Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

Document Number
148-20130206-ORD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
148-20130206-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

14

SEPARATE OPINION

OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. Introduction 1-3

II. New Zealand’s Declarationf of Intervention 4-11

III. Written Observations fof Australia and Japan ofn New
Zealand’s Declarationf of Intervention 12-18

IV. Comments of New Zealand on Japan’s Writften Observa -

tions 19-20

V. Beyond State Consent 21-23

VI. Discretionary Intervefntion and Interventiofn as of Right 24-52

1. Historical Origins 25-34
2. Discretionary Intervention (Article 62 of the Court’s Stat
ute) 35-37

3. Intervention as of Right (Article 63 of the Court’s Statute) 38-40
4. Precedents in the Court’s History (PCIJ and ICJ) 41-52

VII. Collective Interest afnd Collective Guarantefe 53-60

VIII. The Preventive Dimensifon 61-63

IX. The ResuRRectio of Intervention in Conftemporary Judi -
cial Proceedings befofre the ICJ 64-68

X. Concluding Observations 69-76

*

I. Introduction

1. I have concurred with my vote to the adoption today, 6 Febru -
ary 2013, by the International Court of Justice (ICJ), of the present Ordefr,

whereby it declared admissible New Zealand’s Declaration of Interven -
tion under Article 63 (2) of the Statute, in the present case concerning
Whaling in the Antarctic, opposing Australia to Japan. The present deci -
sion just taken by the ICJ today, added to the decision it took one and fa

15

4 CIJ1041.indb 26 3/03/14 10:42 15 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

half years ago (Order of 4 July 2011), granting permission to Greece’s
intervention (under Article 62 of the Statute) in the case concerning the
Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy), constitute two
positive steps taken by the Court for the development of the institute off

intervention in international legal procedure.
2. Intervention under Article 63 and under Article 62 of the Statute
rest on two quite distinct grounds, disclosing various interrelated aspefcts
which have not been sufficiently or satisfactorily studied to date. Given
the importance that I ascribe to the matters dealt with by the Court in fthe

present Order, and those underlying it, in the case concerning Whaling in
the Antarctic, I feel obliged to leave on the records the foundations of my
personal position on the matter, in all its aspects. I feel even more cofm -
pelled to do so as, although I have reached the same conclusion as the
Court and have voted in favour of the adoption of the present Order, I

have done so on the basis of a reasoning which is distinct from that of the
Court.
3. In the present separate opinion, I shall, accordingly, at first, review f
all the documents conforming the dossier of the present case, relating to
the proceedings before the Court concerning intervention, namely :

(a) New Zealand’s Declaration of Intervention (under Article 63) ;
(b) written observations of Australia and Japan on New Zealand’s Dec -
laration of Intervention ; (c) comments of New Zealand on Japan’s writ -
ten observations. I shall then turn to the examination of points of
international legal theory which I deem of particular relevance for the f

consideration of the subject-matter at issue, namely : (a) the position
beyond State consent ; (b) discretionary intervention (Article 62 of the
Court’s Statute) and intervention as of right (Article 63 of the Court’s
Statute): historical origins, conceptualization, and precedents in the

Court’s history (PCIJ and ICJ) ; (c) collective interest and collective
guarantee ;(d) the preventive dimension; and (e) the resurrectio of inter-
vention in contemporary judicial proceedings before the ICJ. The path
will then be open for the presentation of my concluding observations on f
the matter.

II. New Zealand’s Declarationf of Intervention

4. In its Declaration of Intervention in the present case on Whaling in
the Antarctic, lodged with the Court on 20 November 2012, under
Article 63 (2) of its Statute and Article 82 (2) of the Rules of Court,
New Zealand relies on the jurisprudence of the Court 1 to claim that the
Court has recognized that Article 63 of its Statute confers a right to inter -

vene, when the State seeking to intervene confines its intervention to “fthe

1In its aforementioned Declaration of Intervention, New Zealand refers tof the cases
of Haya de la Torre (Colombia v. Peru), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 76 ; and Conti-
nental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Application for Permission to Intervene,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1981, pp. 13 and 15, paras. 21 and 26.

16

4 CIJ1041.indb 28 3/03/14 10:42 16 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

point of interpretation which is in issue in the proceedings, and does nfot
extend to general intervention in the case” . To avail itself of the right of

intervention (under Article 63), New Zealand relies on its status as a party
to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

(hereinafter “the Convention”).
5. New Zealand deems it necessary to intervene in order to place its
interpretation of the relevant provisions of the Convention before the

Court. It claims that, in relation to the scope of its right to intervenfe, it
presents its views on issues of interpretation relevant to the determinaftion
of the case, in particular questions of the construction of the Conventifon,

especially its Article VIII. New Zealand emphasizes that it does not seek
to be a party to the proceedings, but it accepts that, in intervening unfder
Article 63, it will be equally bound by the construction given to the
3
Convention by the Judgment of the Court .

6. New Zealand then goes on to review the relevant provisions of the

Convention in the present case. It states that the key legal issue in difspute
between Australia and Japan is “the legality of large-scale ‘specifal permit’

whaling under JARPA II [which] is conducted under a special permit
issued by the Japanese Government by reference to Article VIII of the
Convention” 4. It claims that the construction of Article VIII of the

Convention (in particular, its paragraph 1) is directly relevant to the reso -
lution of the dispute . New Zealand next reviews its construction of the
provisions at issue 6. It submits that “parties to the Convention can engage

in whaling only in accordance with the provisions of the Convention and f
its Schedule” 7.

7. New Zealand further argues that the Convention provides “a
comprehensive legal regime” whose “central objective” is “to replace uni -

lateral State action with an effective system of collective regulation f▯or the

2 Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Application for Pe▯rmission to
Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1981, p. 15, para. 26.
3
Declaration of Intervention, pp. 4-8, paras. 1-13. New Zealand further claims that, in
accordance with Article 82 (1) of the Rules of Court, its Declaration of Intervention has
been filed at the “earliest opportunity reasonably open to New Zealand”. It then reviews
the basis for its status as party to the Convention, recalling its instrfument of ratification
and the notice of its accession to the Convention, on 15 June 1976, with effect as from that
date (ibid., pp. 6-8, paras. 10-11, 14).
4 It refers in this regard to Australia’s Application instituting procefedings, pp. 14, 16,

paras. 29 and 35-37; it also refers to the website of the International Whaling Commission,f
“Recent Special Permits: Japan”.
5 Declaration of Intervention, pp. 8-10, paras. 14-17.
6 It bases its interpretation of the Convention on Articles 31-32 of the 1969 Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties.
7 In this regard, New Zealand claims that, by becoming parties to the Convention,
“Contracting Governments have agreed not to permit their nationals tof carry out any

whaling activity except in accordance with the provisions of the Conventfion and its
Schedule”; cf. Declaration of Intervention, pp. 10-14, paras. 18-23.

17

4 CIJ1041.indb 30 3/03/14 10:42 17 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

proper conservation and management of whales” . New Zealand claims
that States parties to the Convention have a collective interest in sciefntific

research and information, so as to enable the International Whaling
Commission (IWC) — the authority to adopt binding regulations “with
respect to the conservation and utilization of whale resources” — to per -
9
form its function properly under the Convention .

8. New Zealand also claims that, according to regulations adopted by

the IWC, parties to the Convention are prohibited from engaging in com -
mercial whaling, by way of the imposition by the IWC of a zero catch
limit. It adds that the killing, taking or treating of whales (other thfan
minke whales) by factory ships is also prohibited and that all commercifal

whaling is prohibited in the Indian and Southern Oceans. It further sub -
mits that such regulations are binding on all parties to the Convention f
unless they objected to them pursuant to the procedures provided for
10
under Article V (3) of the Convention .

9. New Zealand argues that parties to the Convention may engage in
“special permit” whaling only in accordance with Article VIII, and

explains that the killing of whales under special permit is permitted onfly
for the limited purposes of “scientific research”. Thus, the issuef of special
permits is subject to distinct procedural requirements for notification,f
prior review and comment, and the reporting of results through the IWC

and Scientific Committee. New Zealand contends that “whaling under a
special permit issued without meeting the requirements of Article VIII is
subject to the other provisions of the Convention and Schedule, includinfg
11
the prohibitions on commercial whaling” .

10. New Zealand then reviews the requirements of a special permit
under Article VIII, and states that whaling for purposes other than scien -
tific research is not permitted under Article VIII, even if it involves the

collection of scientific data. It adds that the requirement that whalingf be
for scientific research is an essential element of Article VIII, and that the
purpose of scientific research of the whaling programme in question must

be established on the basis of an objective assessment. It further contefnds
that, according to Article VIII, the State party concerned must attach
“restrictions as to number” and “other conditions” to any spfecial permit
issued, and, in setting those restrictions, it must show that it has limited

8
9 Declaration of Intervention, p. 12, para. 21 [emphasis added].
10Ibid., pp. 10-14, paras. 18-23.
11 Ibid., p. 14, para. 24.
Ibid., pp. 14-16, paras. 25-26.

18

4 CIJ1041.indb 32 3/03/14 10:42 18 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

the number of whales caught under special permit to the minimum which
is both necessary for, and proportionate to, the objectives of the research,
and which will have no adverse effect on the conservation of the stockf.

New Zealand claims that paragraph 30 of the Schedule of the Convention
mandates States parties to submit proposed special permits to the Scien -
tific Committee and that such obligation gives rise to a duty of meaningf-
ful co-operation. New Zealand claims that these requirements are reflected

in the practi12 of the IWC and its Committees since the adoption of the f
Convention .

11. At the end of its Declaration of Intervention, New Zealand pro -

vides the following summary of its interpretation of Article VIII of the
Convention :

“(a) Article VIII forms an integral part of the system of collective
regulation established by the Convention.
(b) Parties to the Convention may engage in whaling by special per -
mit only in accordance with Article VIII.

(c) Article VIII permits the killing of whales under special permit
only if :

i. an objective assessment of the methodology, design and char -
acteristics of the programme demonstrates that the killing is
only ‘for purposes of scientific research’ ; and

ii. the killing is necessary for, and proportionate to, the objec -
tives of that research and will have no adverse effect on the
conservation of stocks ; and
iii. the Contracting Government issuing the special permit has

discharged its duty of meaningful co-operation with the
Scientific Committee and the IWC.

(d) Whaling under special permit that does not meet these require -
ments of Article VIII, and not otherwise permitted under the
Convention, is prohibited.” 13

III. Written Observations fof Australia and Japan ofn
New Zealand’s Declarationf of Intervention

12. In its written observations of 18 December 2012, Australia sustains
that New Zealand’s Declaration meets “all of the requirements” under
Article 63 of the Statute (para. 5). There is no reason, in its view, why a
third State (in this case New Zealand) cannot intervene over the construc -

12Declaration of Intervention, pp. 16-18, paras. 27-32.
13Ibid., p. 18, para. 33. New Zealand submits documents in support of its Declaration
of Intervention; cf. ibid., pp. 18-20, para. 34.

19

4 CIJ1041.indb 34 3/03/14 10:42 19 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

tion of Article VIII of the International Convention for the Regulation of
Whaling, to which New Zealand is a party (para. 7). Furthermore,

New Zealand does not seek to be a party to the proceedings (para. 8).
New Zealand’s Declaration of Intervention — Australia adds — is spe -
cifically focused on a point of interpretation, without extending to “gen -
eral intervention” in the case, nor to other aspects of the dispute bfetween

Australia and Japan. Given such limited reach of an intervention under
Article 63, the intervening State cannot be considered a party (para. 9),
Australia concludes, in its support, in this understanding, of New Zea -
land’s intervention.

13. For its part, on 21 December 2012 Japan filed its written observa -
tions on New Zealand’s Declaration of Intervention of 20 November
2012 14, wherein it argues that “certain serious anomalies would arise
from the admission of New Zealand as an intervenor” considering the

context in which the Declaration of Intervention was filed. Japan refers in
this regard to the Joint Media Release, issued on 15 December 2010 in the
names of the Australian and New Zealand Ministers for Foreign Affairs,
announcing that “Australia and New Zealand agree on strategy for whal -

ing legal case”. According to Japan, such a statement explains the raftio -
nale behind the choice of Article 63 as the basis for New Zealand’s
intervention, as it indicates that “New Zealand appears prima facie to
fully support Australia’s case” 15.

14. Japan then contends that the equality of the parties will be at seri -

ous risk if States can pursue a joint case under the rubric of an intervfen -
tion under Article 63, to curtail some of the safeguards of procedural
equality under the Statute and the Rules of Court. Japan further argues f
that the choice of intervention under Article 63 can be interpreted as a

strategy to avoid having to prove an “interest of a legal nature thatf may
be affected by the decision in the case”, as required under Articlef 62,
where the circumstances point to such interests and “suggest the takifng of
carefully orchestrated procedural steps to advance them” 1.

15. Japan expresses “serious doubts” on the equality of the Parties inf
these proceedings before the Court and its “profound discomfort” result -

ing from the manner in which New Zealand’s intervention has arisen.
Thus “Japan respectfully submits in these circumstances that particulfar
care needs to be taken when the Court decides on the further procedural f

14
15 Doc. AJ 2012/20, of 21 December 2012.
16 Written Observations of Japan, paras. 1-4.
Japan then refers to Articles 31 (5) of the Statute and Article 36 (1) of the Rules
which exclude the possibility of appointing an ad hoc judge when two or more parties are
in the same interest and thus should be taken as one party only, which it submits to be the
case in the present dispute (ibid., paras. 5-6).

20

4 CIJ1041.indb 36 3/03/14 10:42 20 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

steps in this case, in order to ensure the equality of the parties to the dis -

pute”; Japan further claims that this is particularly important in the pres -
ent case, where submissions on jurisdiction and on the merits are made
together, and only one round of written pleadings has been allowed 17.

16. In this regard, Japan first submits that New Zealand’s written
observations in accordance with Article 86 of the Rules of Court should
not be left without a written response from the original Parties, since fin

the present circumstances, in its view, the intervenor’s observationsf would
essentially amount to a second round of written pleadings by the Appli -
cant. Thus, it reiterates its wish to express its views in writing on Nefw Ze-a
land’s submission on the “substance” of the intervention, withifn an

appropriate time. Secondly, Japan contends that in the event New Zea -
land’s intervention is admitted, the latter should have only one opportu -
nity to make oral submissions, after the oral pleadings of Australia, anfd

before that of Japan. Furthermore, Japan contends that, because inter -
vention pursuant to Article 63 is confined to “the point of interpretation
which is in issue in the proceedings, and does not extend to general intfer -
18
vention in the case” , the time allocated to New Zealand should be sig -
nificantly less than in a case of intervention under Article 62.

17. Thirdly, Japan further submits that New Zealand’s intervention (if
admitted), “in collaboration with the Applicant”, should not resuflt in
“any shortening of the time allocated to the Respondent for the prepafra -

tion of response to the pleadings by the Applicant and also by the interf -
vening State” ; it stresses the need to have adequate time for preparation
before the oral proceedings, especially because there has been only one f
19
round of written pleadings . The main point to be here retained is that,
although Japan does not appear to raise a formal and express objection
to the admission of New Zealand’s Declaration of Intervention under
20
Article 63 , it manifests concern mainly with the procedural equality of
the Parties in the proceedings.
18. On its turn, in its subsequent written observations (original letter
of 10 January 2013), Australia refers to what it regards as Japan’s “mifs -

characterization” (of past events), in its view “wholly irrelevafnt” to the

17Written Observations of Japan, paras. 7-8.
18Japan refers to the case concerning the Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jama-
hiriya), Application by Malta for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.▯C.J. Reports 1981,
p. 15, para. 26.
19Furthermore, Australia has yet to respond to Japan’s objection to jurfisdiction
(Written Observations of Japan, paras. 9-11).
20Note in this regard that Article 84 (2) of the Rules of Court provides that :

“If, within the time-limit fixed under Article 83 of these Rules, an objection is filed
to an application for permission to intervene, or to the admissibility off a declaration
of intervention, the Court shall hear the State seeking to intervene and the parties
before deciding.”

21

4 CIJ1041.indb 38 3/03/14 10:42 21 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

matters flowing from New Zealand’s Declaration of Intervention (p. 1).
Australia objects to Japan being provided with additional time (at its fown

expense) to get prepared, in the course of the forthcoming oral hearingfs
(when Japan’s jurisdictional objections will be dealt with), as a rfesult of
the Court’s prior decision not to have a second round of briefs with argu -
ments in the written phase (p. 1). Australia adds that New Zealand, as an
intervenor, has “a right to be heard” by the Court, and there is nfo reason

for it to be allowed less time (p. 2).

IV. Comments of New Zealand
on Japan’s Written Obsefrvations

19. Five days ago, New Zealand filed in the Court its letter of 1 Febru -
ary 2013, containing its comments on Japan’s written observations
(supra). New Zealand indicates that it “does not accept that its interven -
tion affects the equality of the Parties” ; as a State party to the Interna -

tional Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, it is “exercising itfs right
to intervene in order to place its interpretation of the relevant provisfions
of the Convention before the Court, as the Statute of the Court [Arti -
cle 63] entitles it to do” (p. 1). New Zealand added that the ICJ should
not be invited to speculate as to the implications of its intervention ffor the

proceedings before the Court (pp. 1-2).

20. New Zealand further contended that the equality of the parties to
the dispute “cannot be imperilled” when a third State exercises itfs right to
intervene — as a non-party — under Article 63 of the Statute. It recalled
that the procedural rights of the parties and the intervening State are fset

out in Article 86 of the Rules of Court, it being for the ICJ to decide on
“the extent of procedural rights” of the intervening State (p. 2). New Zea -
land then concluded that the right to intervene, under Article 63 of the
Statute, is “an integral part” of the framework of operation of thfe ICJ, as
a forum for the settlement of disputes “under multilateral treaties”f ; in

this context — it added — the exercise by New Zealand of such right of
intervention “does not affect the equality of the parties to the difspute”
(p. 2).

V. Beyond State Consent

21. Having reviewed all the documents conforming the dossier of the
present case of relevance for the decision taken today, 6 February 2013,
by the Court, I can now move on to the next point of my separate opin -
ion. May I, at this stage, observe, as to the consent of the parties in fthe

main case, which is not strictly or formally at issue in the present casfe —
that such consent does not play a role in the proceedings conducive to tfhe

22

4 CIJ1041.indb 40 3/03/14 10:42 22 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

Court’s decision whether or not to grant intervention. In a joint decflara -
tion appended to a recent Judgment of the Court (in the case of the

Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Application by
Honduras for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II),
p. 420), it was pointed out that consent by the parties in the main case 21

is irrelevant, and cannot be perceived as a prerequisite for interventiofn as
a non-party 22.
22. As master of its own jurisdiction, the Court does not need to keep

on searching for State consent in deciding on an Application for permis -
sion to intervene in international legal proceedings. And the aforemen -
tioned joint declaration added that

“In effect, third party intervention under the Statute of the Court

transcends individual State consent. What matters is the consent orig -
inally expressed by States in becoming parties to the Court’s Statute,
or in recognizing the Court’s jurisdiction by other instrumentalitiesf,

such as compromissory clauses. (. . .) There is no need for the Court
to keep on searching instinctively for individual State consent in the
course of the international legal proceedings. After all, the consent of
23
contending States is alien to the institution of intervention (. . .).”

23. This is so — may I add herein — in respect of interventions under
Article 62 as well as Article 63 of the Court’s Statute. In the present case
of Whaling in the Antarctic, opposing Australia to Japan, there has been,

anyway, no formal objection to New Zealand’s Application for permis -
sion to intervene. Nor was there any formal objection to Greece’s recent
Application for permission to intervene in the case concerning the Juris -

21In that case, the Court was before an Application for permission to intervene under
Article 62 of its Statute, whilst in the present case the Application to that enfd is under

Arti22e 63 of its Statute.
This is generally acknowledged nowadays ; cf., inter alia, e.g., S. Rosenne, Inter-
vention in the International Court of Justice, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1993, pp. 79 and 104 ;
J. M. Ruda, “Intervention before the International Court of Justice”, Fifty Years of the
International Court of Justice — Essays in Honour of R. Jennings (eds. Vaughan Lowe and
M. Fitzmaurice), Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 495 ; K. Mbaye, “L’intérêt pour
agir devant la Cour internationale de Justice”, 209 RCADI (1988), pp. 340-341. And as to
jurisdictional links, cf. also, e.g., J. G. Starke, “Locus Standi of a Third State to Intervene

in Contentious Proceedings before the International Court of Justice”f, 58 Australian Law
Journal (1984), p. 358.
23I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), joint declaration of Judges Cançado Trindade and Yusuf,
pp. 469-470, paras. 14-15. Earlier on — it may be recalled — the ICJ Chamber itself rightly
pointed out, in the Judgment of 1990 in the case concerning the Land, Island and Mari -
time Frontier Dispute between El Salvador and Honduras (Application by Nicaragua for
permission to intervene), that the competence of the Court, in the partficular matter of

intervention, “is not like its competence to hear and determine the dfispute referred to it,
derived from the consent of the parties to the case” (Land, Island and Maritime Frontier
Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras), Application by Nicaragua for Permission to Interven▯e,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990, p. 133, para. 96).

23

4 CIJ1041.indb 42 3/03/14 10:42 23 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

dictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy), wherein the ICJ
granted Greece permission to intervene as a non-party in the case (Order

of 4 July 2011). In my separate opinion appended to the Court’s Order on f
Greece’s intervention in this case, I pondered that

“even if there were any such objection, it would have been immaterialf
for the purpose of the Court’s assessment of the Application at issuef
for permission to intervene. State consent indeed has its limits ; the
ICJ is not always restrained by State consent, in relation not only to

intervention, but also in respect of other aspects of the procedure
before the Court, as I sought to demonstrate in my extensive dissent -
ing opinion (paras. 45-118, 136-144 and 156-214) in the Court’s Judg-
ment of 1 April 2011 in the case concerning the Application of the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial

Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation) (I.C.J. Reports 2011
(I), pp. 239-322) ; the ICJ is not an arbitral tribunal.” (Jurisdictional
Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy), Application by Greece for
Permission to Intervene, Order of 4 July 2011, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II),
pp. 508-509. para. 7.)

VI. Discretionary Intervention
and Intervention as off Right

24. One and a half years after the permission granted by the Court to
Greece’s intervention in the case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities
of the State (Germany v. Italy), Order of 4 July 2011, the Court has again
granted permission to New Zealand’s intervention in the present case
Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v. Japan), Order of 6 February 2013.

There is one point of distinction between these two Court decisions, with
regard to the typology of interventions under the ICJ Statute : the first
decision, of one and a half years ago, concerns discretionary intervention,
whilst the decision taken today concerns intervention as of right.

1. Historical Origins

25. It is known that, in its origins, the historical antecedents of the
institute of intervention in legal proceedings can be found in the old prac -

tice of international arbitrations, in the chapter of peaceful settlemenft of
international disputes. Although there were endeavours for the enlarge -
ment and enhancement of its domain (infra), and even to render the basis
of arbitration permanent, those antecedents of arbitral practice show thfat
arbitration notwithstanding kept its essentially bilateralized outlook, fand

maintained its focus on the consent of the contending parties. It was
necessary to wait for the systematization of the whole chapter of peacefful

24

4 CIJ1041.indb 44 3/03/14 10:42 24 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

settlement of international disputes, encompassing the judicial solution as
well (as distinguished from the arbitral solution), for the express prfovi -

sion on intervention to come to the fore and to see the light of day.
26. That systematization took place in the course of the two Hague
Peace Conferences, in 1899 and 1907, respectively 24. One of the signifi -

cant outcomes of the First Hague Peace Conference was the 1899 Con -
vention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, Article 56 of
which provided that :

“The award is binding only on the Parties who concluded the com -
promis. When there is a question as to the interpretation of a conven-

tion to which Powers other than those in dispute are Parties, the
latter notify to the former the compromis they have concluded. Each
of these Powers is entitled to intervene in the case. If one or more
avail themselves of this right, the interpretation contained in the

award is equally binding on them.”

27. The draftsmen of this provision had in mind intervention as of
right, of the kind of the one which, some years later, found its place in
Article 63 of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice

(PCIJ) (infra). The Conference Report (Third Commission) on this
1899 Convention states that Article 56 derived from a proposal presented
by the delegate of the Netherlands (T. M. C. Asser) 2. The matter was
retaken, and further worked upon, at the Second Hague Peace Confer -

ence of 1907, which, after its revision, adopted the 1907 Convention for
the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, containing a similar pfro -
vision in the (new) Article 84. The Conference Report (First Commission)

on this 1907 Convention comments that former Article 56 “was not mod 26 -
ified essentially ; it was only slightly changed in matters of form” . In
fact, Article 84 of the 1907 Convention provided that :

“The award is binding only on the Parties in dispute. When there

is a question as to the interpretation of a convention to which Powers
other than those in dispute are Parties, the latter inform all the signa -
tory Powers in good time. Each of these Powers is entitled to intervene f
in the case. If one or more avail themselves of this right, the interpref -

tation contained in the award is equally binding on them.”

24 Earlier on, in 1875, the Institut de droit international had adopted a code for arbitral
procedure, one of its first achievements after its establishment in 1873. Later on, in 1877,
the Institut adopted a resolution strongly recommending the insertion off compromissory

cla25es in future treaties.
Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899
and 1907 and International Arbitration — Reports and Documents (org. S. Rosenne), The
Hag26, T. M. C. Asser Press, 2001, p. 74.
Ibid., p. 265.

25

4 CIJ1041.indb 46 3/03/14 10:42 25 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

28. Once again, the draftsmen of this new and slightly modified provi -
sion had in mind intervention as of right, of the kind of the one which f

later on was enshrined into Article 63 of the PCIJ Statute. By the end of
the two Hague Peace Conferences, which set up the basic pattern for
forthcoming multilateral conferences, the universal juridical consciencef

seemed to have captured the idea that international law had to conform af
true international system, endowed with obligatory arbitration (even
though the Permanent Court of Arbitration had already come into exis -
tence on 19 September 1900).

29. After all, State voluntarism remained an obstacle to respect for
international law and an undue limitation of the rule of law in interna -
tional litigation . The hope of the creation of a Court of arbitral justice
(before the days of a true international tribunal, the PCIJ) was largely

prompted by the fears that, in the absence of international justice, Staftes
would keep on doing whatever they wished, and the increase in arma -
ments (naval and military) would keep on going on 2. There was a pre -

monitory reaction, on the part of the lucid jurists of those threateningf
times, against that state of affairs, and against State voluntarism.

30. In fact, the discussions, throughout the work of the two Hague

Peace Conferences (of 1899 and 1907), on the future creation of interna -
tional courts, engaging renowned jurists of those days (such as, e.g., f
T. M. C. Asser, Rui Barbosa, L. Bourgeois, J. H. Choate, F. de Martens,
C. E. Descamps, F. Hagerup, F. W. Holls, among others), contained,

already at that time, references to : (a) the juridical conscience of peo -
ples ;(b) the need of obligatory arbitration; (c) the needed establishment
or constitution of permanent tribunals ; (d) the determination of funda -

mental rules of procedure ; (e) the access of individuals to international
justice ; (f) the development of an international jurisprudence ; and
(g) the progressive development of international law 2. This — as I can
perceive it — showed the awareness, of the importance of such issues,

already present in the minds of jurists of that time.
31. At the Second Hague Peace Conference, the topic of compulsory
arbitration was extensively discussed, on the basis of five propositionsf
(tabled by Brazil, Portugal, Serbia, Sweden and the United States, respec -

tively); the very fact that the Second Hague Peace Conference took place
marked an epoch in the development of international law 30. As aptly
remarked by James Brown Scott in those days, the holding of that Con -

ference demonstrated “the oneness of mankind”, having “brought fnations

27 J. Allain, A Century of International Adjudication : The Rule of Law and Its Limits,
The Hague, T. M. C. Asser Press, 2000, pp. 2 and 7, and cf. pp. 15 and 18.
28 Cf. PCA, The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907 and International Arbitra -

tio29. . ., op. cit. supra note 25, pp. xvii-xix, 9 and 179.
W. I. Hull, The Two Hague Conferences and Their Contributions to International Law,
Bos30n, International School of Peace/Ginn & Co., 1908, pp. 370-448.
J. Brown Scott, The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, Vol. I, Baltimore,
Johns Hopkins Press, 1909, pp. 335 and 738.

26

4 CIJ1041.indb 48 3/03/14 10:42 26 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

together as never before” ; yet, it left unfinished the task of the establish -
31
ment of “an international and permanent judiciary” .

32. The projected Third Hague Peace Conference was never convened,

and the disaster of the following years left scars that were not healed ffor
generations, as stressed by some of the greatest thinkers and writers off the
twentieth century (which is not my intention herein to recall, within the

confines of this separate opinion). But the lessons left mainly by the fSec -
ond Hague Peace Conference 32were duly captured by the draftsmen of

the Statute of the PCIJ (and later of the ICJ). Some of the participanfts of
the Second Hague Peace Conference had the intuition of the need of
international tribunals, to relieve the world in knowing that it would

enter an “orderly process”, given the fact that “the development of inter -
national law only proceeds step by step very gradually” 33.
33. Before turning to the work undertaken by the Advisory Committee

of Jurists, entrusted by the League of Nations with the task of draftingf
(in 1920) the Statute of the PCIJ, may I just point out that the work of thfe

two Hague Peace Conferences was lately reassessed in the centennial com -
memorations of the two of them . The centennial work on the second of
these contains two contributions on the endeavours towards the universalf -

ization of international law by means of securing the presence, in a mulfti-
lateral conference such as the Second Hague Peace Conference, not only of

great powers, but also of other pa35icipating States of the whole of
Latin America and of Asia . They provide an overview of the historical
context within which the discussions on the matter at issue were conductfed.

31J. Brown Scott, The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, op. cit. supra
note 30, pp. 739 and 751. By the end of the Second Hague Peace Conference, the foun -
dations seemed to have been established for further development of interfnational law,
striving for compulsory arbitration, the establishment of the judicial sfettlement of interna

tional disputes, and the limitation or reduction of armaments ; R. Ferreira de Mello (org.),
Textos de Direito Internacional e de História Diplomática de 1815 a 1949, Rio de Janeiro,
Edit. A. Coelho Branco, 1950, pp. 65, 115 and 117.
32Unlike the First Hague Peace Conference (with 26 participating States, mainly Euro-
pean), the Second Hague Peace Conference counted on participating States from distinct
continents and parts of the world (a total of 44), having been the first of the kind in world

dipl33atic history.
J. H. Choate, The Two Hague Conferences, Princeton/London/Oxford, Princeton
University Press/H. Frowde/Oxford University Press, 1913, pp. 58 and 87, and cf. pp. 6-7,
10, 19, 32-33, 42, 51, 57, 61 and 91.
34Cf. [Various authors,] The Centennial of the First International Peace Conference —
Reports and Conclusions [1999] (ed. F. Kalshoven), The Hague, UNITAR/Kluwer, 2000,
pp. 1-515 ; [Various authors,] Actualité de la conférence de La Haye de 1907, deuxième

conférence de la paix/Topicality of the 1907 Hague Conference, the Second Peace Confer -
ence [2007] (ed. Y. Daudet), The Hague/Leiden, Hague Academy of International Law/
Nijhoff, 2008, pp. 1-490.
35Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “The Presence and Participation of Latin America
at the Second Hague Peace Conference of 1907”, Actualité de la conférence de La Haye
de 1907, deuxième conférence de la paix…, op. cit. supra note 34, pp. 51-84 ; S. Murase,

“The Presence of Asia at the 1907 Hague Conference”, ibid., pp. 85-101.

27

4 CIJ1041.indb 50 3/03/14 10:42 27 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

34. The following moment to address, in the identification of the his -
torical origins and shaping of the concept of intervention in legal pro -
ceedings, is that of the work, in mid-1920, of the Advisory Committee of

Jurists, appointed by the League of Nations to draft the Statute of the fold
PCIJ. By then, not only was the way paved for further thinking on com -
pulsory jurisdiction , but also, significantly, with the advent of the judi -
37
cial settlement of disputes at world level , the concept of intervention
fully bloomed. With the advent of the PCIJ (followed over two decades
later by the ICJ), two kinds of intervention were envisaged (cf. infra), and

enshrined into Articles 62 and 63 of the Hague Court’s Statute, respec -
tively. Intervention, under the two provisions, was to seek to overcome
the bilateralization of the controversy at stake, thus widening dispute-f
38
settlement , when it could be of direct interest or concern to other States.

2. Discretionary Intervention (Article 62 of the Court’s Statute)

35. The Advisory Committee of Jurists nominated by the League of

Nations, which drafted the Statute of the PCIJ, at the end of its work
(which lasted from 16 June to 24 July 1920), deemed it fit to include
therein two provisions, Articles 62 and 63, on two kinds of intervention

in legal proceedings. Article 62 of the Statute of the ICJ (derived from
that of the PCIJ), as adopted by that Committee, set forth that :

“1. Should a State consider that it has an interest of a legal nature,
which may be affected by the decision in the case, it may submit

a request to the Court to be permitted to intervene.
2. It will be for the Court to decide upon this request.” 39

36. This was discretionary intervention, distinct from the aforemen -
tioned antecedents (supra). It was a formula proposed by the Commit -

tee’s President (Baron E. Descamps). On the occasion, it was decided that

36Cf., e.g., inter alia, B. C. J. Loder, “The Permanent Court of International Justice
and Compulsory Jurisdiction”, 2 British Yearbook of International Law (1921-1922),
pp. 6-26; M. O. Hudson, The Permanent Court of International Justice — 1920-1942, N.Y.,

MacMillan & Co., 1943, pp. 189-193 ; E. Hambro, “Some Observations on the Compul -
sory Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice”, British Yearbook of Interna -
tional Law (1948), pp. 133-157; and cf., later on, e.g., inter alia, C. W. Jenks, The Prospects
of International Adjudication, London/N.Y., Stevens/Oceana, 1964, pp. 101, 110, 113-117,
757, 760-762 and 770 ; R. Szafarz, The Compulsory Jurisdiction of the International Court
of Justice, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1993, pp. 31-32, 48, 83, 86, 90 and 94-95.
37It may be here recalled that the first modern international tribunal, inf operation for
one decade (1907-1917) in Latin America, was the Central American Court of Justice,

whi38 historically preceded the PCIJ.
Cf., e.g., G. Morelli, “Note sull’Intervento nel Processo Internazionale”, 65f Rivista di
Diritto Internazionale (1982), pp. 805-806, 808, 811 and 814.
39League of Nations/PCIJ — Advisory Committee of Jurists, Procès-verbaux des
séances du comité avec annexes/Procès-verbaux of the Proceeding▯s of the Committee with
Annexes (16 June-24 July 1920), The Hague, Van Langenhuysen Brothers, 1920, p. 594.

28

4 CIJ1041.indb 52 3/03/14 10:42 28 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

it “would be a separate article”, and that it “would be insertefd before the
original Article 23” , which provided for intervention as of right (infra).

Article 62 of the Statute of the PCIJ/ICJ requires a legal standard for
intervention which is distinct from that of Article 63 : according to Arti -
cle 62, the State seeking to intervene must consider that “it has an intefrest

of a legal nature which may be affected by the decision in the case”f, and
the Court has the discretion to decide upon this request. We are, thus, f
here before discretionary intervention.
37. Requests for permission to intervene lodged with this Court in dis -

tinct cases in recent years, unlike the cas d’espèce, have been formulated on
the basis of Article 62 of the Statute. Article 62 is not the formula drawn
from the two Conventions for the Pacific Settlement of International Disf -
putes (of 1899 and 1907), adopted by the First and Second Hague Peace
41
Conferences, respectively . The scope of Article 62 is stricter than that of
Article 63, in that the permission for intervention will depend on the exer -
cise by the Court of its discretion, its decision being taken in the ligfht of

the particular circumstances of each case. This kind of discretionary infter -
vention is drawn from that provided for in the domestic legal system of
several States 4, i.e., in comparative domestic law.

3. Intervention as of Right (Article 63 of the Court’s Statute)

38. In the present case, however, New Zealand’s Declaration of Inter -
vention is grounded on Article 63 of the Statute of the ICJ, which pro -

vides, for its part, that a State party to a Convention which the Court fis
requested to interpret has a “right to intervene in the proceedings”f. We
are no longer before discretionary intervention (supra), but rather before
intervention as of right. The Court has clarified that this “right”f concerns

intervention on “the point of interpretation which is in issue in thef pro -
ceedings”. We are here before intervention as of right. Article 63 of the
Statute of the ICJ (derived from that of the PCIJ, as originally adoptefd
43
by the Advisory Committee of Jurists in 1920) , provides that :
“1. Whenever the construction of a convention to which States other

than those concerned in the case are parties is in question, the
Registrar shall notify all such States forthwith.
2. Every State so notified has the right to intervene in the proceed -
ings; but if it uses this right, the construction given by the judg -

ment will be equally binding upon it.”

40League of Nations/PCIJ — Advisory Committee of Jurists, Procès-verbaux des
séances du comité avec annexes…, op. cit. supra note 39, p. 594.
41Shigeru Oda, “Intervention in the International Court of Justice — Articles 62 and 63
of the Statute”, Völkerrecht als Rechtsordnung Internationale Gerichtsbarkeit Mensch-n▯

rechte – Festschrift für H. Mosler (eds. R. Bernhard et alii), Berlin/Heidelberg, 1983, p. 644.
42
43Ibid., pp. 640-641 and 647.
Cf. League of Nations/PCIJ — Advisory Committee of Jurists, Procès-verbaux des
séances du comité avec annexes…, op. cit. supra note 39, p. 594.

29

4 CIJ1041.indb 54 3/03/14 10:42 29 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

39. It is relevant to keep this distinction in mind, for the purposes of
the consideration of the present Declaration of Intervention. It is to bfe

noted that New Zealand does not seek to be a party in the proceedings of
the cas d’espèce, and that, in accordance with Article 63 (2) of the Court’s
Statute, by availing itself of its right to intervene, it accepts that tfhe con -

struction to be given by the forthcoming Judgment [as to the merits] in f
the present case will be binding upon itself. Furthermore, it seems thatf
New Zealand’s intention to intervene pertains to issues of interpretationf
of the Convention at issue, which appears to be in line with the text off

Article 63 (2) of the Statute. I shall turn to this issue later on, in this
separate opinion.
40. At this stage, may I observe that, throughout the years, the point
has been made, in expert writing, that the use of intervention under Arti -

cle 63 of the Statute has been rather infrequent, but this does not mean
that it would or should remain so, as all States parties to multilateralf
treaties are committed to contribute to their proper interpretation 4. If

such interventions increased, uncertainties could diminish, as the ICJ
could have more occasions to clarify the application and scope of Arti -
cle 63 45. In one of the earlier studies on the subject, Edvard Hambro
wrote sympathetically in favour of “an extensive use of Article 63”,

acknowledging the needed “teleological interpretation” of certain multi -
lateral treaties, to enable the parties to defend the rights that such tfreaties
purported to protect. In any case — he added — Article 63 “has widened
the jurisdiction” of the Court, as States which are parties to the Cofnven -

tions at issue “must be deemed to have a right to intervene” therefunder,
even if the last word as to whether there is room for a possible intervefn -
tion belongs ultimately to the Court 4.

4. Precedents in the Court’s History
(PCIJ and ICJ)

41. This would be a proper point to turn attention to the precedents on
the matter at issue, in the history of the Hague Court (PCIJ and ICJ).f The

sole legacy of the old PCIJ, on the matter at issue, lies in its Judgmenft (on
Poland’s request for intervention) of 28 June 1923 in the case of the vessel
S.S. “Wimbledon”, wherein the PCIJ accepted Poland’s intervention
under Article 63 of its Statute. The Court at first compared the two dis -

tinct kinds of intervention, i.e., intervention under Article 62 of the

44E. Hambro, op. cit. infra note 46, pp. 389 and 40; C. Chinkin, “Article 63”, The
Statute of the International Court of Justice — A Commentary (eds. A. Zimmermann et

ali45, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 2012, pp. 1595 and 1597.
46C. Chinkin, op. cit. supra note 44, p. 1582.
E. Hambro, “Intervention under Article 63 of the Statute of the International Court
of Justice”, Il Processo Internazionale — Studi in Onore di G. Morelli, Comunicazioni e
Studi (1975), Vol. 14, pp. 400, 391, 397 and 399.

30

4 CIJ1041.indb 56 3/03/14 10:42 30 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

Statute, based on the existence of an interest of a legal nature on the fpart
of the intervening party, and the right to intervene under Article 63, per -

taining to the interpretation of an international (multilateral) convefntion.
The PCIJ then recalled the object of the Application instituting proceedf -
ings in the case at issue, and its task to decide whether German authorif -
ties were within their rights in refusing to the vessel S.S. “Wimbledon”

free access to the Kiel Canal and, if necessary, to determine the damages
due for the prejudice caused to that vessel.
42. The PCIJ then recalled that Poland had requested, in its Note
of 22 May 1923, permission to intervene on the basis of Article 62 of the
47
Statute , and explained that, although Article 63 had not been expressly
referred to in Poland’s Note, the latter cited Poland’s participatfion in the
Treaty of Versailles, and, more specifically, the violation of the rightfs and
interests guaranteed to Poland under Article 380 of that Treaty. The PCIJ

then noted that, from a further communication by the Agent of Poland,
it appeared that Poland would have adopted the right conferred upon it
by Article 63, as a party to the Treaty of Versailles.
43. As Poland’s Agent did not insist on its request for intervention

under Article 62, and further indicated that it did not intend to ask for
compensation from Germany, the PCIJ thus found it unnecessary to con -
sider Poland’s request for intervention under Article 62. The PCIJ added
that, as Poland intended to avail itself of the right to intervene underf Arti -

cle 63, the case at issue thus involved the interpretation of certain clausefs
of the Treaty of Versailles, to which Poland was one of the States Partifes;
the PCIJ, accordingly, accepted the request for intervention by Poland.

44. As for the ICJ, the first case it dealt with a Declaration of Interven-
tion under Article 63 of its Statute was in a Latin American case. In its
Judgment of 13 June 1951 in the case of Haya de la Torre (Colombia v.
48
Peru) , pertaining to the admissibility of Cuba’s intervention under Arti-
cle 63 of the Statute and questions on the merits of the case, the ICJ startfed
by recalling that Cuba, in availing itself of the right which the Statutfe
confers on States parties to a convention, the interpretation of which is in

issue, filed a Declaration of Intervention under Article 63 of the Statute
concerning the construction of the Havana Convention on Asylum
of 20 February 1928, and its general attitude regarding asylum. The Court
also recalled that, while Colombia did not object to the intervention, Pferu

requested the Court to decide that the intervention was inadmissible, asf it
was, in its view, an attempt by a third State to appeal against the previous
Judgment of the ICJ of 20 November 1950 in the cas d’espèce 49.

47
On the side of the four applicant States in the main case, namely, Unitefd Kingdom,
France, Italy and Japan. The PCIJ’s judgment as to the merits of the fcase at issue was
delivered on 17 August 1923.
48Haya de la Torre (Colombia v. Peru), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 71.
49Ibid., pp. 74-76.

31

4 CIJ1041.indb 58 3/03/14 10:42 31 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

45. Against this background, the Court first observed that every inter -
vention is incidental to the proceedings in a given case and thus a declfara -
tion filed as an intervention only acquires that character in the event fthat
it actually relates to the subject-matter of the pending proceedings. Thfe
Court stated that the subject-matter of the case at issue was different from

that of the case terminated by the Judgment of 20 November 1950, as it
concerned the surrender of Haya de la Torre to the Peruvian authorities,f
a question which was outside the submission of the Parties in the previofus
case, and was thus not decided in the previous Judgment.

46. The Court was thus of the view that, under these circumstances, the
question before itself was whether the object of Cuba’s intervention fwas
indeed the interpretation of the Havana Convention in connection with the
question whether Colombia is under an obligation to surrender the indi -

vidual concerned to Peru. The Court noted that, during the public hearinfg,
Cuba explained that its intervention was based on the fact that the Courft
had to interpret a new aspect of the Havana Convention, which had not
been considered in the previous Judgment of 20 November 1950. This
being so, the Court decided, on 16 May 1951, that, within these limits,

Cuba’s purported intervention was in conformity with the conditions off
Article 63 of the Statute, and thus admitted the intervention on this basis 5.
47. In this Latin American case, the célèbre Haya de la Torre case,
Cuba’s request for intervention (under Article 63) was successful, in the

terms of the Court’s decision. The two subsequent cases of interventions
under Article 63 of the ICJ Statute did not have the same outcome ; in
both of them the requests for intervention were dismissed as inadmissiblfe.
Such precedents (before the recent Germany v. Italy case (2012) and the
present case opposing Australia to Japan) were the case of Military and

Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America) (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 392) and the Nuclear
Tests (New Zealand v. France) case (I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 288).

48. In the case of Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) (Order of 4 October
1984), El Salvador filed a Declaration of Intervention under Article 63 of
the Statute, citing various multilateral conventions to which it was a pfarty

and on the basis of which Nicaragua’s jurisdictional and substantive f
claims were based ; El Salvador argued that its intervention had the “sole
and limited purpose” of claiming that the Court did not have jurisdicftion
to hear Nicaragua’s Application (pp. 1-2). The Court decided that the
Declaration of Intervention of El Salvador was inadmissible “inasmuch

as it relates to the current phase of the proceedings” (p. 216). The decision
was surrounded by much discussion among the judges, as can be inferred
from the various individual opinions they filed ; there was no doubt, how -

50
Haya de la Torre (Colombia v. Peru), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, pp. 76-77.

32

4 CIJ1041.indb 60 3/03/14 10:42 32 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

ever, that it is for the Court to decide in each case whether the conditfions
for intervention are fulfilled.

49. In the other precedent, that of the Nuclear Tests case (New Zealand
v. France), the Court dealt with the “Request for an Examination of the

Situation” in accordance with paragraph 63 of the Court’s prior Judgment
of 20 December 1974 in the Nuclear Tests case, opposing New Zealand to
France. In its Order of 22 September 1995, the Court decided that such
“Request for an Examination of the Situation” did not fall within fthe pro -
visions of the said paragraph 63 and must thus be dismissed. Consequently,

as to the Applications for permission to intervene (Article 62) of Australia,
Samoa, Solomon Islands, the Marshall Islands and the Federated States
of Micronesia, as well as the Declarations of Intervention (Article 63)
made by the latter four States, since they were all proceedings incidentfal to

New Zealand’s main request, they had likewise to be dismissed.
50. This Order of the Court was likewise surrounded by much discus -
sion, as can be inferred from the various individual (separate and dissfent-
ing) opinions filed by some of the Judges. There were, in that case,
Applications for permission to intervene under Article 62, and Declara -

tions of Intervention under Article 63 of the Statute ; pursuant to a rather
formalistic outlook, the Court’s majority dismissed them, despite thef
importance and seriousness of the matter at issue, concerning the protecf -
tion of the environment against the danger of radioactive contamination f

in the South Pacific region, to the benefit of the Polynesian, Melanesian
and Micronesian peoples.
51. There is, thus, in my perception, a case for a more proactive atti -
tude of the ICJ towards intervention, on the distinct grounds of Articlef 63
as well as Article 62 of its Statute. One and a half years ago the ICJ

rightly granted intervention to Greece under Article 62, in the case con -
cerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (cf. supra), and now it
has rightly granted it to New Zealand under Article 63, in the present case
of the Whaling in the Antarctic. In another recent case wherein it was like -
wise requested (under Article 62), but not granted, concern was expressed,

within the Court, as to the need to keep such a proactive attitude as to the
institute of intervention in international judicial proceedings 51.
52. In my separate opinion appended to the Court’s Order of 4 July
2011, in the case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State

(Germany v. Italy), whereby it granted intervention to Greece (under
Article 62 of its Statute), I deemed it fit to observe that

“Twice before, permission to intervene was granted by the ICJ : by
its Chamber, in the case concerning the Land, Island and Maritime
Frontier Dispute between El Salvador and Honduras (Application by

51Territorial and Maritime Dispute(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Application by Costa Rica
for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), joint dissenting opinion by

Judges Cançado Trindade and Yusuf, pp. 401-413, paras. 1-29.

33

4 CIJ1041.indb 62 3/03/14 10:42 33 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

Nicaragua for permission to intervene, Judgment of 13 September
1990) (I.C.J. Reports 1990, p. 92) and by the full Court itself, in the

case concerning the Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon
and Nigeria, wherein, by its Order of 21 October 1999 (I.C.J. Reports
1999 (II), p. 1029), it authorized Equatorial Guinea to intervene.
Both cases concerned land and maritime boundaries. This time, with
the Order it adopts today, 4 July 2011, the ICJ grants to Greece per -
mission to intervene in the case concerning the Jurisdictional Immu -

nities of the State, a domain of great importance in and for the
development of contemporary international law. The Court has so
decided at the height of its responsibilities as the principal judicial f
organ of the United Nations (Article 92 of the UN Charter).

Unlike land and maritime delimitation cases, or other cases
concerning predominantly bilateralized issues, the present case is of
interest to third States — such as Greece, other than the two contend -
ing Parties before the Court. The subject-matter is closely related to
the evolution of international law itself in our times, being of rele -

vance, ultimately, to all States, to the international community as a
whole, and, in my perception, pointing towards an evolution into a
true universal international law.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

By granting to Greece permission to intervene, the present Order
of the Court gives a proper expression to the principle of the la bonne
administration de la justice in the context of the cas d’espèce.”
(I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), pp. 529-530, paras. 57-59 and cf. infra.)

VII. Collective Interest afnd Collective Guarantefe

53. This leads me to my next point of consideration in the present sep -
arate opinion. As I have already pointed out, consent of the parties in fthe
main case does not play a role in proceedings conducive to the Court’fs

decision (under Article 63 or else under Article 62 of its Statute) whether
or not to grant intervention ; the Court is master of its own jurisdiction,
and one is here beyond State consent (Part V, supra). I have furthermore
pondered, earlier on, that States parties to multilateral treaties are cfom -
mitted to contribute to their proper interpretation (para. 27, supra). This
is, in my perception, even more compelling when such treaties embody

matters of collective interest, and are endowed with collective guarantee of
the observance of the obligations contracted by the States parties.

54. In any case, in my understanding, the nature of the treaty at issue
is to be kept in mind. Furthermore, one is also to keep in mind the ele -

ments which compose the general rule of interpretation of treaties, formfu -
lated in Article 31 of the two Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties

34

4 CIJ1041.indb 64 3/03/14 10:42 34 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

(of 1969 and 1986) — namely, good faith, text, context, and object and

purpose of the treaty ; 52ey are the ones that most often mark presence in
treaty interpretation . Underlying the general rule set forth in Arti -
cle 31 (1) of the two aforementioned Vienna Conventions lies the princi -
ple ut res magis valeat quam pereat, widely supported in case law, and

which corresponds to the so-called effet utile (at times referred to as prin -
ciple of effectiveness), whereby one is to secure to the conventionalf provi-
sions their proper effects 53.

55. The evolution of international law itself can have an effect upon
the interpretation of the treaty at issue. The object and purpose of a
treaty can be given precision, and be developed, by the parties themselvfes

(as in classic treaties) under the effect of certain precepts of lawf, or else by
organs of international supervision established by the treaties themselvfes
(in distinct domains of protection). When it comes to protection (of the

human person, of the environment, or of matters of general interest), tfhe
principle of effet utile assumes particular importance in the determination
of the (enlarged) scope of the conventional obligations of protection.f

56. The corresponding obligations of the States parties assume an
essentially objective character: they are implemented collectively, singling
out the predominance of considerations of general interest (or even ordre
public), transcending the individual interests of States parties. The nature f

of treaties addressing matters of general or common interest and countinfg
on collective guarantee (by States parties) for their implementation has an
incidence on their process of interpretation. And it could not be other -

wise.
57. There is no space, under treaties of the kind, for unilateral State
action, or even for bilateral reciprocal concessions : States parties to such
treaties are bound by the contracted obligations to seek jointly the reafl -

ization or fulfilment of the object and purpose of the treaties at issuef.
State parties are bound by positive obligations enshrined therein. The pre -
ambles themselves of treaties of the kind contain important elements for

their interpretation, to be necessarily taken into account.

52
Cf., generally, e.g., Maarten Bos, “Theory and Practice of Treaty Interpretation”,
27 Netherlands International Law Review (1980), pp. 3-38 and 135-170; W. Lang, “Les
règles d’interprétation codifiées par la convention de Viennfe sur le droit des traités et
les divers types de traités”, 24 Österreichische Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht (1973),
pp. 113-173 ; Ch. De Visscher, Problèmes d’interprétation judiciaire en droit international
public, Paris, Pedone, 1963, pp. 9-264 ; among others.
53Cf., e.g., M. K. Yasseen, “L’interprétation des traités d’après la convfention de
Vienne sur le droit des traités”, 151 RCADI (1976), p. ; G. E. do Nascimento e Silva,
Conferência de Viena sobre o Direito dos Tratados, Rio de Janeiro, MRE, 1971, pp. 34-35
and 73-74 ; I. M. Sinclair, The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Manchester
University Press/Oceana, 1973, pp. 73-75 ; F. Capotorti, “Il Diritto dei Trattati Secondo

la Convenzione di Vienna”, Convenzione di Vienna sul Diritto dei Tratatti, Padua, Cedam,
1984, pp. 35-39; among others.

35

4 CIJ1041.indb 66 3/03/14 10:42 35 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

58. As to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of
Whaling (ICRW), and in particular its “objectives and purposes” 5,

namely, the proper conservation of the whale stocks and the orderly
development of the whaling industry, it is clear that the former stands f
higher, as without the proper conservation of whale stocks there can be no
orderly development of the whaling industry. The basic foundation of the

ICRW is thus the conservation of all whale species at issue. The principle
of effet utile points in this direction, discarding the mere profitability of
the whaling industry.
59. There is a concern for orderly development in the ICRW, which
55
uses the expression “common interest” , and, moreover, identifies its
beneficiaries, in expressly recognizing “the interest of the nations fof the
world in safeguarding for future generations the great natural resources
represented by the whale stocks” 56. The regulatory scheme is set out in

detail in the Schedule. It should not pass unnoticed that the notion of
public or good order had already found expression in the international
community at the time of the adoption of the ICRW.

60. The general policy objectives under the ICRW were thus — and
remain — the protection of all whale species from overfishing, to the ben -
efit of future generations in all nations, and the orderly development of the
whaling industry was to abide by that. Conflicts or disputes were thusf to

be avoided on that basis, and that (orderly) industrial development wafs
not to undermine the public or good order of the oceans. The objectives f
of the ICRW disclose the nature of the treaty, to be implemented well

beyond the scope of bilateral relations between States parties. The nature
of the ICRW is, in my understanding, to be kept in mind, in the present f
decision of the Court concerning intervention for the purposes of inter -
pretation of Article VIII of the Convention.

VIII. The Preventive Dimensifon

61. A proactive posture of the ICJ as to the institute of intervention in
international judicial proceedings, under Article 63 of its Statute, appears
in principle justified, in cases like the present one, concerning the infterpre -

tation or construction of a provision of a multilateral treaty like the f
ICRW, aiming above all at the conservation of all whales species, to the
benefit of future generations in all nations. The notion of inter-genera -
tional equity is present herein. I have devoted much attention to the

long-term temporal dimension and the notion of inter-generational equity
in my separate opinion (Part IX, pp. 177-184, paras. 114-131) in the case

54Expression utilized in Articles V (2) and VI of the Convention.
55Fourth preambular paragraph.
56First preambular paragraph [emphasis added].

36

4 CIJ1041.indb 68 3/03/14 10:42 36 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

concerning Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), and I here limit myself to refer to my
reflections developed therein. In the present case, the ICRW’s preventive

dimension should not pass unnoticed. States parties are here to act withf
due care, under the ICRW, so as to avoid a harm which may project itself
in time.

62. The uncertainties still surrounding the institute of intervention in
legal proceedings are proper to the persisting and new challenges faced fby
international justice in our times 57, in the enlargement of its scope both
ratione materiae and ratione personae. International tribunals are to face

such uncertainties, approaching the institute of intervention with due
attention to the contemporary evolution of international legal proceduref
at conceptual level, and to the nature of the multilateral treaties at sftake.

63. Article 63 of the Court’s Statute provides for intervention as of
right (supra) — as the ICJ itself has pointed out — when the State seek -
ing to intervene confines its intervention to “the point of interpretfation
which is in issue in the proceedings, and does not extend to general intfer-
58
vention in the case” . On the basis of its Declaration of Intervention, it
does not seem that New Zealand is seeking a “general intervention” in the
present case. It purports to inform the Court of its view, focused on a
specific point of interpretation or construction of Article VIII of the 1946

Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. New Zealand’s submission is
thus duly circumscribed, and the Court is right in holding it admissiblef.

IX. The R esuRRectio of Intervention

in Contemporary Judiciafl Proceedings before tfhe ICJ

64. The ICJ’s decision contained in the present Order in the case

concerningWhaling in the Antarctic is significant : looking back in time,
we may well be witnessing lately the resurrectio of intervention in contem -
porary judicial proceedings before the ICJ. I have made this point in myf
separate opinion in the Court’s previous Order of 4 July 2011 permitting

Greece’s intervention in the case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities
of the State (Germany v. Italy). In a rather short lapse of time, the Court
has taken its position on granting intervention, on the basis of both Arfti -
cle 62 (in 2011) and Article 63 (the present Order) of its Statute.

57
E. Jouannet, “Quelques perspectives théoriques : incertitudes sur le tiers et désordres
de la justice internationale”, Le tiers à l’instance devant les juridictions internationales (eds.
H. Ruiz Fabri and J.-M. Sorel), Paris, Pedone, 2005, pp. 260-263.
58Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Application for Pe▯rmission to
Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1981, p. 15, para. 26.

37

4 CIJ1041.indb 70 3/03/14 10:42 37 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

65. I have deemed it fit to dwell further upon this issue, in the present
Order of the Court, declaring admissible New Zealand’s intervention in

the case Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v. Japan). Twice before, in
two cases concerning land and maritime boundaries in the nineties, the
ICJ also authorized two other Applications to intervene, namely, in the f
case concerning the Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Sal -
vador/Honduras) (Application by Nicaragua for Permission to Intervene,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990, p. 92) and in the case concerning the Land
and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Application by
Equatorial Guinea for Permission to Intervene, Order of 21 October 1999,
I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1029).
66. On the two more recent occasions, namely, in the case concerning
the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State and in the present case of Whal -

ing in the Antarctic, the Court has adopted two Orders granting the
requested interventions in two domains of great importance in and for thfe
development of contemporary international law, namely, that of the ten -
sion between the right of access to justice and the invocation of State f
immunities, and that of marine life and resources and international pro -

tection of the environment. In the ambit of the circumstances surround -
ing these two more recent cases, in domains of concern to the internatiofnal
community as a whole, intervention has at last seen the light of the dayf.

67. Although intervention, throughout the history of the ICJ, laid dor-

mant in the Peace Palace for most of the Court’s history until recently, it
has never died, and it appears now to have been resurrected, in a revitafl -
ized way. In deciding as it has done, to grant intervention in the two
aforementioned cases, in such relevant contexts, the ICJ has so decided fat
the height of its responsibilities as the main judicial organ of the
United Nations (Article 92 of the UN Charter). Unlike land and mari -

time delimitation cases, or other cases concerning predominantly bilaterf-
alized issues, these last two cases concern third States as well, other than
the respective contending Parties before the Court.

68. The subject-matters at issue in those two cases (supra) are, in my

perception, closely and decisively related to the evolution of contempo -
rary international law as a truly universal international law, being thus of
relevance ultimately to all States. The resurgere of intervention is thus
most welcome, propitiating the sound administration of justice (la bonne
administration de la justice), attentive to the needs not only of all States

concerned but of the international community as a whole, in the concep -
tual universe of the jus gentium of our times.

X. Concluding Observatiofns

69. In the present case, in my view, a proper expression to the principle
of the sound administration of justice (la bonne administration de la jus -

38

4 CIJ1041.indb 72 3/03/14 10:42 38 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

tice) can be found precisely in the declaration of admissibility by the
Court of the Declaration of Intervention by New Zealand in the cas
d’espèce. I have made precisely this point, one and a half years ago, in my

separate opinion (para. 59) appended to the Court’s Order of 4 July 2011,
in the case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany
v. Italy). This is a point which, in my view, should not pass unnoticed
herein.

70. It so happens that, in the present Order, the Court considered the
principle of the sound administration of justice (la bonne administration
de la justice) in relation to other arguments put to it (paras. 17-19 of the
Order), which are rather tangential to the institute of intervention (funder

Article 63) itself, and do not have a direct bearing on its essence. It is true,
as the Court states (para. 18), that intervention, in the terms of Article 63
of the Statute, cannot — does not — affect the procedural equality of the
contending Parties. The Court rightly acknowledges (para. 19) that

New Zealand’s Declaration of Intervention falls within the provisions of f
Article 63 of the Statute and the requirements of Article 82 of the Rules
of Court, and is thus admissible. It is so — I would add — irrespective of
whether the contending Parties object to it or not.

71. In circumstances like those of the cas d’espèce, it is necessary to
surmount the old bilateralist bias that permeates dispute-settlement under
the procedure before this Court. It so happens that such bias has for a f
long time impregnated expert writing on the subject 59as well. It is about
time to overcome such dogmatisms of the past, with their characteristic f

immobilization, remnant of the old arbitral practice. The present case
concerning Whaling in the Antarctic, unlike land and maritime delimita -
tion cases, or other cases concerning predominantly bilateralized issuesf,
concerns third States as well, parties to the 1946 Convention for the Inter -

national Regulation of Whaling, other than the respective contending
Parties before the Court. The Convention concerns a matter of general orf
common interest, and is to be implemented collectively by States parties,
thus contributing to the public order of the oceans.

72. In the present Order, the Court has limited itself to address the pointsf
raised by the three States concerned, in the terms in which they were rafised.

Under the self-imposed pressure of time, it has abstained from dwelling
upon the substantive aspects concerning the essence of intervention undefr

59To quote one example :

“International law in its historical evolution has shown a general refticence towards
third-party interference in the judicial (or arbitral) settlement of bfilateral disputes.
Indeed, such third-party intervention has always been presented as an exception to
the general principle of res judicata inter alios acta, and there is nothing in modern
international judicial experience or practice to warrant any far-reaching departure
from that approach.” (S. Rosenne, Intervention in the International Court of Justice,
op. cit. supra note 22, p. 190.)

39

4 CIJ1041.indb 74 3/03/14 10:42 39 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

Article63 of its Statute. For my part, I have struggled against the constraints
of time, in order to take care of dwelling upon them in the present sepafrate

opinion. Throughout the years the hope has been expressed, in expert wrift -
ing, that further clarification be given as to the meaning and scope of inter -
vention under Article 63 of the Statute of the ICJ.
73. This is what I have been attempting to do in this separate opinion,
to the extent possible. The insufficient clarification provided so far fhas

been attributed to the rather infrequent use of intervention as of rightf
under Article 63. But even in the cases wherein intervention under Arti -
cle 63 has been put to the Court, like the present one, this latter has not f
provided sufficient or entirely satisfactory clarification, though it hfas for -
tunately reached the right decision in today’s Order.

74. It may well occur that, in the future, whichever clarification is pro -
vided, it comes to appear, after all, not entirely satisfactory. One poifnt
seems, however, clear. The rhythm of progressive development of interna -
tional law, whichever path is taken, is particularly slow ; so slow that any
advance achieved seems to be due to a constructive reasoning in a rare

moment, or glimpse, of lucidity. In any case, and to be fair to jurists f(my
colleagues), it so happens that law is not an “exact science”, anfd perhaps
fortunately so. After all, what is thought of as “exact” today, wifth the
passing of time comes to appear as not being so “exact” as one thofught
or assumed it to be earlier on. In the domain of law, we are faced with f

Sollen/devoir être (so necessary to human beings), and dissatisfaction
seems often to be ineluctable herein.

75. After all, Sollen/devoir être (or at least the tension between Sein and

Sollen) requires thinking, rather than applying mechanically pre-existing
norms. As for mechanical application, nowadays computers would do
it just as well. Thinking (which requires much greater effort) cannot
always be presumed ; this is why one ought to be satisfied when a certain
advance is achieved, moved by thinking with an awareness of the impera -

tives of justice. Today, 6 February 2013, is one such occasion, with the
Court’s Order of admissibility of New Zealand’s Declaration of Interven -
tion under Article 63 of its Statute, just as one and a half years ago (Order
of 4 July 2011) there was another such occasion, with the Court’s permis -
sion of Greece’s intervention under Article 62 of its Statute, in the case

concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State.

76. So, we do not — fortunately — work always surrounded by dis -
satisfaction. After all, there are, in its course, moments or glimpses off
enlightenment as well, which should satisfy those engaged in the progresf -

sive development of international law and the realization of justice at
international level. The aforementioned last two grants of intervention fby

40

4 CIJ1041.indb 76 3/03/14 10:42 40 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

this Court, under Articles 62 and 63 of its Statute (Orders of 4 July 2011
and 6 February 2013, respectively), are good examples in this direction.
The gradual resurrectio of intervention in contemporary judicial proceed -
ings before the World Court can, in my perception, render a valuable
service towards a more cohesive international legal order in our days.

After all, intervention in legal proceedings, by providing additional elfe -
ments to the Court for its consideration and reasoning, can contribute tfo
the progressive development of international law itself, especially whenf
matters of collective or common interest and collective guarantee are at
stake.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

41

4 CIJ1041.indb 78 3/03/14 10:42

Bilingual Content

14

SEPARATE OPINION

OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. Introduction 1-3

II. New Zealand’s Declarationf of Intervention 4-11

III. Written Observations fof Australia and Japan ofn New
Zealand’s Declarationf of Intervention 12-18

IV. Comments of New Zealand on Japan’s Writften Observa -

tions 19-20

V. Beyond State Consent 21-23

VI. Discretionary Intervefntion and Interventiofn as of Right 24-52

1. Historical Origins 25-34
2. Discretionary Intervention (Article 62 of the Court’s Stat
ute) 35-37

3. Intervention as of Right (Article 63 of the Court’s Statute) 38-40
4. Precedents in the Court’s History (PCIJ and ICJ) 41-52

VII. Collective Interest afnd Collective Guarantefe 53-60

VIII. The Preventive Dimensifon 61-63

IX. The ResuRRectio of Intervention in Conftemporary Judi -
cial Proceedings befofre the ICJ 64-68

X. Concluding Observations 69-76

*

I. Introduction

1. I have concurred with my vote to the adoption today, 6 Febru -
ary 2013, by the International Court of Justice (ICJ), of the present Ordefr,

whereby it declared admissible New Zealand’s Declaration of Interven -
tion under Article 63 (2) of the Statute, in the present case concerning
Whaling in the Antarctic, opposing Australia to Japan. The present deci -
sion just taken by the ICJ today, added to the decision it took one and fa

15

4 CIJ1041.indb 26 3/03/14 10:42 14

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE
DE M. LE JUGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

[Traduction]

table des matières

Paragraphes

I. Introduction 1-3

II. La déclaration d’intefrvention de la Nouvellfe-Zélande 4-11

III. Les observations écriftes de l’Australie et dfu Japon sur la
déclaration d’interfvention de la Nouvellef-Zélande 12-18

IV. Les commentaires de lfa Nouvelle-Zélande sur lfes observa -
tions écrites du Japonf 19-20

V. Transcender le consenftement des parties 21-23

VI. Intervention à la disfcrétion de la Cour et ifntervention de

droit 24-52
1. Origines historiques 25-34
2. L’intervention à la discrétion de la Cour (article 62 du

Statut) 35-37
3. L’intervention de droit (article 63 du Statut) 38-40
4. Précédents dans la jurisprudence de la CPJI et de la CIJ 41-52

VII. Intérêt collectif et gfarantie collective 53-60

VIII. La dimension préventifve 61-63

IX. La résurrection de l’intervention dans le règlement des

différends portés récfemment devant la Cour 64-68

X. Observations finales 69-76

*

I. Introduction

1. J’ai voté, ce 6 février 2013, pour l’adoption de la présente ordon -

nance de la Cour internationale de Justice (CIJ), par laquelle celle-ci s’est
prononcée favorablement sur la recevabilité de la déclaration df’interven-
tion en l’affaire de la Chasse à la baleine dans l’Antarctique, opposant
l’Australie au Japon, que la Nouvelle-Zélande a déposée en vertu du

paragraphe 2 de l’article 63 du Statut de la Cour. En prenant cette déci -

15

4 CIJ1041.indb 27 3/03/14 10:42 15 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

half years ago (Order of 4 July 2011), granting permission to Greece’s
intervention (under Article 62 of the Statute) in the case concerning the
Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy), constitute two
positive steps taken by the Court for the development of the institute off

intervention in international legal procedure.
2. Intervention under Article 63 and under Article 62 of the Statute
rest on two quite distinct grounds, disclosing various interrelated aspefcts
which have not been sufficiently or satisfactorily studied to date. Given
the importance that I ascribe to the matters dealt with by the Court in fthe

present Order, and those underlying it, in the case concerning Whaling in
the Antarctic, I feel obliged to leave on the records the foundations of my
personal position on the matter, in all its aspects. I feel even more cofm -
pelled to do so as, although I have reached the same conclusion as the
Court and have voted in favour of the adoption of the present Order, I

have done so on the basis of a reasoning which is distinct from that of the
Court.
3. In the present separate opinion, I shall, accordingly, at first, review f
all the documents conforming the dossier of the present case, relating to
the proceedings before the Court concerning intervention, namely :

(a) New Zealand’s Declaration of Intervention (under Article 63) ;
(b) written observations of Australia and Japan on New Zealand’s Dec -
laration of Intervention ; (c) comments of New Zealand on Japan’s writ -
ten observations. I shall then turn to the examination of points of
international legal theory which I deem of particular relevance for the f

consideration of the subject-matter at issue, namely : (a) the position
beyond State consent ; (b) discretionary intervention (Article 62 of the
Court’s Statute) and intervention as of right (Article 63 of the Court’s
Statute): historical origins, conceptualization, and precedents in the

Court’s history (PCIJ and ICJ) ; (c) collective interest and collective
guarantee ;(d) the preventive dimension; and (e) the resurrectio of inter-
vention in contemporary judicial proceedings before the ICJ. The path
will then be open for the presentation of my concluding observations on f
the matter.

II. New Zealand’s Declarationf of Intervention

4. In its Declaration of Intervention in the present case on Whaling in
the Antarctic, lodged with the Court on 20 November 2012, under
Article 63 (2) of its Statute and Article 82 (2) of the Rules of Court,
New Zealand relies on the jurisprudence of the Court 1 to claim that the
Court has recognized that Article 63 of its Statute confers a right to inter -

vene, when the State seeking to intervene confines its intervention to “fthe

1In its aforementioned Declaration of Intervention, New Zealand refers tof the cases
of Haya de la Torre (Colombia v. Peru), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 76 ; and Conti-
nental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Application for Permission to Intervene,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1981, pp. 13 and 15, paras. 21 and 26.

16

4 CIJ1041.indb 28 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)15

sion, et en autorisant il y a un an et demi, par son ordonnance du 4 juil -
let 2011, la Grèce à intervenir au titre de l’article 62 du Statut dans
l’affaire des Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat, qui opposait l’Allemagne
à l’Italie, la Cour a contribué au développement du concept fd’interven -

tion dans le règlement judiciaire des différends internationaux.f
2. Une intervention repose sur des fondements fort différents selon
qu’elle relève de l’article 63 ou de l’article 62 du Statut, différence qui met
en jeu un certain nombre de points qui n’ont pas jusqu’à préfsent été
convenablement ou suffisamment étudiés. Au vu de l’importance fque j’at-

tache aux questions dont la Cour est appelée à s’occuper explicfitement ou
implicitement en l’affaire de la Chasse à la baleine dans l’Antarctique, il
m’a paru indispensable d’exposer dans la présente opinion le fofndement
de ma position sur tous les aspects du concept d’intervention. Cet exfposé
m’a paru d’autant plus nécessaire que, si je me suis associéf à la conclusion

de la Cour et si j’ai voté pour l’adoption de la présente orfdonnance, je l’ai
fait à l’issue d’un raisonnement autre que celui qu’elle a sfuivi.
3. Je commencerai par passer en revue tous les documents versés au
dossier de l’affaire qui se rapportent à l’intervention, soitf : a) la déclara -
tion d’intervention faite par la Nouvelle-Zélande (en vertu de l’article 63);

b) les observations écrites de l’Australie et du Japon sur cette défclaration;
c) les observations de la Nouvelle-Zélande sur celles du Japon. J’exami -
nerai ensuite, sous l’angle de la théorie du droit international, fles points
qui me semblent particulièrement importants pour l’étude du sujfet que je
traite ici : a) le consentement des parties, et pourquoi il faut le transcen -

der ;b) l’intervention à la discrétion de la Cour (fondée sur l’farticle 62 de
son Statut) et l’intervention de droit (déclarée en vertu de fl’article 63 du
Statut): les origines historiques et la formation du concept d’intervention,f
et les précédents relevés dans la jurisprudence de la Cour et dfe la Cour

permanente de Justice internationale (CPJI) ; c) l’intérêt collectif et la
garantie collective ; d) la dimension préventive ; et e) la résurrection
récente de l’intervention dans le règlement des différendsf internationaux
portés devant la Cour. Ayant ainsi examiné le sujet, il ne me restfera plus
qu’à exposer les conclusions de ma réflexion sur l’intervefntion.

II. La déclaration d’intefrvention de la Nouvellfe-Zélande

4. Dans la déclaration d’intervention dans l’affaire de la Chasse à la
baleine dans l’Antarctique qu’elle a faite le 20 novembre 2012 en vertu du
paragraphe 2 de l’article 63 du Statut de la Cour et du paragraphe 2 de
l’article 82 de son Règlement, la Nouvelle-Zélande, s’appuyant sur la
jurisprudence de la Cour , affirme que celle-ci a reconnu que l’article 63

confère un droit d’intervention lorsque l’Etat concerné limifte son inter -

1 Dans sa déclaration d’intervention, la Nouvelle-Zélande fait référence à l’affaire
Haya de la Torre (Colombie c. Pérou), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 19p. 76, et à l’affaire du
Plateau continental (Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe libyenne), requête à▯ fin d’intervention, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1981, p. 13 et 15, par. 21 et 26.

16

4 CIJ1041.indb 29 3/03/14 10:42 16 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

point of interpretation which is in issue in the proceedings, and does nfot
extend to general intervention in the case” . To avail itself of the right of

intervention (under Article 63), New Zealand relies on its status as a party
to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

(hereinafter “the Convention”).
5. New Zealand deems it necessary to intervene in order to place its
interpretation of the relevant provisions of the Convention before the

Court. It claims that, in relation to the scope of its right to intervenfe, it
presents its views on issues of interpretation relevant to the determinaftion
of the case, in particular questions of the construction of the Conventifon,

especially its Article VIII. New Zealand emphasizes that it does not seek
to be a party to the proceedings, but it accepts that, in intervening unfder
Article 63, it will be equally bound by the construction given to the
3
Convention by the Judgment of the Court .

6. New Zealand then goes on to review the relevant provisions of the

Convention in the present case. It states that the key legal issue in difspute
between Australia and Japan is “the legality of large-scale ‘specifal permit’

whaling under JARPA II [which] is conducted under a special permit
issued by the Japanese Government by reference to Article VIII of the
Convention” 4. It claims that the construction of Article VIII of the

Convention (in particular, its paragraph 1) is directly relevant to the reso -
lution of the dispute . New Zealand next reviews its construction of the
provisions at issue 6. It submits that “parties to the Convention can engage

in whaling only in accordance with the provisions of the Convention and f
its Schedule” 7.

7. New Zealand further argues that the Convention provides “a
comprehensive legal regime” whose “central objective” is “to replace uni -

lateral State action with an effective system of collective regulation f▯or the

2 Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Application for Pe▯rmission to
Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1981, p. 15, para. 26.
3
Declaration of Intervention, pp. 4-8, paras. 1-13. New Zealand further claims that, in
accordance with Article 82 (1) of the Rules of Court, its Declaration of Intervention has
been filed at the “earliest opportunity reasonably open to New Zealand”. It then reviews
the basis for its status as party to the Convention, recalling its instrfument of ratification
and the notice of its accession to the Convention, on 15 June 1976, with effect as from that
date (ibid., pp. 6-8, paras. 10-11, 14).
4 It refers in this regard to Australia’s Application instituting procefedings, pp. 14, 16,

paras. 29 and 35-37; it also refers to the website of the International Whaling Commission,f
“Recent Special Permits: Japan”.
5 Declaration of Intervention, pp. 8-10, paras. 14-17.
6 It bases its interpretation of the Convention on Articles 31-32 of the 1969 Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties.
7 In this regard, New Zealand claims that, by becoming parties to the Convention,
“Contracting Governments have agreed not to permit their nationals tof carry out any

whaling activity except in accordance with the provisions of the Conventfion and its
Schedule”; cf. Declaration of Intervention, pp. 10-14, paras. 18-23.

17

4 CIJ1041.indb 30 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)16

vention « à la question qu’il s’agit d’interpréter en l’espècfe», mais « n’au-
torise pas une intervention générale en l’affaire » . Pour se prévaloir de ce

droit, la Nouvelle-Zélande invoque sa qualité de partie à la convention
pour la réglementation de la chasse à la baleine de 1946 (ci-après « la
convention »).

5. La Nouvelle-Zélande explique qu’elle estime devoir intervenir pour
exposer à la Cour son interprétation des dispositions pertinentes fde la
convention. Elle affirme que, consciente des limites de son droit d’inter -

vention, elle se borne à vouloir présenter ses vues sur les pointsf d’interpré -
tation que la Cour devra considérer pour régler l’affaire, enf particulier
ceux concernant l’article VIII de la convention. Elle souligne qu’elle ne

cherche nullement à devenir partie à l’instance, et qu’elle fa conscience
que, si elle est admise à intervenir au titre de l’article 63, l’interprétation
de la convention retenue par la Cour dans son arrêt sera égalementf obli -
3
gatoire à son égard .
6. La Nouvelle-Zélande passe ensuite en revue les dispositions de la
convention en cause dans la présente affaire. Elle déclare que lfe principal

point de droit sur lequel l’Australie et le Japon sont en désaccorfd est « la
licéité de la chasse à la baleine à grande échelle en verftu d’un permis spé -

cial dans le cadre du programme JARPA II [qui] est menée sur la base
d’un permis spécial délivré par le Gouvernement japonais au ftitre de
l’article VIII de la convention » . Elle affirme que l’interprétation de

l’article VIII (en particulier de son paragraphe 1) aura une incidence
directe sur le règlement de l’affaire 5. La Nouvelle-Zélande expose ensuite
son interprétation desdites dispositions 6. Elle affirme notamment que «les

parties à la convention ne peuvent pratiquer la chasse à la baleine que
conformément aux dispositions de la convention et de son annexe » 7.
7. La Nouvelle-Zélande soutient également que la convention « consti -

tue un régime juridique complet », dont « l’objectif central » consiste « à
remplacer l’action unilatérale des Etats par un système de ré▯glementation

2
Plateau continental (Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe libyenne), requête à▯ fin d’intervention,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1981, p. 15, par. 26.
3 Déclaration d’intervention de la Nouvelle-Zélande, p. 5-9, par. 1-13. La Nouvelle-
Zélande indique également que, conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 82 du Règle -
ment de la Cour, elle a déposé sa déclaration « à la première occasion qui s’offr[ait] raison-
nablement à elle ». Elle explique ensuite comment elle est devenue partie à la conventifon,
rappelant le dépôt de son instrument de ratification et sa notificfation d’adhésion du 15 juin

1974, qui a pris effet le même jour (ibid., p. 7-9, par. 10-11, 14).
La Nouvelle-Zélande fait ici référence aux paragraphes29 et 35-37 de la requête intro-
ductive d’instance de l’Australie, p. 15 et 17, et renvoie également au site Web de la CBI,
rubrique «Recent Special Permits : Japan ».
5 Déclaration d’intervention de la Nouvelle-Zélande, p. 9-11, par. 14-17.
6 La Nouvelle-Zélande fonde son interprétation de la convention sur les articles 31
et 32 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités de 1969.
7
La Nouvelle-Zélande soutient à cet égard que, « en devenant parties à la convention,
les gouvernements contractants ont convenu de n’autoriser leurs ressofrtissants à pratiquer
la chasse à la baleine que conformément à la convention et àf son annexe » ;voir la déclara-
tion d’intervention de la Nouvelle-Zélande, p. 11-13, par. 18-23.

17

4 CIJ1041.indb 31 3/03/14 10:42 17 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

proper conservation and management of whales” . New Zealand claims
that States parties to the Convention have a collective interest in sciefntific

research and information, so as to enable the International Whaling
Commission (IWC) — the authority to adopt binding regulations “with
respect to the conservation and utilization of whale resources” — to per -
9
form its function properly under the Convention .

8. New Zealand also claims that, according to regulations adopted by

the IWC, parties to the Convention are prohibited from engaging in com -
mercial whaling, by way of the imposition by the IWC of a zero catch
limit. It adds that the killing, taking or treating of whales (other thfan
minke whales) by factory ships is also prohibited and that all commercifal

whaling is prohibited in the Indian and Southern Oceans. It further sub -
mits that such regulations are binding on all parties to the Convention f
unless they objected to them pursuant to the procedures provided for
10
under Article V (3) of the Convention .

9. New Zealand argues that parties to the Convention may engage in
“special permit” whaling only in accordance with Article VIII, and

explains that the killing of whales under special permit is permitted onfly
for the limited purposes of “scientific research”. Thus, the issuef of special
permits is subject to distinct procedural requirements for notification,f
prior review and comment, and the reporting of results through the IWC

and Scientific Committee. New Zealand contends that “whaling under a
special permit issued without meeting the requirements of Article VIII is
subject to the other provisions of the Convention and Schedule, includinfg
11
the prohibitions on commercial whaling” .

10. New Zealand then reviews the requirements of a special permit
under Article VIII, and states that whaling for purposes other than scien -
tific research is not permitted under Article VIII, even if it involves the

collection of scientific data. It adds that the requirement that whalingf be
for scientific research is an essential element of Article VIII, and that the
purpose of scientific research of the whaling programme in question must

be established on the basis of an objective assessment. It further contefnds
that, according to Article VIII, the State party concerned must attach
“restrictions as to number” and “other conditions” to any spfecial permit
issued, and, in setting those restrictions, it must show that it has limited

8
9 Declaration of Intervention, p. 12, para. 21 [emphasis added].
10Ibid., pp. 10-14, paras. 18-23.
11 Ibid., p. 14, para. 24.
Ibid., pp. 14-16, paras. 25-26.

18

4 CIJ1041.indb 32 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)17

collective qui soit propre à assurer la conservation et la gestion de▯s
baleines » . Selon elle, les Etats parties à la convention ont collective-

ment intérêt à ce que des recherches scientifiques soient réaliséfes et des
informations recueillies, de sorte que la Commission baleinière interf-
nationale (CBI), organe qui a le pouvoir d’adopter des règles cofntrai -
gnantes « au sujet de la conservation et de l’utilisation des ressources

baleinières», puisse s’ac9uitter convenablement des fonctions que lui
assigne la convention .
8. La Nouvelle-Zélande fait valoir que, dès lors que la CBI a imposé
une limite de capture égale à zéro, il est interdit aux Etats pfarties à la

convention de pratiquer la chasse à la baleine à des fins commercifales.
Elle ajoute que la mise à mort, la prise ou le traitement des baleinefs
(autres que les petits rorquals) par des navires-usines sont également
interdits, et que toute chasse commerciale est prohibée dans l’océan

Indien et dans l’océan Austral. Elle fait valoir de plus que ces rfègles s’im -
posent à toutes les parties à la convention qui ne s’y sont pasf opposées en
élevant des objections selon la procédure prévue au paragraphe 3 de l’ar -
ticle V de celle-ci 1.

9. La Nouvelle-Zélande considère que les parties à la convention ne
peuvent pratiquer la chasse à la baleine au titre de « permis spéciaux »
qu’en conformité avec l’article VIII, expliquant que la mise à mort de
baleines au titre de permis spéciaux n’est autorisée qu’aux ffins limitées de

la « recherche scientifique ». C’est pourquoi, selon elle, la délivrance de
permis spéciaux est subordonnée à des conditions procéduralefs précises,
dont l’obligation de notification, la soumission des projets à un fexamen

préalable donnant lieu à observations, et l’obligation de rendrfe compte
des résultats par l’entremise de la CBI et du comité scientifique. Elle
affirme aussi que, « lorsqu’un permis spécial est accordé sans que les
conditions énoncées à l’article VIII soient réunies, la chasse à la baleine

pratiquée en vertu de ce permis tombe sous le coup des autres disposiftions
de la convention et du règlement y annexé, y compris de l’interfdiction
frappant la chasse à la baleine à des fins commerciales » 11.
10. Elle passe ensuite en revue les conditions auxquelles doit satisfaire

un permis spécial délivré au titre de l’article VIII, et déclare que, même si
elle comporte la collecte de données scientifiques, la chasse à defs fins
autres que la recherche scientifique n’est pas autorisée par l’article VIII.
Elle ajoute que la condition selon laquelle la chasse doit être entrefprise en

vue de recherches scientifiques est un élément essentiel de l’afrticle VIII, et
que la question de savoir si le programme en cause a pour but la rechercfhe
scientifique doit être tranchée sur la foi d’une évaluation fobjective. Elle
soutient également que, selon l’article VIII, un Etat partie qui délivre un

permis spécial doit assortir celui-ci de « restrictions en ce qui concerne le

8
Déclaration d’intervention, p. 13, par. 21 (les italiques sont de nous).
9Ibid., p. 11-15, par. 18-23.
10Ibid., p. 15, par. 24.
11Ibid., p. 15-17, par. 25-26.

18

4 CIJ1041.indb 33 3/03/14 10:42 18 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

the number of whales caught under special permit to the minimum which
is both necessary for, and proportionate to, the objectives of the research,
and which will have no adverse effect on the conservation of the stockf.

New Zealand claims that paragraph 30 of the Schedule of the Convention
mandates States parties to submit proposed special permits to the Scien -
tific Committee and that such obligation gives rise to a duty of meaningf-
ful co-operation. New Zealand claims that these requirements are reflected

in the practi12 of the IWC and its Committees since the adoption of the f
Convention .

11. At the end of its Declaration of Intervention, New Zealand pro -

vides the following summary of its interpretation of Article VIII of the
Convention :

“(a) Article VIII forms an integral part of the system of collective
regulation established by the Convention.
(b) Parties to the Convention may engage in whaling by special per -
mit only in accordance with Article VIII.

(c) Article VIII permits the killing of whales under special permit
only if :

i. an objective assessment of the methodology, design and char -
acteristics of the programme demonstrates that the killing is
only ‘for purposes of scientific research’ ; and

ii. the killing is necessary for, and proportionate to, the objec -
tives of that research and will have no adverse effect on the
conservation of stocks ; and
iii. the Contracting Government issuing the special permit has

discharged its duty of meaningful co-operation with the
Scientific Committee and the IWC.

(d) Whaling under special permit that does not meet these require -
ments of Article VIII, and not otherwise permitted under the
Convention, is prohibited.” 13

III. Written Observations fof Australia and Japan ofn
New Zealand’s Declarationf of Intervention

12. In its written observations of 18 December 2012, Australia sustains
that New Zealand’s Declaration meets “all of the requirements” under
Article 63 of the Statute (para. 5). There is no reason, in its view, why a
third State (in this case New Zealand) cannot intervene over the construc -

12Declaration of Intervention, pp. 16-18, paras. 27-32.
13Ibid., p. 18, para. 33. New Zealand submits documents in support of its Declaration
of Intervention; cf. ibid., pp. 18-20, para. 34.

19

4 CIJ1041.indb 34 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)18

nombre» et « d’autres conditions», et que, lorsqu’il fixe ces restrictions, il
doit pouvoir montrer que le nombre des captures prévues est propor -
tionné aux objectifs des travaux de recherche et se limite au minimumf que

nécessitent ceux-ci, et que les captures ne nuiront pas à la conservation de
la population concernée. Elle soutient que le paragraphe 30 du règlement
annexé à la convention fait obligation aux Etats parties de soumetftre
leurs projets de permis spéciaux au comité scientifique, et que ceftte obli -

gation relève du devoir de coopération effective. Elle affirme faussi que la
pratique de la CBI et du comité scientifique reflète ces conditifons depuis
l’adoption de la convention 12.
11. A la fin de sa déclaration d’intervention, la Nouvelle-Zélande f

résume comme suit son interprétation de l’article VIII de la convention :

« a) L’article VIII fait partie intégrante du système de réglementation
collective établi par la convention.
b) Les parties à la convention ne peuvent pratiquer la chasse à la
baleine en vertu d’un permis spécial que conformément à l’ar -

ticle VIII.
c) L’article VIII n’autorise la mise à mort de baleines en vertu d’un
permis spécial que si les conditions suivantes sont réunies :

i) une évaluation objective de la méthodologie, de la conception
d’ensemble et des caractéristiques du programme démontre
que les baleines sont tuées exclusivement «en vue de recherches
scientifiques » ;

ii) ces mises à mort sont indispensables à la réalisation des objecf -
tifs de ces recherches et proportionnées à ceux-ci, et ne porte -
ront pas préjudice à la conservation des stocks ;
iii) le gouvernement contractant qui délivre le permis spécial s’estf

acquitté de son devoir de coopération effective avec le comitéf
scientifique et la CBI.

d) Est interdite la chasse à la baleine pratiquée en vertu d’un permis
spécial qui ne réunit pas les conditions énoncées à l’farticle VIII et
qui n’est pas par ailleurs autorisée par la convention. » 13

III. Les observations écriftes de l’Australie et dfu Japon
sur la déclaration d’fintervention de la Nofuvelle-Zélande

12. Dans ses observations écrites datées du 18 décembre 2012, l’Aus -
tralie soutient (par. 5) que la déclaration de la Nouvelle-Zélande répond
à «toutes les exigences » prévues à l’article 63 du Statut de la Cour. Selon
elle (par. 7), rien ne s’oppose à ce qu’un Etat tiers qui est partie àf la

12 Déclaration d’intervention, p. 17-19, par. 27-32.
13 Ibid., p. 19, par. 33 ; la Nouvelle-Zélande soumet un certain nombre de documents à
l’appui de sa déclaration (voir ibid., p. 19-21, par. 34).

19

4 CIJ1041.indb 35 3/03/14 10:42 19 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

tion of Article VIII of the International Convention for the Regulation of
Whaling, to which New Zealand is a party (para. 7). Furthermore,

New Zealand does not seek to be a party to the proceedings (para. 8).
New Zealand’s Declaration of Intervention — Australia adds — is spe -
cifically focused on a point of interpretation, without extending to “gen -
eral intervention” in the case, nor to other aspects of the dispute bfetween

Australia and Japan. Given such limited reach of an intervention under
Article 63, the intervening State cannot be considered a party (para. 9),
Australia concludes, in its support, in this understanding, of New Zea -
land’s intervention.

13. For its part, on 21 December 2012 Japan filed its written observa -
tions on New Zealand’s Declaration of Intervention of 20 November
2012 14, wherein it argues that “certain serious anomalies would arise
from the admission of New Zealand as an intervenor” considering the

context in which the Declaration of Intervention was filed. Japan refers in
this regard to the Joint Media Release, issued on 15 December 2010 in the
names of the Australian and New Zealand Ministers for Foreign Affairs,
announcing that “Australia and New Zealand agree on strategy for whal -

ing legal case”. According to Japan, such a statement explains the raftio -
nale behind the choice of Article 63 as the basis for New Zealand’s
intervention, as it indicates that “New Zealand appears prima facie to
fully support Australia’s case” 15.

14. Japan then contends that the equality of the parties will be at seri -

ous risk if States can pursue a joint case under the rubric of an intervfen -
tion under Article 63, to curtail some of the safeguards of procedural
equality under the Statute and the Rules of Court. Japan further argues f
that the choice of intervention under Article 63 can be interpreted as a

strategy to avoid having to prove an “interest of a legal nature thatf may
be affected by the decision in the case”, as required under Articlef 62,
where the circumstances point to such interests and “suggest the takifng of
carefully orchestrated procedural steps to advance them” 1.

15. Japan expresses “serious doubts” on the equality of the Parties inf
these proceedings before the Court and its “profound discomfort” result -

ing from the manner in which New Zealand’s intervention has arisen.
Thus “Japan respectfully submits in these circumstances that particulfar
care needs to be taken when the Court decides on the further procedural f

14
15 Doc. AJ 2012/20, of 21 December 2012.
16 Written Observations of Japan, paras. 1-4.
Japan then refers to Articles 31 (5) of the Statute and Article 36 (1) of the Rules
which exclude the possibility of appointing an ad hoc judge when two or more parties are
in the same interest and thus should be taken as one party only, which it submits to be the
case in the present dispute (ibid., paras. 5-6).

20

4 CIJ1041.indb 36 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)19

convention (en l’occurrence la Nouvelle-Zélande) intervienne au fsujet de
l’interprétation de l’article VIII de celle-ci. Elle relève que la Nouvelle-

Zélande ne cherche pas à devenir partie à l’instance (par. 8). Elle ajoute
que la déclaration porte expressément sur un point d’interprétation, et n’a
donc pour objet ni une «intervention générale» dans l’instance, ni quelque
autre aspect du différend, et, faisant valoir qu’un Etat qui se fpropose d’in -

tervenir au titre de l’article 63 de façon ainsi limitée ne saurait être consi -
déré comme cherchant à devenir partie au différend (par. 9), conclut à la
recevabilité de la déclaration d’intervention de la Nouvelle-Zéflande.

13. Dans ses observations écrites, déposées le 21 décembre 2012, sur la
déclaration d’intervention faite par la Nouvelle-Zélande le 20 novembre
2012 1, le Japon, quant à lui, appelle l’attention sur « certaines anomalies
graves qu’entraînerait l’admission de la Nouvelle-Zélande en qualité d’Etat

intervenant», eu égard au contexte dans lequel la déclaration d’inter-
vention a été déposée. Il fait à ce sujet référence au communiqué de
presse conjoint des ministres australien et néo-zélandais des affaires étran -
gères, publié le 15 décembre 2010, selon lequel « l’Australie et la

Nouvelle-Zélande s[’étaient] entendues sur la stratégie à suivre dfans le
cadre de l’affaire relative à la chasse à la baleine ». Pour le Japon, le
fait que la Nouvelle-Zélande a choisi de fonder son intervention sur
l’article 63 du Statut s’explique par ce qui est dit dans ce communiqué,

dont il conclut que «tout porte à croire qu’elle appuie sans réserve la thèse
de l’Australie » 15.
14. Le Japon soutient ensuite que l’égalité procédurale des partiesf

risque d’être compromise si des Etats peuvent faire cause commune fsous
couvert d’une intervention fondée sur l’article 63, et tourner ainsi cer -
taines des dispositions du Statut et du Règlement de la Cour visant à
protéger l’égalité procédurale. Il soutient également fque le choix que fait

un Etat de fonder son intervention sur l’article 63 peut être vu comme un
stratagème qu’il emploie pour s’épargner de devoir démontfrer qu’« un
intérêt d’ordre juridique est pour lui en cause », comme le requiert
l’article 62, alors que les circonstances font apparaître l’existence de telfs

intérêts et « commandent une 16marche processuelle soigneusement pré -
parée pour les défendre » .
15. Le Japon exprime ses « graves appréhensions» quant à l’égalité des
Parties devant la Cour et son « profond malaise» à l’égard de la situation

qui découle de la manière dont la Nouvelle-Zélande a décidé d’intervenir.
Aussi « se permet[-il] de faire observer que, dans ces conditions, la Cour
devra veiller avec le plus grand soin à garantir l’égalité dfes Parties au

14
15 Doc. AJ 2012/20 du 21 décembre 2012.
16 Observations écrites du Japon, par. 1-4.
Le Japon fait ensuite référence au paragraphe 5 de l’article 31 du Statut de la Cour
et au paragraphe 1 l’article 36 de son Règlement, qui excluent la possibilité de désigner un
juge ad hoc lorsque deux parties font cause commune et ne doivent ainsi compter quef pour
une seule, ce qu’il affirme être le cas en l’espèce (ibid., par. 5-6).

20

4 CIJ1041.indb 37 3/03/14 10:42 20 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

steps in this case, in order to ensure the equality of the parties to the dis -

pute”; Japan further claims that this is particularly important in the pres -
ent case, where submissions on jurisdiction and on the merits are made
together, and only one round of written pleadings has been allowed 17.

16. In this regard, Japan first submits that New Zealand’s written
observations in accordance with Article 86 of the Rules of Court should
not be left without a written response from the original Parties, since fin

the present circumstances, in its view, the intervenor’s observationsf would
essentially amount to a second round of written pleadings by the Appli -
cant. Thus, it reiterates its wish to express its views in writing on Nefw Ze-a
land’s submission on the “substance” of the intervention, withifn an

appropriate time. Secondly, Japan contends that in the event New Zea -
land’s intervention is admitted, the latter should have only one opportu -
nity to make oral submissions, after the oral pleadings of Australia, anfd

before that of Japan. Furthermore, Japan contends that, because inter -
vention pursuant to Article 63 is confined to “the point of interpretation
which is in issue in the proceedings, and does not extend to general intfer -
18
vention in the case” , the time allocated to New Zealand should be sig -
nificantly less than in a case of intervention under Article 62.

17. Thirdly, Japan further submits that New Zealand’s intervention (if
admitted), “in collaboration with the Applicant”, should not resuflt in
“any shortening of the time allocated to the Respondent for the prepafra -

tion of response to the pleadings by the Applicant and also by the interf -
vening State” ; it stresses the need to have adequate time for preparation
before the oral proceedings, especially because there has been only one f
19
round of written pleadings . The main point to be here retained is that,
although Japan does not appear to raise a formal and express objection
to the admission of New Zealand’s Declaration of Intervention under
20
Article 63 , it manifests concern mainly with the procedural equality of
the Parties in the proceedings.
18. On its turn, in its subsequent written observations (original letter
of 10 January 2013), Australia refers to what it regards as Japan’s “mifs -

characterization” (of past events), in its view “wholly irrelevafnt” to the

17Written Observations of Japan, paras. 7-8.
18Japan refers to the case concerning the Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jama-
hiriya), Application by Malta for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.▯C.J. Reports 1981,
p. 15, para. 26.
19Furthermore, Australia has yet to respond to Japan’s objection to jurfisdiction
(Written Observations of Japan, paras. 9-11).
20Note in this regard that Article 84 (2) of the Rules of Court provides that :

“If, within the time-limit fixed under Article 83 of these Rules, an objection is filed
to an application for permission to intervene, or to the admissibility off a declaration
of intervention, the Court shall hear the State seeking to intervene and the parties
before deciding.”

21

4 CIJ1041.indb 38 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)20

différend lorsqu’elle se prononcera sur la procédure à suivre ensuite en

l’espèce»; il fait valoir que cela importe d’autant plus que les conclusions
relatives à la compétence doivent être présentées en mêfme temps que
celles sur le fond, et qu’un seul tour de procédure écrite a éfté autorisé 17.

16. A ce sujet, le Japon soutient tout d’abord que les observations
écrites présentées par la Nouvelle-Zélande conformément à l’article 86 du
Règlement de la Cour appellent une réponse écrite des Parties, fétant

donné que, vu les circonstances, les observations de l’Etat intervfenant
équivalent, selon lui, à un second tour d’écritures du demanfdeur. Il réitère
par conséquent son souhait de se voir accorder la possibilité d’fexprimer
par écrit ses vues sur « le fond» de l’intervention, et de disposer pour cela

d’un délai convenable. En second lieu, le Japon affirme que, si sfa déclara -
tion d’intervention est jugée recevable par la Cour, la Nouvelle-Zélande
ne devrait se voir accorder qu’une seule occasion d’exposer ses cofnclu -

sions orales, et ce après le premier tour de plaidoiries de l’Austfralie et
avant celui du Japon. De plus, considérant que le droit d’intervenir au
titre de l’article 63 est limité à « la question qu’il s’agit d’interpréter en
18
l’espèce» et « n’autorise pas une intervention générale en l’affaire » , le
Japon soutient que le temps imparti à la Nouvelle-Zélande pour sesf plai -
doiries devrait être nettement plus court que dans le cas d’une infterven -

tion fondée sur l’article 62.
17. En troisième lieu, le Japon affirme que, dans l’hypothèse oùf elle
serait admise, l’intervention de la Nouvelle-Zélande « en collaboration
avec le demandeur » ne devrait pas avoir pour effet de « réduire le temps

dont disposera le défendeur pour répondre aux arguments de l’Etfat
demandeur ainsi qu’à ceux de l’Etat intervenant»; il souligne qu’il lui faut
disposer de suffisamment de temps pour préparer sa procédure orale,
19
d’autant qu’il n’a été prévu qu’un seul tour de profcédure écrite . Le prin-
cipal point à retenir ici est que, s’il ne semble pas s’opposerf formellement
et expressément à ce que la Nouvelle-Zélande soit admise à intervenir au
20
titre de l’article 63 , le Japon exprime des appréhensions, principalement
au sujet de l’égalité procédurale entre les Parties.
18. Dans sa lettre datée du 10 janvier 2013, commentant les observa -
tions du Japon, l’Australie note que la manière dont celui-ci décrit cer -

tains faits passés est « inexacte», et affirme que l’interprétation qu’il en

17Observations écrites du Japon, par. 7-8.
18Le Japon fait référence à l’affaire concernant le Plateau continental (Tunisie/Jamahi -
riya arabe libyenne), requête de Malte à fin d’intervention, a▯rrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1981, p. 15,
par. 26.
19Le Japon fait de plus observer que l’Australie n’a pas encore réfpondu au sujet de
l’exception d’incompétence qu’il a soulevée (observations écrites du Japon, par. 9-11).
20Il y a lieu de noter à cet égard que le paragraphe 2 de l’article 84 du Règlement

dispose ce qui suit :
«Si, dans le délai fixé conformément à l’article 83 du présent Règlement, il est fait
objection à une requête à fin d’intervention ou à la recevabilité d’une déclaration
d’intervention, la Cour entend, avant de statuer, l’Etat désirefux d’intervenir ainsi
que les parties. »

21

4 CIJ1041.indb 39 3/03/14 10:42 21 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

matters flowing from New Zealand’s Declaration of Intervention (p. 1).
Australia objects to Japan being provided with additional time (at its fown

expense) to get prepared, in the course of the forthcoming oral hearingfs
(when Japan’s jurisdictional objections will be dealt with), as a rfesult of
the Court’s prior decision not to have a second round of briefs with argu -
ments in the written phase (p. 1). Australia adds that New Zealand, as an
intervenor, has “a right to be heard” by the Court, and there is nfo reason

for it to be allowed less time (p. 2).

IV. Comments of New Zealand
on Japan’s Written Obsefrvations

19. Five days ago, New Zealand filed in the Court its letter of 1 Febru -
ary 2013, containing its comments on Japan’s written observations
(supra). New Zealand indicates that it “does not accept that its interven -
tion affects the equality of the Parties” ; as a State party to the Interna -

tional Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, it is “exercising itfs right
to intervene in order to place its interpretation of the relevant provisfions
of the Convention before the Court, as the Statute of the Court [Arti -
cle 63] entitles it to do” (p. 1). New Zealand added that the ICJ should
not be invited to speculate as to the implications of its intervention ffor the

proceedings before the Court (pp. 1-2).

20. New Zealand further contended that the equality of the parties to
the dispute “cannot be imperilled” when a third State exercises itfs right to
intervene — as a non-party — under Article 63 of the Statute. It recalled
that the procedural rights of the parties and the intervening State are fset

out in Article 86 of the Rules of Court, it being for the ICJ to decide on
“the extent of procedural rights” of the intervening State (p. 2). New Zea -
land then concluded that the right to intervene, under Article 63 of the
Statute, is “an integral part” of the framework of operation of thfe ICJ, as
a forum for the settlement of disputes “under multilateral treaties”f ; in

this context — it added — the exercise by New Zealand of such right of
intervention “does not affect the equality of the parties to the difspute”
(p. 2).

V. Beyond State Consent

21. Having reviewed all the documents conforming the dossier of the
present case of relevance for the decision taken today, 6 February 2013,
by the Court, I can now move on to the next point of my separate opin -
ion. May I, at this stage, observe, as to the consent of the parties in fthe

main case, which is not strictly or formally at issue in the present casfe —
that such consent does not play a role in the proceedings conducive to tfhe

22

4 CIJ1041.indb 40 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)21

donne est «sans pertinence» à l’égard des questions découlant de la décla-

ration d’intervention de la Nouvelle-Zélande (p. 1). Elle se dit opposée à
ce que (à son détriment) le Japon se voie accorder du temps suppflémen -
taire pour se préparer aux audiences (au cours desquelles sera examinée
l’exception d’incompétence soulevée par lui), sous prétefxte que la Cour
n’a autorisé qu’un seul tour de procédure écrite (p. 1). L’Australie ajoute

que la Nouvelle-Zélande, en tant qu’Etat intervenant, a « le droit d’être
entendue» par la Cour, et que rien ne justifie qu’elle se voie impartir
moins de temps que la normale (p. 2).

IV. Les commentaires de lfa Nouvelle-Zélande
sur les observationsf écrites du Japon

19. Il y a cinq jours, la Nouvelle-Zélande a déposé auprès du Grfeffe de
la Cour une lettre en date du 1 erfévrier 2013 renfermant ses commentaires

sur les observations écrites du Japon (supra). Elle y indique qu’elle « ne
pense pas que son intervention menace l’égalité entre les Partifes » et que,
en tant que partie à la convention internationale pour la réglemenftation
de la chasse à la baleine, « elle exerce son droit d’intervenir afin de sou -
mettre à la Cour son interprétation des dispositions applicables dfe la

convention, droit qui lui est conféré par le Statut de la Cour [(fart. 63)] »
(p. 1). Elle ajoute qu’il n’y a pas lieu d’inviter la Cour à spéculer sur les
conséquences que pourrait avoir son intervention sur la procédure f
(p. 1-2).
20. La Nouvelle-Zélande affirme en outre que l’égalité entre lefs parties

à un différend « ne peut être menacée » lorsqu’un Etat tiers exerce son
droit d’intervention en vertu de l’article 63. Elle rappelle que les droits
procéduraux des parties et de l’Etat intervenant sont définis àf l’article 86
du Règlement de la Cour, et que c’est à celle-ci qu’il appartient « de déci -
der de l’étendue des droits procéduraux accordés à l’Eftat intervenant »

(p. 2). Elle conclut que le droit d’intervenir au titre de l’article 63 du Sta -
tut «fait partie intégrante» du dispositif offert par la Cour en tant qu’ins -
tance de règlement des différends « portant sur des traités multilatéraux »;
elle ajoute que, cela étant posé, l’exercice par la Nouvelle-Zéflande d’un tel
droit d’intervention « ne compromet pas l’égalité entre les Parties au dif -

férend» (p. 2).

V. Transcender le consenftement des parties

21. Ayant passé en revue tous les documents versés au dossier de la
présente affaire qui se rapportent à l’objet de la décisiofn prise aujourd’hui
par la Cour, j’aborde le second point de mon opinion individuelle. Jef me
permettrai tout d’abord d’observer que le consentement des partiesf
— qui, du reste, n’a pas en l’espèce été expressément ouf formellement

mis en question — ne joue aucun rôle dans la procédure aboutissant à la

22

4 CIJ1041.indb 41 3/03/14 10:42 22 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

Court’s decision whether or not to grant intervention. In a joint decflara -
tion appended to a recent Judgment of the Court (in the case of the

Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Application by
Honduras for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II),
p. 420), it was pointed out that consent by the parties in the main case 21

is irrelevant, and cannot be perceived as a prerequisite for interventiofn as
a non-party 22.
22. As master of its own jurisdiction, the Court does not need to keep

on searching for State consent in deciding on an Application for permis -
sion to intervene in international legal proceedings. And the aforemen -
tioned joint declaration added that

“In effect, third party intervention under the Statute of the Court

transcends individual State consent. What matters is the consent orig -
inally expressed by States in becoming parties to the Court’s Statute,
or in recognizing the Court’s jurisdiction by other instrumentalitiesf,

such as compromissory clauses. (. . .) There is no need for the Court
to keep on searching instinctively for individual State consent in the
course of the international legal proceedings. After all, the consent of
23
contending States is alien to the institution of intervention (. . .).”

23. This is so — may I add herein — in respect of interventions under
Article 62 as well as Article 63 of the Court’s Statute. In the present case
of Whaling in the Antarctic, opposing Australia to Japan, there has been,

anyway, no formal objection to New Zealand’s Application for permis -
sion to intervene. Nor was there any formal objection to Greece’s recent
Application for permission to intervene in the case concerning the Juris -

21In that case, the Court was before an Application for permission to intervene under
Article 62 of its Statute, whilst in the present case the Application to that enfd is under

Arti22e 63 of its Statute.
This is generally acknowledged nowadays ; cf., inter alia, e.g., S. Rosenne, Inter-
vention in the International Court of Justice, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1993, pp. 79 and 104 ;
J. M. Ruda, “Intervention before the International Court of Justice”, Fifty Years of the
International Court of Justice — Essays in Honour of R. Jennings (eds. Vaughan Lowe and
M. Fitzmaurice), Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 495 ; K. Mbaye, “L’intérêt pour
agir devant la Cour internationale de Justice”, 209 RCADI (1988), pp. 340-341. And as to
jurisdictional links, cf. also, e.g., J. G. Starke, “Locus Standi of a Third State to Intervene

in Contentious Proceedings before the International Court of Justice”f, 58 Australian Law
Journal (1984), p. 358.
23I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), joint declaration of Judges Cançado Trindade and Yusuf,
pp. 469-470, paras. 14-15. Earlier on — it may be recalled — the ICJ Chamber itself rightly
pointed out, in the Judgment of 1990 in the case concerning the Land, Island and Mari -
time Frontier Dispute between El Salvador and Honduras (Application by Nicaragua for
permission to intervene), that the competence of the Court, in the partficular matter of

intervention, “is not like its competence to hear and determine the dfispute referred to it,
derived from the consent of the parties to the case” (Land, Island and Maritime Frontier
Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras), Application by Nicaragua for Permission to Interven▯e,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990, p. 133, para. 96).

23

4 CIJ1041.indb 42 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)22

décision que prend la Cour d’admettre ou non un Etat tiers à inftervenir.
Les auteurs de la déclaration commune jointe à un arrêt récefnt de la Cour

(en l’affaire du Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie),
requête du Honduras à fin d’intervention, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II),
p. 420) ont souligné que le consentement des parties à l’instancef princi -
21
pale était dépourvu de pertinence et ne saurait être considéréf comme
une condition de l’intervention d’un Etat tiers 22.
22. La Cour étant maîtresse de sa compétence, elle n’a pas à rechercher

le consentement des parties lorsqu’elle doit statuer sur une requêfte à fin
d’intervention dans une affaire dont elle est saisie. Les auteurs dfe la décla -
ration commune susmentionnée ajoutent ceci :

«De fait, l’intervention d’un Etat tiers, telle que prévue par lfe Sta-

tut, transcende le consentement individuel des Etats. Ce qui importe,
c’est le consentement que ceux-ci ont exprimé à l’origine, lorsqu’ils
sont devenus parties au Statut de la Cour ou qu’ils ont de toute

autre façon accepté la compétence de celle-ci, notamment par le biais
de clauses compromissoires... La Cour n’a pas à rechercher
automatiquement le consentement de chaque Etat pendant le

déroulement de la procédure, puisque aussi bien le consentement
des Etats parties à un différend est étranger à l’institutifon de
23
l’intervention...»

23. Il me semble utile d’ajouter qu’il en est ainsi aussi bien pour lefs
interventions fondées sur l’article 62 du Statut que pour celles déclarées
en vertu de l’article 63. Dans la présente affaire, aucune objection formelle

n’a de toute manière été élevée contre la déclaratifon d’intervention de la
Nouvelle-Zélande. Aucune objection formelle n’avait non plus été oppo -
sée à la requête de la Grèce à fin d’intervention en lf’affaire récente des

21 La Cour était saisie d’une requête à fin d’intervention dféposée au titre de l’article 62
du Statut, alors qu’en la présente affaire elle a eu à se profnoncer sur une déclaration d’in -

ter22ntion faite au titre de l’article 63.
Cette position est aujourd’hui largement admise ; voir notamment S. Rosenne,
Intervention in the International Court of Justice, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1993, p. 79 et ;04
J. M. Ruda, « Intervention before the International Court of Justice », dans Fifty Years
of the International Court of Justice — Essays in Honour of R. Jennings (Vaughan Lowe
et M. Fitzmaurice, dir. publ.), Cambridge University Press, 1996, p. 495 ; K. Mbaye,
«L’intérêt pour agir devant la Cour internationale de Justice », RCADI, tome 209 (1988),
p. 340-341. Pour les aspects juridictionnels, voir également, entre autres, JG. Starke,

«Locus Standi of a Third State to Intervene in Contentious Proceedings before the Intfer -
national Court of Justice », Australian Law Journal, vol. 58 (1984), p. 358.
23 C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II), déclaration commune de MM. les juges Cançado Trindade
et Yusuf, p. 469-470, par. 14-15. Il y a lieu de rappeler qu’auparavant, dans l’arrêt de
1990 en l’affaire du Différend frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime entre El Salvador
et le Honduras (requête du Nicaragua à fin d’intervention), la Chambre de la Cour
avait considéré à juste titre qu’en matière d’intervenftion la compétence de la Cour ne

découl[ait] pas du consentement des parties à l’instance, à fla différence de sa compétence
pour connaître de l’affaire qui lui a été soumise » (Différend frontalier terrestre, insulaire
et maritime (El Salvador/Honduras), requête du Nicaragua à fin d’intervention,▯ arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1990, p. 133, par. 96).

23

4 CIJ1041.indb 43 3/03/14 10:42 23 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

dictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy), wherein the ICJ
granted Greece permission to intervene as a non-party in the case (Order

of 4 July 2011). In my separate opinion appended to the Court’s Order on f
Greece’s intervention in this case, I pondered that

“even if there were any such objection, it would have been immaterialf
for the purpose of the Court’s assessment of the Application at issuef
for permission to intervene. State consent indeed has its limits ; the
ICJ is not always restrained by State consent, in relation not only to

intervention, but also in respect of other aspects of the procedure
before the Court, as I sought to demonstrate in my extensive dissent -
ing opinion (paras. 45-118, 136-144 and 156-214) in the Court’s Judg-
ment of 1 April 2011 in the case concerning the Application of the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial

Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation) (I.C.J. Reports 2011
(I), pp. 239-322) ; the ICJ is not an arbitral tribunal.” (Jurisdictional
Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy), Application by Greece for
Permission to Intervene, Order of 4 July 2011, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II),
pp. 508-509. para. 7.)

VI. Discretionary Intervention
and Intervention as off Right

24. One and a half years after the permission granted by the Court to
Greece’s intervention in the case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities
of the State (Germany v. Italy), Order of 4 July 2011, the Court has again
granted permission to New Zealand’s intervention in the present case
Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v. Japan), Order of 6 February 2013.

There is one point of distinction between these two Court decisions, with
regard to the typology of interventions under the ICJ Statute : the first
decision, of one and a half years ago, concerns discretionary intervention,
whilst the decision taken today concerns intervention as of right.

1. Historical Origins

25. It is known that, in its origins, the historical antecedents of the
institute of intervention in legal proceedings can be found in the old prac -

tice of international arbitrations, in the chapter of peaceful settlemenft of
international disputes. Although there were endeavours for the enlarge -
ment and enhancement of its domain (infra), and even to render the basis
of arbitration permanent, those antecedents of arbitral practice show thfat
arbitration notwithstanding kept its essentially bilateralized outlook, fand

maintained its focus on the consent of the contending parties. It was
necessary to wait for the systematization of the whole chapter of peacefful

24

4 CIJ1041.indb 44 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)23

Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie), dans laquelle la

Cour a décidé d’autoriser la Grèce à intervenir en tant qfue non-partie
(ordonnance du 4 juillet 2011). Dans l’opinion individuelle que j’ai jointe
à cette ordonnance, j’ai exposé ainsi mes réflexions sur lfa question du
consentement :

«quand bien même de telles objections auraient été faites, ellesf
auraient été dépourvues de pertinence pour l’examen par la Cfour de
la requête à fin d’intervention. Le consentement de l’Etat pfrésente en

effet certaines limites et ne s’impose pas toujours à la Cour, que ce
soit en ce qui concerne les demandes d’intervention ou d’autres
aspects des instances qui lui sont soumises, ainsi que j’ai tenté fde le
démontrer dans l’opinion dissidente fort approfondie (par. 45-118,

1er-144 et 156-214) que j’ai jointe à l’arrêt de la Cour en date du
1 avril 2011 en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention inter-
nationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination▯ raciale
(Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie) (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 239-322).
La Cour n’est pas un tribunal arbitral. » (Immunités juridictionnelles

de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie), requête à fin d’intervention, ordon -
nance du 4 juillet 2011, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II), p. 508-509, par. 7.)

VI. Intervention à la disfcrétion
de la Cour et interventfion de droit

24. Un an et demi après avoir, par son ordonnance du 4 juillet 2011,
autorisé la Grèce à intervenir en l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridic -

tionnelles de l’Etat, la Cour vient, par son ordonnance de ce 6 février 2013,
de dire recevable la déclaration d’intervention de la Nouvelle-Zélande en
la présente affaire de la Chasse à la baleine dans l’Antarctique, opposant
l’Australie au Japon. Ces deux décisions diffèrent en ce qu’felles ne portent
pas sur le même des deux types d’intervention prévus par le Staftut : la

décision d’il y a un an et demi se rapportait à une intervention laissée à la
discrétion de la Cour, alors que la décision d’aujourd’hui porte sur une
intervention de droit.

1. Origines historiques

25. On sait que le concept d’intervention dans une procédure judiciairfe
trouve son origine historique dans l’ancienne pratique de l’arbitrfage aux
fins du règlement pacifique des différends internationaux. Bien fque des

tentatives aient été faites pour étendre la portée de ce mode de règlement
et le renforcer (infra), et même pour lui donner une assise permanente,
l’histoire de la pratique arbitrale montre que les arbitrages n’enf ont pas
moins conservé leur caractère essentiellement bilatéral et contfinué d’être
dans une large mesure subordonnés au consentement des parties. Il a ffallu

attendre que le règlement pacifique des différends internationaufx soit

24

4 CIJ1041.indb 45 3/03/14 10:42 24 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

settlement of international disputes, encompassing the judicial solution as
well (as distinguished from the arbitral solution), for the express prfovi -

sion on intervention to come to the fore and to see the light of day.
26. That systematization took place in the course of the two Hague
Peace Conferences, in 1899 and 1907, respectively 24. One of the signifi -

cant outcomes of the First Hague Peace Conference was the 1899 Con -
vention for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, Article 56 of
which provided that :

“The award is binding only on the Parties who concluded the com -
promis. When there is a question as to the interpretation of a conven-

tion to which Powers other than those in dispute are Parties, the
latter notify to the former the compromis they have concluded. Each
of these Powers is entitled to intervene in the case. If one or more
avail themselves of this right, the interpretation contained in the

award is equally binding on them.”

27. The draftsmen of this provision had in mind intervention as of
right, of the kind of the one which, some years later, found its place in
Article 63 of the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice

(PCIJ) (infra). The Conference Report (Third Commission) on this
1899 Convention states that Article 56 derived from a proposal presented
by the delegate of the Netherlands (T. M. C. Asser) 2. The matter was
retaken, and further worked upon, at the Second Hague Peace Confer -

ence of 1907, which, after its revision, adopted the 1907 Convention for
the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, containing a similar pfro -
vision in the (new) Article 84. The Conference Report (First Commission)

on this 1907 Convention comments that former Article 56 “was not mod 26 -
ified essentially ; it was only slightly changed in matters of form” . In
fact, Article 84 of the 1907 Convention provided that :

“The award is binding only on the Parties in dispute. When there

is a question as to the interpretation of a convention to which Powers
other than those in dispute are Parties, the latter inform all the signa -
tory Powers in good time. Each of these Powers is entitled to intervene f
in the case. If one or more avail themselves of this right, the interpref -

tation contained in the award is equally binding on them.”

24 Earlier on, in 1875, the Institut de droit international had adopted a code for arbitral
procedure, one of its first achievements after its establishment in 1873. Later on, in 1877,
the Institut adopted a resolution strongly recommending the insertion off compromissory

cla25es in future treaties.
Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA), The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899
and 1907 and International Arbitration — Reports and Documents (org. S. Rosenne), The
Hag26, T. M. C. Asser Press, 2001, p. 74.
Ibid., p. 265.

25

4 CIJ1041.indb 46 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)24

érigé en un véritable système comprenant des solutions judiciaires et non
pas simplement arbitrales, pour voir apparaître des textes prévoyafnt

expressément l’intervention.
26. L’édification de ce système fut l’œuvre des deux conféfrences de la
paix qui eurent lieu à La Haye en 1899 et en 1907 24. Parmi les textes

importants issus de la première conférence de la paix figure la cofnvention
de 1899 pour le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux, dont f
l’article 56 est ainsi libellé :

«La sentence arbitrale n’est obligatoire que pour les Parties qui
ont conclu le compromis. Lorsqu’il s’agit de l’interprétatiofn d’une

convention à laquelle ont participé d’autres Puissances que les Par -
ties en litige, celles-ci notifient aux premières le compromis qu’elles
ont conclu. Chacune de ces Puissances a le droit d’intervenir au pro -
cès. Si une ou plusieurs d’entre elles ont profité de cette facfulté, l’in -

terprétation contenue dans la sentence est également obligatoire àf
leur égard. »

27. Les rédacteurs de cet article avaient à l’esprit l’interventfion de
droit, celle qui, quelques années plus tard, a été prévue àf l’article 63 du
Statut de la CPJI (infra). Selon le rapport de la troisième commission de

la conférence relatif à la rédaction de la convention de 1899, l’article 56 a
été rédigé d’après un texte proposé par le repréfsentant des Pays-Bas
(T. M. C. Asser) 2. La question fut reprise et examinée plus avant lors de
la deuxième conférence de la paix (1907), laquelle adopta la convention

de 1907 pour le règlement pacifique des conflits internationaux, oùf figure
une disposition similaire (art. 84). Selon le rapport de la première com -
mission de la conférence relatif à la rédaction de la conventiofn de 1907,

l’article 84 reprenait l’article 56 de la convention de 1899 sans le « modi -
fi[er] dans son essence ; [celui-ci] a[yant] subi seulement de légères trans -
formations de forme » . L’article 84 de la convention de 1907 est en effet
libellé comme suit :

«La sentence arbitrale n’est obligatoire que pour les Parties en

litige. Lorsqu’il s’agit de l’interprétation d’une convenftion à laquelle
ont participé d’autres Puissances que les Parties en litige, cellefs-ci
avertissent en temps utile toutes les Puissances signataires. Chacune
de ces Puissances a le droit d’intervenir au procès. Si une ou plufsieurs

d’entre [e]lles ont profité de cette faculté, l’interprétation contenue
dans la sentence est également obligatoire à leur égard. »

24 Auparavant, en 1875, l’Institut de droit international avait adopté un code de prfocé-
dure arbitrale, l’une des premières œuvres importantes accomplifes par l’Institut après sa c-réa
tion en 1873. En 1877, il a adopté une résolution dans laquelle il recommafndait vivement de

fai25 figurer des clauses compromissoires dans les traités qui seraiefnt conclus à l’avenir.
Cour permanente d’arbitrage (CPA), Les conférences de la paix de La Haye
de 1899 et 1907 et l’arbitrage international — Actes et documents (réunis et présentés par
S. 26senne), Emile Bruylant, S.A., Bruxelles, 2007, p. 70-71.
Ibid., p. 248-249.

25

4 CIJ1041.indb 47 3/03/14 10:42 25 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

28. Once again, the draftsmen of this new and slightly modified provi -
sion had in mind intervention as of right, of the kind of the one which f

later on was enshrined into Article 63 of the PCIJ Statute. By the end of
the two Hague Peace Conferences, which set up the basic pattern for
forthcoming multilateral conferences, the universal juridical consciencef

seemed to have captured the idea that international law had to conform af
true international system, endowed with obligatory arbitration (even
though the Permanent Court of Arbitration had already come into exis -
tence on 19 September 1900).

29. After all, State voluntarism remained an obstacle to respect for
international law and an undue limitation of the rule of law in interna -
tional litigation . The hope of the creation of a Court of arbitral justice
(before the days of a true international tribunal, the PCIJ) was largely

prompted by the fears that, in the absence of international justice, Staftes
would keep on doing whatever they wished, and the increase in arma -
ments (naval and military) would keep on going on 2. There was a pre -

monitory reaction, on the part of the lucid jurists of those threateningf
times, against that state of affairs, and against State voluntarism.

30. In fact, the discussions, throughout the work of the two Hague

Peace Conferences (of 1899 and 1907), on the future creation of interna -
tional courts, engaging renowned jurists of those days (such as, e.g., f
T. M. C. Asser, Rui Barbosa, L. Bourgeois, J. H. Choate, F. de Martens,
C. E. Descamps, F. Hagerup, F. W. Holls, among others), contained,

already at that time, references to : (a) the juridical conscience of peo -
ples ;(b) the need of obligatory arbitration; (c) the needed establishment
or constitution of permanent tribunals ; (d) the determination of funda -

mental rules of procedure ; (e) the access of individuals to international
justice ; (f) the development of an international jurisprudence ; and
(g) the progressive development of international law 2. This — as I can
perceive it — showed the awareness, of the importance of such issues,

already present in the minds of jurists of that time.
31. At the Second Hague Peace Conference, the topic of compulsory
arbitration was extensively discussed, on the basis of five propositionsf
(tabled by Brazil, Portugal, Serbia, Sweden and the United States, respec -

tively); the very fact that the Second Hague Peace Conference took place
marked an epoch in the development of international law 30. As aptly
remarked by James Brown Scott in those days, the holding of that Con -

ference demonstrated “the oneness of mankind”, having “brought fnations

27 J. Allain, A Century of International Adjudication : The Rule of Law and Its Limits,
The Hague, T. M. C. Asser Press, 2000, pp. 2 and 7, and cf. pp. 15 and 18.
28 Cf. PCA, The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907 and International Arbitra -

tio29. . ., op. cit. supra note 25, pp. xvii-xix, 9 and 179.
W. I. Hull, The Two Hague Conferences and Their Contributions to International Law,
Bos30n, International School of Peace/Ginn & Co., 1908, pp. 370-448.
J. Brown Scott, The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, Vol. I, Baltimore,
Johns Hopkins Press, 1909, pp. 335 and 738.

26

4 CIJ1041.indb 48 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)25

28. Les rédacteurs de ce nouvel article, légèrement différent fdu précé -
dent, avaient eux aussi à l’esprit l’intervention de droit, analogue à celle

qui fut plus tard consacrée par l’article 63 du Statut de la CPJI. Après les
deux conférences de la paix, qui ont servi de modèle aux conférfences mul -
tilatérales qui ont suivi, la conscience juridique universelle semblafit avoir

fait sienne l’idée que le droit international avait vocation à fédifier un véri -
table système international comportant l’arbitrage obligatoire (alors que
la Cour permanente d’arbitrage existait déjà depuis le 19 septembre 1900).

29. Il est vrai que le volontarisme des Etats continuait de faire échec afu
droit international et de faire indûment obstacle à la primautéf du droit dans
le règlement des contentieux internationaux 27. L’aspiration à la création
d’une cour de justice arbitrale (avant l’avènement d’un véfritable tribunal

international, la CPJI) était dans une large mesure motivée par lfa crainte
que, faute d’une justice internationale, les Etats continueraient de fn’agir
qu’à leur guise, et que la course aux armements (pour les forces fnavales
28
comme pour les forces terrestres) se poursuivrait . C’était là, de la part des
juristes les plus lucides de ces temps lourds de menaces, une réactiofn prémo -
nitoire face à un ordre des choses où dominait le volontarisme desf Etats.
30. De fait, d’éminents juristes de l’époque (dont T. M. C. Asser,

Rui Barbosa, L. Bourgeois, J. H. Choate, F. de Martens, C. E. Des -
camps, F. Hagerup, F. W. Holls, pour n’en nommer que quelques-uns),
tout au long des deux conférences de la paix, prirent part à des dfébats sur
la création de tribunaux internationaux dans lesquels furent déjàf abor -

dées les questions suivantes : a) la conscience juridique des peuples ; b) la
nécessité d’instituer l’arbitrage obligatoire ; c) la nécessité de créer ou de
constituer des tribunaux permanents; d) la définition de règles fondamen -

tales de procédure ; e) l’accès des particuliers à la justice internationale ;
f) la constitution progressive d’une jurisprudence internationale ; et g) le
développement progressif du droit international 2. Le fait que ces ques -
tions étaient déjà présentes à l’esprit des juristes dfe l’époque atteste, à

mon avis, leur haute importance.
31. Lors de la deuxième conférence de la paix de La Haye, la question
de l’arbitrage obligatoire a été longuement débattue sur la fbase de cinq
textes (proposés respectivement par le Brésil, les Etats-Unis, le Portugal,

la Serbie et la Suède) ; du simple fait qu’elle ait eu lieu, cette conférence
constitue un important jalon du développement du droit international 30.
Comme James Brown Scott l’a fort justement relevé à l’époque, la tenue

de cette conférence, « rassemblant les nations comme jamais elles ne

27J. Allain, A Century of International Adjudication : The Rule of Law and Its Limits,
La Haye, T. M. C. Asser Press, 2000, p. 2 et 7 ; voir également p. 15 et 18.
28Voir Cour permanente d’arbitrage, Les conférences de la paix de La Haye de 1899

et 2907 et l’arbitrage international…, op. cit. supra note 25, p. xvii-xx, p. 7-8 et 166-167.
W. I. Hull, The Two Hague Conferences and Their Contributions to International Law,
Bos30n, International School of Peace/Ginn & Co., 1908, p. 370-448.
J. Brown Scott, The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, vol. I, Baltimore,
Johns Hopkins Press, 1909, p. 335 et 738.

26

4 CIJ1041.indb 49 3/03/14 10:42 26 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

together as never before” ; yet, it left unfinished the task of the establish -
31
ment of “an international and permanent judiciary” .

32. The projected Third Hague Peace Conference was never convened,

and the disaster of the following years left scars that were not healed ffor
generations, as stressed by some of the greatest thinkers and writers off the
twentieth century (which is not my intention herein to recall, within the

confines of this separate opinion). But the lessons left mainly by the fSec -
ond Hague Peace Conference 32were duly captured by the draftsmen of

the Statute of the PCIJ (and later of the ICJ). Some of the participanfts of
the Second Hague Peace Conference had the intuition of the need of
international tribunals, to relieve the world in knowing that it would

enter an “orderly process”, given the fact that “the development of inter -
national law only proceeds step by step very gradually” 33.
33. Before turning to the work undertaken by the Advisory Committee

of Jurists, entrusted by the League of Nations with the task of draftingf
(in 1920) the Statute of the PCIJ, may I just point out that the work of thfe

two Hague Peace Conferences was lately reassessed in the centennial com -
memorations of the two of them . The centennial work on the second of
these contains two contributions on the endeavours towards the universalf -

ization of international law by means of securing the presence, in a mulfti-
lateral conference such as the Second Hague Peace Conference, not only of

great powers, but also of other pa35icipating States of the whole of
Latin America and of Asia . They provide an overview of the historical
context within which the discussions on the matter at issue were conductfed.

31J. Brown Scott, The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, op. cit. supra
note 30, pp. 739 and 751. By the end of the Second Hague Peace Conference, the foun -
dations seemed to have been established for further development of interfnational law,
striving for compulsory arbitration, the establishment of the judicial sfettlement of interna

tional disputes, and the limitation or reduction of armaments ; R. Ferreira de Mello (org.),
Textos de Direito Internacional e de História Diplomática de 1815 a 1949, Rio de Janeiro,
Edit. A. Coelho Branco, 1950, pp. 65, 115 and 117.
32Unlike the First Hague Peace Conference (with 26 participating States, mainly Euro-
pean), the Second Hague Peace Conference counted on participating States from distinct
continents and parts of the world (a total of 44), having been the first of the kind in world

dipl33atic history.
J. H. Choate, The Two Hague Conferences, Princeton/London/Oxford, Princeton
University Press/H. Frowde/Oxford University Press, 1913, pp. 58 and 87, and cf. pp. 6-7,
10, 19, 32-33, 42, 51, 57, 61 and 91.
34Cf. [Various authors,] The Centennial of the First International Peace Conference —
Reports and Conclusions [1999] (ed. F. Kalshoven), The Hague, UNITAR/Kluwer, 2000,
pp. 1-515 ; [Various authors,] Actualité de la conférence de La Haye de 1907, deuxième

conférence de la paix/Topicality of the 1907 Hague Conference, the Second Peace Confer -
ence [2007] (ed. Y. Daudet), The Hague/Leiden, Hague Academy of International Law/
Nijhoff, 2008, pp. 1-490.
35Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “The Presence and Participation of Latin America
at the Second Hague Peace Conference of 1907”, Actualité de la conférence de La Haye
de 1907, deuxième conférence de la paix…, op. cit. supra note 34, pp. 51-84 ; S. Murase,

“The Presence of Asia at the 1907 Hague Conference”, ibid., pp. 85-101.

27

4 CIJ1041.indb 50 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)26

l’avaient été », était le signe de « l’unanimisme du genre humain »; pour-

tant, elle avait laissé inachevée l’entreprise d’édificatfion d’« un appareil
judiciaire international permanent » 31.
32. Il était prévu une troisième conférence de la paix de La Haye, qui

n’a jamais eu lieu, et ensuite, le désastre que l’on sait a laifssé des séquelles
qui ont persisté pendant des générations, comme l’ont relevéf certains des
plus grands penseurs et écrivains du XX e siècle (que je m’abstiendrai

d’énumérer ici). Mais les leçons qu’on pouvait tirer des deux conférences,
de la seconde en particulier 32, n’ont pas échappé aux rédacteurs du Statut

de la CPJI, puis de celui de la CIJ. Certains des participants à la dfeuxième
conférence de la paix avaient intuitivement compris qu’il fallait fcréer des
tribunaux internationaux pour ouvrir au monde la perspective rassurante f

d’un « processus ordonné », eu égard au fait que « le développement du
droit international s’opérait progressivement par modestes étapfes» 33.
33. Avant de m’intéresser aux travaux du comité consultatif de jurifstes,

chargé par la Société des Nations de rédiger le Statut de laf CPJI (en 1920),
je voudrais rappeler que la célébration du centenaire de chacune dfes deux

conférences de la paix a fourni récemment l’occasion de rééfvaluer leurs
travaux 3. Deux des études ainsi consacrées à la deuxième conférenfce
portent sur la volonté d’universalisation du droit international dont

témoignait le fait qu’il s’agissait d’une conférence multfilatérale ouverte
non seulement aux grandes puissances, mais aussi aux Etats d’Amérifque
35
latine et d’Asie . Ces deux études donnent un aperçu du contexte dans
lequel ont eu lieu les débats sur la question qui m’occupe ici.

31 J. Brown Scott, The Hague Peace Conferences of 1899 and 1907, op. cit. supra
note 30, p. 739 et 751. A l’issue de la deuxième conférence de la paix, il semblait qfue les
participants avaient jeté les bases du développement du droit intefrnational, de l’arbitrage
obligatoire, de l’institutionnalisation du règlement judiciaire defs différends internationaux

et de la limitation ou de la réduction des armements ; Textos de Direito Internacional e de
História Diplomática de 1815 à 1949(R. Ferreira de Mello, dir. publ.), Rio de Janeiro, Edit.
A. Coelho Branco, 1950, p. 65, 115 et 117.
32 A la différence de la première conférence, qui réunissait f26 Etats pour la plupart
européens, la deuxième a rassemblé 44 Etats de plusieurs continents et régions du monde,
ce qui était sans précédent dans l’histoire de la diplomatief mondiale.

33
J. H. Choate, The Two Hague Conferences, Princeton/Londres/Oxford, Princeton
University Press/H. Frowde/Oxford University Press, 1913, p. 58 et 87 ; voir également
p. 6-7, 10, 19, 32-33, 42, 51, 57, 61 et 91.
34Voir The Centennial of the First International Peace Conference — Reports and
Conclusions [1999] (F. Kalshoven, dir. publ.), La Haye, UNITAR/Kluwer, 2000, p. 1-515 ;
Actualité de la conférence de La Haye de 1907, deuxième conférence de la paix/Topicality

of the 1907 Hague Conference, the Second Peace Conference [2007] (Y. Daudet, dir. publ.),
Académie de droit international de La Haye/Leyde, Hague Academy of International Law,
Nijhoff, 2008, p. 1-490.
35Voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, « The Presence and Participation of Latin America
at the Second Hague Peace Conference of 1907 », Actualité de la conférence de La Haye
de 1907, deuxième conférence de la paix..., op. cit. supra note 34, p. 51-84; S. Murase, «The

Presence of Asia at the 1907 Hague Conference », ibid., p. 85-101.

27

4 CIJ1041.indb 51 3/03/14 10:42 27 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

34. The following moment to address, in the identification of the his -
torical origins and shaping of the concept of intervention in legal pro -
ceedings, is that of the work, in mid-1920, of the Advisory Committee of

Jurists, appointed by the League of Nations to draft the Statute of the fold
PCIJ. By then, not only was the way paved for further thinking on com -
pulsory jurisdiction , but also, significantly, with the advent of the judi -
37
cial settlement of disputes at world level , the concept of intervention
fully bloomed. With the advent of the PCIJ (followed over two decades
later by the ICJ), two kinds of intervention were envisaged (cf. infra), and

enshrined into Articles 62 and 63 of the Hague Court’s Statute, respec -
tively. Intervention, under the two provisions, was to seek to overcome
the bilateralization of the controversy at stake, thus widening dispute-f
38
settlement , when it could be of direct interest or concern to other States.

2. Discretionary Intervention (Article 62 of the Court’s Statute)

35. The Advisory Committee of Jurists nominated by the League of

Nations, which drafted the Statute of the PCIJ, at the end of its work
(which lasted from 16 June to 24 July 1920), deemed it fit to include
therein two provisions, Articles 62 and 63, on two kinds of intervention

in legal proceedings. Article 62 of the Statute of the ICJ (derived from
that of the PCIJ), as adopted by that Committee, set forth that :

“1. Should a State consider that it has an interest of a legal nature,
which may be affected by the decision in the case, it may submit

a request to the Court to be permitted to intervene.
2. It will be for the Court to decide upon this request.” 39

36. This was discretionary intervention, distinct from the aforemen -
tioned antecedents (supra). It was a formula proposed by the Commit -

tee’s President (Baron E. Descamps). On the occasion, it was decided that

36Cf., e.g., inter alia, B. C. J. Loder, “The Permanent Court of International Justice
and Compulsory Jurisdiction”, 2 British Yearbook of International Law (1921-1922),
pp. 6-26; M. O. Hudson, The Permanent Court of International Justice — 1920-1942, N.Y.,

MacMillan & Co., 1943, pp. 189-193 ; E. Hambro, “Some Observations on the Compul -
sory Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice”, British Yearbook of Interna -
tional Law (1948), pp. 133-157; and cf., later on, e.g., inter alia, C. W. Jenks, The Prospects
of International Adjudication, London/N.Y., Stevens/Oceana, 1964, pp. 101, 110, 113-117,
757, 760-762 and 770 ; R. Szafarz, The Compulsory Jurisdiction of the International Court
of Justice, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1993, pp. 31-32, 48, 83, 86, 90 and 94-95.
37It may be here recalled that the first modern international tribunal, inf operation for
one decade (1907-1917) in Latin America, was the Central American Court of Justice,

whi38 historically preceded the PCIJ.
Cf., e.g., G. Morelli, “Note sull’Intervento nel Processo Internazionale”, 65f Rivista di
Diritto Internazionale (1982), pp. 805-806, 808, 811 and 814.
39League of Nations/PCIJ — Advisory Committee of Jurists, Procès-verbaux des
séances du comité avec annexes/Procès-verbaux of the Proceeding▯s of the Committee with
Annexes (16 June-24 July 1920), The Hague, Van Langenhuysen Brothers, 1920, p. 594.

28

4 CIJ1041.indb 52 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)27

34. Je poursuivrai mon exposé des origines historiques et de la forma -
tion du concept d’intervention dans les instances judiciaires internaftio -
nales en évoquant l’œuvre accomplie dans les années 1920 parf le comité

consultatif de juristes, chargé par la Société des Nations de rfédiger le Sta -
tut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale. Cette étape n’fa pas
seulement consisté à préparer le terrain pour un approfondissemfent de la
36
réflexion sur la juridiction obligatoire ; elle importe également parce
que, avec l’avènement du règlement judiciaire des différends à l’échelle
mondiale 37, le concept d’intervention a pu pleinement prendre corps.

Lors de la création de la CPJI (et, plus de vingt ans après, de lfa CIJ), deux
types d’intervention ont été prévus (voir infra), aux articles 62 et 63 de
leurs statuts respectifs, et ce dans le but de dépasser la dimension fbilaté -
38
rale des contentieux et d’élargir le champ de leur règlement lorsqu’ils
mettent directement en jeu les intérêts ou les préoccupations df’Etats tiers.

2. L’intervention à la discrétion de la Cour (article 62 du Statut)

35. Le comité consultatif de juristes, alors qu’il achevait ses travaufx

(qui durèrent du 16 juin au 24 juillet 1920), jugea utile de faire figurer
dans le Statut deux articles (62 et 63) prévoyant deux types d’interven -
tions dans les instances. L’article 62 du Statut du de la Cour (calqué sur

l’article 62 de celui rédigé par le comité consultatif de juristes pour lfa
CPJI) est libellé comme suit :

«1. Lorsqu’un Etat estime que, dans un différend, un intérêt df’ordre
juridique est pour lui en cause, il peut adresser à la Cour une

requête, à fin d’intervention.
2. La Cour décide. » 39

36. L’intervention ainsi prévue se distingue des précédents que fj’ai men -
tionnés(supra) en ce qu’elle est laissée à la discrétion de la Cour. La fofrmule

est celle proposée par le président du comité consultatif (le fbaron E. Des -

36Voir, entre autres, B. C. J. Loder,«The Permanent Court of International Justice and
Compulsory Jurisdiction », British Yearbook of International Law,vol. 2 (1921-1922), p. 6-26;
M. O. Hudson, The Permanent Court of International Justice — 1920-1942, New York,

MacMillan & Co., 1943, p. 189-193; E. Hambro, «Some Observations on the Compulsory
Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice », British Yearbook of International Law,
vol. 25 (1948), p. 133-157. Pour des études plus récentes, voir, entre autres, C. W, henksT
Prospects of International Adjudication, Londres/New York, Stevens/Oceana, 1964, p. 101,
110, 113-117, 757, 760-762 et 770; R. Szafarz, The Compulsory Jurisdiction of the Interna-
tional Court of Justice, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1993, p. 31-32, 48, 83, 86, 90 et 94-95.
37Je me permets de rappeler que le tout premier tribunal international modferne, anté-
rieur à la CPJI, a été la Cour centraméricaine de Justice, qui a fonctionné pendant dix ans

(1938-1917).
Voir, par exemple, G. Morelli, « Note sull’Intervento nel Processo Internazionale »,
Rivista di Diritto Internazionale, vol. 65 (1982), p. 805-806, 808, 811 et 814.
39Société des Nations/CPJI — comité consultatif de juristes, Procès-verbaux des séances
du comité avec annexes/Procès-verbaux of the Proceedings of the Co▯mmittee with Annexes
(16 juin-24 juillet 1920), La Haye, Van Langenhuysen Brothers, 1920, p. 594.

28

4 CIJ1041.indb 53 3/03/14 10:42 28 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

it “would be a separate article”, and that it “would be insertefd before the
original Article 23” , which provided for intervention as of right (infra).

Article 62 of the Statute of the PCIJ/ICJ requires a legal standard for
intervention which is distinct from that of Article 63 : according to Arti -
cle 62, the State seeking to intervene must consider that “it has an intefrest

of a legal nature which may be affected by the decision in the case”f, and
the Court has the discretion to decide upon this request. We are, thus, f
here before discretionary intervention.
37. Requests for permission to intervene lodged with this Court in dis -

tinct cases in recent years, unlike the cas d’espèce, have been formulated on
the basis of Article 62 of the Statute. Article 62 is not the formula drawn
from the two Conventions for the Pacific Settlement of International Disf -
putes (of 1899 and 1907), adopted by the First and Second Hague Peace
41
Conferences, respectively . The scope of Article 62 is stricter than that of
Article 63, in that the permission for intervention will depend on the exer -
cise by the Court of its discretion, its decision being taken in the ligfht of

the particular circumstances of each case. This kind of discretionary infter -
vention is drawn from that provided for in the domestic legal system of
several States 4, i.e., in comparative domestic law.

3. Intervention as of Right (Article 63 of the Court’s Statute)

38. In the present case, however, New Zealand’s Declaration of Inter -
vention is grounded on Article 63 of the Statute of the ICJ, which pro -

vides, for its part, that a State party to a Convention which the Court fis
requested to interpret has a “right to intervene in the proceedings”f. We
are no longer before discretionary intervention (supra), but rather before
intervention as of right. The Court has clarified that this “right”f concerns

intervention on “the point of interpretation which is in issue in thef pro -
ceedings”. We are here before intervention as of right. Article 63 of the
Statute of the ICJ (derived from that of the PCIJ, as originally adoptefd
43
by the Advisory Committee of Jurists in 1920) , provides that :
“1. Whenever the construction of a convention to which States other

than those concerned in the case are parties is in question, the
Registrar shall notify all such States forthwith.
2. Every State so notified has the right to intervene in the proceed -
ings; but if it uses this right, the construction given by the judg -

ment will be equally binding upon it.”

40League of Nations/PCIJ — Advisory Committee of Jurists, Procès-verbaux des
séances du comité avec annexes…, op. cit. supra note 39, p. 594.
41Shigeru Oda, “Intervention in the International Court of Justice — Articles 62 and 63
of the Statute”, Völkerrecht als Rechtsordnung Internationale Gerichtsbarkeit Mensch-n▯

rechte – Festschrift für H. Mosler (eds. R. Bernhard et alii), Berlin/Heidelberg, 1983, p. 644.
42
43Ibid., pp. 640-641 and 647.
Cf. League of Nations/PCIJ — Advisory Committee of Jurists, Procès-verbaux des
séances du comité avec annexes…, op. cit. supra note 39, p. 594.

29

4 CIJ1041.indb 54 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)28

camps). Il fut décidé que la disposition ferait l’objet d’ufn article distinct du
40
Statut de la CPJI, placé avant l’article qui portait au départ fle numéro 23,
lequel prévoyait l’intervention de droit (infra). L’article 62 du Statut de la
CPJI et de celui de la CIJ subordonne l’intervention à des conditions juri -

diques différentes de celles prévues à l’article 63 : selon l’article 62, l’Etat qui
souhaite intervenir doit estimer que, dans le différend, « un intérêt d’ordre
juridique est pour lui en cause », et il appartient à la Cour de décider d’autori -

ser ou non l’intervention. Il s’agit d’une intervention à la discrétion de la Cour.
37. A la différence de la déclaration d’intervention faite en la fprésente
affaire, les requêtes à fin d’intervention adressées à fla Cour ces dernières
années l’ont été au titre de l’article 62 du Statut. L’article 62 ne reprend

pas la formule retenue dans les deux conventions pour le règlement pafci -
fique des conflits internationaux adoptées en 1899 et en 1907 par les pre -
mière et deuxième conférences de la paix 41. Il est plus restrictif que

l’article 63, en ce que l’intervention est laissée à la discrétion de fla Cour,
qui décide à la lumière des circonstances de la cause. Les réfdacteurs du
Statut ont introduit ce type d’intervention en s’inspirant des disfpositions

du droit interne de plusieurs Etats, qui prévoyaient déjà l’fintervention à la
discrétion des tribunaux 42.

3. L’intervention de droit (article 63 du Statut)

38. Dans la présente affaire, la Nouvelle-Zélande a demandé à interve -
nir en invoquant l’article 63 du Statut, qui prévoit qu’un Etat partie à une

convention qu’il s’agit pour la Cour d’interpréter « a le droit d’intervenir
au procès». Nous avons là affaire non plus à l’intervention à la discrétion
de la Cour (supra), mais à l’intervention de droit. La Cour a pris soin de
préciser que ce « droit» se limite « à la question d’interprétation qui se

pose dans l’affaire en cause ». Telle est donc l’intervention de droit. L’ar -
ticle 63 du Statut de la Cour (calqué sur l’article 63 de celui de la CPJI,
adopté par le comité consultatif de juristes en 1920) 43est ainsi libellé :

«1. Lorsqu’il s’agit de l’interprétation d’une convention àf laquelle ont
participé d’autres Etats que les parties en litige, le Greffier lfes
avertit sans délai.
2. Chacun d’eux a le droit d’intervenir au procès et, s’il exerfce cette

faculté, l’interprétation contenue dans la sentence est égalfement
obligatoire à son égard. »

40
Société des Nations/CPJI — comité consultatif de juristes, Procès-verbaux des séances
du comité avec annexes…, op. cit. supra note 39, p. 594.
41 Shigeru Oda, « Intervention in the International Court of Justice — Articles 62
and 63 of the Statute », Völkerrecht als Rechtsordnung Internationale Gerichtsbarkeit
Menschenrechte — Festschrift für H. Mosler (R. Bernhard et al., dir. publ.), Berlin/Heidel
berg, 1983, p. 644.
42 Ibid., p. 640-641 et 647.
43 Voir Société des Nations/CPJI — comité consultatif de juristes, Procès-verbaux des
séances du comité avec annexes…, op. cit. supra note 39, p. 594.

29

4 CIJ1041.indb 55 3/03/14 10:42 29 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

39. It is relevant to keep this distinction in mind, for the purposes of
the consideration of the present Declaration of Intervention. It is to bfe

noted that New Zealand does not seek to be a party in the proceedings of
the cas d’espèce, and that, in accordance with Article 63 (2) of the Court’s
Statute, by availing itself of its right to intervene, it accepts that tfhe con -

struction to be given by the forthcoming Judgment [as to the merits] in f
the present case will be binding upon itself. Furthermore, it seems thatf
New Zealand’s intention to intervene pertains to issues of interpretationf
of the Convention at issue, which appears to be in line with the text off

Article 63 (2) of the Statute. I shall turn to this issue later on, in this
separate opinion.
40. At this stage, may I observe that, throughout the years, the point
has been made, in expert writing, that the use of intervention under Arti -

cle 63 of the Statute has been rather infrequent, but this does not mean
that it would or should remain so, as all States parties to multilateralf
treaties are committed to contribute to their proper interpretation 4. If

such interventions increased, uncertainties could diminish, as the ICJ
could have more occasions to clarify the application and scope of Arti -
cle 63 45. In one of the earlier studies on the subject, Edvard Hambro
wrote sympathetically in favour of “an extensive use of Article 63”,

acknowledging the needed “teleological interpretation” of certain multi -
lateral treaties, to enable the parties to defend the rights that such tfreaties
purported to protect. In any case — he added — Article 63 “has widened
the jurisdiction” of the Court, as States which are parties to the Cofnven -

tions at issue “must be deemed to have a right to intervene” therefunder,
even if the last word as to whether there is room for a possible intervefn -
tion belongs ultimately to the Court 4.

4. Precedents in the Court’s History
(PCIJ and ICJ)

41. This would be a proper point to turn attention to the precedents on
the matter at issue, in the history of the Hague Court (PCIJ and ICJ).f The

sole legacy of the old PCIJ, on the matter at issue, lies in its Judgmenft (on
Poland’s request for intervention) of 28 June 1923 in the case of the vessel
S.S. “Wimbledon”, wherein the PCIJ accepted Poland’s intervention
under Article 63 of its Statute. The Court at first compared the two dis -

tinct kinds of intervention, i.e., intervention under Article 62 of the

44E. Hambro, op. cit. infra note 46, pp. 389 and 40; C. Chinkin, “Article 63”, The
Statute of the International Court of Justice — A Commentary (eds. A. Zimmermann et

ali45, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 2012, pp. 1595 and 1597.
46C. Chinkin, op. cit. supra note 44, p. 1582.
E. Hambro, “Intervention under Article 63 of the Statute of the International Court
of Justice”, Il Processo Internazionale — Studi in Onore di G. Morelli, Comunicazioni e
Studi (1975), Vol. 14, pp. 400, 391, 397 and 399.

30

4 CIJ1041.indb 56 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)29

39. Pour examiner la déclaration d’intervention de la Nouvelle-
Zélande, il importe de garder cette distinction à l’esprit. Il fest à noter que

la Nouvelle-Zélande ne cherche pas à devenir partie à l’instance et que,f
conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 63 du Statut, elle accepte, en
exerçant sa faculté d’intervenir, que l’interprétation qufe retiendra la Cour

dans son arrêt [sur le fond] sera également obligatoire à son égard. Il
semble de plus que l’intention d’intervenir exprimée par la Noufvelle-
Zélande soit motivée par le fait que des points d’interprétaftion de la
convention de 1946 sont en cause, ce qui paraît conforme au paragraphfe 2

de l’article 63 du Statut. Je reviendrai là-dessus dans la suite de la pré -
sente opinion.
40. Pour le moment, j’observerai que les juristes qui, au fil des ans, onft
consacré des études à la question de l’intervention ont relefvé que l’inter -

vention au titre de l’article 63 du Statut était plutôt rare, notant qu’il
fallait cependant se garder d’en conclure qu’il devait forcémenft continuer
d’en être ainsi, tous les Etats parties à des conventions multiflatérales étant

soucieux d’app44ter leur contribution à l’interprétation rigfoureuse de ces
instruments . Si les interventions de ce type étaient plus fréquentes, la
Cour aurait plus souvent l’occasion de dissiper les incertitudes en afppor -
tant des précisions sur l’application et la portée de l’artifcle 63 . Dans une

étude relativement ancienne de la question, Edvard Hambro s’est exprimé
en faveur « de l’invocation beaucoup plus fréquente de l’article 63 »,
reconnaissant qu’il fallait « appliquer le principe téléologique d’interpré -
tation» à certains traités multilatéraux pour permettre aux Etats fparties

de défendre les droits que ces instruments étaient censés protéfger. En tout
cas, ajoutait-il, l’article 63 avait « étendu la juridiction » de la Cour, les
Etats parties aux conventions en cause « devant être considérés comme

ayant le droit d’intervenir » au titre dudit article, même s’il revenait en 46
définitive à la Cour de décider si l’intervention pouvait êftre admise .

4. Précédents dans la jurisprudence
de la CPJI et de la CIJ

41. Il m’apparaît à ce stade utile d’examiner comment la questiofn de
l’intervention a été traitée dans la jurisprudence de la CPJfI et de la CIJ.

La CPJI n’a abordé le sujet que dans un seul de ses arrêts, celfui qu’elle a
rendu le 28 juin 1923 (relativement à la question de l’intervention de la
Pologne) en l’affaire du Vapeur Wimbledon, par lequel elle a admis la
Pologne à intervenir au titre de l’article 63 du Statut. Elle a d’abord com -

paré les deux types d’intervention, celle prévue à l’artifcle 62, fondée sur la

44E. Hambro, op. cit. infra note 46, p. 389 et 400; C. Chinkin, « Article63 »,The Statute
of the International Court of Justice — A Commentary (A. Zimmermann et al., dir. publ.),
e
2 é45, Oxford University Press, 2012, p. 1595 et 1597.
46C. Chinkin, op. cit. supra note 44, p. 1582.
E. Hambro, «Intervention under Article 63 of the Statute of the International Court
of Justice », Il Processo Internazionale — Studi in Onore di G. Morelli, Comunicazioni e
Studi, vol. 14 (1975), p. 400, 391, 397 et 399.

30

4 CIJ1041.indb 57 3/03/14 10:42 30 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

Statute, based on the existence of an interest of a legal nature on the fpart
of the intervening party, and the right to intervene under Article 63, per -

taining to the interpretation of an international (multilateral) convefntion.
The PCIJ then recalled the object of the Application instituting proceedf -
ings in the case at issue, and its task to decide whether German authorif -
ties were within their rights in refusing to the vessel S.S. “Wimbledon”

free access to the Kiel Canal and, if necessary, to determine the damages
due for the prejudice caused to that vessel.
42. The PCIJ then recalled that Poland had requested, in its Note
of 22 May 1923, permission to intervene on the basis of Article 62 of the
47
Statute , and explained that, although Article 63 had not been expressly
referred to in Poland’s Note, the latter cited Poland’s participatfion in the
Treaty of Versailles, and, more specifically, the violation of the rightfs and
interests guaranteed to Poland under Article 380 of that Treaty. The PCIJ

then noted that, from a further communication by the Agent of Poland,
it appeared that Poland would have adopted the right conferred upon it
by Article 63, as a party to the Treaty of Versailles.
43. As Poland’s Agent did not insist on its request for intervention

under Article 62, and further indicated that it did not intend to ask for
compensation from Germany, the PCIJ thus found it unnecessary to con -
sider Poland’s request for intervention under Article 62. The PCIJ added
that, as Poland intended to avail itself of the right to intervene underf Arti -

cle 63, the case at issue thus involved the interpretation of certain clausefs
of the Treaty of Versailles, to which Poland was one of the States Partifes;
the PCIJ, accordingly, accepted the request for intervention by Poland.

44. As for the ICJ, the first case it dealt with a Declaration of Interven-
tion under Article 63 of its Statute was in a Latin American case. In its
Judgment of 13 June 1951 in the case of Haya de la Torre (Colombia v.
48
Peru) , pertaining to the admissibility of Cuba’s intervention under Arti-
cle 63 of the Statute and questions on the merits of the case, the ICJ startfed
by recalling that Cuba, in availing itself of the right which the Statutfe
confers on States parties to a convention, the interpretation of which is in

issue, filed a Declaration of Intervention under Article 63 of the Statute
concerning the construction of the Havana Convention on Asylum
of 20 February 1928, and its general attitude regarding asylum. The Court
also recalled that, while Colombia did not object to the intervention, Pferu

requested the Court to decide that the intervention was inadmissible, asf it
was, in its view, an attempt by a third State to appeal against the previous
Judgment of the ICJ of 20 November 1950 in the cas d’espèce 49.

47
On the side of the four applicant States in the main case, namely, Unitefd Kingdom,
France, Italy and Japan. The PCIJ’s judgment as to the merits of the fcase at issue was
delivered on 17 August 1923.
48Haya de la Torre (Colombia v. Peru), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 71.
49Ibid., pp. 74-76.

31

4 CIJ1041.indb 58 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)30

constatation qu’un intérêt d’ordre juridique de l’Etat inftervenant est en
cause, et l’intervention de droit au titre de l’article 63, accessible aux Etats

parties à une convention internationale (multilatérale) dont l’finterpréta -
tion est en cause. La CPJI a ensuite examiné l’objet de la requêfte intro -
ductive d’instance, à savoir obtenir qu’elle décide si les afutorités
allemandes étaient en droit de refuser au vapeur Wimbledon le passage

par le canal de Kiel et, le cas échéant, qu’elle détermine lf’indemnité due
en réparation du préjudice causé à ce navire.
42. Dans la suite de cet arrêt, la CPJI a rappelé que la Pologne, par sa
note du 22 mai 1923, avait demandé à être autorisée à intervenir au titrfe
47
de l’article 62 du Statut , mais que, sans invoquer expressément
l’article 63, elle avait dans ladite note fait référence à sa participatifon au
traité de Versailles et, plus précisément, à la violation defs droits et aux
atteintes aux intérêts que lui garantissait l’article 380 de ce traité. La CPJI

a noté ensuite que, d’après une communication ultérieure de fl’agent de la
Pologne, il semblait que celle-ci avait choisi d’exercer la faculté que lui
offrait l’article 63 en sa qualité de partie au traité de Versailles.
43. L’agent de la Pologne n’ayant pas insisté pour que celle-ci soit admise

à intervenir au titre de l’article62, et ayant de plus indiqué qu’il n’avait pas
l’intention de demander que l’Allemagne soit astreinte à répfaration, la
CPJI a conclu qu’il était inutile qu’elle examine la requête àf fin d’interven -
tion présentée par la Pologne au titre de l’article 62, ajoutant que, si

celle-ci voulait exercer le droit d’intervention prévu à l’article 63, elle était
fondée à le faire dès lors que l’interprétation de certaines clauses du ftraité
de Versailles était en cause; elle a donc admis la Pologne à intervenir à ce

titre.
44. La CIJ, quant à elle, a eu pour la première fois à statuer sur fune
déclaration d’intervention fondée sur l’article 63 dans une affaire
latino-américaine. Dans son arrêt du 13 juin 1951 en l’affaire Haya de la
48
Torre (Colombie c. Pérou) , elle s’est prononcée sur la recevabilité de la
déclaration d’intervention faite par Cuba en vertu de l’articlef 63 du Statut
avant d’aborder le fond de l’affaire ; elle a commencé par rappeler que
Cuba, se prévalant du droit d’intervention conféré par le Stfatut aux Etats

parties à une convention dont l’interprétation est en cause, avfait déposé
une déclaration d’intervention au titre de l’article 63 en sa qualité d’Etat
partie à la convention de La Havane relative au droit d’asile du
20 février 1928, et a rappelé également sa position générale sur le drofit

d’asile. La Cour a en outre rappelé que la Colombie n’avait pasf élevé
d’objection à la déclaration de Cuba, mais que le Pérou l’favait priée de la
déclarer irrecevable parce qu’il y voyait une tentative de recoursf d’un Etat
tiers contre l’arrêt du 20 novembre 1950 49.

47
Du côté des quatre demandeurs, le Royaume-Uni, la France, l’Itaflie et le Japon. La
CPJI a rendu son arrêt en l’instance principale le 17 août 1923.

48 Haya de la Torre (Colombie c. Pérou), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 71.
49 Ibid., p. 74-76.

31

4 CIJ1041.indb 59 3/03/14 10:42 31 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

45. Against this background, the Court first observed that every inter -
vention is incidental to the proceedings in a given case and thus a declfara -
tion filed as an intervention only acquires that character in the event fthat
it actually relates to the subject-matter of the pending proceedings. Thfe
Court stated that the subject-matter of the case at issue was different from

that of the case terminated by the Judgment of 20 November 1950, as it
concerned the surrender of Haya de la Torre to the Peruvian authorities,f
a question which was outside the submission of the Parties in the previofus
case, and was thus not decided in the previous Judgment.

46. The Court was thus of the view that, under these circumstances, the
question before itself was whether the object of Cuba’s intervention fwas
indeed the interpretation of the Havana Convention in connection with the
question whether Colombia is under an obligation to surrender the indi -

vidual concerned to Peru. The Court noted that, during the public hearinfg,
Cuba explained that its intervention was based on the fact that the Courft
had to interpret a new aspect of the Havana Convention, which had not
been considered in the previous Judgment of 20 November 1950. This
being so, the Court decided, on 16 May 1951, that, within these limits,

Cuba’s purported intervention was in conformity with the conditions off
Article 63 of the Statute, and thus admitted the intervention on this basis 5.
47. In this Latin American case, the célèbre Haya de la Torre case,
Cuba’s request for intervention (under Article 63) was successful, in the

terms of the Court’s decision. The two subsequent cases of interventions
under Article 63 of the ICJ Statute did not have the same outcome ; in
both of them the requests for intervention were dismissed as inadmissiblfe.
Such precedents (before the recent Germany v. Italy case (2012) and the
present case opposing Australia to Japan) were the case of Military and

Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America) (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 392) and the Nuclear
Tests (New Zealand v. France) case (I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 288).

48. In the case of Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) (Order of 4 October
1984), El Salvador filed a Declaration of Intervention under Article 63 of
the Statute, citing various multilateral conventions to which it was a pfarty

and on the basis of which Nicaragua’s jurisdictional and substantive f
claims were based ; El Salvador argued that its intervention had the “sole
and limited purpose” of claiming that the Court did not have jurisdicftion
to hear Nicaragua’s Application (pp. 1-2). The Court decided that the
Declaration of Intervention of El Salvador was inadmissible “inasmuch

as it relates to the current phase of the proceedings” (p. 216). The decision
was surrounded by much discussion among the judges, as can be inferred
from the various individual opinions they filed ; there was no doubt, how -

50
Haya de la Torre (Colombia v. Peru), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, pp. 76-77.

32

4 CIJ1041.indb 60 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)31

45. Ayant ainsi établi le contexte, la Cour a commencé par observer

que toute intervention était une procédure incidente, et que par cfonsé -
quent une déclaration d’intervention ne revêtait en droit ce cafractère que
si elle avait réellement trait à l’objet de l’instance en cofurs. Elle a ensuite
rappelé que l’objet de l’affaire en cours était difféfrent de celui de l’affaire
qu’elle avait réglée par son arrêt du 20 novembre 1950, puisqu’il s’agissait

de la remise aux autorités péruviennes de M. Haya de la Torre, question
que les Parties, en l’affaire précédente, n’avaient pas abfordée dans leurs
conclusions, et qui ne pouvait donc avoir été tranchée par l’farrêt rendu en
ladite affaire.
46. La Cour a estimé que, dans ces conditions, le point qu’il importaift

qu’elle vérifie était de savoir si l’intervention de Cuba avfait bien pour
objet l’interprétation de la convention de La Havane relativement fà
l’obligation qui pourrait incomber à la Colombie de remettre l’individu
concerné aux autorités péruviennes. Elle a noté que, lors defs audiences,
Cuba avait expliqué que son intervention avait pour fondement la néces -

sité où se trouvait la Cour d’interpréter un nouvel aspect dfe la convention
de La Havane, aspect qu’elle n’avait pas eu à retenir dans son farrêt du
20 novembre 1950. Par conséquent, considérant qu’ainsi délimitée l’inter -
vention de Cuba répondait aux conditions de l’article 63, la Cour, le
16 mai 1951, a décidé de l’admettre 5.

47. Si, dans cette cause célèbre de 1951 (Haya de la Torre), la Cour a
admis Cuba à intervenir (au titre de l’article 63), les deux tentatives d’in -
tervention faites en vertu de l’article 63 du Statut dans des affaires ulté -
rieures n’ont pas connu une semblable issue ; la Cour a en effet conclu à
l’irrecevabilité des déclarations d’intervention. Ces deux pfrécédents se

sont présentés bien avant que la Cour ne statue sur l’interventfion dans
l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat opposant l’Alle -
magne à l’Italie (2012) et dans la présente affaire ; ces deux cas se sont
présentés dans l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicara -
gua et contre celui-ci, qui opposait le Nicaragua aux Etats-Unis (C.I.J.

Recueil 1984, p. 392), et celle des Essais nucléaires, qui opposait la
Nouvelle-Zélande à la France (C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 288).
48. Dans l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua
et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis) (ordonnance du 4 octobre
1984), El Salvador avait fait une déclaration d’intervention au titre de

l’article 63 du Statut en citant diverses conventions multilatérales aux -
quelles il était partie et sur lesquelles le Nicaragua avait selon lufi fondé ses
conclusions tant sur la compétence de la Cour que sur le fond de l’faffaire.
El Salvador affirmait que son intervention avait « pour but unique et
limité» de faire valoir que la Cour n’avait pas compétence pour connafître

de la requête du Nicaragua (p. 1-2). La Cour déclara irrecevable la décla -
ration d’intervention d’El Salvador « en ce qu’elle se rapport[ait] à la
phase en cours de l’instance » (p. 216). Les opinions que plusieurs juges
ont estimé utile de joindre à l’ordonnance montrent que cette dfécision

50
Haya de la Torre (Colombie c. Pérou), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 76-77.

32

4 CIJ1041.indb 61 3/03/14 10:42 32 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

ever, that it is for the Court to decide in each case whether the conditfions
for intervention are fulfilled.

49. In the other precedent, that of the Nuclear Tests case (New Zealand
v. France), the Court dealt with the “Request for an Examination of the

Situation” in accordance with paragraph 63 of the Court’s prior Judgment
of 20 December 1974 in the Nuclear Tests case, opposing New Zealand to
France. In its Order of 22 September 1995, the Court decided that such
“Request for an Examination of the Situation” did not fall within fthe pro -
visions of the said paragraph 63 and must thus be dismissed. Consequently,

as to the Applications for permission to intervene (Article 62) of Australia,
Samoa, Solomon Islands, the Marshall Islands and the Federated States
of Micronesia, as well as the Declarations of Intervention (Article 63)
made by the latter four States, since they were all proceedings incidentfal to

New Zealand’s main request, they had likewise to be dismissed.
50. This Order of the Court was likewise surrounded by much discus -
sion, as can be inferred from the various individual (separate and dissfent-
ing) opinions filed by some of the Judges. There were, in that case,
Applications for permission to intervene under Article 62, and Declara -

tions of Intervention under Article 63 of the Statute ; pursuant to a rather
formalistic outlook, the Court’s majority dismissed them, despite thef
importance and seriousness of the matter at issue, concerning the protecf -
tion of the environment against the danger of radioactive contamination f

in the South Pacific region, to the benefit of the Polynesian, Melanesian
and Micronesian peoples.
51. There is, thus, in my perception, a case for a more proactive atti -
tude of the ICJ towards intervention, on the distinct grounds of Articlef 63
as well as Article 62 of its Statute. One and a half years ago the ICJ

rightly granted intervention to Greece under Article 62, in the case con -
cerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (cf. supra), and now it
has rightly granted it to New Zealand under Article 63, in the present case
of the Whaling in the Antarctic. In another recent case wherein it was like -
wise requested (under Article 62), but not granted, concern was expressed,

within the Court, as to the need to keep such a proactive attitude as to the
institute of intervention in international judicial proceedings 51.
52. In my separate opinion appended to the Court’s Order of 4 July
2011, in the case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State

(Germany v. Italy), whereby it granted intervention to Greece (under
Article 62 of its Statute), I deemed it fit to observe that

“Twice before, permission to intervene was granted by the ICJ : by
its Chamber, in the case concerning the Land, Island and Maritime
Frontier Dispute between El Salvador and Honduras (Application by

51Territorial and Maritime Dispute(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Application by Costa Rica
for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), joint dissenting opinion by

Judges Cançado Trindade and Yusuf, pp. 401-413, paras. 1-29.

33

4 CIJ1041.indb 62 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)32

n’est pas allée de soi ; il en ressortait cependant qu’il ne faisait aucun
doute qu’il incombait à la Cour de vérifier dans chaque cas quef les condi-
tions de recevabilité prévues par le Statut étaient réunies.f
49. L’autre précédent s’est présenté en l’affaire desf Essais nucléaires
(Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), à la suite du dépôt d’une « demande d’exa -

men de la situation » au titre du paragraphe 63 de l’arrêt rendu par la
Cour en cette affaire le 20 décembre 1974. Par son ordonnance du 22 sep -
tembre 1995, la Cour décida que cette « demande d’examen de la situa -
tion» n’entrait pas dans les prévisions dudit paragraphe 63 et devait par
suite être écartée, et que les requêtes à fin d’intervention déposées (au titre

de l’article 62) par l’Australie, le Samoa, les Iles Salomon, les Iles Marshall
et les Etats fédérés de Micronésie, ainsi que les déclaraftions d’intervention
faites (au titre de l’article 63) par ces quatre derniers Etats, du fait qu’elles
relevaient toutes de procédures incidentes à celle concernant la dfemande

principale de la Nouvelle-Zélande, devaient également être écartées.
50. L’adoption de cette ordonnance n’est pas non plus allée de soi,f
comme en témoignent les opinions individuelles et les opinions dissidentes
que certains des juges y ont jointes. En cette affaire, des requêtefs à fin
d’intervention avaient été déposées au titre de l’artifcle 62 du Statut aussi

bien que des déclarations d’intervention au titre de l’article 63 ; or, adop -
tant une démarche quelque peu formaliste, la majorité des membres fde la
Cour choisirent de les écarter, en dépit de l’importance et de fla gravité de
la question en cause, celle de la protection de l’environnement de laf région

du Pacifique Sud contre le risque de contamination radioactive, dans l’fin -
térêt des populations de la Polynésie, de la Mélanésie etf de la Micronésie.
51. Il me semble que ces deux précédents appelaient, de la part de la f
Cour, l’adoption d’une attitude plus volontariste à l’égafrd des interven -
tions au titre aussi bien de l’article 63 du Statut que de l’article 62. Il y a

un an et demi, la Cour a eu raison d’admettre la requête à fin fd’interven -
tion déposée par la Grèce au titre de l’article 62 en l’affaire des Immunités
juridictionnelles de l’Etat (voir supra), et elle a eu raison aujourd’hui d’au -
toriser la Nouvelle-Zélande à intervenir en vertu de l’article 63 dans la
présente affaire. Dans une autre affaire récente où une reqfuête à fin d’in -

tervention a été rejetée, des voix se sont élevées au sein de la Cour pour
défendre une attitude plus volontariste à l’égard de l’inftervention 51.
52. Dans l’opinion individuelle que j’ai jointe à l’ordonnance rfendue
par la Cour le 4 juillet 2011 en l’affaire des Immunités juridictionnelles de

l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie), ordonnance par laquelle elle a admis la Grèce
à intervenir (au titre de l’article 62), il m’a paru utile d’observer ce qui suit:

«Par deux fois, la Cour a admis des demandes d’intervention :
l’une de ses Chambres l’a fait en l’affaire relative au Différend fronta -
lier terrestre, insulaire et maritime entre El Salvador et le Honduras

51 Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua c. Colombie), requête du Costa Rica à
fin d’intervention, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II), opinion dissidente commune de MM. les

juges Cançado Trindade et Yusuf, p. 401-413, par. 1-29.

33

4 CIJ1041.indb 63 3/03/14 10:42 33 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

Nicaragua for permission to intervene, Judgment of 13 September
1990) (I.C.J. Reports 1990, p. 92) and by the full Court itself, in the

case concerning the Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon
and Nigeria, wherein, by its Order of 21 October 1999 (I.C.J. Reports
1999 (II), p. 1029), it authorized Equatorial Guinea to intervene.
Both cases concerned land and maritime boundaries. This time, with
the Order it adopts today, 4 July 2011, the ICJ grants to Greece per -
mission to intervene in the case concerning the Jurisdictional Immu -

nities of the State, a domain of great importance in and for the
development of contemporary international law. The Court has so
decided at the height of its responsibilities as the principal judicial f
organ of the United Nations (Article 92 of the UN Charter).

Unlike land and maritime delimitation cases, or other cases
concerning predominantly bilateralized issues, the present case is of
interest to third States — such as Greece, other than the two contend -
ing Parties before the Court. The subject-matter is closely related to
the evolution of international law itself in our times, being of rele -

vance, ultimately, to all States, to the international community as a
whole, and, in my perception, pointing towards an evolution into a
true universal international law.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

By granting to Greece permission to intervene, the present Order
of the Court gives a proper expression to the principle of the la bonne
administration de la justice in the context of the cas d’espèce.”
(I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), pp. 529-530, paras. 57-59 and cf. infra.)

VII. Collective Interest afnd Collective Guarantefe

53. This leads me to my next point of consideration in the present sep -
arate opinion. As I have already pointed out, consent of the parties in fthe
main case does not play a role in proceedings conducive to the Court’fs

decision (under Article 63 or else under Article 62 of its Statute) whether
or not to grant intervention ; the Court is master of its own jurisdiction,
and one is here beyond State consent (Part V, supra). I have furthermore
pondered, earlier on, that States parties to multilateral treaties are cfom -
mitted to contribute to their proper interpretation (para. 27, supra). This
is, in my perception, even more compelling when such treaties embody

matters of collective interest, and are endowed with collective guarantee of
the observance of the obligations contracted by the States parties.

54. In any case, in my understanding, the nature of the treaty at issue
is to be kept in mind. Furthermore, one is also to keep in mind the ele -

ments which compose the general rule of interpretation of treaties, formfu -
lated in Article 31 of the two Vienna Conventions on the Law of Treaties

34

4 CIJ1041.indb 64 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)33

(requête du Nicaragua à fin d’intervention, arrêt du 13 sep -
tembre 1990) (C.I.J. Recueil 1990, p. 92) et la Cour plénière l’a

elle-même fait en l’affaire relative à la Frontière terrestre et maritime
entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria, dans son ordonnance du
21 octobre 1999 (C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II), p. 1029) autorisant la Gui -
née équatoriale à intervenir. Ces deux affaires avaient traitf à des
frontières terrestres et maritimes. Cette fois, avec l’ordonnance f
qu’elle a adoptée ce 4 juillet 2011, la Cour autorise la Grèce à inter -

venir en l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat,
domaine revêtant une très grande importance dans le développemefnt
du droit international contemporain et aux fins de celui-ci. La Cour
en a ainsi décidé en exerçant toutes ses responsabilités en ftant qu’or -
gane judiciaire principal des Nations Unies (article 92 de la Charte

des Nations Unies).
Contrairement aux affaires de délimitation terrestre et maritime,
ou à d’autres affaires portant principalement sur des questions fbila -
térales, la présente affaire revêt un intérêt pour les Etats tiers, comme
la Grèce, autres que les deux Parties en litige devant la Cour. Le sujet
est étroitement lié à l’évolution actuelle du droit interfnational lui-

même en ce qu’il intéresse, en définitive, tous les Etats, lfa commu -
nauté internationale dans son ensemble, et, selon moi, va dans le senfs
d’une évolution vers un droit international véritablement universel.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

En autorisant la Grèce à intervenir, la présente ordonnance de fla
Cour donne effet comme il convient au principe de la bonne adminis -
tration de la justice dans le contexte du cas d’espèce. » (C.I.J.
Recueil 2011 (II), p. 529-530, par. 57-59 ; voir également infra.)

VII. Intérêt collectif et gfarantie collective

53. Ces considérations m’amènent au point suivant de la présentef opi -
nion. Comme je l’ai déjà souligné, le consentement des partifes à l’instance
principale ne joue aucun rôle dans la procédure qui aboutit à la décision

que prend la Cour d’admettre ou non un Etat tiers à intervenir en fvertu
de l’article 63 ou de l’article 62 du Statut ; la Cour est maîtresse de sa
compétence, et ses décisions transcendent le consentement des parties
(section V, supra). J’ai observé plus haut (par. 27) que les Etats parties à
des traités multilatéraux tenaient à apporter leur contributionf à l’interpré -
tation rigoureuse de ces instruments. A mon sens, ce souci les motive

encore plus lorsqu’il s’agit de traités portant sur des questiofns d’intérêt
collectif et prévoyant la garantie collective du respect des obligations
contractées par les Etats parties.
54. En tout cas, il importe à mon avis de garder à l’esprit la nature du
traité en cause. Il importe également de garder à l’esprit lfes éléments

constitutifs de la règle générale d’interprétation des trfaités énoncés à l’ar -
ticle 31 des deux conventions de Vienne sur le droit des traités (celle

34

4 CIJ1041.indb 65 3/03/14 10:42 34 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

(of 1969 and 1986) — namely, good faith, text, context, and object and

purpose of the treaty ; 52ey are the ones that most often mark presence in
treaty interpretation . Underlying the general rule set forth in Arti -
cle 31 (1) of the two aforementioned Vienna Conventions lies the princi -
ple ut res magis valeat quam pereat, widely supported in case law, and

which corresponds to the so-called effet utile (at times referred to as prin -
ciple of effectiveness), whereby one is to secure to the conventionalf provi-
sions their proper effects 53.

55. The evolution of international law itself can have an effect upon
the interpretation of the treaty at issue. The object and purpose of a
treaty can be given precision, and be developed, by the parties themselvfes

(as in classic treaties) under the effect of certain precepts of lawf, or else by
organs of international supervision established by the treaties themselvfes
(in distinct domains of protection). When it comes to protection (of the

human person, of the environment, or of matters of general interest), tfhe
principle of effet utile assumes particular importance in the determination
of the (enlarged) scope of the conventional obligations of protection.f

56. The corresponding obligations of the States parties assume an
essentially objective character: they are implemented collectively, singling
out the predominance of considerations of general interest (or even ordre
public), transcending the individual interests of States parties. The nature f

of treaties addressing matters of general or common interest and countinfg
on collective guarantee (by States parties) for their implementation has an
incidence on their process of interpretation. And it could not be other -

wise.
57. There is no space, under treaties of the kind, for unilateral State
action, or even for bilateral reciprocal concessions : States parties to such
treaties are bound by the contracted obligations to seek jointly the reafl -

ization or fulfilment of the object and purpose of the treaties at issuef.
State parties are bound by positive obligations enshrined therein. The pre -
ambles themselves of treaties of the kind contain important elements for

their interpretation, to be necessarily taken into account.

52
Cf., generally, e.g., Maarten Bos, “Theory and Practice of Treaty Interpretation”,
27 Netherlands International Law Review (1980), pp. 3-38 and 135-170; W. Lang, “Les
règles d’interprétation codifiées par la convention de Viennfe sur le droit des traités et
les divers types de traités”, 24 Österreichische Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht (1973),
pp. 113-173 ; Ch. De Visscher, Problèmes d’interprétation judiciaire en droit international
public, Paris, Pedone, 1963, pp. 9-264 ; among others.
53Cf., e.g., M. K. Yasseen, “L’interprétation des traités d’après la convfention de
Vienne sur le droit des traités”, 151 RCADI (1976), p. ; G. E. do Nascimento e Silva,
Conferência de Viena sobre o Direito dos Tratados, Rio de Janeiro, MRE, 1971, pp. 34-35
and 73-74 ; I. M. Sinclair, The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Manchester
University Press/Oceana, 1973, pp. 73-75 ; F. Capotorti, “Il Diritto dei Trattati Secondo

la Convenzione di Vienna”, Convenzione di Vienna sul Diritto dei Tratatti, Padua, Cedam,
1984, pp. 35-39; among others.

35

4 CIJ1041.indb 66 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)34

de 1969 et celle de 1986), à savoir l’obligation d’interpréterf le traité de

bonne foi, celle de respecter le sens du texte dans son contexte et cellfe
d’interpréter le traité à la lumière de son objet et de son but, éléments qui
interviennent le plus fréquemment dans l’interprétation des trafités 5. La
règle générale énoncée au paragraphe 1 de l’article 31 des deux conven -

tions de Vienne repose sur le principe ut res magis valeat quam pereat, qui
coïncide avec ce qu’il est convenu d’appeler le principe de l’feffet utile,
selon lequel les clauses conventionnelles doivent être interprétéfes dans un
53
sens qui les rende opérantes .
55. L’évolution du droit international peut avoir une incidence sur
l’interprétation du traité en cause. L’objet et le but du trfaité peuvent avoir
été précisés et développés par les parties elles-mêmes (lorsqu’il s’agit d’un

traité classique) en application de certains préceptes de droit, fou par un
organe de supervision institué par le traité (cas des traités fayant un but de
protection). Lorsqu’il s’agit de protection (des personnes, de l’environne -

ment ou de l’intérêt général), le principe de l’effet utile revêt une impor -
tance particulière pour la détermination de la portée (évenftuellement
élargie) des obligations conventionnelles correspondantes.

56. Les obligations correspondantes des Etats parties revêtent un
caractère essentiellement objectif ; elles sont exécutées collectivement, en
privilégiant les considérations d’intérêt général (fvoire d’ordre public), qui
transcendent les intérêts particuliers de ces Etats. La nature même des

traités se rapportant à des questions d’intérêt généfral ou commun, dont
l’exécution dépend de la garantie effective (des Etats parties), a une inci -
dence sur les modalités de leur interprétation. Il ne saurait en êftre autre -

ment.
57. Dans l’application des traités de cette nature, il n’y a pas plface
pour des actes unilatéraux des Etats, ni même pour des concessions bila -
térales réciproques. Les Etats parties sont tenus par les obligatifons qu’ils

ont contractées de s’attacher collectivement à réaliser l’fobjet et à atteindre
les buts de celui-ci. Ils ont des obligations positives énoncées dans le traité.
Les traités de cette sorte renferment dans leur préambule des éfléments

importants pour leur interprétation, dont il est indispensable de tenfir
compte.

52
Voir, entre autres, pour les aspects généraux, MaartenBos, « Theory and Practice
of Treaty Interpretation », Netherlands International Law Review, vol. 27 (1980), p. 3-38
et 135-170; W. Lang, «Les règles d’interprétation codifiées par la convention de Vfienne sur
le droit des traités et les divers types de traités », Österreichische Zeitschrift für öffentliches
Recht, vol. 24 (1973), p. 113-173 ; Ch. De Visscher, Problèmes d’interprétation judiciaire en
droit international public, Paris, Pedone, 1963, p. 9-264.
53Voir, entre autres, M. K. Yasseen, « L’interprétation des traités d’après la conven -
tion de Vienne sur le droit des traités », RCADI, tome 151 (1976), p. 74 ; G. E. do Nasci-
mento e Silva, Conferência de Viena sobre o Direito dos Tratados, Rio de Janeiro, MRE,
1971, p. 34-35 et 73-74 ; I. M. Sinclair, The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties,
Manchester University Press/Oceana, 1973, p. 73-75 ; F. Capotorti, « Il Diritto dei Trat

tati Secondo la Convenzione di Vienna », Convenzione di Vienna sul Diritto dei Tratatti,
Padoue, Cedam, 1984, p. 35-39.

35

4 CIJ1041.indb 67 3/03/14 10:42 35 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

58. As to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of
Whaling (ICRW), and in particular its “objectives and purposes” 5,

namely, the proper conservation of the whale stocks and the orderly
development of the whaling industry, it is clear that the former stands f
higher, as without the proper conservation of whale stocks there can be no
orderly development of the whaling industry. The basic foundation of the

ICRW is thus the conservation of all whale species at issue. The principle
of effet utile points in this direction, discarding the mere profitability of
the whaling industry.
59. There is a concern for orderly development in the ICRW, which
55
uses the expression “common interest” , and, moreover, identifies its
beneficiaries, in expressly recognizing “the interest of the nations fof the
world in safeguarding for future generations the great natural resources
represented by the whale stocks” 56. The regulatory scheme is set out in

detail in the Schedule. It should not pass unnoticed that the notion of
public or good order had already found expression in the international
community at the time of the adoption of the ICRW.

60. The general policy objectives under the ICRW were thus — and
remain — the protection of all whale species from overfishing, to the ben -
efit of future generations in all nations, and the orderly development of the
whaling industry was to abide by that. Conflicts or disputes were thusf to

be avoided on that basis, and that (orderly) industrial development wafs
not to undermine the public or good order of the oceans. The objectives f
of the ICRW disclose the nature of the treaty, to be implemented well

beyond the scope of bilateral relations between States parties. The nature
of the ICRW is, in my understanding, to be kept in mind, in the present f
decision of the Court concerning intervention for the purposes of inter -
pretation of Article VIII of the Convention.

VIII. The Preventive Dimensifon

61. A proactive posture of the ICJ as to the institute of intervention in
international judicial proceedings, under Article 63 of its Statute, appears
in principle justified, in cases like the present one, concerning the infterpre -

tation or construction of a provision of a multilateral treaty like the f
ICRW, aiming above all at the conservation of all whales species, to the
benefit of future generations in all nations. The notion of inter-genera -
tional equity is present herein. I have devoted much attention to the

long-term temporal dimension and the notion of inter-generational equity
in my separate opinion (Part IX, pp. 177-184, paras. 114-131) in the case

54Expression utilized in Articles V (2) and VI of the Convention.
55Fourth preambular paragraph.
56First preambular paragraph [emphasis added].

36

4 CIJ1041.indb 68 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)35

54
58. En ce qui concerne «les objectifs et les buts» assignés à la conven-
tion internationale pour la réglementation de la chasse à la baleifne
de 1946, il est clair que la conservation appropriée des peuplements

baleiniers prime le développement méthodique de l’industrie baleinière, vu
qu’elle en est une condition. La convention a donc pour but primordiafl la
conservation de toutes les espèces de baleines considérées. L’applicatiofn
du principe de l’effet utile conduit à retenir une interprétaftion en ce sens

et à ne pas considérer la convention comme se ramenant à un moyfen
d’assurer la rentabilité de l’industrie baleinière.
59. La convention, outre qu’elle prévoit le développement méthodique
de l’industrie baleinière, invoque « l’intérêt général» 55 et désigne les béné-

ficiaires de ce développement, les Etats parties reconnaissant expressé -
ment « que les nations du monde ont intérêt à sauvegarder, au profit dfes
générations futures, les grandes ressources naturelles représentées par l’es -
pèce baleinière » . Le dispositif de réglementation est exposé en détail

dans le règlement annexé à la convention. On ne manquera pas def relever
que le concept d’ordre public (ou bon ordre) avait déjà coursf dans la
communauté internationale à l’époque de l’adoption de la fconvention.
60. La convention avait donc, et a d’ailleurs toujours, pour objectif

général la protection, au profit des générations futures de toutes les nations,
de toutes les espèces de baleines contre la surexploitation, le défveloppe -
ment méthodique de l’industrie baleinière étant subordonnéf à cette prote-c
tion. Il importait donc, sur cette base, d’éviter les conflits ofu différends, et
le développement (méthodique) de l’industrie baleinière ne devait pas com -

promettre l’utilisation des océans selon les principes de l’ordfre public. Les
objectifs de la convention de 1946 révèlent la nature de cet instrument,
dont l’application transcende de beaucoup les relations bilatéralefs entre
Etats parties. La présente décision de la Cour concernant une intefrvention

aux fins de l’interprétation de l’article VIII de la convention doit à mon
sens être considérée en gardant à l’esprit la nature de celle-ci.

VIII. La dimension préventifve

61. L’adoption par la Cour d’une conception volontariste de l’interven -
tion fondée sur l’article 63 du Statut dans les instances judiciaires interna-

tionales semble en principe justifiée lorsqu’il s’agit d’interpréter une clause
d’un traité multilatéral tel que la convention de 1946, laquellfe a pour
objectif premier la conservation de toutes les espèces de baleines pour le
bien des générations futures de toutes les nations. Pareil objectiff procède

de la notion d’équité entre les générations. M’étanft beaucoup intéressé à la
dimension temporelle à long terme et au concept d’équité entfre les généra -
tions dans l’opinion individuelle (section IX, p. 177-184, par. 114-131) que

54 Expression employée au paragraphe 2 de l’article V et à l’article VI de la convention.
55 Quatrième alinéa du préambule.
56 Premier alinéa du préambule [les italiques sont de moi].

36

4 CIJ1041.indb 69 3/03/14 10:42 36 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

concerning Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), and I here limit myself to refer to my
reflections developed therein. In the present case, the ICRW’s preventive

dimension should not pass unnoticed. States parties are here to act withf
due care, under the ICRW, so as to avoid a harm which may project itself
in time.

62. The uncertainties still surrounding the institute of intervention in
legal proceedings are proper to the persisting and new challenges faced fby
international justice in our times 57, in the enlargement of its scope both
ratione materiae and ratione personae. International tribunals are to face

such uncertainties, approaching the institute of intervention with due
attention to the contemporary evolution of international legal proceduref
at conceptual level, and to the nature of the multilateral treaties at sftake.

63. Article 63 of the Court’s Statute provides for intervention as of
right (supra) — as the ICJ itself has pointed out — when the State seek -
ing to intervene confines its intervention to “the point of interpretfation
which is in issue in the proceedings, and does not extend to general intfer-
58
vention in the case” . On the basis of its Declaration of Intervention, it
does not seem that New Zealand is seeking a “general intervention” in the
present case. It purports to inform the Court of its view, focused on a
specific point of interpretation or construction of Article VIII of the 1946

Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. New Zealand’s submission is
thus duly circumscribed, and the Court is right in holding it admissiblef.

IX. The R esuRRectio of Intervention

in Contemporary Judiciafl Proceedings before tfhe ICJ

64. The ICJ’s decision contained in the present Order in the case

concerningWhaling in the Antarctic is significant : looking back in time,
we may well be witnessing lately the resurrectio of intervention in contem -
porary judicial proceedings before the ICJ. I have made this point in myf
separate opinion in the Court’s previous Order of 4 July 2011 permitting

Greece’s intervention in the case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities
of the State (Germany v. Italy). In a rather short lapse of time, the Court
has taken its position on granting intervention, on the basis of both Arfti -
cle 62 (in 2011) and Article 63 (the present Order) of its Statute.

57
E. Jouannet, “Quelques perspectives théoriques : incertitudes sur le tiers et désordres
de la justice internationale”, Le tiers à l’instance devant les juridictions internationales (eds.
H. Ruiz Fabri and J.-M. Sorel), Paris, Pedone, 2005, pp. 260-263.
58Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Application for Pe▯rmission to
Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1981, p. 15, para. 26.

37

4 CIJ1041.indb 70 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)36

j’ai jointe à l’arrêt du 20 avril 2010 en l’affaire des Usines de pâte à papier
sur le fleuve Uruguay (Argentine c. Uruguay) (C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (I)), je
me bornerai ici à renvoyer aux réflexions que j’y ai exposéfes. Il importe en

la présente affaire de ne pas négliger la dimension préventive de la conven-
tion de 1946. Les Etats parties sont censés, en conformité avec elfle, faire
preuve de la diligence voulue pour éviter toute action dommageable qui
pourrait avoir des prolongements à long terme.
62. Les incertitudes qui subsistent au sujet du concept d’intervention

dans les instances judiciaires tiennent à des difficultés anciennfes et no57-
velles auxquelles se heurte actuellement la justice internationale alors
que s’élargit le champ de la juridiction tant ratione materiae que
ratione personae de ses organes. Les tribunaux internationaux ne doivent

pas éluder ces incertitudes ; il leur faut considérer le concept d’interven -
tion en prêtant l’attention voulue à l’évolution contempofraine de la doc -
trine concernant les instances judiciaires internationales, ainsi que la
nature des traités multilatéraux dont l’interprétation est efn cause.
63. Comme la Cour l’a elle-même souligné, l’article 63 de son Statut

prévoit l’intervention de droit (supra), lorsque l’Etat qui souhaite interve-
nir entend limiter son intervention à « la question qu’il s’agit d’interpréter
en l’espèce [,] et n’autorise pas une intervention générafle en l’affaire » . 58
D’après sa déclaration d’intervention, il ne semble pas que la Nou -

velle-Zélande recherche une « intervention générale » dans la présente
affaire. Elle y dit qu’elle entend se faire entendre de la Cour sur un point
précis d’interprétation de l’article VIII de la convention de 1946. La
déclaration de la Nouvelle-Zélande a donc un objet dûment circonscrit, et
la Cour a eu raison de la déclarer recevable.

IX. La résurrection de l’ifntervention dans le rfèglement
des différends portésf récemment devant la fCour

64. La décision prise par la Cour dans la présente ordonnance en
l’affaire de la Chasse à la baleine dans l’Antarctique est significative : à en
juger par la pratique récente de la Cour, il est fort possible que nofus assis -
tions depuis quelque temps à la résurrection de l’intervention dans les ins -

tances introduites devant elle. J’ai déjà formulé cette obsefrvation dans
l’opinion individuelle que j’ai jointe à l’ordonnance du 4 juillet 2011 par
laquelle la Cour a autorisé la Grèce à intervenir dans l’affaire des Immuni -
tés juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie). En relativement peu de

temps, la Cour a affirmé sa position sur l’intervention fondéef sur l’ar -
ticle 62 du Statut (dans l’ordonnance de 2011) aussi bien que sur celle
fondée sur l’article 63 (dans la présente ordonnance).

57 E. Jouannet, «Quelques perspectives théoriques :incertitudes sur le tiers et désordres
de la justice internationale Le tiers à l’instance devant les juridictions internationales
(H. Ruiz Fabri et J.-M. Sorel, dir. publ.), Paris, Pedone, 2005, p. 260-263.
58 Plateau continental (Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe libyenne), requête à▯ fin d’intervention,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1981, p. 15, par. 26.

37

4 CIJ1041.indb 71 3/03/14 10:42 37 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

65. I have deemed it fit to dwell further upon this issue, in the present
Order of the Court, declaring admissible New Zealand’s intervention in

the case Whaling in the Antarctic (Australia v. Japan). Twice before, in
two cases concerning land and maritime boundaries in the nineties, the
ICJ also authorized two other Applications to intervene, namely, in the f
case concerning the Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Sal -
vador/Honduras) (Application by Nicaragua for Permission to Intervene,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990, p. 92) and in the case concerning the Land
and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Application by
Equatorial Guinea for Permission to Intervene, Order of 21 October 1999,
I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1029).
66. On the two more recent occasions, namely, in the case concerning
the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State and in the present case of Whal -

ing in the Antarctic, the Court has adopted two Orders granting the
requested interventions in two domains of great importance in and for thfe
development of contemporary international law, namely, that of the ten -
sion between the right of access to justice and the invocation of State f
immunities, and that of marine life and resources and international pro -

tection of the environment. In the ambit of the circumstances surround -
ing these two more recent cases, in domains of concern to the internatiofnal
community as a whole, intervention has at last seen the light of the dayf.

67. Although intervention, throughout the history of the ICJ, laid dor-

mant in the Peace Palace for most of the Court’s history until recently, it
has never died, and it appears now to have been resurrected, in a revitafl -
ized way. In deciding as it has done, to grant intervention in the two
aforementioned cases, in such relevant contexts, the ICJ has so decided fat
the height of its responsibilities as the main judicial organ of the
United Nations (Article 92 of the UN Charter). Unlike land and mari -

time delimitation cases, or other cases concerning predominantly bilaterf-
alized issues, these last two cases concern third States as well, other than
the respective contending Parties before the Court.

68. The subject-matters at issue in those two cases (supra) are, in my

perception, closely and decisively related to the evolution of contempo -
rary international law as a truly universal international law, being thus of
relevance ultimately to all States. The resurgere of intervention is thus
most welcome, propitiating the sound administration of justice (la bonne
administration de la justice), attentive to the needs not only of all States

concerned but of the international community as a whole, in the concep -
tual universe of the jus gentium of our times.

X. Concluding Observatiofns

69. In the present case, in my view, a proper expression to the principle
of the sound administration of justice (la bonne administration de la jus -

38

4 CIJ1041.indb 72 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)37

65. Il me paraît utile de revenir sur cette question à propos de la prfé -
sente ordonnance, par laquelle la Cour a statué favorablement sur la frece -

vabilité de la déclaration d’intervention de la Nouvelle-Zélande en l’affaire
de la Chasse à la baleine dans l’Antarctique (Australie c. Japon). A deux
reprises, dans les années 1990, la Cour avait admis l’intervention d’un
Etat tiers dans un différend de délimitation terrestre et maritifme: le Diffé -
rend frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El Salvador/Honduras)

(requête du Nicaragua à fin d’intervention, arrêt, C.I.J. Rec▯ueil 1990, p. 92)
et l’affaire relative à la Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et
le Nigéria (requête de la Guinée équatoriale à fin d’intervention, or▯donnance
du 21 octobre 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II), p. 1029).
66. Dans une affaire plus récente, celle relative aux Immunités juridic -
tionnelles de l’Etat, et dans la présente affaire, la Cour, par deux ordon -

nances, a admis l’intervention dans des instances se rapportant à fdeux
sujets qui revêtent une grande importance dans et pour le développfement
du droit international, à savoir la compatibilité du droit d’acfcès à la jus -
tice et des immunités de l’Etat, et la faune, la flore et les refssources
marines considérées du point de vue de la protection internationalfe de

l’environnement. Il semble donc que l’intervention soit enfin devefnue une
possibilité bien réelle lorsque les circonstances, comme celles cofnstituant
le contexte de ces deux affaires, mettent en jeu des questions qui intfé -
ressent la communauté internationale tout entière.
67. Il s’est révélé récemment que l’intervention, restéfe en sommeil au

Palais de la Paix presque tout au long de l’histoire de la Cour, éftait sortie
d’une torpeur qui avait pu la faire croire morte, et que depuis cettef résur -
rection elle s’affirmait avec une vigueur nouvelle. En admettant l’interven-
tion dans les deux affaires que je viens de citer, dans des contextes fmettant
en jeu des questions de grande importance, la Cour a su se montrer à fla
hauteur des responsabilités qui lui incombent en tant qu’organe jufdiciaire

principal des Nations Unies (article 92 de la Charte). A la différence des
affaires de délimitation terrestre et maritime et des autres affafires qui se
rapportent principalement à des questions d’ordre bilatéral, cefs deux der -
nières affaires, outre les Parties, intéressent les Etats tiers.f
68. Les questions en cause dans ces deux affaires (supra) sont à mon

sens clairement et profondément liées à l’évolution du drfoit international
contemporain dans le sens d’une véritable universalité. Cette résurgence
de l’intervention, qui s’inscrit dans l’univers conceptuel du droit des gens,
est d’excellent augure en ce qu’elle favorise la bonne administratfion de la
justice, d’une justice attentive non seulement aux besoins des Etats fdirec -

tement concernés, mais aussi à ceux de la communauté internatiofnale
dans son ensemble.

X. Observations finalesf

69. En statuant favorablement sur la recevabilité de la déclaration
d’intervention de la Nouvelle-Zélande en la présente affaire, la Cour, à

38

4 CIJ1041.indb 73 3/03/14 10:42 38 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

tice) can be found precisely in the declaration of admissibility by the
Court of the Declaration of Intervention by New Zealand in the cas
d’espèce. I have made precisely this point, one and a half years ago, in my

separate opinion (para. 59) appended to the Court’s Order of 4 July 2011,
in the case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany
v. Italy). This is a point which, in my view, should not pass unnoticed
herein.

70. It so happens that, in the present Order, the Court considered the
principle of the sound administration of justice (la bonne administration
de la justice) in relation to other arguments put to it (paras. 17-19 of the
Order), which are rather tangential to the institute of intervention (funder

Article 63) itself, and do not have a direct bearing on its essence. It is true,
as the Court states (para. 18), that intervention, in the terms of Article 63
of the Statute, cannot — does not — affect the procedural equality of the
contending Parties. The Court rightly acknowledges (para. 19) that

New Zealand’s Declaration of Intervention falls within the provisions of f
Article 63 of the Statute and the requirements of Article 82 of the Rules
of Court, and is thus admissible. It is so — I would add — irrespective of
whether the contending Parties object to it or not.

71. In circumstances like those of the cas d’espèce, it is necessary to
surmount the old bilateralist bias that permeates dispute-settlement under
the procedure before this Court. It so happens that such bias has for a f
long time impregnated expert writing on the subject 59as well. It is about
time to overcome such dogmatisms of the past, with their characteristic f

immobilization, remnant of the old arbitral practice. The present case
concerning Whaling in the Antarctic, unlike land and maritime delimita -
tion cases, or other cases concerning predominantly bilateralized issuesf,
concerns third States as well, parties to the 1946 Convention for the Inter -

national Regulation of Whaling, other than the respective contending
Parties before the Court. The Convention concerns a matter of general orf
common interest, and is to be implemented collectively by States parties,
thus contributing to the public order of the oceans.

72. In the present Order, the Court has limited itself to address the pointsf
raised by the three States concerned, in the terms in which they were rafised.

Under the self-imposed pressure of time, it has abstained from dwelling
upon the substantive aspects concerning the essence of intervention undefr

59To quote one example :

“International law in its historical evolution has shown a general refticence towards
third-party interference in the judicial (or arbitral) settlement of bfilateral disputes.
Indeed, such third-party intervention has always been presented as an exception to
the general principle of res judicata inter alios acta, and there is nothing in modern
international judicial experience or practice to warrant any far-reaching departure
from that approach.” (S. Rosenne, Intervention in the International Court of Justice,
op. cit. supra note 22, p. 190.)

39

4 CIJ1041.indb 74 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)38

mon sens, a donné effet comme il convenait au principe de la bonne fadmi -
nistration de la justice. J’ai fait la même observation, il y a un an et demi,
dans mon opinion individuelle (par. 59) jointe à l’ordonnance du 4 juil -

let 2011 en l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Alle-
magne c. Italie). L’importance de ce point justifie à mon avis la répétition.

70. Il se trouve que, dans la présente ordonnance, la Cour a abordé lef
principe de la bonne administration de la justice à propos d’autrefs argu -
ments qui lui étaient présentés (ordonnance, par. 17-19), arguments qui
ne se rapportent qu’accessoirement au concept d’intervention (au ftitre de

l’article 63) et ne concernent pas son essence même. Il est vrai que, comme
le dit la Cour (par. 18), une intervention fondée sur l’article 63 du Statut
n’a pas et ne peut pas avoir d’incidence sur l’égalité prfocédurale des Par -
ties. La Cour a eu raison de considérer (par. 19) que la déclaration d’in -

tervention de la Nouvelle-Zélande était conforme aux dispositions de
l’article 63 et répondait aux conditions énoncées à l’article 82 du Règle -
ment de la Cour, et qu’elle était par conséquent recevable. J’fajouterai
qu’elle l’était avec ou sans le consentement des Parties.

71. Dans des circonstances telles que celles qui entourent la présente
affaire, il faut se départir de l’optique bilatérale dans laquelle sont tradi -
tionnellement abordées les affaires portées devant la Cour. Cette tendance
à privilégier le bilatéral a également été pendant lonfgtemps celle des
auteurs qui ont traité de la question de l’intervention 59. Il est grand temps

de renoncer à un dogmatisme suranné, vestige de l’ancienne pratfique
arbitrale, qui porte à l’immobilisme. La présente affaire de la Chasse à la
baleine dans l’Antarctique, à la différence des affaires de délimitation ter -
restre et maritime et des autres affaires qui se rapportent principalement

à des questions d’ordre bilatéral, intéresse non seulement lfes parties au
différend, mais aussi les Etats tiers parties à la convention pofur la régle -
mentation de la chasse à la baleine de 1946. La convention porte sur fplu-
sieurs questions d’intérêt commun ou général, et elle doift être mise en

œuvre collectivement par les Etats parties afin que l’utilisation des océans
satisfasse aux principes dont procède l’ordre public.
72. Dans la présente ordonnance, la Cour s’est bornée à considéfrer les
points soulevés par les trois Etats concernés tels qu’ils avaient été formu -

lés par eux. Pressée par les délais qu’elle s’était elfle-même imposés, elle
s’est abstenue de s’étendre sur les questions de fond se rapporftant à l’es -

59Je me bornerai à citer un exemple :

«l’évolution historique du droit international a toujours révéflé une réticence générale
à l’égard de l’intervention de tiers dans le règlement jufdiciaire (ou arbitral) des diffé
rends bilatéraux. De fait, ces interventions ont toujours été pfrésentées comme des
exceptions au principe général res judicata inter alios acta, et rien dans l’expérience ou
la pratique judiciaire internationale moderne ne justifie qu’on s’écarte radicalement
de cette façon de voir.» (S. Rosenne, Intervention in the International Court of Justice,
op. cit. supra note 22, p. 190.)

39

4 CIJ1041.indb 75 3/03/14 10:42 39 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

Article63 of its Statute. For my part, I have struggled against the constraints
of time, in order to take care of dwelling upon them in the present sepafrate

opinion. Throughout the years the hope has been expressed, in expert wrift -
ing, that further clarification be given as to the meaning and scope of inter -
vention under Article 63 of the Statute of the ICJ.
73. This is what I have been attempting to do in this separate opinion,
to the extent possible. The insufficient clarification provided so far fhas

been attributed to the rather infrequent use of intervention as of rightf
under Article 63. But even in the cases wherein intervention under Arti -
cle 63 has been put to the Court, like the present one, this latter has not f
provided sufficient or entirely satisfactory clarification, though it hfas for -
tunately reached the right decision in today’s Order.

74. It may well occur that, in the future, whichever clarification is pro -
vided, it comes to appear, after all, not entirely satisfactory. One poifnt
seems, however, clear. The rhythm of progressive development of interna -
tional law, whichever path is taken, is particularly slow ; so slow that any
advance achieved seems to be due to a constructive reasoning in a rare

moment, or glimpse, of lucidity. In any case, and to be fair to jurists f(my
colleagues), it so happens that law is not an “exact science”, anfd perhaps
fortunately so. After all, what is thought of as “exact” today, wifth the
passing of time comes to appear as not being so “exact” as one thofught
or assumed it to be earlier on. In the domain of law, we are faced with f

Sollen/devoir être (so necessary to human beings), and dissatisfaction
seems often to be ineluctable herein.

75. After all, Sollen/devoir être (or at least the tension between Sein and

Sollen) requires thinking, rather than applying mechanically pre-existing
norms. As for mechanical application, nowadays computers would do
it just as well. Thinking (which requires much greater effort) cannot
always be presumed ; this is why one ought to be satisfied when a certain
advance is achieved, moved by thinking with an awareness of the impera -

tives of justice. Today, 6 February 2013, is one such occasion, with the
Court’s Order of admissibility of New Zealand’s Declaration of Interven -
tion under Article 63 of its Statute, just as one and a half years ago (Order
of 4 July 2011) there was another such occasion, with the Court’s permis -
sion of Greece’s intervention under Article 62 of its Statute, in the case

concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State.

76. So, we do not — fortunately — work always surrounded by dis -
satisfaction. After all, there are, in its course, moments or glimpses off
enlightenment as well, which should satisfy those engaged in the progresf -

sive development of international law and the realization of justice at
international level. The aforementioned last two grants of intervention fby

40

4 CIJ1041.indb 76 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)39

sence de l’intervention au titre de l’article 63 du Statut. J’ai pour ma part
tenu, malgré les astreintes de temps, à exposer mes réflexionfs sur ces ques -

tions dans la présente opinion. Cela fait des années que certains fauteurs
espèrent des éclaircissements sur le sens et la portée de l’fintervention fon -
dée sur l’article 63 du Statut.
73. C’est précisément de tels éclaircissements que j’ai tentéf d’apporter,
autant que je le pouvais, dans la présente opinion. Le défaut d’féclaircisse -

ments suffisants a été imputé à la relative rareté des ifnterventions de droit
fondées sur l’article 63. Cependant, même dans les cas où, comme dans la
présente affaire, elle a statué sur une déclaration d’intefrvention au titre de
l’article 63, la Cour n’a pas fourni des explications suffisantes ou entièrfe -
ment satisfaisantes; cela étant, elle a heureusement pris la bonne décision
en rendant son ordonnance d’aujourd’hui.

74. Les éclaircissements fournis sur la question, quels qu’ils soient,f
pourraient d’ailleurs fort bien se révéler à l’avenir n’fêtre pas entièrement
satisfaisants. Un point semble cependant clairement établi : le développe -
ment progressif du droit international, quelque direction qu’il prennfe, est
particulièrement lent, à tel point que tout progrès paraît êftre l’aboutisse -

ment d’un raisonnement constructif intervenu dans un rare moment, un f
éclair de lucidité. Quoi qu’il en soit, et pour ne pas accablerf injustement
les juristes (mes confrères), il faut admettre que le droit n’esft pas une
«science exacte », ce qui du reste est peut-être une bonne chose. Après
tout, ce que nous tenons aujourd’hui pour « exact» pourrait bien, avec le

temps, se révéler ne pas l’être autant que nous le pensions fou le suppo -
sions. L’œuvre qui s’accomplit dans le domaine du droit touche fà «ce qui
doit être», notion qu’exprime bien le verbe allemandSollen (et qui compte
tant pour les êtres humains), si bien que l’insatisfaction peut sfembler être
fatalement le lot de ceux qui travaillent à cette œuvre.
75. Il faut dire que réaliser ce qui doit être (ou du moins résoudre l’an -

tagonisme entre Sein et Sollen) demande un effort de réflexion et non sim-
plement l’application automatique des normes existantes. De nos joursf,
lorsqu’il s’agit d’application automatique, les ordinateurs font parfaite -
ment l’affaire. On ne peut pas présumer que le travail nécessfaire de
réflexion (qui demande beaucoup plus d’effort) est toujours faccompli, et

c’est pourquoi il y a lieu d’être satisfait lorsqu’on constafte un certain pro -
grès, fruit d’une réflexion inspirée par les impératifsf de la justice. L’ordon -
nance par laquelle la Cour, ce 6 février 2013, vient de conclure à la
recevabilité de la déclaration d’intervention faite par la Nouvfelle-Zélande
en vertu de l’article 63 du Statut est le signe d’un tel progrès, tout comme

l’était, voici un an et demi, l’ordonnance du 4 juillet 2011, par laquelle, en
l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat, elle a admis la
requête à fin d’intervention déposée par la Grèce en vfertu de l’article 62.
76. Ainsi, fort heureusement, notre travail ne nous voue pas inélucta -
blement à la frustration. Il est marqué aussi par des moments, desf éclairs
de lumière qui devraient être un motif de satisfaction pour ceux qfui

œuvrent au développement progressif du droit international et àf la réali -
sation de la justice internationale. Les deux cas que je viens de mentiofn -

40

4 CIJ1041.indb 77 3/03/14 10:42 40 whaling in the antarcftic (sep. op. cançado trfindade)

this Court, under Articles 62 and 63 of its Statute (Orders of 4 July 2011
and 6 February 2013, respectively), are good examples in this direction.
The gradual resurrectio of intervention in contemporary judicial proceed -
ings before the World Court can, in my perception, render a valuable
service towards a more cohesive international legal order in our days.

After all, intervention in legal proceedings, by providing additional elfe -
ments to the Court for its consideration and reasoning, can contribute tfo
the progressive development of international law itself, especially whenf
matters of collective or common interest and collective guarantee are at
stake.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

41

4 CIJ1041.indb 78 3/03/14 10:42 chasse à la baleine dfans l’antarctique (opf. ind. cançado trindadef)40

ner, où la Cour a admis l’intervention fondée tant sur l’artficle 62 que sur
l’article 63 de son Statut (par ses ordonnances du 4 juillet 2011 et de ce
6 février 2013, respectivement), constituent de bons exemples de l’évolu -
tion qui se manifeste dans ce sens. La résurgence progressive de l’interven-
tion dans le règlement des différends internationaux portés dfevant la

Cour mondiale peut, à mon sens, contribuer utilement à l’instaufration, de
notre vivant, d’un ordre juridique international plus cohérent. Apfrès tout,
l’intervention dans les instances, qui fournit à la Cour des élféments sup -
plémentaires sur lesquels appuyer ses délibérations et son raisfonnement,
peut contribuer au développement progressif du droit international

lui-même, en particulier lorsque des questions d’intérêt collectfif ou com -
mun et des obligations de garantie collective sont en cause.

(Signé) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

41

4 CIJ1041.indb 79 3/03/14 10:42

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

Links