Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

Document Number
152-20130417-ORD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
152-20130417-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

189

SEPARATE OPINION
OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. Introduction 1-3

II. “Implied” and “Inherefnt Powers” Revisited : Some Preci -
sions 4-6

III. Kompetenz K ompetenz /La CompétenCe de La C ompé -

tenCe , Inherent to the Exercifse of the Internationafl
Judicial Function 7-9

IV. The Sound Administratiofn of Justice, and Joinderfs avant
La Lettre 10-12

V. The Idea of Justice Guidinfg the Sound Administratfion of

Justice 13-18

VI. The Sound Administratiofn of Justice and the Procfedural
Equality of the Partiesf 19-23

VII. Epilogue: Final Considerationsf 24-27

*

I. Introduction

1. I have concurred with my vote to the adoption by the International

Court of Justice (ICJ) of its Order of today, 17 April 2013, whereby it
decides to join the proceedings in the present case concerning Construc‑
tion of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v.

Costa Rica) with the proceedings in the case concerning Certain Activities
Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua).
The ratio decidendi in the present decision of the Court (paras. 13-17) is

clear; yet, it touches on foundations which have not been examined or
developed by the Court in the present Order, and to which I attach greatf
importance. I feel thus obliged to leave on the records my reflectionsf

thereon, in support of my personal position on the matter.
2. I shall, first, address the issue of “implied” and “inherent fpowers”,
so as to provide some precisions in respect of the exercise of the interfna

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tional judicial function. Secondly, I shall dwell upon the issue of the fKom ‑
petenz Kompetenz/la compétence de la compétence, inherent to the exercise
of the international judicial function. Thirdly, I shall review the sounfd
administration of justice, and focus attention on joinders effected byf the
Hague Court (PCIJ and ICJ) avant la lettre. Fourthly, I shall consider

what I perceive as the idea of justice guiding the sound administration fof
justice (la bonne administration de la justice). And fifthly, I shall examine
the sound administration of justice (la bonne administration de la justice)
and the procedural equality of the parties. The way will then be paved ffor
the presentation, in the epilogue, of my brief final considerations.

3. It is not my intention, in the following consideration of these issues, f
to be exhaustive ; I could hardly be so, writing this separate opinion, as I
have been, under the merciless and unnecessary pressure of time. I do sof,
struggling stubbornly against time, moved by a sense of duty, and endeavf -

ouring to provide the reasoning which I can hardly find in the presentf
Order in support of the decision taken. The ratio decidendi, yes, it is in the
Order, but I cannot behold therein the obiter dicta supporting it. As I
have concurred with the Court’s decision in the present Order, I feelf
bound to take the care to elaborate on the foundations of the matter deaflt

with, the way I perceive and conceive them.

II. “Implied” and “Inherefnt Powers”

Revisited: Some Precisions

4. May I begin by making a brief incursion, for a specific purpose, into f
the law of international organizations, which — may I observe in pas ‑
sim — marks its discreet presence in the present Order (para. 3). With the

rise of international organizations, the conceptions of “inherent powfers”
as well as “implied powers” took shape in that context, with the contribu -
tion of the case law of the ICJ. One year after the Advisory Opinion of
the ICJ in respect of Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17,
paragraph 2, of the Charter) (of 20 July 1962), the doctrinal formulation
1
of F. Seyersted (1963) found the light of the day , invoking the “inherent
powers” of the UN, and seeking to demonstrate them, by means of an
arguable analogy — which promptly attracted criticisms — with the legal
position of States.

5. After all, the ICJ itself had clarified, in its celebrated obiter dictum in
the Advisory Opinion on Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service
of the United Nations (of 11 April 1949), that while the State is endowed
with the totality of rights and duties recognized by international law, fthe

rights and duties of an entity such as the UN ought to depend on the
purposes and functions, specified or implicit in their constitutive dofcu -

1F. Seyersted, Objective International Personality of Intergovernmental Organizations,

Copenhagen, 1963, pp. 28-29, 35-36, 40, 45-46.

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2
ments and developed in practice . The ICJ thus espoused to the doctrine
of “implied powers” , surely distinct from that of “inherent powers”,
inspired in an analogy with comparative constitutional law.

6. While the doctrinal construction of “implied powers” was intended
to set up limits to powers transcending the letter of constitutive chartfers —

limits found in the purposes and functions of the international organizaf -
tion at issue 4 — the doctrinal construction of “inherent powers”, quite
distinctly, was intended to assert the powers of the juridical person atf issue

for the accomplishment of its goals, as provided for in its constitutivef
charter. The point I wish here to make is that the same expression —
“inherent powers” — has at times been invoked in respect of the operation

of international judicial entities; yet, though the expression is the same, its
rationale and connotation are different, when it comes to be employed fby
reference to international tribunals. Another precision is here called ffor,

for a proper understanding of the operation of these latter. Understandifng
and operation go hand in hand : ad intelligendum et ad agendum.

III. K ompetenz K ompetenz L a C ompétenCe
de La C ompétenCe , Inherent to the Exercifse

of the International Jufdicial Function

7. International tribunals, to start with, are endowed with competence

to resolve any controversy raised with regard to their own jurisdictionsf :
this amounts to a basic principle of international procedural law 5. As
master of its own jurisdiction, the international tribunal concerned hasf

the compétence de la compétence (Kompetenz Kompetenz). Such power of
determination is inherent to every contemporary international tribunal, f
responding to an imperative of juridical security : it goes without saying

that the determination of the scope of its own jurisdiction belongs to tfhe
international tribunal concerned, as it cannot be left in the hands, andf at
the mercy, of the contending parties. In any circumstances, the interna -
6
tional tribunal concerned is master of its own jurisdiction .
8. International tribunals, as courts of law, judicial entities, stand on af
firmer ground than arbitral tribunals, in so far as the determination fof

2 I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 180.
3 Cf. also, subsequently, its Advisory Opinion of 13 July 1954, on the Effect of Awards
of Compensation Made by the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, wherein the ICJ
again dwelt on the doctrine of “implied powers”.
4 Thereby not attributing carte blanche to this latter ; cf. Rahmatullah Khan, Implied

Pow5rs of the United Nations, Delhi/Bombay/Bangalore, Vikas Publishing, 1970, pp. 1-222.
IACtHR, case of Hilaire, Benjamin and Constantine and Others v. Trinidad and
Tobago (preliminary objections, judgment of 1 September 2001), separate opinion of Judge
A. A. Cançado Trindade, paras. 2 and 15.
6 IACtHR, case of Barrios Altos v. Peru (judgment of 14 March 2001), concurring
opinion of Judge A. A. Cançado Trindade, para. 2.

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their competence is concerned. They are the guardians and masters of thefir

own respective jurisdiction (jurisdiction, jus dicere, the prerogative or
power to declare the law). In this way, they discard permissive practicfes
(remnant of international arbitrations of the past), and preserve the integ-

rity of their own jurisdiction. Contending parties, on their turn, are bfound
to comply with their conventional obligations (of a substantive as wellf as
of a procedural nature), so as to secure to the conventional provisionsf at

issue their proper effects in their respective domestic legal orders. fThis also
corresponds to a general principle of law — ut res magis valeat quam
pereat —, widely known as the principle of effectiveness (of effet utile) 7.
9. The compétence de la compétence (Kompetenz Kompetenz) of inter -

national tribunals extends to the interpretation of the provisions of thfeir
respective jurisdictional instruments, as well as to the determination off the
nature of the controversy at issue and the characterization of its factufal

context; moreover, the prerogative of international tribunals to determine
their own jurisdiction starts at the time they are seized of the disputefs at
issue8. The ICJ itself stated, six decades ago, in its Judgment (of 18 Novem -

ber 1953) in the Nottebohm case, that the compétence de la compétence

“assumes particular force when the international tribunal is no longefr
an arbitral tribunal constituted by virtue of a special agreement
between the parties for the purpose of adjudicating on a particular
dispute, but is an institution which has been pre-established by an

international instrument defining its jurisdiction and regulating its f
operation and is (. . .) the principal judicial organ of the United Nations”
(Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), Preliminary Objection,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953, p. 119).

IV. The Sound Administratiofn of Justice,

and Joinders avant La Lettre

10. Thus, keeping these precisions in mind, may I briefly recall that the f
ICJ developed its practice on joinder of proceedings well before the insti -
9
tute of joinder was enshrined, in 1978, into the Rules of Court (Art. 47) .

7For examples of the preservation, by contemporary international tribunalfs, of the
integrity of their own jurisdiction, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función
Judicial Internacional — Memorias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos,
2nd ed., Belo Horizonte/Brazil, Edit. Del Rey, 2013, pp. 5-10, 29-52, 145-149 and 215.
8I. F. I. Shihata, The Power of the International Court to Determine Its Own Jurisdic ‑
tion, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1965, pp. 1-304.
9Article 47 of the Rules of Court provides that :

“The Court may at any time direct that the proceedings in two or more cases be
joined. It may also direct that the written or oral proceedings, includifng the calling
of witnesses, be in common ; or the Court may, without effecting any formal joinder,
direct common action in any of these respects.”

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By then, the Court counted only on a very general provision of its Stat -

ute, on its prerogative to deliver Orders for the conduct of the case atf
issue (Art. 48). References can be made to its decisions on joinders in the
South West African cases (1961), and the North Sea Continental Shelf
cases (1968) 10. The joinders effected by the ICJ on those occasions tran -

scended the letter of its interna corporis. The Court was guided by its
awareness of the sound administration of justice.
11. These two decisions of the ICJ were preceded by three other deci -

sions of its predecessor, the PCIJ, in the cases of Certain German Interests
in Polish Upper Silesia (1926), the Legal Status of the South‑Eastern Ter ‑
ritory of Greenland (1932), and the Appeals from Certain Judgments of the
Hungaro‑Czechoslovak Mixed Arbitral Tribunal (1933). Thus, both the

PCIJ and the ICJ ordered the joinder of proceedings avant la lettre,
despite the absence of an express provision on it in their interna corporis.
They ordered the joinder as a measure of judicial administration, so as to

secure the sound administration of justice (la bonne administration de la
justice), well before the institute of joinder was at last inserted, and found
its place, in the 1978 ICJ’s Rules of Court.

12. In the course of the proceedings, the Court may be faced with a
situation which requires from it a decision (at procedural level), evefn if it
does not squarely fit into its interna corporis. This has often happened in
practice, — and the aforementioned decisions are not exhaustive. As early

as in 1937, G. Morelli perspicaciously pondered that “[s]ettling a legal
dispute means substituting certainty for uncertainty regarding the existfing
legal situation” 11. And he added, in his sharp criticism of State volun -

tarism, that the generation of legal effects cannot be subsumed under fthe
“will” of States, or under what they agree upon inter se ; legal effects of
the international corpus juris stand “above the will of States” (“au‑dessus
de la volonté des Etats”) 12.

V. The Idea of Justice

Guiding the Sound Adminifstration of Justice

13. In recent times, much discussion has taken place as to whether the
sound administration of justice (la bonne administration de la justice) is a
13
maxim or a principle, or whether such a distinction is immaterial . Be that

10Yet, in the Fisheries Jurisdiction cases (1972) and the Nuclear Test cases (1973),
however, the ICJ decided not to join the proceedings.
11G. Morelli, “La théorie générale du procès international”f, 61 Recueil des cours de
l´Académie de droit international de La Haye (1937), p. 260 [translation by the Registry].
12Ibid., p. 263.
13Cf., inter alia, e.g., R. Kolb, “Les maximes juridiques en droit international
public : questions historiques et théoriques”, 32 Revue belge de droit international (1999),
pp. 407-434; A. Lelarge, “L’émergence d’un principe de bonne administration de la jfustice

internationale dans la jurisprudence internationale antérieure à 1f945”, 27 L’observateur des
Nations Unies (2009), pp. 23-51.

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as it may, if it flourished as a maxim, this latter clearly gave expression to a
principle. The proper exercise of the international judicial function refquires

the blend of logic and experience (la sagesse et l’expérience), deeply-rooted
in legal thinking (of comparative domestic law and of international law).
Such blend of logic and experience seeks to secure the sound administratfion
of justice. Positivists try in vain to subsume this latter under the interna

corporis of the international tribunal at issue, in their well-known incapac -
ity to explain anything that transcends the regulatory texts.
14. I have already referred to joinders effected by the ICJ avant la lettre,
despite the absence of an express provision regulating the matter, and

before the institute of joinder was inserted into the Rules of Court
(cf. supra). In my understanding, the Court did not do so pursuant to an
“implied power” ensuing from the regulatory texts, but rather, andf more
precisely, pursuant to an “inherent power”, proper to the exercisef of the

international judicial function. It is an “inherent power” of the finterna -
tional tribunal concerned to see to it that the procedure functions propf -
erly, so that justice is done and is seen to be done. It is an “inherfent power”
of an international tribunal such as the ICJ to see to it that the procefdure

operates in a balanced way, ensuring procedural equality and the guaran -
tees of due process, so as to preserve the integrity of its judicial funfction.
15. The sound administration of justice enables the international tribu -
nal at issue to tackle questions of procedure even if these latter have f

“escaped” the regulations of its interna corporis. It is, in my perception,
the idea of an objective justice that, ultimately, guides the sound admifnis -
tration of justice (la bonne administration de la justice), in the line of jus -

naturalist thinking. The proper pursuit of justice is in conformity withf the
general principles of law. With the reassuring evolution and expansion off
judicial settlement in recent decades, there has been, not surprisingly,f an
increasing recourse to the maxim la bonne administration de la justice —

which gives e14ression to a general principle of law, captured by human
conscience .

16. Writing at the time of the emergence and consolidation of judicial

settlement of international disputes, M. Bourquin pondered that many
international controversies pertained to a disagreement, not as to the ifnter -
pretation or application of positive law (jus positum), but rather as to the
value of that law. Accordingly, the exercise of the international judicial

function is not — cannot be — limited to a simple application of positive
law in the cas d’espèce; there is a certain element of creativity inherent to it,
and there are always “superior principles of justice” to be kept ifn mind 1.

14
On human conscience — the universal juridical conscience — as the ultimate
material source of international law, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, International Law for
Humankind — Towards a New Jus Gentium, 1st ed., Leiden/The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff/
The Hague Academy of International Law, 2010, Chap. VI, pp. 139-161.
15 M. Bourquin, “Stabilité et mouvement dans l’ordre juridique internfational”, 64 Recueil
des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (1938), pp. 371, 408 and 422.

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17. The proper handling of international procedure is thus endowed

with particular relevance. After all, we are here confronted with common
sense, which often appears to be the least common of all senses. As to
such proper handling of international procedure, for the sake of the reafl-

ization of justice, M. Bourquin deemed it fit to warn that

“The quality of procedures is undoubtedly a factor which must be
taken into account. The right procedure helps resolve any difficulties.f

The wrong procedure, on the other hand, does more harm than good.
However, a mechanism, even one that is exceptionally well designed,
cannot of itself suffice to resolve such an issue. What is required abofve
all here is a certain mindset, one from which we seem, unfortunately,

to be far removed. What is required is calm reason ; in other words,
that simple yet rare thing called common sense.” 16

18. An international tribunal such as the ICJ has the “inherent power”f

to take motu propio the measures necessary to secure the sound adminis -
tration of justice. In doing so, ex officio, the Court is exercising its compé‑
tence de la compétence, a prerogative which is “essentially inherent in its
17
judicial function” . International legal procedure has a specificity and a
dynamics of its own, and general principles of law applicable therein arfe
not to be assumed to be identical, in operation, to those sedimented in f
national legal systems 1. Positivists, anyway, do not feel at ease with gen -

eral principles of law ; they thus keep on trying, repetitiously and in vain,
to minimize their presence and relevance.

VI. The Sound Administratiofn of Justice

and the Procedural Equaflity of the Parties

19. The sound administration of justice(la bonne administration de la jus ‑
tice) is not an isolated illustration of the kind — of the incidence and rele-

vance of a general principle. Other such examples could be recalled, sucfh as,
inter alia, that of the maxim audiatur et altera pars (oraudi alteram partem),
which gave expression to the general principle of law providing for proce ‑

16
M. Bourquin, “Stabilité et mouvement dans l’ordre juridique internfational”, op. cit.
sup17 note 15, p. 472 [translation by the Registry].
M. Kawano, “The Administration of Justice by the International Court of f
Justice and the Parties”, Multiculturalism and International Law — Essays in Honour of
Edward McWhinney (eds. Sienho Yee and J.-Y. Morin), Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2009,
pp. 298-299, and cf. pp. 286 and 293-294.
18 A word of caution has been uttered as to such an analogy ;cf., e.g., H. von Mangoldt,
“La comparaison des systèmes de droit comme moyen d’élaboratfion de la procédure des
tribunaux internationaux”, 40 Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völker ‑
recht (1980), pp. 554-572.

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dural equa19ty between the contending parties in the course of judicial pro-
ceedings . Another principle, of international procedural law, is that of jura
novit curia: originated in Roman law (civil procedure, as from the seven -
teenth century), it acknowledges the freedom and autonomy of the judge in
searching for and determining the law applicable to a given dispute, witfhout

being restrained by the arguments of the parties. The examples abound.
20. In my perception, the presence of the idea of justice, guiding the
sound administration of justice, is ineluctable. Not seldom the text of fthe
Court’s interna corporis does not suffice; in order to impart justice, in cir -
cumstances of this kind, an international tribunal such as the ICJ is guided

by the prima principia. To attempt to offer a definition of the sound admin -
istration of justice that would encompass all possible situations that cfould
arise would be far too pretentious, and fruitless. An endless diversity fof
situations may be faced by the ICJ, leading it — in its pursuit of the realiza -

tion of justice — to deem it fit to have recourse to the principle of the sound
administration of justice (la bonne administration de la justice) ; this general
principle, in sum, finds application in the most diverse circumstancesf.
21. Moving from the general to the particular, the incidence or applica -
tion of this general principle has enabled international tribunals to sefcure

the procedural equality of the contending parties. The ICJ has, on succes -
sive occasions, expressed its concern as to the need to secure such procfe -
dural equality. Thus, in its most recent Advisory Opinion, of 1 February
2012, on the Judgment No. 2867 of the Administrative Tribunal of the Inter ‑

national Labour Organization upon a Complaint Filed against the Interna ‑
tional Fund for Agricultural Development, the ICJ insisted on “the right to
equality in the proceedings” (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 24, para. 30), on
“the principle of equality before the Court” as “a central aspefct of the
good administration of justice” (ibid., pp. 25 and 29, paras. 35 and 44), on

“equality of access” to justice (ibid., pp. 26-27, 29 and 31, paras. 37, 39, 43
and 48), on “the concept of equality before courts and tribunals” (ibid.,
pp. 26-27, paras. 38 and 40), on the guarantee of “equal access and equal -
ity of arms” (ibid., p. 27, para. 39), on “the principle of equality in the
proceedings before the Court, required by its inherent judicial charactefr

and by the good administration of justice” (ibid., p. 30, para. 47).
22. In my separate opinion (ibid., pp. 81-93, paras. 82-118) appended
to this recent Advisory Opinion of the ICJ of 2012, I have dwelt in deptfh
upon the imperative of securing the equality of the parties in the interfna -

tional legal process. Earlier on, the Court itself related the “princfiple of
procedural fairness” to the “sound administration of justice” (fcase con -
cerning the Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 325,
para. 116). Almost two decades earlier, the ICJ stated that “the equality

of the parties to the dispute must remain the basic principle for the Cofurt”
(Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragu▯a

19 Bin Cheng, General Principles of Law as Applied by International Courts and Tribu ‑

nals, London, Stevens, 1953, p. 291.

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v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986,
p. 26, para. 31). The ICJ again stressed the relevance of “the principle of

equality of the parties” in its Advisory Opinion of 20 July 1982, regarding
an Application for Review of Judgement No. 273 of the United Nations
Administrative Tribunal (I.C.J. Reports 1982, pp. 338-340 and 365-366,
paras. 29-32 and 79).
23. Three decades earlier, the ICJ had again relied upon that principle

in its Advisory Opinion of 23 October 1956 on Judgments of the Adminis ‑
trative Tribunal of the ILO upon Complaints Made against Unesco (I.C.J.
Reports 1956, pp. 85-86) ; on that occasion, the Court stated, in a rather
clumsy way, that the “principle of equality of the parties follows frfom the
requirements of good administration of justice” (ibid., p. 86). The Court,

in my understanding, would have been more precise had it stated that thef
principle of equality of the parties orients or guides the requirements of
good administration of justice. Principles (prima principia) stand higher
than rules or requirements, and orient them.

VII. Epilogue: Final Considerationsf

24. In its Order of joinder of the proceedings in the present case con -
cerning Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River

(Nicaragua v. Costa Rica) with those in the case concerning Certain
Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v.
Nicaragua) concerning, the ICJ has taken into due account that

“The two cases here concerned involve the same Parties and relate
to the area where the common border between them runs along the
right bank of the San Juan River.
Both cases are based on facts relating to works being carried out

in, along, or in close proximity to the San Juan River, namely the
dredging of the river by Nicaragua and the construction of a road
along its right bank by Costa Rica. Both sets of proceedings are
about the effect of the aforementioned works on the local environ -
ment and on the free navigation on, and access to, the San Juan River.

In this regard, both Parties refer to the risk of sedimentation of the
San Juan River.
In the present case and in the Costa Rica v. Nicaragua case, the
Parties make reference, in addition, to the harmful environmental effefct
of the works in and along the San Juan River on the fragile fluvial

ecosystem (including protected nature preserves in and along the river)f.
In both cases, the Parties refer to violations of the 1858 Treaty of
Limits, the Cleveland Award, the Alexander Awards and the Ram-
sar Convention.
A decision to join the proceedings will allow the Court to address

simultaneously the totality of the various interrelated and contested
issues raised by the Parties. (. . .)” (Paras. 13-17.)

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25. Such is the ratio decidendi of the present decision of the Court. Its
foundations lie in the realm of principles, as I have endeavoured to demf -

onstrate in the present separate opinion. The Kompetenz Kompetenz/la
compétence de la compétence of an international tribunal such as the ICJ
is inherent to its exercise of the international judicial function. The f

ICJ and its predecessor, the PCIJ, have both effected joinders avant la
lettre, even in the absence (before 1978) of a provision to that effect in
their interna corporis. The idea of justice guides the sound administration
of justice, as manifested, e.g., in decisions aiming at securing the proce ‑

dural equality of the contending parties.

26. General principles of law have always marked presence in the pur -
suit of the realization of justice. In my understanding, they comprise nfot
20
only those principles acknowledged in national legal systems , but like-
wise the general principles of international law. They have been repeat -
edly reaffirmed, time and time again, and — even if regrettably neglected

by segments of contemporary legal doctrine — they retain their full valid -
ity in our days. An international tribunal like the ICJ has consistentlyf had
recourse to them in its jurisprudence constante. Despite the characteristic
attitude of legal positivism to attempt, in vain, to minimize their rolef, the

truth remains that, without principles, there is no legal system at all,f at
either national or international level.
27. General principles of law inform and conform the norms and rules
of legal systems. In my understanding, sedimented along the years, gen -

eral principles of law form the substratum of the national and interna -
tional legal orders, they are indispensable (forming the jus necessarium,
going well beyond the mere jus voluntarium), and they give expression to

the idea of an objective justice (proper of jusnaturalist thinking), of uni -
versal scope. Last but not least, it is the general principles of law thfat
inspire the interpretation and application of legal norms, and also the f
law-making process itself 21. In the present case concerning Construction

of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v.
Costa Rica), the ICJ has relied on the provision on joinder of Article 47
of the Rules of Court, and has significantly acknowledged that the joifn -
der it has effected was in accordance with the principle of the sound f
22
administration of justice (la bonne administration de la justice) .

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

20 Cf. H. Mosler, “To What Extent Does the Variety of Legal Systems of the World
Influence the Application of the General Principles of Law within the fMeaning of
Article 38 (1) (c) of the Statute of the International Court of JustInternational Law

and the Grotian Heritage (Hague Colloquium of 1983), The Hague, T. M. C. Asser Insti -
tuu21 1985, pp. 173-185.
A. A. Cançado Trindade, International Law for Humankind : Towards a New Jus
Gen22um, op. cit. supra note 14, Chap. III, pp. 85-121, esp. pp. 90-92.
Paras. 18 and 24.

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Bilingual Content

189

SEPARATE OPINION
OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. Introduction 1-3

II. “Implied” and “Inherefnt Powers” Revisited : Some Preci -
sions 4-6

III. Kompetenz K ompetenz /La CompétenCe de La C ompé -

tenCe , Inherent to the Exercifse of the Internationafl
Judicial Function 7-9

IV. The Sound Administratiofn of Justice, and Joinderfs avant
La Lettre 10-12

V. The Idea of Justice Guidinfg the Sound Administratfion of

Justice 13-18

VI. The Sound Administratiofn of Justice and the Procfedural
Equality of the Partiesf 19-23

VII. Epilogue: Final Considerationsf 24-27

*

I. Introduction

1. I have concurred with my vote to the adoption by the International

Court of Justice (ICJ) of its Order of today, 17 April 2013, whereby it
decides to join the proceedings in the present case concerning Construc‑
tion of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v.

Costa Rica) with the proceedings in the case concerning Certain Activities
Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua).
The ratio decidendi in the present decision of the Court (paras. 13-17) is

clear; yet, it touches on foundations which have not been examined or
developed by the Court in the present Order, and to which I attach greatf
importance. I feel thus obliged to leave on the records my reflectionsf

thereon, in support of my personal position on the matter.
2. I shall, first, address the issue of “implied” and “inherent fpowers”,
so as to provide some precisions in respect of the exercise of the interfna

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OPINION INDIVIDUELLE

DE M. LE JUGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

[Traduction]

table des matières
Paragraphes

I. Introduction 1-3

II. Quelques précisions sur les pouvoirs « implicites» et

« inhérent» s 4-6

III. La compétence de la cofmpétence (K ompetenz K ompe -
tenz ) est inhérente à l’exfercice de la fonctionf judiciaire
internationale 7-9

IV. La bonne administratifon de la justice et lesf jonctions

ordonnées avant la lefttre 10-12

V. La justice en tant qu’elfle doit présider à laf bonne adminis
tration de la justice 13-18

VI. La bonne administratifon de la justice et l’éfgalité procé -
durale entre les partfies 19-23

VII. Épilogue: considérations finafles 24-27

*

I. Introduction

1. J’ai voté en faveur de l’adoption de l’ordonnance par laquelfle la
Cour internationale de Justice a décidé ce jour, 17 avril 2013, de joindre

l’instance dans la présente affaire relative à la Construction d’une route au
Costa Rica le long du fleuve San Juan (Nicaragua c. Costa Rica) à l’ins -
tance en l’affaire relative à Certaines activités menées par le Nicaragua

dans la région frontalière (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua). La ratio decidendi de
la présente décision de la Cour est claire (par. 13-17); toutefois, cette déci
sion touche certaines questions fondamentales que la Cour n’a pas exafm-i
nées ou développées, et auxquelles j’attache une importance considérable.

J’estime donc devoir faire état des réflexions qui sous-tendefnt ma position
personnelle à cet égard.
2. J’examinerai, premièrement, la question des pouvoirs « implicites»

et « inhérents» afin d’apporter certaines précisions sur l’exercice de lfa

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tional judicial function. Secondly, I shall dwell upon the issue of the fKom ‑
petenz Kompetenz/la compétence de la compétence, inherent to the exercise
of the international judicial function. Thirdly, I shall review the sounfd
administration of justice, and focus attention on joinders effected byf the
Hague Court (PCIJ and ICJ) avant la lettre. Fourthly, I shall consider

what I perceive as the idea of justice guiding the sound administration fof
justice (la bonne administration de la justice). And fifthly, I shall examine
the sound administration of justice (la bonne administration de la justice)
and the procedural equality of the parties. The way will then be paved ffor
the presentation, in the epilogue, of my brief final considerations.

3. It is not my intention, in the following consideration of these issues, f
to be exhaustive ; I could hardly be so, writing this separate opinion, as I
have been, under the merciless and unnecessary pressure of time. I do sof,
struggling stubbornly against time, moved by a sense of duty, and endeavf -

ouring to provide the reasoning which I can hardly find in the presentf
Order in support of the decision taken. The ratio decidendi, yes, it is in the
Order, but I cannot behold therein the obiter dicta supporting it. As I
have concurred with the Court’s decision in the present Order, I feelf
bound to take the care to elaborate on the foundations of the matter deaflt

with, the way I perceive and conceive them.

II. “Implied” and “Inherefnt Powers”

Revisited: Some Precisions

4. May I begin by making a brief incursion, for a specific purpose, into f
the law of international organizations, which — may I observe in pas ‑
sim — marks its discreet presence in the present Order (para. 3). With the

rise of international organizations, the conceptions of “inherent powfers”
as well as “implied powers” took shape in that context, with the contribu -
tion of the case law of the ICJ. One year after the Advisory Opinion of
the ICJ in respect of Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17,
paragraph 2, of the Charter) (of 20 July 1962), the doctrinal formulation
1
of F. Seyersted (1963) found the light of the day , invoking the “inherent
powers” of the UN, and seeking to demonstrate them, by means of an
arguable analogy — which promptly attracted criticisms — with the legal
position of States.

5. After all, the ICJ itself had clarified, in its celebrated obiter dictum in
the Advisory Opinion on Reparations for Injuries Suffered in the Service
of the United Nations (of 11 April 1949), that while the State is endowed
with the totality of rights and duties recognized by international law, fthe

rights and duties of an entity such as the UN ought to depend on the
purposes and functions, specified or implicit in their constitutive dofcu -

1F. Seyersted, Objective International Personality of Intergovernmental Organizations,

Copenhagen, 1963, pp. 28-29, 35-36, 40, 45-46.

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fonction judiciaire internationale. Deuxièmement, je m’arrêterafi sur la
question de la compétence de la compétence (Kompetenz Kompetenz), qui
est inhérente à l’exercice de la fonction judiciaire internatiofnale. Troisiè -
mement, j’examinerai celle de la bonne administration de la justice efn
m’intéressant particulièrement aux jonctions d’instances ordfonnées par la

Cour et par sa devancière avant la lettre. Quatrièmement, j’exposerai ma
conception de l’idée de justice en tant qu’elle doit présider à la bonne
administration de la justice et, cinquièmement, j’examinerai cettef notion
sous l’angle de l’égalité procédurale entre les parties. J’en arriverai ainsi,
pour conclure, à un bref exposé de mes réflexions finales.

3. Je ne prétends pas être exhaustif dans mon analyse de ces questionfs;
je ne le pourrais guère, ayant été inutilement mais impitoyablefment pressé
par le temps en rédigeant la présente opinion individuelle. Je l’fai rédigée,
au prix d’une rude course contre la montre, mû par un sens du devofir et

pour tâcher d’exposer les motifs que je ne trouve guère dans laf présente
ordonnance à l’appui de la décision prise. La ratio decidendi, elle, y est
exposée, mais les obiter dicta sont introuvables. Ayant souscrit à la déci -
sion rendue par la Cour dans la présente ordonnance, je me sens tenu
d’examiner le fond de la question tel que je le perçois et le conçfois.

II. Quelques précisions sfur les pouvoirs

« implicites » et « inhérents »

4. Je commencerai par faire une brève incursion, pour une raison pré -
cise, dans le droit des organisations internationales, qui (soit dit enf pas -
sant) manifeste subtilement sa présence dans la présente ordonnanfce

(par. 3). C’est en effet dans le contexte de l’avènement des organfisations
internationales que les notions de pouvoirs « inhérents» et « implicites»
ont vu le jour, aidées en cela par la jurisprudence de la Cour. C’fest ainsi
que, un an après son avis consultatif (du 20 juillet 1962) relatif à Certaines
dépenses des Nations Unies (article 17, paragraphe 2, de la Charte ) ,
1
apparaissait dans la doctrine la formule de F. Seyersted (en 1963) ,
qui invoquait les « pouvoirs inhérents » de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies et tentait d’en démontrer l’existence au moyen d’une afnalogie
contestable — et rapidement critiquée — avec le statut juridique des

Etats.
5. Après tout, la Cour elle-même avait précisé par un célèbre obiter dic ‑
tum, dans son avis consultatif (du 11 avril 1949) sur la Réparation des dom‑
mages subis au service des Nations Unies, que, si les Etats étaient investis de
tous les droits et devoirs reconnus par le droit international, les droifts et

devoirs d’une entité telle que l’Organisation des Nations Unies étaient en
revanche fonction des buts et attributions établis dans son instrumenft

1F. Seyersted, Objective International Personality of Intergovernmental Organizations,

Copenhague, 1963, p. 28-29, 35-36, 40, 45-46.

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2
ments and developed in practice . The ICJ thus espoused to the doctrine
of “implied powers” , surely distinct from that of “inherent powers”,
inspired in an analogy with comparative constitutional law.

6. While the doctrinal construction of “implied powers” was intended
to set up limits to powers transcending the letter of constitutive chartfers —

limits found in the purposes and functions of the international organizaf -
tion at issue 4 — the doctrinal construction of “inherent powers”, quite
distinctly, was intended to assert the powers of the juridical person atf issue

for the accomplishment of its goals, as provided for in its constitutivef
charter. The point I wish here to make is that the same expression —
“inherent powers” — has at times been invoked in respect of the operation

of international judicial entities; yet, though the expression is the same, its
rationale and connotation are different, when it comes to be employed fby
reference to international tribunals. Another precision is here called ffor,

for a proper understanding of the operation of these latter. Understandifng
and operation go hand in hand : ad intelligendum et ad agendum.

III. K ompetenz K ompetenz L a C ompétenCe
de La C ompétenCe , Inherent to the Exercifse

of the International Jufdicial Function

7. International tribunals, to start with, are endowed with competence

to resolve any controversy raised with regard to their own jurisdictionsf :
this amounts to a basic principle of international procedural law 5. As
master of its own jurisdiction, the international tribunal concerned hasf

the compétence de la compétence (Kompetenz Kompetenz). Such power of
determination is inherent to every contemporary international tribunal, f
responding to an imperative of juridical security : it goes without saying

that the determination of the scope of its own jurisdiction belongs to tfhe
international tribunal concerned, as it cannot be left in the hands, andf at
the mercy, of the contending parties. In any circumstances, the interna -
6
tional tribunal concerned is master of its own jurisdiction .
8. International tribunals, as courts of law, judicial entities, stand on af
firmer ground than arbitral tribunals, in so far as the determination fof

2 I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 180.
3 Cf. also, subsequently, its Advisory Opinion of 13 July 1954, on the Effect of Awards
of Compensation Made by the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, wherein the ICJ
again dwelt on the doctrine of “implied powers”.
4 Thereby not attributing carte blanche to this latter ; cf. Rahmatullah Khan, Implied

Pow5rs of the United Nations, Delhi/Bombay/Bangalore, Vikas Publishing, 1970, pp. 1-222.
IACtHR, case of Hilaire, Benjamin and Constantine and Others v. Trinidad and
Tobago (preliminary objections, judgment of 1 September 2001), separate opinion of Judge
A. A. Cançado Trindade, paras. 2 and 15.
6 IACtHR, case of Barrios Altos v. Peru (judgment of 14 March 2001), concurring
opinion of Judge A. A. Cançado Trindade, para. 2.

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constitutif, de manière expresse ou implicite, et de leur évolutiofn dans la
pratique . La Cour avait ainsi fait sienne la doctrine des « pouvoirs impli-
cites » , évidemment distincte de celle des « pouvoirs inhérents », qui est

inspirée d’une analogie avec le droit constitutionnel comparé.
6. Si la notion de « pouvoirs implicites » a été introduite dans la doc -
trine pour poser des limites aux pouvoirs transcendant la lettre des insftru -

ments constitutifs — limites tenant aux buts et fonctions de l’organisation
internationale concernée 4 —, la notion de « pouvoirs inhérents » l’a été
dans un tout autre but, établir les pouvoirs de la personne juridiquef pour

lui permettre d’atteindre ses objectifs, tels qu’énoncés danfs son instru -
ment constitutif. Ce que je tiens à souligner par là, c’est quef cette expres-
sion de « pouvoirs inhérents » a parfois été appliquée au fonctionnement

des entités judiciaires internationales ; or, si l’expression est la même, sa
raison d’être et sa connotation sont différentes lorsqu’ilf s’agit de juridic -
tions internationales. Une autre précision s’impose ici, pour bienf com -

prendre le fonctionnement de celles-ci. Comprendre et agir sont comme
l’avers et le revers d’une même médaille : ad intelligendum et ad agendum.

III. La compétence de la cfompétence
(K ompetenz K ompetenz ) est inhérente à l’exfercice

de la fonction judiciafire internationale

7. Pour commencer, les juridictions internationales ont compétence

pour trancher tout différend concernant leur propre compétence : il s’agit
là d’un principe fondamental du droit international procédural 5. Maî -
tresses de leur propre compétence, elles ont la compétence de la cfompé -

tence (Kompetenz Kompetenz). Ce pouvoir d’appréciation, qui est
inhérent à toute juridiction internationale moderne, répond àf un impéra -
tif de sécurité juridique : il va sans dire qu’il appartient à chaque juridic -

tion internationale de déterminer l’étendue de sa propre compéftence, cette
appréciation ne pouvant être laissée au soin des parties en litfige, et à leur
entière discrétion. En toutes circonstances, la juridiction internfationale
6
est maîtresse de sa propre compétence .
8. Les juridictions internationales, en tant que cours de justice, en tant
qu’entités judiciaires, ont, quant à l’appréciation de lefur compétence, les

2 C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 180.
3 Voir également son avis consultatif ultérieur du 13 juillet 1954 sur l’Effet de jugements
du Tribunal administratif des Nations Unies accordant indemnité, dans lequel la Cour s’ar -
rêta une nouvelle fois sur la doctrine des « pouvoirs implicites».
4 Cette organisation n’avait donc pas carte blanche ; voir Rahmatullah Khan, Implied

Pow5rs of the United Nations, Delhi/Bombay/Bangalore, Vikas Publishing, 1970, p. 1-222.
Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme, Hilaire, Berjamin et Constantine et
autres c. Trinité‑et‑Tobago (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt du 1embre 2001), opinion
individuelle de M. le juge Cançado Trindade, par. 2 et 15.
6 Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme, Barrios Altos c. Pérou (arrêt du 14 mars
2001), opinion concordante de M. le juge Cançado Trindade, par. 2.

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their competence is concerned. They are the guardians and masters of thefir

own respective jurisdiction (jurisdiction, jus dicere, the prerogative or
power to declare the law). In this way, they discard permissive practicfes
(remnant of international arbitrations of the past), and preserve the integ-

rity of their own jurisdiction. Contending parties, on their turn, are bfound
to comply with their conventional obligations (of a substantive as wellf as
of a procedural nature), so as to secure to the conventional provisionsf at

issue their proper effects in their respective domestic legal orders. fThis also
corresponds to a general principle of law — ut res magis valeat quam
pereat —, widely known as the principle of effectiveness (of effet utile) 7.
9. The compétence de la compétence (Kompetenz Kompetenz) of inter -

national tribunals extends to the interpretation of the provisions of thfeir
respective jurisdictional instruments, as well as to the determination off the
nature of the controversy at issue and the characterization of its factufal

context; moreover, the prerogative of international tribunals to determine
their own jurisdiction starts at the time they are seized of the disputefs at
issue8. The ICJ itself stated, six decades ago, in its Judgment (of 18 Novem -

ber 1953) in the Nottebohm case, that the compétence de la compétence

“assumes particular force when the international tribunal is no longefr
an arbitral tribunal constituted by virtue of a special agreement
between the parties for the purpose of adjudicating on a particular
dispute, but is an institution which has been pre-established by an

international instrument defining its jurisdiction and regulating its f
operation and is (. . .) the principal judicial organ of the United Nations”
(Nottebohm (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), Preliminary Objection,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953, p. 119).

IV. The Sound Administratiofn of Justice,

and Joinders avant La Lettre

10. Thus, keeping these precisions in mind, may I briefly recall that the f
ICJ developed its practice on joinder of proceedings well before the insti -
9
tute of joinder was enshrined, in 1978, into the Rules of Court (Art. 47) .

7For examples of the preservation, by contemporary international tribunalfs, of the
integrity of their own jurisdiction, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función
Judicial Internacional — Memorias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos,
2nd ed., Belo Horizonte/Brazil, Edit. Del Rey, 2013, pp. 5-10, 29-52, 145-149 and 215.
8I. F. I. Shihata, The Power of the International Court to Determine Its Own Jurisdic ‑
tion, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1965, pp. 1-304.
9Article 47 of the Rules of Court provides that :

“The Court may at any time direct that the proceedings in two or more cases be
joined. It may also direct that the written or oral proceedings, includifng the calling
of witnesses, be in common ; or the Court may, without effecting any formal joinder,
direct common action in any of these respects.”

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mains plus libres que les juridictions arbitrales. Elles sont gardiennes et maî -

tresses de leur propre juridiction (juridiction venant de jus dicere, la préroga -
tive ou le pouvoir de dire le droit). Elles peuvent ainsi écarter lefs pratiques
permissives (réminiscences des arbitrages internationaux du passéf) et préser -

ver l’intégrité de leur propre compétence. Les parties en liftige, de leur côté,
sont tenues de se conformer à leurs obligations conventionnelles (def nature
substantielle ou procédurale) afin d’assurer le plein effet des dispositions

conventionnelles pertinentes dans leur ordre juridique interne. Il s’agit là
encore d’un principe général de droit — ut res magis valeat quam pereat —,
généralement connu comme le principe de l’effet utile 7.
9. La compétence de la compétence (Kompetenz Kompetenz) permet

également aux juridictions internationales d’interpréter les difspositions de
l’instrument qui leur confère compétence, de déterminer la nfature du dif -
férend en cause et d’en définir le contexte factuel ; ce pouvoir d’apprécier

leur propre compétence leur appartient en outre dès le moment où elles
sont saisies du différend 8. La Cour elle-même déclara il y a soixante ans,
dans son arrêt (du 18 novembre 1953) en l’affaire Nottebohm, que la com -

pétence de la compétence

«pren[ait] une force particulière quand le juge international n’[était]
plus un tribunal arbitral constitué par l’accord spécial des pafrties en
vue de statuer sur un différend particulier, mais une institution pfré-
établie par un acte international qui en défini[ssait] la compéftence et

en r[églait] le fonctionnement et … l’organe judiciaire principal des
Nations Unies» (Nottebohm (Liechtenstein c. Guatemala), exception
préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1953, p. 119).

IV. La bonne administratifon de la justice

et les jonctions ordofnnées avant la lettref

10. Ces précisions à l’esprit, je rappellerai brièvement que la fCour a déve -
loppé sa pratique de la jonction d’instances bien avant d’étfablir formelle-
9
ment ce mécanisme dans son Règlement en 1978 (art. 47) . Elle ne pouvait

7Pour des exemples de juridictions internationales modernes préservantf l’intégrité de
leur propre compétence, voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial
Internacional — Memorias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, 2 eéd., Belo
Horizonte/Brésil, Edit. Del Rey, 2013, p. 5-10, 29-52, 145-149 et 215.
8I. F. I. Shihata, The Power of the International Court to Determine Its Own Jurisdic ‑
tion, La Haye, Martinus Nijhoff, 1965, p. 1-304.
9Selon l’article 47 du Règlement :

«La Cour peut à tout moment ordonner que les instances dans deux ou plfusieurs
affaires soient jointes. Elle peut ordonner aussi que les procédurefs écrites ou orales,
y compris la présentation de témoins, aient un caractère communf ; ou elle peut,
sans opérer de jonction formelle, ordonner une action commune au regafrd d’un ou
plusieurs éléments de ces procédures. »

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By then, the Court counted only on a very general provision of its Stat -

ute, on its prerogative to deliver Orders for the conduct of the case atf
issue (Art. 48). References can be made to its decisions on joinders in the
South West African cases (1961), and the North Sea Continental Shelf
cases (1968) 10. The joinders effected by the ICJ on those occasions tran -

scended the letter of its interna corporis. The Court was guided by its
awareness of the sound administration of justice.
11. These two decisions of the ICJ were preceded by three other deci -

sions of its predecessor, the PCIJ, in the cases of Certain German Interests
in Polish Upper Silesia (1926), the Legal Status of the South‑Eastern Ter ‑
ritory of Greenland (1932), and the Appeals from Certain Judgments of the
Hungaro‑Czechoslovak Mixed Arbitral Tribunal (1933). Thus, both the

PCIJ and the ICJ ordered the joinder of proceedings avant la lettre,
despite the absence of an express provision on it in their interna corporis.
They ordered the joinder as a measure of judicial administration, so as to

secure the sound administration of justice (la bonne administration de la
justice), well before the institute of joinder was at last inserted, and found
its place, in the 1978 ICJ’s Rules of Court.

12. In the course of the proceedings, the Court may be faced with a
situation which requires from it a decision (at procedural level), evefn if it
does not squarely fit into its interna corporis. This has often happened in
practice, — and the aforementioned decisions are not exhaustive. As early

as in 1937, G. Morelli perspicaciously pondered that “[s]ettling a legal
dispute means substituting certainty for uncertainty regarding the existfing
legal situation” 11. And he added, in his sharp criticism of State volun -

tarism, that the generation of legal effects cannot be subsumed under fthe
“will” of States, or under what they agree upon inter se ; legal effects of
the international corpus juris stand “above the will of States” (“au‑dessus
de la volonté des Etats”) 12.

V. The Idea of Justice

Guiding the Sound Adminifstration of Justice

13. In recent times, much discussion has taken place as to whether the
sound administration of justice (la bonne administration de la justice) is a
13
maxim or a principle, or whether such a distinction is immaterial . Be that

10Yet, in the Fisheries Jurisdiction cases (1972) and the Nuclear Test cases (1973),
however, the ICJ decided not to join the proceedings.
11G. Morelli, “La théorie générale du procès international”f, 61 Recueil des cours de
l´Académie de droit international de La Haye (1937), p. 260 [translation by the Registry].
12Ibid., p. 263.
13Cf., inter alia, e.g., R. Kolb, “Les maximes juridiques en droit international
public : questions historiques et théoriques”, 32 Revue belge de droit international (1999),
pp. 407-434; A. Lelarge, “L’émergence d’un principe de bonne administration de la jfustice

internationale dans la jurisprudence internationale antérieure à 1f945”, 27 L’observateur des
Nations Unies (2009), pp. 23-51.

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alors s’appuyer que sur une disposition très générale de sonf Statut, qui l’ha -

bilitait à rendre les ordonnances nécessaires à la conduite d’fune affaire
(art. 48). C’est ainsi qu’elle ordonna la jonction d’instances dans fles affaires
du Sud‑Ouest africain (1961) et dans celles du Plateau continental de la mer
10
du Nord (1968) . Allant au-delà du texte de son instrument constitutif, la
Cour s’est fondée sur son sens de la bonne administration de la jufstice.

11. Ces deux décisions de la Cour faisaient suite à trois décisionsf de sa
devancière, la Cour permanente de Justice internationale, dans les afffaires
relatives à Certains intérêts allemands en Haute‑Silésie polonaise (1926), au
Statut juridique du territoire du sud‑est du Groënland (1932) et à des Appels

contre certains jugements du tribunal arbitral mixte hungaro‑tchécoslovaque
(1933). Ainsi, tant la Cour que sa devancière ont ordonné la jonfction
d’instances avant la lettre, c’est-à-dire alors même que leufr instrument

constitutif ne contenait aucune disposition expresse à cet égard. fElles l’ont
ordonnée comme une mesure d’administratif judiciaire, afin d’fassurer la
bonne administration de la justice, bien avant que la jonction ne soit fifna -

lement établie, et trouve sa place, dans le Règlement de 1978.
12. En cours d’instance, la Cour peut devoir faire face à une situatiofn
qui, même si elle n’entre pas exactement dans les prévisions def son instru -

ment constitutif, exige une décision de sa part (sur le plan procéfdural).
Tel a souvent été le cas dans la pratique — les décisions susmentionnées
n’en sont que quelques exemples. Dès 1937, G. Morelli eut la sagacité
d’écrire que «[r]ésoudre un différend juridique signifi[ait] substituer la cfer -
11
titude à l’incertitude sur la situation juridique existante » . Et, critiquant
vivement le volontarisme des Etats, il ajouta que la production d’efffets
juridiques ne pouvait se rattacher exclusivement à la « volonté» des Etats

ou à des accords entre eux ; les effets juridiques du corpus juris internatio -
nal étaient « au-dessus de la volonté des Etats » . 12

V. La justice en tant qu’eflle doit présider
à la bonne administraftion de la justice

13. Plus récemment, la question de savoir si la bonne administration de lfa
justice constitue une maxime ou un principe, ou si une telle distinction n’a
guère d’importance, a été beaucoup débattue 1. En tout état de cause, s’il

10
Dans les affaires de la Compétence en matière de pêcheries (1972) et dans celles des
Ess11s nucléaires (1973), en revanche, la Cour décida de ne pas joindre les instancefs.
G. Morelli, « La théorie générale du procès international», Recueil des cours de
l´Académie de droit international de La Haye, vol. 61 (1937), p. 260.
12Ibid., p. 263.
13Voir notamment R. Kolb, « Les maximes juridiques en droit international public :
questions historiques et théoriques », Revue belge de droit international, vol(1999),
p. 407-434; A. Lelarge, « L’émergence d’un principe de bonne administration de la justicef
internationale dans la jurisprudence internationale antérieure à 1f945 », L’observateur des
Nations Unies, vol. 27 (2009), p. 23-51.

13

5 CIJ1044.indb 63 11/04/14 10:56 194 construction of a roadf (sep. op. cançado trindfade)

as it may, if it flourished as a maxim, this latter clearly gave expression to a
principle. The proper exercise of the international judicial function refquires

the blend of logic and experience (la sagesse et l’expérience), deeply-rooted
in legal thinking (of comparative domestic law and of international law).
Such blend of logic and experience seeks to secure the sound administratfion
of justice. Positivists try in vain to subsume this latter under the interna

corporis of the international tribunal at issue, in their well-known incapac -
ity to explain anything that transcends the regulatory texts.
14. I have already referred to joinders effected by the ICJ avant la lettre,
despite the absence of an express provision regulating the matter, and

before the institute of joinder was inserted into the Rules of Court
(cf. supra). In my understanding, the Court did not do so pursuant to an
“implied power” ensuing from the regulatory texts, but rather, andf more
precisely, pursuant to an “inherent power”, proper to the exercisef of the

international judicial function. It is an “inherent power” of the finterna -
tional tribunal concerned to see to it that the procedure functions propf -
erly, so that justice is done and is seen to be done. It is an “inherfent power”
of an international tribunal such as the ICJ to see to it that the procefdure

operates in a balanced way, ensuring procedural equality and the guaran -
tees of due process, so as to preserve the integrity of its judicial funfction.
15. The sound administration of justice enables the international tribu -
nal at issue to tackle questions of procedure even if these latter have f

“escaped” the regulations of its interna corporis. It is, in my perception,
the idea of an objective justice that, ultimately, guides the sound admifnis -
tration of justice (la bonne administration de la justice), in the line of jus -

naturalist thinking. The proper pursuit of justice is in conformity withf the
general principles of law. With the reassuring evolution and expansion off
judicial settlement in recent decades, there has been, not surprisingly,f an
increasing recourse to the maxim la bonne administration de la justice —

which gives e14ression to a general principle of law, captured by human
conscience .

16. Writing at the time of the emergence and consolidation of judicial

settlement of international disputes, M. Bourquin pondered that many
international controversies pertained to a disagreement, not as to the ifnter -
pretation or application of positive law (jus positum), but rather as to the
value of that law. Accordingly, the exercise of the international judicial

function is not — cannot be — limited to a simple application of positive
law in the cas d’espèce; there is a certain element of creativity inherent to it,
and there are always “superior principles of justice” to be kept ifn mind 1.

14
On human conscience — the universal juridical conscience — as the ultimate
material source of international law, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, International Law for
Humankind — Towards a New Jus Gentium, 1st ed., Leiden/The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff/
The Hague Academy of International Law, 2010, Chap. VI, pp. 139-161.
15 M. Bourquin, “Stabilité et mouvement dans l’ordre juridique internfational”, 64 Recueil
des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (1938), pp. 371, 408 and 422.

14

5 CIJ1044.indb 64 11/04/14 10:56 construction d’une rofute (op. ind. cançado trfindade) 194

s’agissait au départ d’une maxime, cette maxime a clairement dofnné lieu à
un principe. Le bon exercice de la fonction judiciaire internationale exfige ce

mélange de sagesse et d’expérience qui est si profondément afncré dans la
pensée juridique (en droit interne comparé et en droit internatiofnal). C’est
précisément cette alliance qui préside à la bonne administraftion de la justice,
une notion que les positivistes, notoirement incapables d’expliquer quoi que

ce soit qui déborde le cadre des textes réglementaires, s’évfertuent en vain à
rattacher à l’instrument constitutif de la juridiction internationfale concernée.
14. J’ai déjà évoqué les jonctions que la Cour a ordonnéesf avant la lettre,
en dépit de l’absence de toute disposition expresse à cet égfard, et avant que

la jonction ne soit formellement établie dans son Règlement (voirsupra). A
mon sens, la Cour a, ce faisant, agi non pas en vertu d’un « pouvoir impli -
cite» découlant des textes réglementaires, mais bien plutôt en vfertu d’un
«pouvoir inhérent» propre à l’exercice de la fonction judiciaire internatio -

nale. Une juridiction internationale a le «pouvoir inhérent» d’assurer l’effi-
cacité de la procédure, afin que justice soit rendue et manifestfement rendue.
Une juridiction internationale telle que la Cour a le «pouvoir inhérent» de
faire en sorte que la procédure se déroule de manière équilifbrée, en assurant

l’égalité procédurale et les garanties d’une procéduref régulière, de façon à
préserver l’intégrité de sa fonction judiciaire.
15. La bonne administration de la justice suppose que les juridictions
internationales puissent régler des questions de procédure même si ces der -

nières échappent aux prévisions de leur instrument constitutif.f Ainsi s’ex-
prime à mon sens l’idée d’une justice objective; c’est précisément cette idée
de justice objective qui, en définitive, doit, conformément àf la pensée jus-

naturaliste, présider à la bonne administration de la justice. Il fne peut y avoir
de véritable quête de justice sans respect des principes généfraux du droit. La
façon dont le règlement judiciaire a, au cours de ces dernièresf décennies,
évolué et gagné en importance (ce dont il y a tout lieu de se fféliciter) est allée

de pair avec une attention accrue accordée au principe cardinal de laf bonne
administration de la justice, ce qui n’a rien d’étonnant, celuif-ci n’étant que le
reflet d’un principe général de droit, appréhendé par lfa conscience humaine 1.
16. Ecrivant à l’époque où le règlement judiciaire des différends interna -

tionaux, jeune encore, était en voie de consolidation, M. Bourquin fit obse -r
ver que nombre de controverses internationales tenaient à un désacfcord non
pas sur l’interprétation ou l’application du droit positif (jus positum), mais
sur la valeur de ce droit. Aussi bien, l’exercice de la fonction judifciaire inter -

nationale ne consiste pas simplement à appliquer le droit positif au fcas
d’espèce, et ne peut se limiter à cela; il comporte une certaine part de créa -
tivité, et doit toujours tenir compte des «principes supérieurs de justice» . 15

14
S’agissant de la conscience humaine (la conscience juridique universfelle) en tant que
source matérielle ultime du droit international, voir re A. Cançado Trindade, International
Law for Humankind — Towards a New Jus Gentium, 1 éd., Leyde/La Haye, Martinus
Nijhoff/Académie de droit international de La Haye, 2010, chap. VI, p. 139-161.
15 M. Bourquin, «Stabilité et mouvement dans l’ordre juridique international», Recueil
des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, vol. 64 (1938), p. 371, 408 et 422.

14

5 CIJ1044.indb 65 11/04/14 10:56 195 construction of a roadf (sep. op. cançado trindfade)

17. The proper handling of international procedure is thus endowed

with particular relevance. After all, we are here confronted with common
sense, which often appears to be the least common of all senses. As to
such proper handling of international procedure, for the sake of the reafl-

ization of justice, M. Bourquin deemed it fit to warn that

“The quality of procedures is undoubtedly a factor which must be
taken into account. The right procedure helps resolve any difficulties.f

The wrong procedure, on the other hand, does more harm than good.
However, a mechanism, even one that is exceptionally well designed,
cannot of itself suffice to resolve such an issue. What is required abofve
all here is a certain mindset, one from which we seem, unfortunately,

to be far removed. What is required is calm reason ; in other words,
that simple yet rare thing called common sense.” 16

18. An international tribunal such as the ICJ has the “inherent power”f

to take motu propio the measures necessary to secure the sound adminis -
tration of justice. In doing so, ex officio, the Court is exercising its compé‑
tence de la compétence, a prerogative which is “essentially inherent in its
17
judicial function” . International legal procedure has a specificity and a
dynamics of its own, and general principles of law applicable therein arfe
not to be assumed to be identical, in operation, to those sedimented in f
national legal systems 1. Positivists, anyway, do not feel at ease with gen -

eral principles of law ; they thus keep on trying, repetitiously and in vain,
to minimize their presence and relevance.

VI. The Sound Administratiofn of Justice

and the Procedural Equaflity of the Parties

19. The sound administration of justice(la bonne administration de la jus ‑
tice) is not an isolated illustration of the kind — of the incidence and rele-

vance of a general principle. Other such examples could be recalled, sucfh as,
inter alia, that of the maxim audiatur et altera pars (oraudi alteram partem),
which gave expression to the general principle of law providing for proce ‑

16
M. Bourquin, “Stabilité et mouvement dans l’ordre juridique internfational”, op. cit.
sup17 note 15, p. 472 [translation by the Registry].
M. Kawano, “The Administration of Justice by the International Court of f
Justice and the Parties”, Multiculturalism and International Law — Essays in Honour of
Edward McWhinney (eds. Sienho Yee and J.-Y. Morin), Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff, 2009,
pp. 298-299, and cf. pp. 286 and 293-294.
18 A word of caution has been uttered as to such an analogy ;cf., e.g., H. von Mangoldt,
“La comparaison des systèmes de droit comme moyen d’élaboratfion de la procédure des
tribunaux internationaux”, 40 Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völker ‑
recht (1980), pp. 554-572.

15

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17. Savoir veiller au bon déroulement de la procédure internationale

revêt donc une importance particulière. Il s’agit après toutf d’une question
de sens commun, encore que le sens commun semble souvent être le moinfs
commun de tous. S’agissant de cette question du bon déroulement def la
procédure internationale en vue de la réalisation de la justice, Mf. Bour -

quin estima nécessaire d’émettre cette mise en garde :

«La qualité des procédures constitue certainement un facteur dont
il faut tenir compte. Une bonne procédure facilite la solution des
difficultés. Une mauvaise procédure fait, en revanche, plus de mafl

que de bien. Mais ce n’est pas un mécanisme, même admirablementf
agencé, qui pourrait régler à lui seul une pareille matière.f Ce qu’il
faut ici, par-dessus tout, c’est un certain état d’esprit, dontf nous
paraissons malheureusement assez éloignés. Ce qu’il faut, c’est le

calme de la raison ; c’est cette chose si simple et pourtant si rare
qu’on appelle le bon sens. » 16

18. Une juridiction internationale telle que la Cour a le « pouvoir inhé-
rent» de prendre de son propre chef les mesures nécessaires pour assurfer la

bonne administration de la justice. Ce faisant, la Cour exerce ex officio sa
compétence de la compétence, une prérogative qui est « essentiellement
inhérente à sa fonction judiciaire» 17. La procédure judiciaire internationale
présente certaines spécificités et obéit à sa propre dyfnamique, et les prin -

cipes généraux du droit qui s’appliquent dans ce contexte ne safuraient être
assimilés, dans leur mode de fonctionnement, à ceux qui se sont façonnés
dans les systèmes juridiques internes 18. Or, les positivistes ne sont guère à

l’aise avec les principes généraux du droit ; aussi tentent-ils sans cesse, de
manière vaine et obstinée, d’en amoindrir la présence et l’fimportance.

VI. La bonne administratifon de la justice
et l’égalité procédurfale entre les partiesf

19. La bonne administration de la justice n’est pas un cas unique en
son genre — d’autres exemples illustrent l’incidence et l’importance d’ufn
principe général. Je songe notamment à la maxime audiatur et altera pars
(ou audi alteram partem), qui exprime le principe général de droit pré -

voyant l’égalité procédurale entre les parties en litige au cours de la procé-

16 M. Bourquin, «Stabilité et mouvement dans l’ordre juridique international », op. cit.
supra note 15, p. 472.
17 M. Kawano, « The Administration of Justice by the International Court of
Justice and the Parties », Multiculturalism and International Law — Essays in Honour of
Edward McWhinney (Sienho Yee et J.-Y. Morin, dir. publ.), Leyde, Martinus Nijhoff,
2009, p. 298-299; voir également p. 286 et 293-294.
18 Quant aux dangers d’une telle analogie, voir par exemple H. von Mangoldt, La
comparaison des systèmes de droit comme moyen d’élaboration de la procédure des tribu -

naux internationaux », Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerr▯echt,
vol. 40 (1980), p. 554-572.

15

5 CIJ1044.indb 67 11/04/14 10:56 196 construction of a roadf (sep. op. cançado trindfade)

dural equa19ty between the contending parties in the course of judicial pro-
ceedings . Another principle, of international procedural law, is that of jura
novit curia: originated in Roman law (civil procedure, as from the seven -
teenth century), it acknowledges the freedom and autonomy of the judge in
searching for and determining the law applicable to a given dispute, witfhout

being restrained by the arguments of the parties. The examples abound.
20. In my perception, the presence of the idea of justice, guiding the
sound administration of justice, is ineluctable. Not seldom the text of fthe
Court’s interna corporis does not suffice; in order to impart justice, in cir -
cumstances of this kind, an international tribunal such as the ICJ is guided

by the prima principia. To attempt to offer a definition of the sound admin -
istration of justice that would encompass all possible situations that cfould
arise would be far too pretentious, and fruitless. An endless diversity fof
situations may be faced by the ICJ, leading it — in its pursuit of the realiza -

tion of justice — to deem it fit to have recourse to the principle of the sound
administration of justice (la bonne administration de la justice) ; this general
principle, in sum, finds application in the most diverse circumstancesf.
21. Moving from the general to the particular, the incidence or applica -
tion of this general principle has enabled international tribunals to sefcure

the procedural equality of the contending parties. The ICJ has, on succes -
sive occasions, expressed its concern as to the need to secure such procfe -
dural equality. Thus, in its most recent Advisory Opinion, of 1 February
2012, on the Judgment No. 2867 of the Administrative Tribunal of the Inter ‑

national Labour Organization upon a Complaint Filed against the Interna ‑
tional Fund for Agricultural Development, the ICJ insisted on “the right to
equality in the proceedings” (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 24, para. 30), on
“the principle of equality before the Court” as “a central aspefct of the
good administration of justice” (ibid., pp. 25 and 29, paras. 35 and 44), on

“equality of access” to justice (ibid., pp. 26-27, 29 and 31, paras. 37, 39, 43
and 48), on “the concept of equality before courts and tribunals” (ibid.,
pp. 26-27, paras. 38 and 40), on the guarantee of “equal access and equal -
ity of arms” (ibid., p. 27, para. 39), on “the principle of equality in the
proceedings before the Court, required by its inherent judicial charactefr

and by the good administration of justice” (ibid., p. 30, para. 47).
22. In my separate opinion (ibid., pp. 81-93, paras. 82-118) appended
to this recent Advisory Opinion of the ICJ of 2012, I have dwelt in deptfh
upon the imperative of securing the equality of the parties in the interfna -

tional legal process. Earlier on, the Court itself related the “princfiple of
procedural fairness” to the “sound administration of justice” (fcase con -
cerning the Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 325,
para. 116). Almost two decades earlier, the ICJ stated that “the equality

of the parties to the dispute must remain the basic principle for the Cofurt”
(Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragu▯a

19 Bin Cheng, General Principles of Law as Applied by International Courts and Tribu ‑

nals, London, Stevens, 1953, p. 291.

16

5 CIJ1044.indb 68 11/04/14 10:56 construction d’une rofute (op. ind. cançado trfindade) 196

19
dure judiciaire . Le principe jura novit curia valant en droit international
procédural constitue un autre exemple : selon ce principe né en droit
romain (et plus précisément, en matière de procédure civile, au XVII e siècle),
le juge est libre et autonome dans sa recherche et sa détermination dfu

droit applicable à un différend donné ; il n’a donc pas à s’en tenir aux
arguments des parties. Les exemples sont légion.
20. A mon sens, une bonne administration de la justice ne peut que se
fonder sur la présence, immanente, de l’idée de justice. Il n’est pas rare que

le texte de l’instrument constitutif d’une juridiction ne suffisef pas à guider son
action; pour rendre la justice en pareilles circonstances, une juridiction intfer -
nationale telle que la Cour doit se référer auxprima principia. Tenter d’offrir
une définition de la bonne administration de la justice qui envisage toutes les
situations possibles serait à la fois vain et présomptueux. Des situations

d’une infinie diversité peuvent se présenter à la Cour, etf la conduire — dans
sa quête de la réalisation de la justice — à se référer au principe de la bonne
administration de la justice ; car c’est en effet un principe général qui, en
somme, trouve à s’appliquer dans les circonstances les plus variéfes.

21. Pour en venir du général au particulier, notons que l’incidence ou
l’application de ce principe général a permis à des juridictfions internatio -
nales d’assurer l’égalité procédurale entre les parties en litige. La Cour a,
à plusieurs reprises, manifesté le souci d’assurer cette égaflité procédurale.
er
Ainsi, dans son dernier avio consultatif, qu’elle a rendu le 1 février 2012
au sujet du Jugement n 2867 du Tribunal administratif de l’Organisation
internationale du Travail sur requête contre le Fonds international d▯e déve ‑
loppement agricole, la Cour a mis l’accent sur « le droit à l’égalité … dans
la procédure» (C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 24, par. 30), sur « le principe de

l’égalité devant [elle] » en tant qu’« élément primordial de la bonne admi -
nistration de la justice » (ibid., p. 25 et 29, par. 35 et 44), sur « l’égalité
d’accès» à la justice (ibid., p. 26-27, 29 et 31, par. 37, 39, 43 et 48), sur « la
notion d’égalité devant les cours et tribunaux » (ibid., p. 26-27, par. 38

et 40), sur la nécessité de garantir « l’égalité d’accès et l’égalité des armes »
(ibid., p. 27, par. 39), et sur le respect du « principe de l’égalité devant elle
dans la procédure, ainsi que l’exigent sa qualité d’organe jfudiciaire et la
bonne administration de la justice » (ibid., p. 30, par. 47).

22. Dans l’opinion individuelle (ibid., p. 81-93, par. 82-118) que j’ai
jointe à ce récent avis consultatif de 2012, j’ai amplement examiné l’impé -
ratif d’assurer l’égalité entre les parties dans le cadre defs procédures judi-
ciaires internationales. Quelques années auparavant, la Cour avait
elle-même rattaché le « principe du contradictoire » à la « bonne adminis -

tration de la justice » (affaire relative à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force
(Serbie‑et‑Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2004 (I), p. 325, par. 116). Près de vingt ans plus tôt, elle avait
déclaré que « le principe de l’égalité des parties au différend rest[aitf] pour

elle fondamental » (affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au

19 Bin Cheng, General Principles of Law as Applied by International Courts and Tribu ‑
nals, Londres, Stevens, 1953, p. 291.

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v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986,
p. 26, para. 31). The ICJ again stressed the relevance of “the principle of

equality of the parties” in its Advisory Opinion of 20 July 1982, regarding
an Application for Review of Judgement No. 273 of the United Nations
Administrative Tribunal (I.C.J. Reports 1982, pp. 338-340 and 365-366,
paras. 29-32 and 79).
23. Three decades earlier, the ICJ had again relied upon that principle

in its Advisory Opinion of 23 October 1956 on Judgments of the Adminis ‑
trative Tribunal of the ILO upon Complaints Made against Unesco (I.C.J.
Reports 1956, pp. 85-86) ; on that occasion, the Court stated, in a rather
clumsy way, that the “principle of equality of the parties follows frfom the
requirements of good administration of justice” (ibid., p. 86). The Court,

in my understanding, would have been more precise had it stated that thef
principle of equality of the parties orients or guides the requirements of
good administration of justice. Principles (prima principia) stand higher
than rules or requirements, and orient them.

VII. Epilogue: Final Considerationsf

24. In its Order of joinder of the proceedings in the present case con -
cerning Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River

(Nicaragua v. Costa Rica) with those in the case concerning Certain
Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v.
Nicaragua) concerning, the ICJ has taken into due account that

“The two cases here concerned involve the same Parties and relate
to the area where the common border between them runs along the
right bank of the San Juan River.
Both cases are based on facts relating to works being carried out

in, along, or in close proximity to the San Juan River, namely the
dredging of the river by Nicaragua and the construction of a road
along its right bank by Costa Rica. Both sets of proceedings are
about the effect of the aforementioned works on the local environ -
ment and on the free navigation on, and access to, the San Juan River.

In this regard, both Parties refer to the risk of sedimentation of the
San Juan River.
In the present case and in the Costa Rica v. Nicaragua case, the
Parties make reference, in addition, to the harmful environmental effefct
of the works in and along the San Juan River on the fragile fluvial

ecosystem (including protected nature preserves in and along the river)f.
In both cases, the Parties refer to violations of the 1858 Treaty of
Limits, the Cleveland Award, the Alexander Awards and the Ram-
sar Convention.
A decision to join the proceedings will allow the Court to address

simultaneously the totality of the various interrelated and contested
issues raised by the Parties. (. . .)” (Paras. 13-17.)

17

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Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond,

arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 26, par. 31). La Cour souligna également
l’importance du « principe d’égalité entre les parties » dans son avis
consultatif du 20 juillet 1982 relatif à une Demande de réformation du
jugement n o 273 du Tribunal administratif des Nations Unies (C.I.J. Recueil
1982, p. 338-340 et 365-366, par. 29-32 et 79).

23. Trente ans plus tôt encore, la Cour s’était déjà réféfrée à ce principe
dans son avis consultatif du 23 octobre 1956 relatif à des Jugements du
Tribunal administratif de l’OIT sur requêtes contre l’Unesco (C.I.J. Recueil
1956, p. 85-86) ; elle avait alors déclaré, de façon quelque peu impropre,

que le « principe de l’égalité entre les parties découl[ait] des exigfences
d’une bonne administration de la justice» (ibid., p. 86). Selon moi, il serait
plus approprié de dire que ce sont les exigences d’une bonne adminfistra -
tion de la justice qui découlent du principe de l’égalité enftre les parties.
Les principes (prima principia) priment sur les règles et autres critères,

lesquels doivent leur obéir.

VII. Épilogue: considérations finafles

24. Dans son ordonnance portant jonction de l’instance en la présente
affaire relative à la Construction d’une route au Costa Rica le long du fleuve
San Juan (Nicaragua c. Costa Rica) à l’instance en l’affaire relative à Cer ‑
taines activités menées par le Nicaragua dans la région frontali▯ ère (Costa

Rica c. Nicaragua), la Cour a dûment tenu compte des éléments suivants :
«Les deux affaires dont il s’agit ici opposent les mêmes Parties fet

portent sur la zone où la frontière commune entre celles-ci suit lfa rive
droite du fleuve San Juan.
Elles sont l’une et l’autre fondées sur des faits en rapport avfec des
travaux exécutés sur le San Juan, le long de ce fleuve ou à proximité
immédiate de celui-ci, le Nicaragua se livrant à des activités fde dragage

du fleuve et le Costa Rica ayant entrepris de construire une route le long
de sa rive droite. Les deux instances ont pour objet les conséquencesf de
ces travaux pour la liberté de navigation sur le San Juan et leur incidence
sur l’environnement local et l’accès au fleuve. A cet égard, les Parties font

l’une et l’autre état d’un risque de sédimentation du Sanf Juan.
Dans la présente affaire comme dans l’affaire Costa Rica c. Nicaragua,
les Parties mettent par ailleurs en avant les conséquences néfastefs qu’au-
raient les travaux menés sur le San Juan ou le long de sa rive pour l’éc -o
système fragile du fleuve (qui comprend des réserves naturellesf protégées).

Dans les deux affaires, les Parties font état de violations du traifté
de limites de 1858, de la sentence Cleveland, des sentences Alexander
et de la convention de Ramsar.
Une décision de joindre ces instances permettrait à la Cour d’exa -
miner simultanément la totalité des différents points en litifge entre les

Parties, qui sont liés les uns aux autres … » (Par. 13-17.)

17

5 CIJ1044.indb 71 11/04/14 10:57 198 construction of a roadf (sep. op. cançado trindfade)

25. Such is the ratio decidendi of the present decision of the Court. Its
foundations lie in the realm of principles, as I have endeavoured to demf -

onstrate in the present separate opinion. The Kompetenz Kompetenz/la
compétence de la compétence of an international tribunal such as the ICJ
is inherent to its exercise of the international judicial function. The f

ICJ and its predecessor, the PCIJ, have both effected joinders avant la
lettre, even in the absence (before 1978) of a provision to that effect in
their interna corporis. The idea of justice guides the sound administration
of justice, as manifested, e.g., in decisions aiming at securing the proce ‑

dural equality of the contending parties.

26. General principles of law have always marked presence in the pur -
suit of the realization of justice. In my understanding, they comprise nfot
20
only those principles acknowledged in national legal systems , but like-
wise the general principles of international law. They have been repeat -
edly reaffirmed, time and time again, and — even if regrettably neglected

by segments of contemporary legal doctrine — they retain their full valid -
ity in our days. An international tribunal like the ICJ has consistentlyf had
recourse to them in its jurisprudence constante. Despite the characteristic
attitude of legal positivism to attempt, in vain, to minimize their rolef, the

truth remains that, without principles, there is no legal system at all,f at
either national or international level.
27. General principles of law inform and conform the norms and rules
of legal systems. In my understanding, sedimented along the years, gen -

eral principles of law form the substratum of the national and interna -
tional legal orders, they are indispensable (forming the jus necessarium,
going well beyond the mere jus voluntarium), and they give expression to

the idea of an objective justice (proper of jusnaturalist thinking), of uni -
versal scope. Last but not least, it is the general principles of law thfat
inspire the interpretation and application of legal norms, and also the f
law-making process itself 21. In the present case concerning Construction

of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v.
Costa Rica), the ICJ has relied on the provision on joinder of Article 47
of the Rules of Court, and has significantly acknowledged that the joifn -
der it has effected was in accordance with the principle of the sound f
22
administration of justice (la bonne administration de la justice) .

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

20 Cf. H. Mosler, “To What Extent Does the Variety of Legal Systems of the World
Influence the Application of the General Principles of Law within the fMeaning of
Article 38 (1) (c) of the Statute of the International Court of JustInternational Law

and the Grotian Heritage (Hague Colloquium of 1983), The Hague, T. M. C. Asser Insti -
tuu21 1985, pp. 173-185.
A. A. Cançado Trindade, International Law for Humankind : Towards a New Jus
Gen22um, op. cit. supra note 14, Chap. III, pp. 85-121, esp. pp. 90-92.
Paras. 18 and 24.

18

5 CIJ1044.indb 72 11/04/14 10:57 construction d’une rofute (op. ind. cançado trfindade) 198

25. Telle est la ratio decidendi de la présente décision de la Cour. Les
fondements de cette décision résident dans le domaine des principefs,

comme j’ai tâché de le démontrer dans la présente opinionf individuelle.
La compétence de la compétence (Kompetenz Kompetenz) d’une juridic -
tion internationale telle que la Cour est inhérente à l’exercicfe de sa fonc -

tion judiciaire internationale. La Cour et sa devancière, la Cour perf-
manente, ont l’une et l’autre ordonné des jonctions avant la lefttre, même
en l’absence (avant 1978) d’une disposition en ce sens dans leur instru -
ment constitutif. L’idée de justice préside à la bonne adminfistration de la

justice, comme en témoignent par exemple les décisions prises en vfue
d’assurer l’égalité procédurale entre les parties en litige.
26. Les principes généraux du droit manifestent invariablement leur
présence dans la réalisation de la justice. De mon point de vue, ifls com -

prennent non seulement les principes reconnus dans les systèmes juridfiques
internes 2, mais aussi les principes généraux du droit international. Ils onft
été réaffirmés maintes et maintes fois et, même s’ilsf sont malheureusement

négligés dans certains pans de la doctrine juridique contemporainef, ils
demeurent pleinement d’actualité. La Cour elle-même n’a pas flaissé de s’y
référer dans une jurisprudence constante à cet égard. Les pafrtisans du
positivisme juridique ont beau, fidèles à eux-mêmes, s’effforcer d’en amoin -

drir le rôle, le fait est que nul système juridique ne peut exister sans prin -
cipes, que ce soit au niveau national ou à l’échelle internatiofnale.
27. Les principes généraux du droit inspirent et façonnent les normfes
et les règles des systèmes juridiques. Ces principes, qui se sont fétablis au

fil des ans, forment selon moi le substrat de tout ordre juridique, naftional
ou international ; indispensables (en tant que jus necessarium, allant bien
au-delà du simple jus voluntarium), ils expriment l’idée d’une justice objec ‑

tive (propre à la pensée jusnaturaliste), de caractère universel. fEnfin, et ce
n’est pas le moins important, ce sont les principes généraux duf droit qui
inspirent non seulement l’interprétation et l’application des normes juri -
diques, mais aussi leur élaboration même 21. Dans la présente affaire rela -

tive à la Construction d’une route au Costa Rica le long du fleuve San Juan
(Nicaragua c. Costa Rica), la Cour s’est prévalue de la disposition rela -
tive à la jonction qui figure à l’article 47 de son Règlement et, de manière
significative, elle a reconnu que la jonction ainsi décidée éftait conforme
22
au principe de la bonne administration de la justice .

(Signé) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

20 Voir H. Mosler, « To What Extent Does the Variety of Legal Systems of the
World Influence the Application of the General Principles of Law withifn the Meaning of
Article 38 (1) (c) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice », International Law

and the Grotian Heritage (colloque de La Haye de 1983), La Haye, T. M. C. Asser Inst-
tuu21 1985, p. 173-185.
A. A. Cançado Trindade, International Law for Humankind — Towards a New Jus
Gen22um, op. cit. supra note 14, chap. III, p. 85-121, et en particulier p. 90-92.
Par. 18 et 24.

18

5 CIJ1044.indb 73 11/04/14 10:57

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Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

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