Dissenting Opinion by M. Alvarez (translation)

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009-19500303-ADV-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
009-19500303-ADV-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTPNG OPINION BY M. ALVAREZ
[Translation]
I

On November zznd, 1949, the Generâl Assembly of the United
Nations addressed to the International Court of Justice a highly
important Request for an Advisory Opinion to which a satisfactory
answer must be given :what is really involved is the question of
the so-called "right of veto". The discussions which have arisen
in the United Nations concerning the repeated exercise of this
right are well known.

We have before us a case which involves the interpretation of
the Charter of the United Nations ; it refers therefore to a new
question of international law.
This case must not be decided in accordance with the precepts O:
traditional or classic international law, which were established
on an indiz*idualistic basis and have hitherto prevailed, but
rather in accordance with the new international law, which is now
emerging.
There is no doubt that the Court must apply the existing law
to the case which has been referred to it.
What isthis law to-day ?Since the recent social upheaval which
opened the greatest period in the history of humanity, profound
changes have suddenly appeared in almost al1 spheres of activity,
particularly in the international field. The psychology of peoples
has undergone a great change ; a new universal international

conscience is emerging, which calls for reforms in the life of peoples.
This circumstance, in conjunction with the crisis which classic
international law has been traversing for some time past, has
opened the way to a new international law.

The Charter of the United Nations haç created several organs,
notably the General Assembly and the International Court of
Justice. The former has adopted a number of resolutions on ques-
tions. of great importance. Under Resolution 171 3f the Third
General Assembly of the United Nations, the Court was entrusted
with a mission, which was not conferred-at any rate not in
express tenns-on the Permanent Court of International Justice,
namely the developmentand consequently the creatio~zof law.
The Preamble of the United Nations Charter indjcates the
new -lines along which international life has to develop ; and
world public opinion has directly or indirectly given its approval

to certain principles framed by the statèsmen of the Big Powers
with a view to ensuring development on those lines. DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ 13

In this way a new international law hôs rapidly begun to corne
into existence. It has its roots in the régime of interdependence
which has been emerging since the middle of the x~xth century.
Formerly the des of law were elaborated slowly, in accordance
with well-established conventions or customs, or these rules
were evolved, again as a slow process, by jurists. To-day, because
of the social upheaval which we have just traversed, because
of the remarkable dynamism in the life of peoples, because of
the new international organization and the instituti~ns and

organs which this organization has created, and finally because
of the aspirations of peoples and the exigencies of modem life,
the elaboration of such new rules is rapid and sometimes even
sudden ; this elaboration is effected by means wkich are different
from those of former times, and in this process the factors which
have just been mentioned exert their influence.
The comrnon view that international law must be created
solely by States is, therefore, not valid to-day-nor indeed has
it ever been.
In truth, alongside of conventional law there is customary
law, and above all the doctrines of jurists, who not only have
the opportunity of establishing custom, but have formulated
rules which have been respected by States.

In future, it is to the General Assembly of the United Nations, to
the International Court of Justice and to the jurists that we shall
look, more than to anyone, for the creation of the new interna-
tional law.
Consequently, whether in regard to old questions which assume
new aspects, or in regard to entirely new questions, the Court
has to give decisions, not in accordance with traditional inter-
national law-that would be an anomaly-but in accordance
with the international law which is now emerging and which
the Court itself is able to create.
It might be said that this law is merely lex ferenda and not
an existing law at the present time ; but both these types of law
coincide. In many cases, so far as the Court is concerned, the

tasks of determining, establishing and applying the law go hand
in hand.
What are the main characteristics of the new international law,
and what should be the aims ofthe organs entmsted with its creation?

1 shail confine myself for the moment to emphasizing the point
that the new international law has not only a legal, but also a
political, social, economic and even a psychological aspect.
Its point of departure is that, to-day, States are increasingly
interdependent : and that consequently they do not form a
simple community, as formerly, but rather a veritable inter-
national and organized society. This society in nowise abolishes

the independence and the sovereignty of the States, nor their
legal equality (Article2 paragraph 1, of the Charter);but it limits DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ *4

this sovereignty, and the rights which flow therefrom, in view of
the general interests of this society.
In accordance with the Preamble to the Charter, the new organ-
ization-and consequently, the neu7 law vrrhichflovvstherefrom-
must have the following ends in view : to maintain peace, to con-
sider the general interest, to safegilard fundamental human rights,
to promote CO-operation between States, to bring their interests

into harmony, to promote economic, social, intellectual and human-
itarian progress. The old individualistic law had none of these
purposes ; it took account only of the interests of the individual
considered in isolation.
1 \vil1not dwell upon al1the other characteristics of international
law, but \vil1confine myself to considering briefly the points which
are related directly to the Request for an Advisory Opinion, namely :

A.-Limitation of the rights of States ;
B.-The exercise of these rights ;
C.-The abuse of right, which is intimately connected with the
two foregoing points ;
D.-The interpretation of trearies, in particular those which
have created an international organization.

III

A.-Linzitatioiz of the riglztsof States. According to classic inter-
national law, the sovereignty of States, and the rights which flowed
therefrom, were absolute. Consequently, any State could exercise
its rights \vithout limit, or rather, the sole limits were the rights of
other States (coalition of rights), and only rarely the general
interest. In addition, each State was perfectly free to exercise its
riglts, and even to abuse them, without having to justify its
conducr to ang-body.
To-day the situation has changed; the notion of absolute sover-
eignty has had its day. The general interest, the interests of inter-
national society, must constitute the limits of the rights of States
and make it possible to determine whether there has been an abuse

of these rights.
Itviould be meaningless to speak of solidarity, interdependence,
CO-operation. the general interest, human happiness, etc., if States
could continue to exercise al1 their rights freely and without
restriction. Ifthese concepts are to have any meaning, these rights
must be subject to the limit'ations which 1 have just outlined.
This limitation u7asrecommended by the last General Assembly
of the Cnited Nations in respect of a particular matter : in one of
its resolutions, the Ad Hoc Political Committee of the Assembly
recommended that al1nations should, in the use of their rights of
sovereignty, join in mutual agreement to limit the individual
exercise of those rights in respect of the control of atomic energy, DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ 15
to the extent required for the promotion of world secunty and

peace.

B.-Exercise of the rights of States. The question whether, in given
circumstances, a State is or is not bound to exercise its rights, and
in what way it must exercise them, depends upon the policy of that
State, and policy is influenced by public opinion. But in no case
may the exercise of these rights degenerate into a misuse of right.
A State may remain within the limits of its right-for instance,
a nght of passage-and yet may abuse this nght if it takes advan-
tage of the passage to obtain information on the natural resources,
strategic bases, fortifications, etc., of the Statethrough which the
passage takes place.

C.-Abuse of right. This concept is relatively recent in private
law, but it is already generailyaccepted. Even before the first World
War, some publicists had asked that it should be extended to inter-
national law. Because of the new conditions that have arisen in the
life ofpeoples, it is necessary to-day to find a place for this concept,
and the International Court of Justice must take its share in this
evolution.
What are the organs that will define the limits of the rights of
States and determine whether there has been abuse or not ? In the
past,no such organ had existed, because the question did not anse.
To-day, there are three very important organs, each of which has

power to act in its particular sphere-the Security Council, the
General Assembly of the United Nations and the International
Court of Justice. There are also the other organs of the United
Nations :the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council,
etc., in their respective spheres ofjurisdiction.

D.-Interpretation of treaties, in particulalc those creating an
international organization. First of all, it must be made perfectly
clear that the Court has competence to interpret the Charter of the
United Nations like any other instrument, without any limitations
whatever.
It has been contended that the Court was not competent to inter-
pret this treaty. That is not correct. Moreover, the Court ha already
taken an opportunity of asserting its competence in this respect
(I.C.J. Reports 1937-1948, p. 61).
Legal texts can be interpreted by anyone ; but when such an
interpretation is made by an authorized organ, such as the General
Assembly of the United Nations or the International Court of
Justice, it presents a great practical value and creates precedents. DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ 16
Because of the progressive tendencies of international life, it

is necessary to-day to interpret treaties, as weli as laws, in a
different manner than was customary when international life
showed few changes. This interpretation must be made in such
a way as to ensure that institutions and rules of law shall
continue to be in harmony with the new conditions in the life
of the peoples.
There are tu10 considerations which support this assertion.
First, we observe that national courts, in their interpretation of
pnvate law, seek to adapt it to the exigencies of contemporary
life, with the result that they have modified the law, sometimes
swiftly and profoundly, even in countnes where law is codified
to such an extent that it is necessary to-day to take into con-
siàeration not only legal texts, but also case-Iaw. It is the same,
a fortiori,in the interpretation of international matter, because
international life is much more dynamic than national life.

Again, because of this very dynamism, the political aspect
of questions is tending to have precedence over the juridical
aspect. We have a very important concrete illustration of this
tendency. According to traditional international law, the state
of war still exists between the Allies and Germany, since no
peace treaty has yet been signed with the latter State. But this
situation is considered unacceptable, and efforts are being made
to bnng it to an end.
It is therefore necessary to establish a theory, a technique
of interpretation. This process will reveal great differences between
the old system and the new one which will have to be applied
hencefonvard.
The old system possessed the following charactenstics :

A.-No distinction was made between treaties :the same rules
of interpretation were applied in al1 cases.
B.-Those who interpreted the treaties were slaves, so to speak,
of the wording. When the wording was ciear, it had to be
applied literally, without taking into account the possible
consequences.
C.-IVhen a text was not clear, recourse was had to the travaux
$ré$araloires.
D.-The interpretation of a given text, notably of a treaty, vr-as,
so to speak, immutable. No change could be made, even if
the matter considered had undergone rnodifications.

Tne new system of interpretation rnust present other charac-
teristics :
(A) Distinctions rriust be made between differeni kinds of treaties.
A bilateral treaty coricerning an ordinary question, such as extradi-

16 DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ I7

tion, cannot be interpreted in the same way as a political treaty.
Three categories of treaties must be specially recognized: peace
treaties, in particular those affecting world peace ; treaties creating
principles of international law; and treaties creating an inter-
national organization, notably the world organization. All these
possess both a political and a psychological character.

Peace treaties are dictated by material force ; and those creating
principles of international law, or international organizations, are
created by the majority of the participating States, for the new
signatories can only accept what has already been done. Conse-
quently, these three categories of treaties are not to be interpreted
literally, but primarily having regard to their purposes.

(B) The text must not be slavishly followed. If necessary, it must
be vivified so as to harmonize it with the new conditions of inter-
national life.
When the wording of a text seems clear, that is not sufficient
reason for following it literally, without taking into account the
consequences of its application. Multilateral treaties are not
drafted with the help of a dictionary, and their wording is often
the result of a compromise which influences the terms used in the
text.
In the case of the Polish Postal Service in Danzig, the Permanent
Court of International Justice (P.C.I.J., Series B, No. II, p. 39)
decided that the words of a treaty must be interpreted according
to their normal meaning, unless the interpretation would thus lead
to unreasonable or absurd consequences.

It is necessary to add that to-day the same method must be

observed when the provisions of a clause appear to run counter to
the purposes of the institution concemed or to the new conditions
of international life.
There is a decisive argument applicable to this question. It has
long been held that treaties contained, implicitly, the clause rebus
sic stantibzts, according to which, when the fundamental conditions
in which a treaty uras made have become modified, the treaty
ceases to have effect. The correctness of this clause is so manifest
that it has recently been carried over from international to priv-
ate law.
For the same reawn, it must be recognized that even the clear
provisions of a treaty must not be given effect, or must receive
appropriate interpretation, when, as a result of moditications in
international life, their application would lead to manifest injustice
or to results contrary to the aims of the institution. For, othenvise,
marked discrepancies would result between the written text and

the reality ; and that would be inadmissible. DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ 18

But there is more: it is possible, by way of interpretation,
to attribute to an institution rights which it does not possess
according to the provisions by which itwas created, provided that
these rights are in harmony with the nature and objects of the
said institution. Thus, for instance, in its Advisory Opinion of
April r~th, 1949, on the Reparation for Injuries suffered by the
United Nations, the International Court of Justice declared that,
having in view the nature and objects of that institution, it was
entitled to claim damages suffered not on1 by itself but by its
agents in the performance of their duties. This Court has therefore
attnbuted to the United Nations a right which was not expressly
conferred on that Organization by the Charter and wl-iich,accord-
ing to traditional international law, appertains solely to States.
The Court, in so doing, created a nght and, as 1 have already
shown, it was entitled to do so.
A fortiori, the Court has the power to limit rights, or to give

them an effect other than that prescribed by the literal text where
the circumstances mentioned above make it necessary to do so.

when interpreting treaties,in feven those which are obscure, andses-

especially those relating to international organizations, to exclude
the consideration of the travaux préparatoires,which was formerly
usual. The value of these documents has indeed progressively
diminished, for different reasons : (a) they contain opinions of al1
kinds ;moreover, States, and even committees, have at times put
fonvard some idea and have later abandoned it in favour of ano-
ther ; (b) when States decide to sign a treaty, their decision is not
influenced by the travaux préparatoires,with which, in many cases,
they are unacquainted ; (c) the increasing dynamism of interna-
tional lifemakes it essential that the texts should continue to be
in harmon)~ mith the new conditions of social life.
It is therefore necessary, when interpreting treaties-in particu-
lar, the Charter of the United Nations-to look ahead, that is to
have regard to the new conditions, and not to look back, or have
recourse to traüaztxpréparatoires.A treaty or a text that has once

been established acquires a life of its own. Consequently, in inter-
preting it we must have regard to the exigencies of contemporary
Iife, ratherthan to the intentions of those who framed it.
(D) The interpretation of treaties must not remain immutable;

it wvillhave to be modified if important changes take place in the
matter to which it relates.
It results from the foregoing considerations, that it is possible,
by way of interpretation, to effect more or less important changes
in treaties, includinç the Charter of the United Sations. That
causes surprise tothose who believe that this document is unchange-

able, but such nodifications are the natural consequence of the
18 DISSENTING OPINIOX OF SI. .4LVAREZ r9

dynamism of international life. We have to choose betweén the
maintenance of texts as immutable, even if they lead to unrezson-
able consequences, and the modification of thest. texts. if that
becomes necessary. There cannot be any doubt as to the choice.

If the International Court of Justice were ablc by its judgments
and advisory opinions to establish a doctrine of the limitation of
the rights of States and a doctrine of the rnisuse of rights, and in
addition a new doctrine concerni~g the interpr~tation of treaties, it
would be rendering important services to international law and to
the cause of peace.

In view of the foregoing considerations, 1 am unablê to adhere
to the Court's Opinion, seeing that it makes no distinction between
the reasons for which the Security Council may fail to recomrnend
the admission of a State as a Member of the United ilations, and
because it holds that it must consider only whether the Security
Council has or has not made a recommendation. Moreover, the

Court believes that the General Assembly has riot to take an?
particular steps as regards the Council if the latter has not made a
recommendation. Thus the Assembly would have only a somewhat
passive role.
1 hold that the role of the General Assembly in the admission of
new Members is an active role, for it is the Assernbly which effects
the admission.
According to paragraph z of Article 4 of the Charter, the Alssem-
bly effects the admission of States ir-hich fulfil the conditions laid
down in that article, but it is necessary that the Security Coiincil
should have recommended the State requcst~nç admi~sion.

Two situations may arise :
A.-The State seeking admission has failed to obtain the requisite
number of votes in the Security Council. In that case, its admission
cannot be recommended to the General Assrmbly. The resulting
situation resembles that which occur in regard to the eiection of

Members of the International Court of Justice : in order that a judge
may be elected, he must have obtained the requisite rna.jorit3-botti
in the Security Council and in the General Assem!?ly ;if he docr r?t;t
secure the required majority in the Coiincil, hr cannot II,: (;Ie~ted.
B.-The State seeking admission has obtained the reqiiisit~ niinl-

ber of votes in the Council, but one of tlie permanent 5l;ernbtirs hns
opposed the recommendation, in otlier words, har made ils!of tlic
veto.This is the case which uTemust specially consider. I think !hat
the General Assembly may appraise tht \~to.
The right of veto has been pro\-ideti b5. paragrn.ph :<of Artcltr 27
of the Charter of the ITriitcd T;itior?.;. But. if il;!cs;iinir!ct!;+c ;irpl-
visions of Chapters V_ 1.1, \:II anc! 1-11 t ti:,b~l~ic!i ic.fi.rs. !Le

14 DISSEXTING OPINIOS OF M. ALVAREZ 20

that when this right was created the only objects in view were
matters concerning the maintenance of peace and international
secunty. Article 24 states that the Members of the United Nations
Organization confer on the Security Council a pnmary responsi-
bility forthe maintenance of international peace and security. The
article thus establishes something closely resembling the former
"European Directorate" created after the Napoleonic wars, but
with a universal scope. The creation of such a body is certainly
fitting and justifiable, having regard to the prirnary role played

by the Great Powers in case of conflict. It is entirely natural that
the Secunty Council should be unable to adopt decisions in matters
so grave as those of peace and security against the opposition of a
Great Power, for the latter would then be obliged to take part,
contrary to its \dl, in the proposed measures, and that would be
a very dangerous situation.
But the exercise of this right of veto must be kept within
proper limits. The literal text of Article 27, which established
this nght, is clear, if taken in isolation;but it is no longer clear
if we have regard to the nature and objects of the United Xations
Organization.

To decide that the right of veto ma? be freely exercised in
every case in which the Secunty Council may take action would
mean deciding that the will of a single Great Power could frustrate
the will of al1 the other Members of that Council and of the
General Assembly, even in matters other than the maintenance
of peace and securitv; and that ~vould reduce the C.N.O. to
impotence.
Even if it is admitted that the right of veto may be exercised
freely by the permanent Members of the Security Council in
regard to the recommendation of new >lembers, the General
Assernbly may still determine svhether or not this right has been

abused and, if the ansver is in the affirmative, it can proceed
with the admission without any recommendation by the Council.
It has been argued that the Security Council is alone competent
to appraise the use made by one of its permanent hlembers of
the right of veto, and that this is sho1r.n by the practice which
has,be6arne established. 1 cannot agree with that opinion either :
the General Assembly is entitled not only to ask the Council for
what reason it has failed to recommend a State seeking admission,
but also to determine whether or not this right of \-et0 has been
abused.
According to Articles IO and II of the Charter, the General

AssemSly may make recommendations to the Security Council ;
a fortioir timay make observations to that Council whenever it
sees fit.Tt is not necessary that the Assembly should have been
endowed with .u.h a nght in express terms, for it is a necessary
consequence of its powers. DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ 21

The above solution is consistent both with the spirit of the
Charter of the United Nations and with the requirements of
common sense.
It is consistent with the spirit of the Charter by the terms of
which the U.N.O. has a universal role, with the consequence that
all members of the international community which fulfil the
conditions laid down in Article 4 should be adrnitted to the United
Nations ;these States have a right to be admitted.
The solution is also consistent with the requirements of common
sense because, if it were admitted that the right of veto could
be freely exercised, the result might be-as has just been pointed
out-that a State whose request for admission had been approved

by all the Members of the Secunty Council except one and by
aU the Members of the General Assembly would nevertheles
be unable to obtain admission to the United Nations because of
the opposition of a single country ; a single vote would thus be
able to frustrate the votes of al1 the other Members of the
United Nations ;and that would be an absurdity.

(Signed) ALVAREZ.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

A la date du 22 novembre 1949, l'Assemblée généraledes
Xations Unies a adressé à la Cour internationale de Justice une
demande d'avis de grande importance et à laquelle il faut donner
une réponse satisfaisante : il s'agit, en réalité, de la question
relative au droit dit de ((veto ».On sait les discussions auxquelles
à donné lieu à l'O. N. U. l'exercice répété dece droit.

On se trouve en présence d'un cas concernant l'interprétation
de la Charte des Nations Unies ; il se rapporte donc à une matière
nouvelle dans le droit des gens.
Ce cas doit être résolu non pas conformément aux préceptes
du droit international traditionnel ou classique à base indivi-
dualiste et qui a dominé jusqu'ici, mais conformément au droit
qui se fait jour : le droit internatiolznl jzouveau.

Il n'y a pas de doute que la Cour doit appliquer aux cas qui
lui sont soumis le droit existant.

Quel est ce droit actuellement ? Depuis le dernier cataclysme
social qui a ouvert la plus grande période de l'histoire de l'huma-
nité, des changements profonds se sont produits d'une manière
soudaine dans presque tous les ordres de l'activité, notamment
au point de vue international. La psychologie des peuples a subi
de grandes modifications ; une nouvelle conscience internationale
universelle se fait jour, qui demande des réformes dans la vie
des peuples. Cette circonstance, s'ajoutant à la crise que traverse
depiiis quelque temps le droit des gens classique, a ouvert la voie
à un droit international nouveau.
La Charte des Xations Cnies a créédivers organes, notamment
l'Assemblée généraleet la Cour internationale de Justice. La

première a voté diverses résolutions sur des matières de grande
importance. Et la Résolution 171 de la Troisième Assemblée
généraledes Nations Lnies a reconnu à la Cour une mission que
n'avait pas la Cour permanente de Justice internationale ou
qui, du moins, ne lui était pas expressément reconnue : celle de
développerle droit et, par suite, de le créer.
D'autre part, le Préambule de la Charte des Kations Unies
indique les nouvelles orientations de la vie internationale, et
l'opinion publique mondiale a donné directement ou indirectement
son approbation à certains p~incipes formulés par des hommes
d'Etat de grandes Puissances en vue de donner de telles orien-
tations. DISSENTPNG OPINION BY M. ALVAREZ
[Translation]
I

On November zznd, 1949, the Generâl Assembly of the United
Nations addressed to the International Court of Justice a highly
important Request for an Advisory Opinion to which a satisfactory
answer must be given :what is really involved is the question of
the so-called "right of veto". The discussions which have arisen
in the United Nations concerning the repeated exercise of this
right are well known.

We have before us a case which involves the interpretation of
the Charter of the United Nations ; it refers therefore to a new
question of international law.
This case must not be decided in accordance with the precepts O:
traditional or classic international law, which were established
on an indiz*idualistic basis and have hitherto prevailed, but
rather in accordance with the new international law, which is now
emerging.
There is no doubt that the Court must apply the existing law
to the case which has been referred to it.
What isthis law to-day ?Since the recent social upheaval which
opened the greatest period in the history of humanity, profound
changes have suddenly appeared in almost al1 spheres of activity,
particularly in the international field. The psychology of peoples
has undergone a great change ; a new universal international

conscience is emerging, which calls for reforms in the life of peoples.
This circumstance, in conjunction with the crisis which classic
international law has been traversing for some time past, has
opened the way to a new international law.

The Charter of the United Nations haç created several organs,
notably the General Assembly and the International Court of
Justice. The former has adopted a number of resolutions on ques-
tions. of great importance. Under Resolution 171 3f the Third
General Assembly of the United Nations, the Court was entrusted
with a mission, which was not conferred-at any rate not in
express tenns-on the Permanent Court of International Justice,
namely the developmentand consequently the creatio~zof law.
The Preamble of the United Nations Charter indjcates the
new -lines along which international life has to develop ; and
world public opinion has directly or indirectly given its approval

to certain principles framed by the statèsmen of the Big Powers
with a view to ensuring development on those lines.I3 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

De la sorte a commencé à se former rapidement un droit inter-
national nouveau. Il a ses racines dans le régime d'interdépendance
qui s'est frayé une voie depuis le milieu du ?rlxme siècle.
Autrefois, l'élaboration des préceptes de droit s'effectuait
lentement, d'après des conventions ou des coutumes bien établies,
ou ils étaient l'Œuvre, lente également, des juristes. Aujourd'hui,
en raison du cataclysme social que nous venons de traverser,

du grand dynamisme de la vie des peuples, de la nouvelle organi-
sation internationale, des institutions et organismes que celle-ci
a créés, des aspirations des peuples et des exigences de la vie
contemporaine, l'élaboration des nouveaux préceptes est rapide,
parfois même soudaine ; elle s'effectue par des moyens différents
de ceux d'autrefois, et dans cette élaboration on tient compte
des considérations qui viennent d'être indiquées.

L'opinion courante que le droit des gens doit êtrecréé unique-
ment par les Etats n'est donc pas exacte actuellement, et même
elle ne l'a jamais été.
En effet, à côtédu droit conventionnel, il y a le droit coutumier

et surtout la doctrine desjuristes, lesquels ont non seulement facilité
l'établissement des coiltumes mais ont formulé des règles qui ont
étésuivies par les États.
A l'avenir, ce sont surtout l'Assembléegénéraledes Nations
Ilnies, la Cour internationale de Justice et les juristes qui vont créer
le droit international nouveau.

Ainsi donc, dans les matières anciennes qui revêtent des aspects
nouveaux ou dans les matières entièrement nouvelles, la Cour doit
donner une solution non pas conforme au droit international tradi-
tionnel, ce qui serait une anomalie, mais conforme au droit inter-

national qui se forme actuellement et qu'elle peut créer.

On pourra dire que ce droit n'est qu'une lex ferenda et non un
droit actuellement existant, mais l'une et l'autre coïncident ; pour
la Cour, dans bien des cas, dégager,établiret appliquer le droit vont
de pair.

Quelles sont les grandes caractéristiques du droit international
nouveau et les buts dont les organes chargés de le créer doivent
s'inspirer?
Je me bornerai ici à insister sur le point que le droit international
nouveau a non seulement un aspect juridique, mais un aspect politi-

que, social, économique et mêmepsychologique.
La base dont il part est qu'aujourd'hiii les États sont de plus en
plus interdépendants et que, par suite, ilsne forment pas une simple
communauté comme autrefois, mais une véritable sociétéinter-
nationale, laquele est organisée. Cette sociéténe détruit nullement
l'indépendance et la souveraineté des Etats, ni leur égalité juridique
(art.2, al.I, de la Charte), mais elle limite cette souveraineté, et les

13 DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ 13

In this way a new international law hôs rapidly begun to corne
into existence. It has its roots in the régime of interdependence
which has been emerging since the middle of the x~xth century.
Formerly the des of law were elaborated slowly, in accordance
with well-established conventions or customs, or these rules
were evolved, again as a slow process, by jurists. To-day, because
of the social upheaval which we have just traversed, because
of the remarkable dynamism in the life of peoples, because of
the new international organization and the instituti~ns and

organs which this organization has created, and finally because
of the aspirations of peoples and the exigencies of modem life,
the elaboration of such new rules is rapid and sometimes even
sudden ; this elaboration is effected by means wkich are different
from those of former times, and in this process the factors which
have just been mentioned exert their influence.
The comrnon view that international law must be created
solely by States is, therefore, not valid to-day-nor indeed has
it ever been.
In truth, alongside of conventional law there is customary
law, and above all the doctrines of jurists, who not only have
the opportunity of establishing custom, but have formulated
rules which have been respected by States.

In future, it is to the General Assembly of the United Nations, to
the International Court of Justice and to the jurists that we shall
look, more than to anyone, for the creation of the new interna-
tional law.
Consequently, whether in regard to old questions which assume
new aspects, or in regard to entirely new questions, the Court
has to give decisions, not in accordance with traditional inter-
national law-that would be an anomaly-but in accordance
with the international law which is now emerging and which
the Court itself is able to create.
It might be said that this law is merely lex ferenda and not
an existing law at the present time ; but both these types of law
coincide. In many cases, so far as the Court is concerned, the

tasks of determining, establishing and applying the law go hand
in hand.
What are the main characteristics of the new international law,
and what should be the aims ofthe organs entmsted with its creation?

1 shail confine myself for the moment to emphasizing the point
that the new international law has not only a legal, but also a
political, social, economic and even a psychological aspect.
Its point of departure is that, to-day, States are increasingly
interdependent : and that consequently they do not form a
simple community, as formerly, but rather a veritable inter-
national and organized society. This society in nowise abolishes

the independence and the sovereignty of the States, nor their
legal equality (Article2 paragraph 1, of the Charter);but it limits 14 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE hl. ALVAREZ
droits qui en dérivent, au profit des intérêtsgénéraux deladite
soci6t6.
D'après le Préambulede la Charte, la nouvelle organisation - et
par suite le nouveau droit qui en dérive - doivent avoir en vue :
maintenir la paix, prendre en considération l'intérêg t énéral, sauve-
garder les droits fondamentaux del'homme, favoriser la coopération
entre les États, harmoniser leurs intérêts,faciliter le progrès écono-
mique,'social, intellectuel et humanitaire. L'ancien droit indivi-
dualiste ne se proposait aucun de ces buts ; il ne tenait compte que
de l'intérêt de l'individuisolément considéré.

Je ne m'attarderai pas àindiquer toutes les autres caractéristiques
du droit international nouveau. Je me bornerai à considérerbriève-
ment celles des matières se rapportant directement à la demande
d'avis consultatif, lesquelies sont :
A. - La limitation des droits des États ;
B. - L'exercice de ces droits ;
C. - Étroitement liéeaux deux précédentes: l'abusdu droit;

D. - L'interprétation des traités, notamment de ceux qui créent
une organisation internationale.

III

A. - La linzitation des droits des États D'après ledroit interna-
tional classique, la souveraineté des États et les droits qui en déri-
vent étaient absolus: chaque État pouvait, en conséquence,
esercer ses droits sans limites, ou plutôt les seules limites étaient
les droits des autres États (coalitionde droits) et rarement l'intérêt
général.En outre, chaque État pouvait user de ses droits en toute
liberté et mêmeen abuser, sans avoir à rendre de comptes à per-
sonne.
Aujourd'hui, il n'en est plus ainsi: la notion de souveraineté
absolue a fait son temps. L'intérêt générall',intérêtde la société
internationale doivent constituer des limites aux droits des États
et permettre de déterminer quand il y a un abus de ces droits.

Il serait vain de parler de solidarité, d'interdépendance, de
coopération, d'intérêtgénéral, de bonheur humain, etc., si les
États pouvaient continuer à exercer librement et sans limitations
tous leurs droits. Pour que ces notions aient un sens, il faut que
ces droits subissent les limitations que je viens d'indiquer.
Cette limitation a étérecommandt5e au cours de la dernière
Assembléegénéraledes Nations Unies pour une matière donnée:

dans une de ses résolutions, la Commission politique spéciale de
cette Assembléea recommandé à tous les États de s'engager, sur
une base de réciprocité, à limiter en ce qui concerne le contrôle de
l'énergie atomique, l'exercice individuel de leur droit de souve-
14 DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ *4

this sovereignty, and the rights which flow therefrom, in view of
the general interests of this society.
In accordance with the Preamble to the Charter, the new organ-
ization-and consequently, the neu7 law vrrhichflovvstherefrom-
must have the following ends in view : to maintain peace, to con-
sider the general interest, to safegilard fundamental human rights,
to promote CO-operation between States, to bring their interests

into harmony, to promote economic, social, intellectual and human-
itarian progress. The old individualistic law had none of these
purposes ; it took account only of the interests of the individual
considered in isolation.
1 \vil1not dwell upon al1the other characteristics of international
law, but \vil1confine myself to considering briefly the points which
are related directly to the Request for an Advisory Opinion, namely :

A.-Limitation of the rights of States ;
B.-The exercise of these rights ;
C.-The abuse of right, which is intimately connected with the
two foregoing points ;
D.-The interpretation of trearies, in particular those which
have created an international organization.

III

A.-Linzitatioiz of the riglztsof States. According to classic inter-
national law, the sovereignty of States, and the rights which flowed
therefrom, were absolute. Consequently, any State could exercise
its rights \vithout limit, or rather, the sole limits were the rights of
other States (coalition of rights), and only rarely the general
interest. In addition, each State was perfectly free to exercise its
riglts, and even to abuse them, without having to justify its
conducr to ang-body.
To-day the situation has changed; the notion of absolute sover-
eignty has had its day. The general interest, the interests of inter-
national society, must constitute the limits of the rights of States
and make it possible to determine whether there has been an abuse

of these rights.
Itviould be meaningless to speak of solidarity, interdependence,
CO-operation. the general interest, human happiness, etc., if States
could continue to exercise al1 their rights freely and without
restriction. Ifthese concepts are to have any meaning, these rights
must be subject to the limit'ations which 1 have just outlined.
This limitation u7asrecommended by the last General Assembly
of the Cnited Nations in respect of a particular matter : in one of
its resolutions, the Ad Hoc Political Committee of the Assembly
recommended that al1nations should, in the use of their rights of
sovereignty, join in mutual agreement to limit the individual
exercise of those rights in respect of the control of atomic energy,15 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ
raineté, pour autant qu'une telle mesure sera nécessaire en vue
d'assurer la paix et la sécuritémondiales.

B. - L'exercice des droits des États. La question de savoir si un
État dans une circonstance donnée doit exercer ou non ses droits
et comment il doit le faire dépend de la politique de cet État,
laquelle prend en considération l'opinion publique. Mais l'exercice
de ces droits ne peut, en aucun cas, dégénérer enabus.
Un État peut rester dans les limites de son droit, par exemple
d'un droit de passage, et cependant en abuser s'il profite de ce
passage pour se renseigner sur les ressources naturelles, les bases
stratégiques, les fortifications, etc., du pays qu'il traverse.

C. - L'abus du droit. Cette notion n'a étéintroduite qu'à une
date relativement récente dans le droit privé, mais elle est déjà
généralement acceptée. Dès avant la dernière guerre mondiale,
quelques publicistes avaient demandé qu'elle soit admise dans le
droit des gens. En raison des nouvelles conditions de la vie des
peuples, il faut faire place aujourd'hui à ladite notion, et la Cour
interna.tionale de Justice doit y contribuer.
Quel est l'organisme qui peut établir les limitations des droits

des Éta.ts et apprécier s'il y a ou non un abus du droit ? Autrefois,
il n'en existait aucun, car la question ne se posait mêmepas ;
aujourd'hui, il y en a trois très importants, chacun desquels peut
agir dans la sphère de son activité : le Conseil de Sécurité,l'Assem-
bléegénéraledes Nations Unies et la Cour internationale de Justice.
Il y a, aussi, les autres organes crééspar l'organisation des Nations
Unies, notamment le Conseil économique et social, le Conseil de
Tutelle, etc., pour les matières de leur compétence.

D. - Interfirétation des traités, notammentde. ceux qui créent
une organisation internationale.Et d'abord, il faut bien préciser que
la Cour a la faculté d'interpréter la Charte des Nations Unies,
ainsi que tous autres documents, sans aucune limitation.

On a prétendri que la Cour n'est pas compétente pour l'inter-

prétation de ce traité : il n'en est rien. La Cour, du reste, a eu
l'occasion de décider sa compétence à cet égard (C. 1. J..Recueil
1947-1948,P. 61).
L'interprétation des textes juridiques peut êtrefaite par n'im-
porte quellepersonne ;mais quand elle émane d'un organe autorisé,
tel que l'Assembléegénérale des Nations Unies ou la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice, elle présente une grande valeur pratique
et crée des précédents. DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ 15
to the extent required for the promotion of world secunty and

peace.

B.-Exercise of the rights of States. The question whether, in given
circumstances, a State is or is not bound to exercise its rights, and
in what way it must exercise them, depends upon the policy of that
State, and policy is influenced by public opinion. But in no case
may the exercise of these rights degenerate into a misuse of right.
A State may remain within the limits of its right-for instance,
a nght of passage-and yet may abuse this nght if it takes advan-
tage of the passage to obtain information on the natural resources,
strategic bases, fortifications, etc., of the Statethrough which the
passage takes place.

C.-Abuse of right. This concept is relatively recent in private
law, but it is already generailyaccepted. Even before the first World
War, some publicists had asked that it should be extended to inter-
national law. Because of the new conditions that have arisen in the
life ofpeoples, it is necessary to-day to find a place for this concept,
and the International Court of Justice must take its share in this
evolution.
What are the organs that will define the limits of the rights of
States and determine whether there has been abuse or not ? In the
past,no such organ had existed, because the question did not anse.
To-day, there are three very important organs, each of which has

power to act in its particular sphere-the Security Council, the
General Assembly of the United Nations and the International
Court of Justice. There are also the other organs of the United
Nations :the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council,
etc., in their respective spheres ofjurisdiction.

D.-Interpretation of treaties, in particulalc those creating an
international organization. First of all, it must be made perfectly
clear that the Court has competence to interpret the Charter of the
United Nations like any other instrument, without any limitations
whatever.
It has been contended that the Court was not competent to inter-
pret this treaty. That is not correct. Moreover, the Court ha already
taken an opportunity of asserting its competence in this respect
(I.C.J. Reports 1937-1948, p. 61).
Legal texts can be interpreted by anyone ; but when such an
interpretation is made by an authorized organ, such as the General
Assembly of the United Nations or the International Court of
Justice, it presents a great practical value and creates precedents. 16 OPTXION DISSIDENTE DE XI. ALVAREZ

Étant donné le grand dynamisme de la vie internationale, il
faiit aujourd'hiii interpréter les traités - de mêmeque les lois
- autrement qu'à l'époque où cette vie subissait peu de change-
ments. Cette interprétation doit se faire de façon que les institu-
tions et les préceptes juridiques soient toujours en harmonie
avec les nouvelles conditions de la vie des peuples.

Deux considérations apportent leur appui à cette affirmation.
D'abord, les tribunaux nationaux interprètent le droit pnl-é eil
s'efforyant de l'adapter aus exigences de la vie contemporaine,
de la sorte ils l'ont modifié de façon plus ou moins rapide et
profonde, même dans les pays de législation codifiée,et à un tel

point qu'aujourd'hui il est nécessaire de prendre en considé-
ratio^ non seulement les textes légaux, mais aussi la juris-
prudence. d iortiori, il doit en être de même pour l'inter-
prétation en matière internationale, étant donnéque le dynamisme
de la vie des peuples est bien plus grand que celui de la vie
nationale.
D'autre part, en raison de ce dynamisme, le politique commence
à devancer le juridique. Nous en avons un cas concret très impor-
tant : d'après le droit international traditionnel, l'état de guerre
<existe encore entre les Alliéset IJAllemagne, puisque aucun traité
de paix n'a encore étésigné avec elle ; mais on considère que
cett? situation est inacceptable et on s'efforced'y mettre un terme.

Il faut donc établir une théorie, une technique de l'interpré-
tation ; elles feront apparaître de profondes différences entre
l'ancien système et celui qu'il faut adopter désormais.

Le système ancien présentait les caractéristiques suivantes :
-4.- On ne faisait pas de distinction entre les traités :on appli-
quait à tous les mêmes règlesd'interprétation.
B. - On était esclave, en quelque sorte, du texte. Quand il
était clair, on devait l'appliquer littéralement sans tetlir

compte des conséquences qui pouvaient en résulter.

C. - Quand un texte était obscur, on avait recours aux travaux
préparatoires.
D. - L'interprétation d'un texte donné, notamment d'un trait&,
était, en quelque sorte, immuable ;on n'y faisait aucun chan-
gement, mêmesi la matière considéréeavait subi des modi-
fications.

Le nouveau système d'interprétation doit adopter d'autres
caractéristiques :
,4) 11faut faire des distinctions entre lesdiverses espècesde traités.
On ne peut pas interpréter de la même façon un traité bilatéral

16 DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ 16
Because of the progressive tendencies of international life, it

is necessary to-day to interpret treaties, as weli as laws, in a
different manner than was customary when international life
showed few changes. This interpretation must be made in such
a way as to ensure that institutions and rules of law shall
continue to be in harmony with the new conditions in the life
of the peoples.
There are tu10 considerations which support this assertion.
First, we observe that national courts, in their interpretation of
pnvate law, seek to adapt it to the exigencies of contemporary
life, with the result that they have modified the law, sometimes
swiftly and profoundly, even in countnes where law is codified
to such an extent that it is necessary to-day to take into con-
siàeration not only legal texts, but also case-Iaw. It is the same,
a fortiori,in the interpretation of international matter, because
international life is much more dynamic than national life.

Again, because of this very dynamism, the political aspect
of questions is tending to have precedence over the juridical
aspect. We have a very important concrete illustration of this
tendency. According to traditional international law, the state
of war still exists between the Allies and Germany, since no
peace treaty has yet been signed with the latter State. But this
situation is considered unacceptable, and efforts are being made
to bnng it to an end.
It is therefore necessary to establish a theory, a technique
of interpretation. This process will reveal great differences between
the old system and the new one which will have to be applied
hencefonvard.
The old system possessed the following charactenstics :

A.-No distinction was made between treaties :the same rules
of interpretation were applied in al1 cases.
B.-Those who interpreted the treaties were slaves, so to speak,
of the wording. When the wording was ciear, it had to be
applied literally, without taking into account the possible
consequences.
C.-IVhen a text was not clear, recourse was had to the travaux
$ré$araloires.
D.-The interpretation of a given text, notably of a treaty, vr-as,
so to speak, immutable. No change could be made, even if
the matter considered had undergone rnodifications.

Tne new system of interpretation rnust present other charac-
teristics :
(A) Distinctions rriust be made between differeni kinds of treaties.
A bilateral treaty coricerning an ordinary question, such as extradi-

16I7 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

sur une matière courante, telle l'extradition, qu'un traité politique.
Il faut distinguer surtout trois catégories de traités :les traités de
paix - spécialement ceux qui affectent la tranquillité mondiale -
les traités qui créent des préceptesde droit international et ceux qui
créent une organisation internationale, notamment l'organisation
mondiale. Les uns et les autres ont un caractère politique et psycho-
logique.
Les traités de paix sont imposéspar la force matérielle, et ceux
qui créent des préceptes du droit des ens ou une organisation inter-
nationale le sont par la majorité des d tats qui les ont établis, car les
nouveaux signataires ne peuvent qu'accepter ce qui a étédéjà fait.
Comme conséquence, ces trois catégories de traités ne doivent pas
s'interpréter littéralement, mais surtout en tenant compte du but

qu'ils poursuivent.

B) On ne doit pas êtreesclave du texte ; il faut, si cela est néces-
saire, le vivifier, le mettre en harmonie avec les nouvelles conditions
de la vie internationale.
Quand un texte semble clair dans sa terminologie, il ne faut pas,
de ce seul fait, le suivre à la lettre, mais tenir compte des résultats
auxquels son application peut conduire. Les traités plurilatéraux
ne sont pas rédigésavec un dictionnaire à la main, et souvent leur
rédaction donne lieu à des compromis qui exercent leur influence
sur les expressions employées dans le texte.
La Cour permanente de Justice internationale dans l'affaire
relative au Service postal polonais à Dantzig (C. P. J. I.,Série B.
no II,p. 39) a décidéque les mots d'un traité doivent êtreinter-
prétésselon le sens qu'ils auraient normalement, à moins que l'inter-
prétation ainsi donnée ne conduise à des résultats déraisonnables ou

absurdes.
Il faut ajouter qu'actuellement il doit en être demêmequand les
dispositions d'un texte apparaissent contraires aux fins de l'institu-
tion dont il s'agit ou aux nouvelles conditions delavieinternationale.

Il y a un argument décisif à cet égard : depuis longtemps, on
considère qu'est implicitement contenue dans les traités la clause
rebussic stantibus, d'après laquelle, quand ont changéfondamentale-
ment les conditions dans lesquelles un traité a étésigné,celui-ci doit
rester sans effets. La justesse de cette clause est si manifeste qu'elle
a passé dernièrement du droit international dans le droit privé.

Pour le mêmemotif, il faut admettre que les dispositions même
claires d'un traité doivent rester sans effets ou recevoir une inter-
prétation appropriée quand, en raison des modifications survenues

dans la srie internationale, leur application ferait aboutir à des
irijusticrs ~ria:.~iÏcs:esouà iies résultats contraires aux fins de
l'institution doïit iis agit. IIy aurait, nurreinerit, des divergences
profondes entre le texte écrit et les realitks, ce qui est inadmissible.
17 DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ I7

tion, cannot be interpreted in the same way as a political treaty.
Three categories of treaties must be specially recognized: peace
treaties, in particular those affecting world peace ; treaties creating
principles of international law; and treaties creating an inter-
national organization, notably the world organization. All these
possess both a political and a psychological character.

Peace treaties are dictated by material force ; and those creating
principles of international law, or international organizations, are
created by the majority of the participating States, for the new
signatories can only accept what has already been done. Conse-
quently, these three categories of treaties are not to be interpreted
literally, but primarily having regard to their purposes.

(B) The text must not be slavishly followed. If necessary, it must
be vivified so as to harmonize it with the new conditions of inter-
national life.
When the wording of a text seems clear, that is not sufficient
reason for following it literally, without taking into account the
consequences of its application. Multilateral treaties are not
drafted with the help of a dictionary, and their wording is often
the result of a compromise which influences the terms used in the
text.
In the case of the Polish Postal Service in Danzig, the Permanent
Court of International Justice (P.C.I.J., Series B, No. II, p. 39)
decided that the words of a treaty must be interpreted according
to their normal meaning, unless the interpretation would thus lead
to unreasonable or absurd consequences.

It is necessary to add that to-day the same method must be

observed when the provisions of a clause appear to run counter to
the purposes of the institution concemed or to the new conditions
of international life.
There is a decisive argument applicable to this question. It has
long been held that treaties contained, implicitly, the clause rebus
sic stantibzts, according to which, when the fundamental conditions
in which a treaty uras made have become modified, the treaty
ceases to have effect. The correctness of this clause is so manifest
that it has recently been carried over from international to priv-
ate law.
For the same reawn, it must be recognized that even the clear
provisions of a treaty must not be given effect, or must receive
appropriate interpretation, when, as a result of moditications in
international life, their application would lead to manifest injustice
or to results contrary to the aims of the institution. For, othenvise,
marked discrepancies would result between the written text and

the reality ; and that would be inadmissible.18 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

Ily a plus encore : on peut,par l'interprétation, reconnaître à une
institution des droits qu'elle n'a pas d'après lestextesqui l'ont créée,
si ces droits sont en concordanceavec la nature et les buts de cette
institution. C'est ainsi que, dans son AvisconsultatifdII avril1949,
sur la réparation des dommages subis par les Nations Unies, la
Cour internationale de Justice a déclaréqu'étant donnéla nature
et les buts decette institution, celle-ci avait le droit de demander la
réparation des dommages subis, non seulement par elle-même,mais
par ses agents dans l'exercice de leurs fonctions. Ce tribunal a donc
reconnu aux Nations Unies un droit qui ne lui avait pas étéconféré
expressément dans la Charte et qui, d'après le droit international

traditionnel, n'appartient qu'aux États. La Cour a, de la sorte, créé
un droit, et elle avait, comme il a été ditplus haut, la faculté de
le faire.

A plus forte raison, la Cour a la faculté de limiter des droits ou
de leur donner une portée autre que celle du texte littéral quand
les circonstances ci-dessus indiquées l'exigent.

C) Il faut à l'avenir, sauf dans des cas exceptionnels, exclurede
l'interprétation des traités, mêmeobscurs, surtout de ceux d'orga-
nisation internationale, l'examen des travaux préparatoires, examen
qui était courant autrefois. Ces travaux, en effet, ont de moins en
moins de valeur pour différents motifs : a) on y trouve toutes
sortes d'opinions ; en outre, des États et mêmedes commissions,
après avoir soutenu une idée, l'ont abandonnée pour en adopter
une autre ; b) les États, lorsqu'ils signent un traité, ne prennent
pas en considération les travaux préparatoires que souvent ils ne
connaissent mêmepas ;c) le dynamisme croissant de la vie inter-
nationale exige que les textes soient toujours en harmonie avec les

nouvelles conditions de la vie sociale.

Il faut donc procéder à l'interprétation des traités, notamment
de la Charte des Nations Unies, en regardant en avant, c'est-à-dire
en considérant ces nouvelles conditions, et non pas en amère, en
examinant les travaux préparatoires. Un traité, un texte, une
fois établis, acquièrent une vie propre et, par suite, il faut les
interpréter en tenant compte des exigences de la vie contemporaine
et non des intentions de ceux qui les ont rédigés.

D) L'interprétation des traités ne doit pas rester immuable ;
elle doit être modifiée si des changements importants se sont
produits dans la matière dont il s'agit.

Des considérations précédentes, il résulte qu'on peut introduire
par l'interprétation des modifications plus ou moins importantes
dans les traitésy compris la Charte des Nations Unies. Cela étonne
bien des personnes qui croient que ce document est 'immiiable,
mais ces modifications sont la conséquencenaturelle du dynamisme
18 DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ 18

But there is more: it is possible, by way of interpretation,
to attribute to an institution rights which it does not possess
according to the provisions by which itwas created, provided that
these rights are in harmony with the nature and objects of the
said institution. Thus, for instance, in its Advisory Opinion of
April r~th, 1949, on the Reparation for Injuries suffered by the
United Nations, the International Court of Justice declared that,
having in view the nature and objects of that institution, it was
entitled to claim damages suffered not on1 by itself but by its
agents in the performance of their duties. This Court has therefore
attnbuted to the United Nations a right which was not expressly
conferred on that Organization by the Charter and wl-iich,accord-
ing to traditional international law, appertains solely to States.
The Court, in so doing, created a nght and, as 1 have already
shown, it was entitled to do so.
A fortiori, the Court has the power to limit rights, or to give

them an effect other than that prescribed by the literal text where
the circumstances mentioned above make it necessary to do so.

when interpreting treaties,in feven those which are obscure, andses-

especially those relating to international organizations, to exclude
the consideration of the travaux préparatoires,which was formerly
usual. The value of these documents has indeed progressively
diminished, for different reasons : (a) they contain opinions of al1
kinds ;moreover, States, and even committees, have at times put
fonvard some idea and have later abandoned it in favour of ano-
ther ; (b) when States decide to sign a treaty, their decision is not
influenced by the travaux préparatoires,with which, in many cases,
they are unacquainted ; (c) the increasing dynamism of interna-
tional lifemakes it essential that the texts should continue to be
in harmon)~ mith the new conditions of social life.
It is therefore necessary, when interpreting treaties-in particu-
lar, the Charter of the United Nations-to look ahead, that is to
have regard to the new conditions, and not to look back, or have
recourse to traüaztxpréparatoires.A treaty or a text that has once

been established acquires a life of its own. Consequently, in inter-
preting it we must have regard to the exigencies of contemporary
Iife, ratherthan to the intentions of those who framed it.
(D) The interpretation of treaties must not remain immutable;

it wvillhave to be modified if important changes take place in the
matter to which it relates.
It results from the foregoing considerations, that it is possible,
by way of interpretation, to effect more or less important changes
in treaties, includinç the Charter of the United Sations. That
causes surprise tothose who believe that this document is unchange-

able, but such nodifications are the natural consequence of the
18 I9 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ
de la vie internationale. Il faut choisir entre le maintien immuable
des textes, même s'ilsconduisent à des résultats déraisonnables,

et la modification de ces textes si cela est nécessaire. Le choix
n'est pax douteux.
Si la Cour internationale de Justice, par ses arrêtsou ses avis
consultatifs, pouvait établirune théorie de la limitation des droits
des États et une théorie de l'abus du droit, ainsi qu'une nouvelle
théorie de l'interprétation des traités, elle rendrait de grands

services au droit des gens et à la cause de la paix.

En raison des considérations précédentes, je ne peux me rallier
à l'avis de la Cour, qui ne fait pas de distinctions entre les motifs
pour lesquels le Conseil de Sécurité nerecommande pas l'admission
d'un Etat comme Membre des h'ations Unies et qui estime qu'elle
doit considérer seulement si le Conseil a fait ou non une recomman-
dation. Elle pense, en outre, que l'Assemblée générale n'a aucune
attitude particulière à prendre à l'égard de ce Conseil s'il ne lui a
pas fait de recommandation. Cette Assemblée n'aurait, ainsi,
qu'un rôle, en quelque sorte, passif.

J'estime que le rôle de l'Assemblée générale dans l'admission des
nouveaux Membres est actif, étant donné que c'est elle qui prononce

cette admission.
D'après l'article 4, alinéa2,de la Charte, l'Assemblée prononce
l'admission des États qui réunissent les conditions indiquées
dans ledit article, mais il faut que 1: Conseil de Sécuritélui ait
recommandé la candidature de ces Etats.
Deux situations peuvent se présenter :

A. - é état candidat n'a pas obtenu au Conseil de Sécurité
le nombre de voix nécessaire. Dans ce cas, son admission ne
peut pas êtrerecommandée à l'Assemblée générale.Il se produit
ici une situation analogue à celle qui se présente pour l'élection
des membres de la Cour internationale de Justice : pour qu'un
juge puisse être élu, il faut qu'il ait obtenu la majorité requise
au Conseil de Sécurité, ainsi qu'à l'Assemblée générale ; s'il n'a
pas eu celle du Conseil, il ne peut êtreélu.

B. - é état candidat a réuni au Conseil le nombre de voix
voulu, mais un Membre permanent s'est opposé à sa recomman-
dation, c'est-à-dire a usédu veto.C'est ce cas qu'il faut spécialement
considérer. Je crois que l'Assemblée généralpeeut apprécier ce veto.

Le droit de veto a &téétabli par l'article 27, alinéa 3, de la
Charte des Nations Unies. Or, si l'on considère les dispositions
des chapitres V, VI, VI1 et T'III auxquels il se refère, on voit

19 DISSENTING OPINIOX OF SI. .4LVAREZ r9

dynamism of international life. We have to choose betweén the
maintenance of texts as immutable, even if they lead to unrezson-
able consequences, and the modification of thest. texts. if that
becomes necessary. There cannot be any doubt as to the choice.

If the International Court of Justice were ablc by its judgments
and advisory opinions to establish a doctrine of the limitation of
the rights of States and a doctrine of the rnisuse of rights, and in
addition a new doctrine concerni~g the interpr~tation of treaties, it
would be rendering important services to international law and to
the cause of peace.

In view of the foregoing considerations, 1 am unablê to adhere
to the Court's Opinion, seeing that it makes no distinction between
the reasons for which the Security Council may fail to recomrnend
the admission of a State as a Member of the United ilations, and
because it holds that it must consider only whether the Security
Council has or has not made a recommendation. Moreover, the

Court believes that the General Assembly has riot to take an?
particular steps as regards the Council if the latter has not made a
recommendation. Thus the Assembly would have only a somewhat
passive role.
1 hold that the role of the General Assembly in the admission of
new Members is an active role, for it is the Assernbly which effects
the admission.
According to paragraph z of Article 4 of the Charter, the Alssem-
bly effects the admission of States ir-hich fulfil the conditions laid
down in that article, but it is necessary that the Security Coiincil
should have recommended the State requcst~nç admi~sion.

Two situations may arise :
A.-The State seeking admission has failed to obtain the requisite
number of votes in the Security Council. In that case, its admission
cannot be recommended to the General Assrmbly. The resulting
situation resembles that which occur in regard to the eiection of

Members of the International Court of Justice : in order that a judge
may be elected, he must have obtained the requisite rna.jorit3-botti
in the Security Council and in the General Assem!?ly ;if he docr r?t;t
secure the required majority in the Coiincil, hr cannot II,: (;Ie~ted.
B.-The State seeking admission has obtained the reqiiisit~ niinl-

ber of votes in the Council, but one of tlie permanent 5l;ernbtirs hns
opposed the recommendation, in otlier words, har made ils!of tlic
veto.This is the case which uTemust specially consider. I think !hat
the General Assembly may appraise tht \~to.
The right of veto has been pro\-ideti b5. paragrn.ph :<of Artcltr 27
of the Charter of the ITriitcd T;itior?.;. But. if il;!cs;iinir!ct!;+c ;irpl-
visions of Chapters V_ 1.1, \:II anc! 1-11 t ti:,b~l~ic!i ic.fi.rs. !Le

14 20 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ

qu'en créantce droit on a eu en vue seulement les matières relatives
au maintien de la paix et de la sécuritémondiales. L'article 24
déclare que les membres de l'O. N. U. confèrent au Conseil de
Sécuritéla responsabilité principale du maintien de la paix et
de la sécurité internationales. Il établit ainsi presque l'équivalent
de l'ancien « Directoire européen » crééaprès les guerres napo-
léoniennes, mais avec une portée mondiale. Cette création est
très louable et justifiée, étant donné le rôle primordial que jouent
les grandes Puissances en cas de conflit. On comprend très bien
que le Conseil de Sécuriténe puisse prendre des décisions dans
des matières aussi graves que celles de la paix et de la sécurité

si nne grande Puissance s'y oppose, car elle serait alors obligée
de participer contre son gré aux mesures envisagées,ce qui serait
très dangereux.

Mais l'exercice de ce droit de veto doit rester dans ses justes
limites. Le texte littéral de l'article27 qui a établi ce droit est
clair, considéré isolément, mals il ne l'est plus si l'on tient compte
de la nature et des buts de l'organisation des Nations Unies.

Déciderque le droit de veto peut êtreexercélibrement dans tous
les cas où le Conseil de Sécuritépeut agir, serait décider que la
volonté d'une seule grande Puissance peut faire échec à celle de
tous les autres Membres de ce Conseil ainsi que de l'Assemblée

générale,mêmedans des matières autres que celles du maintien
de la paix et de la sécurité,ce qui réduirait l'O. N. U. à l'impuis-
sance.
En admettant que le droit de veto puisse êtreexercélibrement
par les Membres permanents du Conseil de Sécurité pourla recom-
mandation des nouveaux Membres, l'Assemblée générale peut
décider s'ily a ou non un abus de ce droit, et, dans l'affirmative,
elle peut procéder à l'admission sans une recommandation du
Conseil.
On prétend que le Conseil de Sécurité est seul compétent pour
apprécier l'usage du droit de veto fait par un de ses Membres
permanents et que cela résulte de la pratique qui s'est établie.
Je ne partage pas non plus cette opinion :l'Assembléegénéralea

le droit non seulement de demander au Conseil les motifs pour
lesquels il n'a pas recommandé la candidature d'un Etat, mais
aussi d'apprécier s'il y a eu ou non un abus de ce droit de veto.

D'après les articles IO et II de la Charte, l'Assembléegénérale
peut faire des recommandations au Conseil de Sécurité ; à plus
forte raison, elle peut lui faire desbservations lorsqu'elle l'estime
convenable. Il n'est pas nécessaire que l'Assembléeait reçu expli-
citement une telle faculté, car elle ressort de ses attributions. DISSEXTING OPINIOS OF M. ALVAREZ 20

that when this right was created the only objects in view were
matters concerning the maintenance of peace and international
secunty. Article 24 states that the Members of the United Nations
Organization confer on the Security Council a pnmary responsi-
bility forthe maintenance of international peace and security. The
article thus establishes something closely resembling the former
"European Directorate" created after the Napoleonic wars, but
with a universal scope. The creation of such a body is certainly
fitting and justifiable, having regard to the prirnary role played

by the Great Powers in case of conflict. It is entirely natural that
the Secunty Council should be unable to adopt decisions in matters
so grave as those of peace and security against the opposition of a
Great Power, for the latter would then be obliged to take part,
contrary to its \dl, in the proposed measures, and that would be
a very dangerous situation.
But the exercise of this right of veto must be kept within
proper limits. The literal text of Article 27, which established
this nght, is clear, if taken in isolation;but it is no longer clear
if we have regard to the nature and objects of the United Xations
Organization.

To decide that the right of veto ma? be freely exercised in
every case in which the Secunty Council may take action would
mean deciding that the will of a single Great Power could frustrate
the will of al1 the other Members of that Council and of the
General Assembly, even in matters other than the maintenance
of peace and securitv; and that ~vould reduce the C.N.O. to
impotence.
Even if it is admitted that the right of veto may be exercised
freely by the permanent Members of the Security Council in
regard to the recommendation of new >lembers, the General
Assernbly may still determine svhether or not this right has been

abused and, if the ansver is in the affirmative, it can proceed
with the admission without any recommendation by the Council.
It has been argued that the Security Council is alone competent
to appraise the use made by one of its permanent hlembers of
the right of veto, and that this is sho1r.n by the practice which
has,be6arne established. 1 cannot agree with that opinion either :
the General Assembly is entitled not only to ask the Council for
what reason it has failed to recommend a State seeking admission,
but also to determine whether or not this right of \-et0 has been
abused.
According to Articles IO and II of the Charter, the General

AssemSly may make recommendations to the Security Council ;
a fortioir timay make observations to that Council whenever it
sees fit.Tt is not necessary that the Assembly should have been
endowed with .u.h a nght in express terms, for it is a necessary
consequence of its powers.21 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. ALVAREZ
La solution précédente est conforme à la fois à l'esprit de la

Charte des Nations Unies et au bon sens.

Elle est conforme à l'esprit de la Charte, d'après lequell'U. N.
a une vocation universelle, et, par suite, tous les membres de la
sociétéinternationale qui remplissent les conditions prévues à
l'articl4 doivent êtreadmis au sein des Nations Unies ; ces États
ont un droi t cette admission.
Elle est conforme au bon sens, parce que si l'on admettait que
le droit de veto peut être exercélibrement, il pourrait en résulter,
comme il vient d'êtredit, qu'un État dont la candidature serait
approuvée par tous les Membres du Conseil de Sécurité,sauf un,
et par tous ceux de l'Assembléegénérale, nepourrait cependant
êtreadmis dans l'O. N. U.par suite de l'opposition d'un seul p;ys

une seule voix ferait ainsi échàccelle de tous les autres Membres
des Nations Unies, ce qui serait un non-sens.

(Signt ALVAREZ. DISSENTING OPINION OF M. ALVAREZ 21

The above solution is consistent both with the spirit of the
Charter of the United Nations and with the requirements of
common sense.
It is consistent with the spirit of the Charter by the terms of
which the U.N.O. has a universal role, with the consequence that
all members of the international community which fulfil the
conditions laid down in Article 4 should be adrnitted to the United
Nations ;these States have a right to be admitted.
The solution is also consistent with the requirements of common
sense because, if it were admitted that the right of veto could
be freely exercised, the result might be-as has just been pointed
out-that a State whose request for admission had been approved

by all the Members of the Secunty Council except one and by
aU the Members of the General Assembly would nevertheles
be unable to obtain admission to the United Nations because of
the opposition of a single country ; a single vote would thus be
able to frustrate the votes of al1 the other Members of the
United Nations ;and that would be an absurdity.

(Signed) ALVAREZ.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion by M. Alvarez (translation)

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