Dissenting Opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

Document Number
150-20130716-ORD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
150-20130716-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

242

DISSENTING OPINION
OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. P rolegomena 1-4

II. Provisional Measures of Protection : The Concomitant
New Requests by Costa Rica and Nicaragua 5-7

III. Technical Missionsin loco Pursuant to the Ramsar Con-
vention 8-14

IV. The Position of the Partfies as to the Purportedf Expansion

of Provisional Measurefs: The Request of Costa Rica 15-19

V. Urgency and Risk of Harm fin the Form of Bodily Injfury
or Death 20-23

VI. The Position of the Partfies as to the Purportedf Expansion

of Provisional Measurefs: The Request of Nicaraguaf 24-28

VII. General Assessment of tfhe Request of Costa Rica and
Nicaragua 29-37

1. Costa Rica’s request 29-33
2. Nicaragua’s request 34-37

VIII. Effects of Provisional Mfeasures of Protection fbeyond the

Strict Territorialistf Outlook 38-43

IX. The Beneficiaries of Profvisional Measures of Prfotection,
beyond the Traditionafl Inter-State Dimension 44-50

X. Effects of Provisional Mfeasures of Protection fbeyond the

Traditional Inter-State Dimension 51-56

XI. The Proper Exercise of the International Judicial Func -
tion: A Rebuttal of So-Called “Judicial Self-Restraint”,
or l’a rt de ne r ienF aire 57-68

XII. Epilogue: Towards an Autonomous Lfegal Regime of Pro -
visional Measures of Prfotection 69-76

*

16

8 CIJ1048.indb 28 13/06/14 12:44 243 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

I.P rolegomena

1. I regret not to be able to concur with the decision taken by the
majority of the Court (first resolutory point) not to indicate new provi -
sional measures in the cas d’espèce. My perception is that the Court

majority’s reasoning and decision, data venia, suffer from an ineluctable
incongruence: having admitted that there is a change in the situation
(paras. 25, 31 and 36), it extracts no consequence therefrom, as in its view
“the conditions have not been fulfilled” for it to modify the mefasures it
indicated in its previous Order of 8 March 2011 (para. 36). In limiting

itself to simply reaffirming its previous provisional measures, it exprfesses
its concerns at the new situation created in the disputed area (para. 37),
with the presence therein no longer of personnel (whether civilian, police
or security), but rather of “organized groups” of individuals.

2. My position is, a contrario sensu, that the changing circumstances
surrounding the present cases (joined), opposing Costa Rica to Nicaragua
and vice versa, concerning, respectively, Certain Activities Carried Out by
Nicaragua in the Border Area, and the Construction of a Road in Costa Rica

along the San Juan River, require from the International Court of Justice
(ICJ), in the light of the relevant provisions of its interna corporis 1, the
exercise of its powers to indicate new provisional measures in order to
face the new situation, which is one of urgency and of probability of

irreparable harm, in the form of bodily injury or death of the persons
staying in the disputed area.
3. Given the high importance that I attach to the issues raised in the
present Order, I feel obliged to present and leave on the records, in thfe
present dissenting opinion, the foundations of my position on the matterf.

I thus take the care to examine herein its aspects, as to the facts and fas to
the law. I shall start by reviewing the concomitant new requests of addif -
tional provisional measures of protection on the part of Costa Rica as
well as Nicaragua, and the position taken by them, in their respective
requests, as to the purported expansion of provisional measures of pro -

tection. After reviewing the technical missions in loco pursuant to the
1971 Ramsar Convention, I shall consider the requisites of urgency, and
risk or probability of harm (in the form of bodily injury or death, of fthe
persons staying in the disputed area), before proceeding to a general

assessment of the requests of Costa Rica and of Nicaragua.

4. I shall then turn my attention to the aspects of the matter as to the
law, as I perceive them, namely: (a) the effects of provisional measures of
protection beyond the strict territorialist outlook ; (b) the beneficiaries of

provisional measures of protection, beyond the traditional inter-State
dimension ; and (c) the effects of provisional measures of protection

1Article 76 (1) of the Rules of Court, in addition to Article 41 of its Statute.

17

8 CIJ1048.indb 30 13/06/14 12:44 244 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

beyond the traditional inter-State dimension. The way will then be paved
for my considerations on the proper exercise of the international judicifal
function (in the present domain of provisional measures) in the form off a

rebuttal of so-called “judicial self-restraint”, or l’art de ne rien faire. Last
but not least, I shall present my concluding reflections towards an autono ‑
mous legal regime of provisional measures of protection.

II. Provisional Measures off Protection: The Concomitant New
Requests by Costa Rica and Nicaragua

5. May it be recalled, to start with, that, on 18 November 2010, the Inter -
national Court of Justice (ICJ) was seised of a request by Costa Rica for
the indication of provisional measures in the case, opposing it to Nicaraguaf,
concerningCertain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area.

After the holding of public hearings, the ICJ issued its Order on provisional
measures of protection, of 8 March 2011, whereby it determined that

“(1) Each Party shall refrain from sending to, or maintaining in
the disputed territory, including the caño, any personnel, whether
civilian, police or security ;
(2) Notwithstanding point (1) above, Costa Rica may dispatch

civilian personnel charged with the protection of the environment to
the disputed territory, including the caño, but only in so far as it is
necessary to avoid irreparable prejudice being caused to the part of
the wetland where that territory is situated ; Costa Rica shall consult

with the Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention in regard to these
actions, give Nicaragua prior notice of them and use its best endeav -
ours to find common solutions with Nicaragua in this respect ;

(3) Each Party shall refrain from any action which might aggravate
or extend the dispute before the Court or make it more difficult to
resolve ;
(4) Each Party shall inform the Court as to its compliance with the
2
above provisional measures.”
Shortly afterwards, on 21 December 2011, Nicaragua filed a case against

Costa Rica with the ICJ, concerning the Construction of a Road in
Costa Rica along the San Juan River. Subsequently, by its Order
of 17 April 2013, the ICJ decided to join the proceedings in the two cases.
6. One month later, on 23 May 2013, Costa Rica filed a request 3for

the modification of the aforementioned Order of provisional measures off
8 March 2011. Nicaragua was invited to present written observations

2Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v.
Nicaragua), Provisional Measures, Order of 8March 2011, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 27-28.
3Request by Costa Rica for the Modification of the Court’s Order Indficating Provi -
sional Measures, doc. of 23 May 2013 [hereinafter “request by Costa Rica”].

18

8 CIJ1048.indb 32 13/06/14 12:44 245 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

concerning Costa Rica’s request . On the stipulated date (14 June 2013),
Nicaragua submitted its written observations on Costa Rica’s request,

and presented its own request for the modification of the same Order of
8 March 2011 5. Costa Rica, for its part, submitted (on 20 June 2013) its

own written observations on6Nicaragua’s request, within the stipulatefd
time-limit by the Court .
7. The Court thus had before it two requests (Costa Rica’s and Nica -

ragua’s) and the pieces it needed to proceed to its deliberation on fthe
matter. It should not pass unnoticed that, since the Court issued its Orfder
of provisional measures of 8 March 2011, there have been 16 communica -

tions submitted by the Parties to the Court in relation to compliance wifth
the Order . This discloses the importance ascribed by both contending
Parties, Costa Rica and Nicaragua, to the provisional measures of protec -

tion in the two respective cases, the proceedings of which having been
joined by the ICJ 8.

III. Technical Missions in l oco Pursuant to the

Ramsar Convention

8. The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Espe -

cially as Waterfowl Habitat (known as the Ramsar Convention, adopted
in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, and entered into force on 21 December 1975) 9
states in its preamble that “the conservation of wetlands and their flfora

and fauna can be ensured by combining far-sighted national policies with
co-ordinated international action”. Both Costa Rica and Nicaragua are
parties to it10. In its Order of 8 March 2011 , the Court pointed out that,

pursuant to Article 2 of the Ramsar Convention, Costa Rica has desig -
nated the “Humedal Caribe Noreste” wetland “for inclusion in [tfhe] List

of Wetlands of International Importance (. . .) maintained by the [con -
tinuing] bureau” established by the Convention, while Nicaragua has pfro -

4 On 24 May 2013.
5
Written observations of Nicaragua and Request by Nicaragua for the Modififcation
of the Order in Light of the Joinder of the Proceedings in the Two Casesf, doc. of 14 June
2013 [hereinafter “written observations of Nicaragua”].
6 Written observations of Costa Rica on Nicaragua’s Request for the Modification of
the Court’s Order Indicating Provisional Measures in the Costa Ricav. Nicaragua case,
doc. of 20 June 2013 [hereinafter “written observations of Costa Rica”].
7 Parties’ communications to the Court in 2011, 2012 and 2013.
8
9 Pursuant to the Court’s two Orders of 17 April 2013.
Cf. United Nations Treaty Series (UNTS), Vol. 996, No. I-14583, p. 245. The text of
the Ramsar Convention was amended by the Protocol of 3 December 1982 and the amend-
ments of 28 May 1987.
10Costa Rica has been a party to it since 27 April 1992, and Nicaragua since 30 November
1997. The Convention counts today (early July 2013), on 168 States Parties.
11Cf. Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v.

Nicaragua), Provisional Measures, Order of 8 March 2011, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 6.

19

8 CIJ1048.indb 34 13/06/14 12:44 246 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

ceeded likewise in respect of the “Refugio de Vida Silvestre Río Sfan
Juan” wetland, of which Harbor Head Lagoon is part (para. 79).

9. Furthermore, the Court, having acknowledged that the disputed
area is situated in the “Humedal Caribe Noreste” wetland, in respefct of

which Costa Rica bears obligations under the Ramsar Convention, fur -
ther considered that,

“pending delivery of the Judgment on the merits, Costa Rica must be
in a position to avoid irreparable prejudice being caused to the part
of that wetland where that territory is situated; (. . .) for that purpose
Costa Rica must be able to dispatch civilian personnel charged with

the protection of the environment to the said territory, including the
caño, but only in so far as it is necessary to ensure that no such pre-
judice be caused ; and (. . .) Costa Rica shall consult with the Secre -

tariat of the Ramsar Convention in regard to these actions, give
Nicaragua prior notice of them and use its best endeavours to find
common solutions with Nicaragua in this respect” (para. 80).

10. In this line of reasoning, the Court ordered, in the resolutory
point (2) of the dispositif of its aforementioned Order, that :

“Notwithstanding point (1) above, Costa Rica may dispatch civil -

ian personnel charged with the protection of the environment to the
disputed territory, including the caño, but only in so far as it is nec -
essary to avoid irreparable prejudice being caused to the part of the
wetland where that territory is situated; Costa Rica shall consult with

the Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention in regard to these actions,
give Nicaragua prior notice of them and use its best endeavours to
find common solutions with Nicaragua in this respect.”

Thus, it stems from the Court’s Order of 8 March 2011, that, pursuant
12
to the Ramsar Convention (cf. Article 3 (2) ), Costa Rica has a duty
thereunder to monitor the disputed area which forms part of a protected f
wetland registered by Costa Rica under the Ramsar Convention.

12Article 3 (2) of the Ramsar Convention stipulates that :

“Each Contracting Party shall arrange to be informed at the earliest fpossible
time if the ecological character of any wetland in its territory and included in the
List has changed, is changing or is likely to change as the result of tefchnological
developments, pollution or other human interference. Information on suchf changes
shall be passed without delay to the organization or government responsifble for the
continuing bureau duties specified in Article 8.”

20

8 CIJ1048.indb 36 13/06/14 12:44 247 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

11. According to those communications submitted to the ICJ, there
have been three technical visits, conducted by Costa Rica in the disputed
13
area , in accordance with the Order (resolutory point (2), supra). The
first visit in loco took place in April 2011 14, in order to determine the situ-

ation of the wetland and to take “those actions deemed necessary withf the
aim of avoiding an irreparable damage to the wetlands indicated by the
Court in its providence” 15. It is reported that the mission acknowledged

“the valuable technical work accomplished at the site during the day fof
5 April, which allowed them to gather the technical elements necessary in f
order to determine the actual condition of the wetland”. It is also sftated

that “because of the lack of security measures to guarantee the persofnal
safety of the experts as a result of actions outside the control of the fGov -
ernment of Costa Rica, the decision was taken not to return to the ground
16
area and only use the over flight option to compliment the informationf” .
12. This joint Ramsar-Costa Rica first visit included members of the
Technical Advisory Mission of the Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention

and Costa Rican civilian technicians in charge of the protection of the
environment 17. Costa Rica further alleges that, during this visit,

Costa Rican personnel and members of the Ramsar Mission were “aggres -
sively harassed by Nicaraguan protestors and journalists”. The missiofn
acknowledged “the valuable technical work” accomplished on 5 April

2011, which enabled them to gather the technical elements necessary “fin
order to determine the actual condition of the wetland”. Yet, “becfause of
the lack of security measures to guarantee the personal safety of the

experts as a result of actions outside the control of the Government of f
Costa Rica”, Costa Rica adds, “the decision was taken not to return to
the ground area” 18.

13. The second visit in loco took place in January 2012. Costa Rica

informed the Court that its purpose was to “continue the assessment of the
conditions of that wetland in order to avoid irreparable damage” 1. Costa
Rica claims that the visit formed “part of the action plan proposed tfo the
20
Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention, and agreed to by the Secretariat” .

13
Nicaragua’s communication to the Court of 7 April 2011 ; Costa Rica’s communica-
tion to the Court of 11 April 2011 ; Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 13 April
2011; Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 30 January 2012; Costa Rica’s commu-
nication to the Court of 1 March 2013.
14Nicaragua’s communication to the Court of 7 April 201;1Costa Rica’s communication
to the Court of 11 April 2011, and Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 13 April 2011.
15
16Nicaragua’s communication to the Court of 7 April 2011.
Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 13 April 2011; there was the correspon-
dence “Minutes, Co-ordination Meeting, Advisory Technical Mission of fthe Secretariat of
the Ramsar Convention and Representatives of the Ministry for the Environment, Enerfgy
and Telecommunications”.
17Nicaragua’s communication to the Court of 7 April 2011.
18Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 13 April 2011.
19
20Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 30 January 2012.
Ibid.

21

8 CIJ1048.indb 38 13/06/14 12:44 248 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

14. The third visit occurred in March 2013, Costa Rica having informed
the Court that its civilian personnel charged with the protection of thef

environment were to conduct a visit on site. It further communicated to f
the Court two correspondences, whereby Costa Rica informed the
Ramsar Convention Secretariat and Nicaragua of this site visit 2. And it

also reported that this third technical site visit was “carried out in accor -
dance with the Working Plan” contained in the report presented by
Costa Rica to the Ramsar Secretariat on 28 October 2011, which was
approved by the Ramsar Secretariat in a note dated 7 November 2011.

The stated purpose of the visit was to “avoid irreparable prejudice to that
part of the northeast Caribbean Wetland” 22.

IV. The Position of the Partfies as to the Purportedf Expansion
of Provisional Measures: The Request of Costa Rica

15. In its request of 23 May 2013 to “modify” the Order of provi -
sional measures of 8 March 2011, Costa Rica calls for three new measures
to be added to it, namely, to order :

“(1) the immediate and unconditional withdrawal of all Nicaraguan
persons from the Area indicated by the Court in its Order on
provisional measures of 8 March 2011 ;

(2) that both Parties take all necessary measures to prevent any per -
son (other than the persons whose presence is authorized by par -
agraph 86 (2) of the Order) coming from their respective territory
from accessing the area indicated by the Court in its Order on

provisional measures of 8 March 2011 ; and

(3) That each Party shall inform the Court as to its compliance with

the above provisional me23ures within two weeks of the issue of
the modified Order.”

16. It is, in fact, in my perception, a request for an expansion of
provisional measures of protection. Costa Rica contends that its request

is prompted by “Nicaragua’s sending to the area indicated by the
Court in its Order [. . .] and maintaining thereon large numbers of
persons, and by the activities undertaken by these persons affecting that
territory and its ecology” (para. 2). It adds that there is a change in

the situation (para. 4), in the light of Article 76 (2) of the Rules of

21
22Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 1 March 2013.
23Ibid.
Request by Costa Rica.

22

8 CIJ1048.indb 40 13/06/14 12:44 249 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

Court . Costa Rica further claims that the presence of Nicaraguan

nationals in the disputed area causes a risk of irremediable harm in thef
form of bodily injury or death (paras. 18-19). Costa Rica at last contends
that there is urgency, since in its view there is a real risk that, withfout
such modification of the Court’s Order, action prejudicial to Costa

Rica’s rights will occur before the Court renders its decision on the merits
(paras. 18-20).
17. Costa Rica purports to explain further its requested new provi -

sional measures. It alleges that Nicaragua sponsors the continuous pres -
ence, in the disputed area, of a large number of Nicaraguan nationals, bfy
its operation of an “academic” programme whereby they are sent thefreto
to carry out activities. In the annexes to its request, Costa Rica refers to

press reports on the matter, and adds that it has kept the Court informefd
about these activities, has formally protested to Nicaragua against themf,
and has exhausted all efforts to resolve the dispute by diplomatic meafns,

which have failed. Costa Rica claims that the activities at issue have con -
sisted in :(a) deliberately interfering with a site visit ; (b) carrying out
works in an attempt to keep the artificial caño open ; (c) engaging in

uncontrolled planting of trees in the area ; (d) raising of cattle in the
area ; and(e) erecting fences in the area to the north of, and alongside,
the caño (paras. 4-9) 25. This presence of Nicaraguan nationals in the dis -
puted area, and their described activities thereon, are, in Costa Rica’s

view, in breach of the Court’s Order, and create a new situation, reqfuir -
ing the “modification” of the Court’s Order (paras. 10-14) — in the sense
of the expansion of the provisional measures of protection.

18. In its written observations, Nicaragua, in turn, retorts that
Costa Rica’s request, in its view, is “groundless”, as there has beenf no

change in the situation that would call for a “modification” of the Court’s
Order in the way described by Costa Rica, and it has not breached the
provisional measures indicated by the Court (paras. 1-3). Nicaragua adds

that the presence of private individuals is not a new issue under the

24 Article 76 of the Rules of Court reads as follows :

“1. At the request of a party the Court may, at any time before the final fjudgment in
the case, revoke or modify any decision concerning provisional measures if, in its
opinion, some change in the situation justifies such revocation or modfification.

2. Any application by a party proposing such a revocation or modification shall

specify the change in the situation considered to be relevant.

3. Before taking any decision under paragraph 1 of this Article the Court shall afford
the parties an opportunity of presenting their observations on the subjefct.”
25 Costa Rica further recalls that Nicaragua maintains the position that the Court’s
Order does not prevent private citizens from accessing the area and carrfying activities

thereon; in its Counter-Memorial, Nicaragua recognizes the presence of its nationals in
the area. Costa Rica controverts Nicaragua’s views (Request by Costa Rica, paras. 10-14).

23

8 CIJ1048.indb 42 13/06/14 12:44 250 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

Court’s Order (para. 13). And as to the presence of members of the
Guardabarranco Environment Movement referred to by Costa Rica,
Nicaragua claims that Costa Rica did not ask, in its request for the indi -

cation of provisional measures, for the withdrawal of private individuals,
and adds that the members of the Guardabarranco Environment Move -
ment are “private individuals”, as conceded by Costa Rica ; it alleges that
they are neither part of the Nicaraguan Government, nor are they acting f

under Nicaragua’s control (paras. 6-14).
19. In its written observations on Nicaragua’s request, Costa Rica reit -
erates its perceived change in the situation, pointing out that Nicaragufa
does not deny, in its own written observations, that it is sponsoring,

sending and maintaining large number of persons in the area (para. 7). In
Costa Rica’s view, the unlawful presence of Nicaraguan nationals in the
area is not in dispute. Costa Rica then claims that this is a new situation
that did not exist at the time of the oral hearings on provisional measufres,

as then only military personnel were in the area; the Court did not implic -
itly recognize in its Order of 8 March 2011 that private individuals could
enter, remain on, and carry out unsupervised, unpoliced activities in thfe
area. Costa Rica maintains that the presence of Nicaraguan nationals in

the area is unlawful,26nd increases the risk of incidents likely to causfe
irremediable harm .

V. Urgency and Risk of Harm f
in the Form of Bodily Injfury or Death

20. In its Order of provisional measures of protection of 8 March 2011

the ICJ, recalling the competing claims over the disputed area and Nica -
ragua’s intention to carry out thereon, “if only occasionally”,f certain act-i
vities, noted, in paragraph 75, the ensuing risk of irremediable harm in
the form of bodily injury or death. The Court stated that such situation

created
“an imminent risk of irreparable prejudice to Costa Rica’s claimed

title to sovereignty over the said territory and to the rights deriving f
therefrom; (. . .) this situation moreover gives rise to a real and pres -
ent risk of incidents liable to cause irremediable harm in the form of
bodily injury or death” (para. 75).

Under these circumstances, the Court decided that provisional measures
27
should be indicated .

26Written observations of Costa Rica, paras. 25-29.
27Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nica ‑
ragua), Provisional Measures, Order of 8 March 2011, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 24-25,
para. 76.

24

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21. The ICJ thus took into account the risk of incidents likely to cause
irremediable harm in the form of bodily injury or death, and then orderefd
the requested measures. From the arguments more recently submitted to
the Court, it seems that similar concerns about a risk of incidents thatf

could cause irremediable harm in the form of bodily injury or death callf
for additional provisional measures to be adopted by the Court. To this
effect, Costa Rica claims that the presence of Nicaraguan nationals in the
disputed territory poses the risk of such irremediable harm 2. In its

request, Costa Rica sustains that there is “a real and present risk of inci -
dents liable to cause irremediable harm in the form of bodily injury or
death” (para. 18) ; in particular, it links the presence of Nicaraguan
nationals in the disputed area to the risk of irremediable harm in the fform
of bodily injury or death, and it adds that there is “real urgency”. There

is, furthermore, in its view, “a serious threat to its internationally-
protected wetlands and forests” (ibid.).
22. In its written observations, Costa Rica also argues that there is
urgency. Costa Rica links the urgency of the situation to the “real and

present risk of incidents liable to cause irremediable harm in the form fof
bodily injury or death” in the disputed area (para. 29), and stresses this
risk (paras. 25 and 28). Costa Rica asserts that, pursuant to the Court’s
Order, it has prevented its police force and residents from entering thef

area, while Nicaragua has refused to ensure that people from its territofry
do not enter the area, and continues to maintain therein a constant presf -
ence of “substantial numbers of Nicaraguan persons”. Costa Rica then
submits that “[t]here is a real risk that, without a modification off the
Court’s Order of 8 March 2011, action prejudicial to the rights of

Costa Rica will occur before the Court has the opportunity to render its
final decision on the questions for determination set out in the Applifca -
tion” (para. 19).

23. For its part, in its written observations Nicaragua retorts that,
after three technical visits to the site, Costa Rica has in its view failed to
demonstrate the existence of any “serious threat” to the disputed terri -
tory, or any “incidents liable to cause irremediable harm in the form of

bodily injury or death” (para. 37). It adds that Costa Rica first made such
assertions in its Memorial, but they had been rebutted by Nicaragua in ifts
Counter-Memorial. Thus, Nicaragua denies any urgency in the situation,
and adds that Costa Rica’s new allegations could be more properly
addressed in the merits phase. Nicaragua claims that, since the Order, ift

has acted with due diligence to ensure that the area remains free of Nicfa -
raguan personnel ; as to the presence in the area of members of the
Guardabarranco Environment Movement referred to by Costa Rica,

28Request by Costa Rica, paras. 18-20 ; it further alleges that there have lately been
incidents in the area, where Nicaraguan nationals have subjected Costa Rican envi-on
mental personnel to harassment and verbal abuse, posing a risk of incidefnts that might
cause bodily injury or death.

25

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Nicaragua argues that Costa Rica had not asked, in its earlier request

for the indication of provisional measures, for the withdrawal of “privatfe
individuals” (paras. 6-14).

VI. The Position of the Partfies as to the Purportedf Expansion

of Provisional Measures: The Request of Nicaraguaf

24. On 14 June 2013, Nicaragua submitted its written observations on
Costa Rica’s request, and made its own request for modification of the
29
Court’s Order on the basis of an alleged new factual situation, that is,
the construction of a 160-km-long road along the San Juan River and the
joinder of the proceedings. Nicaragua argues, in its written observationfs

and request, that, despite its call on Costa Rica for halting the construc -
tion without an appropriate transboundary environmental impact assess -
ment, Costa Rica announced that the work is about to be restarted.

Nicaragua argues that the construction of the road has resulted in
increased sedimentation and pollution of the river, adverse impact on
water quality, aquatic life, navigation and other general uses of the rifver

by the population (paras. 43-46).

25. Nicaragua further argues that the Court’s Order of 8 March 2011

should be adjusted to take into account the “harmful environmental efffect
of the works in and along the San Juan River on the fragile fluvial ecosys -
tem (including protected nature preserves in and along the river)”,f which

cover the area in dispute located at the mouth of the river. Nicaragua aflso
refers to the UNITAR/UNOSAT report observing that the area in dis -
pute is being affected by the accumulation of fluvial sediments including

those of bank erosion, attributable in part by sediments transmitted to f
the river by the road construction activities. Nicaragua maintains that fthe
Order should be adjusted to take this into account. Both Parties should f

29
Nicaragua requests that the provisional measure ordered by the Court in fresolutory
point (2) be modified to read :
“Notwithstanding point (1) above, both Parties may dispatch civilian personnel
charged with the protection of the environment to the disputed territory, including

the caño, but only in so far as it is necessary to avoid irreparable prejudice being
caused to the part of the wetland where that territory is situated ; both Parties shall
consult in regard to these actions and use their best endeavours to find common solu
tions with the other Party in this respect.”

The third measure ordered by the Court should be modified to read as ffollows:
“Each Party shall refrain from any action, which might aggravate or efxtend the
dispute before the Court in either of the joined cases or make it more dfifficult to
resolve, and will take those actions necessary for avoiding such aggravaftion or exten
sion of the dispute before the Court.”

26

8 CIJ1048.indb 48 13/06/14 12:44 253 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

be precluded from undertaking any activities that unilaterally increase fthe

“accumulation of fluvial sediments” in the area (paras. 47-52).

26. As to the joinder of proceedings (cf. supra), Nicaragua claims that
the Order should be made applicable to the two joined cases, in relationf

to all activities by either Party that might harm the environment in thef
area, in order not to aggravate the dispute. Nicaragua recalls a list off
urgent measures to prevent further damages to the river which it describfed
in its Memorial in the case concerning the Construction of a Road in
Costa Rica along the San Juan River : reducing the rate and frequency of

road fill failure, slumps and landslides ; eliminating or significantly reduc -
ing the risk of future erosion and sediment delivery at all stream crossings
along route 1856 ; immediately reducing road surface erosion and sedi -
ment delivery; controlling surface erosion and resultant sediment delivery
from bare soil areas (paras. 47-52).

27. For its part, in its written observations on Nicaragua’s request,
Costa Rica argues that the request at issue must be rejected on a number

of reasons (para. 6). First, the Court had explicitly held that “Costa
Rica’s claim to title over Isla Portillos was ‘plausible’”, fwhereas it had
made “no such finding with respect to Nicaragua” (paras. 7-10). Sec -
ondly, the Court had explicitly held that Costa Rica “must be able to
dispatch civilian personnel charged with the protection of the environ -

ment” to the area, whereas it made no such indication for Nicaragua
(paras. 11-13). Thirdly, only Costa Rica, and not Nicaragua, has an
obligation to monitor the area forming part of a protected wetland regisf -
tered by Costa Rica under the Ramsar Convention (paras. 14-18).
Fourthly, Costa Rica adds that the basis for the Court’s Order was that

neither Party should send persons to the area or maintain them there
(paras. 19-21).

28. Fifthly, Costa Rica further claims that the sponsoring of activities
calculated to change the status quo of the area is completely inconsistent

with the provisional measures actually indicated by the Court and with
the whole object and purpose of provisional measures in general
(paras. 22-24). Sixthly, Nicaragua’s proposed modification implies the
possibility of concomitant exercise of public environmental activities bfy
two different States in the same area, increasing the risk of serious inci -

dents (paras. 25-29). Seventhly, Costa Rica argues that Nicaragua’s pro -
posed deletion of the Ramsar Secretariat from the provisional measure
(second resolutory point of the Order) is an attempt to vitiate the rofle of
that supervisory organ in supporting Costa Rica in the environmental
recovery process of the disputed area in line with the Ramsar Conven -

tion, to which Nicaragua is also a party (paras. 30-31). Finally, Costa Rica

27

8 CIJ1048.indb 50 13/06/14 12:44 254 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

claims that the case concerning the Construction of a Road in Costa Rica
along the San Juan River, as well as the joinder of proceedings of this case

with those of the case concerning Certain Activities Carried Out by Nica ‑
ragua in the Border Area, in its view are not valid reasons to modify the
previous provisional measure and to authorize the presence of Nicara -

guan personnel charged30ith the protection of the environment in the
area (paras. 32-33) .

VII. General Assessment of tfhe Requests
of Costa Rica and of Nicafragua

1. Costa Rica’s Request

29. In support of its request, Costa Rica recalls that, at the time of the
public hearings preceding the previous Order of the ICJ on provisional
measures, it claimed that Nicaraguan personnel should leave the disputedf

area, as it then appeared that only military personnel was present therefin.
At that time, it did not seem that there was a concern with the presencef
of “private individuals”. Indeed, it appears that there is a changfe in the

situation. In its written observations, Nicaragua does not seem to objecft
to this assertion by Costa Rica, as it claims that Costa Rica did not
request at that time, provisional measures in respect of the withdrawal fof
“private individuals” from the area (cf. para. 11).

30. The situation, as it appears today, from the evidence and the argu -
ments submitted to the Court, is that “private individuals”, holdifng Nica-

raguan flags, are present in the disputed area. Again, in its written f
observations, Nicaragua does not seem to contest this fact (cf. paras. 11-
14) 31. It thus appears that there is indeed a change in the situation. The
change seems to lie in the fact that, at the time of the issuance of thef

Court’s Order of 8 March 2011, there seemed to be no Nicaraguan pri -
vate citizens in the disputed area, but only the presence of Nicaraguan f
military personnel. The fact that the Court mentioned in the operative
paragraphs of the Order the withdrawal of Nicaraguan personnel, reflecfts

the situation as it stood at the time of the adoption of its Order of
8 March 2011.

30 Costa Rica further argues that the proper avenue for Nicaragua to proceed withf its
request for the indication of provisional measures in the case it lodgedf with the Court is by
way of a new Application for the indication of provisional measures, andf not by asking for
a modification of the Court’s Order of 8 March 2011 (paras. 34-39). Costa Rica adds that

the mitigation works for the protection of the environment that it is unfdertaking on the
road (entirely on Costa Rican territory) are an issue for the merits phase of the proceedings
in the case lodged by Nicaragua, not to be dealt with by way of a requesft for modification
of 31e Court’s Order of 8 March 2011 (paras. 40-41).
And cf. also written observations of Costa Rica, para. 26.

28

8 CIJ1048.indb 52 13/06/14 12:44 255 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

31. It does not necessarily mean that the Court, by using the word

“personnel”, was thereby allowing the presence of any and all Nicafra -
guan persons other than civilian, security or police personnel. Accord -
ingly, the presence of private individuals in the disputed area does notf
seem to be in line with the objective of safeguarding “Costa Rica’s claimed
title to sovereignty over the said territory and to the rights deriving fthere-

from” or avoiding “incidents liable to cause irremediable harm in the
form of bodily injury or death”, in the line of its reasoning in para -
graph 75 of the Order of 8 March 2011.

32. Thus, on the basis of the foregoing, the presence of private indi -
viduals in the disputed area amounts to a change in the original situatifon,
as presented to the Court in the public hearings on provisional measuresf
which preceded its Order of 8 March 2011. The presence of “private indi -
viduals” does not seem to be in line with the reasoning of the Court, nor

with the objectives of the provisional measures it indicated, in its Order of
8 March 2011.
33. It seems uncontested that there are currently Nicaraguan nationals
present in the disputed area, conforming a new situation posing a risk off
incidents in the disputed area. With the change in the situation now cref -

ated (on the basis of the documents and arguments presented to the
Court), there appears to be a risk of irremediable harm in the form of f
bodily injury or death (in the terms of paragraph 75 of its Order of
8 March 2011) that would warrant a “modification” — or, more pre -
cisely, an expansion — of the Order, so as to avoid that risk. It further

appears that there is urgency, in view of a further risk of damage to thfe
disputed area.

2. Nicaragua’s Request

34. The questions that Nicaragua raises in its request for “modifica -
tion” or expansion of the Court’s previous Order of 8 March 2011, are

centred on important points. In fact, the relevance of the construction fof
the road to the examination of the whole dispute between the Parties has
been recognized by the Court in the previous Order on the joinder of
proceedings, of 17 April 2013, wherein the Court stated that :

“A decision to join the proceedings will allow the Court to address
simultaneously the totality of the various interrelated and contested
issues raised by the Parties, including any questions of fact or law that

are common to the disputes presented. In the view of the Court, hear-
ing and deciding the two cases together will have significant advan -
tages. The Court does not expect any undue delay in rendering its
Judgment in the two cases.” (Para. 17.)

29

8 CIJ1048.indb 54 13/06/14 12:44 256 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

35. Be that as it may, the construction of the road, albeit an important

question, does not appear to be a matter to be treated in an Order for tfhe
“modification” or expansion of a previous Order of provisional mfeasures
(of 8 March 2011). The Court does not seem to be satisfied that the con -
struction of the road, as allegedly an entirely new issue, is endowed wifth
urgency, so as to be treated in the form of a new provisional measure.

May it be recalled that Nicaragua brought this issue before the Court
on 21 December 2011, when it lodged the case concerning the Construc ‑
tion of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River with the Court.

36. Moreover, the joinder of the proceedings of the cases concerning
Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area and the
Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River, does not
appear by itself to support a “modification” of the Order of 8 March
2011. This Order was based on the situation as then argued by the Par -

ties, concerning the disputed area. It rested upon an assessment by the f
ICJ that the situation, as presented to it, gave rise to “a real and fpresent
risk of incidents liable to cause irremediable harm in the form of bodilfy
injury or death” ; on this basis, the Court decided to indicate the provi -
sional measures of protection appropriate to that situation.

37. Thus, the joinder of proceedings in the two aforementioned cases
does not amount to a change of the situation, as presented to the Court f
at the time of the hearings that led to the adoption of its Order of 8 March
2011; nor does it seem to amount to a new fact that would warrant a

“modification” of that Order. Keeping in mind the foregoing, andf
acknowledging that the questions raised by Nicaragua concerning the
construction of the road along the San Juan River are relevant, the best
course to take is to deal with them in the merits phase of the case con -
cerning the Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River.

VIII. Effects of Provisional Mfeasures
of Protection beyond tfhe Strict Territorialfist Outlook

38. The factual context before the Court takes us beyond the tradi -
tional outlook of State territorial sovereignty. The concerns expressed f
before the Court encompass living conditions of people in their natural f
habitat, and the required environmental protection. International case

law on the matter (of distinct international tribunals) has so far soufght to
clarify the juridical nature of provisional measures, stressing its essentially
preventive character. In effect, the likelihood or probability of irreparable
damage, and the urgency of a situation, become evident when, e.g., a
growing number of people are about to be injured or murdered, as in

cases concerning armed conflicts (cf. infra). Whenever ordered provisional

30

8 CIJ1048.indb 56 13/06/14 12:44 257 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

measures protect rights of individuals, they appear endowed with a
32
character, more than precautionary, truly33utelary , besides preserving
the parties’ (States’) rights at stake .

39. The circumstances of certain cases before the Court have led this
latter, in its decisions on provisional measures, to shift its attentionf on to

the protection of people in territory (e.g., the case of the Frontier Dispute
(Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali), 1986 ; the case of the Land and Mari ‑
time Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria),
1996; the case of Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Demo ‑

cratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), 2000 ; the case concerning the
Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Fo▯rms
of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), 2008 —

cf. infra). In those decisions, among others, the ICJ became attentive also
to the fate of persons.

40. The ICJ thus looked (moved) beyond the strict territorialist out -
look. The fact is that, in successive cases lodged with the Court, the bfen -
eficiaries of provisional measures of protection are identified wellf beyond
the traditional inter-State dimension. The present cases concerning Cer ‑

tain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area, and the Con ‑
struction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River, provide yet
new illustrations to this effect, in so far as the persons currently found in

the disputed area are concerned.

41. It should not pass unnoticed that provisional measures of protec -
tion have lately invited the Court to move its reasoning beyond the strifct

territorialist approach, as I observed in my separate opinion in the recfent
Order of the Court of provisional measures of protection in the case of f
the Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the Case

concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand) (Cambo ‑
dia v. Thailand) (Provisional Measures, Order of 18 July 2011, I.C.J. Rep‑
orts 2011 (II), p. 537) [hereinafter Request for Interpretation] after

32
Cf. R. St. J. MacDonald, “Interim Measures in International Law, with Special
Reference to the European System for the Protection of Human Rights”,f 52 Zeitschrift für
ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht (1993), pp. 703-740 ; A. A. Cançado Trin
dade, “Les mesures provisoires de protection dans la jurisprudence def la Cour inter-
américaine des droits de l’homme”, in Mesures conservatoires et droits fondamentaux (eds.
G. Cohen-Jonathan and J.-F. Flauss), Brussels, Bruylant/Nemesis, 2005, pp. 145-163, and
in 4 Revista do Instituto Brasileiro de Direitos Humanos (2003), pp. 13-25 ; A. Saccucci, Le
Misure Provvisorie nella Protezione Internazionale dei Diritii Umani, Torino, Giappichelli
Ed., 2006, pp. 103-241 and 447-507.
33Cf. E. Hambro, “The Binding Character of the Provisional Measures of Protec -
tion Indicated by the International Court of Justice”, in Rechtsfragen der Internationalen

Organisation — Festschrift für Hans Wehberg (eds. W. Schätzel and H.-J. Schlochauer),
Frankfurt a/M, 1956, pp. 152-171.

31

8 CIJ1048.indb 58 13/06/14 12:44 258 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

dwelling upon the relationship between time and law, I moved to consid -

erations pertaining to space and law, relating (territorial) space to fthe
human element of statehood : the population (paras. 43-44 and 62-63).
International law in a way endeavours to be anticipatory in the regulation
of social facts, so as to avoid disorder and chaos, as well as irreparabfle
harm; we are here before the raison d’être of provisional measures of pro-

tection, i.e., to prevent and avoid irreparable harm in situations of grfavity
and urgency. Endowed with a notorious preventive character, they are
anticipatory in nature, looking forward in time ; they thus disclose the
preventive dimension of the safeguard of rights (para. 64).

42. In my separate opinion, I sustained that there was epistemologi -
cally no impossibility or inadequacy for provisional measures, of the kifnd
of the ones indicated in that Order, to extend protection — as they

should — also to human life, as well as to cultural and spiritual world
heritage. In fact, the reassuring effects of the provisional measures findi -
cated in that recent Order of the ICJ were precisely that they extended f
protection not only to the territorial zone at issue, but also, by asserfting
the prohibition of the use or threat of force — pursuant to a fundamental

principle of international law — to the life and personal integrity of
human beings who live or happen to be in that zone or near it, as well afs
to the Temple of Preah Vihear itself, situated in the aforementioned zone,
and all that the Temple represents (para. 66).

43. I then added, in my separate opinion in the case of the Request for
Interpretation (provisional measures), that the Court should be prepared,
in our days, to give proper weight to the human factor (para. 97), thus
bringing people and territory together ; and I pondered that :

“Not everything can be subsumed under territorial sovereignty.
The fundamental human right to life is not at all subsumed under

State sovereignty. The human right not to be forcefully displaced or
evacuated from one’s home is not to be equated with territorial sov -
ereignty. The Court needs to adjust its conceptual framework and its
language to the new needs of protection, when it decides to indicate

or order the provisional measures requested from it.
If we add, to the aforementioned, the protection of cultural and
spiritual world heritage (cf. supra), for the purposes of provisional
measures, the resulting picture will appear even more complex, and
the strict territorialist approach even more unsatisfactory. The human

factor is the most prominent one here. It shows how multifaceted, in
these circumstances, the protection provided by provisional measures
can be. It goes well beyond State territorial sovereignty, bringing
territory, people and human values together.” (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II),
pp. 599-600, paras. 99-100.)

32

8 CIJ1048.indb 60 13/06/14 12:44 259 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

IX. The Beneficiaries of Profvisional Measures of Prfotection,
beyond the Traditionafl Inter-State Dimension

44. In the international litigation before the ICJ, only States, as con -

tending parties, can request provisional measures. Yet, in recent years,f
such requests have invoked rights which go beyond the strictly inter-State
dimension 34. In successive cases, the ultimate beneficiaries were meant to
be the individuals concerned, and to that end the requesting States

advanced their arguments to obtain the Court’s Orders of provisional f
measures of protection, in distinct contexts. Thus, in its Order
of 15 December 1979, in the Hostages case (United States Diplomatic and
Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), Provisional
Measures, Order of 15 December 1979, I.C.J. Reports 1979, p. 7) the

Court took into account the State’s arguments to protect the life, frfeedom
and personal security of its nationals (para. 37), and indicated provisional
measures of protection of those rights (resolutory point I (A)), after refer -
ring to the “imperatives obligations” under the 1961 Vienna Convention

on Diplomatic Relations and the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular
Relations (para. 41), and pondering that

“continuance of the situation the subject of the present request exposes
the human beings concerned to privation, hardship, anguish and even

danger to life and health and thus to a serious possibility of irrepara -
ble harm” (para. 42).

45. Half a decade later, in its Order of 10 May 1984, in Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America) (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 169), the ICJ indicated provi -
sional measures (resolutory point B (2)) after taking note of the request -

ing State’s argument calling for protection of the rights to life, to freedom
and to personal security of Nicaraguan citizens (para. 32). Shortly after -
wards, in its celebrated Order of 10 January 1986 in the Frontier Dispute
(Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali) (I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 3), duly com -

plied with by the contending Parties, the Court’s Chamber took note off
the concern expressed by the Parties with the personal integrity and saffety
of those persons who were in the zone under dispute (paras. 6 and 21).
One decade later, in its Order of 15 March 1996 in the case of the Land
and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v.

Nigeria) (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 58), the Court took note of the
requesting State’s warning that continuing armed clashes in the regiofn

34In the triad Breard/LaGrand/Avena cases, for example, provisional measures were
requested to prevent an irreparable damage to the right to life of the cfonvicted persons
(stay of execution), in the circumstances of their cases (cf. provisional measures in the
Court’s Orders of 9 April 1998, 3 March 1999, and 5 February 2003, respectively).

33

8 CIJ1048.indb 62 13/06/14 12:44 260 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

were notably causing “irremediable loss of life as well as human sufffering
and substantial material damage” (para. 19).

46. In deciding to order provisional measures, the ICJ pondered that
the rights at stake were not only claimed State rights, but also rights of
the persons concerned (paras. 38-39 and 42). In fact, in the circumstances

of that case, the victimization of human beings resulting from armed conf -
flicts of greater intensity, I would say that the purpose of the provifsional
measures was to extend protection mainly to persons. Another Order illus -
trative of the overcoming of the strictly inter-State dimension in the

acknowledgement of the rights to be preserved by means of provisional
measures pertains to the case of Armed Activities on the Territory of the
Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) (I.C.J. Reports
2000, p. 111). In its Order of 1 July 2000 in this case, the ICJ took into

account the requesting State’s denunciation of alleged “human righfts vio -
lations” — invoking international instruments for their protection
(paras. 4-5 and 18-19), — and of its plea for protection for its inhabitants
(para. 31) as well as for its own “rights to respect for the rules of interfna -

tional humanitarian law and for the instruments relating to the protectifon
of human rights” (para. 40).

47. The Court, recognizing the pressing need to indicate provisional

measures of protection (paras. 43-44), found that it was “not disputed
that grave and repeated violations of human rights and international
humanitarian law, including massacres and other atrocities”, had beenf
committed on the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

(para. 42). The Court, accordingly, ordered both Parties inter alia to
“take all measures necessary to ensure full respect within the zone off con -
flict for fundamental human rights and for the applicable provisions off
humanitarian law” (resolutory point 3).

48. In its Order of 8 April 1993 in the case concerning the Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Geno ‑
cide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro))
(I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 3) the Court, after finding “a grave risk” to
35
human life, indicated provisional measures . In the subsequent Order
of 13 September 1993 in the same case (ibid., p. 325), the Court again
expressed its concern for the protection of human rights and the rights fof
peoples (para. 38). In its subsequent Order of 15 October 2008 in the case

35The Court, furthermore, recalled General Assembly resolution 96 (I) of 11 December
1946 (referred to in its own Advisory Opinion 1951 on Reservations to the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide), to the effect that the crime of
genocide “shocks the conscience of mankind, results in great losses to humanity (. . .) and
is contrary to moral law and to the spirit and aims of the United Nations” (I.C.J. Reports
1993, p. 23, para. 49).

34

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concerning the Application of the International Convention on the Elimina ‑
tion of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation)
(I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 412), the ICJ once again disclosed its concern for
the preservation of human life and personal integrity (paras. 122 and

142-143).

49. From the survey above it can be seen that, along the last three
decades, the ICJ has gradually overcome the strictly inter-State outlook

in the acknowledgement of the rights to be preserved by means of its
Orders of provisional measures of protection. Nostalgics of the past,
clinging to their own dogmatism, can hardly deny that, nowadays, States f
litigating before this Court, despite its inter-State contentious procedure,
have conceded that they no longer have the monopoly of the rights to be f

preserved, and, much to their credit, they recognize so, in pleading beffore
this Court on behalf also of individuals, their nationals, or even in a f
larger framework, their inhabitants.

50. Facts tend to come before the norms, requiring of these latter the
aptitude to cover new situations they are meant to regulate, with due
attention to superior values 36. Before this Court, States keep on holding
the monopoly of jus standi, as well as locus standi in judicio, in so far as

requests for provisional measures are concerned, but this has not provedf
incompatible with the preservation of the rights of the human person,
together with those of States. The ultimate beneficiaries of the rightfs to be
thereby preserved have been, not seldom and ultimately, human beings,
alongside the States wherein they live. Provisional measures indicated ifn

successive Orders of the ICJ have transcended the artificial inter-State
dimension of the past, and have come to preserve also rights whose ulti -
mate subjects (titulaires) are human beings.

X. Effects of Provisional Mfeasures of Protection f
beyond the Traditionafl Inter-State Dimension

51. In the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to
Prosecute or to Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) (Order of 28 May 2009,

I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 139), the ICJ decided not to indicate provisional
measures. On the occasion, I warned, in my extensive dissenting opinion,f
that the basic right at issue pertained to the realization of justice, which
assumed a central place in the case, one of a paramount importance,

deserving of particular attention. The strictly inter-State dimension

36Cf., inter alia, G. Morin, La révolte du droit contre le code — La révision nécessaire
des concepts juridiques, Paris, Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1945, pp. 2, 6-7 and 109-115.

35

8 CIJ1048.indb 66 13/06/14 12:44 262 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

seemed to have been overcome in the acknowledgement of the rights to
be preserved, in particular as the search for justice (the right to the realiza-
tion of justice) was (and remains to date) at stake. In that case, opfposing
Belgium to Senegal, the crucial factor was — as I stressed in my dissent -

ing opinion — the endurance by the victims of an ungrateful two-decade
search for justice, in vain until now, for the reported atrocities of thfe
Habré regime in Chad (para. 56).

52. I further pointed out in that dissenting opinion (para. 97) that, the
fact that the binding character of provisional measures of protection isf
nowadays beyond question (moving from the pre-history into the history
of the matter in the ICJ case law), on the basis of the res interpretata of
the ICJ itself, does not mean that we have reached a culminating point in

the evolution of the ICJ case law on this matter. Quite on the contrary,f I
can hardly escape the impression that we are still living the infancy off this
jurisprudential development. The review of the matter (supra) in the
present separate opinion indicates that, although some advances have

been achieved, there remains a long way to go.
53. The determination of urgency and the probability of irreparable
damage are exercises which the ICJ is nowadays used to ; yet, although
the identification of the legal nature and the material content of thef

right(s) to be preserved seem not to raise great difficulties, the safme can -
not be said of the consideration of the legal effects and consequences of
the right at issue, in particular when provisional measures are not indif -
cated or ordered by the Court. We here move to the effects of provisional
measures of protection, beyond the traditional inter-State dimension. In

this respect, there seems to remain still a long way to go.

54. In the cas d’espèce before the Court, opposing two Latin American
countries, the new provisional measures of protection envisaged in

Costa Rica’s request seek the protection of individuals against “harm in
the form of bodily injury or death” (supra), by making sure that they do
not remain in the disputed area ; the new provisional measures are
requested not only in respect of agents of the public power (personnel)f,

but also in respect of individuals (simples particuliers), well beyond the
traditional inter-State dimension.
55. In this connection, the expressions used, by both Nicaragua and
Costa Rica, in their arguments presented to the Court, should not pass
unnoticed. In its written observations 37, Nicaragua refers to “private

individuals” (paras. 11 and 13-14), “private persons” (para. 12), “Nicara -
guan nationals” (paras. 16 and 30), and “a group of young people”
(para. 29). Costa Rica, for its part, in its request 38refers to “Nicaraguan
nationals” (paras. 7-8, 10-11 and 17-18), “Nicaraguans” (paras. 13-14),

“Nicaraguan persons” (paras. 19-21), “individuals” (para. 9), and “citi -

37Written observations of Nicaragua.
38Request by Costa Rica.

36

8 CIJ1048.indb 68 13/06/14 12:44 263 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

39
zens” (para. 10) ; and, in its written observations , Costa Rica refers to
“Nicaraguan nationals” (paras. 17-18, 25-27 and 29), “Nicaraguans”
(para. 28), Nicaraguan “volunteers” (para. 21), “private individuals”
(para. 27), and “persons” (paras. 7 and 28). Both Nicaragua and

Costa Rica clearly have in mind human beings, of flesh and bones and
soul.

56. States are bound to protect all persons under their respective juris -
dictions. Provisional measures, with their preventive nature, appear as f
truly tutelary, rather than only precautionary, purporting to protect indi -
viduals also against harassment and threats, thus avoiding “harm in tfhe
form of bodily injury or death”. After all, the beneficiaries of thfe compli -

ance with, and due performance of, obligations under ordered provisionalf
measures of protection, are not only States, but also human beings. A
strictly inter-State outlook does not reflect this important point. The
strictly inter-State dimension has long been surpassed, and seems insuffi -

cient, if not inadequate, to address obligations under provisional mea -
sures of protection.

XI. The Proper Exercise of thfe International Judicifal Function :
A Rebuttal of So-Called “Judicial Self-Restraint”,
or l’a rt de ne r ien Faire

57. The present Order of the Court, on requests for provisional mea -
sures in the cases concerning Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua
in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), and the Construction of a
Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica),

suffers from a stark incongruence. The Court reviews the arguments of f
the Parties, and concludes, in respect of Costa Rica’s request, that a
change in the situation has occurred, as “organized groups of persons” —
whose presence was not contemplated when it issued its previous decisionf

to indicate provisional measures — are now “regularly staying in the dis -
puted territory” (para. 25). Though the Court admits a change in the situ-
ation, it extracts no consequence therefrom.

58. The Court limits itself to say that, “despite the change that has

occurred in the situation”, in its view “the conditions have not bfeen ful -
filled for it to modify the measures” that it indicated in its prevfious Order
of 8 March 2011 (para. 36). This conclusion simply begs the question.
The Court’s majority expressly admits that “the presence of organifzed

groups of Nicaraguan nationals in the disputed area” is an aggravating
circumstance (para. 37). Yet it does nothing. It further admits that this

39 Written observations of Costa Rica.

37

8 CIJ1048.indb 70 13/06/14 12:44 264 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

new situation “is exacerbated” (!) by “the limited size of the area and the
numbers of Nicaraguan nationals who are regularly present there”
(para. 37). Yet it does nothing. Moreover, it admits that incidents may at
any time occur. What kind of incidents? Those entailing “bodily injury or

death” of the individuals staying there — as warned by the Court itself,
already in its previous Order of 8 March 2011 (cf. para. 20, supra) — in
addition to environmental damage. Yet it does nothing.

59. Contrariwise, it is crystal clear to me that the new situation created
in the disputed area in the cas d’espèce, endowed with the prerequisites of
urgency and probability of irreparable harm, undoubtedly calls for new
provisional measures, in order to prevent or avoid irreparable harm to t▯he

persons concerned and to the environment. These new provisional mea -
sures, which the Court’s majority failed to adopt, would make it cleafr
that each Party should refrain from sending to, or maintaining in, the
disputed area, including the caño, not only any personnel (whether civil -

ian, police or security), but also any “organized groups” of indifviduals, or
any “private individuals”.
60. As a matter of fact, this is not the first time that the Court disclosfes
its unjustified “judicial self-restraint” (so praised in traditionally conser -

vative, if not reactionary, segments of the legal profession) in respecft of
provisional measures of protection, even when faced with the presence off
the prerequisites of urgency and the probability of irreparable harm. Four
years ago, it did so in its Order of 28 May 2009 in the case concerning the
Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v.

Senegal) (I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 139), wherein it refrained from ordering
or indicating the requested provisional measures of protection.

61. On the occasion, I appended an extensive dissenting opinion

(paras. 1-105) to that Order, seeking to preserve the integrity of the cor ‑
pus juris of the 1984 UN Convention against Torture. Shortly after the
Court’s Order of 28 May 2009 wherein it found that the circumstances of
the case were, in its view, not such as to require the exercise of its pfower

under Article 41 of the Statute to indicate provisional measures, there fol -
lowed a succession of uncertainties (infra), amidst the emptiness of the
Court’s self-imposed “restraint”, and its apparent insensitiveness towards
the underlying human values.
62. On that occasion, contrary to the Court’s majority, I sought to

demonstrate that there was manifest urgency in the situation affectingf
surviving victims of torture, or their close relatives, in respect of thfeir
right to the realization of justice under the UN Convention against Tor -
ture. As I have recently recapitulated 40, the Court preferred to rely com -

40Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade,
pp. 518-527, paras. 82-103.

38

8 CIJ1048.indb 72 13/06/14 12:44 265 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

fortably on a unilateral act of promise (conceptualized in the traditiofnal
framework of inter-State relations) made by the respondent State in the
course of the legal proceedings before itself. That pledge, in my view, fdid

not remove the prerequisites of urgency and probability 41 irreparable
harm for the indication of provisional measures , nor did it efface the
longstanding sufferings of the Habré regime, in their saga of more fthan
two decades in search of the realization of justice.

63. Yet the Court took a passive posture, reduced to that of a specta -
tor of subsequent events. In effect, following the Court’s Order off 28 May
2009, no initiative was taken in the respondent State towards the trial fof

Mr. Hissène Habré in Senegal ; the return to Mr. H. Habré to Chad was
announced, as well as his imminent expulsion from Senegal, which was
then cancelled in the last minute under public pressure 42. The Court was
lucky that Mr. H. Habré did not escape from his house surveillance in

Dakar, and that he was not expelled from Senegal. Instead of assuming
its own control over the situation, the self-restrained Court preferred to
count on the imponderable, on la fortuna. The Court cannot keep on
counting on the imponderable, as la fortuna may at any time turn against

it. As Sophocles, in his perennial wisdom, warned, through the voices off
the chorus of one of his tragedies : count no man happy till he passed the
final threshold of his life secure from pain 43(bodily or spiritual harm).

64. In the present Order that the Court has just adopted today, 16 July
2013, it has exercised self-restraint once again: this time, after finding that
there has been a change in the situation, it has added that the circum -
stances presented to it, nevertheless, are not such as to require modififca -

tion of its previous Order of 8 March 2011, which is simply reaffirmed.
Moreover, it “does not see (. . .) the evidence of urgency” (para. 35). The
Court’s reasoning rests on a petitio principii, adducing no persuasive
argument to support its decision not to order new provisional measures in

face of the new situation. The Court limits itself to reasserting the prfevi -
ous provisional measures, addressed to a new and distinct situation,
which the Court admits has now changed.

65. The Court has preferred to indulge in an unfortunate formalism,
limiting itself to add that, despite the change in the situation, “thfe condi -
tions have not been fulfilled for it to modify the measures that it infdicated
in its Order of 8 March 2011” (paras. 25, 31, 35-36). This is a petitio prin ‑

cipii, whereby the Court unduly establishes a further test for the indica -
tion of provisional measures, rendering it more difficult — or simply
avoiding — to order these latter, at variance with its interna corporis. The

41Cf. I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 517, para. 79.
42Cf. ibid., pp. 515-516, paras. 73-75.
43Sophocles, Oedipus the King (circa 429 bc), verse 1684.

39

8 CIJ1048.indb 74 13/06/14 12:44 266 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

Court does not elaborate on its dictum, nor does it provide any demon -
stration whatsoever to corroborate its assertion. Its ineluctable incongru -
ence lies in the fact that, once it finds that there is a change in thfe situation,
it fails to modify — or rather expand — its previous Order, so as to
face the new situation, endowed with the requisite elements of risk (in

the form of bodily harm or death, and harm to the environment) and
urgency.

66. The ICJ has not adopted new provisional measures in the present

Order simply because it did not want to adopt them, for reasons which
escape my comprehension. The Court, from now on, will once again only
hope for the best, but not without expressing its “concerns” with regard
to the new situation (para. 37), given the ostensible risk and the probabil -

ity of harm posed by it. Instead of remaining preoccupied, the ICJ shoulfd
have ordered the new provisional measures required by the new situation f
created in the disputed area. Once again, the Court will nourish the hopfe
that fate is on its side, oblivious of the extreme care with which someofne
so familiar with human suffering and tragedy like Cicero approached
44
fate, in one of his fragmented reflections . Even so, despite all his aware-
ness, Cicero did not cross over the final threshold of his life securef from
pain: at the end of his path, he suffered bodily injuries and a violent
death . . .

67. The ICJ, on 8 March 2011, ordered provisional measures not sim -
ply because the persons present in the disputed area were personnel
(whether civilian, police or security), but also because their presencfe
therein presented a risk to the fragile ecosystem of the disputed area, fand

a risk of irreparable harm in the form of bodily injury or death (para.f 75).
The new situation, i.e., the presence of “organized groups” of private indi ‑
viduals in the disputed area, discloses in my view new circumstances,
which clearly call for the indication of additional provisional measuresf.
The change in the situation, endowed with urgency and the probability off

irreparable harm, thus provides a basis for the modification of the Cofurt’s
previous Order, in the light of the provisions of Article 41 of the Statute
and Article 76 (1) of the Rules of Court.

68. Moreover, the Court’s reasoning is far from coherent when, at the
end of the present Order, it recognizes that the presence of “organizfed
groups” of individuals in the disputed area is liable to create “tfhe risk of
incidents which might aggravate the present dispute”, taking into accfount
in particular “the limited size of the area” at issue and the “fnumbers of

Nicaraguan nationals” staying there (para. 37). If the Court expressly rec -
ognizes such risk, and further expresses its “concerns” with this fnew situ-
ation (ibid.), it is then clear that the provisional measures already ordered

44
M. T. Cicero, On Fate (De Fato) (circa 44 bc), fragments 41-43.

40

8 CIJ1048.indb 76 13/06/14 12:44 267 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

should be modified, or expanded, so as to face this new situation. Thaft
the Court has not done so, in face of the likelihood of bodily harm or

death of the individuals staying in the disputed area, is a cause of confcern
to me, as the rights at issue — and the corresponding obligations — are
beyond the strictly inter-State dimension, and the Court seems not to
have valued this as it should.

XII. Epilogue: Towards an Autonomous Lfegal Regime of

Provisional Measures off Protection

69. I have already made the point that the strictly inter-State dimen -
sion has long been surpassed, and appears inappropriate to address obli -

gations under provisional measures of protection ; I have done so in other
cases taken before the ICJ, as well as in another international jurisdicf -
tion , and I have deemed it fit to dwell further upon it in the present
dissenting opinion (supra). The handling of cases from a strict and exclu -

sively inter-State perspective or dimension, irrespective of their circum -
stances, no longer reflects the complexity of the contemporary internaftional
legal order. In my understanding, the institute of provisional measures fof
protection stands in need of a conceptual refinement, in all its aspecfts.

This leads me into the last point of the present dissenting opinion, namfely,
the needed construction of an autonomous legal regime of provisional
measures of protection, as I perceive it.

70. Compliance with provisional measures of protection runs parallel
to the course of proceedings leading to the Court’s subsequent decisifon
on the merits of the cases at issue. Should the Court find, e.g., a breach of
international law in its decision on the merits of a given case, and, parallel

to that, it further finds non-compliance with its provisional measures, this
latter is an additional breach of an international obligation. In its work in
the present context, the Court still has before itself the task of elabofrating
on the legal consequences of non-compliance with provisional measures,

endowed, in my perception, with an autonomy of their own.

71. Provisional measures of protection indicated or ordered by the ICJ

(or other international tribunals) generate per se obligations for the States

45
Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos —
Esencia y Trascendencia (Votos en la Corte Interamericana de Derechos H▯umanos, 1991‑
2006), Mexico, Edit. Porrúa/Universidad Iberoamericana, 2007, pp. 925, 935, 947, 952,
958, 974, 977, 981, 985, 991, 1010 and 1014; A. A. Cançado Trindade, Los Tribunales Inter‑
nacionales Contemporáneos y la Humanización del Derecho Internacio▯nal, Buenos Aires,
Edit. Ad-Hoc, 2013, pp. 22-28, 77-90, 106-113 and 175-179; A. A. Cançado Trindade, “La
Humanización del Derecho Internacional y los Límites de la Razófn de Estado”, 40 Revista
da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais — Belo Horizonte/Brazil
(2001), pp. 11-23.

41

8 CIJ1048.indb 78 13/06/14 12:44 268 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

concerned, which are distinct from the obligations which emanate from
the Court’s (subsequent) judgments on the merits (and on reparatiofns) of

the respective cases. In this sense, in my conception, provisional measufres
have an autonomous legal regime of their own, disclosing the high rele -
vance of their preventive dimension. Parallel to the Court’s (subsequent)

decisions on the merits, the international responsibility of a State mayf be
engaged for non-compliance with, or breach of, a provisional measure of
protection ordered by the Court (or other international tribunals).

72. My thesis, in sum, is that provisional measures, endowed with a

conventional basis — such as those of the ICJ (under Article 41 of the
Statute) — are also endowed with autonomy, have a legal regime of their
own, and non-compliance with them generates the responsibility of the

State, entails legal consequences, without prejudice of the examination
and resolution of the concrete cases as to the merits. This discloses thfeir
important preventive dimension, in their wide scope. The proper treat -

ment of this subject-matter is the task before this Court, now and in the
years to come.

73. The juridical nature of provisional measures, with their preventive
dimension, has lately been clarified by a growing case law on the mattfer,

as those measures came to be increasingly indicated or ordered, in recenft
years, by contemporary international 4, as well as national 47, tribunals .48
Soon the recourse to provisional measures of protection, also at internaf -

tional level, had the effect of expanding the domain of international fjuris-
diction, with the consequent reduction of the so-called “reserved domain”
of the State 4. This grows in importance in respect of regimes of protec‑
50
tion, such as those of the human person as well as of the environment.
The clarification of the juridical nature of provisional measures is, fhow -

46
Cf. R. Bernhardt (ed.), Interim Measures Indicated by International Courts, Berlin/
Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag, 1994, pp. 1-152.
47 Cf. E. García de Enterria, La Batalla por las Medidas Cautelares, 2nd [enlarged] ed.,
Madrid, Civitas, 1995, pp. 25-385.
48 Cf. also L. Collins, “Provisional and Protective Measures in International Litig-f
tion”, 234 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (1992), pp. 23,
214 and 234.
49
P. Guggenheim, Les mesures provisoires de procédure internationale et leur influence▯
sur le développement du droit des gens, Paris, Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1931, pp. 14-15, 174, 186, 188
and cf. pp. 6-7 and 61-62.
50 Cf., e.g., E. R. Rieter, Preventing Irreparable Harm — Provisional Measures in
International Human Rights Adjudication, Maastricht, Intersentia, 2010, pp. 3-1109 ;
C. Burbano Herrera, Provisional Measures in the Case Law of the Inter‑American Court of
Human Rights, Antwerp, Intersentia, 2010, pp. 1-221 ; among others. On the needed new

mentality, and its benefits, in the present domain of protection, cf.,f in general [Various
Authors], Le particularisme interaméricain des droits de l’homme (eds. L. Hennebel and
H. Tigroudja), Paris, Pedone, 2009, pp. 3-413.

42

8 CIJ1048.indb 80 13/06/14 12:44 269 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

ever, still the initial stage of the evolution of the matter, — to be fol -
lowed, in our days, in my understanding, by the elaboration on the legal

consequences of non-compliance with those measures, and the conceptual
development of what I deem it fit to call their autonomous legal regime.

74. What leads me to leave on the records, in the present dissenting
opinion, my position on the matter — which I have been sustaining for
years 51— is not a lack of confidence in the contending Parties complying

with them: I dare to nourish the hope that they will, and the 16 commu -
nications (already referred to) that they have submitted to the ICJ, seek -
ing to comply with its Order of 8 March 2011, disclose their awareness
and goodwill. The two contending Parties come both from a part of the

world, Latin America, with a longstanding and strong tradition in inter -
national legal doctrine. What leads me to leave on the records my dissenf- t
ing position, is the Court’s self-restraint, and the incongruence of its

reasoning (cf. supra), in a matter of such importance for the progressive
development of international law. I have cared to take the time and workf
to leave on the records the present dissenting opinion, so as to render fa
service to our mission of imparting justice.

75. In effect, the notion of victim (or of potential victim 5), or injured
party, can thus emerge also in the context proper to provisional measurefs
of protection, parallel to the merits (and reparations) of the cas d’espèce.

Provisional measures of protection generate obligations (of prevention)f
for the States concerned, which are distinct from the obligations which f
emanate from the judgments of the Court as to the merits (and repara -

tions) of the respective cases. This ensues from their autonomous legalf
regime, as I conceive it. There is, in my perception, pressing need nowaf -
days to refine and to develop conceptually this autonomous legal regimfe,
focused, in particular, on the contemporary expansion of provisional

measures, the means to secure due and prompt compliance with them,
and the legal consequences of non-compliance — to the benefit of those
protected thereunder.

76. In this matter, the worst possible posture would be that of passive -
ness, if not indifference, that of judicial inactivism. As I warned inf an

51 Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial Internacional —
Memorias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 2nd ed., Belo Horizonte/
Brazil, Edit. Del Rey, 2013 Chap. XXI : “The Preventive Dimension: The Binding Chara-
cter and the Expansion of Provisional Measures of Protection”, pp. 177-186.
52 On the notion of potential victims in the framework of the evolution of the notion of

victim or the condition of the complainant in the domain of the internatfional protection of
human rights, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Co-Existence and Co-ordination of Mecha -
nisms of International Protection of Human Rights (At Global and Regionfal Levels)”,
202 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (1987), Chap. XI,
pp. 243-299, esp. pp. 271-292.

43

8 CIJ1048.indb 82 13/06/14 12:44 270 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

earlier dissenting opinion (cf. supra) and reiterate now in the present one,
the matter before the Court calls for a more pro-active posture on its
part 53, so as not only to settle the controversies filed with it, but also to

tell what the law is (juris dictio), and thus to contribute effectively to the
avoidance or prevention of irreparable harm in situations of urgency, tof

the ultimate benefit of all subjects of international law — States as well as
groups of individuals, and simples particuliers. After all, the human per -

son (living in harmony in her natural habitat) occupies a central placfe in
the new jus gentium of our times.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

53In likewise advocating such pro-active posture of the Court in respect of provisional
measures of protection, in my earlier dissenting opinion in the Court’fs Order of 28 May
2009 in the case of Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium

v. Senegal), I deemed it fit to recall that the Court is not restricted by the arfguments of
the parties, as confirmed by Article 75 (1) and (2) of the Rules of Court. Article 75 (1)
sets forth that “[t]he Court may at any time decide to examine proprio motu whether the
circumstances of the case require the indication of provisional measuresf which ought to
be taken or complied with by any or all of the parties.” And Article 75 (2) determines

that “[w]hen a request for provisional measures has been made, the Cofurt may indicate
measures that are in whole or in part other than those requested, or thaft ought to be taken
or complied with by the party which has itself made the request.” Artficle 75 (1) and (2) of
the Rules of Court — I proceeded in my dissenting opinion — thus expressly entitles it to
indicate, motu proprio, provisional measures that it regards as necessary, even if they are

wholly or in part distinct from those that are requested. A decision of fthe ICJ indicating
provisional measures in the present case — as I sustained — “would have set up a remark-
able precedent in the long search for justice in the theory and practicef of international
law”, as this was “the first case lodged with the ICJ on the basfis of the 1984 United Nations
Convention against Torture”, the first human rights treaty incorporating the principle of

universal jurisdiction as an international obligation of all States partfies (para. 80). And I
further recalled (para. 81) that the ICJ has made use of its prerogatives under Article 75 of
its Rules on some previous occasions, as illustrated by its Orders of prfovisional measures,
invoking Article 75 (2), in the cases concerning the Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia‑Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia)

(Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 22, para. 46), the Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria) (Order of 15 March 1996,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 24, para. 48), the Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo
(Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) (Order of 1 July 2000, I.C.J. Reports 2000,
p. 128, para. 43), and, more lately, the Application of the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation) (Order

of 15 October 2008, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 397, para. 145).

44

8 CIJ1048.indb 84 13/06/14 12:44

Bilingual Content

242

DISSENTING OPINION
OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. P rolegomena 1-4

II. Provisional Measures of Protection : The Concomitant
New Requests by Costa Rica and Nicaragua 5-7

III. Technical Missionsin loco Pursuant to the Ramsar Con-
vention 8-14

IV. The Position of the Partfies as to the Purportedf Expansion

of Provisional Measurefs: The Request of Costa Rica 15-19

V. Urgency and Risk of Harm fin the Form of Bodily Injfury
or Death 20-23

VI. The Position of the Partfies as to the Purportedf Expansion

of Provisional Measurefs: The Request of Nicaraguaf 24-28

VII. General Assessment of tfhe Request of Costa Rica and
Nicaragua 29-37

1. Costa Rica’s request 29-33
2. Nicaragua’s request 34-37

VIII. Effects of Provisional Mfeasures of Protection fbeyond the

Strict Territorialistf Outlook 38-43

IX. The Beneficiaries of Profvisional Measures of Prfotection,
beyond the Traditionafl Inter-State Dimension 44-50

X. Effects of Provisional Mfeasures of Protection fbeyond the

Traditional Inter-State Dimension 51-56

XI. The Proper Exercise of the International Judicial Func -
tion: A Rebuttal of So-Called “Judicial Self-Restraint”,
or l’a rt de ne r ienF aire 57-68

XII. Epilogue: Towards an Autonomous Lfegal Regime of Pro -
visional Measures of Prfotection 69-76

*

16

8 CIJ1048.indb 28 13/06/14 12:44 242

OPINION DISSIDENTE
DE M. LE JUGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

[Traduction]

table des matières

Paragraphes

I. Prolégomènes 1-4

II. Mesures conservatoirfes: les nouvelles demandfes présen -
tées concomitammentf par le Costa Rica et lef Nicaragua 5-7

III. Les missions techniqufes dépêchées sur les lfieux en applica

tion de la conventionf de Ramsar 8-14

IV. La position des Partiefs quant à l’extension sfollicitée des
mesures conservatoirfes: la demande du Costa Ricfa 15-19

V. L’urgence et le risque df’atteinte à l’intégrfité physique de
personnes ou à leur vife 20-23

VI. La position des Partiefs quant à l’extension efnvisagée des

mesures conservatoirfes: la demande du Nicaragufa 24-28

VII. Appréciation généralfe des demandes du CostafRica et du
Nicaragua 29-37

1. Demande du Costa Rica 29-33
2. Demande du Nicaragua 34-37

VIII. Effets des mesures consfervatoires au-delà def l’approche
strictement axée sur lfe territoire 38-43

IX. Les bénéficiaires desf mesures conservatoifres au-delà de la
dimension interétatfique traditionnelle 44-50

X. Effets des mesures consfervatoires au-delà def la dimension
interétatique traditfionnelle 51-56

XI. Le bon exercice de la fofnction judiciaire intfernationale:

le principe de « réserve judiciaire » ou l’art de ne rien
faire 57-68

XII. Épilogue: vers un régime juridique autonome des mesures
conservatoires 69-76

*

16

8 CIJ1048.indb 29 13/06/14 12:44 243 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

I.P rolegomena

1. I regret not to be able to concur with the decision taken by the
majority of the Court (first resolutory point) not to indicate new provi -
sional measures in the cas d’espèce. My perception is that the Court

majority’s reasoning and decision, data venia, suffer from an ineluctable
incongruence: having admitted that there is a change in the situation
(paras. 25, 31 and 36), it extracts no consequence therefrom, as in its view
“the conditions have not been fulfilled” for it to modify the mefasures it
indicated in its previous Order of 8 March 2011 (para. 36). In limiting

itself to simply reaffirming its previous provisional measures, it exprfesses
its concerns at the new situation created in the disputed area (para. 37),
with the presence therein no longer of personnel (whether civilian, police
or security), but rather of “organized groups” of individuals.

2. My position is, a contrario sensu, that the changing circumstances
surrounding the present cases (joined), opposing Costa Rica to Nicaragua
and vice versa, concerning, respectively, Certain Activities Carried Out by
Nicaragua in the Border Area, and the Construction of a Road in Costa Rica

along the San Juan River, require from the International Court of Justice
(ICJ), in the light of the relevant provisions of its interna corporis 1, the
exercise of its powers to indicate new provisional measures in order to
face the new situation, which is one of urgency and of probability of

irreparable harm, in the form of bodily injury or death of the persons
staying in the disputed area.
3. Given the high importance that I attach to the issues raised in the
present Order, I feel obliged to present and leave on the records, in thfe
present dissenting opinion, the foundations of my position on the matterf.

I thus take the care to examine herein its aspects, as to the facts and fas to
the law. I shall start by reviewing the concomitant new requests of addif -
tional provisional measures of protection on the part of Costa Rica as
well as Nicaragua, and the position taken by them, in their respective
requests, as to the purported expansion of provisional measures of pro -

tection. After reviewing the technical missions in loco pursuant to the
1971 Ramsar Convention, I shall consider the requisites of urgency, and
risk or probability of harm (in the form of bodily injury or death, of fthe
persons staying in the disputed area), before proceeding to a general

assessment of the requests of Costa Rica and of Nicaragua.

4. I shall then turn my attention to the aspects of the matter as to the
law, as I perceive them, namely: (a) the effects of provisional measures of
protection beyond the strict territorialist outlook ; (b) the beneficiaries of

provisional measures of protection, beyond the traditional inter-State
dimension ; and (c) the effects of provisional measures of protection

1Article 76 (1) of the Rules of Court, in addition to Article 41 of its Statute.

17

8 CIJ1048.indb 30 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 243

I. Prolégomènes

1. Je regrette de ne pouvoir souscrire à la décision de la majoritéf de la
Cour (premier point du dispositif) de ne pas indiquer de nouvelles mesures
conservatoires en l’espèce. Avec tout le respect que je dois à fmes collè -

gues, le raisonnement et la décision qu’ils ont adoptés soufffrent, à mon
sens, d’une incohérence intrinsèque : bien qu’admettant qu’un change -
ment est intervenu dans la situation (par. 25, 31 et 36), la Cour n’en tire
aucune conséquence, estimant que « les conditions ne sont pas réunies »
pour qu’elle modifie les mesures qu’elle a indiquées dans sonf ordonnance

précédente du 8 mars 2011 (par. 36). Elle se contente donc de réaffirmer
les mesures précédemment ordonnées, tout en exprimant sa préfoccupa -
tion quant à la nouvelle situation créée dans la zone litigieuse (par. 37),
marquée par la présence non plus d’agents (civils, de police ou de sécu -

rité) mais de « groupes organisés» de personnes.
2. Je suis d’avis, au contraire, que les circonstances nouvelles qui
entourent les présentes affaires opposant le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua
— soit celles relatives à Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la
région frontalière et à la Construction d’une route au Costa Rica le long du

fleuve San Juan, affaires qui ont fait l’objet d’une jonction d’instance —
exigent que, à la lumière des dispositions pertinentes de son instfrument
constitutif 1, la Cour exerce le pouvoir qui est le sien d’indiquer de nou ‑
velles mesures conservatoires afin de répondre à la nouvelle situation, qui

présente un caractère d’urgence et un risque d’atteintes irrféparables à l’in -
tégrité physique ou à la vie des personnes résidant dans la fzone en litige.
3. Etant donné l’importance considérable que j’attache aux quesftions
soulevées dans l’ordonnance rendue ce jour, j’ai cru devoir faifre état, dans
la présente opinion dissidente, des fondements de ma position dans ceftte

affaire, dont je présenterai ci-après les différents aspectfs, tant du point de
vue des faits que de celui du droit. Je commencerai par examiner les nouf -
velles demandes en indication de mesures conservatoires présentéesf
concomitamment par le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua, ainsi que la position
adoptée par chacun d’eux, dans leurs demandes respectives, concernfant

l’extension sollicitée des mesures déjà indiquées. Aprèfs m’être penché sur
les missions dépêchées sur place en application de la conventiofn de Ram -
sar de 1971, j’examinerai les conditions relatives à l’urgence et au rfisque
ou à la probabilité de dommage (atteinte à l’intégrité physique ou à la vie

de personnes résidant dans la zone litigieuse), avant de passer àf une
appréciation générale des demandes des deux Parties.
4. Je m’intéresserai ensuite aux aspects juridiques de la question, tfels
que je les vois, à savoir : a) les effets des mesures conservatoires au-delà
d’une approche strictement axée sur le territoire ; b) les bénéficiaires des

mesures conservatoires au-delà de la dimension interétatique tradition -
nelle ; etc) les effets des mesures conservatoires au-delà de la dimension

1 Paragraphe premier de l’article 76 du Règlement de la Cour, qui complète l’article 41

de son Statut.

17

8 CIJ1048.indb 31 13/06/14 12:44 244 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

beyond the traditional inter-State dimension. The way will then be paved
for my considerations on the proper exercise of the international judicifal
function (in the present domain of provisional measures) in the form off a

rebuttal of so-called “judicial self-restraint”, or l’art de ne rien faire. Last
but not least, I shall present my concluding reflections towards an autono ‑
mous legal regime of provisional measures of protection.

II. Provisional Measures off Protection: The Concomitant New
Requests by Costa Rica and Nicaragua

5. May it be recalled, to start with, that, on 18 November 2010, the Inter -
national Court of Justice (ICJ) was seised of a request by Costa Rica for
the indication of provisional measures in the case, opposing it to Nicaraguaf,
concerningCertain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area.

After the holding of public hearings, the ICJ issued its Order on provisional
measures of protection, of 8 March 2011, whereby it determined that

“(1) Each Party shall refrain from sending to, or maintaining in
the disputed territory, including the caño, any personnel, whether
civilian, police or security ;
(2) Notwithstanding point (1) above, Costa Rica may dispatch

civilian personnel charged with the protection of the environment to
the disputed territory, including the caño, but only in so far as it is
necessary to avoid irreparable prejudice being caused to the part of
the wetland where that territory is situated ; Costa Rica shall consult

with the Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention in regard to these
actions, give Nicaragua prior notice of them and use its best endeav -
ours to find common solutions with Nicaragua in this respect ;

(3) Each Party shall refrain from any action which might aggravate
or extend the dispute before the Court or make it more difficult to
resolve ;
(4) Each Party shall inform the Court as to its compliance with the
2
above provisional measures.”
Shortly afterwards, on 21 December 2011, Nicaragua filed a case against

Costa Rica with the ICJ, concerning the Construction of a Road in
Costa Rica along the San Juan River. Subsequently, by its Order
of 17 April 2013, the ICJ decided to join the proceedings in the two cases.
6. One month later, on 23 May 2013, Costa Rica filed a request 3for

the modification of the aforementioned Order of provisional measures off
8 March 2011. Nicaragua was invited to present written observations

2Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v.
Nicaragua), Provisional Measures, Order of 8March 2011, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 27-28.
3Request by Costa Rica for the Modification of the Court’s Order Indficating Provi -
sional Measures, doc. of 23 May 2013 [hereinafter “request by Costa Rica”].

18

8 CIJ1048.indb 32 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 244

interétatique traditionnelle. Ces fondements ainsi jetés, je présenterai mes
réflexions sur le bon exercice de la fonction judiciaire internatiofnale (dans
le domaine, dont il s’agit ici, des mesures conservatoires) en rejetfant le

principe de « réserve judiciaire », en d’autres termes l’art de ne rien faire.
Enfin, je conclurai par des considérations sur le développement fd’un
régime juridique autonome des mesures conservatoires.

II. Mesures conservatoifres: les nouvelles demandfes
présentées concomitfamment par le Costa Ricfa et le Nicaragua

5. Il convient peut-être de rappeler, pour commencer, que, le 18 no -
vembre 2010, la Cour a été saisie d’une demande en indication de mesures
conservatoires présentée par le Costa Rica dans l’affaire relative à Cer ‑
taines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontal▯ière. Après

la tenue d’audiences publiques, la Cour a, le 8 mars 2011, rendu son
ordonnance, par laquelle elle a décidé ce qui suit :

«1) Chaque Partie s’abstiendra d’envoyer ou de maintenir sur le
territoire litigieux, y compris le caño, des agents, qu’ils soient civils,
de police ou de sécurité ;
2) Nonobstant le point 1 ci-dessus, le Costa Rica pourra envoyer

sur le territoire litigieux, y compris le caño, des agents civils chargés
de la protection de l’environnement dans la stricte mesure où un tel
envoi serait nécessaire pour éviter qu’un préjudice irrépfarable ne soit
causé à la partie de la zone humide où ce territoire est situéf ; le

Costa Rica devra consulter le Secrétariat de la convention de Ram -
sar au sujet de ces activités, informer préalablement le Nicaragua de
celles-ci et faire de son mieux pour rechercher avec ce dernier des
solutions communes à cet égard ;

3) Chaque Partie s’abstiendra de tout acte qui risquerait d’aggra -
ver ou d’étendre le différend dont la Cour est saisie ou d’fen rendre la
solution plus difficile ;
4) Chaque Partie informera la Cour de la manière dont elle assure
2
l’exécution des mesures conservatoires ci-dessus indiquées. »
Peu après, le 21 décembre 2011, le Nicaragua a introduit contre le

Costa Rica une instance relative à la Construction d’une route au Costa
Rica le long du fleuve San Juan. Par ordonnances rendues le 17 avril 2013,
la Cour a prononcé la jonction des deux instances.
6. Un mois plus tard, le 23 mai 2013, le Costa Rica a présenté une
3
demande tendant à la modification de l’ordonnance en indication de
mesures conservatoires rendue par la Cour le 8 mars 2011. Le Nicaragua

2 Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région front▯ alière (Costa Rica c. Ni‑ca
ragua), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 8 mars 2011, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I),p. 27-28.
3 Demande tendant à la modification de l’ordonnance en indication fde mesures conser-
vatoires, présentée par le Costa Rica le 23 mai 2013 (ci-après « demande du Costa Rica »).

18

8 CIJ1048.indb 33 13/06/14 12:44 245 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

concerning Costa Rica’s request . On the stipulated date (14 June 2013),
Nicaragua submitted its written observations on Costa Rica’s request,

and presented its own request for the modification of the same Order of
8 March 2011 5. Costa Rica, for its part, submitted (on 20 June 2013) its

own written observations on6Nicaragua’s request, within the stipulatefd
time-limit by the Court .
7. The Court thus had before it two requests (Costa Rica’s and Nica -

ragua’s) and the pieces it needed to proceed to its deliberation on fthe
matter. It should not pass unnoticed that, since the Court issued its Orfder
of provisional measures of 8 March 2011, there have been 16 communica -

tions submitted by the Parties to the Court in relation to compliance wifth
the Order . This discloses the importance ascribed by both contending
Parties, Costa Rica and Nicaragua, to the provisional measures of protec -

tion in the two respective cases, the proceedings of which having been
joined by the ICJ 8.

III. Technical Missions in l oco Pursuant to the

Ramsar Convention

8. The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Espe -

cially as Waterfowl Habitat (known as the Ramsar Convention, adopted
in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971, and entered into force on 21 December 1975) 9
states in its preamble that “the conservation of wetlands and their flfora

and fauna can be ensured by combining far-sighted national policies with
co-ordinated international action”. Both Costa Rica and Nicaragua are
parties to it10. In its Order of 8 March 2011 , the Court pointed out that,

pursuant to Article 2 of the Ramsar Convention, Costa Rica has desig -
nated the “Humedal Caribe Noreste” wetland “for inclusion in [tfhe] List

of Wetlands of International Importance (. . .) maintained by the [con -
tinuing] bureau” established by the Convention, while Nicaragua has pfro -

4 On 24 May 2013.
5
Written observations of Nicaragua and Request by Nicaragua for the Modififcation
of the Order in Light of the Joinder of the Proceedings in the Two Casesf, doc. of 14 June
2013 [hereinafter “written observations of Nicaragua”].
6 Written observations of Costa Rica on Nicaragua’s Request for the Modification of
the Court’s Order Indicating Provisional Measures in the Costa Ricav. Nicaragua case,
doc. of 20 June 2013 [hereinafter “written observations of Costa Rica”].
7 Parties’ communications to the Court in 2011, 2012 and 2013.
8
9 Pursuant to the Court’s two Orders of 17 April 2013.
Cf. United Nations Treaty Series (UNTS), Vol. 996, No. I-14583, p. 245. The text of
the Ramsar Convention was amended by the Protocol of 3 December 1982 and the amend-
ments of 28 May 1987.
10Costa Rica has been a party to it since 27 April 1992, and Nicaragua since 30 November
1997. The Convention counts today (early July 2013), on 168 States Parties.
11Cf. Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v.

Nicaragua), Provisional Measures, Order of 8 March 2011, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), p. 6.

19

8 CIJ1048.indb 34 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 245

a alors été invité à présenter ses observations écritefs sur cette demande . 4
A la date prévue (le 14 juin 2013), celui-ci a soumis ses observations

écrites sur la demande du Costa Rica et présenté sa propre demande ten -
dant à la modification de la même ordonnance du 8 mars 2011 . Le

20 juin 2013, le Costa Rica a, à son tour, présenté des observations écrit6s
sur la demande du Nicaragua dans le délai prescrit par la Cour .
7. La Cour a donc eu à examiner deux demandes, celle du Costa Rica

et celle du Nicaragua, ainsi que les éléments nécessaires pour flui permettre
de procéder à ses délibérations sur la question. Il convientf de relever que,
depuis que la Cour a rendu son ordonnance en indication de mesures

conservatoires le 8 mars 2011, les deux Parties lui ont adressé seize com -
munications ayant trait à l’exécution de cette ordonnance 7. Voilà qui
témoigne de l’importance qu’accordent le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua aux

mesures conservatoires dans les deux affaires qui les divisent et qui ont
fait l’objet d’une jonction d’instances par la Cour 8.

III. Les missions techniqufes dépêchées sur les lfieux

en application de la fconvention de Ramsar

8. La convention relative aux zones humides d’importance internatio -

nale particulièrement comme habitats des oiseaux d’eau (ou convention
de Ramsar, adoptée à Ramsar (Iran) en 1971, et entrée en vigueur le
21 décembre 1975) 9précise, dans son préambule, que « la conservation

des zones humides, de leur flore et de leur faune peut être assuréfe en
conjuguant des politiques nationales prévoyantes à une action intefrnatio -
nale coordonnée ». Le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua sont tous deux parties
10 11
à cette convention . Dans son ordonnance du 8 mars 2011 , la Cour a
relevé que, conformément à l’article 2 de la convention de Ramsar, le

Costa Rica avait désigné la zone humide « Humedal Caribe Noreste» aux
fins de l’« inclure dans la Liste des zones humides d’importance interna -

4Le 24 mai 2013.
5
Observations écrites du Nicaragua et demande de celui-ci tendant àf la modification de
l’ordonnance en indication de mesures conservatoires rendue par la Cofur le 8 mars 2011,
doc. du 14 juin 2013 (ci-après « observations écrites du Nicaragua »).
6Observations écrites du Costa Rica sur la demande du Nicaragua tendant à la modifi-
cation de l’ordonnance du 8 mars 2011, doc. du 20 juin 2013 (ci-après «observations écrites
du Costa Rica »).
7Communications adressées à la Cour par les Parties en 2011, 2012 et 2013.
8
9En vertu de deux ordonnances rendues par la Cour le 17 avril 2o13.
Voir Recueil des traités des Nations Unies (RTNU), vol. 996, n I-14583, p. 245. Le
texte de la convention de Ramsar a été modifié par le protocofle du 3 décembre 1982 et les
amendements du 28 mai 1987.
10Le Costa Rica depuis le 27 avril 1992 et le Nicaragua depuis le 30 novembre 1997. La
convention compte à ce jour (début juillet 2013) 168 Etats parties.
11Voir Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région fron▯talière (Costa Rica

c. Nicaragua), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 8 mars 2011, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I),
p. 6.

19

8 CIJ1048.indb 35 13/06/14 12:44 246 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

ceeded likewise in respect of the “Refugio de Vida Silvestre Río Sfan
Juan” wetland, of which Harbor Head Lagoon is part (para. 79).

9. Furthermore, the Court, having acknowledged that the disputed
area is situated in the “Humedal Caribe Noreste” wetland, in respefct of

which Costa Rica bears obligations under the Ramsar Convention, fur -
ther considered that,

“pending delivery of the Judgment on the merits, Costa Rica must be
in a position to avoid irreparable prejudice being caused to the part
of that wetland where that territory is situated; (. . .) for that purpose
Costa Rica must be able to dispatch civilian personnel charged with

the protection of the environment to the said territory, including the
caño, but only in so far as it is necessary to ensure that no such pre-
judice be caused ; and (. . .) Costa Rica shall consult with the Secre -

tariat of the Ramsar Convention in regard to these actions, give
Nicaragua prior notice of them and use its best endeavours to find
common solutions with Nicaragua in this respect” (para. 80).

10. In this line of reasoning, the Court ordered, in the resolutory
point (2) of the dispositif of its aforementioned Order, that :

“Notwithstanding point (1) above, Costa Rica may dispatch civil -

ian personnel charged with the protection of the environment to the
disputed territory, including the caño, but only in so far as it is nec -
essary to avoid irreparable prejudice being caused to the part of the
wetland where that territory is situated; Costa Rica shall consult with

the Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention in regard to these actions,
give Nicaragua prior notice of them and use its best endeavours to
find common solutions with Nicaragua in this respect.”

Thus, it stems from the Court’s Order of 8 March 2011, that, pursuant
12
to the Ramsar Convention (cf. Article 3 (2) ), Costa Rica has a duty
thereunder to monitor the disputed area which forms part of a protected f
wetland registered by Costa Rica under the Ramsar Convention.

12Article 3 (2) of the Ramsar Convention stipulates that :

“Each Contracting Party shall arrange to be informed at the earliest fpossible
time if the ecological character of any wetland in its territory and included in the
List has changed, is changing or is likely to change as the result of tefchnological
developments, pollution or other human interference. Information on suchf changes
shall be passed without delay to the organization or government responsifble for the
continuing bureau duties specified in Article 8.”

20

8 CIJ1048.indb 36 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 246

tionale … tenue par le bureau [permanent] » établi par la convention, et
que le Nicaragua avait fait de même vis-à-vis de la zone humide «fRefugio
de Vida Silvestre Río San Juan », dont fait partie la lagune de Har -

bor Head (par. 79).
9. Par ailleurs, la Cour, ayant pris note de ce que le territoire litigieux
était situé dans la zone humide « Humedal Caribe Noreste », à l’égard de
laquelle le Costa Rica a des obligations au titre de la convention de Ram -

sar, a estimé que,
«en attendant l’arrêt sur le fond, le Costa Rica d[evait] être en mesure

d’éviter qu’un préjudice irréparable ne soit causé àf la partie de cette
zone humide où ce territoire est situé ; qu’à cette fin le Costa Rica
d[evait] pouvoir envoyer sur ledit territoire, y compris le caño, des
agents civils chargés de la protection de l’environnement dans la f

stricte mesure où un tel envoi serait nécessaire pour éviter la surve -
nance d’un tel préjudice ; et que le Costa Rica devra[it] consulter le
Secrétariat de la convention de Ramsar au sujet de ces activités, f
informer préalablement le Nicaragua de celles-ci et faire de son

mieux pour rechercher avec ce dernier des solutions communes à cet
égard» (par. 80).

10. Suivant ce même raisonnement, la Cour a, au deuxième point du
dispositif de son ordonnance, indiqué comme suit :

«Nonobstant le point 1 ci-dessus, le Costa Rica pourra envoyer
sur le territoire litigieux, y compris le caño, des agents civils chargés
de la protection de l’environnement dans la stricte mesure où un tel

envoi serait nécessaire pour éviter qu’un préjudice irrépfarable ne soit
causé à la partie de la zone humide où ce territoire est situéf ; le
Costa Rica devra consulter le Secrétariat de la convention de Ram -
sar au sujet de ces activités, informer préalablement le Nicaragua de

celles-ci et faire de son mieux pour rechercher avec ce dernier des
solutions communes à cet égard. »

Il découle donc de l’ordonnance de la Cour du 8 mars 2011 que, aux
termes de la convention de Ramsar (voir le paragraphe 2 de l’article 3 12),
le Costa Rica a une obligation de supervision du territoire litigieux, qui
fait partie d’une zone humide protégée dont le Costa Rica a sollicité

l’inscription sur la Liste des zones humides de la convention de Ramsfar.

12 Le paragraphe 2 de l’article 3 de la convention de Ramsar se lit comme suit :

«Chaque Partie contractante prendra les mesures pour être informée fdès que
possible des modifications des conditions écologiques des zones humfides situées
sur son territoire et inscrites sur la Liste, qui se sont produites, ou fsont en train ou
susceptibles de se produire, par suite d’évolutions technologiquesf, de pollution ou
d’une autre intervention humaine. Les informations sur de telles modiffications seront
transmises sans délai à l’organisation ou au gouvernement respofnsable des fonctions
du Bureau permanent spécifiées à l’article 8. »

20

8 CIJ1048.indb 37 13/06/14 12:44 247 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

11. According to those communications submitted to the ICJ, there
have been three technical visits, conducted by Costa Rica in the disputed
13
area , in accordance with the Order (resolutory point (2), supra). The
first visit in loco took place in April 2011 14, in order to determine the situ-

ation of the wetland and to take “those actions deemed necessary withf the
aim of avoiding an irreparable damage to the wetlands indicated by the
Court in its providence” 15. It is reported that the mission acknowledged

“the valuable technical work accomplished at the site during the day fof
5 April, which allowed them to gather the technical elements necessary in f
order to determine the actual condition of the wetland”. It is also sftated

that “because of the lack of security measures to guarantee the persofnal
safety of the experts as a result of actions outside the control of the fGov -
ernment of Costa Rica, the decision was taken not to return to the ground
16
area and only use the over flight option to compliment the informationf” .
12. This joint Ramsar-Costa Rica first visit included members of the
Technical Advisory Mission of the Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention

and Costa Rican civilian technicians in charge of the protection of the
environment 17. Costa Rica further alleges that, during this visit,

Costa Rican personnel and members of the Ramsar Mission were “aggres -
sively harassed by Nicaraguan protestors and journalists”. The missiofn
acknowledged “the valuable technical work” accomplished on 5 April

2011, which enabled them to gather the technical elements necessary “fin
order to determine the actual condition of the wetland”. Yet, “becfause of
the lack of security measures to guarantee the personal safety of the

experts as a result of actions outside the control of the Government of f
Costa Rica”, Costa Rica adds, “the decision was taken not to return to
the ground area” 18.

13. The second visit in loco took place in January 2012. Costa Rica

informed the Court that its purpose was to “continue the assessment of the
conditions of that wetland in order to avoid irreparable damage” 1. Costa
Rica claims that the visit formed “part of the action plan proposed tfo the
20
Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention, and agreed to by the Secretariat” .

13
Nicaragua’s communication to the Court of 7 April 2011 ; Costa Rica’s communica-
tion to the Court of 11 April 2011 ; Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 13 April
2011; Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 30 January 2012; Costa Rica’s commu-
nication to the Court of 1 March 2013.
14Nicaragua’s communication to the Court of 7 April 201;1Costa Rica’s communication
to the Court of 11 April 2011, and Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 13 April 2011.
15
16Nicaragua’s communication to the Court of 7 April 2011.
Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 13 April 2011; there was the correspon-
dence “Minutes, Co-ordination Meeting, Advisory Technical Mission of fthe Secretariat of
the Ramsar Convention and Representatives of the Ministry for the Environment, Enerfgy
and Telecommunications”.
17Nicaragua’s communication to the Court of 7 April 2011.
18Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 13 April 2011.
19
20Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 30 January 2012.
Ibid.

21

8 CIJ1048.indb 38 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf ; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 247

11. Les communications soumises à la Cour indiquent que trois visites
techniques, conduites par le Costa Rica, ont eu lieu dans la zone litigifeuse 13

en application de l’ordonnance (deuxième point du dispositif, supra). La
première visite sur place, effectuée en avril 2011 14, avait pour objet d’éva -

luer la situation dans la zone humide et de prendre les mesures que la Cfour
a, par précaution, jugées nécessaires pour éviter qu’un dfommage irrépa -
rable ne soit causé dans ladite zone . Dans leur procès-verbal, les partici-

pants à la mission ont reconnu le «travail technique précieux réalisé sur les
lieux le 5 avril, qui leur a permis de recueillir les éléments nécessairesf pour
déterminer l’état dans lequel se trouve la zone humide en questfion ». Par

ailleurs, «il a finalement été décidé de ne pas se rendre de nouveau fsur le
terrain et de se contenter de le survoler car les mesures visant à asfsurer la
sécurité personnelle des experts face à certaines actions écfhappant au
16
contrôle du Gouvernement du Costa Rica étaient insuffisantes» .
12. Participaient à cette première visite, menée conjointement par fle
Secrétariat de la convention de Ramsar et le Costa Rica, des membres de

la mission consultative technique du Secrétariat de la convention de fRam -
sar et des civils costa-riciens chargés de la protection de l’envifronnement. 17

Le Costa Rica soutient en outre que, lors de cette visite, des agents costa-
riciens et des membres de la mission Ramsar «ont été l’objet d’un harcèle -
ment violent de la part de manifestants et de journalistes nicaraguayensf».

Si les membres de la mission ont reconnu le « travail technique précieux»
accompli le 5 avril 2011, qui leur a permis de recueillir les éléments néces -
saires « pour déterminer l’état dans lequel se trouve la zone humide en

question», le Costa Rica précise toutefois qu’«il a finalement été décidé de
ne pas se rendre de nouveau sur le terrain … car les mesures visant à assu -
rer la sécurité personnelle des experts face à certaines actionfs échappant au
18
contrôle du Gouvernement du Costa Rica étaient insuffisantes» .
13. La deuxième visite sur place a eu lieu en janvier 2012. Le Costa Rica

a informé la Cour que cette visite avait pour objet de « poursuivre l’éva -
luation en cours [de la zone humide] afin d’éviter des dommages firrépa -
rables » , en précisant qu’elle faisait « partie du plan d’action proposé au
20
Secrétariat de la convention de Ramsar que ce dernier a[vait] acceptéf» .

13
Communication du 7 avril 2011 adressée à la Cour par le Nicaragua ;communication
du 11 avril 2011 adressée à la Cour par le Costa Rica ; communication du 13 avril 2011
adressée à la Cour par le Costa Rica ;communication du 30 janvier 2012 adressée à la Cour
par le Costa Rica ; communication du 1 mars 2013 adressée à la Cour par le Costa Rica.
14 Communication du 7 avril 2011 adressée à la Cour par le Nicaragua ; communica-
tions du 11 et du 13 avril 2011 adressées à la Cour par le Costa Rica.
15
16 Communication du 7 avril 2011 adressée à la Cour par le Nicaragua.
Communication du 13 avril 2011 adressée à la Cour par le Costa Rica, à laquelle
était joint le « Procès-verbal de la réunion de coordination entre la mission consufltative
technique du Secrétariat de la convention de Ramsar et les représefntants du ministère de
l’environnement, de l’énergie et des télécommunications ».
17 Communication du 7 avril 2011 adressée à la Cour par le Nicaragua.
18 Communication du 13 avril 2011 adressée à la Cour par le Costa Rica.
19
20 Communication du 30 janvier 2012 adressée à la Cour par le Costa Rica.
Ibid.

21

8 CIJ1048.indb 39 13/06/14 12:44 248 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

14. The third visit occurred in March 2013, Costa Rica having informed
the Court that its civilian personnel charged with the protection of thef

environment were to conduct a visit on site. It further communicated to f
the Court two correspondences, whereby Costa Rica informed the
Ramsar Convention Secretariat and Nicaragua of this site visit 2. And it

also reported that this third technical site visit was “carried out in accor -
dance with the Working Plan” contained in the report presented by
Costa Rica to the Ramsar Secretariat on 28 October 2011, which was
approved by the Ramsar Secretariat in a note dated 7 November 2011.

The stated purpose of the visit was to “avoid irreparable prejudice to that
part of the northeast Caribbean Wetland” 22.

IV. The Position of the Partfies as to the Purportedf Expansion
of Provisional Measures: The Request of Costa Rica

15. In its request of 23 May 2013 to “modify” the Order of provi -
sional measures of 8 March 2011, Costa Rica calls for three new measures
to be added to it, namely, to order :

“(1) the immediate and unconditional withdrawal of all Nicaraguan
persons from the Area indicated by the Court in its Order on
provisional measures of 8 March 2011 ;

(2) that both Parties take all necessary measures to prevent any per -
son (other than the persons whose presence is authorized by par -
agraph 86 (2) of the Order) coming from their respective territory
from accessing the area indicated by the Court in its Order on

provisional measures of 8 March 2011 ; and

(3) That each Party shall inform the Court as to its compliance with

the above provisional me23ures within two weeks of the issue of
the modified Order.”

16. It is, in fact, in my perception, a request for an expansion of
provisional measures of protection. Costa Rica contends that its request

is prompted by “Nicaragua’s sending to the area indicated by the
Court in its Order [. . .] and maintaining thereon large numbers of
persons, and by the activities undertaken by these persons affecting that
territory and its ecology” (para. 2). It adds that there is a change in

the situation (para. 4), in the light of Article 76 (2) of the Rules of

21
22Costa Rica’s communication to the Court of 1 March 2013.
23Ibid.
Request by Costa Rica.

22

8 CIJ1048.indb 40 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 248

14. La troisième visite a été effectuée en mars 2013, le Costa Rica ayant
informé la Cour de ce que ses agents civils chargés de la protectifon de

l’environnement s’apprêtaient à procéder à cette visitfe sur place. Il a éga-
lement transmis à la Cour deux communications par lesquelles il en infor-
mait le Secrétariat de la convention de Ramsar et le Nicaragua 21. Par
ailleurs, il a précisé que cette troisième visite technique surf les lieux était

effectuée «conformément au plan d’action » figurant dans le rapport pré -
senté, le 28 octobre 2011, par le Costa Rica au Secrétariat de la conven -
tion de Ramsar, et avalisé par celui-ci dans une note datée du 7 novembre
2011. L’objet annoncé de la visite était d’« éviter qu’un préjudice irrépa -

rable ne soit22ausé à cette partie de la zone humide dite « Humedal Caribe
Noreste » » .

IV. La position des Partiefs quant à l’extension sfollicitée
des mesures conservaftoires: la demande du Costa Ricfa

15. Dans la demande tendant à la « modification» de l’ordonnance en

indication de mesures conservatoires du 8 mars 2011 qu’il a présentée le
23 mai 2013, le Costa Rica sollicite l’adoption des trois nouvelles mesures
suivantes :

«1) tous les ressortissants nicaraguayens doivent se retirer de manière
immédiate et inconditionnelle de la zone définie par la Cour danfs

son ordonnance en indication de mesures conservatoires du
8 mars 2011 ;
2) les deux Parties doivent prendre toutes les mesures nécessaires
pour empêcher toutes personnes (autres que celles dont la présencfe

est autorisée en vertu du point 2 du paragraphe 86 de l’ordon -
nance) de pénétrer depuis leur territoire dans la zone définfie par
la Cour dans son ordonnance en indication de mesures conserva -
toires du 8 mars 2011 ; et

3) chaque Partie informera la Cour, dans les deux semaines suivant
le prononcé de l’ordonnance modifiée, de la manière dont eflle
assure la mise en œuvre des mesures conservatoires ci-dessus indi -
quées. » 23

16. En réalité, il s’agit, à mon sens, d’une demande tendant fà l’extension

de mesures conservatoires. Le Costa Rica affirme que sa demandefait suite
«à l’envoi et au maintien, par le Nicaragua, d’un grand nombre dfe per -
sonnes dans la zone définie par la Cour dans son ordonnance … et aux
activités entreprises par celles-ci au détriment de ce territoire fet de ses

écosystèmes» (par. 2). Il ajoute qu’il s’est produit un changement dans la
situation (par. 4) au sens du paragraphe 2 de l’article 76 du Règlement de

21 Communication du 1 mars 2013 adressée à la Cour par le Costa Rica.
22 Ibid.
23 Demande du Costa Rica.

22

8 CIJ1048.indb 41 13/06/14 12:44 249 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

Court . Costa Rica further claims that the presence of Nicaraguan

nationals in the disputed area causes a risk of irremediable harm in thef
form of bodily injury or death (paras. 18-19). Costa Rica at last contends
that there is urgency, since in its view there is a real risk that, withfout
such modification of the Court’s Order, action prejudicial to Costa

Rica’s rights will occur before the Court renders its decision on the merits
(paras. 18-20).
17. Costa Rica purports to explain further its requested new provi -

sional measures. It alleges that Nicaragua sponsors the continuous pres -
ence, in the disputed area, of a large number of Nicaraguan nationals, bfy
its operation of an “academic” programme whereby they are sent thefreto
to carry out activities. In the annexes to its request, Costa Rica refers to

press reports on the matter, and adds that it has kept the Court informefd
about these activities, has formally protested to Nicaragua against themf,
and has exhausted all efforts to resolve the dispute by diplomatic meafns,

which have failed. Costa Rica claims that the activities at issue have con -
sisted in :(a) deliberately interfering with a site visit ; (b) carrying out
works in an attempt to keep the artificial caño open ; (c) engaging in

uncontrolled planting of trees in the area ; (d) raising of cattle in the
area ; and(e) erecting fences in the area to the north of, and alongside,
the caño (paras. 4-9) 25. This presence of Nicaraguan nationals in the dis -
puted area, and their described activities thereon, are, in Costa Rica’s

view, in breach of the Court’s Order, and create a new situation, reqfuir -
ing the “modification” of the Court’s Order (paras. 10-14) — in the sense
of the expansion of the provisional measures of protection.

18. In its written observations, Nicaragua, in turn, retorts that
Costa Rica’s request, in its view, is “groundless”, as there has beenf no

change in the situation that would call for a “modification” of the Court’s
Order in the way described by Costa Rica, and it has not breached the
provisional measures indicated by the Court (paras. 1-3). Nicaragua adds

that the presence of private individuals is not a new issue under the

24 Article 76 of the Rules of Court reads as follows :

“1. At the request of a party the Court may, at any time before the final fjudgment in
the case, revoke or modify any decision concerning provisional measures if, in its
opinion, some change in the situation justifies such revocation or modfification.

2. Any application by a party proposing such a revocation or modification shall

specify the change in the situation considered to be relevant.

3. Before taking any decision under paragraph 1 of this Article the Court shall afford
the parties an opportunity of presenting their observations on the subjefct.”
25 Costa Rica further recalls that Nicaragua maintains the position that the Court’s
Order does not prevent private citizens from accessing the area and carrfying activities

thereon; in its Counter-Memorial, Nicaragua recognizes the presence of its nationals in
the area. Costa Rica controverts Nicaragua’s views (Request by Costa Rica, paras. 10-14).

23

8 CIJ1048.indb 42 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 249

la Cour . Il avance par ailleurs que la présence de ressortissants nicara -

guayens dans le territoire litigieux crée un risque d’atteinte irrfémédiable à
l’intégrité physique de personnes ou à leur vie (par. 18-19). Enfin, il fait
valoir que la situation revêt un caractère d’urgence, étant fdonné que, si
l’ordonnance de la Cour du 8 mars 2011 n’est pas modifiée, le risque est réel

que soient commis des actes préjudiciables à ses droits avant que fla Cour
n’ait eu l’occasion de rendre sa décision définitive sur lfe fond (par. 18-20).
17. Le Costa Rica s’attache ensuite à définir plus précisément les nfou -

velles mesures qu’il sollicite. Il soutient que le Nicaragua encouragfe la
présence continue, dans la zone litigieuse, d’un grand nombre de sfes res -
sortissants dans le cadre d’un programme « universitaire» consistant à
envoyer dans cette zone de jeunes Nicaraguayens afin qu’ils y mèfnent cer -

taines activités. Le Costa Rica a joint en annexe à sa demande certains
articles de presse sur le sujet, et souligne qu’il a tenu la Cour informée de
ces activités, qu’il a protesté formellement contre celles-ci afuprès du Nica -

ragua et qu’il n’a ménagé aucun effort pour régler le dfifférend par la voie
diplomatique, sans toutefois y parvenir. Selon lui, les ressortissants nfica -
raguayens ont notamment : a) entravé de manière délibérée une visite sur

les lieux ;b) réalisé des travaux pour tenter de maintenir le caño ouvert ;
c) planté des arbres de façon anarchique dans la zone ; d) fait paître du
bétail dans la zone ; et e) dressé des clôtures de barbelés au nord du caño
et le long de celui-ci (par. 4-9) 25. La présence de ces ressortissants nicara -

guayens dans la zone litigieuse et les activités auxquelles ils se lifvrent,
telles qu’elles sont décrites, constituent, selon le Costa Rica, une violation
de l’ordonnance de la Cour, et créent une situation nouvelle exigefant de

«modifier» cette ordonnance (par. 10-14) en étendant les mesures conser -
vatoires qu’elle a indiquées.
18. Dans ses observations écrites, le Nicaragua prétend, pour sa part,f
que la demande du Costa Rica est «dénué[e] de fondement», qu’il n’y a eu

dans la situation aucun changement justifiant que l’ordonnance de lfa Cour
soit « modifiée» de la manière demandée par le Costa Rica et qu’il n’a
enfreint aucune des mesures conservatoires indiquées par la Cour (pafr. 1-3).

Le Nicaragua ajoute que la présence de personnes privées n’est fpas une

24L’article 76 du Règlement se lit comme suit :

«1. A la demande d’une partie, la Cour peut, à tout moment avant l’farrêt définitif en
l’affaire, rapporter ou modifier toute décision concernant desf mesures conserva
toires si un changement dans la situation lui paraît justifier que fcette décision soit
rapportée ou modifiée.
2. Toute demande présentée par une partie et tendant à ce qu’une décision concer-

nant des mesures conservatoires soit rapportée ou modifiée indiqfue le changement
dans la situation considéré comme pertinent.
3. Avant de prendre une décision en vertu du paragraphe 1 du présent article, la Cour
donne aux parties la possibilité de présenter des observations àf ce sujet. »
25Le Costa Rica rappelle en outre que le Nicaragua persiste à considérer que fl’ordonnance
de la Cour n’interdit pas aux personnes privées d’accéder àf la zone et d’y mener des activités ;

dans son contre-mémoire, le Nicaragua reconnaît que ses ressortissants sont présents dans la
zone. Le Costa Rica conteste la position du Nicaragua (demande du Costa Rica, par. 10-14).

23

8 CIJ1048.indb 43 13/06/14 12:44 250 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

Court’s Order (para. 13). And as to the presence of members of the
Guardabarranco Environment Movement referred to by Costa Rica,
Nicaragua claims that Costa Rica did not ask, in its request for the indi -

cation of provisional measures, for the withdrawal of private individuals,
and adds that the members of the Guardabarranco Environment Move -
ment are “private individuals”, as conceded by Costa Rica ; it alleges that
they are neither part of the Nicaraguan Government, nor are they acting f

under Nicaragua’s control (paras. 6-14).
19. In its written observations on Nicaragua’s request, Costa Rica reit -
erates its perceived change in the situation, pointing out that Nicaragufa
does not deny, in its own written observations, that it is sponsoring,

sending and maintaining large number of persons in the area (para. 7). In
Costa Rica’s view, the unlawful presence of Nicaraguan nationals in the
area is not in dispute. Costa Rica then claims that this is a new situation
that did not exist at the time of the oral hearings on provisional measufres,

as then only military personnel were in the area; the Court did not implic -
itly recognize in its Order of 8 March 2011 that private individuals could
enter, remain on, and carry out unsupervised, unpoliced activities in thfe
area. Costa Rica maintains that the presence of Nicaraguan nationals in

the area is unlawful,26nd increases the risk of incidents likely to causfe
irremediable harm .

V. Urgency and Risk of Harm f
in the Form of Bodily Injfury or Death

20. In its Order of provisional measures of protection of 8 March 2011

the ICJ, recalling the competing claims over the disputed area and Nica -
ragua’s intention to carry out thereon, “if only occasionally”,f certain act-i
vities, noted, in paragraph 75, the ensuing risk of irremediable harm in
the form of bodily injury or death. The Court stated that such situation

created
“an imminent risk of irreparable prejudice to Costa Rica’s claimed

title to sovereignty over the said territory and to the rights deriving f
therefrom; (. . .) this situation moreover gives rise to a real and pres -
ent risk of incidents liable to cause irremediable harm in the form of
bodily injury or death” (para. 75).

Under these circumstances, the Court decided that provisional measures
27
should be indicated .

26Written observations of Costa Rica, paras. 25-29.
27Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nica ‑
ragua), Provisional Measures, Order of 8 March 2011, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (I), pp. 24-25,
para. 76.

24

8 CIJ1048.indb 44 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 250

question nouvelle aux fins de l’ordonnance de la Cour (par. 13). S’agissant
de la présence de membres du mouvement de défense de l’environnfement
Guardabarranco dénoncée par le Costa Rica, le Nicaragua avance que

celui-ci n’a pas sollicité, dans sa demande en indication de mesurfes conser -
vatoires, le retrait de personnes privées, soulignant que les membres de ce
mouvement sont des « personnes privées», comme en convient le Costa
Rica; il ajoute que ces personnes ne relèvent pas du Gouvernement nicara -

guayen, pas plus qu’elles n’agissent sous son contrôle (par. 6-14).
19. Dans ses observations écrites sur la demande du Nicaragua, le
Costa Rica réaffirme qu’un changement est, à son sens, intervenu dans la
situation, soulignant que le Nicaragua ne nie pas, dans ses observationsf

écrites, qu’il encourage l’envoi et le maintien dans la zone d’fun grand
nombre de personnes. Selon le Costa Rica, la présence illicite de ressortis -
sants nicaraguayens dans la zone litigieuse n’est pas contestée pafr les Par-
ties. Il soutient qu’il s’agit là d’une situation nouvelle qfui n’existait pas à

l’époque des audiences concernant les mesures conservatoires, époque à
laquelle ne se trouvaient dans la zone que des forces militaires ; il conteste
que l’ordonnance du 8 mars 2011 de la Cour ait implicitement reconnu
aux personnes privées le droit de pénétrer dans la zone, d’yf demeurer et

d’y exercer des activités non surveillées par la police ou autrfement. Aussi
le Costa Rica estime-t-il que la présence de ressortissants nicaraguayens
dans la zone est illicite et aggrave le risque d’incidents susceptiblfes d’en -
traîner des dommages irrémédiables 2.

V. L’urgence et le risquef d’atteinte
à l’intégrité physiqfue de personnes ou à lefur vie

20. Dans son ordonnance en indication de mesures conservatoires du

8 mars 2011, la Cour, rappelant les prétentions concurrentes présentfées
par les Parties sur la zone litigieuse et l’intention du Nicaragua d’fy mener,
«fût-ce ponctuellement», certaines activités, a souligné, au paragraphe 75,
le risque consécutif d’atteinte irréparable à l’intégrfité physique de per -

sonnes ou à leur vie. Ainsi la Cour a-t-elle énoncé que cette sfituation
«cré[ait] un risque imminent de préjudice irréparable au titre dfe

souveraineté revendiqué par le Costa Rica sur ledit territoire ainsi
qu’aux droits qui en découlent ; … [et que,] de surcroît … cette situa -
tion fai[sait] naître un risque réel et actuel d’incidents suscfeptibles
d’entraîner une atteinte irrémédiable à l’intégritéf physique de per -

sonnes ou à leur vie » (par. 75).
Elle a conclu que, dans ces circonstances, il y avait lieu d’indiquerf des
27
mesures conservatoires .

26 Observations écrites du Costa Rica, par. 25-29.
27 Certaines activités menées par la Nicaragua dans la région fron▯talière (Costa Rica
c. Nicaragua), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 8 mars 2011, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I),
p. 24-25, par. 76.

24

8 CIJ1048.indb 45 13/06/14 12:44 251 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

21. The ICJ thus took into account the risk of incidents likely to cause
irremediable harm in the form of bodily injury or death, and then orderefd
the requested measures. From the arguments more recently submitted to
the Court, it seems that similar concerns about a risk of incidents thatf

could cause irremediable harm in the form of bodily injury or death callf
for additional provisional measures to be adopted by the Court. To this
effect, Costa Rica claims that the presence of Nicaraguan nationals in the
disputed territory poses the risk of such irremediable harm 2. In its

request, Costa Rica sustains that there is “a real and present risk of inci -
dents liable to cause irremediable harm in the form of bodily injury or
death” (para. 18) ; in particular, it links the presence of Nicaraguan
nationals in the disputed area to the risk of irremediable harm in the fform
of bodily injury or death, and it adds that there is “real urgency”. There

is, furthermore, in its view, “a serious threat to its internationally-
protected wetlands and forests” (ibid.).
22. In its written observations, Costa Rica also argues that there is
urgency. Costa Rica links the urgency of the situation to the “real and

present risk of incidents liable to cause irremediable harm in the form fof
bodily injury or death” in the disputed area (para. 29), and stresses this
risk (paras. 25 and 28). Costa Rica asserts that, pursuant to the Court’s
Order, it has prevented its police force and residents from entering thef

area, while Nicaragua has refused to ensure that people from its territofry
do not enter the area, and continues to maintain therein a constant presf -
ence of “substantial numbers of Nicaraguan persons”. Costa Rica then
submits that “[t]here is a real risk that, without a modification off the
Court’s Order of 8 March 2011, action prejudicial to the rights of

Costa Rica will occur before the Court has the opportunity to render its
final decision on the questions for determination set out in the Applifca -
tion” (para. 19).

23. For its part, in its written observations Nicaragua retorts that,
after three technical visits to the site, Costa Rica has in its view failed to
demonstrate the existence of any “serious threat” to the disputed terri -
tory, or any “incidents liable to cause irremediable harm in the form of

bodily injury or death” (para. 37). It adds that Costa Rica first made such
assertions in its Memorial, but they had been rebutted by Nicaragua in ifts
Counter-Memorial. Thus, Nicaragua denies any urgency in the situation,
and adds that Costa Rica’s new allegations could be more properly
addressed in the merits phase. Nicaragua claims that, since the Order, ift

has acted with due diligence to ensure that the area remains free of Nicfa -
raguan personnel ; as to the presence in the area of members of the
Guardabarranco Environment Movement referred to by Costa Rica,

28Request by Costa Rica, paras. 18-20 ; it further alleges that there have lately been
incidents in the area, where Nicaraguan nationals have subjected Costa Rican envi-on
mental personnel to harassment and verbal abuse, posing a risk of incidefnts that might
cause bodily injury or death.

25

8 CIJ1048.indb 46 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 251

21. La Cour a donc pris en considération le risque d’incidents suscep -
tibles de causer une atteinte irrémédiable à l’intégritéf physique de per -
sonnes ou à leur vie, avant d’indiquer les mesures sollicitées.f Au vu des
arguments récemment présentés à la Cour, il semble qu’il fexiste

aujourd’hui des préoccupations similaires, qui exigent l’indicaftion par la
Cour de mesures conservatoires supplémentaires. Le Costa Rica fait
valoir, à cet égard, que la présence de ressortissants nicaragufayens dans le
territoire litigieux crée un risque de préjudice irréparable 2. Dans sa

demande, il soutient ainsi qu’il existe « un risque réel et actuel d’incidents
susceptibles d’entraîner une atteinte irrémédiable à l’fintégrité physique de
personnes ou à leur vie » (par. 18), reliant expressément ce risque à la
présence de ressortissants nicaraguayens dans la zone litigieuse, et fsouli -
gnant le « réel caractère d’urgence » de la situation. Enfin, ces personnes

feraient, selon lui, peser une « grave menace sur ses zones humides et
forêts jouissant d’une protection internationale » (ibid.).
22. Dans ses observations écrites, le Costa Rica invoque également le
caractère d’urgence de la situation, qu’il associe au « risque réel et actuel

que se produisent … des incidents susceptibles d’entraîner une atteinte
irrémédiable à l’intégrité physique de personnes ou àf leur vie » dans la
zone en question (par. 29), risque sur lequel il insiste tout particulièrement
(par. 25 et 28). Le Costa Rica affirme qu’il a, en application de l’ordon -

nance de la Cour, interdit à ses forces de police et à ses ressortfissants de
pénétrer dans la zone, et que le Nicaragua a, quant à lui, refufsé de prendre
des mesures pour faire en sorte que personne n’y pénètre via sofn territoire
et continue à y maintenir en permanence «un grand nombre de ses ressor -
tissants». Le Costa Rica soutient ensuite que, « [s]i l’ordonnance de la

Cour du 8 mars 2011 n’est pas modifiée, le risque est réel que soient com -
mis des actes préjudiciables à ses droits avant que la Cour n’afit eu l’occa-
sion de rendre sa décision définitive sur les questions qu’ilf lui a demandé
de trancher dans la requête » (par. 19).

23. Dans ses observations écrites, le Nicaragua avance quant à lui quef,
après trois visites techniques sur les lieux, le Costa Rica n’a toujours pas
démontré l’existence d’une quelconque « grave menace » sur le territoire
litigieux ni le risque «d’incidents susceptibles d’entraîner une atteinte irré -

médiable à l’intégrité physique des personnes ou à leufr vie » (par. 37). Il
précise que ces allégations, initialement présentées dans lef mémoire du
Costa Rica, ont été réfutées dans le contre-mémoire du Nicaragufa. Aussi
conteste-t-il que la situation présente un quelconque caractère d’furgence,
ajoutant que la procédure au fond constituerait un cadre plus approprfié

pour examiner ces allégations nouvelles. Le Nicaragua soutient qu’fil a,
depuis l’ordonnance, fait preuve de diligence et pris toutes les dispositions
voulues pour faire en sorte que le territoire litigieux demeure exempt dfe

28Demande du Costa Rica, par. 18-20 ; le Costa Rica invoque par ailleurs de récents
incidents lors desquels des ressortissants nicaraguayens auraient harcelfé et insulté les
agents costa-riciens chargés de la protection de l’environnement, fcausant un risque d’inci-
dents susceptibles d’entraîner une atteinte à l’intégritéf physique de personnes ou à leur vie.

25

8 CIJ1048.indb 47 13/06/14 12:44 252 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

Nicaragua argues that Costa Rica had not asked, in its earlier request

for the indication of provisional measures, for the withdrawal of “privatfe
individuals” (paras. 6-14).

VI. The Position of the Partfies as to the Purportedf Expansion

of Provisional Measures: The Request of Nicaraguaf

24. On 14 June 2013, Nicaragua submitted its written observations on
Costa Rica’s request, and made its own request for modification of the
29
Court’s Order on the basis of an alleged new factual situation, that is,
the construction of a 160-km-long road along the San Juan River and the
joinder of the proceedings. Nicaragua argues, in its written observationfs

and request, that, despite its call on Costa Rica for halting the construc -
tion without an appropriate transboundary environmental impact assess -
ment, Costa Rica announced that the work is about to be restarted.

Nicaragua argues that the construction of the road has resulted in
increased sedimentation and pollution of the river, adverse impact on
water quality, aquatic life, navigation and other general uses of the rifver

by the population (paras. 43-46).

25. Nicaragua further argues that the Court’s Order of 8 March 2011

should be adjusted to take into account the “harmful environmental efffect
of the works in and along the San Juan River on the fragile fluvial ecosys -
tem (including protected nature preserves in and along the river)”,f which

cover the area in dispute located at the mouth of the river. Nicaragua aflso
refers to the UNITAR/UNOSAT report observing that the area in dis -
pute is being affected by the accumulation of fluvial sediments including

those of bank erosion, attributable in part by sediments transmitted to f
the river by the road construction activities. Nicaragua maintains that fthe
Order should be adjusted to take this into account. Both Parties should f

29
Nicaragua requests that the provisional measure ordered by the Court in fresolutory
point (2) be modified to read :
“Notwithstanding point (1) above, both Parties may dispatch civilian personnel
charged with the protection of the environment to the disputed territory, including

the caño, but only in so far as it is necessary to avoid irreparable prejudice being
caused to the part of the wetland where that territory is situated ; both Parties shall
consult in regard to these actions and use their best endeavours to find common solu
tions with the other Party in this respect.”

The third measure ordered by the Court should be modified to read as ffollows:
“Each Party shall refrain from any action, which might aggravate or efxtend the
dispute before the Court in either of the joined cases or make it more dfifficult to
resolve, and will take those actions necessary for avoiding such aggravaftion or exten
sion of the dispute before the Court.”

26

8 CIJ1048.indb 48 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 252

tout personnel nicaraguayen ; s’agissant de la présence de membres du

mouvement Guardabarranco, il souligne que le Costa Rica, dans sa pré -
cédente demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, n’a pas pfrié la
Cour d’indiquer le retrait de « personnes privées» (par. 6-14).

VI. La position des Partifes quant à l’extensionf envisagée
des mesures conservaftoires: la demande du Nicaragufa

24. Le 14 juin 2013, le Nicaragua a présenté ses observations écrites
sur la demande du Costa Rica et soumis sa propre demande tendant à la
modification de l’ordonnance de la Cour 2, invoquant une nouvelle situa-

tion factuelle, c’est-à-dire la construction d’une route de 160f km le long
du fleuve San Juan, ainsi que la jonction des deux instances. Le Nica-
ragua soutient, dans ses observations écrites et sa demande, que, bien

qu’ayant invité le Costa Rica à ne poursuivre aucun projet de construc -
tion sans qu’ait été établie une évaluation en bonne et dfue forme de l’im-
pact sur l’environnement transfrontalier, ce dernier a annoncé quef les

travaux étaient sur le point de reprendre. Le Nicaragua fait valoir qfue la
construction de la route a entraîné une aggravation de la sédimfentation et
de la pollution du fleuve, avec les effets néfastes qui en décfoulent pour la
qualité de l’eau, la vie aquatique, la navigation sur le fleuve et les autres

usages que, de manière générale, il offre à la population f(par. 43-46).
25. Le Nicaragua fait valoir que l’ordonnance du 8 mars 2011 devrait
être adaptée pour tenir compte des « conséquences néfastes qu’au -

raient les travaux menés sur le San Juan ou le long de sa rive pour le
fragile écosystème fluvial (qui comprend des réserves naturelles proté -
gées)», conséquences qui s’étendent jusqu’à la zone litigiefuse située à
l’embouchure du fleuve. Le Nicaragua invoque également le rapporft de

l’UNITAR/UNOSAT, qui souligne que la zone en litige est affectée par f
l’accumulation de sédiments fluviaux, notamment du fait de l’férosion des
rives, et que ce phénomène est en partie imputable aux sédimentfs rejetés

dans le fleuve à cause des travaux de construction routière. Le fNicaragua

29 Le Nicaragua prie la Cour de modifier comme suit la deuxième mesuref indiquée dans
son ordonnance :

«Nonobstant le point 1 ci-dessus, les deux Parties pourront envoyer sur le terri
toire litigieux, y compris le caño, des agents civils chargés de la protection de l’envi -
ronnement dans la stricte mesure où un tel envoi serait nécessairef pour éviter qu’un
préjudice irréparable ne soit causé à la partie de la zone hfumide où ce territoire est
situé ; les deux Parties devront se consulter au sujet de ces activités, et faire de leur
mieux pour rechercher ensemble des solutions communes à cet égard.f »

Il demande que la troisième mesure soit modifiée comme suit :
«Chaque Partie s’abstiendra de tout acte qui risquerait d’aggraver fou d’étendre
le différend dont la Cour est saisie dans l’une ou l’autre defs instances jointes ou d’en

rendre la solution plus difficile, et prendra les mesures nécessairefs pour éviter pareille
aggravation ou extension. »

26

8 CIJ1048.indb 49 13/06/14 12:44 253 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

be precluded from undertaking any activities that unilaterally increase fthe

“accumulation of fluvial sediments” in the area (paras. 47-52).

26. As to the joinder of proceedings (cf. supra), Nicaragua claims that
the Order should be made applicable to the two joined cases, in relationf

to all activities by either Party that might harm the environment in thef
area, in order not to aggravate the dispute. Nicaragua recalls a list off
urgent measures to prevent further damages to the river which it describfed
in its Memorial in the case concerning the Construction of a Road in
Costa Rica along the San Juan River : reducing the rate and frequency of

road fill failure, slumps and landslides ; eliminating or significantly reduc -
ing the risk of future erosion and sediment delivery at all stream crossings
along route 1856 ; immediately reducing road surface erosion and sedi -
ment delivery; controlling surface erosion and resultant sediment delivery
from bare soil areas (paras. 47-52).

27. For its part, in its written observations on Nicaragua’s request,
Costa Rica argues that the request at issue must be rejected on a number

of reasons (para. 6). First, the Court had explicitly held that “Costa
Rica’s claim to title over Isla Portillos was ‘plausible’”, fwhereas it had
made “no such finding with respect to Nicaragua” (paras. 7-10). Sec -
ondly, the Court had explicitly held that Costa Rica “must be able to
dispatch civilian personnel charged with the protection of the environ -

ment” to the area, whereas it made no such indication for Nicaragua
(paras. 11-13). Thirdly, only Costa Rica, and not Nicaragua, has an
obligation to monitor the area forming part of a protected wetland regisf -
tered by Costa Rica under the Ramsar Convention (paras. 14-18).
Fourthly, Costa Rica adds that the basis for the Court’s Order was that

neither Party should send persons to the area or maintain them there
(paras. 19-21).

28. Fifthly, Costa Rica further claims that the sponsoring of activities
calculated to change the status quo of the area is completely inconsistent

with the provisional measures actually indicated by the Court and with
the whole object and purpose of provisional measures in general
(paras. 22-24). Sixthly, Nicaragua’s proposed modification implies the
possibility of concomitant exercise of public environmental activities bfy
two different States in the same area, increasing the risk of serious inci -

dents (paras. 25-29). Seventhly, Costa Rica argues that Nicaragua’s pro -
posed deletion of the Ramsar Secretariat from the provisional measure
(second resolutory point of the Order) is an attempt to vitiate the rofle of
that supervisory organ in supporting Costa Rica in the environmental
recovery process of the disputed area in line with the Ramsar Conven -

tion, to which Nicaragua is also a party (paras. 30-31). Finally, Costa Rica

27

8 CIJ1048.indb 50 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activités; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 253

soutient que l’ordonnance devrait être modifiée sur la base dfe ces élé -
ments, et qu’il devrait être interdit aux deux Parties d’entreprendre unila -

téralement des activités ayant pour effet d’accentuer l’«f accumulation de
sédiments fluviaux» dans la zone en litige (par. 47-52).
26. S’agissant de la jonction d’instances (voir supra), le Nicaragua
avance que l’ordonnance devrait valoir pour chacune des deux instancefs
désormais jointes, pour ce qui est de toutes les activités entreprfises par

l’une ou l’autre des Parties et susceptibles de nuire à l’enfvironnement dans
la zone litigieuse, et ce, afin d’éviter d’aggraver le diffférend. Le Nicaragua
rappelle la liste des mesures urgentes qui doivent être mises en œfuvre pour
éviter que de nouveaux dommages ne soient causés au fleuve, ainsi qu’il
l’a exposé dans son mémoire présenté en l’affaire reflative à la Construc ‑
tion d’une route au Costa Rica le long du fleuve San Juan : réduire l’am -

pleur et la fréquence des effondrements et glissements de terrain dfus à
l’affaissement du remblai ; éliminer ou réduire sensiblement les risques
futurs d’érosion et de dépôt à tous les points de passagef de cours d’eau le
long de la route 1856 ; réduire immédiatement l’érosion du revêtement
routier et le dépôt de sédiments ; maîtriser l’érosion superficielle et les

dépôts consécutifs de sédiments provenant de sols nus (par.f 47-52).
27. Dans ses observations écrites sur la demande du Nicaragua, le
Costa Rica soutient que la demande doit être rejetée, et ce, pour un cerf -
tain nombre de motifs (par. 6). Premièrement, la Cour a reconnu que « le
titre revendiqué par le Costa Rica sur Isla Portillos [était] « plausible»»,

mais n’a « formulé aucune conclusion similaire concernant le Nicaragua »
(par. 7-10). Deuxièmement, la Cour a expressément déclaré que le f
Costa Rica « d[evait] pouvoir envoyer des agents civils chargés de la pro -
tection de l’environnement » dans la zone, mais n’a pas accordé de déro -
gation similaire au Nicaragua (par. 11-13). Troisièmement, c’est le
Costa Rica, et non le Nicaragua, qui est soumis à une obligation de sur -

veillance de la zone, laquelle fait partie d’une zone humide protéfgée
au titre de la convention de Ramsar (par. 14-18). Quatrièmement, le
Costa Rica ajoute que l’ordonnance de la Cour était fondée sur le prifn -
cipe selon lequel aucune des deux Parties n’enverrait ni ne maintiendrait
quiconque dans la zone (par. 19-21).

28. Cinquièmement, le Costa Rica souligne que le fait d’encourager
des activités visant à modifier le statu quo dans la zone est totalement
incompatible avec les mesures conservatoires effectivement indiquéefs par
la Cour et, de manière générale, avec l’objet et le but mêfmes des mesures
conservatoires (par. 22-24). Sixièmement, la reformulation proposée par

le Nicaragua implique la possibilité que deux Etats exercent, de manière
concomitante, des activités publiques d’ordre environnemental dansf une
même zone, ce qui accroîtrait le risque d’incidents graves (pafr. 25-29).
Septièmement, le Costa Rica soutient que la suppression proposée par le
Nicaragua de toute référence au Secrétariat de la convention de Ramsar
dans la deuxième mesure conservatoire reviendrait à priver cet orgfane de

son rôle d’appui au Costa Rica dans le cadre du processus de restauration
de l’environnement de la zone, conformément à la convention de fRamsar,

27

8 CIJ1048.indb 51 13/06/14 12:44 254 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

claims that the case concerning the Construction of a Road in Costa Rica
along the San Juan River, as well as the joinder of proceedings of this case

with those of the case concerning Certain Activities Carried Out by Nica ‑
ragua in the Border Area, in its view are not valid reasons to modify the
previous provisional measure and to authorize the presence of Nicara -

guan personnel charged30ith the protection of the environment in the
area (paras. 32-33) .

VII. General Assessment of tfhe Requests
of Costa Rica and of Nicafragua

1. Costa Rica’s Request

29. In support of its request, Costa Rica recalls that, at the time of the
public hearings preceding the previous Order of the ICJ on provisional
measures, it claimed that Nicaraguan personnel should leave the disputedf

area, as it then appeared that only military personnel was present therefin.
At that time, it did not seem that there was a concern with the presencef
of “private individuals”. Indeed, it appears that there is a changfe in the

situation. In its written observations, Nicaragua does not seem to objecft
to this assertion by Costa Rica, as it claims that Costa Rica did not
request at that time, provisional measures in respect of the withdrawal fof
“private individuals” from the area (cf. para. 11).

30. The situation, as it appears today, from the evidence and the argu -
ments submitted to the Court, is that “private individuals”, holdifng Nica-

raguan flags, are present in the disputed area. Again, in its written f
observations, Nicaragua does not seem to contest this fact (cf. paras. 11-
14) 31. It thus appears that there is indeed a change in the situation. The
change seems to lie in the fact that, at the time of the issuance of thef

Court’s Order of 8 March 2011, there seemed to be no Nicaraguan pri -
vate citizens in the disputed area, but only the presence of Nicaraguan f
military personnel. The fact that the Court mentioned in the operative
paragraphs of the Order the withdrawal of Nicaraguan personnel, reflecfts

the situation as it stood at the time of the adoption of its Order of
8 March 2011.

30 Costa Rica further argues that the proper avenue for Nicaragua to proceed withf its
request for the indication of provisional measures in the case it lodgedf with the Court is by
way of a new Application for the indication of provisional measures, andf not by asking for
a modification of the Court’s Order of 8 March 2011 (paras. 34-39). Costa Rica adds that

the mitigation works for the protection of the environment that it is unfdertaking on the
road (entirely on Costa Rican territory) are an issue for the merits phase of the proceedings
in the case lodged by Nicaragua, not to be dealt with by way of a requesft for modification
of 31e Court’s Order of 8 March 2011 (paras. 40-41).
And cf. also written observations of Costa Rica, para. 26.

28

8 CIJ1048.indb 52 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 254

à laquelle le Nicaragua est également partie (par. 30-31). Enfin, le
Costa Rica fait valoir que l’affaire relative à la Construction d’une route au

Costa Rica le long du fleuve San Juan et la jonction de cette instance à
celle relative à Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région
frontalière ne constituent pas des raisons valables qui justifieraient de

modifier la mesure conservatoire indiquée et d’autoriser la présence
d’agents nicaraguayens chargés de la protection de l’environnemfent dans
la zone (par. 32-33) 3.

VII. Appréciation générafle des demandes
du Costa Rica et du Nicaragua

1. Demande du Costa Rica

29. A l’appui de sa demande, le Costa Rica rappelle que, à l’époque
des audiences au terme desquelles la Cour a rendu son ordonnance en
indication de mesures conservatoires, il a sollicité le départ desf agents

nicaraguayens de la zone litigieuse, puisque seuls des contingents mili -
taires semblaient alors s’y trouver. Il indique qu’il n’étaift, à l’époque, nul-
lement question de la présence de « personnes privées » et qu’il y a donc

tout lieu de croire qu’un changement est intervenu dans la situation.f Dans
ses observations écrites, le Nicaragua ne paraît pas contester cetfte asser -
tion du Costa Rica, faisant valoir que les mesures sollicitées, à l’époquef,
par ce dernier ne portaient nullement sur le retrait de «personnes privées»

de la zone (voir par. 11).
30. Il ressort aujourd’hui des éléments de preuve et des arguments f
présentés à la Cour que des « personnes privées » portant des drapeaux

nicaraguayens sont présentes dans la zone litigieuse. Là encore, lfe Nica-
ragua ne semble pas contester ce fait dans ses observations écrites (fvoir
par. 11-14) 31. Il apparaît donc qu’un changement est effectivement inter -
venu dans la situation, à savoir que, lorsque la Cour a rendu son ordfon -

nance, le 8 mars 2011, seuls se trouvaient dans la zone litigieuse des agents
militaires nicaraguayens, et non des personnes privées. Le fait que lfa
Cour ait mentionné, dans le dispositif de son ordonnance, le retrait fdes
agents nicaraguayens reflète la situation telle qu’elle se préfsentait au

moment de l’adoption de son ordonnance du 8 mars 2011.

30Le Costa Rica avance par ailleurs que le Nicaragua ne peut présenter sa demandfe en
indication de mesures conservatoires dans l’affaire qu’il a intrfoduite devant la Cour qu’en
déposant une nouvelle demande, et non en sollicitant une modificatifon de l’ordonnance du
8 mars 2011 de la Cour (par. 34-39). Il ajoute que les travaux d’atténuation visant à protéfger

l’environnement, actuellement entrepris par le Costa Rica sur la route (intégralement en
territoire costa-ricien), constituent une question qui ne pourra êtrfe examinée qu’au stade
de l’examen au fond de l’instance introduite par le Nicaragua, et fnon par le biais d’une
dem31de tendant à la modification de l’ordonnance du 8 mars 2011 de la Cour (par. 40-41).
Et voir également les observations écrites du Costa Rica, par. 26.

28

8 CIJ1048.indb 53 13/06/14 12:44 255 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

31. It does not necessarily mean that the Court, by using the word

“personnel”, was thereby allowing the presence of any and all Nicafra -
guan persons other than civilian, security or police personnel. Accord -
ingly, the presence of private individuals in the disputed area does notf
seem to be in line with the objective of safeguarding “Costa Rica’s claimed
title to sovereignty over the said territory and to the rights deriving fthere-

from” or avoiding “incidents liable to cause irremediable harm in the
form of bodily injury or death”, in the line of its reasoning in para -
graph 75 of the Order of 8 March 2011.

32. Thus, on the basis of the foregoing, the presence of private indi -
viduals in the disputed area amounts to a change in the original situatifon,
as presented to the Court in the public hearings on provisional measuresf
which preceded its Order of 8 March 2011. The presence of “private indi -
viduals” does not seem to be in line with the reasoning of the Court, nor

with the objectives of the provisional measures it indicated, in its Order of
8 March 2011.
33. It seems uncontested that there are currently Nicaraguan nationals
present in the disputed area, conforming a new situation posing a risk off
incidents in the disputed area. With the change in the situation now cref -

ated (on the basis of the documents and arguments presented to the
Court), there appears to be a risk of irremediable harm in the form of f
bodily injury or death (in the terms of paragraph 75 of its Order of
8 March 2011) that would warrant a “modification” — or, more pre -
cisely, an expansion — of the Order, so as to avoid that risk. It further

appears that there is urgency, in view of a further risk of damage to thfe
disputed area.

2. Nicaragua’s Request

34. The questions that Nicaragua raises in its request for “modifica -
tion” or expansion of the Court’s previous Order of 8 March 2011, are

centred on important points. In fact, the relevance of the construction fof
the road to the examination of the whole dispute between the Parties has
been recognized by the Court in the previous Order on the joinder of
proceedings, of 17 April 2013, wherein the Court stated that :

“A decision to join the proceedings will allow the Court to address
simultaneously the totality of the various interrelated and contested
issues raised by the Parties, including any questions of fact or law that

are common to the disputes presented. In the view of the Court, hear-
ing and deciding the two cases together will have significant advan -
tages. The Court does not expect any undue delay in rendering its
Judgment in the two cases.” (Para. 17.)

29

8 CIJ1048.indb 54 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activités; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 255

31. Ceci n’implique pas nécessairement que, lorsqu’elle a utiliséf le

terme «agents», la Cour entendait autoriser la présence de tout ressortis -
sant nicaraguayen qui ne serait pas un agent civil, de sécurité ou de police.
La présence de personnes privées dans la zone litigieuse ne semblef donc
pas en phase avec l’objectif consistant à protéger « le titre de souveraineté
revendiqué par le Costa Rica sur ledit territoire ainsi qu[e] [les] droits qui

en découlent » et à éviter les « incidents susceptibles d’entraîner une
atteinte irrémédiable à l’intégrité physique de personfnes ou à leur vie »,
lequel s’inscrit dans le cadre du raisonnement que la Cour a suivi auf para -
graphe 75 de l’ordonnance du 8 mars 2011.

32. Ainsi, et au vu de ce qui précède, la présence de personnes prifvées
dans la zone litigieuse constitue un changement dans la situation initiale,
telle qu’elle a été présentée à la Cour lors des audiefnces ayant conduit à
l’adoption de son ordonnance du 8 mars 2011. La présence de «personnes
privées» ne semble conforme ni au raisonnement suivi par la Cour ni aux

objectifs des mesures conservatoires qu’elle a indiquées.

33. Les Parties ne paraissent pas contester le fait que des ressortissants
nicaraguayens se trouvent actuellement dans la zone litigieuse, créanft une
situation nouvelle qui pose un risque d’incidents dans ladite zone. Eftant

donné ce changement intervenu dans la situation (tel qu’il ressorft des
documents et arguments présentés à la Cour), il semble existerf un risque
d’atteinte irrémédiable à l’intégrité physique de pfersonnes ou à leur vie
(selon les termes du paragraphe 75 de l’ordonnance du 8 mars 2011) jus-
tifiant l’adoption d’une « modification» — ou, plus précisément, d’une

extension — de l’ordonnance pour pallier ce risque. Il semble en outre
que la situation revête un caractère d’urgence, étant donnéf le risque que
de nouveaux dommages ne soient causés dans la zone litigieuse.

2. Demande du Nicaragua

34. Les questions invoquées dans la demande du Nicaragua tendant à
la «modification», ou à l’extension, de l’ordonnance du 8 mars 2011 de la

Cour revêtent une importance particulière. De fait, dans l’ordonnance
qu’elle a rendue le 17 avril 2013 sur la jonction d’instances, la Cour a
reconnu la pertinence de la construction de la route aux fins de l’fexamen
du différend global qui divise les Parties, en déclarant :

«Une décision de joindre ces instances permettrait à la Cour d’efxa -
miner simultanément la totalité des différents points en litifge entre les
Parties, qui sont liés les uns aux autres, et notamment toutes ques -

tions de droit ou de fait communes aux deux différends qui lui ont
été soumis. Selon la Cour, le fait d’entendre et de trancher les
deux affaires ensemble présenterait de nombreux avantages. La Cour
n’escompte pas qu’une telle décision retarderait indûment la procé -
dure au terme de laquelle elle rendra son arrêt dans les deux affaires.»

(Par. 17.)

29

8 CIJ1048.indb 55 13/06/14 12:44 256 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

35. Be that as it may, the construction of the road, albeit an important

question, does not appear to be a matter to be treated in an Order for tfhe
“modification” or expansion of a previous Order of provisional mfeasures
(of 8 March 2011). The Court does not seem to be satisfied that the con -
struction of the road, as allegedly an entirely new issue, is endowed wifth
urgency, so as to be treated in the form of a new provisional measure.

May it be recalled that Nicaragua brought this issue before the Court
on 21 December 2011, when it lodged the case concerning the Construc ‑
tion of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River with the Court.

36. Moreover, the joinder of the proceedings of the cases concerning
Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area and the
Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River, does not
appear by itself to support a “modification” of the Order of 8 March
2011. This Order was based on the situation as then argued by the Par -

ties, concerning the disputed area. It rested upon an assessment by the f
ICJ that the situation, as presented to it, gave rise to “a real and fpresent
risk of incidents liable to cause irremediable harm in the form of bodilfy
injury or death” ; on this basis, the Court decided to indicate the provi -
sional measures of protection appropriate to that situation.

37. Thus, the joinder of proceedings in the two aforementioned cases
does not amount to a change of the situation, as presented to the Court f
at the time of the hearings that led to the adoption of its Order of 8 March
2011; nor does it seem to amount to a new fact that would warrant a

“modification” of that Order. Keeping in mind the foregoing, andf
acknowledging that the questions raised by Nicaragua concerning the
construction of the road along the San Juan River are relevant, the best
course to take is to deal with them in the merits phase of the case con -
cerning the Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River.

VIII. Effects of Provisional Mfeasures
of Protection beyond tfhe Strict Territorialfist Outlook

38. The factual context before the Court takes us beyond the tradi -
tional outlook of State territorial sovereignty. The concerns expressed f
before the Court encompass living conditions of people in their natural f
habitat, and the required environmental protection. International case

law on the matter (of distinct international tribunals) has so far soufght to
clarify the juridical nature of provisional measures, stressing its essentially
preventive character. In effect, the likelihood or probability of irreparable
damage, and the urgency of a situation, become evident when, e.g., a
growing number of people are about to be injured or murdered, as in

cases concerning armed conflicts (cf. infra). Whenever ordered provisional

30

8 CIJ1048.indb 56 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activités; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 256

35. Cela dit, la question de la construction de la route, si importante

soit-elle, ne me semble pas devoir être examinée dans une ordonnanfce
relative à la « modification» ou à l’extension de mesures conservatoires
précédemment indiquées (le 8 mars 2011). La Cour ne semble pas totale -
ment convaincue que s’attache à la construction de la route, dont fil est
prétendu qu’elle constitue une question entièrement nouvelle, ufn carac -

tère d’urgence justifiant qu’il y soit répondu par le biaifs d’une nouvelle
mesure conservatoire. Peut-être est-il utile de rappeler que le Nicarfagua
a saisi la Cour de cette question le 21 décembre 2011, lorsqu’il a introduit
l’instance relative à la Construction d’une route au Costa Rica le long du
fleuve San Juan.

36. Par ailleurs, la jonction des instances relatives à Certaines activités
menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière et à la Construction
d’une route au Costa Rica le long du fleuve San Juan ne me semble pas
justifier une « modification» de l’ordonnance du 8 mars 2011. Cette déci -
sion était fondée sur la situation, telle qu’elle avait étéf présentée par les

Parties, concernant la zone litigieuse, et découlait de l’appréfciation de la
Cour selon laquelle la situation, telle qu’elle lui avait été pfrésentée, se
caractérisait par «un risque réel et actuel d’incidents susceptibles d’entraî -
ner une atteinte irrémédiable à l’intégrité physique dfe personnes ou à leur
vie » ; la Cour a donc, sur la base de ces éléments, indiqué des mesufres

conservatoires destinées à répondre à cette situation.
37. Ainsi la jonction des deux instances ne constitue-t-elle pas un chan -
gement dans la situation telle qu’elle avait été présentéfe à la Cour à
l’époque des audiences ayant conduit à l’adoption de son ordfonnance du
8 mars 2011 ; elle ne me semble pas non plus constituer un fait nouveau

qui justifierait une « modification» de cette ordonnance. Au vu de ce qui
précède, et compte tenu du fait que les questions soulevées par le Nicara -
gua concernant la construction de la route le long du San Juan sont per -
tinentes, le mieux serait d’examiner celles-ci au stade de la procédure au
fond dans l’affaire relative à la Construction d’une route au Costa Rica le

long du fleuve San Juan.

VIII. Effets des mesures cofnservatoires
au-delà de l’approchef strictement axée sur lfe territoire

38. Le contexte factuel présenté à la Cour nous entraîne au-delà de
l’angle d’approche classique que constitue la question de la souvefraineté
territoriale des Etats. Les préoccupations qui lui ont été soumfises portent
notamment sur les conditions de vie des peuples dans leur habitat naturel

et sur la nécessaire protection de l’environnement. La jurisprudenfce inter -
nationale en la matière (émanant de différentes juridictions) a jusqu’à pré-
sent cherché à préciser la nature juridique des mesures conservatoires, en
insistant sur leur caractère essentiellement préventif. En effetf, l’éventualité
ou la probabilité de dommages irréparables et l’urgence d’une situation se

manifestent lorsque, par exemple, un nombre croissant d’individus sonft

30

8 CIJ1048.indb 57 13/06/14 12:44 257 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

measures protect rights of individuals, they appear endowed with a
32
character, more than precautionary, truly33utelary , besides preserving
the parties’ (States’) rights at stake .

39. The circumstances of certain cases before the Court have led this
latter, in its decisions on provisional measures, to shift its attentionf on to

the protection of people in territory (e.g., the case of the Frontier Dispute
(Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali), 1986 ; the case of the Land and Mari ‑
time Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria),
1996; the case of Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Demo ‑

cratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda), 2000 ; the case concerning the
Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Fo▯rms
of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), 2008 —

cf. infra). In those decisions, among others, the ICJ became attentive also
to the fate of persons.

40. The ICJ thus looked (moved) beyond the strict territorialist out -
look. The fact is that, in successive cases lodged with the Court, the bfen -
eficiaries of provisional measures of protection are identified wellf beyond
the traditional inter-State dimension. The present cases concerning Cer ‑

tain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area, and the Con ‑
struction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River, provide yet
new illustrations to this effect, in so far as the persons currently found in

the disputed area are concerned.

41. It should not pass unnoticed that provisional measures of protec -
tion have lately invited the Court to move its reasoning beyond the strifct

territorialist approach, as I observed in my separate opinion in the recfent
Order of the Court of provisional measures of protection in the case of f
the Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the Case

concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand) (Cambo ‑
dia v. Thailand) (Provisional Measures, Order of 18 July 2011, I.C.J. Rep‑
orts 2011 (II), p. 537) [hereinafter Request for Interpretation] after

32
Cf. R. St. J. MacDonald, “Interim Measures in International Law, with Special
Reference to the European System for the Protection of Human Rights”,f 52 Zeitschrift für
ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht (1993), pp. 703-740 ; A. A. Cançado Trin
dade, “Les mesures provisoires de protection dans la jurisprudence def la Cour inter-
américaine des droits de l’homme”, in Mesures conservatoires et droits fondamentaux (eds.
G. Cohen-Jonathan and J.-F. Flauss), Brussels, Bruylant/Nemesis, 2005, pp. 145-163, and
in 4 Revista do Instituto Brasileiro de Direitos Humanos (2003), pp. 13-25 ; A. Saccucci, Le
Misure Provvisorie nella Protezione Internazionale dei Diritii Umani, Torino, Giappichelli
Ed., 2006, pp. 103-241 and 447-507.
33Cf. E. Hambro, “The Binding Character of the Provisional Measures of Protec -
tion Indicated by the International Court of Justice”, in Rechtsfragen der Internationalen

Organisation — Festschrift für Hans Wehberg (eds. W. Schätzel and H.-J. Schlochauer),
Frankfurt a/M, 1956, pp. 152-171.

31

8 CIJ1048.indb 58 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 257

menacés d’atteinte à leur intégrité physique ou à leurf vie, comme dans les

affaires liées à des conflits armés (voir infra). Lorsqu’elles sont ordonnées
pour protéger les droits de personnes, les mesures conservatoires appfa -
raissent alors revêtues d’un caractère non pas uniquement préfventif mais
proprement tutélaire 3, en sus de leur rôle de protection des droits des
33
(Etats) parties qui sont en jeu .
39. Les circonstances de certaines affaires portées devant la Cour ont f
conduit cette dernière, dans ses décisions relatives aux mesures cfonserva -

toires, à accorder plus d’attention à la protection des peuples vivant sur un
territoire (on citera, par exemple, l’affaire du Différend frontalier (Bur ‑
kina Faso/République du Mali), 1986 ; celle de la Frontière terrestre et
maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria), 1996 ;

celle des Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République dé▯mocra ‑
tique du Congo c. Ouganda), 2000 ; celle relative à l’Application de la
convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes d▯e discrimi ‑

nation raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), 2008, voir infra). Dans
ces décisions, et dans d’autres, la Cour s’est aussi montrée attentive au
sort des personnes.

40. La Cour a donc fait porter son examen et son analyse au-delà de
l’approche strictement axée sur le territoire. Le fait est que, dans diffé -
rentes affaires successivement portées devant elle, les bénéfifciaires des
mesures conservatoires indiquées dépassaient largement la dimensiofn

interétatique traditionnelle. Les présentes instances relatives àf Certaines
activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontalière▯ et à la Construc ‑
tion d’une route au Costa Rica le long du fleuve San Juan fournissent une

nouvelle illustration en ce sens, pour ce qui concerne les personnes se f
trouvant actuellement dans la zone litigieuse.
41. Il convient de garder à l’esprit que, au cours des dernières anfnées,
les mesures conservatoires ont incité la Cour à délaisser les rfaisonnements

s’appuyant sur une conception strictement territoriale, comme je l’fai fait
observer dans l’opinion individuelle que j’ai jointe à l’ordfonnance en indi -
cation de mesures conservatoires récemment rendue par la Cour en l’faf -

faire de la Demande en interprétation de l’arrêt du 15 juin 1962 en l’affaire
du Temple de Préah Vihéar (Cambodge c. Thaïlande) (Cambodge c. Thaï ‑
lande) (mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 18 juillet 2011, C.I.J.

32
Voir R. St. J. MacDonald, « Interim Measures in International Law, with Special
Reference to the European System for the Protection of Human Rights », Zeitschrift für
ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, vol. 52 (1993), p. 703-740; A. A. Cançado
Trindade, « Les mesures provisoires de protection dans la jurisprudence de la Cour ifnter-
américaine des droits de l’homme », dans Mesures conservatoires et droits fondamentaux
(G. Cohen-Jonathan et J.-F. Flauss, dir. publ.), Bruxelles, Bruylant/Nemesis, 2005,
p. 145-163, et Revista do Instituto Brasileiro de Direitos Humanos, vol. 4 (2003), p. 13-25 ;
A. Saccucci, Le Misure Provvisorie nella Protezione Internazionale dei Diritii Umani,▯ Turin,
Giappichelli Ed., 2006, p. 103-241 et 447-507.
33Voir E. Hambro, « The Binding Character of the Provisional Measures of Protec -
tion Indicated by the International Court of Justice », dans Rechtsfragen der Interna‑io

nalen Organisation — Festschrift für Hans Wehberg (W. Schätzel et H.-J. Schlochauer, dir.
publ.), Francfort, 1956, p. 152-171.

31

8 CIJ1048.indb 59 13/06/14 12:44 258 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

dwelling upon the relationship between time and law, I moved to consid -

erations pertaining to space and law, relating (territorial) space to fthe
human element of statehood : the population (paras. 43-44 and 62-63).
International law in a way endeavours to be anticipatory in the regulation
of social facts, so as to avoid disorder and chaos, as well as irreparabfle
harm; we are here before the raison d’être of provisional measures of pro-

tection, i.e., to prevent and avoid irreparable harm in situations of grfavity
and urgency. Endowed with a notorious preventive character, they are
anticipatory in nature, looking forward in time ; they thus disclose the
preventive dimension of the safeguard of rights (para. 64).

42. In my separate opinion, I sustained that there was epistemologi -
cally no impossibility or inadequacy for provisional measures, of the kifnd
of the ones indicated in that Order, to extend protection — as they

should — also to human life, as well as to cultural and spiritual world
heritage. In fact, the reassuring effects of the provisional measures findi -
cated in that recent Order of the ICJ were precisely that they extended f
protection not only to the territorial zone at issue, but also, by asserfting
the prohibition of the use or threat of force — pursuant to a fundamental

principle of international law — to the life and personal integrity of
human beings who live or happen to be in that zone or near it, as well afs
to the Temple of Preah Vihear itself, situated in the aforementioned zone,
and all that the Temple represents (para. 66).

43. I then added, in my separate opinion in the case of the Request for
Interpretation (provisional measures), that the Court should be prepared,
in our days, to give proper weight to the human factor (para. 97), thus
bringing people and territory together ; and I pondered that :

“Not everything can be subsumed under territorial sovereignty.
The fundamental human right to life is not at all subsumed under

State sovereignty. The human right not to be forcefully displaced or
evacuated from one’s home is not to be equated with territorial sov -
ereignty. The Court needs to adjust its conceptual framework and its
language to the new needs of protection, when it decides to indicate

or order the provisional measures requested from it.
If we add, to the aforementioned, the protection of cultural and
spiritual world heritage (cf. supra), for the purposes of provisional
measures, the resulting picture will appear even more complex, and
the strict territorialist approach even more unsatisfactory. The human

factor is the most prominent one here. It shows how multifaceted, in
these circumstances, the protection provided by provisional measures
can be. It goes well beyond State territorial sovereignty, bringing
territory, people and human values together.” (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II),
pp. 599-600, paras. 99-100.)

32

8 CIJ1048.indb 60 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activités; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 258

Recueil 2011 (II), p. 537). Après avoir examiné le rapport du droit au

temps, j’ai présenté quelques considérations concernant le rfapport du
droit à l’espace, en rattachant celui-ci (le territoire) à l’élément humain de
la notion d’Etat, c’est-à-dire la population (par. 43-44 et 62-63). Le droit
international a, d’une certaine manière, vocation anticipatoire lorsqu’il
régit les faits de société, et ce, afin d’empêcher le désordre et le chaos,

ainsi que tout préjudice irréparable. C’est là la raison d’fêtre des mesures
conservatoires: prévenir et éviter un préjudice irréparable dans des situaf -
tions présentant un caractère de gravité et d’urgence. Maniffestement pré-
ventives, pareilles mesures sont de nature anticipative, tournées verfs

l’avenir. Elles illustrent ainsi la dimension préventive de la sauvegarde des
droits (par. 64).
42. Dans mon opinion individuelle, j’ai expliqué que rien, d’un poifnt
de vue épistémologique, n’empêchait ou ne rendait inapproprifée l’exten -
sion — qui, à mon sens, s’impose ici — de la protection offerte par des

mesures conservatoires du type de celles indiquées dans cette ordonnafnce
à la vie humaine ainsi qu’au patrimoine culturel et spirituel mondial.
Au contraire, les mesures conservatoires indiquées dans cette récente
ordonnance ont ceci de positif que la protection qu’elles visent s’fétend
non seulement à la zone territoriale en cause, mais aussi — conformé -

ment à un principe fondamental du droit international — à la vie et à
l’intégrité physique des êtres humains vivant ou se trouvantf dans la zone
concernée, ou à proximité de celle-ci, aussi bien qu’au tempfle de
Préah Vihéar lui-même, situé dans ladite zone, et à tout ce que lef temple

représente (par. 66).
43. Dans cette même opinion individuelle, j’ai ajouté que la Cour
devrait aujourd’hui se montrer prête à accorder toute l’impofrtance voulue
à la dimension humaine (par. 97) et, ainsi, à englober territoire et popula ‑
tion; j’ai, à cet égard, fait état des réflexions suivantesf:

«Tout ne peut pas être ramené à la souveraineté territoriale.f Le
droit fondamental de l’homme à la vie n’est en rien subsumé fsous la

souveraineté territoriale. Le droit de l’homme de ne pas être dféplacé
ou évacué de force de ses foyers ne se confond nullement avec la
souveraineté territoriale. La Cour se doit d’adapter son mode de
pensée et son langage aux besoins nouveaux de protection lorsqu’elfle

décide d’indiquer ou de prescrire des mesures conservatoires.
Si l’on prend en outre en considération, aux fins de l’indication de
mesures conservatoires, la protection du patrimoine culturel et spiri -
tuel mondial (cf. supra), le tableau n’en apparaît que plus complexe
et la conception strictement territoriale moins satisfaisante. Le

facteur humain occupe la première place ici. Cela montre à quel point
la protection offerte par des mesures conservatoires peut, dans ces
circonstances, être multidimensionnelle, allant bien au-delà de la
souveraineté territoriale d’un Etat pour englober territoire, popula ‑
tion et valeurs humaines. » (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II), p. 599-600,

par. 99-100.)

32

8 CIJ1048.indb 61 13/06/14 12:44 259 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

IX. The Beneficiaries of Profvisional Measures of Prfotection,
beyond the Traditionafl Inter-State Dimension

44. In the international litigation before the ICJ, only States, as con -

tending parties, can request provisional measures. Yet, in recent years,f
such requests have invoked rights which go beyond the strictly inter-State
dimension 34. In successive cases, the ultimate beneficiaries were meant to
be the individuals concerned, and to that end the requesting States

advanced their arguments to obtain the Court’s Orders of provisional f
measures of protection, in distinct contexts. Thus, in its Order
of 15 December 1979, in the Hostages case (United States Diplomatic and
Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), Provisional
Measures, Order of 15 December 1979, I.C.J. Reports 1979, p. 7) the

Court took into account the State’s arguments to protect the life, frfeedom
and personal security of its nationals (para. 37), and indicated provisional
measures of protection of those rights (resolutory point I (A)), after refer -
ring to the “imperatives obligations” under the 1961 Vienna Convention

on Diplomatic Relations and the 1963 Vienna Convention on Consular
Relations (para. 41), and pondering that

“continuance of the situation the subject of the present request exposes
the human beings concerned to privation, hardship, anguish and even

danger to life and health and thus to a serious possibility of irrepara -
ble harm” (para. 42).

45. Half a decade later, in its Order of 10 May 1984, in Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America) (I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 169), the ICJ indicated provi -
sional measures (resolutory point B (2)) after taking note of the request -

ing State’s argument calling for protection of the rights to life, to freedom
and to personal security of Nicaraguan citizens (para. 32). Shortly after -
wards, in its celebrated Order of 10 January 1986 in the Frontier Dispute
(Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali) (I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 3), duly com -

plied with by the contending Parties, the Court’s Chamber took note off
the concern expressed by the Parties with the personal integrity and saffety
of those persons who were in the zone under dispute (paras. 6 and 21).
One decade later, in its Order of 15 March 1996 in the case of the Land
and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v.

Nigeria) (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 58), the Court took note of the
requesting State’s warning that continuing armed clashes in the regiofn

34In the triad Breard/LaGrand/Avena cases, for example, provisional measures were
requested to prevent an irreparable damage to the right to life of the cfonvicted persons
(stay of execution), in the circumstances of their cases (cf. provisional measures in the
Court’s Orders of 9 April 1998, 3 March 1999, and 5 February 2003, respectively).

33

8 CIJ1048.indb 62 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 259

IX. Les bénéficiaires desf mesures conservatoifres
au-delà de la dimensiofn interétatique tradfitionnelle

44. Dans les différends internationaux portés devant la Cour, seuls fles

Etats, en tant que parties en présence, peuvent solliciter des mesures
conservatoires. Toutefois, au cours des dernières années, les droits invo -
qués à l’appui de pareilles demandes ont eu tendance à dépasser la dimen-
sion strictement interétatique 3. Dans plusieurs affaires successives, les

mesures demandées avaient vocation à bénéficier, en fin fde compte, aux
personnes concernées, les Etats demandeurs présentant des argumentfs
correspondants à cet effet, et ce, dans différents contextes. fAinsi, dans
l’ordonnance qu’elle a rendue le 15 décembre 1979 en l’affaire des Otages
(Personnel diplomatique et consulaire des Etats‑Unis à Téhéran (Etats‑Unis

d’Amérique c. Iran), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 15 décembre
1979, C.I.J. Recueil 1979, p. 7), la Cour a pris en considération les argu -
ments de la partie américaine en faveur de la protection de la vie, de la
liberté et de la sécurité de ses ressortissants (par. 37), et indiqué des

mesures conservatoires pour garantir la protection de ces droits
(point 1 A) du dispositif), après avoir rappelé les « obligations impéra ‑
tives » codifiées dans les conventions de Vienne sur les relations diplomaf-
tiques et consulaires de 1961 et 1963 (par. 41) et souligné que

«la persistance de la situation qui fait l’objet de la requête expofse les
êtres humains concernés à des privations, à un sort pénible et angois -

sant et même à des dangers pour leur vie et leur santé et par cfonsé -
quent à une possibilité sérieuse de préjudice irréparablef» (par. 42).

45. Cinq ans plus tard, dans l’ordonnance qu’elle a rendue le 10 mai
1984 en l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et
contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis) (C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 169), la
Cour a indiqué des mesures conservatoires (point B 2) du dispositif) après

avoir pris acte de l’argument de l’Etat requérant, le Nicaragua, tendant à
voir protéger le droit de ses ressortissants à la vie, à la libferté et à la sécu -
rité (par. 32). Peu après, dans l’ordonnance unanimement saluée qu’elle a
rendue le 10 janvier 1986 en l’affaire duDifférend frontalier (Burkina Faso/

République du Mali) (C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 3), et que les Parties en pré -
sence ont dûment exécutée, la chambre de la Cour a pris acte def la préoc-
cupation exprimée par les Parties à l’égard de l’intégfrité et de la sécurité
des personnes qui se trouvaient dans la zone en litige (par. 6 et 21). Une
dizaine d’années plus tard, dans son ordonnance du 15 mars 1996 en l’af -

faire de la Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria
(Cameroun c. Nigéria) (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 58), la Cour a pris en

34 Dans la triade d’affaires Breard/LaGrand/Avena, par exemple, des mesures cons-r
vatoires ont été demandées pour empêcher qu’une atteinte firréparable ne soit causée au
droit à la vie des personnes condamnées (sursis d’exécution) dans les circonfstances de leurs
affaires (voir les mesures conservatoires indiquées dans les ordonfnances du 9 avril 1998, du
3 mars 1999 et du 5 février 2003).

33

8 CIJ1048.indb 63 13/06/14 12:44 260 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

were notably causing “irremediable loss of life as well as human sufffering
and substantial material damage” (para. 19).

46. In deciding to order provisional measures, the ICJ pondered that
the rights at stake were not only claimed State rights, but also rights of
the persons concerned (paras. 38-39 and 42). In fact, in the circumstances

of that case, the victimization of human beings resulting from armed conf -
flicts of greater intensity, I would say that the purpose of the provifsional
measures was to extend protection mainly to persons. Another Order illus -
trative of the overcoming of the strictly inter-State dimension in the

acknowledgement of the rights to be preserved by means of provisional
measures pertains to the case of Armed Activities on the Territory of the
Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) (I.C.J. Reports
2000, p. 111). In its Order of 1 July 2000 in this case, the ICJ took into

account the requesting State’s denunciation of alleged “human righfts vio -
lations” — invoking international instruments for their protection
(paras. 4-5 and 18-19), — and of its plea for protection for its inhabitants
(para. 31) as well as for its own “rights to respect for the rules of interfna -

tional humanitarian law and for the instruments relating to the protectifon
of human rights” (para. 40).

47. The Court, recognizing the pressing need to indicate provisional

measures of protection (paras. 43-44), found that it was “not disputed
that grave and repeated violations of human rights and international
humanitarian law, including massacres and other atrocities”, had beenf
committed on the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

(para. 42). The Court, accordingly, ordered both Parties inter alia to
“take all measures necessary to ensure full respect within the zone off con -
flict for fundamental human rights and for the applicable provisions off
humanitarian law” (resolutory point 3).

48. In its Order of 8 April 1993 in the case concerning the Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Geno ‑
cide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro))
(I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 3) the Court, after finding “a grave risk” to
35
human life, indicated provisional measures . In the subsequent Order
of 13 September 1993 in the same case (ibid., p. 325), the Court again
expressed its concern for the protection of human rights and the rights fof
peoples (para. 38). In its subsequent Order of 15 October 2008 in the case

35The Court, furthermore, recalled General Assembly resolution 96 (I) of 11 December
1946 (referred to in its own Advisory Opinion 1951 on Reservations to the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide), to the effect that the crime of
genocide “shocks the conscience of mankind, results in great losses to humanity (. . .) and
is contrary to moral law and to the spirit and aims of the United Nations” (I.C.J. Reports
1993, p. 23, para. 49).

34

8 CIJ1048.indb 64 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 260

considération la mise en garde de l’Etat requérant, selon lequefl les affron-
tements armés incessants dans la région causaient notamment des «fpertes
irrémédiables en vies et en souffrances humaines et d’importafnts dom -

mages matériels» (par. 19).
46. En décidant d’indiquer des mesures conservatoires, la Cour a
estimé que n’étaient pas seulement en jeu les droits revendiquéfs par les
deux Etats, mais également les droits des personnes concernées (par. 38-39

et 42). En réalité, dans le contexte de cette affaire, caractérisée par la souf -
france d’êtres humains victimes de conflits armés de grande ifntensité, je
dirais que les mesures conservatoires avaient pour objet de faire porterf
cette protection principalement sur les personnes. Une autre ordon -

nance, celle rendue en l’affaire des Activités armées sur le territoire du
Congo (République démocratique du Congo c. Ouganda) (C.I.J. Recueil
2000, p. 111), illustre la manière dont la reconnaissance des droits à prof -
téger au moyen de mesures conservatoires permet de dépasser la dimfen -
er
sion strictement interétatique. Dans son ordonnance du 1 juillet 2000, la
Cour a ainsi pris en considération l’allégation de « violations des droits de
l’homme» présentée par l’Etat requérant — droits dont celui-ci revendi -
quait la protection au titre de certains instruments internationaux

(par. 4-5 et 18-19) — et son argument en faveur de la protection de ses
habitants (par. 31) et de ses propres « droits au respect des règles du droit
international humanitaire et des instruments relatifs à la protectionf des
droits de l’homme » (par. 40).
47. La Cour, reconnaissant l’impérieuse nécessité d’indiquer fdes

mesures conservatoires (par. 43-44), a estimé qu’«il n’[était] pas … contesté
que des violations graves et répétées des droits de l’homme fet du droit
international humanitaire, y compris des massacres et autres atrocités »,
avaient été commises sur le territoire de la République démofcratique du

Congo (par. 42). Elle a donc invité les deux Parties à, notamment,
«prendre toutes mesures nécessaires pour assurer, dans la zone de conflit,
le plein respect des droits fondamentaux de l’homme, ainsi que des règles
applicables du droit humanitaire » (point 3 du dispositif).

48. Dans l’ordonnance qu’elle a rendue le 8 avril 1993 en l’affaire rela -
tive à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression d▯u
crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténé ‑
gro)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 3), la Cour, ayant conclu à l’existence d’un

«risque grave » pour les vies humaines, a indiqué des mesures conserva -
toires . Dans son ordonnance ultérieure du 13 septembre 1993 en la
même affaire (ibid., p. 325), la Cour a de nouveau exprimé son engage -
ment en faveur de la protection des droits de l’homme et des droits dfes

35 La Cour a en outre rappelé la résolution 96 (I) du 11 décembre 1946 de l’Asse-
blée générale (également mentionnée dans son avis consultatif def 1951 sur les Réserves
à la convention sur le génocide) pour souligner que le crime de génocidebouleverse la
conscience humaine, inflige de grandes pertes à l’humanité … et est contraire à la loi morale
ainsi qu’à l’esprit et aux fins des Nations Unies » (C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 23, par. 49).

34

8 CIJ1048.indb 65 13/06/14 12:44 261 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

concerning the Application of the International Convention on the Elimina ‑
tion of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation)
(I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 412), the ICJ once again disclosed its concern for
the preservation of human life and personal integrity (paras. 122 and

142-143).

49. From the survey above it can be seen that, along the last three
decades, the ICJ has gradually overcome the strictly inter-State outlook

in the acknowledgement of the rights to be preserved by means of its
Orders of provisional measures of protection. Nostalgics of the past,
clinging to their own dogmatism, can hardly deny that, nowadays, States f
litigating before this Court, despite its inter-State contentious procedure,
have conceded that they no longer have the monopoly of the rights to be f

preserved, and, much to their credit, they recognize so, in pleading beffore
this Court on behalf also of individuals, their nationals, or even in a f
larger framework, their inhabitants.

50. Facts tend to come before the norms, requiring of these latter the
aptitude to cover new situations they are meant to regulate, with due
attention to superior values 36. Before this Court, States keep on holding
the monopoly of jus standi, as well as locus standi in judicio, in so far as

requests for provisional measures are concerned, but this has not provedf
incompatible with the preservation of the rights of the human person,
together with those of States. The ultimate beneficiaries of the rightfs to be
thereby preserved have been, not seldom and ultimately, human beings,
alongside the States wherein they live. Provisional measures indicated ifn

successive Orders of the ICJ have transcended the artificial inter-State
dimension of the past, and have come to preserve also rights whose ulti -
mate subjects (titulaires) are human beings.

X. Effects of Provisional Mfeasures of Protection f
beyond the Traditionafl Inter-State Dimension

51. In the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to
Prosecute or to Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) (Order of 28 May 2009,

I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 139), the ICJ decided not to indicate provisional
measures. On the occasion, I warned, in my extensive dissenting opinion,f
that the basic right at issue pertained to the realization of justice, which
assumed a central place in the case, one of a paramount importance,

deserving of particular attention. The strictly inter-State dimension

36Cf., inter alia, G. Morin, La révolte du droit contre le code — La révision nécessaire
des concepts juridiques, Paris, Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1945, pp. 2, 6-7 and 109-115.

35

8 CIJ1048.indb 66 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activités; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 261

peuples (par. 38). De même, dans son ordonnance du 15 octobre 2008 en
l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimi ‑
nation de toutes les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération
de Russie) (C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 412), elle a, une fois encore, fait part de
sa volonté de préserver les vies humaines et l’intégrité fphysique des per -

sonnes (par. 122 et 142-143).
49. Il ressort de l’analyse qui précède que, au cours des trente defrnières
années, la Cour a progressivement abandonné l’approche strictemfent
interétatique pour prendre en considération les droits à protéfger au
moyen des mesures conservatoires sollicitées. Les nostalgiques du pasfsé,

accrochés à leur propre dogmatisme, ne sauraient nier qu’aujourfd’hui les
Etats qui portent leurs différends devant la Cour ont pris conscienfce de ce
que, malgré le caractère interétatique de cette procédure cofntentieuse, ils
ne sont plus les seuls à pouvoir prétendre à la protection de lfeurs droits,

et le reconnaissent — ce qui est tout à leur honneur — en défendant aussi,
devant la Cour, les intérêts des personnes, qu’il s’agisse ofu non de leurs
ressortissants, voire, plus largement, de leurs habitants.
50. Les faits tendent à prendre le pas sur les normes, et celles-ci doivent
donc pouvoir répondre aux nouvelles situations qu’elles sont censéfes

réglementer, en accordant aux valeurs jugées supérieures toute fl’attention
qu’elles méritent 36. Les Etats amenés à ester devant la Cour continuent à
avoir le monopole du jus standi ainsi que du locus standi in judicio, en ce
qui concerne les demandes en indication de mesures conservatoires, mais

cela ne semble pas avoir empêché jusqu’à présent de protéfger les droits
des personnes en même temps que ceux des Etats. Il n’est pas rare fque les
droits dont la protection est recherchée à travers les mesures conserva -
toires bénéficient, en fin de compte, à des êtres humainfs, aux côtés des
Etats sur le territoire desquels ils vivent. Les mesures conservatoires findi -

quées dans un certain nombre d’ordonnances successives de la Cour font
transcendé la dimension interétatique artificielle du passé, fet en sont
venues à étendre la protection à des droits dont les titulairesf ultimes sont
des êtres humains.

X. Effets des mesures confservatoires
au-delà de la dimensiofn interétatique tradfitionnelle

51. Dans l’affaire relative à des Questions concernant l’obligation de
poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal) (ordonnance du 28 mai
2009, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 139), la Cour s’est refusée à indiquer des
mesures conservatoires. J’ai souligné à cette occasion, dans unfe longue
opinion dissidente, que le droit fondamental en jeu concernait la réalisa ‑

tion de la justice, élément central dans cette affaire et d’importance capi -
tale, qui méritait donc d’être dûment pris en considération. La dimension

36Voir notamment G. Morin, La révolte du droit contre le code — La révision nécessaire

des concepts juridiques, Paris, Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1945, p. 2, 6-7 et 109-115.

35

8 CIJ1048.indb 67 13/06/14 12:44 262 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

seemed to have been overcome in the acknowledgement of the rights to
be preserved, in particular as the search for justice (the right to the realiza-
tion of justice) was (and remains to date) at stake. In that case, opfposing
Belgium to Senegal, the crucial factor was — as I stressed in my dissent -

ing opinion — the endurance by the victims of an ungrateful two-decade
search for justice, in vain until now, for the reported atrocities of thfe
Habré regime in Chad (para. 56).

52. I further pointed out in that dissenting opinion (para. 97) that, the
fact that the binding character of provisional measures of protection isf
nowadays beyond question (moving from the pre-history into the history
of the matter in the ICJ case law), on the basis of the res interpretata of
the ICJ itself, does not mean that we have reached a culminating point in

the evolution of the ICJ case law on this matter. Quite on the contrary,f I
can hardly escape the impression that we are still living the infancy off this
jurisprudential development. The review of the matter (supra) in the
present separate opinion indicates that, although some advances have

been achieved, there remains a long way to go.
53. The determination of urgency and the probability of irreparable
damage are exercises which the ICJ is nowadays used to ; yet, although
the identification of the legal nature and the material content of thef

right(s) to be preserved seem not to raise great difficulties, the safme can -
not be said of the consideration of the legal effects and consequences of
the right at issue, in particular when provisional measures are not indif -
cated or ordered by the Court. We here move to the effects of provisional
measures of protection, beyond the traditional inter-State dimension. In

this respect, there seems to remain still a long way to go.

54. In the cas d’espèce before the Court, opposing two Latin American
countries, the new provisional measures of protection envisaged in

Costa Rica’s request seek the protection of individuals against “harm in
the form of bodily injury or death” (supra), by making sure that they do
not remain in the disputed area ; the new provisional measures are
requested not only in respect of agents of the public power (personnel)f,

but also in respect of individuals (simples particuliers), well beyond the
traditional inter-State dimension.
55. In this connection, the expressions used, by both Nicaragua and
Costa Rica, in their arguments presented to the Court, should not pass
unnoticed. In its written observations 37, Nicaragua refers to “private

individuals” (paras. 11 and 13-14), “private persons” (para. 12), “Nicara -
guan nationals” (paras. 16 and 30), and “a group of young people”
(para. 29). Costa Rica, for its part, in its request 38refers to “Nicaraguan
nationals” (paras. 7-8, 10-11 and 17-18), “Nicaraguans” (paras. 13-14),

“Nicaraguan persons” (paras. 19-21), “individuals” (para. 9), and “citi -

37Written observations of Nicaragua.
38Request by Costa Rica.

36

8 CIJ1048.indb 68 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 262

strictement interétatique semblait avoir été dépassée au fprofit de la recon-
naissance des droits à sauvegarder, d’autant plus que ce qui étfait alors en
jeu — et l’est toujours —, c’est la recherche de la justice (le droit à ce que
justice soit rendue). Dans cette affaire, opposant la Belgique au Sénégal,

le facteur crucial était, comme je l’ai souligné alors, la ténacité dont les
victimes n’avaient cessé de faire preuve jusqu’à ce jour danfs leur longue
(vingt ans) et vaine quête de justice au titre des atrocités attribuéfes au
régime Habré au Tchad (par. 56).

52. J’ai également exposé, dans cette même opinion dissidente (fpar. 97),
que ce n’est pas parce que le caractère contraignant des mesures cfonser -
vatoires est aujourd’hui incontestable — tel n’était pas le cas lors de la
«préhistoire» de cette institution —, grâce à la propre res interpretata de
la Cour, que nous sommes arrivés au faîte de l’évolution de la jurispru -

dence de la Cour en la matière. Bien au contraire, je ne puis m’emfpêcher
de penser que nous n’assistons là qu’aux débuts de cette éfvolution juris -
prudentielle. L’analyse à laquelle je me suis livré (supra) sur ce point dans
la présente opinion indique que, si des progrès ont certes étéf réalisés, il

reste beaucoup à faire.
53. L’appréciation de l’urgence et de la probabilité de dommages irré -
parables est un exercice dont la Cour est aujourd’hui familière ; toutefois,
et bien que la caractérisation de la nature juridique et de la teneur concrète

du ou des droits à préserver ne semble soulever aucune difficultéf particu -
lière, il en va tout autrement à l’égard des effets et conséquences juridiques
de l’indication ou, davantage encore, de la non-indication de mesures
conservatoires des droits en question. Voilà donc qui nous amène àf nous
pencher sur les effets des mesures conservatoires, par-delà la dimension

interétatique traditionnelle. Sur ce point, le chemin à parcourir fsemble
encore long.
54. Dans la présente affaire, qui divise deux pays d’Amérique latine,
les nouvelles mesures conservatoires sollicitées dans la demande du

Costa Rica visent à protéger des personnes de toute «atteinte à [leur] inté -
grité physique … ou à leur vie » (supra), en faisant en sorte que celles-ci
ne demeurent pas dans la zone litigieuse ; les nouvelles mesures conserva -
toires sollicitées visent non seulement les agents de la force publiqfue mais

également les simples particuliers, dépassant ainsi largement la dfimension
interétatique traditionnelle.
55. Dans ces conditions, les expressions utilisées par le Nicaragua et lef
Costa Rica dans leurs arguments respectifs présentés à la Cour fméritent
d’être relevées. Dans ses observations écrites 3, le Nicaragua fait référence

aux «personnes privées» (private individuals aux paragraphes 11 et 13-14
ou private persons au paragraphe 12), aux « ressortissants nicaraguayens»
(par. 16 et 30) et à « un groupe de jeunes gens » (par. 29). Le Costa Rica
se réfère pour sa part, dans sa demande 3, aux « ressortissants nicara-

guayens» (par. 7-8, 10-11 et 17-18), aux « Nicaraguayens» (par. 13-14),

37Observations écrites du Nicaragua.
38Demande du Costa Rica.

36

8 CIJ1048.indb 69 13/06/14 12:44 263 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

39
zens” (para. 10) ; and, in its written observations , Costa Rica refers to
“Nicaraguan nationals” (paras. 17-18, 25-27 and 29), “Nicaraguans”
(para. 28), Nicaraguan “volunteers” (para. 21), “private individuals”
(para. 27), and “persons” (paras. 7 and 28). Both Nicaragua and

Costa Rica clearly have in mind human beings, of flesh and bones and
soul.

56. States are bound to protect all persons under their respective juris -
dictions. Provisional measures, with their preventive nature, appear as f
truly tutelary, rather than only precautionary, purporting to protect indi -
viduals also against harassment and threats, thus avoiding “harm in tfhe
form of bodily injury or death”. After all, the beneficiaries of thfe compli -

ance with, and due performance of, obligations under ordered provisionalf
measures of protection, are not only States, but also human beings. A
strictly inter-State outlook does not reflect this important point. The
strictly inter-State dimension has long been surpassed, and seems insuffi -

cient, if not inadequate, to address obligations under provisional mea -
sures of protection.

XI. The Proper Exercise of thfe International Judicifal Function :
A Rebuttal of So-Called “Judicial Self-Restraint”,
or l’a rt de ne r ien Faire

57. The present Order of the Court, on requests for provisional mea -
sures in the cases concerning Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua
in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), and the Construction of a
Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica),

suffers from a stark incongruence. The Court reviews the arguments of f
the Parties, and concludes, in respect of Costa Rica’s request, that a
change in the situation has occurred, as “organized groups of persons” —
whose presence was not contemplated when it issued its previous decisionf

to indicate provisional measures — are now “regularly staying in the dis -
puted territory” (para. 25). Though the Court admits a change in the situ-
ation, it extracts no consequence therefrom.

58. The Court limits itself to say that, “despite the change that has

occurred in the situation”, in its view “the conditions have not bfeen ful -
filled for it to modify the measures” that it indicated in its prevfious Order
of 8 March 2011 (para. 36). This conclusion simply begs the question.
The Court’s majority expressly admits that “the presence of organifzed

groups of Nicaraguan nationals in the disputed area” is an aggravating
circumstance (para. 37). Yet it does nothing. It further admits that this

39 Written observations of Costa Rica.

37

8 CIJ1048.indb 70 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activités; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 263

ainsi qu’aux « personnes nicaraguayennes» (par. 19-21), aux « individus»
(par. 9) et aux «citoyens» (par. 10) du Nicaragua. Les observations écrites
du Costa Rica 39renvoient par ailleurs aux « Nicaraguayens» (par. 28),
aux «ressortissants nicaraguayens» (par. 17-18, 25-27 et 29), aux « volon -
taires» nicaraguayens (par. 21), aux « personnes privées» (par. 27) et aux

«personnes» (par. 7 et 28). Il apparaît donc clairement que le Nicaragua
et le Costa Rica sont tous deux soucieux de protéger les êtres humains,
êtres de chair et d’os dotés d’une âme.
56. Chaque Etat est tenu de protéger l’ensemble des personnes qui
relèvent de sa juridiction. De par leur nature préventive, les mesfures

conservatoires apparaissent sous-tendues non pas simplement par un prin -
cipe de précaution mais par une vocation proprement tutélaire, étant aussi
destinées à protéger les personnes des actes de harcèlement fet des menaces
afin d’éviter les «atteintes à [leur] intégrité physique ou à leur vie ». Après

tout, le respect et l’exécution conforme des obligations prescrites dans le
cadre de mesures conservatoires ne profitent pas seulement aux Etats, fmais
également aux êtres humains — élément important dont ne tient aucun
compte l’approche strictement interétatique. Or, cette conception tradi -
tionnelle est depuis bien longtemps dépassée et semble insuffisante, voire

inadéquate, aux fins des obligations découlant des mesures consefrvatoires.

XI. Le bon exercice de la ffonction judiciaire

internationale: le principe de « réserve judiciaire»
ou l’art de ne rien faifre

57. L’ordonnance que la Cour a rendue ce jour sur les demandes en
indication de mesures conservatoires présentées dans les affaires relatives

à Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région fron▯talière
(Costa Rica c. Nicaragua) et à la Construction d’une route au Costa Rica
le long du fleuve San Juan (Nicaragua c. Costa Rica) manque cruellement
de logique. Après avoir examiné les arguments des Parties, la Courf conclut,
concernant la demande du Costa Rica, qu’un changement s’est produit

dans la situation puisqu’il s’avère aujourd’hui que des « groupes organisés
de personnes », dont la présence n’était pas envisagée lorsqu’elle a prfis sa
décision d’indiquer des mesures conservatoires, « séjournent régulière -
ment dans le territoire litigieux» (par. 25). Or, la Cour, bien qu’admettant

qu’un changement est intervenu, n’en tire aucune conséquence.
58. La Cour se contente de dire que, « nonobstant le changement inter -
venu dans la situation », les conditions ne sont, à son sens, « pas réunies
pour qu’elle modifie les mesures » indiquées dans son ordonnance du
8 mars 2011 (par. 36). Ce qui nous conduit simplement au constat suivant:

la majorité de la Cour a expressément admis que « la présence de groupes
organisés de ressortissants nicaraguayens dans le territoire litigieufx »
entraîne un risque d’aggravation (par. 37). Et pourtant, la Cour ne fait rien.

39
Observations écrites du Costa Rica.

37

8 CIJ1048.indb 71 13/06/14 12:44 264 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

new situation “is exacerbated” (!) by “the limited size of the area and the
numbers of Nicaraguan nationals who are regularly present there”
(para. 37). Yet it does nothing. Moreover, it admits that incidents may at
any time occur. What kind of incidents? Those entailing “bodily injury or

death” of the individuals staying there — as warned by the Court itself,
already in its previous Order of 8 March 2011 (cf. para. 20, supra) — in
addition to environmental damage. Yet it does nothing.

59. Contrariwise, it is crystal clear to me that the new situation created
in the disputed area in the cas d’espèce, endowed with the prerequisites of
urgency and probability of irreparable harm, undoubtedly calls for new
provisional measures, in order to prevent or avoid irreparable harm to t▯he

persons concerned and to the environment. These new provisional mea -
sures, which the Court’s majority failed to adopt, would make it cleafr
that each Party should refrain from sending to, or maintaining in, the
disputed area, including the caño, not only any personnel (whether civil -

ian, police or security), but also any “organized groups” of indifviduals, or
any “private individuals”.
60. As a matter of fact, this is not the first time that the Court disclosfes
its unjustified “judicial self-restraint” (so praised in traditionally conser -

vative, if not reactionary, segments of the legal profession) in respecft of
provisional measures of protection, even when faced with the presence off
the prerequisites of urgency and the probability of irreparable harm. Four
years ago, it did so in its Order of 28 May 2009 in the case concerning the
Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v.

Senegal) (I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 139), wherein it refrained from ordering
or indicating the requested provisional measures of protection.

61. On the occasion, I appended an extensive dissenting opinion

(paras. 1-105) to that Order, seeking to preserve the integrity of the cor ‑
pus juris of the 1984 UN Convention against Torture. Shortly after the
Court’s Order of 28 May 2009 wherein it found that the circumstances of
the case were, in its view, not such as to require the exercise of its pfower

under Article 41 of the Statute to indicate provisional measures, there fol -
lowed a succession of uncertainties (infra), amidst the emptiness of the
Court’s self-imposed “restraint”, and its apparent insensitiveness towards
the underlying human values.
62. On that occasion, contrary to the Court’s majority, I sought to

demonstrate that there was manifest urgency in the situation affectingf
surviving victims of torture, or their close relatives, in respect of thfeir
right to the realization of justice under the UN Convention against Tor -
ture. As I have recently recapitulated 40, the Court preferred to rely com -

40Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade,
pp. 518-527, paras. 82-103.

38

8 CIJ1048.indb 72 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 264

Elle reconnaît en outre que cette nouvelle situation « est exacerbée » (!)
par « l’exiguïté du territoire concerné et le nombre de ressortissfants
nicaraguayens qui y séjournent régulièrement » (par. 37). Et pourtant, la
Cour ne fait rien. Elle confirme, enfin, que des incidents peuvent sfe pro -

duire à tout moment. Quel type d’incidents ? De ceux qui entraînent des
«atteintes à l’intégrité physique ou à la vie » des perfsonnes se trouvant
dans le territoire en cause — contre lesquelles la Cour elle-même avait mis
en garde dans son ordonnance du 8 mars 2011 (voir par. 20 supra) — ainsi

que des dommages à l’environnement. Et pourtant, la Cour ne fait rfien.
59. Or, il est parfaitement clair, à mon sens, que la nouvelle situation
créée dans la zone litigieuse en la présente affaire réunift les conditions d’ur -
gence et de probabilité d’un préjudice irréparable, et exigef donc incontest -a
blement de nouvelles mesures conservatoires, pour éviter qu’un préjudice

irréparable ne soit causé aux personnes concernées ou à l’e ▯ nvironnement.
Pareilles nouvelles mesures, que la majorité de la Cour s’est refufsée à adop -
ter, indiqueraient clairement que chacune des Parties doit s’abstenirf d’en-
voyer — et de maintenir — dans la zone litigieuse, notamment dans le caño,

non seulement des agents (civils, de police ou de sécurité), maifs également
tout «groupe organisé» de personnes ainsi que toutes «personnes privées».
60. En réalité, ce n’est pas la première fois que la Cour fait pfreuve, de
manière injustifiée, de « réserve judiciaire» (attitude qu’affectionnent tout

particulièrement les éléments traditionnellement conservateurs, pour ne
pas dire réactionnaires, de la profession) dans le contexte de mesures
conservatoires, même lorsque sont réunies les conditions requises fd’ur ‑
gence et de probabilité d’un préjudice irréparable. C’est ce qu’elle a fait il y
a quatre ans, dans son ordonnance du 28 mai 2009 en l’affaire relative à

des Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (B▯elgique
c. Sénégal) (C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 139), en refusant d’indiquer ou d’or -
donner les mesures sollicitées.
61. J’ai joint à cette ordonnance une longue opinion dissidente (par.f 1-

105), où j’ai tenté de préserver l’intégrité du corpus juris de la convention
des Nations Unies de 1984 contre la torture. L’ordonnance rendue par la
Cour le 28 mai 2009, par laquelle elle a estimé que les circonstances de
l’affaire n’appelaient pas l’exercice du pouvoir qui lui est fconféré par l’ar -

ticle 41 du Statut d’indiquer des mesures conservatoires, a été rapidfement
suivie d’une période d’incertitude (infra) due à la vacuité de la « réserve»
que la Cour s’était imposée et à son manque apparent de sensfibilité à
l’égard des valeurs humaines sous-jacentes.
62. A cette occasion, m’écartant du raisonnement suivi par la majoritéf,

j’ai tenté de démontrer l’existence d’une urgence manifesfte dans la situa -
tion des victimes de la torture et de leurs proches, au regard de leur dfroit
à ce que justice soit rendue en application de la convention contre lfa tor -
ture. Comme je l’ai rappelé plus récemment 40, la Cour a opté pour la

40 Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’ext(Belgique c. Sénégal),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), opinion individuelle de M. le juge Cançado Trindade,
p. 518-527, par. 82-103.

38

8 CIJ1048.indb 73 13/06/14 12:44 265 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

fortably on a unilateral act of promise (conceptualized in the traditiofnal
framework of inter-State relations) made by the respondent State in the
course of the legal proceedings before itself. That pledge, in my view, fdid

not remove the prerequisites of urgency and probability 41 irreparable
harm for the indication of provisional measures , nor did it efface the
longstanding sufferings of the Habré regime, in their saga of more fthan
two decades in search of the realization of justice.

63. Yet the Court took a passive posture, reduced to that of a specta -
tor of subsequent events. In effect, following the Court’s Order off 28 May
2009, no initiative was taken in the respondent State towards the trial fof

Mr. Hissène Habré in Senegal ; the return to Mr. H. Habré to Chad was
announced, as well as his imminent expulsion from Senegal, which was
then cancelled in the last minute under public pressure 42. The Court was
lucky that Mr. H. Habré did not escape from his house surveillance in

Dakar, and that he was not expelled from Senegal. Instead of assuming
its own control over the situation, the self-restrained Court preferred to
count on the imponderable, on la fortuna. The Court cannot keep on
counting on the imponderable, as la fortuna may at any time turn against

it. As Sophocles, in his perennial wisdom, warned, through the voices off
the chorus of one of his tragedies : count no man happy till he passed the
final threshold of his life secure from pain 43(bodily or spiritual harm).

64. In the present Order that the Court has just adopted today, 16 July
2013, it has exercised self-restraint once again: this time, after finding that
there has been a change in the situation, it has added that the circum -
stances presented to it, nevertheless, are not such as to require modififca -

tion of its previous Order of 8 March 2011, which is simply reaffirmed.
Moreover, it “does not see (. . .) the evidence of urgency” (para. 35). The
Court’s reasoning rests on a petitio principii, adducing no persuasive
argument to support its decision not to order new provisional measures in

face of the new situation. The Court limits itself to reasserting the prfevi -
ous provisional measures, addressed to a new and distinct situation,
which the Court admits has now changed.

65. The Court has preferred to indulge in an unfortunate formalism,
limiting itself to add that, despite the change in the situation, “thfe condi -
tions have not been fulfilled for it to modify the measures that it infdicated
in its Order of 8 March 2011” (paras. 25, 31, 35-36). This is a petitio prin ‑

cipii, whereby the Court unduly establishes a further test for the indica -
tion of provisional measures, rendering it more difficult — or simply
avoiding — to order these latter, at variance with its interna corporis. The

41Cf. I.C.J. Reports 2012 (II), p. 517, para. 79.
42Cf. ibid., pp. 515-516, paras. 73-75.
43Sophocles, Oedipus the King (circa 429 bc), verse 1684.

39

8 CIJ1048.indb 74 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 265

facilité en s’appuyant sur un acte d’engagement unilatéral (fconceptualisé
dans le cadre traditionnel des relations interétatiques) que l’Etfat défen -
deur avait pris au cours de la procédure. Cet engagement n’a pas efu pour

effet, me semble-t-il, de faire disparaître les conditions requisesf, relative -
ment à l’urgence et au risque de préjudice irréparable, pourf l’indication de
mesures conservatoires 41, pas plus qu’il n’a effacé les longues souffrances
infligées par le régime Habré pendant la vingtaine d’années qu’a duré la

saga judiciaire menée pour que justice soit rendue.
63. La Cour a pourtant pris le parti de la passivité, se posant en simplef
spectateur des événements qui allaient suivre. De fait, à la sufite de son
ordonnance du 28 mai 2009, aucune démarche n’a été mise en œuvre par

l’Etat défendeur en vue d’organiser, au Sénégal, le procèfs de M. His -
sène Habré; le retour de ce dernier au Tchad a été annoncé, de même que
son expulsion imminente du Sénégal, laquelle a été annuléfe à la dernière
minute sous la pression de l’opinion publique 42. Il est heureux que

M. H. Habré n’ait pas échappé à son assignation à résidenfce à Dakar et
qu’il n’ait pas été expulsé du Sénégal. Au lieu de fprendre le contrôle de la
situation, la Cour, par cette attitude de réserve, a préféréf s’en remettre au
hasard, à sa bonne fortune. Or, elle ne saurait continuer à dépfendre ainsi

de la chance, qui ne sera peut-être pas toujours de son côté. Afinsi que
Sophocle le faisait dire, avec une éternelle clairvoyance, au chœufr de l’une
de ses tragédies, gardons-nous d’appeler jamais un homme heureux afvant
qu’il ait franchi le terme de sa vie sans avoir subi un chagrin 43 (une bles-
sure physique ou spirituelle).

64. Dans l’ordonnance adoptée ce jour, 16 juillet 2013, la Cour s’est à
nouveau imposé la réserve : cette fois, après avoir estimé qu’un change -
ment était bien intervenu dans la situation, elle a considéré qfue les cir -
constances qui lui avaient été présentées n’étaient pafs de nature à exiger

la modification de son ordonnance du 8 mars 2011, et s’est contentée d’en
réaffirmer les termes. Elle a par ailleurs indiqué qu’elle «f n’aper[ceva]it
pas … l’élément d’urgence » (par. 35). La Cour fonde son raisonnement
sur une pétition de principe, et ne fournit aucun argument convaincanft

pour justifier sa décision de ne pas indiquer de nouvelles mesures fconser -
vatoires malgré la situation nouvelle. Elle se contente de réaffifrmer des
mesures déjà indiquées, et ce, pour répondre à une situatfion nouvelle et
distincte dont elle reconnaît ce caractère nouveau et distinct.

65. La Cour a préféré céder à un formalisme malheureux, se cofnten -
tant d’indiquer que, nonobstant le changement intervenu dans la situaf -
tion, «les conditions ne sont pas réunies pour qu’elle modifie les mesufres
qu’elle a indiquées dans son ordonnance du 8 mars 2011 » (par. 25, 31,

35-36). Il s’agit là d’une pétition de principe, par laquelfle la Cour établit
indûment une condition supplémentaire à l’indication des mesfures conser -
vatoires ayant pour effet de la rendre plus difficile — voire de l’exclure

41Voir C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 517, par. 79.
42Voir ibid., p. 515-516, par. 73-75.
43Sophocle, Œdipe roi (vers 429 av. J.-C.).

39

8 CIJ1048.indb 75 13/06/14 12:44 266 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

Court does not elaborate on its dictum, nor does it provide any demon -
stration whatsoever to corroborate its assertion. Its ineluctable incongru -
ence lies in the fact that, once it finds that there is a change in thfe situation,
it fails to modify — or rather expand — its previous Order, so as to
face the new situation, endowed with the requisite elements of risk (in

the form of bodily harm or death, and harm to the environment) and
urgency.

66. The ICJ has not adopted new provisional measures in the present

Order simply because it did not want to adopt them, for reasons which
escape my comprehension. The Court, from now on, will once again only
hope for the best, but not without expressing its “concerns” with regard
to the new situation (para. 37), given the ostensible risk and the probabil -

ity of harm posed by it. Instead of remaining preoccupied, the ICJ shoulfd
have ordered the new provisional measures required by the new situation f
created in the disputed area. Once again, the Court will nourish the hopfe
that fate is on its side, oblivious of the extreme care with which someofne
so familiar with human suffering and tragedy like Cicero approached
44
fate, in one of his fragmented reflections . Even so, despite all his aware-
ness, Cicero did not cross over the final threshold of his life securef from
pain: at the end of his path, he suffered bodily injuries and a violent
death . . .

67. The ICJ, on 8 March 2011, ordered provisional measures not sim -
ply because the persons present in the disputed area were personnel
(whether civilian, police or security), but also because their presencfe
therein presented a risk to the fragile ecosystem of the disputed area, fand

a risk of irreparable harm in the form of bodily injury or death (para.f 75).
The new situation, i.e., the presence of “organized groups” of private indi ‑
viduals in the disputed area, discloses in my view new circumstances,
which clearly call for the indication of additional provisional measuresf.
The change in the situation, endowed with urgency and the probability off

irreparable harm, thus provides a basis for the modification of the Cofurt’s
previous Order, in the light of the provisions of Article 41 of the Statute
and Article 76 (1) of the Rules of Court.

68. Moreover, the Court’s reasoning is far from coherent when, at the
end of the present Order, it recognizes that the presence of “organizfed
groups” of individuals in the disputed area is liable to create “tfhe risk of
incidents which might aggravate the present dispute”, taking into accfount
in particular “the limited size of the area” at issue and the “fnumbers of

Nicaraguan nationals” staying there (para. 37). If the Court expressly rec -
ognizes such risk, and further expresses its “concerns” with this fnew situ-
ation (ibid.), it is then clear that the provisional measures already ordered

44
M. T. Cicero, On Fate (De Fato) (circa 44 bc), fragments 41-43.

40

8 CIJ1048.indb 76 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 266

purement et simplement —, ce qui est contraire à l’esprit de son instru -
ment constitutif. La Cour n’approfondit pas son dictum et ne fournit pas
la moindre démonstration pour étayer son affirmation. L’incohéfrence
manifeste de cette position tient au fait que, ayant conclu qu’un chafnge -
ment est bien intervenu dans la situation, elle n’estime pas pour autfant

nécessaire de modifier son ordonnance, ou plutôt d’en étenfdre les termes,
afin de répondre à la situation nouvelle, qui réunit pourtantf les conditions
requises relativement au risque (d’atteintes à l’intégritéf physique de per -
sonnes ou à leur vie, et de dommages à l’environnement) et àf l’urgence.
66. La Cour n’a pas indiqué de nouvelles mesures conservatoires dans

la présente ordonnance parce que, pour des raisons qui m’échappfent, elle
ne souhaitait tout simplement pas le faire. Une fois encore, la Cour en fest
réduite à espérer que tout se passera bien, exprimant toutefoisf sa «préoc -
cupation» à l’égard de la situation nouvelle (par. 37), étant donné la

menace et le risque manifeste de préjudice qu’elle présente. Auf lieu de
rester préoccupée, elle aurait bien mieux fait d’ordonner les mfesures
conservatoires requises par la situation nouvelle créée dans la zofne liti -
gieuse. Une fois encore, elle choisit de s’en remettre à la fatalifté et à la
chance, ne faisant aucun cas des grandes précautions dont il convient

d’entourer le destin si l’on en croit l’une des réflexionsf de Cicéron, qui
nous sont parvenues à l’état de fragments, pour qui la souffrfance et la
tragédie humaines n’avaient pas de secret 4. Tout avisé qu’il était, Cicé -
ron n’a pas franchi le terme de sa vie sans avoir subi un chagrin : sa mort

fut violente et accompagnée de grandes souffrances…
67. Le 8 mars 2011, la Cour a indiqué des mesures conservatoires non
pas simplement parce que les personnes présentes dans la zone litigiefuse
étaient des agents (civils, de police ou de sécurité), mais également parce
que leur présence dans cette zone menaçait son fragile écosystèfme et

posait un risque d’atteinte irréparable à l’intégrité physique de ces per -
sonnes ou à leur vie (par. 75). La situation nouvelle, c’est-à-dire la pré -
sence de «groupes organisés» de personnes privées dans la zone, équivaut,
selon moi, à des circonstances nouvelles qui nécessitaient clairement l’in -
dication de mesures conservatoires supplémentaires. En raison de l’fur -

gence et du risque de préjudice irréparable qu’il représentef, le changement
intervenu justifiait de modifier la précédente ordonnance de lfa Cour, à la
lumière des dispositions de l’article 41 du Statut de la Cour et du para -
graphe premier de l’article 76 de son Règlement.

68. Par ailleurs, le raisonnement de la Cour souffre d’un manque
patent de cohérence lorsque celle-ci concède, à la fin de l’fordonnance, que
la présence de « groupes organisés » de personnes dans la zone litigieuse
crée un « risque d’incidents susceptibles d’aggraver le présent difféfrend»,
étant donné, notamment, «l’exiguïté du territoire» en cause et «le nombre

de ressortissants nicaraguayens » qui y séjournent (par. 37). Si la Cour
reconnaît expressément pareil risque, et exprime ensuite sa « préoccupa -
tion» à l’égard de cette situation nouvelle (ibid.), il apparaît évident que

44
Cicéron, Traité du destin [De fato] (vers 44 av. J.-C.), fragments 41-43.

40

8 CIJ1048.indb 77 13/06/14 12:44 267 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

should be modified, or expanded, so as to face this new situation. Thaft
the Court has not done so, in face of the likelihood of bodily harm or

death of the individuals staying in the disputed area, is a cause of confcern
to me, as the rights at issue — and the corresponding obligations — are
beyond the strictly inter-State dimension, and the Court seems not to
have valued this as it should.

XII. Epilogue: Towards an Autonomous Lfegal Regime of

Provisional Measures off Protection

69. I have already made the point that the strictly inter-State dimen -
sion has long been surpassed, and appears inappropriate to address obli -

gations under provisional measures of protection ; I have done so in other
cases taken before the ICJ, as well as in another international jurisdicf -
tion , and I have deemed it fit to dwell further upon it in the present
dissenting opinion (supra). The handling of cases from a strict and exclu -

sively inter-State perspective or dimension, irrespective of their circum -
stances, no longer reflects the complexity of the contemporary internaftional
legal order. In my understanding, the institute of provisional measures fof
protection stands in need of a conceptual refinement, in all its aspecfts.

This leads me into the last point of the present dissenting opinion, namfely,
the needed construction of an autonomous legal regime of provisional
measures of protection, as I perceive it.

70. Compliance with provisional measures of protection runs parallel
to the course of proceedings leading to the Court’s subsequent decisifon
on the merits of the cases at issue. Should the Court find, e.g., a breach of
international law in its decision on the merits of a given case, and, parallel

to that, it further finds non-compliance with its provisional measures, this
latter is an additional breach of an international obligation. In its work in
the present context, the Court still has before itself the task of elabofrating
on the legal consequences of non-compliance with provisional measures,

endowed, in my perception, with an autonomy of their own.

71. Provisional measures of protection indicated or ordered by the ICJ

(or other international tribunals) generate per se obligations for the States

45
Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos —
Esencia y Trascendencia (Votos en la Corte Interamericana de Derechos H▯umanos, 1991‑
2006), Mexico, Edit. Porrúa/Universidad Iberoamericana, 2007, pp. 925, 935, 947, 952,
958, 974, 977, 981, 985, 991, 1010 and 1014; A. A. Cançado Trindade, Los Tribunales Inter‑
nacionales Contemporáneos y la Humanización del Derecho Internacio▯nal, Buenos Aires,
Edit. Ad-Hoc, 2013, pp. 22-28, 77-90, 106-113 and 175-179; A. A. Cançado Trindade, “La
Humanización del Derecho Internacional y los Límites de la Razófn de Estado”, 40 Revista
da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais — Belo Horizonte/Brazil
(2001), pp. 11-23.

41

8 CIJ1048.indb 78 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 267

les mesures conservatoires déjà indiquées devraient être modififées ou
étendues afin de répondre à ce changement. Il me semble préfoccupant que

la Cour ne l’ait pas fait, malgré le risque d’atteintes à l’fintégrité physique
ou à la vie des personnes séjournant dans la zone litigieuse, éftant donné
que les droits en jeu — et les obligations correspondantes — dépassent la

dimension strictement interétatique, élément que la Cour ne semfble pas
avoir pris en compte comme elle l’aurait dû.

XII. Épilogue: vers un régime juridiqfue autonome
des mesures conservaftoires

69. Je l’ai déjà exposé: la dimension strictement interétatique est, depuis

bien longtemps, dépassée et semble aujourd’hui inappropriée fpour appré -
hender les obligations découlant de l’indication de mesures conserfvatoires.
Bien que l’ayant souligné dans d’autres affaires, portées ftant devant la Cour
45
que devant une autre juridiction , j’ai cru utile de m’y attarder plus lon -
guement dans la présente opinion dissidente (supra). Examiner une affaire
donnée selon un point de vue ou une dimension strictement et exclusive -
ment interétatique, sans tenir compte de ses circonstances particulières,

reviendrait à ignorer la complexité de l’ordre juridique internfational
contemporain. L’institution des mesures conservatoires a, me semble-tf-il,
besoin d’un affinage conceptuel général. Cela m’amène auf dernier point de
la présente opinion dissidente, à savoir la nécessité de confstruire un régime

juridique autonome des mesures conservatoires, tel que je le comprends.
70. La mise en œuvre des mesures conservatoires intervient parallèlemefnt
au déroulement de la procédure qui doit conduire à la décisifon que prendra

la Cour sur le fond de l’affaire qui lui est soumise. Si, dans une faffaire don -
née, la Cour conclut par exemple, dans sa décision sur le fond, àf l’existence
d’une violation du droit international et estime, parallèlement, qfue les
mesures conservatoires qu’elle a indiquées n’ont pas été fdûment mises en

œuvre, cette absence de mise en œuvre constitue une violation supplémen ‑
taire d’une obligation internationale. Dans le cadre de ses travaux en la
matière, la Cour doit encore approfondir la question des conséquences juri ‑
diques d’une absence de mise en œuvre des mesures conservatoires, les -

quelles, de mon point de vue, jouissent d’une autonomie qui leur est fpropre.
71. Les mesures conservatoires indiquées ou ordonnées par la Cour
(ou par tout autre tribunal international) génèrent en elles-mêfmes, pour

45Voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos —
Esencia y Trascendencia (Votos en la Corte Interamericana de Derechos H▯umanos, 1991‑
2006), Mexico, Ed. Porrúa/Universidad Iberoamericana, 2007, p. 925, 935, 947, 952, 958,
974, 977, 981, 985, 991, 1010 et 101; A. A. Cançado Trindade, Los Tribunales Inter‑

nacionales Contemporáneos y la Humanización del Derecho Internacio▯nalBuenos Aires,
Ed. Ad-Hoc, 2013, p. 22-28, 77-90, 106-113 et 175-17; A. A. Cançado Trindade, « La
Humanización del Derecho Internacional y los Límites de la Razófn de Estado », Revista
da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, vol. 40
(2001), p. 11-23.

41

8 CIJ1048.indb 79 13/06/14 12:44 268 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

concerned, which are distinct from the obligations which emanate from
the Court’s (subsequent) judgments on the merits (and on reparatiofns) of

the respective cases. In this sense, in my conception, provisional measufres
have an autonomous legal regime of their own, disclosing the high rele -
vance of their preventive dimension. Parallel to the Court’s (subsequent)

decisions on the merits, the international responsibility of a State mayf be
engaged for non-compliance with, or breach of, a provisional measure of
protection ordered by the Court (or other international tribunals).

72. My thesis, in sum, is that provisional measures, endowed with a

conventional basis — such as those of the ICJ (under Article 41 of the
Statute) — are also endowed with autonomy, have a legal regime of their
own, and non-compliance with them generates the responsibility of the

State, entails legal consequences, without prejudice of the examination
and resolution of the concrete cases as to the merits. This discloses thfeir
important preventive dimension, in their wide scope. The proper treat -

ment of this subject-matter is the task before this Court, now and in the
years to come.

73. The juridical nature of provisional measures, with their preventive
dimension, has lately been clarified by a growing case law on the mattfer,

as those measures came to be increasingly indicated or ordered, in recenft
years, by contemporary international 4, as well as national 47, tribunals .48
Soon the recourse to provisional measures of protection, also at internaf -

tional level, had the effect of expanding the domain of international fjuris-
diction, with the consequent reduction of the so-called “reserved domain”
of the State 4. This grows in importance in respect of regimes of protec‑
50
tion, such as those of the human person as well as of the environment.
The clarification of the juridical nature of provisional measures is, fhow -

46
Cf. R. Bernhardt (ed.), Interim Measures Indicated by International Courts, Berlin/
Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag, 1994, pp. 1-152.
47 Cf. E. García de Enterria, La Batalla por las Medidas Cautelares, 2nd [enlarged] ed.,
Madrid, Civitas, 1995, pp. 25-385.
48 Cf. also L. Collins, “Provisional and Protective Measures in International Litig-f
tion”, 234 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (1992), pp. 23,
214 and 234.
49
P. Guggenheim, Les mesures provisoires de procédure internationale et leur influence▯
sur le développement du droit des gens, Paris, Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1931, pp. 14-15, 174, 186, 188
and cf. pp. 6-7 and 61-62.
50 Cf., e.g., E. R. Rieter, Preventing Irreparable Harm — Provisional Measures in
International Human Rights Adjudication, Maastricht, Intersentia, 2010, pp. 3-1109 ;
C. Burbano Herrera, Provisional Measures in the Case Law of the Inter‑American Court of
Human Rights, Antwerp, Intersentia, 2010, pp. 1-221 ; among others. On the needed new

mentality, and its benefits, in the present domain of protection, cf.,f in general [Various
Authors], Le particularisme interaméricain des droits de l’homme (eds. L. Hennebel and
H. Tigroudja), Paris, Pedone, 2009, pp. 3-413.

42

8 CIJ1048.indb 80 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 268

les Etats concernés, des obligations distinctes de celles découlanft de la
décision (ultérieurement) rendue sur le fond de l’affaire cfonsidérée (puis,

le cas échéant, dans le cadre de la procédure relative aux réfparations). En
ce sens, les mesures conservatoires participent, me semble-t-il, d’unf régime
juridique autonome qui leur est propre, caractérisé par l’importance par -

ticulière de leur dimension préventive. Indépendamment de la décision
(ultérieurement) rendue par la Cour sur le fond, la responsabilitéf interna -
tionale d’un Etat peut être engagée en raison de l’absence de mise en

œuvre ou de la violation d’une mesure conservatoire ordonnée pafr la
Cour (ou par un autre tribunal international).
72. En somme, je suis d’avis que les mesures conservatoires, dotées

d’une base conventionnelle — comme celles indiquées par la Cour (en
application de l’article 41 de son Statut) —, jouissent également d’une
autonomie propre en ce qu’elles relèvent d’un régime juridiqfue spécifique,

et que tout défaut de mise en œuvre engage la responsabilité def l’Etat
concerné et entraîne des conséquences juridiques, sans préjufdice de l’exa -
men au fond de l’affaire en question et de la décision rendue àf cet égard.

Cela met en lumière l’importante dimension préventive de tellesf mesures,
ainsi que leur portée. Il incombe à la Cour, aujourd’hui et danfs les années

à venir, d’accorder à cette question l’attention qu’elle fmérite.
73. Une jurisprudence sans cesse plus abondante en la matière
— pareilles mesures étant de plus en plus fréquemment indiquées ofu
46 47 48
ordonnées par les tribunaux internationaux et nationaux — a depuis
quelque temps permis de préciser la nature juridique des mesures conser -
vatoires, et en particulier la dimension préventive. Le recours aux mfesures

conservatoires, y compris au niveau international, a rapidement eu pour
effet d’étendre le domaine de la compétence internationale etf de réduire,
par conséquent, le « domaine réservé» des Etats 49. Cela est d’autant plus

important pour ce qui touche aux régimes de protection, notamment
des personnes 50et de l’environnement. Préciser la nature juridique des

46
Voir L. Collins, « Provisional and Protective Measures in International Litigation »,
Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Hayevol. 234 (1992), p. 23,
214 et 234.
47Voir R. Bernhardt (dir. publ.), Interim Measures Indicated by International Courts,
Berlin/Heidelberg, Springer-Verlag, 1994, p. 1-152.
48Voir E. García de Enterria, La Batalla por las Medidas Cautelares, 2 éd. (augmentée),
Madrid, Civitas, 1995, p. 25-385.
49
P. Guggenheim, Les mesures provisoires de procédure internationale et leur influence▯
sur le développement du droit des gens, Paris, Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1931, p. 14-15, 174, 186, 188 ;
et voir p. 6-7 et 61-62.
50Voir notamment E. R. Rieter, Preventing Irreparable Harm — Provisional Measures
in International Human Rights Adjudication, Maastricht, Intersentia, 2010, p. 3-1109 ;
C. Burbano Herrera, Provisional Measures in the Case Law of the Inter‑American Court of
Human Rights, Anvers, Intersentia, 2010, p. 1-221 ; etc. Concernant la nécessité d’adopter

un nouveau point de vue dans le domaine des mesures conservatoires, et lfes avantages que
cela représente, voir de manière générale [différents afuteurs], Le particularisme interaméri‑
cain des droits de l’homme (L. Hennebel et H. Tigroudja, dir. publ.), Paris, Pedone, 2009,
p. 3-413.

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8 CIJ1048.indb 81 13/06/14 12:44 269 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

ever, still the initial stage of the evolution of the matter, — to be fol -
lowed, in our days, in my understanding, by the elaboration on the legal

consequences of non-compliance with those measures, and the conceptual
development of what I deem it fit to call their autonomous legal regime.

74. What leads me to leave on the records, in the present dissenting
opinion, my position on the matter — which I have been sustaining for
years 51— is not a lack of confidence in the contending Parties complying

with them: I dare to nourish the hope that they will, and the 16 commu -
nications (already referred to) that they have submitted to the ICJ, seek -
ing to comply with its Order of 8 March 2011, disclose their awareness
and goodwill. The two contending Parties come both from a part of the

world, Latin America, with a longstanding and strong tradition in inter -
national legal doctrine. What leads me to leave on the records my dissenf- t
ing position, is the Court’s self-restraint, and the incongruence of its

reasoning (cf. supra), in a matter of such importance for the progressive
development of international law. I have cared to take the time and workf
to leave on the records the present dissenting opinion, so as to render fa
service to our mission of imparting justice.

75. In effect, the notion of victim (or of potential victim 5), or injured
party, can thus emerge also in the context proper to provisional measurefs
of protection, parallel to the merits (and reparations) of the cas d’espèce.

Provisional measures of protection generate obligations (of prevention)f
for the States concerned, which are distinct from the obligations which f
emanate from the judgments of the Court as to the merits (and repara -

tions) of the respective cases. This ensues from their autonomous legalf
regime, as I conceive it. There is, in my perception, pressing need nowaf -
days to refine and to develop conceptually this autonomous legal regimfe,
focused, in particular, on the contemporary expansion of provisional

measures, the means to secure due and prompt compliance with them,
and the legal consequences of non-compliance — to the benefit of those
protected thereunder.

76. In this matter, the worst possible posture would be that of passive -
ness, if not indifference, that of judicial inactivism. As I warned inf an

51 Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial Internacional —
Memorias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 2nd ed., Belo Horizonte/
Brazil, Edit. Del Rey, 2013 Chap. XXI : “The Preventive Dimension: The Binding Chara-
cter and the Expansion of Provisional Measures of Protection”, pp. 177-186.
52 On the notion of potential victims in the framework of the evolution of the notion of

victim or the condition of the complainant in the domain of the internatfional protection of
human rights, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Co-Existence and Co-ordination of Mecha -
nisms of International Protection of Human Rights (At Global and Regionfal Levels)”,
202 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (1987), Chap. XI,
pp. 243-299, esp. pp. 271-292.

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8 CIJ1048.indb 82 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 269

mesures conservatoires ne représente toutefois, selon moi, qu’une fpre -
mière étape de l’évolution en la matière, première éftape qui doit être à

présent suivie par une réflexion sur les conséquences juridiques d’un défaut
de mise en œuvre des mesures conservatoires, et sur le développemefnt
conceptuel de ce que je crois devoir appeler leur régime juridique auto ‑

nome.
74. Si j’ai choisi de faire état, dans la présente opinion dissidenfte, de
ma position sur la question — que je défends depuis des années 51—, ce
n’est pas parce que je crains que les Parties ne mettent pas en œufvre les

mesures: j’ose espérer qu’elles le feront, et les communications (auxfquelles
j’ai déjà fait référence) adressées à la Cour aux ffins de l’exécution de son
ordonnance du 8 mars 2011 témoignent de ce qu’elles ont conscience de
leurs obligations et ont bien l’intention, en toute bonne foi, d’yf satisfaire.

Ces deux Etats d’Amérique latine partagent une longue et respectable tra -
dition en matière de doctrine juridique internationale. Ce qui m’incite à
faire état de ma position dissidente, c’est la réserve que la Cour s’est

imposée et le manque de cohérence de son raisonnement (voir supra) sur
une question d’une telle importance pour le développement continu du
droit international. J’ai donc cru devoir consacrer le temps et les effforts
nécessaires pour présenter mes vues dans l’intérêt mêmfe de notre mission,

qui est de rendre justice.
75. De fait, la notion de victime (ou de victime potentielle 52), ou de
partie lésée, peut ainsi également se faire jour dans le contexte propre aux
mesures conservatoires, parallèlement au déroulement de la procéfdure au

fond (et, le cas échéant, de celle relative aux réparations).f Les mesures
conservatoires génèrent, pour les Etats concernés, des obligatifons (de pré -
vention) distinctes de celles qui découlent des décisions renduesf par la

Cour sur le fond (et les réparations) des affaires en question. Cf’est là une
conséquence de ce que je considère comme étant le régime jurfidique auto -
nome de telles mesures. Il est aujourd’hui impératif, me semble-t-fil, d’affi-
ner et de développer conceptuellement ce régime juridique autonomef, en

s’attachant en particulier à l’essor contemporain des mesures cfonserva -
toires, aux moyens d’en garantir la mise en œuvre diligente et aux consé -
quences juridiques d’un défaut de mise en œuvre — et ce, dans l’intérêt de
ceux qu’elles tendent à protéger.

76. Dans la présente affaire, le pire choix serait celui de la passivitfé,
pour ne pas dire de l’indifférence — autrement dit, celui de l’inaction judi -

51Voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial Internacional
— Memorias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 2e éd., Belo Horizonte,
Ed. Del Rey, 2013, chap. XXI: « The Preventive Dimension : The Binding Character and
the Expansion of Provisional Measures of Protection », p. 177-186.
52 Sur la notion de victimes potentielles dans le contexte de l’évolution de la notion de

victime ou de la condition du demandeur dans le domaine de la protectionf internationale
des droits de l’homme, voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Co-Existence and Co-ordination
of Mechanisms of International Protection of Human Rights (At Global anfd Regional
Levels) »,Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, vol. 202 (1987),
chap. XI, p. 243-299, en particulier p. 271-292.

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8 CIJ1048.indb 83 13/06/14 12:44 270 certain activities ; construction of a roafd (diss. op. cançadotrindade)

earlier dissenting opinion (cf. supra) and reiterate now in the present one,
the matter before the Court calls for a more pro-active posture on its
part 53, so as not only to settle the controversies filed with it, but also to

tell what the law is (juris dictio), and thus to contribute effectively to the
avoidance or prevention of irreparable harm in situations of urgency, tof

the ultimate benefit of all subjects of international law — States as well as
groups of individuals, and simples particuliers. After all, the human per -

son (living in harmony in her natural habitat) occupies a central placfe in
the new jus gentium of our times.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

53In likewise advocating such pro-active posture of the Court in respect of provisional
measures of protection, in my earlier dissenting opinion in the Court’fs Order of 28 May
2009 in the case of Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium

v. Senegal), I deemed it fit to recall that the Court is not restricted by the arfguments of
the parties, as confirmed by Article 75 (1) and (2) of the Rules of Court. Article 75 (1)
sets forth that “[t]he Court may at any time decide to examine proprio motu whether the
circumstances of the case require the indication of provisional measuresf which ought to
be taken or complied with by any or all of the parties.” And Article 75 (2) determines

that “[w]hen a request for provisional measures has been made, the Cofurt may indicate
measures that are in whole or in part other than those requested, or thaft ought to be taken
or complied with by the party which has itself made the request.” Artficle 75 (1) and (2) of
the Rules of Court — I proceeded in my dissenting opinion — thus expressly entitles it to
indicate, motu proprio, provisional measures that it regards as necessary, even if they are

wholly or in part distinct from those that are requested. A decision of fthe ICJ indicating
provisional measures in the present case — as I sustained — “would have set up a remark-
able precedent in the long search for justice in the theory and practicef of international
law”, as this was “the first case lodged with the ICJ on the basfis of the 1984 United Nations
Convention against Torture”, the first human rights treaty incorporating the principle of

universal jurisdiction as an international obligation of all States partfies (para. 80). And I
further recalled (para. 81) that the ICJ has made use of its prerogatives under Article 75 of
its Rules on some previous occasions, as illustrated by its Orders of prfovisional measures,
invoking Article 75 (2), in the cases concerning the Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia‑Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia)

(Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 22, para. 46), the Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria) (Order of 15 March 1996,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 24, para. 48), the Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo
(Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) (Order of 1 July 2000, I.C.J. Reports 2000,
p. 128, para. 43), and, more lately, the Application of the International Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation) (Order

of 15 October 2008, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 397, para. 145).

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8 CIJ1048.indb 84 13/06/14 12:44 certaines activitésf ; construction d’une rfoute (op. diss. cançadotrindade) 270

ciaire. Comme je l’ai souligné dans une précédente opinion dfissidente
(voir supra) et le répète ici, la question que la Cour a été priée fde trancher
exige d’elle une position plus proactive 53, afin non seulement de régler le

différend qui lui est soumis, mais également d’énoncer le fdroit (juris dic ‑
tio) pour ainsi contribuer efficacement à éviter ou prévenir les dfommages

irréparables dans des situations d’urgence, ce qui profitera, enf fin de
compte, à tous les sujets du droit international — qu’il s’agisse des Etats,

de groupes d’individus ou de simples particuliers. Après tout, la personne
humaine (vivant en harmonie dans son habitat naturel) occupe une placef
centrale dans le jus gentium renouvelé de notre temps.

(Signé) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

53Ayant, de la même manière, préconisé l’adoption d’une ftelle position vis-à-vis des
mesures conservatoires dans ma précédente opinion dissidente jointfe à l’ordonnance du
28 mai 2009 en l’affaire relative à des Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou

d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), j’ai cru utile de rappeler que la Cour n’est pas tenue de se
limiter aux arguments des parties, comme le confirment les paragraphesf 1 et 2 de l’article 75
de son Règlement, le paragraphe 1 précisant que « [l]a Cour peut à tout moment décider
d’examiner d’office si les circonstances de l’affaire exigenft l’indication de mesures con-erva
toires que les parties ou l’une d’elles devraient prendre ou exéfcuter », et le paragraphe 2 que,

«[l]orsqu’une demande en indication de mesures conservatoires lui est fprésentée, la Cour peut
indiquer des mesures totalement ou partiellement différentes de celfles qui sont sollicitées,
ou des mesures à prendre ou à exécuter par la partie même dofnt émane la demande ». Ces
dispositions, poursuivais-je dans cette opinion dissidente, autorisent dfonc expressément la
Cour à indiquer, de sa propre initiative, les mesures conservatoires fqu’elle juge nécessaires,

même si ces dernières sont totalement ou partiellement différfentes de celles qui sont solli -
citées. Si elle avait décidé d’indiquer des mesures conservaftoires en l’affaire, comme je le
soutenais alors, «la Cour aurait créé un précédent remarquable dans cette longfue quête de
justice, du point de vue de la théorie et de la pratique du droit intfernational », étant donné
qu’elle était, pour la « première fois … saisie d’une affaire sur le fondement de la conven -

tion des Nations Unies contre la torture de 1984 », le premier traité consacré aux droits de
l’homme qui fasse du principe de la compétence universelle une oblfigation internationale
à la charge de tous les Etats parties (par. 80). J’ai ensuite rappelé (par. 81) que la Cour a
déjà fait usage, à plusieurs occasions, des prérogatives que lui confère l’article 75, comme
le montrent les ordonnances en indication de mesures conservatoires qu’felle a rendues

dans les affaires suivantes : Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression
du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie) (ordonnance du 8 avril 1993,
C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 22, par. 46), Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le
Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria) (ordonnance du 15 mars 1996, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 24,
par. 48), Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République dém▯ocratique du Congo
c. Ouganda) (ordonnance du 1 erjuillet 2000, C.I.J. Recueil 2000, p. 128, par. 43) et, plus

récemment, Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de t▯outes les formes
de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie) (ordonnance du 15 octobre 2008,
C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 397, par. 145).

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8 CIJ1048.indb 85 13/06/14 12:44

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

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