Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

Document Number
156-20140303-ORD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
156-20140303-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

167

SEPARATE OPINION
OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. P rolegomena 1‑2

II. The Centrality of the Quefst for Justice 3‑12

1. Impertinence of reliance on local remedies in the circum
stances of the present case 4‑5
2. Impertinence of reliance on avoidance of “concurrent juris

diction” in the circumstances of the present case 6‑10
3. General assessment 11‑12

III. Impertinence of Reliance upon Unilateral Acts of States

in the Course of Internaftional Legal Proceedinfgs 13‑25

IV. e xc onscientia Juso ritur 26‑28

V. The Question of the Ownership of the Seized Documents

and Data 29‑32

VI. The Relevance of General Principles of Ifnternational
Law 33‑43

1. Responses of the Parties to a question from the Bench 34‑36
2. General assessment 37‑43

VII. The Prevalence of the Jurfidical Equality of Statefs 44‑45

VIII. Provisional Measures of Protection Independently of

Unilateral “Undertakifngs” or Assurances 46‑58

IX. The Autonomous Legal Regimfe of Provisional Measurfes of
Protection 59‑62

X. Epilogue: A Recapitulation 63‑71

*

I. Prolegomena

1. Destiny has wished that the judicial year of 2014 of the International
Court of Justice (ICJ) was to start with the consideration of the presfent

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case concerning Questions relating to the Seizure and Detention of Certain
Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia), lodged with the Court on

17 December 2013, which once again shows that the factual context of
disputes lodged with an international tribunal like the International Cofurt
of Justice may well cross the threshold of human imagination. In effecft, I
have concurred with my vote to the adoption of the present Order of
3 March 2014, as I consider that the provisional measures of protection

ordered by the Court are better than nothing, better than not having
ordered any such measures at all. Yet, given the circumstances of the cas
d’espèce, I think that the Court should have gone further, and should have
ordered the measure requested by Timor‑Leste, to the effect of having fthe
documents and data (containing information belonging to it) seized by
Australia, immediately sealed and delivered into the custody of the Court

itself here at its siège at the Peace Palace in The Hague.
2. I feel thus obliged to leave on the records the foundations of my
personal position on the matter. To that effect, I shall address, fifrstly, the
centrality of the quest for justice (disclosing the impertinence of thef invo ‑
cation of the local remedies rule, and of reliance on avoidance of so‑caflled

“concurrent jurisdiction”). Secondly, I shall dwell on the impertfinence of
reliance upon unilateral acts of States in the course of international lfegal
proceedings. Thirdly, I shall address the prevalence of human values andf
the idea of objective justice over facts (ex conscientia jus oritur). Fourthly,
I shall address the question of the ownership of the seized documents anfd

data. Fifthly, I shall focus on the relevance of general principles of ifnter ‑
national law. Sixthly, I shall dwell upon the prevalence of the juridicafl
equality of States. I shall then move to my last line of consideration, fon
provisional measures of protection independent of unilateral “undertafk ‑
ings” or assurances, and on what I deem it fit to characterize as the auto‑
nomous legal regime of provisional measures of protection. Last but not

least, I shall proceed to a recapitulation of all the points made in the
present separate opinion.

II. The Centrality of the Quefst for Justice

3. To start with, in the course of the present proceedings the Court was
faced with arguments, advanced in particular by the respondent State,
which required from it clarification so as to address properly the reqfuest
for provisional measures of protection. Those arguments pertained to

Australia’s reliance on : (a) local remedies to be allegedly exhausted (by
the applicant State) in national courts ; and (b) avoidance of concurrent
jurisdiction (the International Court of Justice and the Arbitral Tribufnal
of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA)). Those arguments were
advanced by counsel for Australia as alleged impediments to Timor‑Leste f
to seek provisional measures of protection from the International Court f

of Justice itself, as it has done. Yet, it promptly became clear that, ifn the
circumstances of the cas d’espèce, reliance on local remedies and on avoi ‑

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dance of “concurrent jurisdiction” (judicial and arbitral procedures) were
impertinent, and missed the central point of the quest for justice in thfe

circumstances of the cas d’espèce.

1. Impertinence of Reliance on Local Remedies

in the Circumstances of the Present Case

4. At the public sitting before the Court of 21 January 2014, counsel
for Australia contended that Timor‑Leste was to pursue “remedies in afn
Australian court”, even though it conceded that this was not a “diploma ‑
1
tic protection claim” . For its part, Timor‑Leste contended that the rule
of exhaustion of local remedies had no application here, in a case like fthe
present one, “where a State asserts its own right against the State tfhat has
2
harmed it” . It was made clear that, in such circumstances, it would be
impertinent to insist on recourse to local remedies.

5. In effect, the rule of exhaustion of local remedies surely does not

apply here. Firstly, this is a public complaint, a State claim with publfic —
not private — origin. Secondly, this is a complaint of a direct injury to the
State itself, fundamentally distinct from one of diplomatic protection. f
Thirdly, the State is, clearly, not only pursuing its own interests, butf vin ‑

dicating what it regards as its own right. Fourthly, in so doing, the Stfate
is acting on its own behalf. In such circumstances, a State cannot be com ‑
pelled to subject itself to appear before national tribunals. As widely freck ‑

oned in international case law and legal doctrine, in these circumstances
the local remedies rule does not apply : par in parem non habet imperium,
non habet jurisdictionem 3.

2. Impertinence of Reliance on Avoidance of “Concurrent Jurisdiction”▯

in the Circumstances of the Present Case

6. Counsel for Australia then drew attention to the pending arbitral
proceedings opposing it to Timor‑Leste, adding that the International
Court of Justice, depending in its view on State consent, had “no inhferent

priority” over “other forums specially consented to by States”,f nor review
authority over them, unless “such priority or authority have been
expressly conferred” 4. This argument was laid down on a strict State

voluntarist outlook, privileging State will. Counsel of Australia proceefd‑
ed that concurrent jurisdiction (International Court of Justice and PCAf
Arbitral Tribunal) should be avoided, as “[a] rigid adherence to thef

1
2 CR 2014/2, of 21 January 2014, pp. 19‑20, para. 37.
3 CR 2014/1, of 20 January 2014, p. 26, para. 20.
A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies
in 4nternational Law, Cambridge University Press, 1983, pp. 173‑174.
CR 2014/2, of 21 January 2014, pp. 43‑44, paras. 21‑22.

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parallelism of jurisdictions will only encourage forum shopping, conflfict
and fragmentation, unduly favouring successive claimants” . In Austra ‑
lia’s counsel’s view, in order to avoid one international tribunalf affecting

“parallel proceedings” before another, and also to avoid “two cfonflicting
decisions on the same issue” (paras. 25‑26), in his view the PCA Arbitral
Tribunal, and not the International Court of Justice, was a “more appro ‑
priate forum” for dealing with provisional measures in the present cafse
(paras. 31‑33) .

7. The International Court of Justice has promptly and rightly disposed of

these arguments in the present Order of 3 March 2014. From the start, it
recalled that, in its previous Order, of 28 January 2014, in the present case, it

“decided not to accede to Australia’s request for a stay of the prfo ‑
ceedings, considering, inter alia, that the dispute before it between
Timor‑Leste and Australia was [is] sufficiently distinct from the dis ‑
pute being adjudicated upon by the Arbitral Tribunal in the Timor
Sea Treaty Arbitration” (para. 17).

The arguments that it rejected unduly shifted attention from the quest ffor

justice and the imperative of the realization of justice, into alleged needs
of delimitation of competences between international tribunals.

8. Furthermore, it so happens that the Rules of Procedure of the PCA
Arbitral Tribunal, in charge of the arbitration under the Timor Sea

Treaty, provide that “[a] request for interim measures addressed by afny
party to a judicial authority shall not be deemed incompatible with the f
agreement to arbitrate, or as a waiver of that agreement”. The interna
corporis of the PCA Arbitral Tribunal itself sees no need of avoiding

“forum shopping”, or “parallelism of jurisdictions”, or “ffragmentation of
international law”, or the like. It is duly focused on the quest for fjustice.

9. In the present case, there is clearly no impediment to resort to

another judicial instance in order to obtain provisional measures of pro ‑
tection, quite on the contrary. The contending Parties are expressly
allowed to do so, in case such provisional measures are needed. And,
contrary to what Australia’s counsel says, the International Court off Jus‑

tice, and not the PCA Arbitral Tribunal, is surely the “more approprifate
forum” for dealing with provisional measures of protection in the casfe of
which it has been seized. Moreover, it is my feeling that a word of caution
is here needed as to the aforementioned euphemisms (the empty and mis ‑
leading rhetoric of “forum shopping”, “parallelism”, avoidance of “frag ‑

mentation” of international law and of “proliferation” of interfnational

5CR 2014/2, of 21 January 2014, pp. 44‑45, para. 24.
6Ibid., pp. 45‑47, paras. 25‑26 and 31‑33.

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tribunals) with which a trend of contemporary legal doctrine (en vogue to
the north of the equator) has in recent years tried in vain to brainwasfh

younger generations of scholars of our discipline, unduly diverting attefn‑
tion from the quest for justice to alleged “problems” of “delimfitation” of
competences.

10. In this respect, destiny has wished (once again) that, shortly before f
the present case was lodged with the International Court of Justice, durf ‑
ing the centennial celebrations of the Peace Palace (ICJ Seminar of

23 September 2013), I had the occasion to ponder that :

“In our days, the more lucid international legal doctrine has at lastf
discarded empty euphemistic expressions used some years ago, such
as so‑called ‘proliferation’ of international tribunals, so‑calledf ‘frag ‑

mentation’ of international law, so‑called ‘forum‑shopping’, which
diverted attention to false issues of delimitation of competences,
oblivious of the need to focus on the imperative of an enlarged access
to justice. Those expressions, narrow‑minded, unelegant and deroga ‑

tory — and devoid of any meaning — paid a disservice to our disci ‑
pline; they missed the key point of the considerable advances of the
old ideal of international justice in the contemporary world.” 7

3. General Assessment

11. Not surprisingly, the argument of the respondent State invoking

the rule of exhaustion of local remedies (supra) did not survive in the
circumstances of the present case. After all, par in parem non habet impe ‑
rium, non habet jurisdictionem. Nor did its other argument, invoking the

alleged risks of so‑called “parallelism”, or “concurrent jurisdfiction”, or
“forum shopping”, or “fragmentation” of international law, ofr the like.
Such “neologisms”, so much en vogue in international legal practice in
our days, seem devoid of any meaning, besides diverting attention from

the crucial point of the quest for justice to the false issue of “delimitation”
of competences. It is about time to stop referring to so‑called “fragfmen ‑
tation” of international law . The current enlargement of access to justice

to the justiciables is reassuring. International courts and tribunals have a
common mission to impart justice, which brings their endeavours together,

7 A. A. Cançado Trindade, “A Century of International Justice and Prospects for the
Future”, A Century of International Justice and Prospects for the Future/Rétro▯spective d’un
siècle de justice internationale et perspectives d’avenir (eds. A. A. Cançado Trindade and
D. Spielmann), Wolf Legal Publs., 2014, p. 21.
8
As it is surely not at all a topic for codification or progressive development of interna‑
tional law, it should never have been retained in the agenda of the UN Ifnternational Law
Commission, as it did in 2002‑2006. It is, at most, a topic for a university thesis (for an
LL.M., rather than a Ph.D. degree).

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in a harmonious way, and well above the zealous so‑called “delimitatifon”
of competences, much to the liking of the international legal professionf.

12. In the present case concerning Questions relating to the Seizure and
Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia), the

International Court of Justice has put the issue in the right perspectivfe. In
the Order it has just adopted today, 3 March 2014, it has pointed out
(para. 17) that, one month ago, in its previous Order of 28 January 2014
in the cas d’espèce, it had

“decided not to accede to Australia’s request for a stay of the prfo ‑
ceedings, considering, inter alia, that the dispute before it between
Timor‑Leste and Australia is sufficiently distinct from the dispute
being adjudicated upon by the Arbitral Tribunal in the Timor Sea

Treaty Arbitration” (ibid.).

III. Impertinence of Relianfce upon Unilateral Actsf of States
in the Course of Internatifonal Legal Proceedingsf

13. In the present case concerning Questions relating to the Seizure and

Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia), the
International Court of Justice has thus rightly discarded the empty and fmis ‑
leading rhetoric of “fragmentation” of international law. The multfiplicity in
international courts and tribunals simply reflects the way internationfal law
has evolved in our times. Yet, turning now to a distinct point, the Intefrna ‑
tional Court of Justice has insisted on relying upon unilateral acts of fStates

(such as promise, in the form of assurances or “undertakings”), fthus failing,
once again, to extract the lessons from its own practice in recent casesf.
14. Promises or assurances or “undertakings” have been relied upon in f
a distinct context, that of diplomatic relations. When they are unduly
brought into the domain of international legal procedure, they cannot

serve as basis for a decision of the international tribunal at issue, evfen less
so when they ensue from an original act of arbitrariness. The posture off
an international tribunal cannot be equated to that of an organ of con ‑
ciliation. Judicial settlement was conceived as the most perfected meansf
of dispute settlement ; if it starts relying upon unilateral acts of States, as

basis for the reasoning of the decisions to be rendered, it will undermifne
its own foundations, and there will be no reason for hope in the improvef ‑
ment of judicial settlement to secure the prevalence of the rule of law.f

15. Reliance upon unilateral acts of promise or assurances has been
the source of uncertainties and apprehension in the course of interna ‑

tional legal proceedings. Suffice it here to recall, for example, that,f in the
case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extra ‑

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dite (Belgium v. Senegal) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 422), the
International Court of Justice, instead of ordering provisional measures

of protection, preferred to rely on a pledge on the part of the respondefnt
State. In my separate opinion in the Judgment on the merits of 20 July
2012 in that case, after reiterating my dissent in the Court’s Order fof
28 May 2009 in the cas d’espèce, I recalled (ibid., pp. 515‑517, paras. 73‑78)
all the uncertainties that followed and the apprehension undergone by

the Court (which I see no need to reiterate here) for its reliance on
assurances.

16. Had the Court ordered the requested provisional measures in that
case, this would have saved the Court from those uncertainties which putf

at greater risk the outcome of the international legal proceedings. As If
concluded in my aforementioned separate opinion:

“Unilateral acts of States — such as, inter alia, promise — were
conceptualized in the traditional framework of the inter‑State rela ‑
tions, so as to extract their legal effects, given the ‘decentralizfation’
of the international legal order. Here, in the present case, we are in
an entirely distinct context, that of objective obligations (. . .). In the

ambit of these obligations, a pledge or promise made in the course of
legal proceedings before the Court does not remove the prerequisites
(of urgency and of probability of irreparable damage) for the indica ‑
tion of provisional measures by the Court.” (Ibid., p. 517, para. 79.)

17. In the present case concerning Questions relating to the Seizure and
Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia), the

International Court of Justice, distinctly, has indicated provisional mea ‑
sures, but not in the terms they were requested by Timor‑Leste : it has
preferred to rely on unilateral assurances or “undertakings” on thfe part of
the State which seized the documents and data at issue. The Court has
thus disclosed its unwillingness to learn the lessons to be extracted frfom its

own experience in recent cases. It has preferred, seemingly oblivious off its
own authority, to keep on acting as a sort of “diplomatic court”, frather
than rigorously as a court of law. To my mind, ex factis jus non oritur.
18. The aforementioned case of Hissène Habré, opposing Belgium to
Senegal, is not an isolated illustration of the point I am addressing here.

In its recent Order (of 22 November 2013) in the merged cases of Certain
Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v.
Nicaragua) and of the Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San
Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica), the International Court of Justice
conceded :

“The Court (. . .) takes note of the assurances of Nicaragua (. . .)
that it considers itself bound not to undertake activities likely to conf‑

nect any of the two caños with the sea and to prevent any person or
group of persons from doing so. However, the Court is not convinced

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that these instructions and assurances remove the imminent risk of
irreparable prejudice, since, as Nicaragua recognized, persons under
its jurisdiction have engaged in activities in the disputed territory,

namely, the construction of the two new caños, which are inconsistent
with the Court’s Order of 8 March 2011.” (I.C.J. Reports 2013,
pp. 366‑367, para. 50.)

19. In my separate opinion appended to the Court’s more recent Order

of 22 November 2013, I again made the point of the need to devote greater
attention to the legal nature of provisional measures of protection, and
their legal effects, particularly those endowed with a conventional basis such

as the provisional measures ordered by the International Court of Justicfe
(ibid., p. 359, paras. 22‑23 and p. 360, paras. 27‑28). Only in this way they
will contribute to the progressive development of international law.

Persistent reliance on unilateral “undertakings” or assurances or fpromises
formulated in the context of provisional measures in no way contributes to
the proper understanding of the expanding legal institute of provisionalf

measures of protection in contemporary international law.
20. Expert writing on unilateral acts of States has been very careful to
avoid the pitfalls of “contractual” theories in international law, as well as

the dangers of unfettered State voluntarism underlying unilateralist manf ‑
ifestations in the decentralized international legal order. Unilateral acts,
as manifestations of a subject of international law to which this latterf

may attach certain consequences, do not pass without qualifications. Pfro ‑
posed enumerations of unilateral acts in international law have not pur ‑
ported to be exhaustive , or conclusive as to their legal effects. It is not

surprising to find that expert writing on the matter has thus endeavoufred 10
to single out those unilateral acts to which legal effects can be ascrfibed —
and all this in the domain of diplomatic relations, but certainly not in the

realm of international legal procedure.

9
J. Dehaussy, “Les actes juridiques unilatéraux en droit internationalf public: à propos
d’une théorie restrictive”, 92 Journal du droit international, Clunet (19655‑56, and
cf. p. 63; and cf. also, generally, A. Miajade la Muela, “Los Actos Unilaterales en las Rela‑
ciones Internacionales”, 20 Revista Española de Derecho Internacional (1967), pp. 456‑459 ;
J. Charpentier, “Engagements unilatéraux et engagements conventionnels : différences et
convergences”, Theory of International Law at the Threshold of the 21st Century — Essays
in Honour of K. Skubiszewski (ed. J. Makarczyk), The Hague, Kluwer, 1996, pp. 367‑380.
10 Cf., in particular, Eric Suy, Les actes juridiques unilatéraux en droit international

public, Paris, LGDJ, 1962, pp. 1‑271 ; K. Skubiszewski, “Les actes unilatéraux des Etats”,
Droit international — Bilan et perspectives (ed. M. Bedjaoui), Vol. 1, Paris, Pedone,
1991, pp. 231‑250 ; G. Venturini, “La portée et les effets juridiques des attitudes et fdes
actes unilatéraux des Etats”, 112 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de
La Haye (1964), pp. 63‑467. And cf. also : A. P. Rubin, “The International Legal Effects
of Unilateral Declarations”, 71 American Journal of International Law (1977), pp. 1;30
C. Chinkin, “A Mirage in the Sand ? Distinguishing Binding and Non‑Binding Relations
between States”, 10 Leiden Journal of International Law (1997), pp. 223‑247.

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21. Other contemporary international tribunals have likewise been
faced with uncertainties and apprehension deriving from unilateral assurf‑

ances by contending parties. For example, in its judgment (of 17 January
2012) in the case of Othman (Abu Qatada) v. United Kingdom, the Euro ‑
pean Court of Human Rights (ECtHR — Fourth Section) took account
of the expressions of “grave concern” as to diplomatic assurances,f mani‑
fested in the course of the legal proceedings (para. 175) : first, such assur‑

ances “were unable to detect abuse” ; secondly, “the monitoring regimes
provided for by assurances were unsatisfactory” ; thirdly, “frequently
local monitors lacked the necessary independence” ; and fourthly, “assur‑
ances also suffered from a lack of incentives to reveal breaches”
(paras. 176‑179). States, in their relations with each other, can take into

account diplomatic assurances, and extract consequences therefrom.
International tribunals, for their part, are not bound to base their decfi ‑
sions (on provisional measures or others) on diplomatic assurances : they
are bound to identify the applicable law, to interpret and apply it, in fsum,
to say what the law is (juris dictio).

22. International legal procedure has a logic of its own, which is not to
be equated with that of diplomatic relations. International legal pro‑
cedure is not properly served with the insistence on reliance on unilatefral
acts proper of diplomatic relations — even less so in face of the perceived

need of assertion that ex injuria jus non oritur. Even if an international
tribunal takes note of unilateral acts of States, it is not to take suchf acts
as the basis for the reasoning of its own decisions.

23. In this connection, may I recall that, in the course of the advisory

proceedings of the International Court of Justice concerning the Accor ‑
dance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independen▯ce
in Respect of Kosovo (Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 403),
a couple of participants invoked the principle ex injuria jus non oritur. In
my separate opinion appended to the Court’s Advisory Opinion, I

asserted that “[a]ccording to a well‑established general principle of inter ‑
national law, a wrongful act cannot become a source of advantages, ben ‑
efits or else rights for the wrongdoer : ex injuria jus non oritur” (ibid.,
p. 576, para. 132).
24. After considering the application of this principle in the factual

context of the matter then before the International Court of Justice (ibid.,
p. 577, paras. 133‑135), I added :

“This general principle, well‑established as it is, has at times beenf
counterbalanced by the maxim ex factis jus oritur. (. . .) In the con ‑
ceptual universe of international law, as of law in general, one is in
the domain of Sollen, not of Sein, or at least in that of the tension
between Sollen and Sein. (. . .)

[T]he maxim ex factis jus oritur does not amount to a carte
blanche, as law plays its role also in the emergence of rights out of the

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tension between Sollen and Sein.” (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), pp. 577‑578,
paras. 136‑137.)

25. In effect, to allow unilateral acts to be performed (in the course off
international legal proceedings), irrespectively of their discretionary — if

not arbitrary — character, and to accept subsequent assurances or
“undertakings” ensuing therefrom, is to pave the way to uncertainties and
unpredictability, to the possibility of creation of faits accomplis to one’s
own advantage and to the other party’s disadvantage. The certainty of

the application of the law would be reduced to a mere probability. As the
lucid writer Machado de Assis remarked in the nineteenth century :

“Se esse mundo não fosse uma região de espíritos desatentos,f era

escusado lembrar ao leitor que eu só afirmo certas leis quando as
possuo deveras; em relação a outras restrinjo‑me à admissão da pro‑
babilidade.” 11

IV. e x conscientia Jus oritur

26. Already in the late forties — at a time when international legal
doctrine was far more cultivated than it seems to be nowadays — it was

observed that modern international law was not prepared to admit that
that “void and unlawful acts can be arbitrarily validated” 1. In effect —
as pointed out one decade earlier, in the late thirties — even if interna ‑

tional law finds itself in the presence “of acts, undertakings and situations
which falsely claim to give rise to rights”, such acts, undertakings fand
situations

“are void (. . .), for the reason that, deriving from an unlawful act,

they cannot produce beneficial results for the guilty party. Ex injuria
jus non oritur is a general principle of international law (. . .) [T]he
essence of the law, that is to say (. . .) the legal effectiveness and valid
ity of one’s obligations, cannot be affected by individual unlawfulf
13
acts.”

27. No State is entitled to itself rely upon an arbitrary act in order to
vindicate what it regards as a right of its own, ensuing therefrom. May fI
further recall, in this respect, that, in the past, a trend of legal docftrine —

11 Machado de Assis, Memórias Póstumas de Brás Cubas [1881: “If this world were

not a region of unattentive spirits, there would be no need to remind thfe reader that I only
affirm certain laws when I truly possess them ; in relation to others I limit myself to the
admission of the probability.” [My own translation.]
12 P. Guggenheim, “La validité et la nullité des actes juridiques intfernationaux”,
74 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (19230‑233,
and cf. pp. 226‑227 [translation by the Registry].
13 H. Lauterpacht, “Règles générales du droit de la paix”, 62 Recueil des cours de l’Aca‑
démie de droit international de La Haye (1937), pp. 287‑288 [translation by the Registry].

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favoured by so‑called “realists” — attempted to deprive some of the
strength of the general principle ex injuria jus non oritur by invoking the
maxim ex factis jus oritur. In doing so, it confused the validity of norms
with the required coercion (at times missing in the international legalf

order) to implement them. The validity of norms is not dependent on
coercion (for implementation); they are binding as such (objective obliga ‑
tions).
28. The maxim ex factis jus oritur wrongfully attributes to facts

law‑creating effects which facts per se cannot generate. Not surprisingly,
the “fait accompli” is very much to the liking of those who feel strong or
powerful enough to try to impose their will upon others. It so happens
that contemporary international law is grounded on some fundamental
general principles, such as the principle of the juridical equality of States,

which points in the opposite direction. Factual inequalities between Staftes
are immaterial, as all States are juridically equal, with all the conse ‑
quences ensuing therefrom. Definitively, ex factis jus non oritur. Human
values and the idea of objective justice stand above facts. Ex conscientia

jus oritur.

V. The Question of the Ownerfship

of the Seized Documentsf and Data

29. Another issue, addressed by the contending Parties in the course of
the present proceedings, was that of the ownership of the documents and
data seized by Australia. From the start, Timor‑Leste asserted, in its ofral

arguments, that the present case “is one in which Timor‑Leste is compflain ‑
ing of the seizure of its property and is seeking the recovery of the dofcu ‑
ments that were held on its behalf by Mr. B. Collaery” . Counsel for
Timor‑Leste then stated that its lawyer (Mr. Collaery), through his office,

“conducts his legal activities covering a number of matters for the
Government of Timor‑Leste, as well as for other clients. In that officef,

Mr. Collaery regularly keeps, on behalf of the Government of
Timor‑Leste, many confidential documents relating to the interna ‑
tional legal affairs of Timor‑Leste. Some cover such very important
and delicate matters as the negotiations between the two countries
15
regarding access to the maritime resources of the Timor Sea.”

30. The applicant State then asserted that it was clear that among the
documents and data seized

“were many files relating to matters on which Mr. Collaery’s office
was working on behalf of the Government of Timor‑Leste. All these

14CR 2014/1, of 20 January 2014, p. 24, para. 16.
15Ibid., p. 19, para. 8.

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8 CIJ1061.indb 196 25/03/15 08:46 178 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

files are thus the property of the Government of Timor‑Leste and

were held as such by Mr. Collaery in the course of his duties on behalf
of the Government of Timor‑Leste. [T]he client — in this case the
Government — has proprietary ownership of documents that have
been brought into existence, or received, by a lawyer acting as agent

on behalf of the client, or that have been prepared for the benefit off
the client and at the client’s expense, such as, letters of advice, mfemo‑
randa and briefs to counsel.” 16

31. For its part, Australia preferred not to dwell upon the issue of the

ownership of the seized documents and data. It argued that :
“Questions of ownership cannot be answered in the absence of a

proper examination of the documents in question. That examination
has not occurred because we have not inspected the documents. We
therefore cannot accept the proposition that the documents are nec ‑

essarily the property of Timor‑Leste, nor can we put before you a full
submission on where ownership might lie.” 17

32. Timor‑Leste insisted on its position, affirming categorically that
“documents in the hands of lawyers on behalf of their clients belong to
the clients, in this case, Timor‑Leste. That applies to most of the itemfs
18
seized” . From the aforementioned, it is clear that Australia did not clar‑
ify its position as to who owns the seized documents and data, having
preferred not to respond to Timor‑Leste’s arguments that those docu ‑

ments and data are its property. This is another point to be kept in minfd,
in the proper consideration of the requested provisional measures in thef
cas d’espèce.

VI. The Relevance of Generafl Principles
of International Law

33. In the course of the public sitting of the Court on 21 January 2014,
I deemed it fit to put the following question to both contending Partifes,
Timor‑Leste and Australia :

“What is the impact of a State’s measures of alleged national secuf ‑

rity upon the conduction of arbitral proceedings between the Parties?
In particular, what is the effect or impact of seizure of documents anfd
data, in the circumstances of the present case, upon the settlement of
19
an international dispute by negotiation and arbitration ?”

16CR 2014/1, of 20 January 2014, p. 21, para. 11.
17CR 2014/4, of 22 January 2014, p. 19, para. 42.
18
19CR 2014/3, of 22 January 2014, p. 19, para. 33.
CR 2014/2, of 21 January 2014, p. 48.

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1. Responses of the Parties to a Question from the Bench

34. In his prompt answer to my question, counsel for Timor‑Leste,

remarking that he would try to respond to it “both as a matter of prifnci ‑
ple, and as it applies to this case”, stated that :

“States should refrain from allowing national interests, including
national security interests — important though they may be — adversely
to affect international proceedings between sovereign States, and the
ability of sovereign States to obtain legal advice. Nothing should be

done which would infringe the principles of the sovereign equality of
States, non‑intervention, and the peaceful settlement of disputes, pro ‑
vided for in Article2.3 of the UnitedNationsCharter. These are at the

core of the international legal order as reflected in the Charter and fother
key documents, such as the [1970 Declaration on Principles of Inter‑
national Law concerning] Friendly Relations Declaration 20.
Applying this to the case in hand, we look to the Court to ensure

that Australia does not secure unfair advantage, either in the context
of litigation or (. . .) in the context of the Timor Sea.

Both Parties seem to agree that legal privilege is a general principle

of law, and is not without limitations, but the Parties seem to disagree
on the scope of these limitations. In response to Judge Cançado Trin ‑
dade’s question, I would point to the difference between such limitfa‑
tions under domestic law, as argued for by Australia, and limitations

under international law. The domestic limitations argued for by Aus ‑
tralia should not apply when a sovereign State seeks legal advice.
Australia is not entitled to restrict Timor‑Leste’s ability freely tof com ‑
municate with its lawyers. There is no limit on immunity in respect

of diplomatic documents on Australian soil ; [and] there is no reason
of principle why the same should not apply to a State’s claim to priv ‑
ilege in respect of legal advice.

In any case, any assertion of limitation to privilege should not hin‑
der Timor‑Leste’s preparations for international proceedings or nego‑
tiations. This principle was expressly recognized in the Libananco
case 2. Contrary to what Mr. Burmester said yesterday , recognition

of this principle should not preclude Australia from continuing any

20 UN doc. A/RES/25/2625, Declaration on Principles in International Law cofncerning
Friendly Relations and Co‑operation among States in Accordance with the fCharter of the

Uni21d Nations, of 24 October 1970.
Case Libananco Holdings Co. Ltd. v. Turkey, ICSID case ARB/06/8, decision on
preliminary issues, of 23 June 2008, p. 42, para. 2.
22
Cf. CR 2014/2, of 21 January 2014, p. 32, para. 17.

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criminal investigation; it would just ensure that Timor‑Leste’s docu ‑
ments remain notwithstanding that process.

Mr. Campbell began by asking you to keep in mind the alleged
general principles applying to provisional measures set out in Aus ‑
tralia’s written observations. (. . .) [W]e do not regard as convincing

what they had to say on these matters. The written observations take
a very restrictive view of provisional measures. Yet the institution of f
provisional measures is essential to the judicial process. Its impor ‑
tance is increasingly recognized by international courts and tribu ‑
23
nals.” (Paras. 3‑7.)

35. For his part, in his response to my question, counsel for Australia,
like that of Timor‑Leste (supra), began by saying that he would endeav ‑
our to answer “first at the level of principle and then at the levefl of appli‑

cation”; and then he added that :
“At the level of principle, we would accept that, if a State engages f

in arbitration with another State, and finds it necessary to take measf ‑
ures of national security which may bear on the arbitration, the State
should, as a matter of prudence, if not strict law, take such steps as
are reasonable to limit the impact of national security measures on

the arbitration. We accept, as was put this morning, that to do
otherwise would interfere with arbitration as a peaceful method of
resolving inter‑State disputes. I emphasize, the principle is qualified
by reasonableness. The circumstances may not always provide a

perfect accommodation between the two interests in conflict and a
State could not be asked absolutely to put on hold measures of national
security merely because it is brought to arbitration.” (CR 2014/4,

pp. 8‑9, para. 4.)

36. This was the “general answer”; moving then to the “specific answer”,
counsel for Australia proceeded:

“[I]n the present case the measures of national security will have nof

23 Counsel for Timor‑Leste added :

“Of course, like any judicial process it can be abused, but courts knfow how to deal
with that. [W]e reject any insinuation by Australia that Timor‑Leste is facting abusively
in seeking provisional measures. In particular, we reject the unworthy sfuggestion by
Professor Crawford that Timor‑Leste is using these proceedings ‘to skirt around the
confidentiality provisions and maximise the opportunity for publicity fand comment
prejudicial to Australia’. We are not.” (CR 2014/3, of 22 January 2014, pp. 12‑14.)

And, for Australia’s argument, cf. CR 2014/2, of 21 January 2014, p. 39, para. 8.

37

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adverse impact on the Arbitration — for three reasons. Firstly,

Timor‑Leste’s counsel in the Arbitration, on 5 December [2013],
accepted they have copies of the key removed documents, including
an affidavit from the person they describe as ‘Witness K’ which tfhey
have lodged with the PCA. No case of disadvantage has been made
before you. Second[ly], the Attorney‑General acted reasonably from

the outset — from the Ministerial Statement of 4 December [2013],
supplemented by undertakings — to ensure there would be no illegit‑
imate advantage to Australia by way of documents being made avail‑
able to the legal team in the Arbitration. Wisely, with hindsight, he
anticipated this problem might arise and he acted in advance to pre ‑

vent it. The third part of the practical answer is that there is not a
skerrick of evidence pointed to by Timor‑Leste to suggest the under ‑
takings have not been honoured to date or will not be honoured in
the future. (. . .) [T]he documents have been kept under seal (. . .).

Timor‑Leste has the documents it needs for the Arbitration ; it has

adequate undertakings to protect the integrity of the Arbitration; and
the undertakings are being honoured.” (CR 2014/4, paras. 5‑6.)

2. General Assessment

37. In sum, and as pointed out by the International Court of Justice in
the present Order, Australia has clearly relied on its solemn “undertak ‑
ings” that the documents of Timor‑Leste’s legal adviser that it hafs seized
in Canberra will be kept sealed and inaccessible, safeguarding their conffi‑
dentiality, so as not to be used to the disadvantage of Timor‑Leste in

the proceedings of the Timor Sea Treaty Arbitral Tribunal (Order,
paras. 35‑39). Timor‑Leste, in turn, has challenged such arguments (ibid.,
paras. 40‑41), and has held that it seeks to protect the ownership and
property rights it holds over the seized material (inviolability and imfmu ‑
nity of its property) as a sovereign State (ibid., para. 24), and has added

that the seized documents and data concern its position on matters per ‑
taining to the Timor Sea Treaty Arbitration and in the context of futuref
negotiations; such matters, it has added, are “crucial to the future of
Timor‑Leste as a State and to the well‑being of its people” (ibid., para. 33).

38. Arguments of alleged “national security”, such as raised by Aus ‑
tralia in the cas d’espèce, cannot be made the concern of an international
tribunal, in a case like the present one. The Court has before itself general
principles of international law (supra), and cannot be obfuscated by alle‑

gations of “national security”, which fall outside the scope of thfe appli ‑

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cable law here. In any case, an international tribunal cannot pay lip‑sefrvice
to allegations of “national security” made by one of the parties ifn the
course of legal proceedings.

39. This particular point was made by Timor‑Leste in the cas d’espèce.
In this respect, the ad hoc International Tribunal for the former Yugosla ‑
via (ICTY — Appeals Chamber), in its decision (of 29 October 1997) 24in
the Blaškić case, confronted with a plea that documents sought from
Croatian State officials were protected by “national security”, pfondered:

“[T]o grant States a blanket right to withhold, for security pur ‑
poses, documents necessary for trial might jeopardise the very func ‑
tion of the International Tribunal, and ‘defeat its essential object fand
purpose’. The International Tribunal was established for the prose ‑

cution of persons responsible for war crimes, crimes against humanity
and genocide; these are crimes related to armed conflict and military
operations. It is, therefore, evident that military documents or other
evidentiary material connected with military operations may be of
crucial importance, either for the Prosecutor or the defence, to prove

or disprove the alleged culpability of an indictee, particularly when
command responsibility is involved (in this case military documents
may be needed to establish or disprove the chain of command, the
degree of control over the troops exercised by a military commander,

the extent to which he was cognisant of the actions undertaken by his
subordinates, etc.). To admit that a State holding such documents
may unilaterally assert national security claims and refuse to surren ‑
der those documents could lead to the stultification of international f
criminal proceedings: those documents might prove crucial for decid ‑

ing whether the accused is innocent or guilty. The very raison d’être
of the International Tribunal would then be undermined.” (Prosecu ‑
tor v. T. Blaškić, para. 65.)

40. The due process of law cannot be undermined by the behaviour of

one of the parties dictated by reasons of alleged “national security”f.
Equality of arms (égalité des armes) in arbitral and judicial proceedings
is to be preserved. International tribunals know how to handle confidefn ‑
tial matters in the course of legal procedure, and this cannot be inter ‑
mingled with one of the parties’ concerns with its own “national sfecurity”.

In the experience of contemporary international tribunals, there have

24Appeals Chamber’s decision of 29 October 1997, review of the Decision of Trial

Chamber II of 18 July 1997, para. 65.

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been occasions of hearings of testimonies in special sittings, so as to fduly
instruct the case and protect witnesses. To evoke but one illustration, fthe
Inter‑American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), in the course of the
proceedings culminating in its Judgment of 25 November 2000 (merits) in

the case of Bámaca Velásquez v. Guatemala, deemed it necessary to collect
the testimony of a witness, and commissioned three of its members to do f
so, in a sitting held outside its siège in Central America 25. The sitting took
place at the headquarters of the Organization of American States (OAS)f

in Washington D.C., as the witness concerned was still defining his mifgra ‑
tory status as a refugee.

41. As to the handling of confidentiality, international tribunals know
their respective applicable law, and do not yield to considerations of

domestic law as to “national security” ; they keep in mind the imperative
of due process of law in the course of international legal proceedings, and
preserve the equality of arms (égalité des armes), in the light of the prin ‑
ciple of the proper administration of justice (la bonne administration de la

justice). Allegations of State secrecy or “national security” cannot at alfl
interfere with the work of an international tribunal, in judicial settlefment
or arbitration.
42. In my perception, Timor‑Leste has made its case that the docu ‑

ments seized from its legal adviser’s office in Canberra, containingf confi ‑
dential information concerning its positions in the Timor Sea Treaty
Arbitration, are not to be used to its disadvantage in that PCA arbitra ‑
tion. Timor‑Leste’s preoccupation has its raison d’être, and, in my view,
the International Court of Justice has taken the right decision to orderf

the provisional measures ; however, it should have done so in the terms
requested by Timor‑Leste, namely, to have the documents seized by Aus ‑
tralia immediately sealed and delivered into the custody of the Interna ‑
tional Court of Justice itself, here in its siège at the Peace Palace in

The Hague. The present proceedings in the case concerning Questions
relating to the Seizure and Detention of Certain Documents and Data
(Timor‑Leste v. Australia), suggest, once again, in the light of the argu ‑
ments advanced by both Timor‑Leste and Australia, that States appear

far more sensitive than human beings. Even more so in a delicate matter f
such as the one of the present case. As the learned Antônio Vieira
observed in the seventeenth century : “Não há dúvida que todas as coisas
são mais estimadas e de maior gosto quando se recuperam depois de perf ‑
didas, que quando se possuem sem se perderem.” 26

43. It is clear that the concern of an international tribunal is with prop‑
erly imparting justice, rather than with assessing measures of alleged
“national security”, entirely alien to its function. Internationalf tribunals

25In the host State, San José of Costa Rica.
26Antônio Vieira, Sermão de Santo Antônio [1657] : “There is no doubt that all things
are more esteemed and of greater taste when recovered after having been lost, than when
possessed without being lost.” [My own translation.]

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are concerned with the prevalence of international law ; national govern‑
ments (their secret or so‑called “intelligence” services) occupyf themselves

with issues they regard as affecting alleged “national security”f. The inter ‑
national legal positions of one State cannot be subjected to measures off
alleged “national security” of another State, even less so when thfey are
contending parties in the same contentious case before an international f
tribunal. In this connection, an international tribunal such as the Intefrna ‑

tional Court of Justice is to make sure that the principle of the juridical
equality of States prevails, so as to discard eventual repercussions in the
international legal procedure of factual inequalities between States.

VII. The Prevalence of the Jurfidical Equality of Statefs

44. The present case concerning Questions relating to the Seizure and
Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia), bears

witness of the relevance of the principle of the juridical equality of Sftates.
The prevalence of this fundamental principle has marked a longstanding
presence in the realm of international law, ever since the times of the
II Hague Peace Conference of 1907, and then of the drafting of the Statute
of the Permanent Court of International Justice by the Advisory Committefe

of Jurists, in June‑July 1920. Recourse was then made, by that Committee,
inter alia, to general principles of law, as these latter embodied the objective
idea of justice. A general principle such as that of the juridical equalfity of
States, enshrined a quarter of a century later in the United Nations Charter
(Article 2 (1)), is ineluctably intermingled with the quest for justice.

45. Subsequently, throughout the drafting of the 1970 UN Declaration
on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and
Co‑operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the
United Nations (1964‑1970), the need was felt to make it clear that stron ‑
ger States cannot impose their will upon the weak, and that de facto

inequalities among States cannot affect the weaker in the vindication fof
their rights. The principle of the juridical equality of States gave expfres ‑
sion to this concern, embodying the idée de justice, emanated from the
universal juridical conscience. I have had the occasion to dwell upon thfis
point elsewhere, having pondered that :

“On successive occasions the principles of international law have
proved to be of fundamental importance to humankind’s quest for

justice. This is clearly illustrated by the role played, inter alia, by the
principle of juridical equality of States. This fundamental principle,
the historical roots of which go back to the II Hague Peace Confer ‑
ence of 1907, proclaimed in the UN Charter and enunciated also in
the 1970 Declaration of Principles, means ultimately that all States —

factually strong and weak, great and small — are equal before inter ‑
national law, are entitled to the same protection under the law and

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before the organs of international justice, and to equality in the exer ‑
cise of international rights and duties.

Despite successive attempts to undermine it, the principle of jurid ‑
ical equality of States has remained, from the II Hague Peace Con ‑
ference of 1907 to date, one of the basic pillars of international law. f
It has withstood the onslaught of time, and shown itself salutary for

the peaceful conduction of international relations, being ineluctably
associated — as it stands — with the foundations of international law.
It has been very important for the international legal system itself,
and has proven to be a cornerstone of international law in the United
Nations era. In fact, the UN Charter gave it a new dimension, and

the principle of juridical equality of States, in turn, paved the way fofr,
and contributed to, new developments such as that of the system of
collective security, within the ambit of the law of the United Nations.” 27

VIII. Provisional Measures off Protection Independefntly
of Unilateral “Undertakifngs” or Assurances

46. As from the characterizations by the International Court of Justice
itself of the essence and main features of the dispute lodged in the cas
d’espèce, one would legitimately expect that the Court would not proceed to
ground the provisional measures of protection that it has indicated in tfhe
present Order on a unilateral “undertaking” or assurance by one off the con ‑

tending Parties, precisely the one that has caused a damage — by the seizure
and detention of the documents and data at issue— to the applicant State.
In effect, in the present Order, the International Court of Justice, affter tak‑
ing note of the principal claim of Timor‑Leste that “a violation has foccurred

of its right to communicate with its counsel and lawyers in a confidenftial
manner with regard to issues forming the subject‑matter of pending arbitfral
proceedings and future negotiations between the Parties”, recalled thfat this
right derives from the fundamental principle of the juridical equality off

States, enshrined in Article 2 (1) of the UN Charter (Order, para. 27).
47. The International Court of Justice then proceeded that “equality of
the parties must be preserved” when they are engaged — pursuant to
Article 2 (3) of the UN Charter — in the process of peaceful settlement of
an international dispute (another general principle of international law).

Once a State is engaged therein, it is entitled to undertake arbitral prfo ‑
ceedings or negotiations “without interference by the other party in fthe
preparation and conduct of its case” (ibid.). It follows, the Court
added, that,

27A. A. Cançado Trindade, International Law for Humankind — Towards a New Jus
Gentium, 2nd rev. ed., Leiden/The Hague, Nijhoff, 2013, pp. 84‑85, and cf. pp. 62‑63, 65
and 73.

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“in such a situation, a State has a plausible right to the protectionf of
its communications with counsel relating to an arbitration or to nego‑
tiations, in particular, to the protection of the correspondence betweenf
them, as well as to the protection of confidentiality of any documentsf

and data prepared by counsel to advise that State in such a context” f
(Order, para. 27).

48. The Court concluded, on this issue, that at least some of the rights
for which Timor‑Leste seeks protection are “plausible”, in particular,
“the right to conduct arbitration proceedings or negotiations withoutf
interference by Australia”, and “the correlative right of confidfentiality of

and non‑interference in its communications with its legal advisers” (ibid.,
para. 28). I would take even a step further, in acknowledging that a right
is a right, irrespective of its so‑called “plausibility” (whatever that might
concretely mean) 28. In any case, having reached such a conclusion, one

would expect the Court to order its own provisional measures of protec ‑
tion independently of any promise or unilateral “undertaking” on the
part of the State which has breached that “plausible” right.

49. For reasons which escape my comprehension, the Court did not do

so, and, from then onwards, embarked on a distinct line of reasoning, onf
the basis of the “undertaking” or assurance by Australia to securef the
confidentiality of the material seized by its agents in Canberra on
3 December 2013. The Court was aware of the imminent risk of irrepa ‑

rable harm (ibid., para. 42), and insisted that there remained a risk of
further disclosure of the seized material (ibid., para. 46) to the additional
disadvantage of Timor‑Leste. The Court considered that

“there could be a very serious detrimental effect on Timor‑Leste’s
position in the Timor Sea Treaty Arbitration and in future maritime
negotiations with Australia should the seized material be divulged to

any person or persons involved or likely to be involved in that arbi ‑
tration or in negotiations on behalf of Australia. Any breach of con ‑
fidentiality may not be capable of remedy or reparation as it might
not be possible to revert to the status quo ante following disclosure of

the confidential information.” (Ibid., para. 42.)

50. How can the Court assume that such breach of confidentiality has
not already occurred, to the detriment of Timor‑Leste ? On what basis
can the Court assume that the material seized by Australia has not yet
been divulged, or was not divulged on the days following its seizure, anfd

before the “undertaking” or assurance by Australia ? How can the Court
be sure that Timor‑Leste has not yet suffered an irreparable harm ? How

28“Plausibility”, as understood nowadays, has its etymological origifns tracing back to
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, means something which is worth of approval or
applause (from plaudere).

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can the Court proceed, on the basis of the seizure undertaken by the Ausf‑
tralian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO), to ground in the pres ‑
ent Order its own provisional measures of protection, instead of taking f
custody of the seized material ? From this point of the present Order (reli ‑
ance on the seizure of documents and data for alleged “national securfity”

reasons) onwards, it is difficult to avoid the sensation of entering into the
realm of surrealism.

51. The fact is that it cannot be denied with certainty that, with the
seizure of the documents and data containing its privileged information,f

Timor‑Leste has already suffered an irreparable harm. Six and a half
decades ago (in 1949), in his last book, Nineteen Eighty‑Four, George
Orwell repeatedly warned : “Big Brother Is Watching You” 29. Modern
history is permeated with examples of the undue exercise of search

and seizure, by those who felt powerful enough to exercise unreasonable
surveillance of others. Modern history has also plenty of examples
of the proper reaction of those who felt victimized by such exercise of
search and seizure. In so reacting, the latter felt that, though lacking in
factual power, they had law on their side, as all are equal before the lfaw.

If Orwell could rise from his tomb today, I imagine he would probably
contemplate writing Two Thousand Eighty‑Four, updating his perennial
and topical warning, so as to encompass surveillance not only at
intra‑State level, but also at inter‑State level ; nowadays, “Big Brother Is

Watching You” on a much wider geographical scale, and also in the relfa ‑
tions across nations.

52. If the Court were sensitive to that, it would have ordered — as in
my view it should have — its provisional measures of protection indepfen ‑

dently of any unilateral “undertaking” or assurance on the part off the
State which exercised search and seizure (Australia) of documents and f
data containing privileged information belonging to the applicant State f
(Timor‑Leste). The Court would have ordered the seized documents and
data to be promptly sealed and delivered into its custody here at its siège

at the Peace Palace in The Hague. In any case, the provisional measures
of protection indicated in the present Order of the Court, concerning a f
situation of urgency, purports to prevent further irreparable harm to
Timor‑Leste.

53. The Court did not at all need to have relied factually upon Austra ‑
lia’s seizure of the documents and data containing information belonging
to Timor‑Leste, so as to order Australia to “keep under seal the seized
documents and electronic data and any copies thereof” (resolutory

point 2). The Court should have taken custody of those documents and
data (and any copies thereof) from then on. Instead of that, the Courtf
ordered the State which seized them to ensure that no further damage is

29
Part I, Chapter I ; and Part III, Chapter VI.

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done to Timor‑Leste by further disclosure for use by any person(s), off the
seized material (resolutory point 1).

54. Ironically, in the present Order the Court itself admits (Order,

para. 30) that the provisional measures of protection requested by
Timor‑Leste are aimed at preventing further damage to it. It is clear that
damage has already been made to Timor‑Leste. Yet the Court orders pro ‑
visional measures of protection to be taken by the State — as from its

unilateral “undertaking” — that has seized the documents and data for
alleged reasons of “national security”. In this connection, in thef mid‑
fifties, the poet Vinicius de Moraes pitied the ungrateful task of those
who worked in archives (and I would here add, in secret archives, amidsft

documents allegedly concerning “national security”) ; in his own words :

“Antes não classificásseis
Os maços pelos assuntos
Criando a luta de classes

Num mundo de anseios juntos ! (. . .)
Ah, ver‑vos em primavera
Sobre papéis de ocasião

Na melancólica espera 30
De uma eterna certidão ! (. . .)”

55. In distinct contexts, the inviolability of State papers and docu ‑
ments has been an old concern in diplomatic relations. The 1946 UN Con‑
vention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations refers to

the “inviolability for all papers and documents” of Member States fpar ‑
ticipating in the work of its main and subsidiary organs, or in conferences
convened by the United Nations (Art. IV). In the same year, a resolu ‑
tion of the UN General Assembly asserted that such inviolability of all

State papers and documents was granted by the 1946 Convention “in the
interests of the good administration of justice” 3. Thus, already in 1946,
the UN General Assembly had given expression in a resolution to the pre ‑
sumption of the inviolability of the correspondence between Member

States and their legal advisers. This is an international law obligation, not

30 Vinicius de Moraes, “Balada das Arquivistas”, Antologia Poética (1954) :

“Better if you would not classify
The files by the subjects
Creating class struggle
In a world full of anguish ! (. . .)
Ah, to see you all in the springtime
Over occasional papers
In the melancholic expectation
Of an eternal certificate ! (. . .)” [My own translation.]
31
GA resolution 90 (I), of 11 December 1946, para. 5 (b).

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8 CIJ1061.indb 218 25/03/15 08:46 189 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

one derived from a unilateral “undertaking” or assurance by a Statfe fol ‑
lowing its seizure of documents and data containing information belong ‑

ing to another State.

56. In my perception, there is no room, in provisional measures of pro‑
tection, for indulging in an exercise of balancing of interests of the cfon ‑
tending parties. For example, in the present Order, the Court refers to fthe

“significant contribution” of Australia’s unilateral “undefrtaking” or
promise (of 21 January 2014) towards “mitigating the imminent risk of
irreparable prejudice” to Timor‑Leste (Order, para. 47). Yet, immediately
afterwards, the Court goes on to say that, despite that unilateral “ufnder ‑
taking” by Australia, “there is still an imminent risk of irreparafble preju‑
dice” to Timor‑Leste (ibid., para. 48). This being so, what is the “significant

contribution” of the unilateral “undertaking” or assurance to mfitigate the
“imminent risk of irreparable prejudice” to Timor‑Leste ? The Court pro ‑
vides no explanation for its assertion. What is so “significant”f about that
unilateral act ? The Court does not demonstrate its “significance”, only
takes the promise at its face value.

57. Can a unilateral assurance or promise provide a basis for the
Court’s reasoning in Orders of binding provisional measures of protecf ‑
tion? Not at all — as I sustained half a decade ago in my dissenting opin ‑
ion in the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute
or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) (Provisional Measures, Order of 28 May

2009, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 139), and as I once again sustain in this
separate opinion in the present Order of 3 March 2014 in the case con ‑
cerning Questions relating to the Seizure and Detention of Certain Docu ‑
ments and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia). Like Ionesco’s Rhinocéros
(1960), je ne capitule pas . . .
58. The International Court of Justice is not a simple amiable compo‑

siteur, it is a court of law, the principal judicial organ of the United Nations
(Article 92 of the UN Charter). In the exercise of its judicial function, it
is not to ground its reasoning on unilateral “undertakings” or assurances
or promises formulated in the course of international legal proceedings.f
Precepts of law provide a much safer ground for its reasoning in the exefr ‑

cise of its judicial function. Those precepts are of a perennial value, fsuch
as the ones in (Ulpian’s) opening book I (item I, para. 3) or in Justinian’s
Institutes (early sixth century) : honeste vivere, alterum non laedere, suum
cuique tribuere (to live honestly, not to harm anyone, to give each one his/
her due).

IX. The Autonomous Legal Regimfe
of Provisional Measurefs of Protection

59. This brings me to my last point in the present separate opinion.

The present legal proceedings, in my perception, bring to the fore, oncef
again, what I have for some time been characterizing as the autonomous

46

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legal regime of provisional measures of protection. In this respect, as I have
pointed out, e.g., in my dissenting opinion in the merged cases of Certain

Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area and of the Con‑
struction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Provisional
Measures, Order of 16 July 2013, I.C.J. Reports 2013, p. 230), opposing
Costa Rica to Nicaragua (and vice versa), the object of requests for pro ‑
visional measures of protection is different from the object of applicfations

lodged with international tribunals, as to the merits.

60. Furthermore, the rights to be protected are not necessarily the
same in the two respective proceedings. Compliance with provisional
measures runs parallel to the course of proceedings as to the merits of fthe
case at issue. The obligations concerning provisional measures ordered

and decisions as to the merits (and reparations) are not the same, beifng
autonomous from each other. The same can be said of the legal conse ‑
quences of non‑compliance (with provisional measures, or else with judgf‑
ments as to the merits), the breaches (of one and the other) being difstinct
from each other (ibid., pp. 267‑268, paras. 70‑71).

61. What ensues herefrom is the pressing need to dwell upon, and to
develop conceptually, the autonomous legal regime of provisional mea ‑
sures of protection, particularly in view of the expansion of these lattfer in
our days (ibid., para. 75). This is the point which I have made not only in
my dissenting opinion in the two aforementioned merged cases opposing

Costa Rica to Nicaragua, but also in my earlier dissenting opinion in thfe
case of Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Bel ‑
gium v. Senegal) (Provisional Measures, Order of 28 May 2009,
I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 192‑193, paras. 80‑81), and which I see fit to reit ‑
erate here, in the present case of Questions relating to the Seizure and
Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia). It

should not pass unnoticed that this point has marked presence in these
recent cases, surrounded by entirely distinct circumstances. This, in myf
view, discloses the importance of the acknowledgment of the autonomous
legal regime of provisional measures of protection, irrespective of the cir ‑
cumstances of the cases at issue.

62. I deem it a privilege to be able to serve the cause of international
justice here at the Peace Palace in The Hague. With all that is going on
here at the Peace Palace — at the International Court of Justice and at the
Permanent Court of Arbitration next door — as well illustrated herein,

the present case concerning Questions relating to the Seizure and Deten ‑
tion of Certain Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia), since its
lodging with the International Court of Justice last 17 December 2013 up
to now, marks a proper closing of the celebrations of the centenary of tfhe
Peace Palace. This emblematic centenary would have been more remark ‑
able if the International Court of Justice had ordered today, 3 March

2014, what in my view it should have done, i.e., the adoption of an ordefr
of provisional measures of protection to the effect of, from now on, kfeep ‑

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8 CIJ1061.indb 222 25/03/15 08:46 191 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

ing custody itself, as master of its own jurisdiction, of the seized docfu ‑
ments and data containing information belonging to Timor‑Leste, here in f

its premises at the Peace Palace in The Hague.

X. Epilogue: A Recapitulation

63. From the preceding considerations, I hope it has become crystal
clear why I consider that the provisional measures of protection indicatfed
by the Court in the present Order of 3 March 2014, in the case concerning
Questions relating to the Seizure and Detention of Certain Documents and▯
Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia) are better than nothing, better than not
having ordered any such measures at all, though I find that the Court f

should have gone further and have ordered provisional measures of pro ‑
tection independently of any unilateral “undertaking” or assurancef by
one of the Parties, and should from now on have kept custody of the
seized documents and data itself, at its siège here at the Peace Palace in
The Hague. I have thus felt obliged, in the faithful exercise of the internaf ‑

tional judicial function, to lay the foundations of my own position in tfhe
cas d’espèce in the present separate opinion. I deem it fit, at this stage, to
recapitulate all the points of my personal position, expressed herein, ffor
the sake of clarity, and in order to stress their interrelatedness.
64. Primus : When a State pursues the safeguard of its own right, act ‑

ing on its own behalf, it cannot be compelled to appear before the natiofnal
tribunals of another State, its contending party. The local remedies rulfe
does not apply in cases of this kind ; par in parem non habet imperium, non
habet jurisdictionem. Secundus : The centrality of the quest for justice pre ‑
vails over concerns to avoid “concurrent jurisdiction”. Tertius : The
imperative of the realization of justice prevails over manifestations off a

State’s will. Quartus : Euphemisms en vogue — like the empty and mis ‑
leading rhetoric of “proliferation” of international tribunals, anfd “frag ‑
mentation” of international law, among others — are devoid of any
meaning, and divert attention to false issues of “delimitation” off compe ‑
tences, oblivious of the need to secure an enlarged access to justice tof the

justiciables.

65. Quintus : International courts and tribunals share a common mis ‑
sion to impart justice, which stands above the zeal of “delimitation” fof
competences. Sextus : Unilateral “undertakings” or assurances by a con ‑

tending party cannot serve as basis for provisional measures of protec ‑
tion. Septimus : Reliance on unilateral “undertakings” or assurances has
been the source of uncertainties and apprehension ; they are proper to the
realm of inter‑State (diplomatic) relations, and reliance upon such unfilat ‑
eral acts is to be avoided in the course of international legal proceedifngs;
ex factis jus non oritur.

66. Octavus : International legal procedure has a logic of its own, which
is not to be equated to that of diplomatic relations, even less so in face of

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8 CIJ1061.indb 224 25/03/15 08:46 192 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

the perceived need of assertion that ex injuria jus non oritur. Nonus : To
allow unilateral acts to be performed with the acceptance of subsequent f

“undertakings” or assurances ensuing therefrom would not only genefrate
uncertainties, but also create faits accomplis threatening the certainty of
the application of the law. Decimus : Facts only do not per se generate
law‑creating effects. Human values and the idea of objective justice sftand
above facts ;ex conscientia jus oritur.

67. Undecimus : Arguments of alleged “national security”, as raised in
the cas d’espèce, cannot be made the concern of an international tribunal.
Measures of alleged “national security”, as raised in the cas d’espèce, are
alien to the exercise of the international judicial function. Duodecimus :
General principles of international law, such as the juridical equality fof

States (enshrined into Article 2 (1) of the United Nations Charter), can ‑
not be obfuscated by allegations of “national security”. Tertius decimus :
The basic principle of the juridical equality of States, embodying the idée
de justice, is to prevail, so as to discard eventual repercussions in interna ‑
tional legal procedure of factual inequalities among States.

68. Quartus decimus : Due process of law, and the equality of arms
(égalité des armes), cannot be undermined by recourse by a contending
party to alleged measures of “national security”. Quintus decimus : Alle ‑

gations of State secrecy or “national security” cannot interfere in the
work of an international tribunal (in judicial or arbitral proceedings)f, car ‑
ried out in the light of the principle of the proper administration of jfustice
(la bonne administration de la justice).
69. Sextus decimus : Provisional measures of protection cannot be
erected upon unilateral “undertakings” or assurances ensuing from f

alleged “national security” measures ; provisional measures of protection
cannot rely on such unilateral acts, they are independent from them, thefy
carry the authority of the international tribunal which ordered them. Sep ‑
timus decimus : In the circumstances of the cas d’espèce, it is the Court
itself that should keep custody of the documents and data seized and

detained by a contending party ; the Court should do so as master of its
own jurisdiction, so as to prevent further irreparable harm.

70. Duodevicesimus : The inviolability of State papers and documents is
recognized by international law, in the interests of the good administra ‑

tion of justice. Undevicesimus : The inviolability of the correspondence
between States and their legal advisers is an international law obligatifon,
not one derived from a unilateral “undertaking” or assurance by a fState
following its seizure of documents and data containing information
belonging to another State.

71. Vicesimus : There is an autonomous legal regime of provisional
measures of protection, in expansion in our times. This autonomous legalf

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8 CIJ1061.indb 226 25/03/15 08:46 193 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

regime comprises :(a) the rights to be protected, not necessarily the same
as in the proceedings on the merits of the concrete case ; (b) the corre‑
sponding obligations of the States concerned ; (c) the legal consequences
of non‑compliance with provisional measures, distinct from those ensuingf

from breaches as to the merits. The acknowledgment of such autonomous
legal regime is endowed with growing importance in our days.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

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8 CIJ1061.indb 228 25/03/15 08:46

Bilingual Content

167

SEPARATE OPINION
OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. P rolegomena 1‑2

II. The Centrality of the Quefst for Justice 3‑12

1. Impertinence of reliance on local remedies in the circum
stances of the present case 4‑5
2. Impertinence of reliance on avoidance of “concurrent juris

diction” in the circumstances of the present case 6‑10
3. General assessment 11‑12

III. Impertinence of Reliance upon Unilateral Acts of States

in the Course of Internaftional Legal Proceedinfgs 13‑25

IV. e xc onscientia Juso ritur 26‑28

V. The Question of the Ownership of the Seized Documents

and Data 29‑32

VI. The Relevance of General Principles of Ifnternational
Law 33‑43

1. Responses of the Parties to a question from the Bench 34‑36
2. General assessment 37‑43

VII. The Prevalence of the Jurfidical Equality of Statefs 44‑45

VIII. Provisional Measures of Protection Independently of

Unilateral “Undertakifngs” or Assurances 46‑58

IX. The Autonomous Legal Regimfe of Provisional Measurfes of
Protection 59‑62

X. Epilogue: A Recapitulation 63‑71

*

I. Prolegomena

1. Destiny has wished that the judicial year of 2014 of the International
Court of Justice (ICJ) was to start with the consideration of the presfent

24

8 CIJ1061.indb 176 25/03/15 08:46 167

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE
DE M. LE JUGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

[Traduction]
table des matières

Paragraphes

I. Prolégomènes 1‑2

II. Le rôle central de la qfuête de justice 3‑12

1. L’absence de pertinence de la règle de l’épuisement des
voies de recours internes 4‑5
2. L’absence de pertinence de l’argument tenant à la nécessitéf

d’éviter toute « compétence concurrente» 6‑10
3. Appréciation générale 11‑12

III. L’absence de pertinenfce du recours aux actesf unilatéraux
d’États dans le cadref des procédures judicifaires inter‑

nationales 13‑25

IV. e x conscientia Jus oritur 26‑28

V. La question de la proprfiété des documents etf données
saisis 29‑32

VI. La pertinence des prifncipes généraux du drofit inter‑
national 33‑43

1. Réponses des Parties à une question d’un membre de la Cour 34‑36
2. Appréciation générale 37‑43

VII. La primauté du principfe de l’égalité juridiqfue des États 44‑45

VIII. La nécessité de mesurefs conservatoires indfépendantes des

assurances ou « engagements» unilatéraux 46‑58

IX. Le régime juridique autofnome des mesures consfervatoires 59‑62

X. Épilogue : récapitulation 63‑71

*

I. Prolégomènes

1. Le hasard a voulu que la Cour entame l’année judiciaire 2014 par
l’examen de la présente affaire, introduite le 17 décembre 2013, relative ‑

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case concerning Questions relating to the Seizure and Detention of Certain
Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia), lodged with the Court on

17 December 2013, which once again shows that the factual context of
disputes lodged with an international tribunal like the International Cofurt
of Justice may well cross the threshold of human imagination. In effecft, I
have concurred with my vote to the adoption of the present Order of
3 March 2014, as I consider that the provisional measures of protection

ordered by the Court are better than nothing, better than not having
ordered any such measures at all. Yet, given the circumstances of the cas
d’espèce, I think that the Court should have gone further, and should have
ordered the measure requested by Timor‑Leste, to the effect of having fthe
documents and data (containing information belonging to it) seized by
Australia, immediately sealed and delivered into the custody of the Court

itself here at its siège at the Peace Palace in The Hague.
2. I feel thus obliged to leave on the records the foundations of my
personal position on the matter. To that effect, I shall address, fifrstly, the
centrality of the quest for justice (disclosing the impertinence of thef invo ‑
cation of the local remedies rule, and of reliance on avoidance of so‑caflled

“concurrent jurisdiction”). Secondly, I shall dwell on the impertfinence of
reliance upon unilateral acts of States in the course of international lfegal
proceedings. Thirdly, I shall address the prevalence of human values andf
the idea of objective justice over facts (ex conscientia jus oritur). Fourthly,
I shall address the question of the ownership of the seized documents anfd

data. Fifthly, I shall focus on the relevance of general principles of ifnter ‑
national law. Sixthly, I shall dwell upon the prevalence of the juridicafl
equality of States. I shall then move to my last line of consideration, fon
provisional measures of protection independent of unilateral “undertafk ‑
ings” or assurances, and on what I deem it fit to characterize as the auto‑
nomous legal regime of provisional measures of protection. Last but not

least, I shall proceed to a recapitulation of all the points made in the
present separate opinion.

II. The Centrality of the Quefst for Justice

3. To start with, in the course of the present proceedings the Court was
faced with arguments, advanced in particular by the respondent State,
which required from it clarification so as to address properly the reqfuest
for provisional measures of protection. Those arguments pertained to

Australia’s reliance on : (a) local remedies to be allegedly exhausted (by
the applicant State) in national courts ; and (b) avoidance of concurrent
jurisdiction (the International Court of Justice and the Arbitral Tribufnal
of the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA)). Those arguments were
advanced by counsel for Australia as alleged impediments to Timor‑Leste f
to seek provisional measures of protection from the International Court f

of Justice itself, as it has done. Yet, it promptly became clear that, ifn the
circumstances of the cas d’espèce, reliance on local remedies and on avoi ‑

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8 CIJ1061.indb 178 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 168

ment à des Questions concernant la saisie et la détention de certains docu ‑
ments et données (Timor‑Leste c. Australie), affaire qui montre une fois

encore que le contexte factuel des différends soumis à une juridfiction
internationale telle que la Cour dépasse parfois l’imagination. Sif j’ai voté
en faveur de l’adoption de la présente ordonnance, c’est parce que j’es ‑
time que les mesures conservatoires indiquées par la Cour valent mieufx
que rien, et qu’il était préférable d’indiquer ces mesurefs que de n’en indi ‑

quer aucune. Pour autant, au vu des circonstances de la présente espèfce,
la Cour aurait dû, à mon sens, aller plus loin en faisant droit àf la mesure
sollicitée par le Timor‑Leste, à savoir que les documents et donnéfes saisis
par l’Australie (qui contiennent des informations appartenant au
Timor‑Leste) soient immédiatement placés sous scellés et confiés à la
garde de la Cour elle‑même, à son siège du Palais de la Paix, à La Haye.

2. J’estime donc devoir joindre à la présente ordonnance l’expofsé de ma
position personnelle. J’examinerai, premièrement, le rôle centrfal de la quête
de justice (qui révèle l’absence de pertinence de l’invocatfion de la règle de
l’épuisement des voies de recours internes et du souci d’évifter de préten ‑

dues « compétences concurrentes »). Deuxièmement, je m’attarderai sur
l’absence de pertinence du recours aux actes unilatéraux d’Etatfs dans le
cadre des procédures judiciaires internationales. Troisièmement, jfe m’inté ‑
resserai à la primauté des valeurs humaines et de l’idée d’une justice objec‑
tive sur les faits (ex conscientia jus oritur), avant d’examiner, quatrièmement,

la question de la propriété des documents et données saisis. Cifnquième ‑
ment, j’aborderai la pertinence des principes généraux du droitf internatio ‑
nal, puis m’arrêterai, sixièmement, sur la prééminence def l’égalité juridique
des Etats. Après quoi, j’en viendrai au dernier point de mon analyfse, à
savoir la nécessité de mesures conservatoires indépendante des assurances
ou «engagements» unilatéraux, et ce que je crois devoir qualifier de régime

juridique autonome régissant pareilles mesures. Enfin, je récapitulerai l’en ‑
semble des points développés dans la présente opinion individueflle.

II. Le rôle central de la qfuête de justice

3. Il convient tout d’abord de souligner que, en l’espèce, la Courf s’est
trouvée confrontée à des arguments — émanant en particulier de l’Etat
défendeur — qu’il lui a fallu préciser afin de pouvoir examiner comme il
se devait la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires qui lui éftait

présentée. Ces arguments, qui portaient sur a) la prétendue nécessité
(pour l’Etat demandeur) d’épuiser les voies de recours devantf les juridic ‑
tions nationales et b) celle d’éviter toute compétence concurrente (entre la
Cour et le tribunal de la Cour permanente d’arbitrage (CPA)), ont fété
avancés par les conseils de l’Australie pour contester la facultéf du
Timor‑Leste de solliciter, comme il l’a fait, des mesures conservatoifres

directement auprès de la Cour. Or, il est rapidement apparu, à la flumière
des circonstances de l’affaire, que le principe de l’épuisemefnt des voies de

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8 CIJ1061.indb 179 25/03/15 08:46 169 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

dance of “concurrent jurisdiction” (judicial and arbitral procedures) were
impertinent, and missed the central point of the quest for justice in thfe

circumstances of the cas d’espèce.

1. Impertinence of Reliance on Local Remedies

in the Circumstances of the Present Case

4. At the public sitting before the Court of 21 January 2014, counsel
for Australia contended that Timor‑Leste was to pursue “remedies in afn
Australian court”, even though it conceded that this was not a “diploma ‑
1
tic protection claim” . For its part, Timor‑Leste contended that the rule
of exhaustion of local remedies had no application here, in a case like fthe
present one, “where a State asserts its own right against the State tfhat has
2
harmed it” . It was made clear that, in such circumstances, it would be
impertinent to insist on recourse to local remedies.

5. In effect, the rule of exhaustion of local remedies surely does not

apply here. Firstly, this is a public complaint, a State claim with publfic —
not private — origin. Secondly, this is a complaint of a direct injury to the
State itself, fundamentally distinct from one of diplomatic protection. f
Thirdly, the State is, clearly, not only pursuing its own interests, butf vin ‑

dicating what it regards as its own right. Fourthly, in so doing, the Stfate
is acting on its own behalf. In such circumstances, a State cannot be com ‑
pelled to subject itself to appear before national tribunals. As widely freck ‑

oned in international case law and legal doctrine, in these circumstances
the local remedies rule does not apply : par in parem non habet imperium,
non habet jurisdictionem 3.

2. Impertinence of Reliance on Avoidance of “Concurrent Jurisdiction”▯

in the Circumstances of the Present Case

6. Counsel for Australia then drew attention to the pending arbitral
proceedings opposing it to Timor‑Leste, adding that the International
Court of Justice, depending in its view on State consent, had “no inhferent

priority” over “other forums specially consented to by States”,f nor review
authority over them, unless “such priority or authority have been
expressly conferred” 4. This argument was laid down on a strict State

voluntarist outlook, privileging State will. Counsel of Australia proceefd‑
ed that concurrent jurisdiction (International Court of Justice and PCAf
Arbitral Tribunal) should be avoided, as “[a] rigid adherence to thef

1
2 CR 2014/2, of 21 January 2014, pp. 19‑20, para. 37.
3 CR 2014/1, of 20 January 2014, p. 26, para. 20.
A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies
in 4nternational Law, Cambridge University Press, 1983, pp. 173‑174.
CR 2014/2, of 21 January 2014, pp. 43‑44, paras. 21‑22.

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8 CIJ1061.indb 180 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 169

recours internes et l’impératif d’éviter toute « compétence concurrente »
étaient dénués de pertinence et n’allaient pas dans le sens fde l’objectif

primordial de la quête de justice en la présente espèce.

1. L’absence de pertinence de la règle de l’épuisement
des voies de recours internes

4. A l’audience publique du 21 janvier 2014, le conseil de l’Australie a
soutenu que le Timor‑Leste était tenu d’exercer des « voies de recours
auprès d’un tribunal australien », tout en concédant qu’il ne s’agissait
pas, en l’espèce, d’une « demande de protection diplomatique »1. Le

Timor‑Leste a, pour sa part, avancé que la règle de l’épuisefment des voies
de recours internes ne trouvait pas à s’appliquer dans une affaifre telle que
la présente, « où un Etat fait valoir ses propres droits à l’égard d’un autre
Etat qui lui a causé un préjudice » 2, et que, en pareille situation, il serait

inopportun de persister à invoquer ladite règle.
5. Il ne fait en effet aucun doute que la règle de l’épuisement fdes voies
de recours internes ne s’applique pas en la présente espèce. Tofut d’abord,

il s’agit ici d’une réclamation de nature publique, émanant fd’un Etat, dont
l’origine est publique, et non privée. Cette réclamation porte,f qui plus est,
sur un préjudice direct causé à l’Etat lui‑même, et se distingue donc fonda ‑
mentalement d’une demande de protection diplomatique. Par ailleurs, ifl

est clair qu’il s’agit non pas seulement, pour cet Etat, de protéfger ses inté ‑
rêts, mais également de faire valoir ce qu’il considère commfe étant son
droit. Enfin, ce faisant, l’Etat agit en son nom propre. En pareilles circons ‑
tances, un Etat ne saurait être tenu de saisir les tribunaux nationaux. Ainfsi

que cela a été largement confirmé par la jurisprudence et la fdoctrine inter ‑
nationales, la règle des recours internes ne s’applique pas dans ufne telle
situation :par in parem non habet imperium, non habet jurisdictionem 3.

2. L’absence de pertinence de l’argument tenant à la nécessité▯
d’éviter toute « compétence concurrente»

6. Le conseil de l’Australie a ensuite appelé l’attention sur l’farbitrage qui

oppose actuellement l’Australie et le Timor‑Leste, faisant valoir quef la Cour,
dont la compétence dépend, selon lui, du consentement des Etats, nf’a p «as
intrinsèquement priorité» sur «les autres organes auxquels les Etats ont spé ‑
cifiquement consenti» et n’a aucun pouvoir lui permettant de reviser leurs

décisions «à mo4ns que pareille priorité ou autorité ne lui ait expressémentf
été conférée » . Cet argument s’inscrit dans une approche strictement volo‑n
tariste privilégiant la volonté des Etats. Le conseil de l’Austfralie a ensuite
soutenu qu’il convenait d’éviter les compétences concurrentefs (entre la Cour

1
2 CR 2014/2, 21 janvier 2014, p. 19‑20, par. 37.
CR 2014/1, 20 janvier 2014, p. 26, par. 20.
3 A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local Remedies
in International Law, Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 173‑174.
4 CR 2014/2, 21 janvier 2014, p. 43‑44, par. 21‑22.

26

8 CIJ1061.indb 181 25/03/15 08:46 170 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

parallelism of jurisdictions will only encourage forum shopping, conflfict
and fragmentation, unduly favouring successive claimants” . In Austra ‑
lia’s counsel’s view, in order to avoid one international tribunalf affecting

“parallel proceedings” before another, and also to avoid “two cfonflicting
decisions on the same issue” (paras. 25‑26), in his view the PCA Arbitral
Tribunal, and not the International Court of Justice, was a “more appro ‑
priate forum” for dealing with provisional measures in the present cafse
(paras. 31‑33) .

7. The International Court of Justice has promptly and rightly disposed of

these arguments in the present Order of 3 March 2014. From the start, it
recalled that, in its previous Order, of 28 January 2014, in the present case, it

“decided not to accede to Australia’s request for a stay of the prfo ‑
ceedings, considering, inter alia, that the dispute before it between
Timor‑Leste and Australia was [is] sufficiently distinct from the dis ‑
pute being adjudicated upon by the Arbitral Tribunal in the Timor
Sea Treaty Arbitration” (para. 17).

The arguments that it rejected unduly shifted attention from the quest ffor

justice and the imperative of the realization of justice, into alleged needs
of delimitation of competences between international tribunals.

8. Furthermore, it so happens that the Rules of Procedure of the PCA
Arbitral Tribunal, in charge of the arbitration under the Timor Sea

Treaty, provide that “[a] request for interim measures addressed by afny
party to a judicial authority shall not be deemed incompatible with the f
agreement to arbitrate, or as a waiver of that agreement”. The interna
corporis of the PCA Arbitral Tribunal itself sees no need of avoiding

“forum shopping”, or “parallelism of jurisdictions”, or “ffragmentation of
international law”, or the like. It is duly focused on the quest for fjustice.

9. In the present case, there is clearly no impediment to resort to

another judicial instance in order to obtain provisional measures of pro ‑
tection, quite on the contrary. The contending Parties are expressly
allowed to do so, in case such provisional measures are needed. And,
contrary to what Australia’s counsel says, the International Court off Jus‑

tice, and not the PCA Arbitral Tribunal, is surely the “more approprifate
forum” for dealing with provisional measures of protection in the casfe of
which it has been seized. Moreover, it is my feeling that a word of caution
is here needed as to the aforementioned euphemisms (the empty and mis ‑
leading rhetoric of “forum shopping”, “parallelism”, avoidance of “frag ‑

mentation” of international law and of “proliferation” of interfnational

5CR 2014/2, of 21 January 2014, pp. 44‑45, para. 24.
6Ibid., pp. 45‑47, paras. 25‑26 and 31‑33.

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8 CIJ1061.indb 182 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 170

et le tribunal arbitral de la CPA), au motif que [«s]uivre à la lettre le principe
du parallélisme des compétences ne fera[it] qu’encourager la safisine par les
parties à un différend de la juridiction qui leur est la plus fafvorable, le conflit
de juridictions et la fragmentation du droit, et favoriser indûment lfes deman ‑
5
deurs successifs ». Soulignant qu’il était nécessaire d’éviter que les défcisions
d’un tribunal international n’affectent le déroulement d’une « procédure
conduite parallèlement» devant une autre instance, et que ces juridictions ne
rendent «deux décisions contradictoires sur la même question » (par. 25‑26),
il a estimé que le tribunal arbitral — et non la Cour — constituait « l’en‑

ceinte la plus appropriée» aux fins de la demande e6 indication de mesures
conservatoires en la présente affaire (par. 31‑33).
7. La Cour a rapidement, et à juste titre, écarté ces arguments, rfappe ‑
lant d’emblée que, dans sa précédente ordonnance du 28 janvier 2014 en
la présente affaire, elle avait

«décidé de ne pas faire droit à la demande de l’Australie tenfdant à la
suspension de l’instance, considérant notamment que le différfend

porté devant elle [était] suffisamment distinct de celui dont confna[is‑
sait] le tribunal dans le cadre de l’arbitrage en vertu du traité fsur la
mer de Timor » (par. 17).

Ces arguments du défendeur, bien qu’ils aient été rejetés, ont indûment
détourné l’attention de la quête de justice et de l’impéfratif de réalisation
de la justice au profit de questions tenant à la prétendue néfcessité de déli‑
miter les compétences entre juridictions internationales.

8. Il se trouve, par ailleurs, que le règlement de procédure du tribufnal
arbitral de la CPA, saisi pour connaître de l’arbitrage en vertu dfu traité sur
la mer de Timor, dispose qu’«[u]ne demande de mesures provisoires adres‑
sée par une partie à une autorité judiciaire ne doit pas êtrfe considérée comme

incompatible avec la convention d’arbitrage ni comme une renonciationf au
droit de se prévaloir de ladite convention». L’instrument constitutif du tri‑
bunal de la CPA lui‑même ne voit donc nul besoin d’éviter le «ff orum shop‑
ping» [saisine par une partie à un différend de la juridiction qufi lui est la plus
favorable], le «parallélisme des compétences» ou la «fragmentation du droit

international», et met l’accent, comme il se doit, sur la quête de justice.
9. De toute évidence, rien ne faisait obstacle, dans la présente afffaire, à
ce que les Parties recourent à une autre instance judiciaire pour obtfenir
des mesures conservatoires. Bien au contraire, elles étaient expresséfment
autorisées à le faire dans l’hypothèse où pareilles mesurfes seraient requises.

De surcroît, contrairement à ce qu’a soutenu le conseil de l’fAustralie,
c’est la Cour — et non le tribunal arbitral — qui constituait de toute évi ‑
dence «l’enceinte la plus appropriée » pour connaître de la demande dont
elle a été saisie. Par ailleurs, il me semble que la plus grande pfrudence est
de mise face aux euphémismes susmentionnés — je veux parler de la

rhétorique vide de sens et erronée qui entoure les notions de « forum
shopping», de « parallélisme des compétences », de « fragmentation du

5CR 2014/2, 21 janvier 2014, p. 44‑45, par. 24.
6Ibid., p. 45‑47, par. 25‑26 et 31‑33.

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8 CIJ1061.indb 183 25/03/15 08:46 171 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

tribunals) with which a trend of contemporary legal doctrine (en vogue to
the north of the equator) has in recent years tried in vain to brainwasfh

younger generations of scholars of our discipline, unduly diverting attefn‑
tion from the quest for justice to alleged “problems” of “delimfitation” of
competences.

10. In this respect, destiny has wished (once again) that, shortly before f
the present case was lodged with the International Court of Justice, durf ‑
ing the centennial celebrations of the Peace Palace (ICJ Seminar of

23 September 2013), I had the occasion to ponder that :

“In our days, the more lucid international legal doctrine has at lastf
discarded empty euphemistic expressions used some years ago, such
as so‑called ‘proliferation’ of international tribunals, so‑calledf ‘frag ‑

mentation’ of international law, so‑called ‘forum‑shopping’, which
diverted attention to false issues of delimitation of competences,
oblivious of the need to focus on the imperative of an enlarged access
to justice. Those expressions, narrow‑minded, unelegant and deroga ‑

tory — and devoid of any meaning — paid a disservice to our disci ‑
pline; they missed the key point of the considerable advances of the
old ideal of international justice in the contemporary world.” 7

3. General Assessment

11. Not surprisingly, the argument of the respondent State invoking

the rule of exhaustion of local remedies (supra) did not survive in the
circumstances of the present case. After all, par in parem non habet impe ‑
rium, non habet jurisdictionem. Nor did its other argument, invoking the

alleged risks of so‑called “parallelism”, or “concurrent jurisdfiction”, or
“forum shopping”, or “fragmentation” of international law, ofr the like.
Such “neologisms”, so much en vogue in international legal practice in
our days, seem devoid of any meaning, besides diverting attention from

the crucial point of the quest for justice to the false issue of “delimitation”
of competences. It is about time to stop referring to so‑called “fragfmen ‑
tation” of international law . The current enlargement of access to justice

to the justiciables is reassuring. International courts and tribunals have a
common mission to impart justice, which brings their endeavours together,

7 A. A. Cançado Trindade, “A Century of International Justice and Prospects for the
Future”, A Century of International Justice and Prospects for the Future/Rétro▯spective d’un
siècle de justice internationale et perspectives d’avenir (eds. A. A. Cançado Trindade and
D. Spielmann), Wolf Legal Publs., 2014, p. 21.
8
As it is surely not at all a topic for codification or progressive development of interna‑
tional law, it should never have been retained in the agenda of the UN Ifnternational Law
Commission, as it did in 2002‑2006. It is, at most, a topic for a university thesis (for an
LL.M., rather than a Ph.D. degree).

28

8 CIJ1061.indb 184 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 171

droit international» ou encore de « prolifération» des tribunaux interna ‑
tionaux —, par lesquels un courant de la doctrine contemporaine, en

vogue dans l’hémisphère nord depuis quelques années, tente, fsans grand
succès, de gagner les nouvelles générations de juristes de notre discipline
à l’idée fausse qu’il y aurait lieu de se désintéressefr de la quête de justice
au profit de prétendus « problèmes» de « délimitation» de compétences.

10. A cet égard, peu de temps avant que la présente instance soit engaf ‑
gée devant la Cour — là encore, il s’agit d’un hasard du calendrier —, j’ai
eu l’occasion, dans le cadre des célébrations du centenaire du fPalais de la
Paix (séminaire de la Cour du 23 septembre 2013), de faire part des

réflexions suivantes :
«La doctrine internationale, aujourd’hui plus lucide, a enfin renoncfé

aux euphémismes vides de sens qui avaient cours il y a quelques annéfes
— je veux parler des prétendus risques de « prolifération» des juridic ‑
tions internationales, de «fragmentation» du droit international et de

«forum shopping» —, qui, en mettant sur le devant de la scène de
faux problèmes de délimitation des compétences, détournaientf l’atten ‑
tion de l’impératif d’élargir l’accès à la justice.f Ces notions, qui pro ‑
cèdent d’une vision étroite, grossière et péjorative et, qui plus est,

dénuée de pertinence, ont desservi notre discipline, allant à lf’encontre
des avancées considérables réalisées en vue de l’idéal de justice interna ‑
tionale que poursuit de longue date notre monde moderne.» 7

3. Appréciation générale

11. L’argument de l’Etat défendeur fondé sur la règle de l’fépuisement
des voies de recours internes (supra) n’a, comme de bien entendu, pas
résisté à l’examen des circonstances de la présente afffaire. Après tout, par

in parem non habet imperium, non habet jurisdictionem. Le défendeur n’a
pas eu davantage de succès avec l’autre élément de son argumfentation,
tenant aux prétendus risques de «parallélisme», de «compétences concur ‑

rentes», de « forum shopping », de « fragmentation» du droit internatio ‑
nal ou autres notions similaires. Ces néologismes, très en vogue dfans la
pratique juridique internationale moderne, outre qu’ils détournent l’at ‑
tention de l’objectif crucial de la quête de justice au profit du faux pro ‑

blème de la « délimitation» des compétences, me semblent dépourvus de
sens. Il est grand temps de cesser de se référer à cette préftendue « frag‑
mentation» du droit international . L’élargissement actuel de l’accès à la

7
A. A. Cançado Trindade, « A Century of International Justice and Prospects for the
Future »,A Century of International Justice and Prospects for the Future/Rétro▯spective d’un
siècle de justice internationale et perspectives d’avenir (A. A. Cançado Trindade et D. Spiel‑
man8, dir. publ.), Wolf Legal Publs., 2014, p. 21.
Ce point ne mérite certainement pas de faire l’objet d’une codiffication ni d’un déve ‑
loppement progressif du droit international, et n’aurait donc jamais fdû être retenu pour
figurer à l’ordre du jour de la Commission du droit internationafl des Nations Unies,
comme ce fut le cas entre 2002 et 2006.Tout au plus pourrait‑il constituer un sujet de thèse,
et encore, plutôt de maîtrise que de doctorat.

28

8 CIJ1061.indb 185 25/03/15 08:46 172 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

in a harmonious way, and well above the zealous so‑called “delimitatifon”
of competences, much to the liking of the international legal professionf.

12. In the present case concerning Questions relating to the Seizure and
Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia), the

International Court of Justice has put the issue in the right perspectivfe. In
the Order it has just adopted today, 3 March 2014, it has pointed out
(para. 17) that, one month ago, in its previous Order of 28 January 2014
in the cas d’espèce, it had

“decided not to accede to Australia’s request for a stay of the prfo ‑
ceedings, considering, inter alia, that the dispute before it between
Timor‑Leste and Australia is sufficiently distinct from the dispute
being adjudicated upon by the Arbitral Tribunal in the Timor Sea

Treaty Arbitration” (ibid.).

III. Impertinence of Relianfce upon Unilateral Actsf of States
in the Course of Internatifonal Legal Proceedingsf

13. In the present case concerning Questions relating to the Seizure and

Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia), the
International Court of Justice has thus rightly discarded the empty and fmis ‑
leading rhetoric of “fragmentation” of international law. The multfiplicity in
international courts and tribunals simply reflects the way internationfal law
has evolved in our times. Yet, turning now to a distinct point, the Intefrna ‑
tional Court of Justice has insisted on relying upon unilateral acts of fStates

(such as promise, in the form of assurances or “undertakings”), fthus failing,
once again, to extract the lessons from its own practice in recent casesf.
14. Promises or assurances or “undertakings” have been relied upon in f
a distinct context, that of diplomatic relations. When they are unduly
brought into the domain of international legal procedure, they cannot

serve as basis for a decision of the international tribunal at issue, evfen less
so when they ensue from an original act of arbitrariness. The posture off
an international tribunal cannot be equated to that of an organ of con ‑
ciliation. Judicial settlement was conceived as the most perfected meansf
of dispute settlement ; if it starts relying upon unilateral acts of States, as

basis for the reasoning of the decisions to be rendered, it will undermifne
its own foundations, and there will be no reason for hope in the improvef ‑
ment of judicial settlement to secure the prevalence of the rule of law.f

15. Reliance upon unilateral acts of promise or assurances has been
the source of uncertainties and apprehension in the course of interna ‑

tional legal proceedings. Suffice it here to recall, for example, that,f in the
case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extra ‑

29

8 CIJ1061.indb 186 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 172

justice au profit des justiciables est une évolution tout à faitf positive. Les
juridictions internationales ont une mission commune consistant à rendre

la justice, leurs efforts se conjuguant harmonieusement, au‑delà de toute
préoccupation de « délimitation» de compétence et à la plus grande satis ‑
faction de l’ensemble des juristes internationaux.
12. En la présente espèce, la Cour a suivi la bonne approche. Dans sonf
ordonnance rendue ce jour, elle a rappelé (par. 17) que, dans sa précé ‑

dente décision du 28 janvier 2014 dans cette même affaire, elle avait

«décidé de ne pas faire droit à la demande de l’Australie tenfdant à la
suspension de l’instance, considérant notamment que le différfend
porté devant elle [était] suffisamment distinct de celui dont confna[is‑
sait] le tribunal dans le cadre de l’arbitrage en vertu du traité fsur la

mer de Timor » (ibid.).

III. L’absence de pertinenfce du recours aux actesf unilatéraux
d’États dans le cadref des procédures judicifaires internationalfes

13. En la présente espèce, la Cour a donc écarté, à juste titfre, la rhéto ‑
rique vide de sens et erronée que recouvre l’idée de « fragmentation» du

droit international, la multiplicité des juridictions internationalesf ne fai ‑
sant que refléter l’évolution moderne du droit international.f Toutefois, et
j’en viens à un autre point, la Cour a persisté à se fonder fsur les actes
unilatéraux d’Etats (tels que des promesses prenant la forme d’fassurances
ou d’«engagements»), omettant en cela, une fois encore, de tirer les ensei ‑

gnements de sa propre expérience dans certaines affaires récentefs.

14. Dans un contexte différent, celui des relations diplomatiques, il est
bel et bien d’usage de se fonder sur des promesses, assurances ou «f enga ‑
gements». En revanche, lorsque pareils actes unilatéraux sont indûmentf
introduits dans le domaine judiciaire international, ils ne sauraient fofnder

la décision de la juridiction concernée, ce d’autant moins lorsfqu’ils
trouvent leur origine dans un comportement arbitraire. Le rôle d’une juri ‑
diction internationale ne saurait être assimilé à celui d’unf organe de
conciliation. La voie judiciaire a été conçue comme le moyen lef plus
abouti de régler les différends ; les motifs des décisions que les juridictions

sont appelées à rendre ne sauraient reposer sur des actes unilatéraux
d’Etats, au risque de fragiliser les fondements mêmes du règlemfent judi ‑
ciaire, et d’exclure tout espoir de progrès en vue de la primautéf du droit.
15. Le fait de s’appuyer sur pareilles promesses ou assurances unilatéf ‑
rales au cours de procédures judiciaires internationales s’est réfvélé source

d’incertitudes et d’appréhensions. A titre d’exemple, il suffift ici de rappe ‑
ler l’affaire relative à des Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre

29

8 CIJ1061.indb 187 25/03/15 08:46 173 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

dite (Belgium v. Senegal) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 422), the
International Court of Justice, instead of ordering provisional measures

of protection, preferred to rely on a pledge on the part of the respondefnt
State. In my separate opinion in the Judgment on the merits of 20 July
2012 in that case, after reiterating my dissent in the Court’s Order fof
28 May 2009 in the cas d’espèce, I recalled (ibid., pp. 515‑517, paras. 73‑78)
all the uncertainties that followed and the apprehension undergone by

the Court (which I see no need to reiterate here) for its reliance on
assurances.

16. Had the Court ordered the requested provisional measures in that
case, this would have saved the Court from those uncertainties which putf

at greater risk the outcome of the international legal proceedings. As If
concluded in my aforementioned separate opinion:

“Unilateral acts of States — such as, inter alia, promise — were
conceptualized in the traditional framework of the inter‑State rela ‑
tions, so as to extract their legal effects, given the ‘decentralizfation’
of the international legal order. Here, in the present case, we are in
an entirely distinct context, that of objective obligations (. . .). In the

ambit of these obligations, a pledge or promise made in the course of
legal proceedings before the Court does not remove the prerequisites
(of urgency and of probability of irreparable damage) for the indica ‑
tion of provisional measures by the Court.” (Ibid., p. 517, para. 79.)

17. In the present case concerning Questions relating to the Seizure and
Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia), the

International Court of Justice, distinctly, has indicated provisional mea ‑
sures, but not in the terms they were requested by Timor‑Leste : it has
preferred to rely on unilateral assurances or “undertakings” on thfe part of
the State which seized the documents and data at issue. The Court has
thus disclosed its unwillingness to learn the lessons to be extracted frfom its

own experience in recent cases. It has preferred, seemingly oblivious off its
own authority, to keep on acting as a sort of “diplomatic court”, frather
than rigorously as a court of law. To my mind, ex factis jus non oritur.
18. The aforementioned case of Hissène Habré, opposing Belgium to
Senegal, is not an isolated illustration of the point I am addressing here.

In its recent Order (of 22 November 2013) in the merged cases of Certain
Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v.
Nicaragua) and of the Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San
Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica), the International Court of Justice
conceded :

“The Court (. . .) takes note of the assurances of Nicaragua (. . .)
that it considers itself bound not to undertake activities likely to conf‑

nect any of the two caños with the sea and to prevent any person or
group of persons from doing so. However, the Court is not convinced

30

8 CIJ1061.indb 188 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 173

ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 422),
dans laquelle la Cour, choisissant de ne pas indiquer de mesures conser ‑

vatoires, a préféré se fonder sur une promesse de l’Etat déffendeur. Dans
l’opinion individuelle que j’ai jointe à l’arrêt rendu auf fond le 20 juil ‑
let 2012 dans cette affaire, après avoir réitéré la teneur de fl’opinion dissi ‑
dente que j’avais jointe à l’ordonnance du 28 mai 2009, j’ai rappelé (ibid.,
p. 515‑517, par. 73‑78) toutes les incertitudes qui en avaient résulté, ainsi

que les appréhensions auxquelles la Cour avait dû faire face (qu’fil ne me
semble toutefois pas utile de rappeler ici) par suite de sa décision de se
fonder sur des assurances.
16. Si, en la présente espèce, la Cour avait indiqué les mesures cofnserva ‑
toires sollicitées, elle se serait épargné pareilles incertitudfes, qui font peser

un risque accru sur l’issue des procédures judiciaires internationfales. Ainsi
que je l’ai indiqué en conclusion de l’opinion individuelle susfmentionné:e

«Compte tenu de la « décentralisation» de l’ordre juridique inter ‑
national, c’est dans le cadre traditionnel des relations interétatfiques
qu’ont été conceptualisés les actes unilatéraux des Etats — tels que les
promesses — et qu’en ont été dégagés les effets juridiques. Orf, le
contexte de la présente espèce est tout à fait différent, fpuisque sont en

cause des obligations objectives … Au regard de ces obligations, un
engagement ou une promesse formulé dans le cadre d’une instance
devant la Cour ne fait pas disparaître les conditions requises (relatives
au caractère d’urgence et au risque de dommages irréparables) fpour
l’indication de mesures conservatoires.» (Ibid., p. 517, par. 79.)

17. Et pourtant, en la présente affaire, la Cour a indiqué des mesurfes
conservatoires qui n’étaient pas celles qu’avait sollicitéesf le Timor‑Leste,

préférant se fonder sur des assurances ou « engagements» unilatéraux de
l’Etat qui avait saisi les documents et données en cause. Ce choix révèle
qu’elle n’est pas prête à tirer les enseignements de sa propfre expérience
acquise dans le cadre d’affaires récentes dont elle a eu à cofnnaître.
Oubliant elle‑même, semble‑t‑il, l’autorité qui est la sienne, felle persiste à

agir comme une «cour diplomatique» et non strictement comme une cour
de justice. A mon sens, ex factis jus non oritur.

18. L’affaire Hissène Habré susmentionnée, qui opposait la Belgique
au Sénégal, n’en est pas la seule illustration. Dans l’ordonfnance qu’elle a

récemment rendue (le 22 novembre 2013) dans les affaires relatives à Cer ‑
taines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontal▯ière (Costa
Rica c. Nicaragua) et à la Construction d’une route au Costa Rica le long
du fleuve San Juan (Nicaragua c. Costa Rica), dont les instances ont été
jointes, la Cour a dit ceci :

«La Cour prend … note des assurances du Nicaragua … à savoir
qu’il s’estimait tenu de ne pas entreprendre d’activités tenfdant à

relier l’un ou l’autre de ces deux caños à la mer, et d’empêcher toutes
personnes ou tous groupes de personnes d’entreprendre de telles acti ‑

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8 CIJ1061.indb 189 25/03/15 08:46 174 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

that these instructions and assurances remove the imminent risk of
irreparable prejudice, since, as Nicaragua recognized, persons under
its jurisdiction have engaged in activities in the disputed territory,

namely, the construction of the two new caños, which are inconsistent
with the Court’s Order of 8 March 2011.” (I.C.J. Reports 2013,
pp. 366‑367, para. 50.)

19. In my separate opinion appended to the Court’s more recent Order

of 22 November 2013, I again made the point of the need to devote greater
attention to the legal nature of provisional measures of protection, and
their legal effects, particularly those endowed with a conventional basis such

as the provisional measures ordered by the International Court of Justicfe
(ibid., p. 359, paras. 22‑23 and p. 360, paras. 27‑28). Only in this way they
will contribute to the progressive development of international law.

Persistent reliance on unilateral “undertakings” or assurances or fpromises
formulated in the context of provisional measures in no way contributes to
the proper understanding of the expanding legal institute of provisionalf

measures of protection in contemporary international law.
20. Expert writing on unilateral acts of States has been very careful to
avoid the pitfalls of “contractual” theories in international law, as well as

the dangers of unfettered State voluntarism underlying unilateralist manf ‑
ifestations in the decentralized international legal order. Unilateral acts,
as manifestations of a subject of international law to which this latterf

may attach certain consequences, do not pass without qualifications. Pfro ‑
posed enumerations of unilateral acts in international law have not pur ‑
ported to be exhaustive , or conclusive as to their legal effects. It is not

surprising to find that expert writing on the matter has thus endeavoufred 10
to single out those unilateral acts to which legal effects can be ascrfibed —
and all this in the domain of diplomatic relations, but certainly not in the

realm of international legal procedure.

9
J. Dehaussy, “Les actes juridiques unilatéraux en droit internationalf public: à propos
d’une théorie restrictive”, 92 Journal du droit international, Clunet (19655‑56, and
cf. p. 63; and cf. also, generally, A. Miajade la Muela, “Los Actos Unilaterales en las Rela‑
ciones Internacionales”, 20 Revista Española de Derecho Internacional (1967), pp. 456‑459 ;
J. Charpentier, “Engagements unilatéraux et engagements conventionnels : différences et
convergences”, Theory of International Law at the Threshold of the 21st Century — Essays
in Honour of K. Skubiszewski (ed. J. Makarczyk), The Hague, Kluwer, 1996, pp. 367‑380.
10 Cf., in particular, Eric Suy, Les actes juridiques unilatéraux en droit international

public, Paris, LGDJ, 1962, pp. 1‑271 ; K. Skubiszewski, “Les actes unilatéraux des Etats”,
Droit international — Bilan et perspectives (ed. M. Bedjaoui), Vol. 1, Paris, Pedone,
1991, pp. 231‑250 ; G. Venturini, “La portée et les effets juridiques des attitudes et fdes
actes unilatéraux des Etats”, 112 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de
La Haye (1964), pp. 63‑467. And cf. also : A. P. Rubin, “The International Legal Effects
of Unilateral Declarations”, 71 American Journal of International Law (1977), pp. 1;30
C. Chinkin, “A Mirage in the Sand ? Distinguishing Binding and Non‑Binding Relations
between States”, 10 Leiden Journal of International Law (1997), pp. 223‑247.

31

8 CIJ1061.indb 190 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 174

vités. Toutefois, la Cour n’est pas convaincue que ces instructionfs et

assurances soient suffisantes pour écarter tout risque imminent de
préjudice irréparable, étant donné que le Nicaragua a reconnu que
des personnes relevant de sa juridiction avaient entrepris dans le ter ‑

ritoire litigieux des activités contraires à l’ordonnance du 8 mars 2011,
à savoir la construction des deux nouveaux caños. » (C.I.J. Recueil
2013, p. 366‑367, par. 50.)

19. Dans l’opinion individuelle que j’ai jointe à cette ordonnance fdu

22 novembre 2013, j’ai une nouvelle fois souligné la nécessité d’accofrder une
attention accrue à la nature juridique des mesures conservatoires ainsi qu’à
leurseffets juridiques, notamment lorsqu’il y est conféré une base convention ‑
nelle, comme c’est le cas des mesures conservatoires indiquées par la Cfour

(ibid., p. 359, par. 22‑23, et p. 360, par. 27‑28). Ce n’est qu’ainsi qu’elles
contribueront au développement progressif du droit international. Le ffait
de persister à se fonder sur des promesses, assurances ou « engagements»

unilatéraux formulés dans le cadre d’une procédure relative fà des mesures
conservatoires ne contribue nullement à bien appréhender le rôlfe juridique
croissant que pareilles mesures jouent en droit international contemporafin.

20. Dans la doctrine relative aux actes unilatéraux des Etats, les auteurs
ont pris le plus grand soin d’éviter les pièges des théories « contractuelles»
du droit international, ainsi que les dangers que présente le volontafrisme
étatique sans entrave qui sous‑tend les manifestations unilatéralefs dans

l’ordre juridique international décentralisé. Les actes unilatéfraux, qui
constituent des manifestations de la volonté d’un sujet de droit ifnternatio ‑
nal, auxquelles celui‑ci peut attribuer certaines conséquences, ne sauraient

être admis de manière inconditionnelle. Les énumérations desf actes unilaté ‑
raux proposées en droit international ne prétendent pas être exfhaustives, 9
ni concluantes quant à leurs effets juridiques. A cet égard, il fn’est guère

surprenant que la doctrine sur la question se soit employée à préfciser quels
étaient ceux auxquels pouvaient être conférés des effets jfuridiques 10; il n’en
est ainsi que dans le domaine des relations diplomatiques, certainement pas

dans le domaine judiciaire international.

9J. Dehaussy,«Les actes unilatéraux en droit international publicà: propos d’une théorie
restrictive », Journal du droit international,vol. 92, Clunet, 1965, p. 55‑56, et voir p. 63 ; voir
également, de manière générale, A. Miaja de la Muela, «Los Actos Unilaterales en las Rela‑
ciones Internacionale, Revista Española de Derecho Internacional,vol. 20, 1967, p. 456‑459;
J. Charpentier, « Engagements unilatéraux et engagements conventionnels : différences et
convergences », Theory of International Law at the Threshold of the 21st Century — Essays

in 10nour of K. Skubiszewski(J. Makarczyk, dir. publ.), La Haye, Kluwer, 1996, p. 367‑380.
Voir, en particulier, Eric Suy, Les actes juridiques unilatéraux en droit international
public, Paris, LGDJ, 1962, p. 1‑271 ; K. Skubiszewski, « Les actes unilatéraux des Etats »,
Droit international — Bilan et perspectives (M. Bedjaoui, dir. publ.), vol. 1, Paris, Pedone,
1991, p. 231‑250 ; G. Venturini, « La portée des effets juridiques des attitudes et des actes
unilatéraux des Etats », Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye
(1964), vol. 112, p. 63‑467. Voir également A. P. Rubin, « The International Legal Effects
of Unilateral Declarations »,American Journal of International Law, vol. 71, 1977, p. 1‑30;
C. Chinkin, « A Mirage in the Sand ? Distinguishing Binding and Non‑Binding Relations
between States », Leiden Journal of International Law, vol. 10, 1997, p. 223‑247.

31

8 CIJ1061.indb 191 25/03/15 08:46 175 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

21. Other contemporary international tribunals have likewise been
faced with uncertainties and apprehension deriving from unilateral assurf‑

ances by contending parties. For example, in its judgment (of 17 January
2012) in the case of Othman (Abu Qatada) v. United Kingdom, the Euro ‑
pean Court of Human Rights (ECtHR — Fourth Section) took account
of the expressions of “grave concern” as to diplomatic assurances,f mani‑
fested in the course of the legal proceedings (para. 175) : first, such assur‑

ances “were unable to detect abuse” ; secondly, “the monitoring regimes
provided for by assurances were unsatisfactory” ; thirdly, “frequently
local monitors lacked the necessary independence” ; and fourthly, “assur‑
ances also suffered from a lack of incentives to reveal breaches”
(paras. 176‑179). States, in their relations with each other, can take into

account diplomatic assurances, and extract consequences therefrom.
International tribunals, for their part, are not bound to base their decfi ‑
sions (on provisional measures or others) on diplomatic assurances : they
are bound to identify the applicable law, to interpret and apply it, in fsum,
to say what the law is (juris dictio).

22. International legal procedure has a logic of its own, which is not to
be equated with that of diplomatic relations. International legal pro‑
cedure is not properly served with the insistence on reliance on unilatefral
acts proper of diplomatic relations — even less so in face of the perceived

need of assertion that ex injuria jus non oritur. Even if an international
tribunal takes note of unilateral acts of States, it is not to take suchf acts
as the basis for the reasoning of its own decisions.

23. In this connection, may I recall that, in the course of the advisory

proceedings of the International Court of Justice concerning the Accor ‑
dance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independen▯ce
in Respect of Kosovo (Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 403),
a couple of participants invoked the principle ex injuria jus non oritur. In
my separate opinion appended to the Court’s Advisory Opinion, I

asserted that “[a]ccording to a well‑established general principle of inter ‑
national law, a wrongful act cannot become a source of advantages, ben ‑
efits or else rights for the wrongdoer : ex injuria jus non oritur” (ibid.,
p. 576, para. 132).
24. After considering the application of this principle in the factual

context of the matter then before the International Court of Justice (ibid.,
p. 577, paras. 133‑135), I added :

“This general principle, well‑established as it is, has at times beenf
counterbalanced by the maxim ex factis jus oritur. (. . .) In the con ‑
ceptual universe of international law, as of law in general, one is in
the domain of Sollen, not of Sein, or at least in that of the tension
between Sollen and Sein. (. . .)

[T]he maxim ex factis jus oritur does not amount to a carte
blanche, as law plays its role also in the emergence of rights out of the

32

8 CIJ1061.indb 192 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 175

21. D’autres juridictions internationales contemporaines se sont, elles
aussi, trouvées confrontées à des incertitudes et appréhensifons dues à des

assurances unilatérales données par des parties à un litige. Aifnsi, dans l’ar ‑
rêt qu’elle a rendu le 17 janvier 2012 en l’affaire Othman (Abu Qatada)
c. Royaume‑Uni, la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme (quatrième sec ‑
tion) a pris en compte les « graves préoccupations» exprimées au cours de
la procédure à l’égard des assurances diplomatiques (par. 175), à savoir,

premièrement, que celles‑ci ne « permett[aient] pas de déceler les mauvais
traitements», deuxièmement, que « les systèmes de contrôle prévus par les
assurances n’[étaient] pas satisfaisants», troisièmement, que «les agents de
contrôle locaux ne présent[aient] souvent pas l’indépendancef requise» et,
quatrièmement, que « les assurances n’incit[aient] pas à révéler les viola ‑

tions» (par. 176‑179). Les Etats, dans leurs relations mutuelles, peuvent
prendre en considération des assurances diplomatiques et en tirer desf
conséquences. En revanche, les juridictions internationales n’ont fpas à
fonder leurs décisions (en matière de mesures conservatoires ou afutres) sur
pareilles assurances; elles sont tenues de définir le droit applicable, de l’in ‑

terpréter et de l’appliquer — en somme, de dire le droit (juris dictio).
22. Le règlement judiciaire d’un différend international a une lofgique
propre, qui ne saurait être assimilée à celle des relations dipflomatiques.
Persister à se fonder sur des actes unilatéraux propres aux relatifons diplo ‑
matiques ne sert pas le règlement judiciaire des différends intefrnationaux,

ce d’autant moins qu’il paraît nécessaire de réaffirmer fla maxime ex inju ‑
ria jus non oritur. Même si une juridiction internationale peut prendre
note de certains actes unilatéraux d’Etats, elle ne saurait fonderf sur eux le
raisonnement qui sous‑tend sa décision.
23. Je rappellerai à cet égard que, au cours de la procédure consulfta ‑

tive relative à la Conformité au droit international de la déclaration unila ‑
térale d’indépendance relative au Kosovo (avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil
2010 (II), p. 403), un petit nombre de participants avait invoqué le
principeex injuria jus non oritur. Dans mon opinion individuelle jointe à
cet avis, j’ai précisé que, « [s]elon un principe général bien établi du droit

international, un acte illicite ne p[ouvait] pas devenir source d’avafntages,
de profits ou d’autres droits pour son auteur : ex injuria jus non oritur »
(ibid., p. 576, par. 132).

24. Après avoir examiné l’application de ce principe dans le contexfte

factuel de ladite procédure (ibid., p. 577, par. 133‑135), j’ai fait observer
ce qui suit :

«A ce principe général, si bien établi soit‑il, est parfois oppofsée la
maxime ex factis jus oritur. … Dans l’univers théorique du droit
international, comme du droit en général, on se trouve dans le
domaine du Sollen et non pas du Sein, ou du moins dans la tension
entre le Sollen et le Sein ...

[L]’adage ex factis jus oritur n’équivaut pas à une carte blanche,
car le droit joue également son rôle dans la création de droitsf en

32

8 CIJ1061.indb 193 25/03/15 08:46 176 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

tension between Sollen and Sein.” (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), pp. 577‑578,
paras. 136‑137.)

25. In effect, to allow unilateral acts to be performed (in the course off
international legal proceedings), irrespectively of their discretionary — if

not arbitrary — character, and to accept subsequent assurances or
“undertakings” ensuing therefrom, is to pave the way to uncertainties and
unpredictability, to the possibility of creation of faits accomplis to one’s
own advantage and to the other party’s disadvantage. The certainty of

the application of the law would be reduced to a mere probability. As the
lucid writer Machado de Assis remarked in the nineteenth century :

“Se esse mundo não fosse uma região de espíritos desatentos,f era

escusado lembrar ao leitor que eu só afirmo certas leis quando as
possuo deveras; em relação a outras restrinjo‑me à admissão da pro‑
babilidade.” 11

IV. e x conscientia Jus oritur

26. Already in the late forties — at a time when international legal
doctrine was far more cultivated than it seems to be nowadays — it was

observed that modern international law was not prepared to admit that
that “void and unlawful acts can be arbitrarily validated” 1. In effect —
as pointed out one decade earlier, in the late thirties — even if interna ‑

tional law finds itself in the presence “of acts, undertakings and situations
which falsely claim to give rise to rights”, such acts, undertakings fand
situations

“are void (. . .), for the reason that, deriving from an unlawful act,

they cannot produce beneficial results for the guilty party. Ex injuria
jus non oritur is a general principle of international law (. . .) [T]he
essence of the law, that is to say (. . .) the legal effectiveness and valid
ity of one’s obligations, cannot be affected by individual unlawfulf
13
acts.”

27. No State is entitled to itself rely upon an arbitrary act in order to
vindicate what it regards as a right of its own, ensuing therefrom. May fI
further recall, in this respect, that, in the past, a trend of legal docftrine —

11 Machado de Assis, Memórias Póstumas de Brás Cubas [1881: “If this world were

not a region of unattentive spirits, there would be no need to remind thfe reader that I only
affirm certain laws when I truly possess them ; in relation to others I limit myself to the
admission of the probability.” [My own translation.]
12 P. Guggenheim, “La validité et la nullité des actes juridiques intfernationaux”,
74 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (19230‑233,
and cf. pp. 226‑227 [translation by the Registry].
13 H. Lauterpacht, “Règles générales du droit de la paix”, 62 Recueil des cours de l’Aca‑
démie de droit international de La Haye (1937), pp. 287‑288 [translation by the Registry].

33

8 CIJ1061.indb 194 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 176

conséquence de la tension entre le Sollen et le Sein… » (C.I.J. Recueil

2010 (II), p. 577‑578, par. 136‑137.)

25. De fait, autoriser que soient effectués des actes unilatéraux (fdans le
cadre d’une procédure judiciaire internationale), sans tenir compfte de leur
caractère discrétionnaire — sinon arbitraire —, et faire droit aux assu ‑
rances ou « engagements» qui en découlent revient à ouvrir la voie aux

incertitudes et à l’imprévisibilité, ainsi qu’à créer des faits accomplis, et
ce, au profit exclusif de l’auteur de ces actes et au détriment fde la partie
adverse. En pareille hypothèse, l’application du droit se trouve rféduite à

une simple probabilité. Ainsi qee l’observait avec beaucoup de perftinence
Machado de Assis au XIX siècle :

«Se esse mundo não fosse uma região de espíritos desatentos, eraf
escusado lembrar ao leitor que eu só afirmo certas leis quando as
possuo deveras; em relação a outras restrinjo‑me à admissão da pro ‑
11
babilidade. »

IV. e x conscientia Jus oritur

26. Dès la fin des années quarante — époque où la doctrine juridique
internationale était, semble‑t‑il, bien plus éclairée qu’aujfourd’hui —, il a

été observé que le droit international moderne n’était pafs prêt à admettre
«la légère validation d’actes nuls et illicites » 12. C’est qu’en effet, ainsi que
cela avait été souligné une dizaine d’années auparavant, fà la fin des années

trente, même si le droit international se trouve en présence « d’actes, d’en ‑
gagements et de situations qui se prétendent à tort créateurs dfe droit», ces
actes, engagements et situations

«sont nuls …, pour la raison que, tirant origine d’un acte illégal, ils
ne sauraient produire de résultats avantageux pour le coupable. Ex

injuria jus non oritur est un principe général de droit. … [L]’essence
du droit, c’est‑à‑dire … l’efficacité juridique et la validité de ses
obligations, ne peuvent être affectées par des actes individuelsf
13
d’illégalité.»
27. Les Etats ne sauraient se fonder sur un acte arbitraire pour faire

valoir ce qu’ils considèrent comme un droit qui leur est propre. Jfe rappel ‑
lerai à cet égard que, par le passé, un courant de la doctrine juridique

11 Machado de Assis, Memórias Póstumas de Brás Cubas (1881) : « Si notre monde
n’était peuplé d’esprits inattentifs, point ne serait besoinf de rappeler au lecteur que je n’af‑
firme que les lois que je possède réellement ; pour ce qui est des autres, je me contente d’en
reconnaître la probabilité. »
12P. Guggenheim, « La validité et la nullité des actes juridiques internationaux »,
Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (1949),vol. 74, p. 230‑233,
et voir p. 226‑227.
13
H. Lauterpacht, « Règles générales du droit de la paix », Recueil des cours de l’Aca ‑
démie de droit international de La Haye (1937), vol. 62, p. 287‑288.

33

8 CIJ1061.indb 195 25/03/15 08:46 177 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

favoured by so‑called “realists” — attempted to deprive some of the
strength of the general principle ex injuria jus non oritur by invoking the
maxim ex factis jus oritur. In doing so, it confused the validity of norms
with the required coercion (at times missing in the international legalf

order) to implement them. The validity of norms is not dependent on
coercion (for implementation); they are binding as such (objective obliga ‑
tions).
28. The maxim ex factis jus oritur wrongfully attributes to facts

law‑creating effects which facts per se cannot generate. Not surprisingly,
the “fait accompli” is very much to the liking of those who feel strong or
powerful enough to try to impose their will upon others. It so happens
that contemporary international law is grounded on some fundamental
general principles, such as the principle of the juridical equality of States,

which points in the opposite direction. Factual inequalities between Staftes
are immaterial, as all States are juridically equal, with all the conse ‑
quences ensuing therefrom. Definitively, ex factis jus non oritur. Human
values and the idea of objective justice stand above facts. Ex conscientia

jus oritur.

V. The Question of the Ownerfship

of the Seized Documentsf and Data

29. Another issue, addressed by the contending Parties in the course of
the present proceedings, was that of the ownership of the documents and
data seized by Australia. From the start, Timor‑Leste asserted, in its ofral

arguments, that the present case “is one in which Timor‑Leste is compflain ‑
ing of the seizure of its property and is seeking the recovery of the dofcu ‑
ments that were held on its behalf by Mr. B. Collaery” . Counsel for
Timor‑Leste then stated that its lawyer (Mr. Collaery), through his office,

“conducts his legal activities covering a number of matters for the
Government of Timor‑Leste, as well as for other clients. In that officef,

Mr. Collaery regularly keeps, on behalf of the Government of
Timor‑Leste, many confidential documents relating to the interna ‑
tional legal affairs of Timor‑Leste. Some cover such very important
and delicate matters as the negotiations between the two countries
15
regarding access to the maritime resources of the Timor Sea.”

30. The applicant State then asserted that it was clear that among the
documents and data seized

“were many files relating to matters on which Mr. Collaery’s office
was working on behalf of the Government of Timor‑Leste. All these

14CR 2014/1, of 20 January 2014, p. 24, para. 16.
15Ibid., p. 19, para. 8.

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8 CIJ1061.indb 196 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 177

emmené par les prétendus « réalistes» a tenté de vider le principe général
ex injuria jus non oritur d’une partie de sa substance en invoquant la
maxime ex factis jus oritur. Cela revenait à confondre la validité des
normes et la coercition requise pour les appliquer (qui, parfois, fait fdéfaut

dans l’ordre juridique international). Or, la validité des normesf ne dépend
pas de la coercition (visant à les appliquer) ; ces normes sont contrai ‑
gnantes en tant que telles (il s’agit d’obligations objectives).f
28. La maxime ex factis jus oritur attribue indûment aux faits des effets en

matière de création de droit, que les faits en tant que tels ne safuraient avoir.
Dès lors, il n’est guère surprenant que le « fait accompli» soit si prisé par
ceux qui se sentent suffisamment forts ou puissants pour essayer d’ifmposer
leur volonté aux autres. Or, il se trouve que le droit international fcontempo ‑
rain repose sur certains principes généraux fondamentaux, tels quef celui de

l’égalité juridique des Etats, qui vont à rebours de cette approche. Les inéga ‑
lités de fait entre Etats sont sans pertinence, puisque les Etats sonft juridiq ‑ue
ment égaux, avec toutes les conséquences que cela implique. Défifnitivement,
ex factis jus non oritur. Les valeurs humaines et l’idée d’une justice objective

l’emportent sur les faits. Ex conscientia jus oritur.

V. La question de la proprfiété

des documents et donnfées saisis

29. Une autre question, soulevée par les Parties au cours de la présenfte
procédure, est celle de la propriété des documents et données saisis par
l’Australie. Dès le début de ses plaidoiries, le Timor‑Leste a faffirmé que,

par la présente instance, « [il] entend[ait] dénoncer la saisie de ses biens et
obtenir la restitution des documents qui étaient conservés pour sofn
compte par M. B. Collaery» 1. Par ailleurs, selon le conseil du Timor‑Leste,
M. Collaery, le conseiller juridique de cet Etat,

«mène, avec son cabinet, des activités juridiques touchant à divferses
questions pour le compte du Gouvernement du Timor‑Leste, ainsi que

pour d’autres clients. M. Collaery conserve régulièrement dans ses
locaux professionnels, pour le compte du Timor‑Leste, de nombreux
documents confidentiels se rapportant aux affaires juridiques internfa ‑
tionales de ce pays, parmi lesquels certains ont trait à des questions très

importantes et sensibles, telles que les négociations entre les deux fp15s
au sujet de l’accès aux ressources maritimes de la mer du Timor.»

30. L’Etat demandeur a ensuite affirmé que, parmi les documents et
données saisis, figuraient manifestement

«de nombreux dossiers relatifs aux questions sur lesquelles travaillait
le cabinet de M. Collaery pour le compte du Gouvernement timorais.

14CR 2014/1, 20 janvier 2014, p. 24, par. 16.
15Ibid., p. 19, par. 8.

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8 CIJ1061.indb 197 25/03/15 08:46 178 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

files are thus the property of the Government of Timor‑Leste and

were held as such by Mr. Collaery in the course of his duties on behalf
of the Government of Timor‑Leste. [T]he client — in this case the
Government — has proprietary ownership of documents that have
been brought into existence, or received, by a lawyer acting as agent

on behalf of the client, or that have been prepared for the benefit off
the client and at the client’s expense, such as, letters of advice, mfemo‑
randa and briefs to counsel.” 16

31. For its part, Australia preferred not to dwell upon the issue of the

ownership of the seized documents and data. It argued that :
“Questions of ownership cannot be answered in the absence of a

proper examination of the documents in question. That examination
has not occurred because we have not inspected the documents. We
therefore cannot accept the proposition that the documents are nec ‑

essarily the property of Timor‑Leste, nor can we put before you a full
submission on where ownership might lie.” 17

32. Timor‑Leste insisted on its position, affirming categorically that
“documents in the hands of lawyers on behalf of their clients belong to
the clients, in this case, Timor‑Leste. That applies to most of the itemfs
18
seized” . From the aforementioned, it is clear that Australia did not clar‑
ify its position as to who owns the seized documents and data, having
preferred not to respond to Timor‑Leste’s arguments that those docu ‑

ments and data are its property. This is another point to be kept in minfd,
in the proper consideration of the requested provisional measures in thef
cas d’espèce.

VI. The Relevance of Generafl Principles
of International Law

33. In the course of the public sitting of the Court on 21 January 2014,
I deemed it fit to put the following question to both contending Partifes,
Timor‑Leste and Australia :

“What is the impact of a State’s measures of alleged national secuf ‑

rity upon the conduction of arbitral proceedings between the Parties?
In particular, what is the effect or impact of seizure of documents anfd
data, in the circumstances of the present case, upon the settlement of
19
an international dispute by negotiation and arbitration ?”

16CR 2014/1, of 20 January 2014, p. 21, para. 11.
17CR 2014/4, of 22 January 2014, p. 19, para. 42.
18
19CR 2014/3, of 22 January 2014, p. 19, para. 33.
CR 2014/2, of 21 January 2014, p. 48.

35

8 CIJ1061.indb 198 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 178

Ces dossiers appartiennent donc tous à ce gouvernement et étaient f

conservés comme tels par M. Collaery dans le cadre des fonctions
qu’il exerce pour le compte dudit gouvernement. [L]e client (ici, lef
gouvernement) est propriétaire des documents établis ou reçus fpar
un avocat agissant pour son compte en qualité de mandataire, ou qui

ont été établis dans l’intérêt du client et aux frais fde celui‑ci, tels que
les avis, mémorandums et mandats. » 16

31. L’Australie, quant à elle, choisissant de ne pas se prononcer sur fla

question de la propriété des documents et données saisis, a défclaré ceci:
«Nul ne saurait répondre à cette question sans un examen en règlfe

des documents en cause. Or nous n’avons pu procéder à un tel exfamen
faute d’en avoir pris connaissance. Nous ne saurions donc admettre
l’affirmation selon laquelle ces documents appartiennent nécessaifre ‑

ment au Timor‑Leste, mais ne sommes pas non plus en mesure de vous
indiquer avec certitude qui en est effectivement propriétaire.» 17

32. Le Timor‑Leste a maintenu sa position, en affirmant, de manière
catégorique, que «les documents confiés à un conseil par son client appar ‑
tiennent à ce dernier, en l’espèce au Timor‑Leste [et que] [c]efla vaut pour
18
la plupart des éléments saisis » . Il apparaît clairement, au vu de ce qui
précède, que l’Australie n’a nullement précisé sa posiftion quant à la ques ‑
tion de la propriété des documents et données saisis, choisissafnt de ne pas

répondre aux arguments avancés par le Timor‑Leste pour démontrefr que
lesdits éléments lui appartiennent. Aux fins d’examiner comme il se devait
les mesures conservatoires sollicitées dans le cas d’espèce, ce point devait
également être pris en considération.

VI. La pertinence des prifncipes généraux
du droit internationfal

33. A l’audience du 21 janvier 2014, j’ai estimé utile de poser aux deux
Parties la question suivante :

«Quel est l’impact des mesures prises par un Etat invoquant la

sécurité nationale sur le déroulement de la procédure arbitrfale entre
les Parties ? Quel est, en particulier, l’effet ou l’impact de la saisie
de documents et données, dans les circonstances de l’espèce, sur lfe

règlement d’un d19férend international par voie de négociaftion et
d’arbitrage ? »

16CR 2014/1, 20 janvier 2014, p. 21, par. 11.
17CR 2014/4, 22 janvier 2014, p. 19, par. 42.
18
19CR 2014/3, 22 janvier 2014, p. 19, par. 33.
CR 2014/2, 21 janvier 2014, p. 48.

35

8 CIJ1061.indb 199 25/03/15 08:46 179 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

1. Responses of the Parties to a Question from the Bench

34. In his prompt answer to my question, counsel for Timor‑Leste,

remarking that he would try to respond to it “both as a matter of prifnci ‑
ple, and as it applies to this case”, stated that :

“States should refrain from allowing national interests, including
national security interests — important though they may be — adversely
to affect international proceedings between sovereign States, and the
ability of sovereign States to obtain legal advice. Nothing should be

done which would infringe the principles of the sovereign equality of
States, non‑intervention, and the peaceful settlement of disputes, pro ‑
vided for in Article2.3 of the UnitedNationsCharter. These are at the

core of the international legal order as reflected in the Charter and fother
key documents, such as the [1970 Declaration on Principles of Inter‑
national Law concerning] Friendly Relations Declaration 20.
Applying this to the case in hand, we look to the Court to ensure

that Australia does not secure unfair advantage, either in the context
of litigation or (. . .) in the context of the Timor Sea.

Both Parties seem to agree that legal privilege is a general principle

of law, and is not without limitations, but the Parties seem to disagree
on the scope of these limitations. In response to Judge Cançado Trin ‑
dade’s question, I would point to the difference between such limitfa‑
tions under domestic law, as argued for by Australia, and limitations

under international law. The domestic limitations argued for by Aus ‑
tralia should not apply when a sovereign State seeks legal advice.
Australia is not entitled to restrict Timor‑Leste’s ability freely tof com ‑
municate with its lawyers. There is no limit on immunity in respect

of diplomatic documents on Australian soil ; [and] there is no reason
of principle why the same should not apply to a State’s claim to priv ‑
ilege in respect of legal advice.

In any case, any assertion of limitation to privilege should not hin‑
der Timor‑Leste’s preparations for international proceedings or nego‑
tiations. This principle was expressly recognized in the Libananco
case 2. Contrary to what Mr. Burmester said yesterday , recognition

of this principle should not preclude Australia from continuing any

20 UN doc. A/RES/25/2625, Declaration on Principles in International Law cofncerning
Friendly Relations and Co‑operation among States in Accordance with the fCharter of the

Uni21d Nations, of 24 October 1970.
Case Libananco Holdings Co. Ltd. v. Turkey, ICSID case ARB/06/8, decision on
preliminary issues, of 23 June 2008, p. 42, para. 2.
22
Cf. CR 2014/2, of 21 January 2014, p. 32, para. 17.

36

8 CIJ1061.indb 200 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 179

1. Réponses des Parties à une question d’un membre de la Cour

34. Le conseil du Timor‑Leste a précisé qu’il tenterait de réponfdre à
ma question «tant en principe que dans le contexte de l’espèce», et affirmé

ceci :
«Les Etats devraient s’abstenir de laisser leurs intérêts nationfaux,

y compris ceux se rapportant à la sécurité nationale — aussi impor ‑
tants soient‑ils — avoir un effet négatif sur une procédure internatio‑
nale entre des Etats souverains et sur la faculté de tels Etats d’obtenir
des conseils juridiques. Nulle action ne doit porter atteinte aux prin ‑

cipes de l’égalité souveraine des Etats, de la non‑interventionf et du
règlement pacifique des différends, qui sont au cœur de l’fordre juri ‑
dique international reflété dans la Charte et d’autres documefnts
essentiels, comme la déclaration [de 1970] relative aux principes du
20
droit international touchant les relations amicales .
Appliquant ces principes à la présente affaire, nous en appelonsf à
la Cour pour faire en sorte que l’Australie n’obtienne pas d’avfan ‑
tages indus, que ce soit dans le contexte d’une procédure ou en cef qui

concerne des négociations éventuelles sur la frontière maritimef.
Si les deux Parties paraissent s’accorder à penser que la confiden ‑
tialité des communications entre un conseil et son client est un prinf ‑
cipe général de droit et qu’elle n’est pas sans limites, ellfes semblent ne

pas s’entendre sur la portée de ces limites. Pour répondre àf la ques ‑
tion posée par M. le juge Cançado Trindade, j’appelle votre atten ‑
tion sur la différence existant entre les limites prévues par lef droit
interne, dont l’Australie veut l’application, et celles prévuesf par le

droit international. Les limites internes défendues par l’Australie ne
devraient pas s’appliquer lorsqu’un Etat souverain cherche à obftenir
un conseil juridique. L’Australie n’a pas le droit de restreindre fla
faculté du Timor‑Leste de communiquer librement avec ses conseils

pour des raisons qui s’avèrent de nature purement interne. Il n’fexiste
pas de limite à l’immunité reconnue aux documents diplomatiquesf se
trouvant sur le sol australien ; il n’existe aucune raison de principe
justifiant de ne pas appliquer cette règle à la revendication, par un

Etat, de la confidentialité de ses communications avec son conseil.f
En tout état de cause, le fait que l’existence d’une limite à cette
confidentialité soit alléguée ne doit pas gêner le Timor‑Lfeste dans sa
préparation d’une procédure ou de négociations internationalfes. Ce
21
principe a été expressément reconnu dans l’affaire Libananco .
Contrairement à ce que M. Burmester a dit hier 2, la reconnaissance

20
Nations Unies, doc. A/RES/25/2625, Déclaration relative aux principes du droit
international touchant les relations amicales et la coopération entref les Etats conformé ‑
men21à la Charte des Nations Unies, 24 octobre 1970.
Centre international de règlement des différends relatifs aux infvestissements (CIRDI),
Libananco Holdings Co. Ltd. c. Turquie, ARB/06/8, décision sur les questions préliminaires,
23 juin 2008, p. 42, par. 2.
22 Voir CR 2014/2, 21 janvier 2014, p. 32, par. 17.

36

8 CIJ1061.indb 201 25/03/15 08:46 180 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

criminal investigation; it would just ensure that Timor‑Leste’s docu ‑
ments remain notwithstanding that process.

Mr. Campbell began by asking you to keep in mind the alleged
general principles applying to provisional measures set out in Aus ‑
tralia’s written observations. (. . .) [W]e do not regard as convincing

what they had to say on these matters. The written observations take
a very restrictive view of provisional measures. Yet the institution of f
provisional measures is essential to the judicial process. Its impor ‑
tance is increasingly recognized by international courts and tribu ‑
23
nals.” (Paras. 3‑7.)

35. For his part, in his response to my question, counsel for Australia,
like that of Timor‑Leste (supra), began by saying that he would endeav ‑
our to answer “first at the level of principle and then at the levefl of appli‑

cation”; and then he added that :
“At the level of principle, we would accept that, if a State engages f

in arbitration with another State, and finds it necessary to take measf ‑
ures of national security which may bear on the arbitration, the State
should, as a matter of prudence, if not strict law, take such steps as
are reasonable to limit the impact of national security measures on

the arbitration. We accept, as was put this morning, that to do
otherwise would interfere with arbitration as a peaceful method of
resolving inter‑State disputes. I emphasize, the principle is qualified
by reasonableness. The circumstances may not always provide a

perfect accommodation between the two interests in conflict and a
State could not be asked absolutely to put on hold measures of national
security merely because it is brought to arbitration.” (CR 2014/4,

pp. 8‑9, para. 4.)

36. This was the “general answer”; moving then to the “specific answer”,
counsel for Australia proceeded:

“[I]n the present case the measures of national security will have nof

23 Counsel for Timor‑Leste added :

“Of course, like any judicial process it can be abused, but courts knfow how to deal
with that. [W]e reject any insinuation by Australia that Timor‑Leste is facting abusively
in seeking provisional measures. In particular, we reject the unworthy sfuggestion by
Professor Crawford that Timor‑Leste is using these proceedings ‘to skirt around the
confidentiality provisions and maximise the opportunity for publicity fand comment
prejudicial to Australia’. We are not.” (CR 2014/3, of 22 January 2014, pp. 12‑14.)

And, for Australia’s argument, cf. CR 2014/2, of 21 January 2014, p. 39, para. 8.

37

8 CIJ1061.indb 202 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 180

de ce principe ne doit pas empêcher l’Australie de poursuivre une f
enquête judiciaire, mais garantit simplement l’inviolabilité defs docu‑
ments du Timor‑Leste, nonobstant cette enquête.

M. Campbell a commencé par vous demander de garder à l’esprit
les principes généraux censés s’appliquer à l’indicatifon de mesures
conservatoires, tels qu’ils sont exposés dans les observations éfcrites

de l’Australie. … [N]ous ne jugeons pas convaincants les propos def
la Partie adverse à ce sujet. Dans ses observations écrites, l’fAustralie
adopte une vision très restrictive des mesures conservatoires. Pour ‑
tant, celles‑ci sont essentielles au processus judiciaire et leur impor ‑

tance est reconnue de plus en pl23 souvent par les cours et tribunaux
internationaux.» (Par. 3‑7.)

35. Dans sa réponse à ma question, le conseil de l’Australie a com ‑
mencé par indiquer, à l’instar de celui du Timor‑Leste (supra), qu’il s’ef ‑
forcerait de répondre « en [s]e plaçant tout d’abord d’un point de vue

théorique, puis sur un plan pratique », avant de poursuivre ainsi :
«Sur le principe, nous admettons qu’un Etat qui estime nécessaire

de prendre des mesures de sécurité nationale susceptibles d’avofir des
effets sur une procédure arbitrale l’opposant à un autre Etatf doive,
par souci de prudence sinon par stricte nécessité juridique, mettrfe en
œuvre les moyens raisonnables de limiter de tels effets. Nous accepf ‑

tons ce qui a été dit ce matin, à savoir que, à défaut, lfe déroulement
de la procédure arbitrale en tant que mode de règlement pacifiqufe
des différends interétatiques pourrait s’en trouver perturbéf. J’insiste
toutefois sur la notion de raisonnable qui vient nuancer cette

approche théorique. Les circonstances ne permettent pas toujours de
concilier parfaitement les deux intérêts antagonistes, et l’on ne sau ‑
rait enjoindre à un Etat de suspendre purement et simplement des

mesures de sécurité nationale au seul motif qu’il est partie àf une pro ‑
cédure arbitrale.» (CR 2014/4, pp. 8‑9, par. 4.)

36. Telle était donc la « réponse générale ». S’intéressant ensuite au
«contexte propre au cas d’espèce », le conseil de l’Australie a exposé ce
qui suit :

«[En la présente] espèce, en revanche, nous affirmons que les

23 Le conseil du Timor‑Leste a ensuite précisé :

«Bien évidemment, comme dans tout processus judiciaire, il peut y avoifr des abus,
mais les juridictions savent comment traiter ce genre de situation. Nous rejetons tout
propos de l’Australie laissant entendre que, en demandant l’indicaftion de mesures
conservatoires, le Timor‑Leste abuse de cette procédure. Plus précisément, nous reje
tons l’allégation indigne de M. Crawford, selon laquelle le Timor‑Leste utilise cette
procédure «pour tourner les dispositions en matière de confidentialité et pfr‑fiter plei
nement de l’occasion pour faire une mauvaise publicité à l’Afustralie et la dénigrer ».
Ce n’est pas le cas. » (CR 2014/3, 22 janvier 2014, p. 12‑14.)

Pour les arguments de l’Australie, voir CR 2014/2, 21 janvier 2014, p. 39, par. 8.

37

8 CIJ1061.indb 203 25/03/15 08:46 181 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

adverse impact on the Arbitration — for three reasons. Firstly,

Timor‑Leste’s counsel in the Arbitration, on 5 December [2013],
accepted they have copies of the key removed documents, including
an affidavit from the person they describe as ‘Witness K’ which tfhey
have lodged with the PCA. No case of disadvantage has been made
before you. Second[ly], the Attorney‑General acted reasonably from

the outset — from the Ministerial Statement of 4 December [2013],
supplemented by undertakings — to ensure there would be no illegit‑
imate advantage to Australia by way of documents being made avail‑
able to the legal team in the Arbitration. Wisely, with hindsight, he
anticipated this problem might arise and he acted in advance to pre ‑

vent it. The third part of the practical answer is that there is not a
skerrick of evidence pointed to by Timor‑Leste to suggest the under ‑
takings have not been honoured to date or will not be honoured in
the future. (. . .) [T]he documents have been kept under seal (. . .).

Timor‑Leste has the documents it needs for the Arbitration ; it has

adequate undertakings to protect the integrity of the Arbitration; and
the undertakings are being honoured.” (CR 2014/4, paras. 5‑6.)

2. General Assessment

37. In sum, and as pointed out by the International Court of Justice in
the present Order, Australia has clearly relied on its solemn “undertak ‑
ings” that the documents of Timor‑Leste’s legal adviser that it hafs seized
in Canberra will be kept sealed and inaccessible, safeguarding their conffi‑
dentiality, so as not to be used to the disadvantage of Timor‑Leste in

the proceedings of the Timor Sea Treaty Arbitral Tribunal (Order,
paras. 35‑39). Timor‑Leste, in turn, has challenged such arguments (ibid.,
paras. 40‑41), and has held that it seeks to protect the ownership and
property rights it holds over the seized material (inviolability and imfmu ‑
nity of its property) as a sovereign State (ibid., para. 24), and has added

that the seized documents and data concern its position on matters per ‑
taining to the Timor Sea Treaty Arbitration and in the context of futuref
negotiations; such matters, it has added, are “crucial to the future of
Timor‑Leste as a State and to the well‑being of its people” (ibid., para. 33).

38. Arguments of alleged “national security”, such as raised by Aus ‑
tralia in the cas d’espèce, cannot be made the concern of an international
tribunal, in a case like the present one. The Court has before itself general
principles of international law (supra), and cannot be obfuscated by alle‑

gations of “national security”, which fall outside the scope of thfe appli ‑

38

8 CIJ1061.indb 204 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 181

mesures de sécurité nationale n’auront pas d’incidence néfgative sur
l’arbitrage, et ce, pour trois raisons. Premièrement, le conseil rfeprése‑

tant le Timor‑Leste dans le cadre de la procédure arbitrale a reconnuf,
le 5 décembre [2013], que son équipe était en possession de copies dfes
principaux documents saisis, notamment de la déclaration sous
serment du «témoin K», laquelle a été déposée auprès de la CPA. Le
Timor‑Leste n’a pas démontré qu’il aurait subi un désavanftage.

Deuxièmement, l’Attorney‑General a pris, dès le début, des mesures
raisonnables — avec sa déclaration ministérielle du 4 décembre [2013],
complétée par ses engagements —, pour éviter que l’équipe juridique
chargée de représenter l’Australie dans le cadre de l’arbitrfage ne puisse
avoir accès à des documents susceptibles de donner à la partie faustra ‑

lienne un avantage indu. Ayant — fort judicieusement, peut‑on dire
rétrospectivement — anticipé ce problème, il a pris des mesures pour y
remédier. Le troisième élément de notre réponse, sur un pflan pratique,
est que le Timor‑Leste n’a pas présenté le plus petit commencemfent de
preuve indiquant que les engagements de l’Australie n’avaient pas été
ou ne seraient pas honorés. … [L]es documents ont été mis sous

scellés. ...
[L]e Timor‑Leste dispose de tous les documents dont il a besoin
pour l’arbitrage ; il a obtenu des engagements appropriés destinés à
protéger l’intégrité de la procédure ; et ces engagements sont dûment
honorés.» (CR 2014/4, par. 5‑6.)

2. Appréciation générale

37. En résumé, et ainsi que l’a souligné la Cour dans la présfente
ordonnance, l’Australie s’est clairement fondée sur ses « engagements»
solennels selon lesquels les documents du conseiller juridique du Timor‑

Leste qu’elle avait saisis à Canberra seraient maintenus sous scelflés et
leur accès interdit à quiconque — leur confidentialité étant ainsi
préservée —, de sorte qu’ils ne puissent être utilisés au détrimentf du
Timor‑Leste dans l’arbitrage en vertu du traité sur la mer de Timofr
(ordonnance, par. 35‑39). Le Timor‑Leste a, pour sa part, contesté ces

arguments (ibid., par. 40‑41), faisant valoir qu’il cherchait à protéger les
droits de propriété qu’il détenait à l’égard des éfléments saisis (droits à
l’inviolabilité et à l’immunité de ses biens) en tant qu’Etat souverain
(ibid., par. 24), et que les documents et données en question avaient trait
à sa position dans le cadre de l’arbitrage susmentionné et de ffutures

négociations; il a ajouté qu’étaient en jeu des « questions primordiales
pour l’avenir du Timor‑Leste en tant qu’Etat et pour le bien‑êtfre de sa
population » (ibid., par. 33).
38. Dans une affaire comme la présente espèce, une juridiction interfna‑
tionale ne saurait prendre en compte des arguments — tels que ceux qui
ont été avancées par l’Australie — ayant trait à de prétendues questions

de « sécurité nationale ». Des principes généraux du droit international
ont été invoqués devant la Cour (supra), qui ne pouvait permettre qu’ils

38

8 CIJ1061.indb 205 25/03/15 08:46 182 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

cable law here. In any case, an international tribunal cannot pay lip‑sefrvice
to allegations of “national security” made by one of the parties ifn the
course of legal proceedings.

39. This particular point was made by Timor‑Leste in the cas d’espèce.
In this respect, the ad hoc International Tribunal for the former Yugosla ‑
via (ICTY — Appeals Chamber), in its decision (of 29 October 1997) 24in
the Blaškić case, confronted with a plea that documents sought from
Croatian State officials were protected by “national security”, pfondered:

“[T]o grant States a blanket right to withhold, for security pur ‑
poses, documents necessary for trial might jeopardise the very func ‑
tion of the International Tribunal, and ‘defeat its essential object fand
purpose’. The International Tribunal was established for the prose ‑

cution of persons responsible for war crimes, crimes against humanity
and genocide; these are crimes related to armed conflict and military
operations. It is, therefore, evident that military documents or other
evidentiary material connected with military operations may be of
crucial importance, either for the Prosecutor or the defence, to prove

or disprove the alleged culpability of an indictee, particularly when
command responsibility is involved (in this case military documents
may be needed to establish or disprove the chain of command, the
degree of control over the troops exercised by a military commander,

the extent to which he was cognisant of the actions undertaken by his
subordinates, etc.). To admit that a State holding such documents
may unilaterally assert national security claims and refuse to surren ‑
der those documents could lead to the stultification of international f
criminal proceedings: those documents might prove crucial for decid ‑

ing whether the accused is innocent or guilty. The very raison d’être
of the International Tribunal would then be undermined.” (Prosecu ‑
tor v. T. Blaškić, para. 65.)

40. The due process of law cannot be undermined by the behaviour of

one of the parties dictated by reasons of alleged “national security”f.
Equality of arms (égalité des armes) in arbitral and judicial proceedings
is to be preserved. International tribunals know how to handle confidefn ‑
tial matters in the course of legal procedure, and this cannot be inter ‑
mingled with one of the parties’ concerns with its own “national sfecurity”.

In the experience of contemporary international tribunals, there have

24Appeals Chamber’s decision of 29 October 1997, review of the Decision of Trial

Chamber II of 18 July 1997, para. 65.

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8 CIJ1061.indb 206 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 182

soient occultés par de tels arguments, lesquels n’entrent pas dansf le champ
du droit applicable en l’espèce. En tout état de cause, une jurfidiction
internationale ne saurait se prononcer en faveur d’allégations de f«sécurité
nationale» formulées par l’une des parties dans le cadre d’une procéfdure
judiciaire.

39. Ce point particulier a été soulevé par le Timor‑Leste dans laprésente
instance. La chambre d’appel du Tribunal pénal international pour
l’ex‑Yougoslavie s’y est elle aussi intéressée dans sa décision du 29 octobre
1997 en l’affaire Blaškić 24, lorsque, amenée à examiner un moyen de
défense invoquant la protection, au titre de la « sécurité nationale », de

documents sollicités par des responsables de l’Etat croate, elle af déclaré ce
qui suit :

«[A]ccorder aux Etats le droit de refuser systématiquement, pour
des raisons de sécurité, de communiquer des documents nécessaires
au déroulement du procès pourrait compromettre la fonction mêmef
du Tribunal et « faire échec à son objet et son but essentiels ». Le

Tribunal a été constitué pour poursuivre les personnes responsafbles
de crimes de guerre, de crimes contre l’humanité et de génocidef,
c’est‑à‑dire des crimes commis dans le cadre de conflits arméfs et
d’opérations militaires. Il est donc évident que les documents fmili ‑
taires et autres éléments de preuve ayant trait aux opérations fmili ‑

taires peuvent revêtir, tant pour le Procureur que pour la défensef,
une importance cruciale aux fins d’établir ou d’écarter laf culpabilité
d’un accusé, notamment lorsqu’il est question de responsabilitéf des
supérieurs hiérarchiques (auquel cas les documents militaires peufvent

être nécessaires pour établir ou réfuter la chaîne de comfmandement,
le degré de contrôle exercé par un responsable militaire sur lefs
troupes, la mesure dans laquelle celui‑ci avait connaissance des actes
de ses subordonnés, etc.). Autoriser un Etat détenant pareils docfu ‑
ments à invoquer unilatéralement des questions de sécurité nfationale

pour refuser de les communiquer reviendrait à vider de leur sens les f
procédures pénales internationales, ces documents pouvant se réfvéler
cruciaux pour déterminer si l’accusé est ou non coupable. La rafison
d’être du Tribunal international s’en trouverait remise en question. »

(Prosecutor c. T. Blaškić, par. 65.)
40. Le comportement d’une partie dicté par de prétendues raisons def

«sécurité nationale» ne saurait remettre en cause les garanties d’une pro ‑
cédure régulière. Il est impératif de préserver l’éfgalité des armes dans les
procédures arbitrales et judiciaires. Aujourd’hui, les juridictionfs interna ‑
tionales savent comment traiter les éléments confidentiels dans fce cadre,
et les préoccupations de «sécurité nationale» exprimées par l’une des par ‑

ties ne sauraient le faire oublier. Pour entendre certaines dépositiofns, elles

24Arrêt du 29 octobre 1997, appel interjeté contre le jugement du 18 juillet 1997 de la

deuxième chambre de première instance, par. 65.

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8 CIJ1061.indb 207 25/03/15 08:46 183 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

been occasions of hearings of testimonies in special sittings, so as to fduly
instruct the case and protect witnesses. To evoke but one illustration, fthe
Inter‑American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR), in the course of the
proceedings culminating in its Judgment of 25 November 2000 (merits) in

the case of Bámaca Velásquez v. Guatemala, deemed it necessary to collect
the testimony of a witness, and commissioned three of its members to do f
so, in a sitting held outside its siège in Central America 25. The sitting took
place at the headquarters of the Organization of American States (OAS)f

in Washington D.C., as the witness concerned was still defining his mifgra ‑
tory status as a refugee.

41. As to the handling of confidentiality, international tribunals know
their respective applicable law, and do not yield to considerations of

domestic law as to “national security” ; they keep in mind the imperative
of due process of law in the course of international legal proceedings, and
preserve the equality of arms (égalité des armes), in the light of the prin ‑
ciple of the proper administration of justice (la bonne administration de la

justice). Allegations of State secrecy or “national security” cannot at alfl
interfere with the work of an international tribunal, in judicial settlefment
or arbitration.
42. In my perception, Timor‑Leste has made its case that the docu ‑

ments seized from its legal adviser’s office in Canberra, containingf confi ‑
dential information concerning its positions in the Timor Sea Treaty
Arbitration, are not to be used to its disadvantage in that PCA arbitra ‑
tion. Timor‑Leste’s preoccupation has its raison d’être, and, in my view,
the International Court of Justice has taken the right decision to orderf

the provisional measures ; however, it should have done so in the terms
requested by Timor‑Leste, namely, to have the documents seized by Aus ‑
tralia immediately sealed and delivered into the custody of the Interna ‑
tional Court of Justice itself, here in its siège at the Peace Palace in

The Hague. The present proceedings in the case concerning Questions
relating to the Seizure and Detention of Certain Documents and Data
(Timor‑Leste v. Australia), suggest, once again, in the light of the argu ‑
ments advanced by both Timor‑Leste and Australia, that States appear

far more sensitive than human beings. Even more so in a delicate matter f
such as the one of the present case. As the learned Antônio Vieira
observed in the seventeenth century : “Não há dúvida que todas as coisas
são mais estimadas e de maior gosto quando se recuperam depois de perf ‑
didas, que quando se possuem sem se perderem.” 26

43. It is clear that the concern of an international tribunal is with prop‑
erly imparting justice, rather than with assessing measures of alleged
“national security”, entirely alien to its function. Internationalf tribunals

25In the host State, San José of Costa Rica.
26Antônio Vieira, Sermão de Santo Antônio [1657] : “There is no doubt that all things
are more esteemed and of greater taste when recovered after having been lost, than when
possessed without being lost.” [My own translation.]

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8 CIJ1061.indb 208 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 183

organisent ainsi des audiences spéciales, dans le but, notamment, de fveil‑
ler au bon déroulement de l’instruction et d’assurer la protectfion des
témoins. Pour n’évoquer qu’un seul exemple, la Cour interaméfricaine des

droits de l’homme (CIDH) a, dans la procédure qui a donné liefu à son
arrêt au fond le 25 novembre 2000 en l’affaire Bámaca Velásquez c.
Guatemala, jugé nécessaire — et mandaté trois de ses membres à cet
effet — de recueillir une déposition au cours d’une audience qui s’fest
25
tenue en dehors de ses locaux d’Amérique centrale ; le témoin en ques ‑
tion continuant d’invoquer le statut de réfugié, cette audiencef a eu lieu
au siège de l’Organisation des Etats américains (OEA) à Washington
D.C.

41. S’agissant du traitement de la confidentialité, les juridictionsf interna‑
tionales connaissent le droit applicable qu’elles sont respectivementf tenues
de suivre, et ne se plient pas à des considérations de droit interfne telles que
la «sécurité nationale»; elles ont à l’esprit l’impératif de garantir une pro ‑

cédure régulière dans le cadre du règlement judiciaire des dfifférends inter‑
nationaux, et de préserver l’égalité des armes, qui découfle du principe de la
bonne administration de la justice. L’invocation de secrets d’Etatf ou de la
«sécurité nationale» ne saurait faire obstacle aux travaux d’une juridiction

internationale, que ce soit dans le domaine judiciaire ou arbitral.
42. Selon moi, le Timor‑Leste a démontré que les documents saisis
dans les locaux professionnels de son conseiller juridique à Canberraf, qui
contiennent des informations confidentielles concernant sa position aufx
fins de l’arbitrage en vertu du traité de la mer de Timor, ne defvaient en

aucun cas être utilisés à son détriment dans le cadre de la fprocédure qui
se déroule devant la CPA. Ces préoccupations sont justifiées,f et c’est donc
à juste titre, me semble‑t‑il, que la Cour a choisi d’indiquer desf mesures
conservatoires. Toutefois, elle aurait dû le faire dans les termes sofllicités

par le Timor‑Leste, c’est‑à‑dire en décidant que les documents fsaisis par
l’Australie soient immédiatement placés sous scellés et confifés à sa propre
garde, ici même, au Palais de la Paix, à La Haye. Dans la présente affaire,
il apparaît, une fois encore, au vu des arguments respectivement avanfcés

par le Timor‑Leste et l’Australie, que les Etats peuvent se révéfler bien
plus sensibles que les êtres humains. Cela est d’autant plus vrai dans une
affaire aussi délicate que celle qui nous occupe aujourd’hui. Aifnsi que le
faisait observer au XVII esiècle l’éminent philosophe Antônio Vieira :

«Não hà dúvida que todas as coisas são mais estimadas e de mafior gosto
quando se recuperam depois de perdidas, que quando se possuem sem se
perderem. » 26
43. De toute évidence, le rôle d’une juridiction internationale estf de

rendre correctement la justice, et non d’apprécier des mesures prifses pour
des raisons de « sécurité nationale », qui sont totalement étrangères à sa

25Sis à San José, au Costa Rica, l’Etat hôte.
26Antônio Vieira, Sermão de Santo Antônio (1657) : « Nul doute que l’on attache plus
de prix et de goût aux choses perdues et retrouvées qu’à celfles que l’on possède sans les
avoir jamais perdues. »

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8 CIJ1061.indb 209 25/03/15 08:46 184 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

are concerned with the prevalence of international law ; national govern‑
ments (their secret or so‑called “intelligence” services) occupyf themselves

with issues they regard as affecting alleged “national security”f. The inter ‑
national legal positions of one State cannot be subjected to measures off
alleged “national security” of another State, even less so when thfey are
contending parties in the same contentious case before an international f
tribunal. In this connection, an international tribunal such as the Intefrna ‑

tional Court of Justice is to make sure that the principle of the juridical
equality of States prevails, so as to discard eventual repercussions in the
international legal procedure of factual inequalities between States.

VII. The Prevalence of the Jurfidical Equality of Statefs

44. The present case concerning Questions relating to the Seizure and
Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia), bears

witness of the relevance of the principle of the juridical equality of Sftates.
The prevalence of this fundamental principle has marked a longstanding
presence in the realm of international law, ever since the times of the
II Hague Peace Conference of 1907, and then of the drafting of the Statute
of the Permanent Court of International Justice by the Advisory Committefe

of Jurists, in June‑July 1920. Recourse was then made, by that Committee,
inter alia, to general principles of law, as these latter embodied the objective
idea of justice. A general principle such as that of the juridical equalfity of
States, enshrined a quarter of a century later in the United Nations Charter
(Article 2 (1)), is ineluctably intermingled with the quest for justice.

45. Subsequently, throughout the drafting of the 1970 UN Declaration
on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and
Co‑operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the
United Nations (1964‑1970), the need was felt to make it clear that stron ‑
ger States cannot impose their will upon the weak, and that de facto

inequalities among States cannot affect the weaker in the vindication fof
their rights. The principle of the juridical equality of States gave expfres ‑
sion to this concern, embodying the idée de justice, emanated from the
universal juridical conscience. I have had the occasion to dwell upon thfis
point elsewhere, having pondered that :

“On successive occasions the principles of international law have
proved to be of fundamental importance to humankind’s quest for

justice. This is clearly illustrated by the role played, inter alia, by the
principle of juridical equality of States. This fundamental principle,
the historical roots of which go back to the II Hague Peace Confer ‑
ence of 1907, proclaimed in the UN Charter and enunciated also in
the 1970 Declaration of Principles, means ultimately that all States —

factually strong and weak, great and small — are equal before inter ‑
national law, are entitled to the same protection under the law and

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fonction. Les tribunaux internationaux s’appliquent à faire primerf le
droit international; les gouvernements nationaux (à travers leurs services

secrets ou services de «renseignement»), pour leur part, se préoccupent de
questions qui touchent, selon eux, à leur « sécurité nationale ». Les posi‑
tions juridiques internationales d’un Etat ne sauraient être soumises à des
mesures liées à la prétendue « sécurité nationale » d’un autre, ce d’autant
moins lorsqu’ils sont tous deux parties à un différend soumis à une juri ‑

diction internationale. A cet égard, une juridiction telle que la Coufr doit
veiller à ce que le principe de l’égalité juridique des Etats l’emporte, de
sorte que les inégalités de fait entre Etats n’aient aucune conséquence sur
le règlement judiciaire des différends internationaux.

VII. La primauté du principfe de l’égalité juridiqfue des États

44. La présente affaire témoigne de l’importance du principe de lf’éga ‑
lité juridique des Etats. La place prépondérante de ce principef fondamen‑

tal du droit international remonte à la deuxième conférence de fla paix de
La Haye de 1907, et à la rédaction, en juin‑juillet 1920, du Statut de la
Cour permanente de Justice internationale par le Comité consultatif dfe
juristes, qui s’était alors notamment référé aux principefs généraux de
droit exprimant l’idée objective de justice. Consacré vingt‑cinfq ans plus

tard dans la Charte des Nations Unies (au paragraphe 1 de l’article 2), le
principe général de l’égalité juridique des Etats est aujfourd’hui imman ‑
quablement et indissociablement lié à la quête de justice.

45. Plus tard, au moment de la rédaction de la Déclaration relative aux
principes du droit international touchant les relations amicales et la
coopération entre les Etats conformément à la Charte des Nationfs Unies
(1964‑1970), il est apparu nécessaire d’affirmer l’idée qfue les Etats puis ‑
sants ne sauraient imposer leur volonté, et que des inégalités fde fait entre

les Etats ne devaient pas affecter la capacité des plus faibles de ffaire valoir
leurs droits. Le principe de l’égalité juridique des Etats a dofnné corps à
cette préoccupation et à l’idée de justice, laquelle procèfde de la conscience
juridique universelle. J’ai eu l’occasion, dans un autre contexte,f de livrer
mes réflexions sur ce point :

«Les principes du droit international se sont, en plusieurs occa ‑
sions, révélés d’une importance primordiale pour la quête de justice

de l’humanité. En témoigne, par exemple, le rôle du principef de
l’égalité juridique des Etats. Ce principe fondamental, qui tirfe histo ‑
riquement son origine de la deuxième conférence de la paix de
La Haye de 1907, et a été consacré par la Charte des Nations Unies,
puis réaffirmé dans la déclaration de 1970 relative aux princifpes du

droit international touchant les relations amicales, signifie, en déffini ‑
tive, que tous les Etats — les forts et les faibles, les grands et les

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8 CIJ1061.indb 211 25/03/15 08:46 185 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

before the organs of international justice, and to equality in the exer ‑
cise of international rights and duties.

Despite successive attempts to undermine it, the principle of jurid ‑
ical equality of States has remained, from the II Hague Peace Con ‑
ference of 1907 to date, one of the basic pillars of international law. f
It has withstood the onslaught of time, and shown itself salutary for

the peaceful conduction of international relations, being ineluctably
associated — as it stands — with the foundations of international law.
It has been very important for the international legal system itself,
and has proven to be a cornerstone of international law in the United
Nations era. In fact, the UN Charter gave it a new dimension, and

the principle of juridical equality of States, in turn, paved the way fofr,
and contributed to, new developments such as that of the system of
collective security, within the ambit of the law of the United Nations.” 27

VIII. Provisional Measures off Protection Independefntly
of Unilateral “Undertakifngs” or Assurances

46. As from the characterizations by the International Court of Justice
itself of the essence and main features of the dispute lodged in the cas
d’espèce, one would legitimately expect that the Court would not proceed to
ground the provisional measures of protection that it has indicated in tfhe
present Order on a unilateral “undertaking” or assurance by one off the con ‑

tending Parties, precisely the one that has caused a damage — by the seizure
and detention of the documents and data at issue— to the applicant State.
In effect, in the present Order, the International Court of Justice, affter tak‑
ing note of the principal claim of Timor‑Leste that “a violation has foccurred

of its right to communicate with its counsel and lawyers in a confidenftial
manner with regard to issues forming the subject‑matter of pending arbitfral
proceedings and future negotiations between the Parties”, recalled thfat this
right derives from the fundamental principle of the juridical equality off

States, enshrined in Article 2 (1) of the UN Charter (Order, para. 27).
47. The International Court of Justice then proceeded that “equality of
the parties must be preserved” when they are engaged — pursuant to
Article 2 (3) of the UN Charter — in the process of peaceful settlement of
an international dispute (another general principle of international law).

Once a State is engaged therein, it is entitled to undertake arbitral prfo ‑
ceedings or negotiations “without interference by the other party in fthe
preparation and conduct of its case” (ibid.). It follows, the Court
added, that,

27A. A. Cançado Trindade, International Law for Humankind — Towards a New Jus
Gentium, 2nd rev. ed., Leiden/The Hague, Nijhoff, 2013, pp. 84‑85, and cf. pp. 62‑63, 65
and 73.

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8 CIJ1061.indb 212 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 185

petits — sont égaux devant le droit international, autrement dit,
qu’ils jouissent de la même protection au regard du droit et devanft
les instances judiciaires internationales, et de l’égalité dans l’exercice
de leurs droits et devoirs internationaux.

Malgré les tentatives de remise en cause qui se sont succédé, lfe
principe de l’égalité juridique des Etats constitue, depuis la fdeuxième
conférence de la paix de 1907, l’un des piliers du droit international.
Il a résisté au passage du temps, et s’est révélé saluftaire pour assurer

des relations internationales pacifiques, étant immanquablement liéf,
aujourd’hui encore, aux fondements du droit international. Il a jouéf
un rôle primordial dans la construction même de l’ordre juridiqfue
international, et constitue une pierre angulaire du droit des Nations
Unies. De fait, il a acquis, dans la Charte des Nations Unies,

une nouvelle dimension, ouvrant alors la voie et contribuant à de
nouvelles avancées telles que l’avènement du système de séfcurité
collective.»27

VIII. La nécessité de mesurefs conservatoires indfépendantes
des assurances ou « engagements» unilatéraux

46. Compte tenu de la manière dont elle avait elle‑même défini la
nature et les principaux aspects du différend dont elle avait à connaître en
la présente espèce, l’on pouvait légitimement s’attendre fà ce que la Cour
ne fondât pas les mesures conservatoires indiquées dans son ordonnfance
sur une assurance ou un « engagement» unilatéral de l’une des Parties,

celle, précisément, qui avait causé un préjudice — en saisissant et déte ‑
nant les documents et données en question — à l’Etat demandeur. D’ail ‑
leurs, après avoir pris note du principal grief du Timor‑Leste selon flequel
«il y avait eu violation de son droit de communiquer de manière confi ‑

dentielle avec ses conseils et avocats au sujet de questions faisant l’fobjet
d’une procédure arbitrale en cours et de futures négociations efntre les
Parties», la Cour a rappelé que ce droit découlait du principe fondamefn ‑
tal de l’égalité juridique des Etats consacré au paragraphe 1 de l’article 2

de la Charte des Nations Unies (ordonnance, par. 27).
47. La Cour a ensuite souligné qu’« il conv[enait] de préserver l’égalité
des parties » qui sont engagées, conformément au paragraphe 3 de l’ar ‑
ticle 2 de la Charte, dans le règlement, par des moyens pacifiques, d’fun
différend international (autre principe général du droit intfernational).

Lorsqu’un Etat a introduit une procédure d’arbitrage ou entreprfis des
négociations, il peut s’attendre à mener cette procédure ou fces négocia ‑
tions «sans que l’autre partie ne s’ingère dans la préparation ou lfa défense
de son argumentation » (ibid.). Il s’ensuit, selon la Cour, que,

27A. A. Cançado Trindade, International Law for Humankind — Towards a New Jus
Gentium, 2 éd. rev., Leyde/La Haye, Nijhoff, 2013, p. 84‑85, et voir p. 62‑63, 65 et 73.

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8 CIJ1061.indb 213 25/03/15 08:46 186 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

“in such a situation, a State has a plausible right to the protectionf of
its communications with counsel relating to an arbitration or to nego‑
tiations, in particular, to the protection of the correspondence betweenf
them, as well as to the protection of confidentiality of any documentsf

and data prepared by counsel to advise that State in such a context” f
(Order, para. 27).

48. The Court concluded, on this issue, that at least some of the rights
for which Timor‑Leste seeks protection are “plausible”, in particular,
“the right to conduct arbitration proceedings or negotiations withoutf
interference by Australia”, and “the correlative right of confidfentiality of

and non‑interference in its communications with its legal advisers” (ibid.,
para. 28). I would take even a step further, in acknowledging that a right
is a right, irrespective of its so‑called “plausibility” (whatever that might
concretely mean) 28. In any case, having reached such a conclusion, one

would expect the Court to order its own provisional measures of protec ‑
tion independently of any promise or unilateral “undertaking” on the
part of the State which has breached that “plausible” right.

49. For reasons which escape my comprehension, the Court did not do

so, and, from then onwards, embarked on a distinct line of reasoning, onf
the basis of the “undertaking” or assurance by Australia to securef the
confidentiality of the material seized by its agents in Canberra on
3 December 2013. The Court was aware of the imminent risk of irrepa ‑

rable harm (ibid., para. 42), and insisted that there remained a risk of
further disclosure of the seized material (ibid., para. 46) to the additional
disadvantage of Timor‑Leste. The Court considered that

“there could be a very serious detrimental effect on Timor‑Leste’s
position in the Timor Sea Treaty Arbitration and in future maritime
negotiations with Australia should the seized material be divulged to

any person or persons involved or likely to be involved in that arbi ‑
tration or in negotiations on behalf of Australia. Any breach of con ‑
fidentiality may not be capable of remedy or reparation as it might
not be possible to revert to the status quo ante following disclosure of

the confidential information.” (Ibid., para. 42.)

50. How can the Court assume that such breach of confidentiality has
not already occurred, to the detriment of Timor‑Leste ? On what basis
can the Court assume that the material seized by Australia has not yet
been divulged, or was not divulged on the days following its seizure, anfd

before the “undertaking” or assurance by Australia ? How can the Court
be sure that Timor‑Leste has not yet suffered an irreparable harm ? How

28“Plausibility”, as understood nowadays, has its etymological origifns tracing back to
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, means something which is worth of approval or
applause (from plaudere).

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8 CIJ1061.indb 214 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 186

«en pareil cas, un Etat a un droit plausible à ce que soient protégfées
ses communications avec ses conseils qui se rapportent à un arbi ‑
trage ou à des négociations et, en particulier, la correspondance fqu’il
échange avec eux, et à ce que soit protégée la confidentiaflité de tous

documents et données établis par eux pour le conseiller» (ordonnance,
par. 27).

48. La Cour a conclu, sur ce point, qu’au moins certains des droits que
le Timor‑Leste cherchait à protéger étaient plausibles et, en particulier, le
«droit de conduire une procédure d’arbitrage ou des négociationsf sans
ingérence de la part de l’Australie », et le droit corrélatif « à la confi‑

dentialité de ses communications avec ses conseillers juridiques et àf la
non‑ingérence dans lesdites communications » (ibid., par. 28). Or, selon
moi, il convenait d’aller plus loin, en reconnaissant qu’un droit est un
droit, qu’il soit ou non « plausible» (quel que soit le sens que ce terme
28
revêt concrètement) . En tout état de cause, la Cour étant parvenue à
cette conclusion, l’on aurait pu s’attendre à ce qu’elle indfiquât des mesures
conservatoires indépendantes de toute promesse ou « engagement» unila ‑
téral de la part de l’Etat ayant violé ce droit « plausible».
49. Pour des raisons qui m’échappent, la Cour n’en a rien fait, suifvant

un raisonnement différent fondé sur l’« engagement» ou l’assurance de
l’Australie de ce que la confidentialité des éléments saisfis par ses agents à
Canberra le 3 décembre 2013 serait préservée. Consciente qu’il existait unf
risque imminent de préjudice irréparable (ibid., par. 42), la Cour a souli ‑

gné que subsistait un risque que les éléments saisis soient divfulgués à
des tiers (ibid., par. 46), là encore au détriment du Timor‑Leste, et déclaré
que

«la position de celui‑ci dans le cadre de l’arbitrage en vertu du traité
sur la mer de Timor et des futures négociations maritimes avec
l’Australie pourrait être très gravement compromise si les éfléments

saisis étaient divulgués à une quelconque personne participant fou
susceptible de participer à cet arbitrage ou à ces négociations au nom
de l’Australie. Toute violation de la confidentialité risqueraitf de ne
pas pouvoir être réparée, puisqu’il pourrait se révélefr impossible de

revenir au statu quo ante après la divulgation d’informations confi ‑
dentielles. » (Ibid., par. 42.)

50. Comment la Cour pouvait‑elle supposer que pareille violation
n’avait pas, d’ores et déjà, été commise à l’encfontre du Timor‑Leste? Sur
quels éléments s’est‑elle fondée pour présumer que les documents et don ‑
nées saisis par l’Australie n’avaient pas déjà été fdivulgués, notamment

dans les jours suivant leur saisie, c’est‑à‑dire avant l’assurance ou l’«enga ‑
gement» donné par l’Australie ? Comment la Cour pouvait‑elle être sûre

28 Dans son acception actuelle, le terme « plausible », dont l’origine étymologique date
des XVI et XVII siècles, désigne ce qui est louable, ce qui mérite d’être applaudi (du latin
plaudere).

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8 CIJ1061.indb 215 25/03/15 08:46 187 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

can the Court proceed, on the basis of the seizure undertaken by the Ausf‑
tralian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO), to ground in the pres ‑
ent Order its own provisional measures of protection, instead of taking f
custody of the seized material ? From this point of the present Order (reli ‑
ance on the seizure of documents and data for alleged “national securfity”

reasons) onwards, it is difficult to avoid the sensation of entering into the
realm of surrealism.

51. The fact is that it cannot be denied with certainty that, with the
seizure of the documents and data containing its privileged information,f

Timor‑Leste has already suffered an irreparable harm. Six and a half
decades ago (in 1949), in his last book, Nineteen Eighty‑Four, George
Orwell repeatedly warned : “Big Brother Is Watching You” 29. Modern
history is permeated with examples of the undue exercise of search

and seizure, by those who felt powerful enough to exercise unreasonable
surveillance of others. Modern history has also plenty of examples
of the proper reaction of those who felt victimized by such exercise of
search and seizure. In so reacting, the latter felt that, though lacking in
factual power, they had law on their side, as all are equal before the lfaw.

If Orwell could rise from his tomb today, I imagine he would probably
contemplate writing Two Thousand Eighty‑Four, updating his perennial
and topical warning, so as to encompass surveillance not only at
intra‑State level, but also at inter‑State level ; nowadays, “Big Brother Is

Watching You” on a much wider geographical scale, and also in the relfa ‑
tions across nations.

52. If the Court were sensitive to that, it would have ordered — as in
my view it should have — its provisional measures of protection indepfen ‑

dently of any unilateral “undertaking” or assurance on the part off the
State which exercised search and seizure (Australia) of documents and f
data containing privileged information belonging to the applicant State f
(Timor‑Leste). The Court would have ordered the seized documents and
data to be promptly sealed and delivered into its custody here at its siège

at the Peace Palace in The Hague. In any case, the provisional measures
of protection indicated in the present Order of the Court, concerning a f
situation of urgency, purports to prevent further irreparable harm to
Timor‑Leste.

53. The Court did not at all need to have relied factually upon Austra ‑
lia’s seizure of the documents and data containing information belonging
to Timor‑Leste, so as to order Australia to “keep under seal the seized
documents and electronic data and any copies thereof” (resolutory

point 2). The Court should have taken custody of those documents and
data (and any copies thereof) from then on. Instead of that, the Courtf
ordered the State which seized them to ensure that no further damage is

29
Part I, Chapter I ; and Part III, Chapter VI.

44

8 CIJ1061.indb 216 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 187

que le Timor‑Leste n’avait pas d’ores et déjà subi un préfjudice irrépa ‑
rable? Comment a‑t‑elle pu ensuite indiquer ses propres mesures conser ‑
vatoires en se fondant, de fait, sur la saisie effectuée par l’AfSIO, le service
de renseignement intérieur de l’Australie, au lieu de requérir fque les docu ‑
ments saisis lui soient remis ? A compter de ce point de la présente ordon ‑

nance (par lequel la Cour se fonde sur la saisie des documents et donnéfes
pour de prétendues raisons de « sécurité nationale »), l’on a du mal à ne
pas éprouver un sentiment de surréalisme.
51. Le fait est que la possibilité que le Timor‑Leste ait d’ores et déjà
subi un préjudice irréparable, par suite de la saisie des documentfs et don ‑

nées contenant des informations confidentielles qui lui appartiennefnt, ne
saurait être écartée avec certitude. Il y a soixante‑cinq ans déjà, en 1949,
George Orwell formulait, dans son roman 1984, la mise en garde sui ‑
vante: « Big Brother vous regarde » (« Big Brother is watching you ») . 29

L’histoire contemporaine est émaillée d’exemples de perquisiftions et de
saisies abusives effectuées par ceux qui se sentent assez puissantsf pour
exercer sur d’autres une surveillance injustifiée. On y trouve éfgalement
nombre de cas où ceux qui s’estimaient victimes de tels actes ont fréagi
comme il se devait, et pris conscience, ce faisant, que, bien que dépourvus

de pouvoir dans les faits, ils bénéficiaient de la protection du droit, qui
s’applique à tous de manière égale. Si George Orwell était encore parmi
nous, il envisagerait peut‑être d’écrire 2084, et sa mise en garde intempo ‑
relle, dont l’actualité ne se dément pas, porterait non plus sefulement sur

la surveillance des citoyens par l’Etat, mais également sur celle fqu’exercent
les Etats entre eux. Aujourd’hui, Big Brother nous surveille à bien plus
grande échelle, y compris dans les relations entre les nations.
52. Si la Cour avait été sensible à cet aspect, elle aurait indiquéf
— comme elle aurait dû le faire, selon moi — ses mesures conservatoires

indépendamment de toute assurance ou de tout « engagement» unilatéral
de la part de l’Etat (l’Australie) qui a procédé à la pferquisition et à la
saisie de documents et données contenant des informations confidentfielles
de l’Etat demandeur (le Timor‑Leste). La Cour aurait alors ordonnéf — ce
qu’elle aurait dû faire, selon moi — que les documents et données saisis

soient sans tarder placés sous scellés et confiés à sa garde, au Palais de la
Paix, à La Haye. En tout état de cause, les mesures conservatoires indi ‑
quées dans la présente ordonnance, qui portent sur une situation df’ur ‑
gence, sont censées éviter qu’un préjudice irréparable supplémentaire ne

soit causé au Timor‑Leste.
53. Rien n’obligeait la Cour, dans la présente ordonnance, à se fonfder
— de fait — sur la saisie par l’Australie des documents et données com ‑
portant des informations du Timor‑Leste, en ordonnant à l’Australife de
«conserv[er] sous scellés les documents et données électroniquesf saisis,

ainsi que toute copie qui en aurait été faite » (deuxième point du disposi ‑
tif). Elle aurait dû décider d’assurer elle‑même, à compfter de ce jour,
la garde des éléments en question et de leurs éventuelles copies. fAu lieu

29
Première partie, chap. I ; troisième partie, chap. VI.

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8 CIJ1061.indb 217 25/03/15 08:46 188 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

done to Timor‑Leste by further disclosure for use by any person(s), off the
seized material (resolutory point 1).

54. Ironically, in the present Order the Court itself admits (Order,

para. 30) that the provisional measures of protection requested by
Timor‑Leste are aimed at preventing further damage to it. It is clear that
damage has already been made to Timor‑Leste. Yet the Court orders pro ‑
visional measures of protection to be taken by the State — as from its

unilateral “undertaking” — that has seized the documents and data for
alleged reasons of “national security”. In this connection, in thef mid‑
fifties, the poet Vinicius de Moraes pitied the ungrateful task of those
who worked in archives (and I would here add, in secret archives, amidsft

documents allegedly concerning “national security”) ; in his own words :

“Antes não classificásseis
Os maços pelos assuntos
Criando a luta de classes

Num mundo de anseios juntos ! (. . .)
Ah, ver‑vos em primavera
Sobre papéis de ocasião

Na melancólica espera 30
De uma eterna certidão ! (. . .)”

55. In distinct contexts, the inviolability of State papers and docu ‑
ments has been an old concern in diplomatic relations. The 1946 UN Con‑
vention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations refers to

the “inviolability for all papers and documents” of Member States fpar ‑
ticipating in the work of its main and subsidiary organs, or in conferences
convened by the United Nations (Art. IV). In the same year, a resolu ‑
tion of the UN General Assembly asserted that such inviolability of all

State papers and documents was granted by the 1946 Convention “in the
interests of the good administration of justice” 3. Thus, already in 1946,
the UN General Assembly had given expression in a resolution to the pre ‑
sumption of the inviolability of the correspondence between Member

States and their legal advisers. This is an international law obligation, not

30 Vinicius de Moraes, “Balada das Arquivistas”, Antologia Poética (1954) :

“Better if you would not classify
The files by the subjects
Creating class struggle
In a world full of anguish ! (. . .)
Ah, to see you all in the springtime
Over occasional papers
In the melancholic expectation
Of an eternal certificate ! (. . .)” [My own translation.]
31
GA resolution 90 (I), of 11 December 1946, para. 5 (b).

45

8 CIJ1061.indb 218 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 188

de cela, la Cour a enjoint l’Etat qui avait procédé à la saifsie de veiller à ce
qu’aucun préjudice supplémentaire ne soit causé au Timor‑Leste en fai ‑

sant en sorte que les éléments en question ne soient pas utiliséfs par une
quelconque personne (premier point du dispositif).
54. Paradoxalement, la Cour admet (ordonnance, par. 30) que les

mesures conservatoires sollicitées par le Timor‑Leste visent à éfviter qu’un
préjudice supplémentaire ne soit causé à celui‑ci. Le Timor‑Leste a claire ‑
ment déjà subi un préjudice. Or, la Cour choisit d’indiquer des mesures
dont la mise en œuvre échet à l’Etat qui a saisi les documents et données

pour de prétendues raisons de «sécurité nationale», à compter de l’«enga ‑
gement» unilatéral pris par ce dernier. Je citerai à ce propos le poèfte Vin‑i
cius de Moraes, qui, au milieu des années cinquante, plaignait les emfployés
des services d’archives (les services d’archives classifiéesf, ajouterai‑je,

pleines de documents touchant à de prétendues questions de « sécurité
nationale»), dont il décrivait en ces termes la tâche ingrate :

«Antes não classificásseis
Os maços pelos assuntos
Criando a luta de classes

Num mundo de anseios juntos ! …
Ah, ver‑vos em primavera
Sobre papéis de ocasião

Na melancólica espera 30
De uma eterna certidão ! …»

55. Dans des contextes différents, l’inviolabilité des papiers etf docu ‑
ments d’Etat constitue, de longue date, un sujet de préoccupation fdans le
cadre des relations diplomatiques. La convention de 1946 sur les privi ‑

lèges et immunités des Nations Unies prévoyait « l’inviolabilité de tous
papiers et documents » des Etats membres participant aux travaux des
organes principaux et subsidiaires de l’Organisation et aux conférfences
convoquées par celle‑ci (art. IV). Une résolution adoptée la même

année par l’Assemblée générale précisait que cette inviolabilitfé des papiers
et documents d’Etat était garantie par la convention de 1946 « dans l’inté ‑
rêt de la bonne administration de la justice » . Ainsi, dès 1946, l’Assem ‑
blée générale exprimait, dans une résolution, la présomption d’finviolabilité

des correspondances entre les Etats membres et leurs conseillers juri ‑

30 Vinicius de Moraes, « Balada das Arquivistas », Antologia Poética (1954) :

«Mieux vaudrait que vous n’ayez pas à classer
Les dossiers par thème
Créant ainsi une lutte des classes
Dans un monde plein d’angoisse ! …
Ah, vous voir tous au printemps
Sur des textes d’un jour
Dans l’attente mélancolique
D’un certificat éternel ! … »
31
Résolution 90 (I) de l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies, 11 décembre 1946,
par. 5 b).

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8 CIJ1061.indb 219 25/03/15 08:46 189 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

one derived from a unilateral “undertaking” or assurance by a Statfe fol ‑
lowing its seizure of documents and data containing information belong ‑

ing to another State.

56. In my perception, there is no room, in provisional measures of pro‑
tection, for indulging in an exercise of balancing of interests of the cfon ‑
tending parties. For example, in the present Order, the Court refers to fthe

“significant contribution” of Australia’s unilateral “undefrtaking” or
promise (of 21 January 2014) towards “mitigating the imminent risk of
irreparable prejudice” to Timor‑Leste (Order, para. 47). Yet, immediately
afterwards, the Court goes on to say that, despite that unilateral “ufnder ‑
taking” by Australia, “there is still an imminent risk of irreparafble preju‑
dice” to Timor‑Leste (ibid., para. 48). This being so, what is the “significant

contribution” of the unilateral “undertaking” or assurance to mfitigate the
“imminent risk of irreparable prejudice” to Timor‑Leste ? The Court pro ‑
vides no explanation for its assertion. What is so “significant”f about that
unilateral act ? The Court does not demonstrate its “significance”, only
takes the promise at its face value.

57. Can a unilateral assurance or promise provide a basis for the
Court’s reasoning in Orders of binding provisional measures of protecf ‑
tion? Not at all — as I sustained half a decade ago in my dissenting opin ‑
ion in the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute
or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) (Provisional Measures, Order of 28 May

2009, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 139), and as I once again sustain in this
separate opinion in the present Order of 3 March 2014 in the case con ‑
cerning Questions relating to the Seizure and Detention of Certain Docu ‑
ments and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia). Like Ionesco’s Rhinocéros
(1960), je ne capitule pas . . .
58. The International Court of Justice is not a simple amiable compo‑

siteur, it is a court of law, the principal judicial organ of the United Nations
(Article 92 of the UN Charter). In the exercise of its judicial function, it
is not to ground its reasoning on unilateral “undertakings” or assurances
or promises formulated in the course of international legal proceedings.f
Precepts of law provide a much safer ground for its reasoning in the exefr ‑

cise of its judicial function. Those precepts are of a perennial value, fsuch
as the ones in (Ulpian’s) opening book I (item I, para. 3) or in Justinian’s
Institutes (early sixth century) : honeste vivere, alterum non laedere, suum
cuique tribuere (to live honestly, not to harm anyone, to give each one his/
her due).

IX. The Autonomous Legal Regimfe
of Provisional Measurefs of Protection

59. This brings me to my last point in the present separate opinion.

The present legal proceedings, in my perception, bring to the fore, oncef
again, what I have for some time been characterizing as the autonomous

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8 CIJ1061.indb 220 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 189

diques. Il s’agit donc d’une obligation de droit international, etf non d’une

obligation découlant d’une assurance ou d’un « engagement» unilatéral
qu’un Etat prend après avoir saisi des documents et données contenant
des informations appartenant à un autre Etat.
56. A mon sens, lorsqu’elle indique des mesures conservatoires, il n’yf a
pas lieu que la Cour mette en balance les intérêts respectifs des fparties

en présence. Dans la présente ordonnance, la Cour a ainsi indiqué fque
l’engagement écrit (du 21 janvier 2014) de l’Australie « contribu[ait] de
manière importante» à « atténuer le risque imminent de préjudice irrépa ‑
rable» susceptible d’être causé au Timor‑Leste (ordonnance, par. 47),
tout en ajoutant, immédiatement après, que, en dépit de cet engfagement,

«un risque imminent de préjudice irréparable subsist[ait] » (ibid., par. 48).
Dès lors, en quoi l’engagement unilatéral contribuait‑il de manfière impor ‑
tante à atténuer le risque de préjudice irréparable pour le fTimor‑Leste ?
La Cour ne l’a pas expliqué. Qu’y avait‑il de si « important» dans cet acte
unilatéral? La Cour ne l’a pas démontré, se contentant de prendre pour

argent comptant la promesse de l’Australie.

57. Une assurance ou promesse unilatérale peut‑elle fonder le raison ‑
nement de la Cour dans une ordonnance en indication de mesures conser‑
vatoires à caractère contraignant ? Certainement pas. C’est ce que j’ai

soutenu il y a cinq ans dans l’opinion dissidente que j’ai jointe à l’ordon ‑
nance du 28 mai 2009 en l’affaire relative à des Questions concernant
l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal)(mesures
conservatoires, ordonnance du 28 mai 2009, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 139). Et
je persiste aujourd’hui. Comme Bérenger dans Rhinocéros, la pièce écrite

en 1960 par Eugène Ionesco, « je ne capitule pas »…

58. La Cour n’est pas un simple amiable compositeur ; elle est une juri‑
diction, l’organe judiciaire principal de l’Organisation des Natiofns Unies
(article 92 de la Charte des Nations Unies). Dans l’exercice de sa fonction

judiciaire, elle ne saurait fonder son raisonnement sur des «engagements»,
assurances ou promesses formulés unilatéralement au cours d’unef procé ‑
dure judiciaire internationale. Les préceptes du droit offrent un ffonde ‑
ment bien plus solide au raisonnement d’une juridiction internationalfe.
Ces préceptes sont éternels, tels que ceux (d’Ulpien) qui figurent dans le
e
Livre I (titre I, par. 3) des Institutes de Justinien (début du VI siècle) :
honeste vivere, alterum non laedere, suum cuique tribuere (vivre honnête ‑
ment, ne faire de mal à personne, donner à chacun son dû).

IX. Le régime juridique autofnome
des mesures conservaftoires

59. J’en viens au dernier point de cette opinion individuelle. La pré ‑
sente espèce met, une nouvelle fois, l’accent sur ce que je qualifie, depuis

un certain temps déjà, de régime juridique autonome régissant les mesures

46

8 CIJ1061.indb 221 25/03/15 08:46 190 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

legal regime of provisional measures of protection. In this respect, as I have
pointed out, e.g., in my dissenting opinion in the merged cases of Certain

Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area and of the Con‑
struction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Provisional
Measures, Order of 16 July 2013, I.C.J. Reports 2013, p. 230), opposing
Costa Rica to Nicaragua (and vice versa), the object of requests for pro ‑
visional measures of protection is different from the object of applicfations

lodged with international tribunals, as to the merits.

60. Furthermore, the rights to be protected are not necessarily the
same in the two respective proceedings. Compliance with provisional
measures runs parallel to the course of proceedings as to the merits of fthe
case at issue. The obligations concerning provisional measures ordered

and decisions as to the merits (and reparations) are not the same, beifng
autonomous from each other. The same can be said of the legal conse ‑
quences of non‑compliance (with provisional measures, or else with judgf‑
ments as to the merits), the breaches (of one and the other) being difstinct
from each other (ibid., pp. 267‑268, paras. 70‑71).

61. What ensues herefrom is the pressing need to dwell upon, and to
develop conceptually, the autonomous legal regime of provisional mea ‑
sures of protection, particularly in view of the expansion of these lattfer in
our days (ibid., para. 75). This is the point which I have made not only in
my dissenting opinion in the two aforementioned merged cases opposing

Costa Rica to Nicaragua, but also in my earlier dissenting opinion in thfe
case of Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Bel ‑
gium v. Senegal) (Provisional Measures, Order of 28 May 2009,
I.C.J. Reports 2009, pp. 192‑193, paras. 80‑81), and which I see fit to reit ‑
erate here, in the present case of Questions relating to the Seizure and
Detention of Certain Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia). It

should not pass unnoticed that this point has marked presence in these
recent cases, surrounded by entirely distinct circumstances. This, in myf
view, discloses the importance of the acknowledgment of the autonomous
legal regime of provisional measures of protection, irrespective of the cir ‑
cumstances of the cases at issue.

62. I deem it a privilege to be able to serve the cause of international
justice here at the Peace Palace in The Hague. With all that is going on
here at the Peace Palace — at the International Court of Justice and at the
Permanent Court of Arbitration next door — as well illustrated herein,

the present case concerning Questions relating to the Seizure and Deten ‑
tion of Certain Documents and Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia), since its
lodging with the International Court of Justice last 17 December 2013 up
to now, marks a proper closing of the celebrations of the centenary of tfhe
Peace Palace. This emblematic centenary would have been more remark ‑
able if the International Court of Justice had ordered today, 3 March

2014, what in my view it should have done, i.e., the adoption of an ordefr
of provisional measures of protection to the effect of, from now on, kfeep ‑

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8 CIJ1061.indb 222 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 190

conservatoires. A cet égard, comme je l’ai souligné, par exemple, dans
mon opinion dissidente jointe à l’ordonnance rendue le 16 juillet 2013

dans les affaires relatives à Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua
dans la région frontalière et à la Construction d’une route au Costa Rica le
long du fleuve San Juan (mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 16 juillet
2013, C.I.J. Recueil 2013, p. 230), opposant le Costa Rica au Nicaragua
(et vice versa) et dont les instances ont été jointes, l’objeft des demandes en

indication de mesures conservatoires diffère de celui des requêtfes au fond
présentées à des juridictions internationales.
60. Par ailleurs, les droits qu’il convient de protéger ne sont pas néfces ‑
sairement les mêmes dans les deux procédures. Les mesures conservaf ‑
toires doivent être respectées tandis que se déroule la procéfdure au fond.
Les obligations découlant des mesures conservatoires indiquées et fdes

décisions au fond (y compris en matière de réparations) ne sofnt pas les
mêmes, et elles sont indépendantes les unes des autres. Il en va dfe même
des conséquences juridiques qui découlent de l’inobservation (de mesures
conservatoires ou de décisions rendues au fond), les violations (defs pre ‑
mières et des secondes) étant distinctes (ibid., p. 267‑268, par. 70‑71).

61. Il en résulte une nécessité pressante d’approfondir et de défvelop ‑
per, d’un point de vue conceptuel, le régime juridique autonome des
mesures conservatoires, compte tenu, notamment, de l’essor qu’ellefs
connaissent aujourd’hui (ibid., par. 75). Je l’ai fait observer non seulement
dans mon opinion dissidente dans les deux affaires susmentionnées (fdont

les instances ont été jointes) entre le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua, mais
aussi dans mon opinion dissidente antérieure en l’affaire concerfnant des
Questions relatives à l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader ▯(Bel ‑
gique c. Sénégal) (mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 28 mai 2009,
C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 192‑193, par. 80‑81), et j’estime utile de le rappeler
en la présente affaire relative à des Questions concernant la saisie et la

détention de certains documents et données (Timor‑Leste c. Australie). Il
importe de relever que ce besoin s’est fait sentir dans ces difféfrentes
affaires, dont les circonstances sont pourtant tout à fait distinctfes ; cela
révèle, à mon sens, qu’il est primordial de reconnaître lf’existence de ce
régime juridique autonome régissant les mesures conservatoires, indépen ‑

damment des circonstances de l’affaire en cause.
62. C’est pour moi un privilège que de servir la cause de la justice ifnter ‑
nationale au Palais de la Paix, à La Haye. Dans le contexte de l’activité
intense dont il est le théâtre — celle de la CIJ et celle de la CPA, sa voi ‑
sine —, et qui trouve ici une parfaite illustration, l’affaire relatifve à des

Questions concernant la saisie et la détention de certains documents ▯et don ‑
nées s’est montrée, depuis qu’elle a été introduite devant laf Cour le
17 décembre 2013, à la mesure des célébrations du centenaire duf Palais de
la Paix. Cet anniversaire emblématique aurait été plus remarquafble
encore si la Cour avait décidé — ainsi qu’elle aurait dû le faire à mon
sens —, dans son ordonnance d’aujourd’hui, 3 mars 2014, que, ayant la

maîtrise de sa propre compétence, elle assurerait elle‑même, àf compter de
ce jour, la garde des documents et données saisis contenant des informa ‑

47

8 CIJ1061.indb 223 25/03/15 08:46 191 seizure and detentiofn (sep. op. cançado trindade)

ing custody itself, as master of its own jurisdiction, of the seized docfu ‑
ments and data containing information belonging to Timor‑Leste, here in f

its premises at the Peace Palace in The Hague.

X. Epilogue: A Recapitulation

63. From the preceding considerations, I hope it has become crystal
clear why I consider that the provisional measures of protection indicatfed
by the Court in the present Order of 3 March 2014, in the case concerning
Questions relating to the Seizure and Detention of Certain Documents and▯
Data (Timor‑Leste v. Australia) are better than nothing, better than not
having ordered any such measures at all, though I find that the Court f

should have gone further and have ordered provisional measures of pro ‑
tection independently of any unilateral “undertaking” or assurancef by
one of the Parties, and should from now on have kept custody of the
seized documents and data itself, at its siège here at the Peace Palace in
The Hague. I have thus felt obliged, in the faithful exercise of the internaf ‑

tional judicial function, to lay the foundations of my own position in tfhe
cas d’espèce in the present separate opinion. I deem it fit, at this stage, to
recapitulate all the points of my personal position, expressed herein, ffor
the sake of clarity, and in order to stress their interrelatedness.
64. Primus : When a State pursues the safeguard of its own right, act ‑

ing on its own behalf, it cannot be compelled to appear before the natiofnal
tribunals of another State, its contending party. The local remedies rulfe
does not apply in cases of this kind ; par in parem non habet imperium, non
habet jurisdictionem. Secundus : The centrality of the quest for justice pre ‑
vails over concerns to avoid “concurrent jurisdiction”. Tertius : The
imperative of the realization of justice prevails over manifestations off a

State’s will. Quartus : Euphemisms en vogue — like the empty and mis ‑
leading rhetoric of “proliferation” of international tribunals, anfd “frag ‑
mentation” of international law, among others — are devoid of any
meaning, and divert attention to false issues of “delimitation” off compe ‑
tences, oblivious of the need to secure an enlarged access to justice tof the

justiciables.

65. Quintus : International courts and tribunals share a common mis ‑
sion to impart justice, which stands above the zeal of “delimitation” fof
competences. Sextus : Unilateral “undertakings” or assurances by a con ‑

tending party cannot serve as basis for provisional measures of protec ‑
tion. Septimus : Reliance on unilateral “undertakings” or assurances has
been the source of uncertainties and apprehension ; they are proper to the
realm of inter‑State (diplomatic) relations, and reliance upon such unfilat ‑
eral acts is to be avoided in the course of international legal proceedifngs;
ex factis jus non oritur.

66. Octavus : International legal procedure has a logic of its own, which
is not to be equated to that of diplomatic relations, even less so in face of

48

8 CIJ1061.indb 224 25/03/15 08:46 saisie et détention (fop. ind. cançado trindafde) 191

tions appartenant au Timor‑Leste, dans ses locaux du Palais de la Paix, fà
La Haye.

X. Épilogue : récapitulation

63. Les considérations qui précèdent montrent clairement, je l’efspère,
les raisons pour lesquelles je considère que les mesures conservatoirfes
indiquées par la Cour dans la présente ordonnance du 3 mars 2014 en
l’affaire relative à des Questions concernant la saisie et la détention de cer ‑
tains documents et données (Timor‑Leste c. Australie) valent mieux que
rien, mais que la Cour aurait dû aller plus loin en indiquant des mesfures

indépendamment de toute assurance ou « engagement» donné unilatéra ‑
lement par l’une des Parties, et en décidant, à compter de ce jour, d’assu ‑
rer elle‑même la garde des documents et données saisis, dans ses lfocaux
du Palais de la Paix, à La Haye. J’ai donc jugé qu’il était de mon devoir,
dans l’exercice de ma fonction judiciaire internationale, de consignefr dans

la présente opinion individuelle les fondements de ma position en l’fes ‑
pèce. Il me semble utile, à ce stade, d’en récapituler l’fensemble des points,
tant par souci de clarté que pour souligner qu’ils sont indissociafblement
liés.
64. Primus : lorsqu’un Etat cherche à protéger son propre droit, en

agissant en son nom propre, il ne saurait être obligé de se préfsenter devant
les tribunaux internes d’un autre Etat avec lequel il est en litige. fLa règle
de l’épuisement des voies de recours internes ne s’applique pasf dans des
affaires de cette nature ; par in parem non habet imperium, non habet juris ‑
dictionem. Secundus: le rôle central de la quête de justice l’emporte sur le
souci d’éviter « les compétences concurrentes ». Tertius : l’impératif de

réalisation de la justice prévaut sur les manifestations de la volfonté d’un
Etat. Quartus: les euphémismes en vogue — tels que les formules à la fois
vides de sens et erronées de « prolifération» des juridictions internatio ‑
nales ou de « fragmentation» du droit international — sont dépourvus de
toute pertinence et font porter l’attention sur de faux problèmes fde «déli ‑

mitation» de compétence, faisant fi de la nécessité d’assurer afux justi ‑
ciables un accès élargi à la justice.
65. Quintus: les juridictions internationales ont une mission commune
consistant à rendre la justice, qui va au‑delà de toute préoccufpation de
« délimitation » des compétencesS .extus : les mesures conservatoires ne sau ‑

raient être fondées sur des assurances ou « engagements» unilatéraux pris
par l’une des parties au différend. Septimus : le fait de s’appuyer sur des
assurances ou «engagements» unilatéraux s’est révélé source d’incertitudes
et d’appréhensions; pareils actes sont propres au domaine des relations
(diplomatiques) interétatiques, et ne sauraient servir de fondementf au règle ‑
ment judiciaire d’un différend international; ex factis jus non oritur.

66. Octavus: le règlement judiciaire d’un différend international a «une
logique propre », qui ne saurait être assimilée à celle des relations diplo ‑

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the perceived need of assertion that ex injuria jus non oritur. Nonus : To
allow unilateral acts to be performed with the acceptance of subsequent f

“undertakings” or assurances ensuing therefrom would not only genefrate
uncertainties, but also create faits accomplis threatening the certainty of
the application of the law. Decimus : Facts only do not per se generate
law‑creating effects. Human values and the idea of objective justice sftand
above facts ;ex conscientia jus oritur.

67. Undecimus : Arguments of alleged “national security”, as raised in
the cas d’espèce, cannot be made the concern of an international tribunal.
Measures of alleged “national security”, as raised in the cas d’espèce, are
alien to the exercise of the international judicial function. Duodecimus :
General principles of international law, such as the juridical equality fof

States (enshrined into Article 2 (1) of the United Nations Charter), can ‑
not be obfuscated by allegations of “national security”. Tertius decimus :
The basic principle of the juridical equality of States, embodying the idée
de justice, is to prevail, so as to discard eventual repercussions in interna ‑
tional legal procedure of factual inequalities among States.

68. Quartus decimus : Due process of law, and the equality of arms
(égalité des armes), cannot be undermined by recourse by a contending
party to alleged measures of “national security”. Quintus decimus : Alle ‑

gations of State secrecy or “national security” cannot interfere in the
work of an international tribunal (in judicial or arbitral proceedings)f, car ‑
ried out in the light of the principle of the proper administration of jfustice
(la bonne administration de la justice).
69. Sextus decimus : Provisional measures of protection cannot be
erected upon unilateral “undertakings” or assurances ensuing from f

alleged “national security” measures ; provisional measures of protection
cannot rely on such unilateral acts, they are independent from them, thefy
carry the authority of the international tribunal which ordered them. Sep ‑
timus decimus : In the circumstances of the cas d’espèce, it is the Court
itself that should keep custody of the documents and data seized and

detained by a contending party ; the Court should do so as master of its
own jurisdiction, so as to prevent further irreparable harm.

70. Duodevicesimus : The inviolability of State papers and documents is
recognized by international law, in the interests of the good administra ‑

tion of justice. Undevicesimus : The inviolability of the correspondence
between States and their legal advisers is an international law obligatifon,
not one derived from a unilateral “undertaking” or assurance by a fState
following its seizure of documents and data containing information
belonging to another State.

71. Vicesimus : There is an autonomous legal regime of provisional
measures of protection, in expansion in our times. This autonomous legalf

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matiques, ce d’autant moins qu’il apparaît nécessaire de réfaffirmer la
maxime ex injuria jus non oritur. Nonus: autoriser que des actes unilaté ‑

raux soient effectués et faire droit aux assurances ou « engagements» qui
en découlent génère non seulement des incertitudes, mais aussi fdes faits
accomplis qui mettent en péril l’application du droit. Decimus : les faits à
eux seuls, et en tant que tels, n’ont pas d’effets en matière de création de
droit. Les valeurs humaines et l’idée d’une justice objective lf’emportent

sur les faits ; ex conscientia jus oritur.
67. Undecimus: les arguments relatifs à la « sécurité nationale », tels
qu’ils ont été avancés dans le cas d’espèce, ne sauraifent être pris en compte
par une juridiction internationale. Les mesures prises pour des motifs de
«sécurité nationale », comme cela a été allégué dans le cas d’espèce, sfont
étrangères à l’exercice de la fonction judiciaire internatiofnale. Duodeci ‑

mus : les principes généraux du droit international, tels que l’éfgalité juri ‑
dique des Etats (consacrée au paragraphe 1 de l’article 2 de la Charte des
Nations Unies), ne sauraient être occultés par des allégations de «fsécurité
nationale ».Tertius decimus: le principe fondamental de l’égalité juridique
des Etats, qui donne corps à l’idée de justice, doit prévaloir, fde sorte que

les inégalités de fait entre Etats ne puissent avoir aucune incidence sur le
règlement judiciaire des différends internationaux.
68. Quartus decimus : une partie à un litige ne saurait, en recourant à
de prétendues mesures de « sécurité nationale », compromettre le carac ‑
tère régulier de la procédure et l’égalité des armes. fQuintus decimus : l’in‑

vocation de secrets d’Etat ou de la « sécurité nationale » ne saurait faire
obstacle aux travaux d’une juridiction internationale (que ce soit dans le
cadre d’une procédure judiciaire ou d’un arbitrage), menée fdans le respect
du principe de la bonne administration de la justice.
69. Sextus decimus : les mesures conservatoires ne sauraient être fonc ‑
tion d’assurances ou d’« engagements» unilatéraux découlant de préten ‑

dues mesures de « sécurité nationale »; elles ne sauraient s’appuyer sur
pareils actes unilatéraux, dont elles sont indépendantes ; elles sont revê ‑
tues de l’autorité de la juridiction internationale qui décide fde les indi ‑
quer. Septimus decimus : dans les circonstances du cas d’espèce, c’est la
Cour elle‑même qui aurait dû assurer la garde des documents et donfnées

saisis et détenus par l’une des Parties au litige ; la Cour, qui a la maîtrise
de sa propre compétence, aurait dû prendre cette décision de sofrte à éviter
tout nouveau préjudice irréparable.
70. Duodevicesimus: l’inviolabilité des papiers et documents d’Etat est
reconnue par le droit international, dans l’intérêt de la bonnef administra ‑

tion de la justice. Undevicesimus: l’inviolabilité des échanges de corres ‑
pondance entre les Etats et leurs conseillers juridiques est une obligatfion
de droit international, et non une obligation qui découle d’une asfsurance
ou d’un « engagement» unilatéral pris par un Etat après avoir saisi des
documents et données contenant des informations appartenant à un afutre
Etat.

71. Vicesimus: il existe un régime juridique autonome régissant les
mesures conservatoires, régime qui se développe actuellement. Ce rfégime

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regime comprises :(a) the rights to be protected, not necessarily the same
as in the proceedings on the merits of the concrete case ; (b) the corre‑
sponding obligations of the States concerned ; (c) the legal consequences
of non‑compliance with provisional measures, distinct from those ensuingf

from breaches as to the merits. The acknowledgment of such autonomous
legal regime is endowed with growing importance in our days.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

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juridique autonome englobe : a) les droits devant être protégés, qui ne
sont pas nécessairement les mêmes que ceux qui sont en cause dans fla
procédure sur le fond ; b) les obligations correspondantes des Etats
concernés ; c) les conséquences juridiques de l’inobservation des mesures

conservatoires, qui sont différentes de celles qui découlent de fmanque ‑
ments à des obligations de fond. Ce régime juridique autonome faitf
aujourd’hui l’objet d’une reconnaissance croissante.

(Signé) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

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Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

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