case, Israel has
not respected those limits, and the Court convincingly demonstrates that
these norms and rules of international law have not been respected by it.
1find no fault with this conclusion nor with the finding that the construc-
tion of the wall along the chosen route has greatly added to the suffering
of the Palestinians living in the Occupied Territory.

6. In paragraph 122the Court finds that the construction of the wall,

along with measures taken earlier, severely impedes the exercise by the
Palestinian people of its right to self-determination, and therefore consti-
tutes a breach of Israel's obligation to respect that right. 1 have doubts
whether the last part of that finding is correct (seeparagraph 32, below),
but it is beyond doubt that the mere existence of a structure that sepa-
rates the Palestinians from each other makes the realization of their right
to self-determination far more difficult. even if it has to be admitted that
the realization of this rightis more dependent upon political agreement
than on the situation in loco.
But it is also true that the terrorist acts themselves have caused "great
harm to the legitimate aspirations of the Palestinian people for a better
future", as was stated in the Middle East Quartet Statement of 16 July
2002. And the Statement continues: "Terrorists must not be allowed to
kill the hope of an entire region, and a united international community,
for genuine peace and security for both Palestinians and Israelis."
(Written Statement of Israel, Annex 10.)

7. The fact that the Court has limited itself to report merely on a
number of the historical facts which have led to the present human

tragedy may be correct from the viewpoint of what is really needed to
answer the request of the General Assembly: the result, however, is that
the historical résumé,as presented in paragraphs 70 to 78, is rather two-
dimensional. 1will illustrate this by giving one example which is hardly
relevant for the case itself.
8. Before giving its historical résumé,the Court says that it will first
make a brief analysis of the status of the territory and it starts by men-
tioning the establishment of the Mandate after the First World War.
Nothing is said, however, about the status of the West Bank between the
conclusion of the General Armistice Agreement in 1949and the occupa-
tion by lsrael in 1967,in spite of the fact that it is a generally known factthat it was placed by Jordan under its sovereignty but that this claim
to sovereignty, which was relinquished only in 1988, was recognized by
three States only.

9. 1 fail to understand the reason for this oinission of an objective
historical fact since in my view the fact that Jordan claimed sovereignty
over the West Bank only strengthens the argument in favour of the
applicability of the Fourth Geneva Convention right from the moment
of its occupation by Israel in June 1967.
If it is correct that the Government of Israel claims that the Fourth

Geneva Convention is not applicable dejure in the West Bank since that
territory had not previously to the 1967 war been under Jordanian sov-
ereignty, that argument already fails since a territory, which by one of the
parties to an armed conflict is claimed as its own and is under its control,
is- once occupied by the other party - by definition occupied territory
of a High Contructing Purty in the sense of the Fourth Geneva Conven-

tion (emphasis added). And both Israel and Jordan were parties to the
Convention.

That this at the time also was recognized by the lsraeli authorities is
borne out by the Order issued after the occupation and referred to in

paragraph 93 of the Opinion.
10. The strange result of the Court's reticence about the status of the
West Bank between 1949 and 1967 is that it is only by implication that
the reader is able to understand that it was under Jordanian control
(paragraphs 73 and 129 refer to the demarcation line between Israel and
Jordan (the Green Line)) without ever being explicitly informed that the

West Bank had been placed under Jordanian authority. This is al1 the
more puzzling as the Court would in no way have been compelled to
comment on the legality or legitimacy of that authority if it had made
mention of it.
11. In a letter of 29 January from the Deputy Director General and

Legal Adviser of the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs to the Registrar
of the Court it is stated that "Israel trusts and expects that the Court will
look beyond the request to the wider issues relevant to this matter"
(Written Statement of Israel, covering letter). In this respect it was said
that resolution ES-10114 is "absolutely silent" on the terrorist attacks
against Israeli citizens and thus "reflects the gravest prejudice and imbal-

ance with the requesting organ". Israel, therefore, requested the Court
not to render the opinion.

12. 1 am of the view that the Court, in deciding whether it is appro-
priate to respond to a request for an advisory opinion, can involve itself
with the political debate which has preceded the request only to the

extent necessary to understand the question put. It is no exception that
such debate is heated but, as the Court said in the case of the Legulity oj
the Tllreut or Use of Nucleur Weupon.~ "once the Assembly has asked, by adopting a resolution, for an advi-
sory opinion on a legal question, the Court, in determining whether
there are any compelling reasons for it to refuse to give such an
opinion, willnot have regard to the origins or to the political history
of the request, or to the distribution of votes in respect of the
adopted resolution" (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 237, para. 16).

The Court, however, does not function in a void. It is the principal judi-
cial organ of the United Nations and has to carry out its function and
responsibility within the wider political context. It cannot be expected to
present a legal opinion on the request of a political organ without taking
full account of the context in which the request was made.

13. Although the Court certainly has taken into account the argu-
ments put forward by Israel and has dealt with them in a considerate
manner, 1am of the viewthat the present Opinion could have reflectedin
a more satisfactory way the interests at stake for al1those living in the
region. The rather oblique references to terrorist acts which can be Sound
at several places in the Opinion are in my viewnot sufficientfor this pur-
pose. An advisory opinion is brought to the attention of a political organ
of the United Nations and is destined to have an effect on a political

process. It should therefore throughout its reasoning and up till the
operative part reflect the legitimate interests and responsibilities of ull
those involved and not merely refer to them in a concluding paragraph
(para. 162).

III. JURISDICTIONIA SSLUES

14. 1 fully share the view of the Court that the adoption of resolu-
tion ES-10114was not ultra viressince it did not contravene the provision
of Article 12, paragraph 1, of the Charter; nor did it fail to fulfil the
essential conditions set by the Uniting for Peace resolution (resolu-
tion 377 A (V)) for the convening of an Emergency Special Session.

15. 1doubt, however, whether it is possible to describe the practice of
the political organs of the United Nations with respect to the interpreta-
tion of Article 12, paragraph 1, of the Charter without taking into
account the effect of the Uniting for Peace resolution on this interpreta-
tion. In the Opinion, the Court deals with resolution 377A (V) as a sepa-
rate item and merely in relation to its procedural requirements. In my
opinion this resolution also had a more substantive effect, namely with
regard to the interpretation of the relationship between the competences
of the Security Council and the General Assembly respectively, in the
field of international peace and security and has certainly expedited224 CONSTRUCTION OF A WALL (SEP.OP. KOOIJMANS)

the development of the interpretation of the condition, contained in
Article 12, paragraph 1, namely that the Assembly shall not make a
recommendation with regard to a dispute or situation while the Security
Council is exercising its functions in respect of such dispute or situation
(emphasis added).

16. This effect is also recognized in doctrine. "The adoption of the
'Uniting for Peace' resolution . . . could not fail to have an effect on the
weight to be given to the restriction in Article 12, paragraph 1." (Philippe
Manin, in J.-P.Cot, Lu Charte des Nations Unies, 2nd ed., 1981, p. 298
[trunslutiorz hy the Registïy]; see also E. de Wet, The Chupter VII
Potvers of'the United Nations Security Council, 2004, p. 46.) In actual

practice the adoption of the Uniting for Peace resolution has contributed
to the interpretation that, if a veto cast by a permanent member prevents
the Security Council from taking a decision, the latter is no longer con-
sidered to be exercising its functions within the meaning of Article 12,
paragraph 1. And the fact that a veto had been cast when the Security
Council voted on a resolution dealing with the construction of the wall is

determinative for the conclusion that the Security Council was no longer
exercising its functions under the Charter with respect to the construction
of the wall. In the present case, therefore, the conclusion that resolu-
tion ES-10114did not contravene Article 12, paragraph 1, of the Charter
cannot be dissociated from the effect resolution 377 A (V) has had on the
interpretation of that provision.
17. That such practice isaccepted by both Assembly and Security Coun-

cil also with regard to the procedural requirements of resolution 377 A (V)
is borne out by the fact that none of the Council's members con-
sidered that the reconvening of the Assembly in Emergency Special Ses-
sion on 20 October 2003 was unconstitutional and that the adoption of
the resolution demanding that Israel stop and reverse the construction

of the wall was therefore ultru vires.In this respect it is telling that this
resolution (resolution ES-10113) was tabled as a compromise by the
Presidency of the European Union, among whose members were two
permanent and two non-permanent members of the Security Council,
less than a week after a draft resolution on the same subject had been
vetoed in the Council.

18. Let me add that 1agree with the Court that there has developed a
practice enabling the General Assembly and the Security Council to deal
in parallel with the same matter concerning the maintenance of interna-
tional peace and security. 1doubt, however, whether a resolution of the
character of resolution ES-10113 (which beyond any doubt is a recom-
mendation in the sense of Article 12, paragraph 1)could have been law-

fully adopted by the Assembly, whether in a regular session or in an
Emergency Special Session, if the Security Council had been considering
the specific issue of the construction of the wall without yet having taken
a decision. IV. THEQUESTIO N FJUDICIA PROPRIETY

19. 1must confess that 1have felt considerable hesitation as to whether
it would be judicially proper to comply with the request of the Assembly.

20. This hesitation had first of al1to do with the question whether the
Court would not be unduly politicized by giving the requested advisory
opinion, thereby undermining its ability to contribute to global security
and to respect for the rule of law. It must be admitted that such an
opinion, whatever its content, will inevitably become part of an already
heated political debate. The question is in particular pertinent as three
members of the Quartet (the United States, the Russian Federation and
the European Union) abstained on resolution ES-10114and do not seem
too eager to seethe Court complying with the request out of fear that the
opinion may interfere with the political peace process.uch fears cannot
be taken lightly since the situation concerned is a continuous danger for

international peace and security and a source of immense human suffer-
ing.
21. While recognizing that the risk of a possible politicization is real,
1 nevertheless concluded that this risk would not be neutralized by a
refusal to give an opinion. The risk should have been a consideration for
the General Assembly when it envisaged making the request. Once the
decision to do so had been taken, the Court was made an actor on the
political stage regardless of whether it would or would not give an
opinion. A refusa1would just as much have politicized the Court as the
rendering of an opinion. Only by limiting itself strictly to itsjudicial
tion is the Court able to minimize the risk that its credibility in upholding
the respect for therule of law is affected.

22. My hesitation was also related to the question of the object of the
Assembly's request. What was the Assembly's purpose in making the
request? Resolution ES-10114seems to give some further information in
this respect in its last preambular paragraph which reads asfollows:

"Bearing in mind that the passage of time further compounds the
difficulties on the ground, as Israel, the occupyingwer, continues
to refuse to comply with international law vis-à-vis its construction
of the above-mentioned wall, with al1 its detrimental implications
and consequences . . ."

Evidently the Assembly finds it necessary to take speedy action to bring
to an end these detrimental implications and consequences and for this
purpose it needs the views of the Court.
But the question remains: Viewson what? And why the viewsof a judi-
cial body on an act which has already been determined not to be in con-
formity with international law and the perpetrator of which has already
been called upon to terminate and reverse its wrongful conduct (resolu-
tion ES-10/13)? 23. The present request recalls the dilemma as seen by Judge Petrén in
the Numibiu case. He felt that the purpose of the request for an advisory
opinion was in that case "above al1to obtain from the Court a reply such
that States would find themselves under obligation to bring to bear on
South Africa pressure . ..".He called this a reversal of the natural dis-
tribution of roles as between the principal judicial organ and the political

organ of the United Nations since, instead of asking the Court its opin-
ion on a legal question in order to deduce the political consequences fol-
lowing from it, the opposite was done (Legal Consequencesjor States of
the Continued Presence of South AJLicain Nutnihiu (South West A,fricu)
notwithstunding Security Council Rc.solution276 /1970), Advisory Opin-
ion, I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 128).

24. In the present Opinion the Court responds to the argument that
the Assembly has not made clear what use it would make of an advisory
opinion on the wall, with a reference to the Nucleur Wrupons case where
itsaid that

"it is not for the Court itself to purport to decide whether or not an
advisory opinion is needed by the Assembly for the performance of its
functions. The General Assembly has the right to decide for itself on
the usefulness ofan opinion in the light of its own needs." (Para. 61.)

And the Court continues that it "cannot substitute its assessment of the
usefulness of the opinion requested for that of the organ that seeks such

opinion, namely the General Assembly" (para. 62).
25. 1do not consider this answer fully satisfactory. There is quite a dif-
ference between substitutingthe Court's assessment of the usefulness of the
opinion for that of the organ requesting it and analysing from a judicial
viewpoint what the purpose of the request is. The latter is a simple neces-
sity in order to find out what the Court as a judicial body is in a position
to say. And from that point of view the request is phrased in a way which

can be called odd, to put it mildly. And in actual fact the Court makes this
analysis when in paragraph 39 of the Opinion it says that the use of the
terms "legal consequences" arising from the construction of the wall
"necessarily encompasses an assessment of whether that construction is or
is not in breach of certain rules and principles of international law". 1agree
with that statement but not because the word "necessarily" isrelated to the
terms of the request but because it is related to the judicial responsibility of

the Court. To quote the words of Judge Dillard in the Nurîîihiucase:

"when these [political] organs do see fit to ask for an advisory opin-
ion, they must expect the Court to act in strict accordance with its
judicial function. This function preclurles it from accepting, without
any enquiry whatever, a legal conclusion which itself conditions the
nature and scope of the legal consequences flowing from it. It would
be otherwise if the resolutions requesting an opinion were legally
neutral . . .(1.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 151;emphasis added.) 26. In the present case the request is far from being "legally neutral".
In order not to be precluded, from the viewpoint of judicial propriety,
from rendering the opinion, the Court therefore is duty bound to recon-
sider the content of the request in order to uphold its judicial dignity. The
Court has done so but in my view it should have done so proprio motu
and not by assuming what the Assembly "necessarily" must have assumed,
something it evidently did not.
27. Let me add that in other respects 1share the views the Court has
expressed with regard to the issue of judicial propriety. In particular the
Court's finding that the subject-matter of the General Assemblycannot be

regarded as being "only a bilateral matter between Israel and Palestine"
(para. 49) is in my view worded in a felicitous way since, in regard
to the issue of the existence of a bilateral dispute, it avoids theilemma
of "eitherlor". A situation which is of legitimate concern to the organized
international community and a bilateral dispute with regard to that same
situation may exist simultaneously. The existence of the latter cannot
deprive the organs of the organized community of the competence which
has been assigned to them by the constitutive instruments. In the present
case the involvement of the United Nations in the question of Palestine is
a long-standing one and, as the Court says, the subject-matter of the
request is of acute concern to the United Nations (para. 50). By givingan
opinion the Court therefore in no way circumvents the principle of con-
sent to the judicial settlement of a bilateral dispute which exists simul-
taneously. The bilateral dispute cannot be dissociated from the subject-
matter of the request, but only in very particular circumstances which
cannot be spelled out in general can its existence be seen as an argument
for the Court to decline to reply to the request. In this respect, 1find the
quotation from the Western Sahara Opinion in paragraph 47 of the

Opinion, which contains pure circular reasoning, less than helpful.

28. If the request has been legitimately made in view of the United
Nations long-standing involvement with the question of Palestine,
Israel's argument that the Court does not have at its disposa1the neces-
sary evidentiarymaterial, as this is to an important degree in the hands of
Israel as a party to the dispute, does not hold water. The Court has to
respect Israel's choicenot to address the merits, but it is the Court's own
responsibility to assess whether the available information is sufficient to
enable it to give the requested opinion. And, although it is a matter for
sincere regret that Israel has decided not to address the merits, the Court
is right when it concludes that the available material allows it to give the
opinion.

29. 1 share the Court's view that the 1907 Hague Regulations, the
Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949, the 1966 Covenants on Civil andPolitical Rights and on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the

1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child are applicable to the Occu-
pied Palestinian Territory and that Israel by constructing the wall and
establishing the associated régime has breached its obligation under cer-
tain provisions of each of these conventions.

1 find no fault with the Court's reasoning in this respect although 1

regret that the summary of the Court's findings in paragraph 137 does
not contain a list of treaty provisions which have been breached.

30. The Court has refrained from taking a position with regard to ter-
ritorial rights and the question of permanent status. It has taken note of

statements, made by Israeli authorities on various occasions, that the
"fence" is a temporary measure, that it is not a border and that it does
not change the legal status of the territory. 1 welcome these assurances
which may be seen as the recognition of legal commitments on the side of
Israel but share the Court's concern that the construction of the wall
creates a fait accompli. It is therefore al1the more important to expedite

the political process which has to settle al1 territorial and permanent
status issues.

31. Self-deternzinution - In my view, it would have been better if the
Court had also left issues of self-determination to this political process.
1 fully recognize that the right of self-determination is one of the basic

principles of modern international law and that the realization of this
right for the people of Palestine is one of the most burning issues for
the solution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The overriding aim of the
political process, as it is embodied inter uliu in the Roadmap, is "the
emergence of an independent, democratic and viable Palestinian State
living side by side in peace and security with Israel and its other neigh-

bours" (dossier of the Secretary-General, No. 70). This goal is subscribed
to by both lsrael and Palestine; both are, therefore, in good faith bound
to desist from acts which may jeopardize this common interest.

32. The right of self-determination of the Palestinian people is there-

fore imbedded in a much wider context than the construction of the wall
and has to find its realization in this wider context. 1 readily agree with
the Court that the wall and its associated régime impede the exercise by
the Palestinian people of its right to self-determination be it only for the
reason that the wall establishes a physical separation of the people

entitled to enjoy this right. But not every impediment to the exercise of a
right is by definition a breach of that right or of the obligation to respect
it, as the Court seems to conclude in paragraph 122.As was said by the
Quartet in its statement of 16 July 2002, the terrorist attacks (and the
failure of the Palestinian Authority to prevent them) cause also great
harm to the legitimate aspirations of the Palestinian people and thusseriously impede the realization of the right of self-determination. 1s
that also a breach of that right? And if so, by whom? In my view the
Court could not have concluded that Israel had committed a breach of
its obligation to respect the Palestinians' right to self-determination
without further legal analysis.

33. In this respect 1do not find the references to earlier statements of
the Court in paragraph 88 of the Opinion very enlightening. In the
Numihiu case the Court referred in specificterms to the relations between
the inhabitants of a mandate and the mandatory as reflected in the con-

stitutive instruments of the mandate system. In the East Timor case the
Court called the rights of peoples to self-determination in a colonial situa-
tion a right ergu omnes, therefore a right opposable to all. But it said
nothing about the way in which this "right" must be translated into obli-
gations for States which are not the colonial Power. And I repeat the
question: 1severy impediment to the exercise ofthe right to self-determi-
nation a breach of an obligation to respect it? 1s it so only when it is
serious? Would the discontinuance of the impeding act restore the right or
merely bring the breach to an end?

34. Proportionulity - The Court finds that the conditions set out in
the qualifying clauses in the applicable humanitarian law and human

rights conventions have not been met and that the measures taken by
Israel cannot be justified by military exigencies or by requirements of
national security or public order (paras. 135-137).1agree with that find-
ing but in my opinion the construction of the wall should also have been
put to the proportionality test, in particularsince the concepts of military
necessity and proportionality have always been intimately linked in inter-
national humanitarian law. And in my view itis of decisive importance
that, even if the construction of the wall and its associated régimecould
be justified as measures necessary to protect the legitimate rights of
Israeli citizens,these measures would not pass the proportionality test.
The route chosen for the construction of the wall and the ensiiing dis-
turbing consequences for the inhabitants of the Occupied Palestinian Ter-

ritory are manifestly disproportionate to interests which Israel seeks to
protect, as seems to be recognized also in recent decisions of the Israeli
Supreme Court.

35. Self-dejence - Israel based the construction of the wall on its
inherent right of self-defenceas contained in Article 51of the Charter. In
this respect it relied on Security Council resolutions 1368(2001)and 1373
(2001), adopted after the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 against
targets located in the United States.
The Court starts its response to this argument by stating thatArticle 51 recognizes the existence of an inherent right of self-defence in
the case of an armed attack by one State against another State(para. 139).
Although this statement is undoubtedly correct, as a reply to Israel's

argument it is, with al1 due respect, beside the point. Resolutions 1368
(2001) and 1373 (2001) recognize the inherent right of individual or col-
lective self-defence without making any reference to an armed attack by a
State. The Security Council called acts of international terrorism, without
any further qualification, a threat to international peace and security
which authorizes it to act under Chapter VI1 of the Charter. And it actu-
ally did so in resolution 1373 (2001) without ascribing these acts of ter-

rorisrri to a particular State. This is the completely new element in these
resolutions. This new element is not excluded by the terms of Article 51
since this conditions the exercise of the inherent right of self-defence on a
previous armed attack without saying that this armed attack must come
from another State even if this has been the generally accepted interpre-
tation for more than 50 years. The Court has regrettably by-passed this

new element, the legal implications of which cannot as yet be assessed but
which marks undeniably a new approach to the concept of self-defence.

36. The argument which in my view is decisive for the dismissal of
Israel's claim that it is merely exercising its right of self-defence can be

found in the second part of paragraph 139. The right of self-defence as
contained in the Charter is a rule of international law and thus relates to
international phenomena. Resolutions 1368 (2001) and 1373 (2001) refer
to acts of internationalterrorism as constituting a threat to internutionul
peace and security; they therefore have no immediate bearing on terrorist
acts originating within a territory which is under control of the State

which is also the victim of these acts. And Israel does not claim that these
acts have their origin elsewhere. The Court therefore rightly concludes
that the situation is different from that contemplated by resolutions 1368
(2001) and 1373 (2001) and that consequently Article 51 of the Charter
cannot be invoked by Israel.

VI. LEGAL CONSEQUENCES

37. 1have voted in favour of subparagraph (3) (B), (C) and (E) of the
operative part. I agree with the Court's finding with regard to the conse-
quences of the breaches by Israel of its obligations under international

law for Israel itself and for the United Nations (paras. 149-153and 160).
Since 1have voted, however, against operative subparagraph (3) (D),the
remainder of my opinion will explain the reasons for my dissent in a
more detailed way than 1did in my introductory remarks.
38. The General Assembly requests the Court to specify what are the23 1 CONSTRUCTION OF A WALL (SEP.OP.KOOIJMANS)

legal consequences arising from the construction of the wall. If theobject
of the request is to obtain from the Court an opinion which the General
Assembly deems of assistance to it for the proper exercise of its functions
(para. 50) it is only logical that a specific paragraph of thedispositifis
addressed to the General Assembly. That the paragraph is also addressed
to the Security Council is logical as well in view of the shared or parallel
responsibilities of the two organs.
Since the Court has found that the construction of the wall and the
associated régimeconstitute breaches of Israel's obligations under inter-
national law, it is also logical that the Court spells out what are the legal
consequences for Israel.
39. Although the Court beyond any doubt is entitled to do so, the
request itselfdoes not necessitate (not even by implication) the determi-

nation of the legal consequences for other States, even if a great number
of participants urged the Court to do so (para. 146). In this respect the
situation is completely different from that in theNamibia case where the
question was exclusively focused on the legal consequences for States,
and logically so since the subject-matter of the request was a decision by
the Security Council.
In the present case there must therefore be a special reason for deter-
mining the legal consequences for other States since the clear analogy in
wording with the request in the Numibia case is insufficient.

40. That reason as indicated in paragraphs 155to 158of the Opinion
is that the obligations violated by Israel include certain obligationerga
omnes. 1must admit that 1have considerable difficulty in understanding

why a violation of an obligation ergu omnes by one State should neces-
sarily lead to an obligation for third States. The nearest 1 can come to
such an explanation is the text of Article 41 of the International Law
Commission's Articleson State Responsibility. That Article reads:

"1. States shall cooperate to bring to an end through lawful means
any serious breach within the meaning of article 40. [Article40 deals

with serious breaches of obligations arising under a peremptory
norm of general international law.]
2. No State shall recognize as lawful a situation created by a
serious breach within the meaning of article 40, nor render aid or
assistance in maintaining that situation."
Paragraph 3 of Article 41 is a saving clause and of no relevance for the
present case.

41. 1will not deal with the tricky question whether obligations ergu
omnes can be equated with obligations arising under a peremptory norm
of general international law. In this respectrefer to the useful commen-
tary of the ILC under the heading of Chapter III of its Articles. For argu-
ment's sake 1 start from the assumption that the consequences of the
violation of such obligations are identical. 42. Paragraph 1 of Article 41 explicitly refers to a duty to co-operate.
As paragraph 3 of the commentary states, "What is called for in the
face of serious breaches is a joint and coordinated effort by al1States to
counteract the effects of these breaches." And paragraph 2 refers to

"[c]ooperation ... in the framework of a competent international organi-
zation, in particular the United Nations". Article 41, paragraph 1,there-
fore does not refer to individual obligations of third States as a result of
a serious breach. What is said there is encompassed in the Court's finding
in operative subparagraph (3) (E) and not in subparagraph (3) (D).

43. Article 41, paragraph 2, however, explicitly mentions the duty not
to recognize as lawful a situation created by a serious breach just as
operative subparagraph (3) (D) does. In its commentary the ILC refers to
unlawful situations which - virtually without exception - take the form
of a legal claim, usually to territory. It gives as examples "an attempted
acquisition of sovereignty over territory through denial of the right of

self-determination", the annexation of Manchuria by Japan and of
Kuwait by Iraq, South Africa's claim to Namibia, the Unilateral Decla-
ration of Independence in Rhodesia and the creation of Bantustans in
South Africa. In other words, al1examples mentioned refer to situations
arising from forma1 or quasi-forma1 promulgations intended to have an
erga omnes effect. 1 have no problem with accepting a duty of non-
recognition in such cases.

44. 1 have great difficulty, however, in understanding what the
duty not to recognize an illegal fact involves. What are the individual

addressees of this part of operative subparagraph (3) (D) supposed to do
in order to comply with this obligation? That question is even more
cogent considering that 144 States unequivocally have condemned the
construction of the wall as unlawful (resolution ES-10/13),whereas those
States which abstained or voted against (with the exception of Israel)
did not do so because they considered the construction of the wall
as legal. The duty not to recognize amounts, therefore, in my view to an
obligation without real substance.
45. That argument does not apply to the second obligation mentioned
in Article 41, paragraph 2, namely the obligation not to render aid or
assistance in maintaining the situation created by the serious breach. 1
therefore Sully support that part of operative subparagraph (3) (D).

Moreover, 1 would have been in favour of adding in the reasoning or
even in the operative part a sentence reminding States of the importance
of rendering humanitarian assistance to the victims of the construction of
the wall. (The Court included a similar sentence, be it with a different
scope, in its Opinion in the Numihiu case, 1.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 56,
para. 125.)
46. Finally, 1have difficulty in accepting the Court's finding that the
States parties to the Fourth Geneva Convention are under an obligationto ensure compliance by Israel with humanitarian law as embodied in
that Convention (paragraph 159, operative subparagraph (3) (D), last
part).
In this respect the Court bases itself on common Article 1 of the
Geneva Convention which reads: "The High Contracting Parties under-

take to respect and to ensure respect for the present Convention in al1
circumstances." (Emphasis added.)
47. The Court does not say on what ground it concludes that this
Article imposes obligations on third States not party to a conflict.
The travaux préparatoires do not support that conclusion. According to
Professor Kalshoven, who investigated thoroughly the genesisand further
development of common Article 1, it was mainly intended to ensure
respect of the conventions by the population as a whole and as such was
closely linked to common Article 3 dealing with interna1 conflicts
(F. Kalshoven, "The Undertaking to Respect and Ensure Respect in All
Circumstances: From Tiny Seed to Ripening Fruit", in Yearbook of
International Humunitarian Law, Vol. 2, 1999,pp. 3-61). His conclusion
from the travaux préparatoires is:

"1have not found in the records of the Diplomatic Conference
even the slightest awareness on the part of government delegates
that one might ever wish to read into the phrase 'to ensure respect'
any undertaking by a contracting State other than an obligation to
ensure respect for the Conventions by its people 'in al1 circum-
stances'."(Ihid.,p. 28.)

48. Now it is true that already from an early moment the International
Committee of the Red Cross in its (non-authoritative) commentaries on
the 1949Convention has taken the position that common Article 1con-
tains an obligation for al1States parties to ensure respect by other States
parties. It is equally true that the Diplomatic Conference which adopted
the 1977 Additional Protocols incorporated common Article 1 in the
First Protocol. But at no moment did the Conference deal with its
presumed implications for third States.
49. Hardly less helpful is the Court's reference to common Article 1in

the Nicaragua case. The Court, without interpreting its terms, observed
that "such an obligation does not derive only from the Conventions
themselves, but from the general principles of humanitarian law to which
the Conventions merely give specificexpression". The Court continued
that "The United States [was] thus under an obligation not to encourage
persons or groups engaged in the conflict in Nicaragua" to act in viola-
tion of common Article 3 (Military und Puramilitary Activities in and
against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United Stutes of Americu), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 114,para. 220).

But this duty of abstention is completely different from a positive duty
to ensure compliance with the law.
50. Although 1certainly am not in favour of a restricted interpretationof common Article 1, such as may have been envisaged in 1949, 1 simply
do not know whether the scope given by the Court to this Article in the
present Opinion is correct as a statement of positive law. Since the Court
does not give any argument in its reasoning,1do not feel able to support
its finding. Moreover,1 fail to see what kind of positive action, resulting
from this obligation, may be expected from individual States, apart from
diplomatic démarches.
51. For al1these reasons 1felt compelled to vote against operative sub-
paragraph (3) (D).

(Signe4 Pieter H. KOOIJMANS.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE KOOIJMANS

Reasonsfor negative vote onoperativesubparagraph (3) (D) - Background
and context of request for advisory opinion - Needfor halancedtreatment -
Jurisdictional issues - Article 12, paragraph 2, ofthe Charter and General
Assembly resolution377 A (V) - Question ofjudicial propriety - Purpose of
request - Merits - Self-determination - Proportionality - SeCfldefence -
Legal consequences - Obligationsfor other States - Article 41 of the Znter-
national Law Commission Articles on State Responsibility - Duty of non-

recognition - Duty of abstention - Duty to ensure respect for humanitarian
law - Common Article 1 of'the Geneva Conventions.

1. 1have voted in favour of al1paragraphs of the operative part of the
Advisory Opinion with one exception, viz. subparagraph (3) (D) dealing

with the legal consequences for States.
1 had a number of reasons for casting that negative vote which 1will
only briefly indicate at this stage, since 1 will come back to them when
commenting on the various parts of the Opinion.

My motives can be summarized as follows.
First, the request as formulated by the General Assembly did not make
it necessary for the Court to determine the obligations for States which
ensue from the Court's findings. In this respect an analogy with the struc-

ture of the Opinion in the Narrzihia case is not appropriate. In that case
the question about the legal consequences for States was at the heart of
the request and logically so since it was premised on a decision of the
Security Council. That resolution, and in particular its operative para-

graph 5 which was addressed to "al1States", was considered by the Court
to be "essential for the purposes of the present advisory opinion" (Legal
Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in
Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolu-

tion 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, 1.C. J. Reports 1971, p. 51,para. 108).

A similar situation does not exist in the present case, where the Court's
view is not asked on the legal consequences of a decision taken by a

political organ of the United Nations but of an act committed by a Mem-
ber State. That does not prevent the Court from considering the issue of
consequences for third States once that act has been found to be illegal
but then the Court's conclusion is wholly dependent upon its reasoning

and not upon the necessary logic of the request. OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE KOOIJMANS

[Traduction]

Motds (tu vote contre l'alinéaD) du point 3 du dispositif'- Historique et

contexte de la demande d'avis consultat~f Nécessité d'un traitementéquilibré
- Questions (lecompétence -- Paragruphe 2 de l'article 12 de h Charte cles
Nations Unies et ré.solution377 A (V) de l'Assembléegénérale - Question de
l'opportunitéjudiciaire - 0bjl.t de lu requêt- Fond - Autodétermination -
Proportionn~iliti.-- Légitime défense - Con.séquence.jsuridiques - Obligu-
tions incornbunt uux uzttreSEtuts -- Article 41 des articlesde lu Commis~inndu
droit international sur la re.sponsabilitéde 1'Etut - Devoir de non-reconnai.r.-
sance - Devoir d'abstention - Devoir de veiller au respect du droit hurnani-
tuire - Article premier commun aux conventions de Gengve.

1. J'ai votépour tous les points du dispositif de l'avisconsultatif riune
exception près, l'alinkaD) du point 3, qui vise lesconséquencesjuridiques

pour les Etats.
Mon vote négatif iiété motivé par plusieurs raisons que je me conten-
terai d'esquisser a ce stade, puisque j'y reviendrai dans mes observations
sur les différentesparties de l'avis consultatif.
Les motifs de monivote peuvent se résumercomme suit.
Premièrement, ladlemandetelle que formuléepar l'Assemblée générale

ne rendait pas nécessaire pour la Cour de déterminer les obligations
incombant aux Etats découlant deses conclusions. A ce sujet, l'analogie
avec la structure de l'avis rendu en l'affaire de la Namibie n'est pas per-
tinente. Dans ladite affaire, les conséquencesjuridiques pour les Etats
étaient au cŒur mêmede la demande et de manière tout à fait loeiaue.
" A ,
puisque l'affaire avait pour prémisse une décisiondu Conseil de sécurité.
Cette résolution, et ]plusparticulièrement le paragraphe 5 du dispositif
adressé a ((tous les Etats)), avait été considérép ear la Cour comme
((essentielleaux finscluprésent avisconsultatif)) (Conséquences juridiques
pour les Et~zts de la présence continue de l'Afrique du Sud en Namibie

(Sud-Ouest ufricuin) nonobstant la résolution 276 (1970) du Conseil de
sécurité, avis consulttztif; C.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 51, par. 108).
Il n'existe pasde situation analogue en la présente procédurec ,ar il n'est
pas demandé a la Cour de déterminerles conséquencesjuridiques d'une
décision prisepar un organe politique des Nations Unies, mais cellesd'un

acte commis par un E.tatMembre. Cela n'empêche pas la Cour d'examiner
la question des conséquencespour les Etats tiers, une fois qu'ellea conclu
que cet acte étaitillicite, mais sa conclusiondans ce cas repose entièrement
sur son raisonnement,et ne découlepas de la logiqueinhérente a lademande. It is, however, this reasoning that in my view is not persuasive (see
paras. 39-49, below) and this was my second motive for casting a nega-
tive vote.

And, third, 1 find the Court's conclusions as laid down in sub-
paragraph (3) (D) of the disposit rafer weak; apart from the Court's
finding that States are under an obligation "not to render aid or
assistance in maintaining the situation created by [the] construction
[of the wall]" (a finding 1 subscribe to) 1 find it difficult to envisage
what States are expected to do or not to do in actual practice. In my

opinion a judicial body's findings should have a direct bearing on the
addressee's behaviour; neither the first nor the last part of operative
subparagraph (3) (D) meets this requirement.

2. Although 1am in general agreement with the Court's Opinion, on

some issues 1 have reservations with regard to its reasoning.1 will, in
giving my comments, follow the logical order of the Opinion:
(LI) jurisdictional issues;

(h) the question of judicial propriety;
(c) the merits;
(d) the legal consequences.
Before doing so 1wish, however, to make some remarks about the

background and context of the request.

II.BACKGROU NND CONTEX OF THE REQUES OR THE ADVISORO YPINION

3. In paragraph 54 of the Opinion the Court observes (in the context
of judicial propriety) that it is aware that the question of the wall is part
of a greater whole but that that cannot be a reason for it to decline to
reply to the question asked. It adds that this wider context will be care-
fully taken into account. 1fully share the Court's view as laid down in
that paragraph including the Court's observation that it can nevertheless

only examine other issues to the extent that is necessary for the con-
sideration of the question put to it.

4. In my opinion the Court could and should have given more explicit
attention to the general context of the request in its Opinion. The situa-

tion in and around Palestine has been for a number of decades not only
a virtually continuous threat to international peace and security but also
a human tragedy which in many respects is mind-boggling. How can a
society like the Palestinian one get used to and live with a situation where
the victims of violence are often innocent men, women and children'?
How can a society like the Israeli society get used to and live with a situa-

tion where attacks against a political opponent are targeted at innocent
civilians, men, women and children, in an indiscriminate way? ÉDIFICATION D'UN MUR (OP.IND.KOOIJMANS) 220

C'est précisément,à mon avis, ce raisonnement qui n'est pas convain-
cant (voir paragraphes 39 à 49 ci-dessous), et c'est là le deuxième motif
qui m'a amené à voler contre l'alinéa.

Troisièmement, je trouve que lesconclusions de la Cour, telles qu'expo-
sées a l'alinéaD) du point 3 du dispositif, manquent de solidité; hormis
la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle les Etats sont dans l'obligation
((de ne pas prêteraicleou assistance au maintien de la situation crééepar

cette construction» (conclusion laquelle je souscris), j'ai du mal à
concevoir ce que les Etats sont censésfaire ou ne pas faire dans la pra-
tique. A mon avis, 1t.sconclusions d'un organe judiciaire devraient avoir
une incidence directe sur le comportement de leur destinataire; or ni la
première ni la seconde partie de l'alinéa D) du point 3 du dispositif ne

répondent a ce critère.
2. Si généralementje suis d'accord avec I'avis de la Cour, j'ai des ré-
serves sur son raisonnement concernant certaines questions. Je suivrai
dans mes observatioins l'ordre logique de l'avis, en examinant:

u) les questions de compétence;
h) la question de l'alpportunitéjudiciaire;
c) le fond ;

d) les conséquences juridiques.
Je tiens toutefois à formuler au préalable quelques observations sur
l'historique et le contexte de la demande.

II. HISTOKIQU ET CONTEXT~ DE LA DEMANDE POUR AVIS CONSULTATIF

3. Au paragraphe 54 de son avis, la Cour fait observer (s'agissant de

l'opportunité judiciaire) qu'elle est consciente que la question du mur fait
partie d'un ensemble, mais que cela ne saurait justifier qu'elle refuse de
répondre a la question posée. Elleajoute qu'elle prendrait soigneusement
en considération cette circonstance dans tout avis qu'elle pourrait rendre.

Je partage entièrement l'opinion de la Cour telle qu'exposée dans ledit
paragraphe, y compris lorsqu'elle fait observer qu'elle ne tiendrait néan-
moins compte d'autres élémentsque dans la mesure où ceux-ci seraient
nécessairesaux fins de l'examen de cette question.
4. A mon avis, la Cour pouvait et devait prêter attention dans son avis

de manière plus explicite au contexte généralde la demande. La situation
en Palestine et dans la région constitue depuis plusieurs décennies non
seulement une menace à la paix et à la sécuritéinternationales, mais
aussi, sur le plan humain, une tragédie qui défiel'entendement à bien des
égards. Comment une sociétécomme la sociétépalestinienne peut-elle

vivre dans une situation - et s'y accoutumer - où les victimes de la vio-
lence sont souvent des hommes, des femmes et des enfants innocents?
Comment une sociétécomme la société israélienne peut-elle vivredans
une situation -- et s'yaccoutumer - où les attaques contre un adversaire
politique prennent pour cibles, de manière indiscriminée, des civilsinno-

cents, hommes, femmes et enfants? 5. The construction of the wall is explained by Israel as a necessary
protection against the latter category of acts which are generally con-
sidered to be international crimes. Deliberate and indiscriminate attacks
against civilians with the intention to kill are thecore element of terror-
ism which has been unconditionally condemned by the international
community regardless of the motives which have inspired them.
Every State, including Israel, has the right and even the duty (as the
Court says in paragraph 141)to respond to such acts in order to protect
the life of its citizens, albeit the choice ofns in doing so is limited by
the norms and rules of international law. In the present case, Israel has
not respected those limits, and the Court convincingly demonstrates that
these norms and rules of international law have not been respected by it.
1find no fault with this conclusion nor with the finding that the construc-
tion of the wall along the chosen route has greatly added to the suffering
of the Palestinians living in the Occupied Territory.

6. In paragraph 122the Court finds that the construction of the wall,

along with measures taken earlier, severely impedes the exercise by the
Palestinian people of its right to self-determination, and therefore consti-
tutes a breach of Israel's obligation to respect that right. 1 have doubts
whether the last part of that finding is correct (seeparagraph 32, below),
but it is beyond doubt that the mere existence of a structure that sepa-
rates the Palestinians from each other makes the realization of their right
to self-determination far more difficult. even if it has to be admitted that
the realization of this rightis more dependent upon political agreement
than on the situation in loco.
But it is also true that the terrorist acts themselves have caused "great
harm to the legitimate aspirations of the Palestinian people for a better
future", as was stated in the Middle East Quartet Statement of 16 July
2002. And the Statement continues: "Terrorists must not be allowed to
kill the hope of an entire region, and a united international community,
for genuine peace and security for both Palestinians and Israelis."
(Written Statement of Israel, Annex 10.)

7. The fact that the Court has limited itself to report merely on a
number of the historical facts which have led to the present human

tragedy may be correct from the viewpoint of what is really needed to
answer the request of the General Assembly: the result, however, is that
the historical résumé,as presented in paragraphs 70 to 78, is rather two-
dimensional. 1will illustrate this by giving one example which is hardly
relevant for the case itself.
8. Before giving its historical résumé,the Court says that it will first
make a brief analysis of the status of the territory and it starts by men-
tioning the establishment of the Mandate after the First World War.
Nothing is said, however, about the status of the West Bank between the
conclusion of the General Armistice Agreement in 1949and the occupa-
tion by lsrael in 1967,in spite of the fact that it is a generally known fact ÉDIFIC'ATION D'UN MUR (OP.IND. KOOIJMANS) 221

5. Israël explique que la construction du mur est nécessairepour une
protection contre ladite catégoried'actes, généralementconsidérés comme
des crimes internationaux. Attentats perpétréscontre des civils, de
manière délibérée et indiscriminée,dans l'intention de tuer: ce sontlà les
caractéristiquesmêmesdu terrorisme qui a été condamnésans réservepar
la communauté internationale, quels que soient les motifs qui l'inspirent.

Tout Etat, y compris Israël, a le droit et mêmele devoir (comme la
Cour le dit au paragraphe 141)de répondre à de tels actes en vue de pro-
téger lavie de ses citoyens, mais le choix des moyens utilisésdoit tenir
compte des limites que posent les normes et règlesdu droit international.
Dans la présente espèce, Israël n'apas respecté ces limites, et laCour
démontre de manière convaincante que ces normes et règles du droit
n'ont pas étérespectéspar ce pays. Je ne trouve rien à redire A cette
conclusion, pas plus qu'a celle selon laquelle la construction du mur sui-
vant le tracéchoisi rifortement aggravé les souffrances des Palestiniens
vivant dans le territoire occupé.
6. Au paragraphe 122, la Cour conclut que cette construction, s'ajou-
tant aux mesures prises antérieurement, dresse un obstacle grave à l'exer-
cice par le peuple palestinien de son droit a l'autodétermination et viole
de ce fait l'obligation incombantLIIsraël de respecter ce droit. Je ne suis

pas certain que la d.ernièrepartie de cette conclusion soit exacte (voir
paragraphe 32 ci-dessous), mais il est hors de doute que la simple exis-
tence d'un ouvrage stjparant lesPalestiniens lesuns des autres rend l'exer-
cice de leur droit l'autodétermination beaucoup plus difficile,mêmes'il
faut admettre que l'exercicede ce droit est plus largement tributaire d'un
accord politique que de la situation prévalant sur le terrain.
Mais il est vrai aussi que les actes de terrorisme eux-mêmes«ont causé
un dommage considé:rableaux aspirations légitimesdu peuple palestinien
à un avenir meilleur:.),comme il étaitdit dans la déclaration du Quatuor
sur le Moyen-Orient du 16juillet 2002. Il y étaitdit aussi qu'il ne fallait
pas ((permettreaux terroristes d'anéantir l'espoir de toute une région,et
de la communauté internationale unie, de voir s'instaurer une paix et une
sécuritéauthentiques aussi bien pour les Palestiniens que pour les Israé-
liens))(exposéécrit d'Israël, annexe 10).

7. Le fait que la Cour se soit limitée à ne rappeler que quelques-uns
des faits historiquesui ont abouti a la tragédieactuelle peut êtrejustifié,
s'agissant des éléments réellement nécessairpeosur répondre a lademande
de l'Assembléegénérale;mais le résultaten est que ce résuméhistorique,
tel qu'exposédans le:;paragraphes 78 à 80, se trouve quelque peu amputé
d'une de ses dimensions.J'illustrerai mon propos par un exemple, qui n'a
guèrede rapport direct avec la procédureproprement dite.
8. Avant de faire son résuméhistorique, la Cour dit vouloir effectuer
tout d'abord une brèveanalyse du statut du territoire en cause, et cite en
premier lieu l'institution du mandat après la première guerre mondiale.
Rien n'est dit toutefois du statut de la Cisjordanie entre la conclusion de
la convention généraled'armistice de 1949et l'occupation par Israël en
1967, bien qu'il soit de notoriété publique quela Cisjordanie avait ététhat it was placed by Jordan under its sovereignty but that this claim
to sovereignty, which was relinquished only in 1988, was recognized by
three States only.

9. 1 fail to understand the reason for this oinission of an objective
historical fact since in my view the fact that Jordan claimed sovereignty
over the West Bank only strengthens the argument in favour of the
applicability of the Fourth Geneva Convention right from the moment
of its occupation by Israel in June 1967.
If it is correct that the Government of Israel claims that the Fourth

Geneva Convention is not applicable dejure in the West Bank since that
territory had not previously to the 1967 war been under Jordanian sov-
ereignty, that argument already fails since a territory, which by one of the
parties to an armed conflict is claimed as its own and is under its control,
is- once occupied by the other party - by definition occupied territory
of a High Contructing Purty in the sense of the Fourth Geneva Conven-

tion (emphasis added). And both Israel and Jordan were parties to the
Convention.

That this at the time also was recognized by the lsraeli authorities is
borne out by the Order issued after the occupation and referred to in

paragraph 93 of the Opinion.
10. The strange result of the Court's reticence about the status of the
West Bank between 1949 and 1967 is that it is only by implication that
the reader is able to understand that it was under Jordanian control
(paragraphs 73 and 129 refer to the demarcation line between Israel and
Jordan (the Green Line)) without ever being explicitly informed that the

West Bank had been placed under Jordanian authority. This is al1 the
more puzzling as the Court would in no way have been compelled to
comment on the legality or legitimacy of that authority if it had made
mention of it.
11. In a letter of 29 January from the Deputy Director General and

Legal Adviser of the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs to the Registrar
of the Court it is stated that "Israel trusts and expects that the Court will
look beyond the request to the wider issues relevant to this matter"
(Written Statement of Israel, covering letter). In this respect it was said
that resolution ES-10114 is "absolutely silent" on the terrorist attacks
against Israeli citizens and thus "reflects the gravest prejudice and imbal-

ance with the requesting organ". Israel, therefore, requested the Court
not to render the opinion.

12. 1 am of the view that the Court, in deciding whether it is appro-
priate to respond to a request for an advisory opinion, can involve itself
with the political debate which has preceded the request only to the

extent necessary to understand the question put. It is no exception that
such debate is heated but, as the Court said in the case of the Legulity oj
the Tllreut or Use of Nucleur Weupon.~placéepar la Jordanie sous sa souveraineté, mais que cette revendication
de souveraineté, qui n'a été abandonnée qu'en 1988, n'avait été reconnue
que par trois Etats.
9. Je n'arrive pas à comprendre la raison de cette omission d'un fait
historique objectif, le fait que la Jordanie a revendiqué la souveraineté

sur la Cisjordanie rie faisant à mon avis que renforcer l'argument en
faveur de l'applicatiilité de la quatrième convention de Genève dès le
moment de l'occupation de la Cisjordanie par Israël en 1967.
S'il est exact que le Gouvernement israélienprétend que la quatrième
convention de Genève n'est pas applicable dp jure en Cisjordanie au
motif que ce territoire n'avait pas étéavant la guerre de 1967 sous sou-
verainetéjordanienne, cet argument se trouverait dénué depertinence du

seul faitdéjàqu'un ]territoire revendiqué comme lui appartenant par une
des parties a un contlit, et se trouvant sous son contrôle, est par défini-
tion, une fois qu'il est occupé par l'autre partie, un territoire occupé
d'une des huutespurties contractantes au sens de la quatrième convention
de Genève (les italiques sont de moi). Or Israël comme la Jordanie étaient
parties a la convention.
Les autorités israéliennes le reconnaissaient à l'époque, ce qui est

attestépar l'ordonnance promulguée après l'occupation et mentionnée au
paragraphe 93 de l'avis.
10. La réticence cle la Cour à traiter du statut de la Cisjordanie entre
1949et 1967a eu pour étrange résultatque ce n'est qu'implicitement que
le lecteur peut comprendre que la Cisjordanie se trouvait alors sous sou-
verainetéjordanienne (mention de la ligne de démarcation entre Israël et
la Jordanie (la Lignie verte) aux paragraphes 73 et 129), sans qu'il ait

jamais été expressérrienitnformé que la Cisjordanie avait été placée sous
l'autorité de la Jordanie. Or, cela laisse d'autant plus perplexe que la
Cour n'aurait en aucune manière eu à dire quoi que ce soit sur la licéité
ou la légitimitéde cette autorité si elle en avait parlé.
11. Dans une lettre du 29 janvier adressée au greffier de la Cour par le
directeur généraladjoint et conseiller juridique du ministère israélien des

affaires étrangères, il est dit qu'Israël veut croire et compte que la Cour se
penchera, au-delà de la demande, sur les problèmes plus larges qui pré-
sentent une pertinence pour la question (exposé écritd'Israël, lettre
d'accompagnement). Il étaitmentionné à ce propos que la résolution ES-
10114ne disait rien des attentats terroristes contre des ressortissants israé-
liens, et traduisait ainsi les très graves préjugéset le manque d'impartia-
litéde l'organe dont émanait la demande. Israël demandait de ce fait à la

Cour de ne pas rendire l'avis.
12. J'estime pour ma part que la Cour, en statuant sur le point de
savoir s'il est approprié ou non de donner suite à une demande d'avis
consultatif, peut prendre part au débatpolitique qui a précédé laemande,
uniquement dans la mesure nécessaire toutefois pour la compréhension
de la question posée.Que ce débat soit passionné ne fait pas exception à
ce qui se passe habituellement, mais, comme la Cour l'a dit en l'affaire de

la LicPit6 de lu rnenwe ou de I'~rnp1oid'urmes nucliuires, "once the Assembly has asked, by adopting a resolution, for an advi-
sory opinion on a legal question, the Court, in determining whether
there are any compelling reasons for it to refuse to give such an
opinion, willnot have regard to the origins or to the political history
of the request, or to the distribution of votes in respect of the
adopted resolution" (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 237, para. 16).

The Court, however, does not function in a void. It is the principal judi-
cial organ of the United Nations and has to carry out its function and
responsibility within the wider political context. It cannot be expected to
present a legal opinion on the request of a political organ without taking
full account of the context in which the request was made.

13. Although the Court certainly has taken into account the argu-
ments put forward by Israel and has dealt with them in a considerate
manner, 1am of the viewthat the present Opinion could have reflectedin
a more satisfactory way the interests at stake for al1those living in the
region. The rather oblique references to terrorist acts which can be Sound
at several places in the Opinion are in my viewnot sufficientfor this pur-
pose. An advisory opinion is brought to the attention of a political organ
of the United Nations and is destined to have an effect on a political

process. It should therefore throughout its reasoning and up till the
operative part reflect the legitimate interests and responsibilities of ull
those involved and not merely refer to them in a concluding paragraph
(para. 162).

III. JURISDICTIONIA SSLUES

14. 1 fully share the view of the Court that the adoption of resolu-
tion ES-10114was not ultra viressince it did not contravene the provision
of Article 12, paragraph 1, of the Charter; nor did it fail to fulfil the
essential conditions set by the Uniting for Peace resolution (resolu-
tion 377 A (V)) for the convening of an Emergency Special Session.

15. 1doubt, however, whether it is possible to describe the practice of
the political organs of the United Nations with respect to the interpreta-
tion of Article 12, paragraph 1, of the Charter without taking into
account the effect of the Uniting for Peace resolution on this interpreta-
tion. In the Opinion, the Court deals with resolution 377A (V) as a sepa-
rate item and merely in relation to its procedural requirements. In my
opinion this resolution also had a more substantive effect, namely with
regard to the interpretation of the relationship between the competences
of the Security Council and the General Assembly respectively, in the
field of international peace and security and has certainly expedited «dès lors que l'Assembléea demandé un avis consultatif sur une
question juridique par la voie d'une résolution qu'elle a adoptée,
la Cour ne prendra pas en considération, pour déterminer s'ilexiste
des raisons décisivesde reîuser de donner cet avis, les origines ou
l'histoire politique de la demande, ou la répartition des voix
lors de l'adoption de la résolution» (C.IJ. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 237,
par. 16).

La Cour ne fonctionne toutefois pas dans le vide. Principal organe judi-
ciaire des Nations Unies, elle est appeléea s'acquitter de ses fonctions et
de ses responsabilitks dans un contexte politique plus large. On ne peut
s'attendre à ce qu'elle présente un avis juridique a la demande d'un
organe politique sains prendre pleinement en considération le contexte
dans lequel cette deinande a été faite.
13. Bien que la Cour ait certainenient pris en considération les argu-
ments avancéspar Iisraël, et les ait examinés avecsoin, j'estime que l'avis
rendu aurait pu traduire de manière plus satisfaisante les intérêten cause
pour tous ceux qui vivent dans la région. Je netrouve pas suffisantesà cet
égardles allusions indirectes aux actes de terrorisme que l'on peut trou-

ver dans plusieurs passages de l'avis. Un avis consultatif est porté a
l'attention d'un organe politique des Nations Unies dans le but de pro-
duire un effet sur un processus politique. Il devrait donc, tout au long du
raisonnement, etjusque dans le dispositif, traduire les intérêtlégitimeset
les responsabilités di:ous ceux qu'il intéresse,et non pas les mentionner
simplement dans un paragraphe de conclusion (par. 162).

III. QUESTION DSE COMPÉTENCE

14. Je souscris pleinement a l'avisde la Cour qui estime d'une part que
l'Assemblée généraln e'a pas outrepassé ses compétencesen adoptant la
résolution ES-10114 car elle n'a pas enfreint les dispositions du para-
graphe 1de l'article 12de la Charte; que d'autre part ellen'a pas méconnu
les conditions essentielles prévues par la résolution sur l'«union pour le
maintien de la paix)) (résolution 377 A (V)) pour la convocation d'une
session extraordinaire d'urgence.
15. Je ne suis touitefois pas certain qu'il soit possible de décrirela pra-
tique suivie par les organes politiques de l'organisation des Nations

Unies en ce qui concerne l'interprétation du paragraphe 1de l'article 12
de la Charte sans tenir compte de l'effet de la résolution sur l'«union
pour le maintien de la paix)) sur cette interprétation. Dans son avis, la
Cour traite de la résolution 377 A (V) en tant qu'élémentdistinct et uni-
quement pour les besoins de la procédure. A mon avis, cette résolution a
eu un effet plus important, notamment sur l'interprétation dela relation
entre la compétencedu Conseil de sécurité etcelle de l'Assemblée géné-
rale dans le domaine de la paix et de la sécuritéinternationales et a sans224 CONSTRUCTION OF A WALL (SEP.OP. KOOIJMANS)

the development of the interpretation of the condition, contained in
Article 12, paragraph 1, namely that the Assembly shall not make a
recommendation with regard to a dispute or situation while the Security
Council is exercising its functions in respect of such dispute or situation
(emphasis added).

16. This effect is also recognized in doctrine. "The adoption of the
'Uniting for Peace' resolution . . . could not fail to have an effect on the
weight to be given to the restriction in Article 12, paragraph 1." (Philippe
Manin, in J.-P.Cot, Lu Charte des Nations Unies, 2nd ed., 1981, p. 298
[trunslutiorz hy the Registïy]; see also E. de Wet, The Chupter VII
Potvers of'the United Nations Security Council, 2004, p. 46.) In actual

practice the adoption of the Uniting for Peace resolution has contributed
to the interpretation that, if a veto cast by a permanent member prevents
the Security Council from taking a decision, the latter is no longer con-
sidered to be exercising its functions within the meaning of Article 12,
paragraph 1. And the fact that a veto had been cast when the Security
Council voted on a resolution dealing with the construction of the wall is

determinative for the conclusion that the Security Council was no longer
exercising its functions under the Charter with respect to the construction
of the wall. In the present case, therefore, the conclusion that resolu-
tion ES-10114did not contravene Article 12, paragraph 1, of the Charter
cannot be dissociated from the effect resolution 377 A (V) has had on the
interpretation of that provision.
17. That such practice isaccepted by both Assembly and Security Coun-

cil also with regard to the procedural requirements of resolution 377 A (V)
is borne out by the fact that none of the Council's members con-
sidered that the reconvening of the Assembly in Emergency Special Ses-
sion on 20 October 2003 was unconstitutional and that the adoption of
the resolution demanding that Israel stop and reverse the construction

of the wall was therefore ultru vires.In this respect it is telling that this
resolution (resolution ES-10113) was tabled as a compromise by the
Presidency of the European Union, among whose members were two
permanent and two non-permanent members of the Security Council,
less than a week after a draft resolution on the same subject had been
vetoed in the Council.

18. Let me add that 1agree with the Court that there has developed a
practice enabling the General Assembly and the Security Council to deal
in parallel with the same matter concerning the maintenance of interna-
tional peace and security. 1doubt, however, whether a resolution of the
character of resolution ES-10113 (which beyond any doubt is a recom-
mendation in the sense of Article 12, paragraph 1)could have been law-

fully adopted by the Assembly, whether in a regular session or in an
Emergency Special Session, if the Security Council had been considering
the specific issue of the construction of the wall without yet having taken
a decision.aucun doute contribué grandement au développement de I'interprétation
de la condition poijéeau paragraphe 1 de l'article 12, à savoir que
l'Assemblée générale ne doit faire aucune recommandation sur un dif-
férendou une situation, tant que le Conseil de sécurité remplit ses fonc-
tions à l'égard de ce différend ou de cette situation (les italiques sont

de moi).
16. La doctrine r1:connaît éualement cet effet: «Le vote de la résolu-
tion ((Union pour le maintien de la paix)) ... ne pouvait manquer d'avoir
des effets sur la portéeà donner à la restriction de l'article 12, paragraphe
1.)) (Philippe Manin, inJ.-P. Cot, Lu Churte des Nutions Unies, 2" éd.,
1981, p. 298 ; voir également E. de Wet, Thp Chupter VII Powers of the

United N~ztiorzsSectirity Council, 2004, p. 46.) Dans la pratique, l'adop-
tion de la résolution sur l'«union pour le maintien de la paix)) a contribué
à I'interprétation selon laquelle, si le vote d'un membre permanent em-
pêchetoute prise de décision par le Conseil de sécurité,celui-ci n'est
plus considéré comnie exerçant ses fonctions au sens du paragraphe 1de
I'article 12.Le fait qu'un Etat Membre a exercéson droit de veto lors du

vote par le Conseil de sécuritéde la résolution sur l'édificationdu mur a
constitué un élément suffisantpour conclure que le Conseil de sécurité
n'exerçait plus ses fonctions aux termes de la Charte pour ce qui
est de la construction du mur. Par conséquent, dans la présente pro-
cédure, la conclusion que la résolution ES-10114 n'enfreint pas le para-
graphe 1 de l'article 12 de la Charte est indissociable de l'effet que cette

résolution 377 A (V) a eu sur I'interprétation de ladite disposition.
17. L'acceptation d'une telle pratique tant par l'Assemblée générale
que par le Conseil de sécuritéquant aux conditions requises en matière de
procédure par la résolution 377 A (V) est attestéepar le fait qu'aucun des
membres du Conseil n'a jugé anticonstitutionnelle la nouvelle convoca-
tion de la session extraordinaire d'urgence de l'Assemblée généralel,e

20 octobre 2003, ni estiméque l'Assemblée générale avait outrepassé ses
pouvoirs en adoptarit la résolution qui exige qu'Israël arrêtela construc-
tion du mur et revienne sur ce projet. A cet égard, il convient de relever
que cette résolution (ES-10113)a été présentéceomme un compromis par
la présidence de l'union européenne, qui comprend deux membres per-
manents et deux meinbres non permanents du Conseil de sécurité,moins

d'une semaine après le rejet par celui-ci d'un projet de résolution sur la
mêmequestion.
18. J'ajouterai que la Cour a raison de dire que la pratique en la
matière a évolué et qu'il existe unetendance croissante à voir l'Assemblée
générale etle Conseil de sécuritéexaminer parallèlement une même ques-
tion relative au maintien de la paix et de la sécuritéinternationales.

Cependant, je ne suis pas certain qu'une résolution telle que la résolu-
tion ES-10113 (qui constitue bien une recommandation au sens du para-
graphe 1 de l'article 12) aurait pu êtreadoptée par l'Assemblée,à I'occa-
sion d'une session ordinaire ou d'une session extraordinaire d'urgence, si
le Conseil de sécuriteavait toujours à l'examen la question particulière de
la construction du mur et n'avait pas encore pris de décision. IV. THEQUESTIO N FJUDICIA PROPRIETY

19. 1must confess that 1have felt considerable hesitation as to whether
it would be judicially proper to comply with the request of the Assembly.

20. This hesitation had first of al1to do with the question whether the
Court would not be unduly politicized by giving the requested advisory
opinion, thereby undermining its ability to contribute to global security
and to respect for the rule of law. It must be admitted that such an
opinion, whatever its content, will inevitably become part of an already
heated political debate. The question is in particular pertinent as three
members of the Quartet (the United States, the Russian Federation and
the European Union) abstained on resolution ES-10114and do not seem
too eager to seethe Court complying with the request out of fear that the
opinion may interfere with the political peace process.uch fears cannot
be taken lightly since the situation concerned is a continuous danger for

international peace and security and a source of immense human suffer-
ing.
21. While recognizing that the risk of a possible politicization is real,
1 nevertheless concluded that this risk would not be neutralized by a
refusal to give an opinion. The risk should have been a consideration for
the General Assembly when it envisaged making the request. Once the
decision to do so had been taken, the Court was made an actor on the
political stage regardless of whether it would or would not give an
opinion. A refusa1would just as much have politicized the Court as the
rendering of an opinion. Only by limiting itself strictly to itsjudicial
tion is the Court able to minimize the risk that its credibility in upholding
the respect for therule of law is affected.

22. My hesitation was also related to the question of the object of the
Assembly's request. What was the Assembly's purpose in making the
request? Resolution ES-10114seems to give some further information in
this respect in its last preambular paragraph which reads asfollows:

"Bearing in mind that the passage of time further compounds the
difficulties on the ground, as Israel, the occupyingwer, continues
to refuse to comply with international law vis-à-vis its construction
of the above-mentioned wall, with al1 its detrimental implications
and consequences . . ."

Evidently the Assembly finds it necessary to take speedy action to bring
to an end these detrimental implications and consequences and for this
purpose it needs the views of the Court.
But the question remains: Viewson what? And why the viewsof a judi-
cial body on an act which has already been determined not to be in con-
formity with international law and the perpetrator of which has already
been called upon to terminate and reverse its wrongful conduct (resolu-
tion ES-10/13)? EDIFIC:ATI OUN MUR (OP.IND.KOOIJMANS) 225

IV. C?UESTI OENL'OPPORTUNITE JUDICIAIRE

19. Je dois avouer que j'ai longuement hésitéquantà la question de

savoir s'il étaitudiiciairement opportun pour la Cour d'accéder à la
demande de 1'Assernibléeénérale.
20. Mon hésitation concernait en premier lieu le point de savoir si la
Cour ne se politiserait pas indûment en donnant I'avisconsultatif, sapant
ainsi sa capacité contribuerà la sécuritéinternationale et au respect de
la primautédu droit Il faut bien admettre qu'un tel avis, quelle qu'en soit
la teneur, se situerait inévitablement dans le cadre d'un débat politique
déjà très passionné. Ce point est d'autant plus pertinent que trois
membresdu Quatuor (lesEtats-Unis, la Fédération de Russieet'Union eu-
ropéenne)se sont abstenus lors du vote sur la résolution ES-10114et ne
semblent guère désireuxde voir la Cour accéderàla demande, de crainte

que l'avisn'interfèreavec le processus de paix en cours. De telles craintes
ne peuvent êtreprisesàla légère,car on se trouve faàeune situation qui
représente unemenace constante pour la paix et la sécuritéinternatio-
nales et qui estouriced'immenses souffrances humaines.
21. Mêmesi on ne peut nier l'existenced'un risque de politisation, je
ne pense pas que le refus de rendre un avis puisse suffireéliminerce
risque. C'est'Asse~ibléegénéralequi aurait dû tenir compte de ce risque
lorsqu'elle a envisagéde soumettre la demande à la Cour. Une fois que
l'Assembléea pris sa décision,la Cour s'est retrouvée propulsée surla
scène politique, qu'elle ait décidéensuite de rendre ou non I'avis. Un
refus de rendre I'avis aurait tout autant risquéde politiser la Cour que

l'acceptation dedonner suite à la demande. Ce n'est qu'en se limitant
strictementà l'exercicede sa fonction judiciaire qu'elle pourra réduireau
minimum le risque que sa crédibilité entant qu'organe chargé de faire
respecter la primauté du droit ne soit ébranlée.
22. Je me suis également poséla question de savoir quel étaitl'objet de
la requête de'Assenibléegénérale.La résolutionES-10114semble fournir
quelques élémentsd'information complémentaires à cet égardau dernier
alinéa de son préambule,dont le libelléest le suivant:

((Ayant à l'espritque les difficultéssur le terrain ne font que
s'aggraver avec le temps, Israël, puissance occupante, continuant
refuser de respe~rterle droit international pour ce qui est de I'édifica-
tion du mur susmentionné, avec toutes les répercussions et consé-
quences néfaste:qu'elle entraî...»

Il est manifeste que l'Assembléea jugé nécessairede prendre d'urgence
des mesures pour miettre un termeà ces répercussions et conséquences
préjudiciables etqu'à cet effet elle a besoin des vues de la Cour.
Mais des interrogations subsistent: des vues sur quoi? Et pourquoi
celles d'un organe judiciaire l'égardd'un acte déjà considéré comme
non conforme au droit international et dont on a exigéque l'auteur y
mette fin et modifie son comportement illicite (résolutionES-10113)? 23. The present request recalls the dilemma as seen by Judge Petrén in
the Numibiu case. He felt that the purpose of the request for an advisory
opinion was in that case "above al1to obtain from the Court a reply such
that States would find themselves under obligation to bring to bear on
South Africa pressure . ..".He called this a reversal of the natural dis-
tribution of roles as between the principal judicial organ and the political

organ of the United Nations since, instead of asking the Court its opin-
ion on a legal question in order to deduce the political consequences fol-
lowing from it, the opposite was done (Legal Consequencesjor States of
the Continued Presence of South AJLicain Nutnihiu (South West A,fricu)
notwithstunding Security Council Rc.solution276 /1970), Advisory Opin-
ion, I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 128).

24. In the present Opinion the Court responds to the argument that
the Assembly has not made clear what use it would make of an advisory
opinion on the wall, with a reference to the Nucleur Wrupons case where
itsaid that

"it is not for the Court itself to purport to decide whether or not an
advisory opinion is needed by the Assembly for the performance of its
functions. The General Assembly has the right to decide for itself on
the usefulness ofan opinion in the light of its own needs." (Para. 61.)

And the Court continues that it "cannot substitute its assessment of the
usefulness of the opinion requested for that of the organ that seeks such

opinion, namely the General Assembly" (para. 62).
25. 1do not consider this answer fully satisfactory. There is quite a dif-
ference between substitutingthe Court's assessment of the usefulness of the
opinion for that of the organ requesting it and analysing from a judicial
viewpoint what the purpose of the request is. The latter is a simple neces-
sity in order to find out what the Court as a judicial body is in a position
to say. And from that point of view the request is phrased in a way which

can be called odd, to put it mildly. And in actual fact the Court makes this
analysis when in paragraph 39 of the Opinion it says that the use of the
terms "legal consequences" arising from the construction of the wall
"necessarily encompasses an assessment of whether that construction is or
is not in breach of certain rules and principles of international law". 1agree
with that statement but not because the word "necessarily" isrelated to the
terms of the request but because it is related to the judicial responsibility of

the Court. To quote the words of Judge Dillard in the Nurîîihiucase:

"when these [political] organs do see fit to ask for an advisory opin-
ion, they must expect the Court to act in strict accordance with its
judicial function. This function preclurles it from accepting, without
any enquiry whatever, a legal conclusion which itself conditions the
nature and scope of the legal consequences flowing from it. It would
be otherwise if the resolutions requesting an opinion were legally
neutral . . .(1.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 151;emphasis added.) 23. La présented~rmanderappelle le dilemme auquel a dû faire face le

juge Petréndans I'afCairede la Namibie. Il a estiméquedans ladite affaire
la demande d'avis consultatif «avait surtout pour but d'obtenir une
réponsede la Cour t~rlleque les Etats se voient dans l'obligation d'exercer
sur l'Afrique du Sud une pression... ))II s'agissait là pour lui d'une inver-
sion des rôles entre I'organejudiciaire principal et I'organe politique des

Nations Unies, étant donné que, plutôt que de demander à la Cour de
rendre un avis sur une question juridique pour en déduire les consé-
quences politiques, c'est le contraire qui était fait (Cons~;quencesjuri-
diques pour. les Etczts de la prksrnce continue de l'Afrique din Sud en
Nunzihie (SuhOuesr africain) noizobstant la résolution 276 (1970) du

Conseil de sc5curité,.uvi.scon.sultcztif;C.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 128).
24. Dans le présent avis, la Cour répond à l'argument selon lequel
l'Assemblée généraln e'a jamais fait clairement savoir ce qu'elle entendait
faire de l'avis demanidé,en évoquant I'affaire des Armes nucléuire.~d ,ans
laquelle elle a déclaré:

«[Ill n'appartiient pas à la Cour de prétendre décidersi l'Assemblée

a ou non besoin d'un avis consultatif pour s'acquitter de ses fonc-
tions. L'Assembléegénérale est habilitée à déciderelle-mêmede l'uti-
litéd'un avis au regard de ses besoins propres. )) (Par. 61.)

Et la Cour poursuit en déclarant qu'elle «ne peut substituer sa propre
appréciation de l'utilitéde l'avis demandé à celle de I'organe qui le solli-
cite, en l'occurrence l'Assembléegénérale))(par. 62).
25. Cette réponsene me paraît pas pleinement satisfaisante. Il existe une

grande différenceenti-esubstituer l'appréciationde la Cour quant à l'utilité
de I'avisà cellede I'organequi le sollicite et analyser d'un point de vuejuri-
dique l'objet de la requête.Cette analyse est tout simplementnécessairepour
permettre de savoir cc que la Cour en tant qu'organejudiciaire est en mesure
de dire, et de ce point de vue la requêteest, pour le moins, formuléede

manièreétrange.La Cour procèdeen réalité àcette analyse lorsque, au para-
graphe 39 de I'avis, elledéclareque l'emploi des termes «[q]uelles sont en
droit les conséquence:;)d)e l'édificationdu mur ((impliquenécessairementde
déterminersi cette construction viole ou non certaines règles etcertains prin-
cipesde droit international)).Je souscrisàcette déclarationnon pas parce que

le terme ((nécessairement))a un lien quelconque avec le libelléde la demande
mais parce qu'il esten rapport avec la responsabilité judiciairede la Cour.
Pour reprendre les termes du juge Dillard dans l'affairede la Nuinibie:

«Mais quand ces organes [politiques] jugent bon de demander un
avis consultatif, ils doivent s'attendre à ce que la Cour agisse stric-
tement en conformité de sa fonction judiciaire. Celle-ci lui interdit de

faire sienne, sans autre examen. une conclusionjuridique qui condi-
tionne par elle-mêmela nature et la portée des conséquences juri-
diques qui en procèdent. La situation serait différentesi les résolutions
invitant la Cour à donner son avis étaient juridiquement neutres...))
(C.I.J. Recueil 1'971,p. 151 ; les italiques sont de moi.) 26. In the present case the request is far from being "legally neutral".
In order not to be precluded, from the viewpoint of judicial propriety,
from rendering the opinion, the Court therefore is duty bound to recon-
sider the content of the request in order to uphold its judicial dignity. The
Court has done so but in my view it should have done so proprio motu
and not by assuming what the Assembly "necessarily" must have assumed,
something it evidently did not.
27. Let me add that in other respects 1share the views the Court has
expressed with regard to the issue of judicial propriety. In particular the
Court's finding that the subject-matter of the General Assemblycannot be

regarded as being "only a bilateral matter between Israel and Palestine"
(para. 49) is in my view worded in a felicitous way since, in regard
to the issue of the existence of a bilateral dispute, it avoids theilemma
of "eitherlor". A situation which is of legitimate concern to the organized
international community and a bilateral dispute with regard to that same
situation may exist simultaneously. The existence of the latter cannot
deprive the organs of the organized community of the competence which
has been assigned to them by the constitutive instruments. In the present
case the involvement of the United Nations in the question of Palestine is
a long-standing one and, as the Court says, the subject-matter of the
request is of acute concern to the United Nations (para. 50). By givingan
opinion the Court therefore in no way circumvents the principle of con-
sent to the judicial settlement of a bilateral dispute which exists simul-
taneously. The bilateral dispute cannot be dissociated from the subject-
matter of the request, but only in very particular circumstances which
cannot be spelled out in general can its existence be seen as an argument
for the Court to decline to reply to the request. In this respect, 1find the
quotation from the Western Sahara Opinion in paragraph 47 of the

Opinion, which contains pure circular reasoning, less than helpful.

28. If the request has been legitimately made in view of the United
Nations long-standing involvement with the question of Palestine,
Israel's argument that the Court does not have at its disposa1the neces-
sary evidentiarymaterial, as this is to an important degree in the hands of
Israel as a party to the dispute, does not hold water. The Court has to
respect Israel's choicenot to address the merits, but it is the Court's own
responsibility to assess whether the available information is sufficient to
enable it to give the requested opinion. And, although it is a matter for
sincere regret that Israel has decided not to address the merits, the Court
is right when it concludes that the available material allows it to give the
opinion.

29. 1 share the Court's view that the 1907 Hague Regulations, the
Fourth Geneva Convention of 1949, the 1966 Covenants on Civil and EDIFICATION D'UN MUR (OP.[ND. KOOIJMANS) 227

26. Dans la préseriteprocédure,la demande est loin d'être ((juridique-
ment neutre)). Pour ne pas êtreempêchéed,u point de vue de l'opportunité
judiciaire, de rendre un avis, la Cour est dès lors tenue de réexaminerla

teneur de la demande pour préserver sadignitéen tant qu'organe judiciaire.
C'est ce qu'ellea fait, maisà mon avis elleaurait dû le faire d'officeet non
pas en se fondant sur une hypothèse quant a ce que l'Assembléeaurait
((nécessairement »pu présumer,ce que de toute évidencecelle-cin'a pasfait.
27. J'ajouterai que je partage par ailleurs les vuesexpriméespar la Cour
en ce qui concerne la question de l'opportunitéjudiciaire. Je suis d'avis en
particulier que la Coi~ra su trouver une formulation heureuse lorsqu'elle
conclut que la question qui fait l'objet de la requête del'Assemblée géné-
rale ne saurait être considérée seulement comme une question bilatérale
entre Israël et la Palestine (par.), car, sur la question de l'existenced'un
différend bilatéral,cette formulation permet d'éviterle dilemme «soit/ou».
Une situation qui pré,senteun intérêt légitimpeour lacommunauté inter-
nationale organiséeet.un différend bilatéral relatifa cette mêmesituation
peuvent exister en mêmetemps. L'existencedu différendne peut priver les
organes de la communautéorganisée dela compétence qui leura été confé-
réepar leurs actes coristitutifs. Dans le cas présent,la question de la Pales-
tine est inscrite depuis longtemps à l'ordre du jour de l'organisation des
Nations Unies et, comme le souligne la Cour, l'objetde la requête intéresse
tout particulièrement l'organisation (par. 50). Rendre un avis n'aurait par
conséquent pas pour effet, de la part de la Cour, de tourner le principe du

consentement au règlement judiciaire d'un différend bilatéral quiexiste
simultanément. Le différendest indissociable de l'objet de la requête, etil
ne peut êtreinvoquépar la Cour pour refuser de donner suite a celle-cique
dans des circonstances très particulières qui ne peuvent êtreénoncéesen
termes généraux.A cet égard,la citation tiréede l'avis rendu en l'affairedu
SUIIUYU occid~~rltulu paragraphe 47 de l'avis, etqui ne contient qu'un rai-
sonnement circulaire, me semble tout à fait dénuée de pertinence.
28. Si la requête a(Stélégitimementformuléecompte tenu de la longue
responsabilité de l'Organisation des Nations Unies concernant la ques-
tion de la Palestine, l'argument d'Israël selon lequel la Cour ne dispose
pas d'élémentsde preuve suffisants, car ceux-ci se trouvent dans une large
mesure entre les mairis d'Israël en tant a.e ~.rtie au différend. est sans
pertinence. La Cour est tenue de respecter la décision prisepar Israël de
ne pas traiter du foncl, mais c'est a la Cour qu'incombe la responsabilité
d'évaluersi elle dispose d'informations suffisantes pour pouvoir rendre
l'avis demandé. Bien qu'il soit regrettable qu'Israël ait décidéde ne pas
traiter du fond, laCour a raison lorsqu'elle conclut qu'elle disposede suf-
fisamment d'élémentsd'information pour pouvoir donner l'avis sollicité.

29. Je partage l'avis de la Cour lorsqu'elle dit que le règlement de La
Haye de 1907, la quatrième convention de Genève de 1949, les pactesPolitical Rights and on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the

1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child are applicable to the Occu-
pied Palestinian Territory and that Israel by constructing the wall and
establishing the associated régime has breached its obligation under cer-
tain provisions of each of these conventions.

1 find no fault with the Court's reasoning in this respect although 1

regret that the summary of the Court's findings in paragraph 137 does
not contain a list of treaty provisions which have been breached.

30. The Court has refrained from taking a position with regard to ter-
ritorial rights and the question of permanent status. It has taken note of

statements, made by Israeli authorities on various occasions, that the
"fence" is a temporary measure, that it is not a border and that it does
not change the legal status of the territory. 1 welcome these assurances
which may be seen as the recognition of legal commitments on the side of
Israel but share the Court's concern that the construction of the wall
creates a fait accompli. It is therefore al1the more important to expedite

the political process which has to settle al1 territorial and permanent
status issues.

31. Self-deternzinution - In my view, it would have been better if the
Court had also left issues of self-determination to this political process.
1 fully recognize that the right of self-determination is one of the basic

principles of modern international law and that the realization of this
right for the people of Palestine is one of the most burning issues for
the solution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The overriding aim of the
political process, as it is embodied inter uliu in the Roadmap, is "the
emergence of an independent, democratic and viable Palestinian State
living side by side in peace and security with Israel and its other neigh-

bours" (dossier of the Secretary-General, No. 70). This goal is subscribed
to by both lsrael and Palestine; both are, therefore, in good faith bound
to desist from acts which may jeopardize this common interest.

32. The right of self-determination of the Palestinian people is there-

fore imbedded in a much wider context than the construction of the wall
and has to find its realization in this wider context. 1 readily agree with
the Court that the wall and its associated régime impede the exercise by
the Palestinian people of its right to self-determination be it only for the
reason that the wall establishes a physical separation of the people

entitled to enjoy this right. But not every impediment to the exercise of a
right is by definition a breach of that right or of the obligation to respect
it, as the Court seems to conclude in paragraph 122.As was said by the
Quartet in its statement of 16 July 2002, the terrorist attacks (and the
failure of the Palestinian Authority to prevent them) cause also great
harm to the legitimate aspirations of the Palestinian people and thusrelatifs aux droits civils et politiques, et aux droits économiques, sociaux
et culturels de 1966. et la convention relative aux droits de l'enfant de
1989sont applicab1e:sdans le territoire palestinien occupé, et qu'Israël, en
construisant le mur et en établissant le régimequi lui est associé,a man-
qué aux obligations qui lui incombent en vertu de certaines dispositions
de chacune de ces conventions.

Je ne vois aucune faille dans le raisonnement de la Cour à cet égard,
mêmesi je regrette que la récapitulation des conclusions de la Cour figu-
rant au paragraphe 137 ne contienne pas une liste des dispositions
conventionnelles qui ont été violées.
30. La Cour s'est abstenue de se prononcer au sujet des droits territo-
riaux et de la question du statut définitif.Elle a pris note des déclarations

faites par les autorités israéliennes à diverses occasions à l'effet que la
((clôture)) est une mesure temporaire, qu'elle ne constitue pas une fron-
tière et qu'elle ne modifie pas le statut juridique du territoire. Je me féli-
cite de ces assurance:;, en lesquelles il est permis de voir la reconnaissance
de la part d'Israël de ses engagements juridiques, mais je partage les pré-

occupations de la Co'urquant au fait que la construction du mur créeun
fait accompli. Il est doncd'autant plus important d'accélérerle processus
politique qui doit permettre de réglertoutes les questions relatives au ter-
ritoire et au statut définitif.
3 1. Autotlktcrtnination -- Il eût étéà mes yeux préférableque la Cour
situe le règlement des questions relatives à I'autodétermination dans le

cadre de ce processus politique. Je reconnais pleinement que le droit à
I'autodétermination constitue l'un des principes fondamentaux du droit
international moderne et que la réalisation de ce droit au bénéficedu
peuple de la Palestine constitue une des questions les plus brûlantes en ce
qui concerne la so1ui:iondu conflit israélo-palestinien. L'objectif fonda-
mental du processus politique, tel qu'il est énoncénotamment dans la

((feuille de route)), est «la création d'un Etat palestinien indépendant,
démocratique et viable vivant côte à côte avec Israël et ses autres voisins
dans la paix et ia sécurité»(pièceno 70 du dossier présentépar le Secré-
taire général).Israël et la Palestine souscrivent tous deux à cet objectif;
tous deux sont donc résolus de bonne foi à renoncer aux actes qui
risquent de comprorriettre cet intérêtcommun.

32. Le droit du peuple palestinien à I'autodétermination s'inscrit donc
dans un contexte beaucoup plus large que la construction du mur et il
doit trouver sa réalisation dans ce contexte plus large. Je partage volon-
tiers l'opinion de la Cour selon laquelle le mur et le régimequi lui est
associéconstituent un obstacle iil'exercice par le peuple palestinien de

son droit à I'autodétermination, ne serait-ce que parce que le mur a pour
effet de séparer physiquement les personnes pouvant légitimement pré-
tendre à exercer ce droit. Cependant, tout obstacle à l'exercice d'un droit
n'est pas par définition une violation de ce droit ni de l'obligation de le
respecter, comme la Cour semble le conclure au paragraphe 122.Comme
l'a dit le Quatuor daris sa déclaration du 16juillet 2002, les attentats ter-

roristes (et l'incapacitéde l'Autorité palestinienne de les prévenir)causentseriously impede the realization of the right of self-determination. 1s
that also a breach of that right? And if so, by whom? In my view the
Court could not have concluded that Israel had committed a breach of
its obligation to respect the Palestinians' right to self-determination
without further legal analysis.

33. In this respect 1do not find the references to earlier statements of
the Court in paragraph 88 of the Opinion very enlightening. In the
Numihiu case the Court referred in specificterms to the relations between
the inhabitants of a mandate and the mandatory as reflected in the con-

stitutive instruments of the mandate system. In the East Timor case the
Court called the rights of peoples to self-determination in a colonial situa-
tion a right ergu omnes, therefore a right opposable to all. But it said
nothing about the way in which this "right" must be translated into obli-
gations for States which are not the colonial Power. And I repeat the
question: 1severy impediment to the exercise ofthe right to self-determi-
nation a breach of an obligation to respect it? 1s it so only when it is
serious? Would the discontinuance of the impeding act restore the right or
merely bring the breach to an end?

34. Proportionulity - The Court finds that the conditions set out in
the qualifying clauses in the applicable humanitarian law and human

rights conventions have not been met and that the measures taken by
Israel cannot be justified by military exigencies or by requirements of
national security or public order (paras. 135-137).1agree with that find-
ing but in my opinion the construction of the wall should also have been
put to the proportionality test, in particularsince the concepts of military
necessity and proportionality have always been intimately linked in inter-
national humanitarian law. And in my view itis of decisive importance
that, even if the construction of the wall and its associated régimecould
be justified as measures necessary to protect the legitimate rights of
Israeli citizens,these measures would not pass the proportionality test.
The route chosen for the construction of the wall and the ensiiing dis-
turbing consequences for the inhabitants of the Occupied Palestinian Ter-

ritory are manifestly disproportionate to interests which Israel seeks to
protect, as seems to be recognized also in recent decisions of the Israeli
Supreme Court.

35. Self-dejence - Israel based the construction of the wall on its
inherent right of self-defenceas contained in Article 51of the Charter. In
this respect it relied on Security Council resolutions 1368(2001)and 1373
(2001), adopted after the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 against
targets located in the United States.
The Court starts its response to this argument by stating thataussi un dommage considérable aux aspirations légitimes du peuple
palestinien et fontaiilsi gravement obstacleà la réalisation de sondroità

l'autodétermination. Constituent-ils aussi une violation de ce droit? Et,
dans l'affirmative, de qui pareille violation est-elle le fait? sens, la
Cour ne pouvait pas conclure qu'Israël avait manqué à son obligation de
respecter le droit des Palestiniens l'autodétermination sans une analyse
juridique plus pousske.
33. A cet égard,11:srenvois à des déclarations antérieures dela Cour
qui figurent au paragraphe 88 de l'avis consultatif ne me paraissent pas
très éclairants.Dans l'affaire de la Namibie, la Cour s'est expressément
référéa eux relations entre les habitants d'un territoire sous mandat et la
puissance mandataire:, telles que définiesdans les instruments constitutifs
du systèmedu mandat. Dans l'affaire du Timor oriental, elle a qualifiéle
droit des peuples à disposer d'eux-mêmesdans un contexte colonial de
droit ergu ornnes,c'est-à-dire opposableà tous. Mais ellen'a rien dit de la

manière dont ce «droit» doit se traduire par des obligations incombant
aux Etats autres que la puissance coloniale. Aussi, je pose de nouveau la
question: tout obstacle à l'exercicedu droit iil'autodétermination cons-
titue-t-il un manquenient à l'obligation de le respecter? En est-il ainsi seu-
lement en cas de manquement grave? La cessation de l'acte faisant ob-
stacle à l'exercice du droit restaurerait-elle celui-ci ou ne ferait-elle que
mettre un terme au manquement?
34. Proportionnalité - La Cour estime que les conditions énoncées
dans les clauses de limitation du droit humanitaire et des conventions
relatives aux droits de l'homme applicables n'ont pas été satisfaites t ue
les mesures prises par Israël ne peuvent sejustifier par des impératifsmili-

taires ou par les besoins de la sécuriténationale ou de l'ordre public
(par. 135-137).Je soi~scrisà cette conclusion, mais il aurait fallu égale-
ment, àmon sens, examiner la construction du mur au regard du critère
de proportionnalité, compte tenu en particulier de ce que les concepts de
nécessité militaire ete proportionnalité ont toujours été intimementliés
dans le droit international humanitaire. Et c'est, mes yeux, un point qui
a une portée si déterminante que, mêmesi la construction du mur et le
régimequi lui est associépouvaient êtrejustifiéscomme constituant des
mesures nécessairespour protégerles droits légitimes des citoyens israé-
liens, ces mesures ne satisferaient pas pour autant au critère de propor-
tionnalité. Le tracéchoisi pour la construction du mur et les perturba-
tions qui en résultentpour les habitants du territoire palestinien occupé

sont manifestement disproportionnés par rapport aux intérêts qu'Israël
cherche à protéger, commela Cour suprême d'Israëlsemble elle aussi le
reconnaître dans des décisions récentes.
35. Légitimedéjen.ve - Israël a fondésa décisionde construire le mur
sur son droit naturel de légitime défense,au sens de l'article 51 de la
Charte. Ila invoqué, à cet égard, les résolutions 1368 (2001) et 1373
(2001)adoptéespar le Conseil de sécurité aprèslesattentats terroristes du
1I septembre 2001 contre des cibles situéesaux Etats-Unis.
Dans sa réponse à cet argument, la Cour note tout d'abord que I'ar-Article 51 recognizes the existence of an inherent right of self-defence in
the case of an armed attack by one State against another State(para. 139).
Although this statement is undoubtedly correct, as a reply to Israel's

argument it is, with al1 due respect, beside the point. Resolutions 1368
(2001) and 1373 (2001) recognize the inherent right of individual or col-
lective self-defence without making any reference to an armed attack by a
State. The Security Council called acts of international terrorism, without
any further qualification, a threat to international peace and security
which authorizes it to act under Chapter VI1 of the Charter. And it actu-
ally did so in resolution 1373 (2001) without ascribing these acts of ter-

rorisrri to a particular State. This is the completely new element in these
resolutions. This new element is not excluded by the terms of Article 51
since this conditions the exercise of the inherent right of self-defence on a
previous armed attack without saying that this armed attack must come
from another State even if this has been the generally accepted interpre-
tation for more than 50 years. The Court has regrettably by-passed this

new element, the legal implications of which cannot as yet be assessed but
which marks undeniably a new approach to the concept of self-defence.

36. The argument which in my view is decisive for the dismissal of
Israel's claim that it is merely exercising its right of self-defence can be

found in the second part of paragraph 139. The right of self-defence as
contained in the Charter is a rule of international law and thus relates to
international phenomena. Resolutions 1368 (2001) and 1373 (2001) refer
to acts of internationalterrorism as constituting a threat to internutionul
peace and security; they therefore have no immediate bearing on terrorist
acts originating within a territory which is under control of the State

which is also the victim of these acts. And Israel does not claim that these
acts have their origin elsewhere. The Court therefore rightly concludes
that the situation is different from that contemplated by resolutions 1368
(2001) and 1373 (2001) and that consequently Article 51 of the Charter
cannot be invoked by Israel.

VI. LEGAL CONSEQUENCES

37. 1have voted in favour of subparagraph (3) (B), (C) and (E) of the
operative part. I agree with the Court's finding with regard to the conse-
quences of the breaches by Israel of its obligations under international

law for Israel itself and for the United Nations (paras. 149-153and 160).
Since 1have voted, however, against operative subparagraph (3) (D),the
remainder of my opinion will explain the reasons for my dissent in a
more detailed way than 1did in my introductory remarks.
38. The General Assembly requests the Court to specify what are the ÉDIFIC.~TION D'UN MUR (OP. IND. KOOIJMANS) 230

ticle 51 reconnaît l'existence d'un droit naturel de Iégitimedéfenseen cas
d'agression armée par un Etat contre un autre Etat (par. 139). Mêmesi
cette affirmation est indubitablement exacte, avec tout le respect que je
dois à la Cour, je nie dois de dire qu'elle ne répond pas à l'argument
d'Israël. Les résolutions 1368 (2001)et 1373 (2001) reconnaissent le droit

naturel de Iégitimedéfense, individuelle ou collective, sans faire aucune-
ment référenceà une agression arméepar un Etat. Le Conseil de sécurité
a qualifié,sans autre précisionrestrictive, les actes de terrorisme interna-
tional de menace à la paix et à la sécuritéinternationales l'autorisant a
agir en vertu du chapitre VI1 de la Charte. Et, en vérité, c'estce qu'il a
fait dans la résolution 1373(2001) sans attribuer ces actes de terrorisme à

un Etat particulier. C'est là l'élémenttout à fait nouveau que contiennent
ces résolutions. Cet élémentnouveau n'est pas exclu par les termes de
l'article 51 puisque celui-ci subordonne l'exercicedu droit naturel de légi-
time défense à l'existence d'une agression armée préalable sans indiquer
que cette agression arméedoit êtrele fait d'un autre Etat, mêmesi telle

est l'interprétation qui est généralement acceptéedepuis plus de cin-
quante ans. Il est regrettable que la Cour ait négligécet élémentnouveau,
dont les conséquences en droit ne peuvent encore êtremesurées,mais qui
inaugure indéniablement une approche nouvelle du concept de légitime
défense.
36. L'argument qui, selon moi, justifie de manière décisivele rejet de

l'allégation d'Israël selon laquelle il ne fait qu'exercer son droit de légi-
time défensese trouve dans la seconde partie du paragraphe 139. Le droit
de légitime défensetel qu'il est énoncédans la Charte est une règle du
droit international et se rapporte donc à des phénomènesinternationaux.
Les résolutions 1368 (2001) et 1373 (2001) se réfèrentà des actes de ter-

rorisme internutionul en tant que ceux-ci constituent une menace à la paix
et à la sécuritéinternutionules; elles n'ont donc pas d'effet immédiat
s'agissant des actes terroristes qui trouvent leur originel'intérieur d'un
territoire placé sous le contrôle de 1'Etat qui est aussi la victime de ces
actes. Or, Israël ne prétend pas que ces actes ont leur origine en un autre
lieu. C'est donc à juste titre que la Cour conclut que la situation est dif-

férentede celle qui est envisagéepar les résolutions 1368 (2001) et 1373
(2001) et qu'en conséquence Israël ne saurait invoquer l'article 51 de la
Charte.

VI. CONS~QUENC JURIDIQUES

37. J'ai votépour les alinéas B), C) et E) du point 3 du dispositif. Je
partage la conclusion de la Cour en ce qui concerne les conséquences
pour Israël et pour les Nations Unies des violations par ce pays des obli-
gations que lui impose le droit international (par. 149-153et 160). Ayant
cependant voté contre l'alinéa D) du point 3 du dispositif, je consacrerai

le reste de mon opinion à expliciter les raisons de mon désaccord davan-
tage que je ne l'ai fait dans mes observations liminaires.
38. L'Assemblée générale demande à la Cour de déterminer les consé-23 1 CONSTRUCTION OF A WALL (SEP.OP.KOOIJMANS)

legal consequences arising from the construction of the wall. If theobject
of the request is to obtain from the Court an opinion which the General
Assembly deems of assistance to it for the proper exercise of its functions
(para. 50) it is only logical that a specific paragraph of thedispositifis
addressed to the General Assembly. That the paragraph is also addressed
to the Security Council is logical as well in view of the shared or parallel
responsibilities of the two organs.
Since the Court has found that the construction of the wall and the
associated régimeconstitute breaches of Israel's obligations under inter-
national law, it is also logical that the Court spells out what are the legal
consequences for Israel.
39. Although the Court beyond any doubt is entitled to do so, the
request itselfdoes not necessitate (not even by implication) the determi-

nation of the legal consequences for other States, even if a great number
of participants urged the Court to do so (para. 146). In this respect the
situation is completely different from that in theNamibia case where the
question was exclusively focused on the legal consequences for States,
and logically so since the subject-matter of the request was a decision by
the Security Council.
In the present case there must therefore be a special reason for deter-
mining the legal consequences for other States since the clear analogy in
wording with the request in the Numibia case is insufficient.

40. That reason as indicated in paragraphs 155to 158of the Opinion
is that the obligations violated by Israel include certain obligationerga
omnes. 1must admit that 1have considerable difficulty in understanding

why a violation of an obligation ergu omnes by one State should neces-
sarily lead to an obligation for third States. The nearest 1 can come to
such an explanation is the text of Article 41 of the International Law
Commission's Articleson State Responsibility. That Article reads:

"1. States shall cooperate to bring to an end through lawful means
any serious breach within the meaning of article 40. [Article40 deals

with serious breaches of obligations arising under a peremptory
norm of general international law.]
2. No State shall recognize as lawful a situation created by a
serious breach within the meaning of article 40, nor render aid or
assistance in maintaining that situation."
Paragraph 3 of Article 41 is a saving clause and of no relevance for the
present case.

41. 1will not deal with the tricky question whether obligations ergu
omnes can be equated with obligations arising under a peremptory norm
of general international law. In this respectrefer to the useful commen-
tary of the ILC under the heading of Chapter III of its Articles. For argu-
ment's sake 1 start from the assumption that the consequences of the
violation of such obligations are identical.quences juridiques découlant de la construction du mur. Si l'objet de
cette requête est d'obtenir de la Cour un avis que l'Assemblée générale
estime utile pour exercer comme il convient ses fonctions (par. 50), il n'est

que logique qu'un point précisdu dispositif soit adressé à l'Assemblée
générale.II est tout aussi logique d'adresser ce prononcé au Conseil de
sécuritécompte tenu des responsabilités communes ou parallèles dont les
deux organes sont investis.
La Cour ayant jugé que l'édificationdu mur et le régime qui lui est
associé constituent une violation par Israël des obligations mises à sa

charge par le droit linternational,ilest également logique qu'elle déter-
mine les conséquencesjuridiques qui découlent de cela pour Israël.
39. S'il ne fait aucun doute que la Cour est habilitéeà agir de la sorte,
la requête proprement dite n'exige pas (mêmede façon implicite) de la
Cour qu'elle détermine les conséquencesjuridiques pour d'autres Etats,
mêmesi un grand nombre de participants l'y ont invité(par. 146). A cet

égard,la situation est tout a fait différentede celle de l'affaire de la Numi-
hie, dans laquelle la question était exclusivement centrée sur les consé-
quences juridiques pour les Etats, ce qui étaitlogique puisque l'objet de la
requête étaitune décision du Conseil de sécurité.
En l'espèce,il doit donc y avoir une raison particulière de déterminer
les conséquencesjuridiques pour les autres Etats puisque, manifestement,

l'analogie entre le libelléde la demande et celui de la demande en l'affaire
de la Nurîzihie est insuffisante.
40. Comme ilressort des paragraphes 155 a 158 de l'avis, la raison en
est qu'au nombre des obligations violéespar Israël figurent des obliga-
tions erga ornnes. Je dois admettre que j'ai grand mal à comprendre
pourquoi la violation d'une obligation erga ornnes par un Etat entraîne-

rait-elle nécessairement une obligation pour des Etats tiers. La meilleure
explication que je puisse en donner est tiréedu libellé de I'article 41 des
articles de la Commission du droit international sur la responsabilité de
I'Etat, qui se lit comme suit:

«1. Les Etats doivent coopérer pour mettre fin, par des moyens
licites, à toute violation grave au sens de l'article 40. [L'article 40
concerne la violation grave d'une obligation découlant d'une norme
impérative du droit international général.]

2. Aucun Etat ne doit reconnaître comme licite une situation
crééepar une violation grave au sens de l'article 40, ni prêter aideou
assistance au maintien de cette situation. ))

Le paragraphe 3 de l'article 41 est une clause de sauvegarde qui est sans
rapport avec la présente espèce.
41. Je ne traiterai pas de la question délicatede savoir si des obligations
erg0 onznes peuvent êtreassimilées à des obligations découlant d'une
norme impérativedu droit international général.Sur ce point, je renvoie au
commentaire utile fait par la Commission du droit international au titre du

chapitre III sur la responsabilité deI'Etat. Je partirai de l'hypothèseque les
conséquences de la violation de telles obligations sont identiques. 42. Paragraph 1 of Article 41 explicitly refers to a duty to co-operate.
As paragraph 3 of the commentary states, "What is called for in the
face of serious breaches is a joint and coordinated effort by al1States to
counteract the effects of these breaches." And paragraph 2 refers to

"[c]ooperation ... in the framework of a competent international organi-
zation, in particular the United Nations". Article 41, paragraph 1,there-
fore does not refer to individual obligations of third States as a result of
a serious breach. What is said there is encompassed in the Court's finding
in operative subparagraph (3) (E) and not in subparagraph (3) (D).

43. Article 41, paragraph 2, however, explicitly mentions the duty not
to recognize as lawful a situation created by a serious breach just as
operative subparagraph (3) (D) does. In its commentary the ILC refers to
unlawful situations which - virtually without exception - take the form
of a legal claim, usually to territory. It gives as examples "an attempted
acquisition of sovereignty over territory through denial of the right of

self-determination", the annexation of Manchuria by Japan and of
Kuwait by Iraq, South Africa's claim to Namibia, the Unilateral Decla-
ration of Independence in Rhodesia and the creation of Bantustans in
South Africa. In other words, al1examples mentioned refer to situations
arising from forma1 or quasi-forma1 promulgations intended to have an
erga omnes effect. 1 have no problem with accepting a duty of non-
recognition in such cases.

44. 1 have great difficulty, however, in understanding what the
duty not to recognize an illegal fact involves. What are the individual

addressees of this part of operative subparagraph (3) (D) supposed to do
in order to comply with this obligation? That question is even more
cogent considering that 144 States unequivocally have condemned the
construction of the wall as unlawful (resolution ES-10/13),whereas those
States which abstained or voted against (with the exception of Israel)
did not do so because they considered the construction of the wall
as legal. The duty not to recognize amounts, therefore, in my view to an
obligation without real substance.
45. That argument does not apply to the second obligation mentioned
in Article 41, paragraph 2, namely the obligation not to render aid or
assistance in maintaining the situation created by the serious breach. 1
therefore Sully support that part of operative subparagraph (3) (D).

Moreover, 1 would have been in favour of adding in the reasoning or
even in the operative part a sentence reminding States of the importance
of rendering humanitarian assistance to the victims of the construction of
the wall. (The Court included a similar sentence, be it with a different
scope, in its Opinion in the Numihiu case, 1.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 56,
para. 125.)
46. Finally, 1have difficulty in accepting the Court's finding that the
States parties to the Fourth Geneva Convention are under an obligation 42. Le paragraphe 1de l'article 41 vise expressément le devoir de coo-
pérer. Etant donné que le paragraphe 3 du commentaire stipule que
«[flace à des violatioins graves, un effort concerté et coordonné de tous les
Etats s'impose pour en contrecarrer les effets)) et que le paragraphe 2

parle de la ((coopération ... dans le cadre d'une organisation internatio-
nale compétente, notamment l'organisation des Nations Unies)), le para-
graphe 1 de l'article 41 ne parle donc pas d'obligations individuelles
d'Etats tiers découlant d'une violation grave. Les dispositions de cet ar-
ticle sont prises en compte dans la conclusion de la Cour figurant à
l'alinéa E)du point 3 du dispositif et non à l'alinéaD) du point 3.
43. Cependant, comme à l'alinéa D) du point 3, le paragraphe 2 de

l'article 41 mentionne expressément le devoir de ne pas reconnaître
comme licite une situation crééepar une violation grave. Dans son com-
mentaire, la Commission du droit international évoque des situations illi-
cites qui- quasiment sans exception - prennent la forme d'une reven-
dication de caractère juridique, habituellement concernant un territoire.
Elle donne pour exemples toute tentative d'acquisition de souveraineté
«obtenue» par «le déni du droit des peuples à disposer d'eux-mêmes)),

l'annexion de la Mandchourie par le Japon et du Koweït par l'Iraq, la
demande de l'Afrique du Sud concernant la Namibie, la déclaration uni-
latérale d'indépendance dela Rhodésie et la création de Bantoustans en
Afrique du Sud. Ainisi, tous les exemples cités se rapportent a des situa-
tions découlant de rocla la mati formselles ou quasi formelles censées
produire un effet ergu omrzrs. Dans de tels cas, je n'ai aucun mal à accep-
ter une obligation dr: non-reconnaissance.

44. En revanche, je vois mal ce qu'implique I'obligation de ne pas
reconnaître un fait illicite. Qu'est-ce que les différents destinataires de
l'alinéaD) du point 3 sont-ils censésfaire pour remplir cette obligation?
Cette question est d'autant plus pertinente que cent quarante-quatre
Etats ont condamné sans équivoque l'édificationdu mur et l'ont déclarée
illégale(résolution ES-10/13), tandis que les Etats qui se sont abstenusou

qui ont votécontre (à l'exception d'Israël) n'ont pas agi de la sorte parce
qu'ils considéraient que la construction du mur étaitlégale.Le devoir de
non-reconnaissance est, dès lors, à mon sens, une obligation sans fonde-
ment réel.
45. Cet argument ne vaut pas pour la deuxième obligation viséeau
paragraphe 2 de l'article 41, à savoir l'obligation de ne pas prêter aideou
assistance au maintilen de la situation crééepar la violation grave. En

conséquence, je souscris pleinement à cette partie de l'alinéa D) du
point 3 du dispositif. De plus, j'aurais souscrit à l'insertion dans l'exposé
des motifs ou mêmedans le dispositif d'une phrase pour rappeler aux
Etats l'importance qui doit être attachéeà une aide humanitaire aux vic-
times de la construction du mur. (La Cour avait ajouté une phrase simi-
laire, dans un cadre (certesdifférent,dans son avis en l'affaire de la Nczmi-
hie (C.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 56, par. 125).)

46. Enfin,j'ai du inal à accepter la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle
les Etats parties à la quatriéme convention de Genève ont I'obligation deto ensure compliance by Israel with humanitarian law as embodied in
that Convention (paragraph 159, operative subparagraph (3) (D), last
part).
In this respect the Court bases itself on common Article 1 of the
Geneva Convention which reads: "The High Contracting Parties under-

take to respect and to ensure respect for the present Convention in al1
circumstances." (Emphasis added.)
47. The Court does not say on what ground it concludes that this
Article imposes obligations on third States not party to a conflict.
The travaux préparatoires do not support that conclusion. According to
Professor Kalshoven, who investigated thoroughly the genesisand further
development of common Article 1, it was mainly intended to ensure
respect of the conventions by the population as a whole and as such was
closely linked to common Article 3 dealing with interna1 conflicts
(F. Kalshoven, "The Undertaking to Respect and Ensure Respect in All
Circumstances: From Tiny Seed to Ripening Fruit", in Yearbook of
International Humunitarian Law, Vol. 2, 1999,pp. 3-61). His conclusion
from the travaux préparatoires is:

"1have not found in the records of the Diplomatic Conference
even the slightest awareness on the part of government delegates
that one might ever wish to read into the phrase 'to ensure respect'
any undertaking by a contracting State other than an obligation to
ensure respect for the Conventions by its people 'in al1 circum-
stances'."(Ihid.,p. 28.)

48. Now it is true that already from an early moment the International
Committee of the Red Cross in its (non-authoritative) commentaries on
the 1949Convention has taken the position that common Article 1con-
tains an obligation for al1States parties to ensure respect by other States
parties. It is equally true that the Diplomatic Conference which adopted
the 1977 Additional Protocols incorporated common Article 1 in the
First Protocol. But at no moment did the Conference deal with its
presumed implications for third States.
49. Hardly less helpful is the Court's reference to common Article 1in

the Nicaragua case. The Court, without interpreting its terms, observed
that "such an obligation does not derive only from the Conventions
themselves, but from the general principles of humanitarian law to which
the Conventions merely give specificexpression". The Court continued
that "The United States [was] thus under an obligation not to encourage
persons or groups engaged in the conflict in Nicaragua" to act in viola-
tion of common Article 3 (Military und Puramilitary Activities in and
against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United Stutes of Americu), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 114,para. 220).

But this duty of abstention is completely different from a positive duty
to ensure compliance with the law.
50. Although 1certainly am not in favour of a restricted interpretation ÉDIFICATION D'UN MUR (OP.IND.KOOIJMANS) 233

faire respecter par Israël le droit international humanitaire incorporé
dans cette convention (paragraphe 159, alinéa D) du point 3 du disposi-
tif, dernière partie).
A ce sujet, la Cour s'appuie sur l'article premier de la convention de
Genève qui stipule que «[l]es Hautes Parties contractantes s'engagent à
respecter et a juire respecter la présente convention en toutes circons-

tances)) (les italiques sont de moi).
47. La Cour ne dit pas pour quel motif elle conclut que cet article
impose des obligations aux Etats tiers qui ne sont par partiesà un conflit.
Les travaux préparatoires n'étayentpas cette conclusion. Selon M. Kal-
shoven, qui a fait des recherches approfondies sur la genèse et l'évolution
de l'article premier commun, celui-ci était essentiellement conçu pour
veiller au respect des conventions par la population dans son ensemble et,
de ce fait, était étroitementlié à l'article 3 commun relatif aux conflits
internes (F. Kalshoven, «The Undertaking to Respect and Ensure Res-
pect in AllCircumsta~nces:From Tiny Seed to Ripening Fruit)), in Year-
book ofInternational Humunitariun Law, vol. 2, 1999,p. 3-61). 11tire des

travaux préparatoireis la conclusionsuivante:
<<Jen'ai trouvénulle part dans les archives de la conférencediplo-
matique que les représentantsdes gouvernements avaient la moindre
idéeque l'on pourrait jamais donner à l'expression «faire respecter))
le sens d'un engagement de la part d'un Etat contractant autre que

celui d'une obligation de faire respecter les conventions par sa popu-
lation«en toutes circonstances)). » (Ihid,p. 28.)
48. Certes, il est vrai que, trèstôt, le Comitéinternational de la Croix-
Rouge, dans ses commentaires (qui ne font pas autorité) sur la conven-
tion de 1949,avait solulignéque l'article premier commun emportait obli-

gation pour tous les Etats parties de faire respecter lesconventions par les
autres Etats parties.[l est tout aussi vrai que la conférencediplomatique
qui a adoptéles prot~ocolesadditionnels de 1977a inséré l'article premier
commun dans le protocole 1.A aucun moment, la conférencen'a cepen-
dant traité deses conséquences possiblespour les Etats tiers.
49. La mention par la Cour de l'article premier commun en l'affaire
Nicaragua n'est, elle non plus, d'aucune pertinence. Sans en interpréter
les termes, la Cour a fait observer qu'«une telle obligation ne découlepas
seulement des conv<:ntions elles-mêmes, mais des principesgénéraux
du droit humanitaire dont les conventions ne sont que les expressions
concrètes))avant d'ajouter: «En particulier les Etats-Unis ont I'obliga-

tion de ne pas encourager des personnes ou des groupes prenant part au
conflit au Nicaragua à agir en violatisn de dispositions comme cellesde
l'article 3 commun (Actii1itémilitaires et paramilitaires au Nicaraguu et
contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c.Etats-Unis d'Amérique),jond, arrêt,C.I.J.
Recueil 1986, p. 114.par. 220).
Ce devoir d'abstention diffère cependant totalement d'une obligation
positive de veiller au respect du droit.
50. Bien que je ne sois certainement pas favorable à une interprétationof common Article 1, such as may have been envisaged in 1949, 1 simply
do not know whether the scope given by the Court to this Article in the
present Opinion is correct as a statement of positive law. Since the Court
does not give any argument in its reasoning,1do not feel able to support
its finding. Moreover,1 fail to see what kind of positive action, resulting
from this obligation, may be expected from individual States, apart from
diplomatic démarches.
51. For al1these reasons 1felt compelled to vote against operative sub-
paragraph (3) (D).

(Signe4 Pieter H. KOOIJMANS. EDIFIC.~TION D'UN MUR (OP.IND. KOOIJMANS) 234

restrictive de l'article premier commun, comme on a pu l'envisager en

1949, j'ignore tout simplement si la portée donnée à cet article par la
Cour dans son présent avis est exacte en tant que détermination de droit
positif. Etant donné que la Cour n'avance aucun argument a ce sujet, je
ne puis faire mienne sa conclusion. De plus,je ne vois pas quelles mesures
positives découlant de cette obligation peuvent êtreattendues des Etats,
hormis des démarches diplomatiques.

51. Pour tous ces motifs, je me suis senti dans l'obligation de voter
contre l'alinéaD) du point 3 du dispositif.

(Signé) PieterH. KOOIJMANS.

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