Dissenting Opinion by Judge Azevedo (translation)

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008-19500718-ADV-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
008-19500718-ADV-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO
[Translation.]
Whilst regretting that my opinion differsfrom that of the Court,
1 give an affirmative answer to both questions for the following
reasons :

1.-It is useless to recali here in detail the evolution of law
which tends to carry to its ultimate consequence the execution
of any sort of obligation ;the nature of the undertakings must
be examined in order to accept incomplete or imperfect solutions
such as that of damages, in the sole case of de facto or de jure
impossibility.
Once the respect of the human person has been reserved-nemo
ad factzcmPracise cogi potestthe execution of the obligations
a rnere declaration of will which the debtor persists in refusing
to make without reason. As regards the pactum de com~romittendo,
international law has made certain progress in developing the
formulas regulating passage from arbitration in potentia to arbi-
tration in actu, particularly in respect of the appointment of
arbitrators by the act of a third party.
This is to be explained by the absence of a complete judicial
organization whicli,in domesticlaw, prevents too frequent reference
to private judges. But for the same reason, viewed from a dif-
ferent angle, the task of filling the gaps in a treaty is in general
rendered very difficult, in the international field, in the absence
of a person who can assume this delicate rôle of appointing substi-
tute arbitrators.
At any rate, the means permitting international engagements
to be riteadimpleti may more easily be found if a clear distinction
is made between the question of the legitimacy of a substitution
of the will and that of the organ entrusted with such action.

2.-Confronted with the fact that it is almost impossible to
provide adequate rules covering an almost infinite number of
concrete cases, it is sufficient that theauthor of a law or treaty
should set up machinery which can function normally, and the
jundical system willprovide for the adaptation required in each
case, without requiring a revision of the acts. On the contrary,
conventions vil1 often be shown to be useless if, by excessive
attachment to the letter of the texts and by resorting to vague
penalties especialiy when it is known tha.t there is an intention
to evade the agreements, the defects attributed to the under-
takings are allowed to prevail. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO
249
The specificperformance of preliminary contracts doesnot affect
the sovereignty even of the State which rightfully alienated it to
the extent necessary to permit a replacement of its own choice-
qua ab initio erant z~oluntatisex fiost facto funt necessitatis.

It is also of little importance that international obligations
cannot in general be the object of direct penalties, if the execution
of some of them can be pursued up to a certain point ;there should
thus be no hesitation about pursuing the useful results of an arbi-
tration clause, by abandoning the problems raised by the execution
of the decisions at the moment when these are handed down by
the arbitrators. This will be a subsequent stage which is easier
to regulate, for the law would already be declared.
3.-In the present case, the careful and prolonged negotiations
which preceded the drafting of the treaties concerned de out the
possibility of faults and errors having been comrnitted by the
parties themselves; on the other hand, they denve therefrom
a certain character of compromise often leading to formulas which
are not compIetely satisfactory to the two parties.
These considerations, however, could not justify the conclusion
that a renunciation for resistance in respect of the appointment
of a third member, a more senous question than the replacement of
the representative of one party, was successfullyovercome. Indeed,
the choice of a third member, failing previous agreement, will no
longer be subject to control by the parties, and this affects both
theparty whichin goodfaith tned to find an impartial arbitrator and
theparty which frustrated such appointment ;whereas, in the nomi-
nation of a national commissioner, where each party enjoys com-
plete liberty to make the designation, the intervention which isexer-
cisedasapenalty fromthe outside would affect only the guilty party.
The normal interest in having a member freely chosen may yield
to the design of frustrating the constitution of the arbitral organ.
4.-It must therefore be adrnitted that instead of accepting
risks, the parties, whilst providing for disputes, did not contemplate
such unusual eventualities as the denial that the disputes them-
selves existed, or the radical refusa1to appoint national commis-
sioners. There is nothing in the preparatory work of the treaties
to show that the parties contemplated the eventuality of al1
disputes remaining without a solution, practically facilitating
the non-performance of the treaties themselves.
At any rate, this failure to provide for every case would not be
irreparable, in view of the juridical pnnciples recalled above
which can overcome undue resistance, as was shown in the Opinion
of the Court which removed the first of the said obstacles. Even
the absence of a clause providing for the substitution cf a national
member, as may be found in some treaties, would not lead to such
an irreparable result. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO 250

5.-It may be observed that a high authority of the United
Nations has been exceptionally invested with broad powers,
which go beyond the functions attributed to him by the Charter.
Indeed, the Secretary-General has been entrusted with a number
of very delicate tasks which al1tend to one main end-to ensure
the peaceful settlement of any dispute which may arise between
the parties.
In this way a strict interpretation limited to an examination
of one text only and which takes as its data a partial intention of
the parties, cannot, in my view, prevail, especially if it confirms
the complete breakdown of the whole machinery for solving the
disputes, although.it be recognized in theory that a responsibility
arises from the fact that an international obligation has been

violated.
On the contrary, 1 believe that the treaties should be interpreted
as a whole, having regard to the purposes embodied therein. No
effort must be spared to ensure the most perfect execution of
obligations, in spite of imperfections and disadvantages exclusively
due to the obstruction of the party which was under the obligation
to carry out the undertaking.

6.-But the request for an opinion does not contemplate the
maximum result in the application of these principles, as would
be the case, for example, if it attempted to provide for the appoint-
ment of the national commissioners themselves on the basis of an
argument derived a fortiorifrom the nature and extent ofthe powers
conferred upon the Secretary-General.
Question III hardly refers to the nomination of the representative

of a recalcitrant State in conjunction with that of the third member,
and the Court must simply confine itself to the problem of the
nomination of a third member independently of the nomination of
the other arbitrators.
In order to determine whether the nomination of the third
member must necessarily follow the designation of the other
members, it must first be admitted that the texts of the relevant
clauses are completely neutral and provide for several solutions.
They are therefore not sufficiently clear to justify the rejection of
any process of interpretation other than the one which confines
itself to the letter of the texts.
To be sure, the current practice is to appoint the third member
after the other members have been appointed, or at the same time,
but this empirical observation by no means justifies Our reading

into these texts a condition which does not exist.

7.-What is most ,interesting, however, is the nature of the
functions attributed to the third arbitrator in each particular case.
International practice makes a clear instinction between two
principal categories of such functions.
33 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO 2.9

In a certain number of cases the third member appears on the
scene only when a divergence of views arises between the other
commissioners, and his function in principle is to give the casting
vote ; he may in exceptional circumstances be authorized to adopt
an intermediary solution or even an entirely new one. This position
is exclusively subsidiary and conditional.
In other cases the nomination of a third member takes place
beforehand, and he is even entrusted with the task of presiding

over the work of the commission. He plays a principal rôle which,
however, decreases when the other members agree, even though
he be permitted to give his persona1 views in any case.
8.-There happens to be a decisive element in the three treaties
which points clearly to the system which has been preferred.
Indeed, these instruments provide for the constitution of two

commissions : one a so-called "conciliation" commission for econo-
mic questions, and the other, which has no name, for disputes in
general.
The first of these is composed of an equal number of represent-
atives of the parties concemed, although the precise number of the
members is not laid down ;nevertheless, if agreement has not been
reached within three months of the dispute having been referred
to the commission, the addition of a third member, appointed by
the Secretary-General, may be required. This is a perfect mode1
for the rôle of the third arbitratorwho can only intervene after the
efforts of the other members have failed (Treaties with Hungary,
Bulgaria and Romania, Articles 35, 31 and 32 respectively).

In the other commission the régime of the coincidence of two
opinions is also preferred ; but, in this case, the very designa-
tion of the third-member bv the Secretarv-General de~ends-not
uDon a time-limit extendina "rom the date when a certain case was
referred, but merely upon disagreement between the parties upon
the appointment of a national of a third State, after a lapse of one
month (the above cited treaties, Articles 40, 36 and 38).
This comparison, within the same treaty, brings out a distinc-

tion which iSfurther em~hasized bv the creation of a third commis-
sion, provided for onlyAin the treaty with Rornania (Article 33).
For instance, for the determination of the prices of goods delivered
as reparations, a third system has been adopted submitting the
controversy to the Heads of Diplomatic Missions at Bucharest. In
case of disagreement, the Secretary-General shall appoint a single
"arbitrator" whose decision shali be binding on the parties. Obvi-
ously, thisarbitrator is not bound by any of the solutions previously

put forward.
9.-In the present case, it seems therefore arbitrary again to cd
upon the Secretary-General to intervene in another circumstance
which the text has not indicated as a condition : the appointment DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO 252
and also perhaps the acceptation of other members. Nor has the
sequence of voting at the time of the decision any relation to that

of the appointment of the members of the organ, asthey must all
perform their functions simultaneously.
In the desire to meet a hypothetical intention of the parties, one
ninç the risk of losing sight of the main aspect of the question, that
of the rôle of the fhird arbitrator considered from the angle of a
familiar distinction in international law. Even this preoccupation
does not give assurance of a perfect interpretation and, at the same
time, by an inversion of the order followed in the Request for
Opinion, may compel an answer to a question which in the end
must be set aside: Question IV.

IO.-Undoubtedly the appointment of this third member would

be useless if ultimately the commission were unable to function.
For that reason, the General Assembly has put Question IV.
Before answering thk question, one must, however, underline
another aspect of the function of the commissioners :those that are
to be appointed by the parties have quite openly been considered
as their "representatives". This will make it easier for the States
having designated them to replace them.
On the other hand, the position of the third member becomes
more important, as he will in fact become the only true arbitrator,
with the single reservation that he will not be in a position to adopt
another solution than those proposed by the other members. He
will crystallize the majority responsible for the decisions. He will

be the one to define it so that this majority will coincide with the
simple juxtaposition of two votes on the same side.
Obviously, if the two representatives of the parties agree, it
is useless for the third member to give a verdict. But in this case
there would be no dispute, the latter having been settled by the
agreement of those who would then be really agents for the Govern-
ments reaching a compromise.
On the other hand, it is equally certain that the concept ofminor-
ity ceases to have any value by eradicating the relative character
which may be attributed to it and to the corresponding concept
of majority, the latter being transformed into unanimity.

II.-One finds in the records of international law a series of

cases in which an arbitration organ saw its initial composition
disturbed by the disappearance of one member. either by accidental
circumstances or because of the action of that mernber or of the
State which had appointed him, action taken either opedy or
indirectly.
The practice of keeping in function siich a tribunal is juctified by
the desire not to put wrongful conduct at an advantage. The same
solution must prevail, therefore, in the case of absence of a rnember
ab initio, particularly if his absence is not due to circumstances

35 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO 253
beyond the control of the party which should have appointed him.

In the first case, the majority is also formed by the remaining
members. There is no opposition left, as the organ comprises three
members. One is not confronted either by a situation different

from the one envisaged by the parties, or even by a revision of the
treaty with a view to obtain an abstention from the remaining
judges and thereby the closure of the tribunal. In iact, it is only
the natural consequence of a specific sanction required by the
nature of the obligation disregarded by one of the parties.
There is no essential difference between the two cases. If one
does not wish to see form overrule substance, one is compelled to
adopt the same solution ubieadem ratio, ibiidem jus.

An excessive respect for mere formulæ should not result in the
extension of a mere concept such as, for instance, the one of the
"fundamental procedural order" which has sometimes been put
forward to give exceptional importance to the time of the constitu-
tion of an organ, to the detriment of social exigencies and for the
exclusive benefit of those who are forgetful of their promises,
whether they be individuals or States.

12.-The most critical moment for a deliberative organ is not
the time of its organization, but the time when,ulfilling its purpose,
it makes a decision which alone will carry legal effect in casu.

The organ which loses a member without being able to replace
him remains, from another angle, in a more serious position than
the one which started its work with an incomplete bench, but
in the hope or, at least, with the possibility that a change in
theattitude of the defaulting State before the end of its work would
permit its completion. Itisimpossible ever to foresee with certainty
the maintenance or the abandonment of a diplomatic position.
Excessive liking for abstractions should therefore not lead to
the rejection of the extension of a reasonable solution accepted
without reservations in international law, such asthat of the func-
tioning of an incomplete tribunal, not only in an analogous case,

but also in a case where this application would be justified for
major reasons.
It is true that the work of these commissions might not bring
complete results because decisions will not be made in case of
disagreement between the two members. But the same result
would occur if one member had disappeared during the term of
office of the tribunal.
The commission would at least fuifiIpart of its purpose in deciding
caseswhere agreement was complete.This would give some satisfac-
tion to the principle of effectivity. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO
254
13.-It is also necessary to remember the distinction between
the notion of composition of an organ and of quorum pennitting
its operation.
Although conçisting of fifteen members, the International Court
of Justice could not, for instance, start functioning before some of
the judges have been elected (Statute, Article 12, paragraph 3),
or before all have accepted their election?

14.-It may be observed that the member most qualified to
express the views of the recalcitrant State might, in voting, modify
the opinion of the third member. That is an indisputable disadvant-
age, but it is quite as senous as some others which continually
occur in cases of wrongful admission by a party and which, for
example, lead to the absence of any definite expression of the
questions to be decided, to the absence of rules of procedure and
of substance, and even to the insufficiency of evidence.
All this, however, constitutes a large part, if not the main part,
of the sanction imposed upon the defaulting State. It acts as an
injunction to bring about its consent. The same can be said of the

kind of "veto" which the party represented on the commission
will have in practice. This "veto" results exclusively from the
default of the other party which has an easy means of suppressing
it at any time by filling the empty seat.
15.-None of these obstacles has been sufficient to set aside
procedure by default in sirnilar circumstances in international
law.
Absence of means of defence and absence of counsel is far more
serious than the absence of participation in the judgment of a
national member, to whom even the Statute of the International

Court of Justice has attributed a purely optional character. Ali
these consequences, however, are also accepted as a new sanction
against the party which does not appear in Court.
In my opinion, the absence of the "representative" of one of
the parties is no reason for suspecting the third member, whose
function is not in any way changed thereby. Whether he acts with
one or two members, he remains free to have the last word.

In case of default, Article 53 of the Statute contents itself with
a recommendation to the International Court to exercise a certain
ex ogici control, which it has already had occasion to exert. There is
nothing to prevent organs functioning in an incomplete way from
taking their guidance from the same principle when they are about
to make their decisions. They have every reason to do so.

(Signed) PH. AZEVEDO.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

Tout en regrettant que mon opinion diffèrede celle de la Cour,
je donne une réponseaffirmative aux deux questions, et ceci pour
les motifs suivants :
1. - Il est inutile de rappeler ici minutieusement l'évolution
du droit qui tend à porterà ses dernièresconséquencesI'exéicution
de n'importe quelle sorte d'obligation ; on doit s'attacher à la
nature des prestations promises pour se résigner à des solutions
incomplètesou imparfaites, comme celle des dommages et intérêts,
dans le seul cas d'une impossibilitéde factoou de jure.
Une fois réservéle respect de la personne humaine - nemoad
factztm precise cogi potest -, on poursuit donc l'exécution des
obligations de «faire» jusqu'à en venir à suppléer à une simple
déclarationde volonté que le débiteur s'obstinesans motif refuser
de faire. En ce qui est du pactumde comprmnittendol,e droit inter-
national a pris mêmeune certaine avance pour amver plus tôt à
des formules réglant lepassage de l'arbitrage in potentiaA l'arbi-
trage in actu, notamment l'aspect de la désignation d'arbitres
1ar l'acte d'un tiers.
Cela s'explique par l'absence d'une organisation judiciaire com-
plète qui,dans le droit interne, fait obstacle au recourstrop fréquent
à des juges privés.Maisla mêmeraison, jouant dans un autre sens,
rend en généraltrès difficilela tâche de combler les lacunes des
traités, faute d'une personne qui, dans le domaine international,
puisse assumer ce rôle délicat deprocéder à la désignation desup-
Lléantsaux arbitres.
En tout cas, on peut trouver plus facilement les moyens de
permettre que les engagements internationaux soient rite adim-
pleti, si l'on ne confond pas l'aspect relatàfla légitimité d'une
substitution de volonté avec celui de l'organe à qui incombe
une telle action.

2. - Devant la presque impossibilité de prévoir des normes
adéquates au jeu pratiquement infini des cas concrets, il suffit
à l'auteur d'une loi ou d'un traité d'élever une construction
susceptible de fonctionner normalement, le système juridique se
chargeant de l'adaptation exigéedans chaque cas, sans que ceci
impliqueune revision des actes. Au contraire, l'inutilité desconven-
tions se révélerasouvent si l'on est disposé à céder facilement
devant les défauts attribués aux engagements, par fidélitéexces-
siveà la lettre des textes, àtse résigneràfaire appelà devagues
sanctions surtout en face d'un propos de se soustraire aux compro-
mis assumés.
31 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO
[Translation.]
Whilst regretting that my opinion differsfrom that of the Court,
1 give an affirmative answer to both questions for the following
reasons :

1.-It is useless to recali here in detail the evolution of law
which tends to carry to its ultimate consequence the execution
of any sort of obligation ;the nature of the undertakings must
be examined in order to accept incomplete or imperfect solutions
such as that of damages, in the sole case of de facto or de jure
impossibility.
Once the respect of the human person has been reserved-nemo
ad factzcmPracise cogi potestthe execution of the obligations
a rnere declaration of will which the debtor persists in refusing
to make without reason. As regards the pactum de com~romittendo,
international law has made certain progress in developing the
formulas regulating passage from arbitration in potentia to arbi-
tration in actu, particularly in respect of the appointment of
arbitrators by the act of a third party.
This is to be explained by the absence of a complete judicial
organization whicli,in domesticlaw, prevents too frequent reference
to private judges. But for the same reason, viewed from a dif-
ferent angle, the task of filling the gaps in a treaty is in general
rendered very difficult, in the international field, in the absence
of a person who can assume this delicate rôle of appointing substi-
tute arbitrators.
At any rate, the means permitting international engagements
to be riteadimpleti may more easily be found if a clear distinction
is made between the question of the legitimacy of a substitution
of the will and that of the organ entrusted with such action.

2.-Confronted with the fact that it is almost impossible to
provide adequate rules covering an almost infinite number of
concrete cases, it is sufficient that theauthor of a law or treaty
should set up machinery which can function normally, and the
jundical system willprovide for the adaptation required in each
case, without requiring a revision of the acts. On the contrary,
conventions vil1 often be shown to be useless if, by excessive
attachment to the letter of the texts and by resorting to vague
penalties especialiy when it is known tha.t there is an intention
to evade the agreements, the defects attributed to the under-
takings are allowed to prevail.249 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

L'exécution in speciedes contrats préliminairesn'affecte pas la
souverainetémêmede l'État qui l'aurait aliénée à juste titre dans
la mesure nécessaire pour permettre un remplacement de son
propre choix - qua ab init2o erant voluntatis ex Post facto fimt
necessitatis.
pas en généralfaire l'objet de sanctions directes, si l'on peutsent
poursuivre l'exécution de quelques-unes jusqu'à un certain point;
ainsi, l'on ne doit pas hésitàrpoursuivre les résultats utiles d'une
clause compromissoire, en abandonnant les problèmes soulevés
par l'exécution desdécisionsau moment où celles-ciseront rendues
par les arbitres. Ce sera une étape ultérieure plus facilà régler,
car le droit serait déjà déclaré.

3. - Dans le casprésent,les tractations minutieuses et prolon-
géesqui ont précédé la rédaction des traités en cause pa~ennent
à exclure la supposition de fautes et d'erreurs commises parles
parties mêmes ; d'autre part, il s'en dégageun certain caractère
de compromis qui conduit souvent à des formules pas tout à
fait satisfaisantes pour les deux parties.
On ne saurait pourtant y voir une renonciation, car on est
qvé à écarter les résistanceà l'égardde la désignationdu tiers
membre, point plus grave que la substitution du représentant
d'une des parties. En effet, le choix d'un tiers membre, faute
d'accord préalable, va échapper à tout contrôle des parties,
atteignant égalementcelui qui a essayéde bonne foidetrouver un
arbitre impartial et celui qui a fait échouertoute désignationde
ce genre, tandis que,pour lanomination d'un commissairenational,
chaquepartie ayant toute libertéde le faire,l'intervention étrangère,
s'exerçant à titre punitif, frapperait le seul coupable. L'intérêt
normal d'avoir un membre librement choisipeut s'effacerdevant le
dessein mêmed'éviter laconstitution de l'organe arbitral.

4. - On est donc porté à admettre qu'au lieu d'accepter des
risques, les parties, tout en prévoyant des conflits, n'ont pas
envisagé des hy-pothèsesaussi insolites que celles de la négation
des propres différendsou du refus radical de désigner des com-
missaires nationaux. Rien, dans les travaux d'aménagement des
traités, n'indique que les parties aient imaginé la possibilitéque
tous les conflits puissent rester sans possibilitéde solution, facili-
tant pratiquement l'inexécution destraités eux-mêmes.
De toute manière,une telle imprévision neserait pas irrémédiable,
étant donné les principes juridiques ci-dessus rappeléset capables
de parer à une résistance indue, ainsi que Sa démontréun avis
de la Cour écartant le premier desdits obstacles. L'absence même
d'une clause prévoyant la substitution d'un membre national,
ainsi qu'on peut le trouver dans quelques traités, ne conduirait
non plus à un tel résultat irréparable. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO
249
The specificperformance of preliminary contracts doesnot affect
the sovereignty even of the State which rightfully alienated it to
the extent necessary to permit a replacement of its own choice-
qua ab initio erant z~oluntatisex fiost facto funt necessitatis.

It is also of little importance that international obligations
cannot in general be the object of direct penalties, if the execution
of some of them can be pursued up to a certain point ;there should
thus be no hesitation about pursuing the useful results of an arbi-
tration clause, by abandoning the problems raised by the execution
of the decisions at the moment when these are handed down by
the arbitrators. This will be a subsequent stage which is easier
to regulate, for the law would already be declared.
3.-In the present case, the careful and prolonged negotiations
which preceded the drafting of the treaties concerned de out the
possibility of faults and errors having been comrnitted by the
parties themselves; on the other hand, they denve therefrom
a certain character of compromise often leading to formulas which
are not compIetely satisfactory to the two parties.
These considerations, however, could not justify the conclusion
that a renunciation for resistance in respect of the appointment
of a third member, a more senous question than the replacement of
the representative of one party, was successfullyovercome. Indeed,
the choice of a third member, failing previous agreement, will no
longer be subject to control by the parties, and this affects both
theparty whichin goodfaith tned to find an impartial arbitrator and
theparty which frustrated such appointment ;whereas, in the nomi-
nation of a national commissioner, where each party enjoys com-
plete liberty to make the designation, the intervention which isexer-
cisedasapenalty fromthe outside would affect only the guilty party.
The normal interest in having a member freely chosen may yield
to the design of frustrating the constitution of the arbitral organ.
4.-It must therefore be adrnitted that instead of accepting
risks, the parties, whilst providing for disputes, did not contemplate
such unusual eventualities as the denial that the disputes them-
selves existed, or the radical refusa1to appoint national commis-
sioners. There is nothing in the preparatory work of the treaties
to show that the parties contemplated the eventuality of al1
disputes remaining without a solution, practically facilitating
the non-performance of the treaties themselves.
At any rate, this failure to provide for every case would not be
irreparable, in view of the juridical pnnciples recalled above
which can overcome undue resistance, as was shown in the Opinion
of the Court which removed the first of the said obstacles. Even
the absence of a clause providing for the substitution cf a national
member, as may be found in some treaties, would not lead to such
an irreparable result. OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
250
5. - On arrive à constater qu'une haute autorité de SOrgani-
&ion des Nations Unies a été,d'une manière tout à fait inusitée,
investie de larges pouvoirs; au delà des fonctions que la Charte
lui a attribuées. En effet, on a chargé le Secrétaire généralde
plusieurs tâches fort nuancées mais qui aboutissent toutes à un
but principal unique - celui d'assurer des solutions pacifiques
à toute espèce de conflits surgissant entre les parties.
De cette façon, une interprétation stricte, limitée à l'examen
d'un seul texte et prenant comme,donnéesune intention partielle
des parties, ne peut, à mon avis, prévaloir, surtout si elle amve
à entériner la paralysie complète de toute méthode de solution
de différends, bien qu'en reconnaissant en théorie une responsa-
bilitédu fait du manquement à une obligation internationale.

Je pense au contraire que l'on voit s'imposer une interprétation
d'ensemble des traités, si l'on tient compte des buts qu'ils ont
visés.Aucun effort ne doit êtreépargné pouramver à l'exécution

la plus exacte possible des engagements, en dépit des imperfections
et des inconvénients dûs exclusivement à l'obstruction de la partie
chargée d'accomplir la prestation.

6. - Mais la demande d'avis n'envisage pas le maximum de
résultat dans l'application de ces principes, comme si elle essayait,
par exemple, de pourvoir à la désignation des commissaires natio-
naux eux-mêmessur la base d'une argumentation a fortiori tirée
de la nature et de l'étendue des pouvoirs conférésau Secrétaire
général.
La uestion III ne vise guère la désignation du représentant
d'un 2tat récalcitrant conjointement avec celle du tiers membre,
et la Cour doit simplement se limiter au problème de la nomination
d'un tiers membre indépendamment de celle des autres arbitres.

Pour savoir sila nomination du tiers membre doit nécessairement
succéderà la désignation des autres membres, on est tout d'abord
conduit à reconnaître que les textes des clauses pertinentes sont
tout à fait neutres et se prêtentindifféremmentàplusieurs solutions.
On ne trouve donc pas la clarté suffisante pour écarter tout autre
procédéd'interprétation que celui qui se limità la lettre destextes.

Certes, la pratique courante est de nommer le tiers membre
après les autres arbitres ou en mêmetemps que ceux-ci, mais cette
constatation empirique n'autorise nullement à voir dans lesdits
textes une condition qui ne s'y trouve pas.

7. - Ce qui au contraire est le plus intéressant, c'est la nature

des fonctions attribuées au tiers arbitre dans chaque cas d'espèce.
Or, la pratique internationale distingue nettement entre deux
classes principales de ces fonctions.
33 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO 250

5.-It may be observed that a high authority of the United
Nations has been exceptionally invested with broad powers,
which go beyond the functions attributed to him by the Charter.
Indeed, the Secretary-General has been entrusted with a number
of very delicate tasks which al1tend to one main end-to ensure
the peaceful settlement of any dispute which may arise between
the parties.
In this way a strict interpretation limited to an examination
of one text only and which takes as its data a partial intention of
the parties, cannot, in my view, prevail, especially if it confirms
the complete breakdown of the whole machinery for solving the
disputes, although.it be recognized in theory that a responsibility
arises from the fact that an international obligation has been

violated.
On the contrary, 1 believe that the treaties should be interpreted
as a whole, having regard to the purposes embodied therein. No
effort must be spared to ensure the most perfect execution of
obligations, in spite of imperfections and disadvantages exclusively
due to the obstruction of the party which was under the obligation
to carry out the undertaking.

6.-But the request for an opinion does not contemplate the
maximum result in the application of these principles, as would
be the case, for example, if it attempted to provide for the appoint-
ment of the national commissioners themselves on the basis of an
argument derived a fortiorifrom the nature and extent ofthe powers
conferred upon the Secretary-General.
Question III hardly refers to the nomination of the representative

of a recalcitrant State in conjunction with that of the third member,
and the Court must simply confine itself to the problem of the
nomination of a third member independently of the nomination of
the other arbitrators.
In order to determine whether the nomination of the third
member must necessarily follow the designation of the other
members, it must first be admitted that the texts of the relevant
clauses are completely neutral and provide for several solutions.
They are therefore not sufficiently clear to justify the rejection of
any process of interpretation other than the one which confines
itself to the letter of the texts.
To be sure, the current practice is to appoint the third member
after the other members have been appointed, or at the same time,
but this empirical observation by no means justifies Our reading

into these texts a condition which does not exist.

7.-What is most ,interesting, however, is the nature of the
functions attributed to the third arbitrator in each particular case.
International practice makes a clear instinction between two
principal categories of such functions.
33 25I OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

Dans un certain nombre de cas, le tiers membre n'apparaît sur
la scènequ'au moment où une divergence de vues se produit entre
les autres commissaires et sa fonction est en principe celle de
départager les voix ; il peut, à titre exceptionnel, êtreautorisé à
adopter une solution intermédiaire ou mêmeentièrement nouvelle.
Cette position est exclusivement accessoire et conditionnelle.
Dans d'autres cas, la nomination du tiers membre a lieu à

l'avance, et la tâche lui est mêmeconfiéede présideraux travaux
de la commission. Il joue un r6le principal qui, toutefois, s'amoindrit
lorsque les autres membres se mettent d'accord, mêmesi on lui
permet d'exposer de toute façon son opinion personnelle.
S. - 11 existe justement, dans les trois traités, des éléments

qui peuvent bien marquer le système qui a étépréféré.
En fait, ces instruments visent la constitution de deux commis-
sions : l'une dite de (conciliation ))pour les affaires d'ordre écono-
mique, et l'autre, qui n'a pas de nom, pour les différends en général.

La première a un caractère paritaire, quoique le nombre de ses
membres ne soit pas fixé avec précision ; néanmoins, on réclame
1'«adjonction ))d'un tiers membre, désigné par le Secrétairegénéral,
si un différendn'est pas réglé dans les trois mois deson introduction.

On y trouve (traités avec la Hongrie, la Bulgarie et la Roumanie,
respectivement articles 35, 31 et 32) un parfait modèle pour le
rôle de ce tiers arbitre qui doit à peine intervenir après l'échec
des efforts des autres membres.

Dans la seconde commission, on a aussi préféré lerégime
de la coïncidence de deux opinions ; mais là on fait dépendre
la désignation mêmedu tiers arbitre par le Secrétaire général,
non d'un délai imparti dès la soumission d'une certaine affaire,

mais simplement du désaccord entre les parties quant au choix
d'un ressortissant d'un tiers État, après un mois d'attente (traités
cités, articles 40,36 et 38).
Cette comparaison fait ressortir l'opposition, dans les mêmes
traités, entre des formules que la création d'une troisième com-
mission, prévue seulement dans le traité avec la Roumanie, met
davantage en relief (article 33)- En effet, pour la hation des prix

des marchandises livrées à titre de réparation, on a adopté une
troisième formule, en soumettant les conflits soulevés aux chefs
de mission diplomatique à Bucarest et, en cas de divergence, le
mêmeSecrétairegénéran lomme un seul (arbitre )),dont la décision
est obligatoire pour les parties. Il est clair que cet arbitre n'est
lié par aucune des solutions proposées précédemment.

g. - Dans l'hypothèse dont il est maintenant question, il
semble donc arbitraire de charger encore le Secrétaire généralde
contrôler une seconde circonstance, celle de la nomination, et

34 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO 2.9

In a certain number of cases the third member appears on the
scene only when a divergence of views arises between the other
commissioners, and his function in principle is to give the casting
vote ; he may in exceptional circumstances be authorized to adopt
an intermediary solution or even an entirely new one. This position
is exclusively subsidiary and conditional.
In other cases the nomination of a third member takes place
beforehand, and he is even entrusted with the task of presiding

over the work of the commission. He plays a principal rôle which,
however, decreases when the other members agree, even though
he be permitted to give his persona1 views in any case.
8.-There happens to be a decisive element in the three treaties
which points clearly to the system which has been preferred.
Indeed, these instruments provide for the constitution of two

commissions : one a so-called "conciliation" commission for econo-
mic questions, and the other, which has no name, for disputes in
general.
The first of these is composed of an equal number of represent-
atives of the parties concemed, although the precise number of the
members is not laid down ;nevertheless, if agreement has not been
reached within three months of the dispute having been referred
to the commission, the addition of a third member, appointed by
the Secretary-General, may be required. This is a perfect mode1
for the rôle of the third arbitratorwho can only intervene after the
efforts of the other members have failed (Treaties with Hungary,
Bulgaria and Romania, Articles 35, 31 and 32 respectively).

In the other commission the régime of the coincidence of two
opinions is also preferred ; but, in this case, the very designa-
tion of the third-member bv the Secretarv-General de~ends-not
uDon a time-limit extendina "rom the date when a certain case was
referred, but merely upon disagreement between the parties upon
the appointment of a national of a third State, after a lapse of one
month (the above cited treaties, Articles 40, 36 and 38).
This comparison, within the same treaty, brings out a distinc-

tion which iSfurther em~hasized bv the creation of a third commis-
sion, provided for onlyAin the treaty with Rornania (Article 33).
For instance, for the determination of the prices of goods delivered
as reparations, a third system has been adopted submitting the
controversy to the Heads of Diplomatic Missions at Bucharest. In
case of disagreement, the Secretary-General shall appoint a single
"arbitrator" whose decision shali be binding on the parties. Obvi-
ously, thisarbitrator is not bound by any of the solutions previously

put forward.
9.-In the present case, it seems therefore arbitrary again to cd
upon the Secretary-General to intervene in another circumstance
which the text has not indicated as a condition : the appointment OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO
252
aussi peut-êtrel'acceptation des autres membres, dont le texte n'a
pas fait une condition. L'ordre du vote, au moment de la décision,
n'arien àvoir non plus avec celui de la désignation des membres de
l'organe, puisqiie tous doivent entrer simultanément en fonction.
Par soiici de satisfaire à une intention hypothétique des parties,

on risque de perdre de vue l'aspect principal de la question, celui
du rôle du tiers arbitre, appréciéselon une distinction courante
en droit international. Cette préoccupation n'assure d'ailleurs
pas une parfaite interprétation et oblige, d'autre part, par une
inversion de l'ordre suivi dans la demande d'avis. à répondre à une
question qui doit finalement êtretenue pour écartée,la Question IV.

IO. - Sans doute la nomination de ce tiers membre resterait
inutile si, par la suite, la commission ne pouvait fonctionner, ce
qui a amené l'Assembléegénéraleà formuler la Question IV.
Avant d'y répondre,il faut toutefois mettre un autre accent sur la
fonction des membres de ladite commission :ceux qui doivent être

désignéspar les parties ont ététout franchementconsidéréscomme
leurs ((représentants », ce qui permettra aux Etats qui les ont
accrédités deles remplacer plus facilement.
D'un autre côté, la position du tiers membre devient plus impor-
tante, car il sera en fait le seul et vrai arbitre, sous la réserve unique
qu'il ne pourra adopter une solution différente de celles qu'auraient
proposées lesautres membres. Autour de lui se formera la majorité
responsable des décisions ;c'est lui qui la définira detelle manière
que cette majorité vienne à coïncider avec la simple juxtaposition
de deux voix dans le même sens.
Il est certain que si les deux représentants des parties se mettent
d'accord, il est inutile que le tiers membre prononce un verdict ;
mais en ce cas il cesserait d'exister un différend, celui-ci ayant

étéréglépar l'accord de ceux qui seraient alors de véritables
mandataires des États arrivant à une solution transactionnelle.
En revanche, iln'est pas moins certain que la notion de minorité
y perd toute utilité, en annulant le caractère relatif qu'on peut lui
attribuer ainsi qu'à la notion parallèle de majorité, celle-ci trans-
formée en unanimité.

II. - Les archives du droit international ont enregistré une
série de cas où un organe arbitral a vu sa composition initiale
dérangéepar l'effet de la disparition d'un membre, à la suite soit
d'une circonstance accidentelle, soit d'une action de ce membre
ou de l'État qui l'avait nommé, action entreprise ouvertement ou
d'une manière déguisée.

La pratique du maintien en fonction d'un tribunal ainsi réduit
répondàla préoccupation de ne pas accorderdeprime à la mauvaise
conduite ; la mêmesolution doit donc prévaloir dans le cas de
l'absence ab initio d'un membre, surtout si le manquement ne
35 DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO 252
and also perhaps the acceptation of other members. Nor has the
sequence of voting at the time of the decision any relation to that

of the appointment of the members of the organ, asthey must all
perform their functions simultaneously.
In the desire to meet a hypothetical intention of the parties, one
ninç the risk of losing sight of the main aspect of the question, that
of the rôle of the fhird arbitrator considered from the angle of a
familiar distinction in international law. Even this preoccupation
does not give assurance of a perfect interpretation and, at the same
time, by an inversion of the order followed in the Request for
Opinion, may compel an answer to a question which in the end
must be set aside: Question IV.

IO.-Undoubtedly the appointment of this third member would

be useless if ultimately the commission were unable to function.
For that reason, the General Assembly has put Question IV.
Before answering thk question, one must, however, underline
another aspect of the function of the commissioners :those that are
to be appointed by the parties have quite openly been considered
as their "representatives". This will make it easier for the States
having designated them to replace them.
On the other hand, the position of the third member becomes
more important, as he will in fact become the only true arbitrator,
with the single reservation that he will not be in a position to adopt
another solution than those proposed by the other members. He
will crystallize the majority responsible for the decisions. He will

be the one to define it so that this majority will coincide with the
simple juxtaposition of two votes on the same side.
Obviously, if the two representatives of the parties agree, it
is useless for the third member to give a verdict. But in this case
there would be no dispute, the latter having been settled by the
agreement of those who would then be really agents for the Govern-
ments reaching a compromise.
On the other hand, it is equally certain that the concept ofminor-
ity ceases to have any value by eradicating the relative character
which may be attributed to it and to the corresponding concept
of majority, the latter being transformed into unanimity.

II.-One finds in the records of international law a series of

cases in which an arbitration organ saw its initial composition
disturbed by the disappearance of one member. either by accidental
circumstances or because of the action of that mernber or of the
State which had appointed him, action taken either opedy or
indirectly.
The practice of keeping in function siich a tribunal is juctified by
the desire not to put wrongful conduct at an advantage. The same
solution must prevail, therefore, in the case of absence of a rnember
ab initio, particularly if his absence is not due to circumstances

35253 OPINION DISSI;E"TE DE M. AZEVEDO
découlepas d'une circonstance étrangère à l'action de la partie
qui doit le désigner.
Dans le premier cas, la majorité se forme aussi par rapport aux

membres restants et perd mêmetout pendant, l'organe étant à
triple voix ; on n'y trouve ni un fait différent de celui qui a été
envisagé par les parties, ni mêmeune revision du traité en vue
d'exiger une abstention de la part des juges restants et par consé-
quent la fermeture du tribunal. En réalité, onn'y voit que de
simples conséquences d'une sanction spécifique exigée par la
nature de l'obligation éludéepar une des parties.
Or, entre ces deux situations, il n'y a pas de différence essen-
tielle ; si l'on ne veut pas voir la forme l'emporter sur le fond, on
se voit contraint d'adopter la mêmesolution ubi eadem ratio, ibi
idem jus.
Sauf à raison d'un attachement excessif à de simples formules,
on ne doit pas élargir un pur concept tel, par exemple, que celui

de l'a ordre procédural fondamental »,parfois suggéréafin d'attri-
buer une importance exceptionnelle au moment de la constitution
d'un organe, au préjudice des exigences sociales et au bénéfice
exclusif deceux qui oublient leurs engagements, fussent-ils individus
op États.

12. - Le moment le plus critique, pour u? organe délibérant,
n'est pas celui de son organisation, mais celui où, atteignant les
buts visés, il rend la décision qui, seule, va produire des effets
juricliques in casu.
L'organe qui perd un membre sans pouvoir le remplacer reste,
sous un autre angle, dans une situation plus grave que celui qui
a commencé à travailler incomplètement, mais avec l'espoir ou,

du moins, avec la possibilité d'une réintégrationpar suite d'un
changement d'attitude de l'État défaillant avant la fin de ses
travaux, et l'on ne peut jamais prévoir sûrement le maintien ou
l'abandon d'une position diplomatique.
On ne doit donc pas rejeter, par amour des abstractions, l'exten-
sion d'une solution raisonnable, qui est admise sans restrictions
par le droit international, telle que celle du fonctionnement incom-
plet d'un tribunal, dans un cas non seulement analogue, mais
dans lequel cette application se justifierait par des raisonsmajeures.

Certes, le rendement du travail de ces commissions ne serait
pas complet, car des décisions ne seront pas rendues en cas de
divergence entre les deux membres, mais le mêmerésultat se

présenterait dans le cas où la perte d'un membre serait constatée
au cours des travaux.
Tout au moins la commission atteindrait en partie la fin visée,
en tranchant les cas où l'accord serait compjet ; on donnerait
ainsi une certaine satisfaction au principe de l'effet utile. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO 253
beyond the control of the party which should have appointed him.

In the first case, the majority is also formed by the remaining
members. There is no opposition left, as the organ comprises three
members. One is not confronted either by a situation different

from the one envisaged by the parties, or even by a revision of the
treaty with a view to obtain an abstention from the remaining
judges and thereby the closure of the tribunal. In iact, it is only
the natural consequence of a specific sanction required by the
nature of the obligation disregarded by one of the parties.
There is no essential difference between the two cases. If one
does not wish to see form overrule substance, one is compelled to
adopt the same solution ubieadem ratio, ibiidem jus.

An excessive respect for mere formulæ should not result in the
extension of a mere concept such as, for instance, the one of the
"fundamental procedural order" which has sometimes been put
forward to give exceptional importance to the time of the constitu-
tion of an organ, to the detriment of social exigencies and for the
exclusive benefit of those who are forgetful of their promises,
whether they be individuals or States.

12.-The most critical moment for a deliberative organ is not
the time of its organization, but the time when,ulfilling its purpose,
it makes a decision which alone will carry legal effect in casu.

The organ which loses a member without being able to replace
him remains, from another angle, in a more serious position than
the one which started its work with an incomplete bench, but
in the hope or, at least, with the possibility that a change in
theattitude of the defaulting State before the end of its work would
permit its completion. Itisimpossible ever to foresee with certainty
the maintenance or the abandonment of a diplomatic position.
Excessive liking for abstractions should therefore not lead to
the rejection of the extension of a reasonable solution accepted
without reservations in international law, such asthat of the func-
tioning of an incomplete tribunal, not only in an analogous case,

but also in a case where this application would be justified for
major reasons.
It is true that the work of these commissions might not bring
complete results because decisions will not be made in case of
disagreement between the two members. But the same result
would occur if one member had disappeared during the term of
office of the tribunal.
The commission would at least fuifiIpart of its purpose in deciding
caseswhere agreement was complete.This would give some satisfac-
tion to the principle of effectivity.254 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. AZEVEDO

13.- On ne doit pas moins oublier la distinction entre les
notions de composition d'un organe et de quorum pour qu'il
puisse entrer en activité.
La Cour internationale de Justice, quoique composéede quinze
juges, ne pourrait, par exemple, s'installer avant que quelques
juges n'aient étéélus(Statut, articl12,par. 3) ou que tous n'aient
accepté leur élection?

14.- On peut remarquer sans doute que le membre le plus
apte à exposer le point de vue de l'État récalcitrant pourrait peut-
êtreen votant modifier l'opinion du tiers membre. Il y a là un
inconvénient indéniable, mais aussi grave que d'autres du même
genre, constamment constatés dans les hypothèses d'omission
fautive d'une partie et qui, par exemple, conduisent à une absence
de formulation précisedes questions à décider,au défaut de règles
de procédure et de fond, et mêmeà l'insuffisance de preuves.
Mais tout cela constitue une bonne, sinon la principale partie
de la sanction imposée à l'État défaillant, servant d'astreinte
pour amener celui-ci à se départir de son refus. On pourrait en dire
autant de la sorte d« veto» dont la partie présenteàla commission

disposerait pratiquement, mais ce (veto » découleexclusivement
de la faute de l'autre contractantqui pourrait ainsi le supprimer
facilement en comblant à tout moment la place vide.
15. - De même,aucun de ces obstacles n'a suffi pour faire
écarter la procédure par défaut en des situations analogues par
le droit international.
L'absence des moyens de défenseet celle des conseils est bien

plus grave que l'absence au jugement d'un membre national,
auquel le Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice a attribuC
même un caractère purement facultatif; cependant, toutes ces
conséquences sont aussi admises comme une nouvelle sanction
atteignant la partie qui ne se présente pas devant la justice.
L'absence du «représentant »d'une des parties ne peut non plus,
à mon avis, se transformer en motif de défiance contre le tiers
arbitre dont la fonction n'est nullement modifiée par une telie
circonstance ; qu'il exerce ses fonctions devant un ou deux com-
missaires, il reste toujours libre de prononcer la parole définitive.
L'article53 dudit Statut se contente de recommander à la Cour
internationale,en cas de défaut, un certain contrôle ex oficio
qu'elle a déjàeu l'occasion d'appliquer ; rien n'empêche les organes
qui fonctionnent d'une manière incomplète de s'inspirer de ces
mêmes principes au moment de rendre leurs décisions; au
contraire, tout lesy invite.

(Signé P)H. AZEVEDO. DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AZEVEDO
254
13.-It is also necessary to remember the distinction between
the notion of composition of an organ and of quorum pennitting
its operation.
Although conçisting of fifteen members, the International Court
of Justice could not, for instance, start functioning before some of
the judges have been elected (Statute, Article 12, paragraph 3),
or before all have accepted their election?

14.-It may be observed that the member most qualified to
express the views of the recalcitrant State might, in voting, modify
the opinion of the third member. That is an indisputable disadvant-
age, but it is quite as senous as some others which continually
occur in cases of wrongful admission by a party and which, for
example, lead to the absence of any definite expression of the
questions to be decided, to the absence of rules of procedure and
of substance, and even to the insufficiency of evidence.
All this, however, constitutes a large part, if not the main part,
of the sanction imposed upon the defaulting State. It acts as an
injunction to bring about its consent. The same can be said of the

kind of "veto" which the party represented on the commission
will have in practice. This "veto" results exclusively from the
default of the other party which has an easy means of suppressing
it at any time by filling the empty seat.
15.-None of these obstacles has been sufficient to set aside
procedure by default in sirnilar circumstances in international
law.
Absence of means of defence and absence of counsel is far more
serious than the absence of participation in the judgment of a
national member, to whom even the Statute of the International

Court of Justice has attributed a purely optional character. Ali
these consequences, however, are also accepted as a new sanction
against the party which does not appear in Court.
In my opinion, the absence of the "representative" of one of
the parties is no reason for suspecting the third member, whose
function is not in any way changed thereby. Whether he acts with
one or two members, he remains free to have the last word.

In case of default, Article 53 of the Statute contents itself with
a recommendation to the International Court to exercise a certain
ex ogici control, which it has already had occasion to exert. There is
nothing to prevent organs functioning in an incomplete way from
taking their guidance from the same principle when they are about
to make their decisions. They have every reason to do so.

(Signed) PH. AZEVEDO.

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Dissenting Opinion by Judge Azevedo (translation)

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