Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

Document Number
143-20110704-ORD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
143-20110704-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

505

SEpARATE OpINION
OF JUdgE CANçAdO TRINdAdE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. Introduction 1-2

II. greece’s Application ffor permission to Intervenfe 3-5

III. The Limits of State Consefnt Revisited 6-8

IV. Jus Gentium in the Twenty-First Cenftury : Rights of

States and Rights of Indifviduals 9-54
1. States as titulaires of rights : greek Courts decisions as

Referred to by germany 9-14
2. States as titulaires of rights : Summary of greek Courts deci
sions 15-20

(a) Judgment of the First Instance Court of Livadia in the
Distomo Massacre case (1997) 15

(b) Judgment of the Court of Cassation (Areios Pagos) in
the Distomo Massacre case (2000) 16-18
(c) Judgment of the greek Special Supreme Court in the

Margellos and Others case (2002) 19-20

3. States as titulaires of rights : Approaches by germany and
greece 21-24
4. Individuals as titulaires of rights : The legacy of the indivi-

dual’s subjectivity in the law of nations 25-29
5. Individuals as titulaires of rights: Their presence and partici
pation in the international legal order 30-35

6. Individuals as titulaires of rights : The rescue of the indivi-
dual as subject of international law 36-49

7. Individuals as titulaires of rights : The historical significance
of the international subjectivity of the individual 50-52
8. general assessment 53-54

V. Concluding Observationfs: The ResuRRectio of Interven-

tion in Contemporary fInternational Litigatfion 55-61

*

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I. Introduction

1. I have concurred with my vote to the adoption today, 4 July 2011,
by the International Court of Justice, of the present Order whereby it
grants to greece permission to intervene in the case concerning the Juris ‑

dictional Immunities of the State, opposing germany to Italy. given the
importance that I ascribe to the matters dealt with by the Court in the f
present Order, and those underlying it, I feel obliged to leave on the

records the foundations of my personal position on the matter, in all itfs
aspects. The dossier of the present case, relating to the proceedings before
the Court concerning greece’s Application for permission to intervene, is
conformed by six documents, namely : two submitted to the Court by the
1
applicant State, greece , and two presented by each of the two parties in
the main case before the Court, germany 2and Italy .3
2. In the present separate opinion, I shall consider the matter at issue

in dwelling upon the points developed hereunder, namely : (a) greece’s
Application for permission to intervene ; (b) the limits of State consent
revisited ; (c) jus gentium in the twenty-first century : rights of States and

rights of individuals (as submitted by the contending parties), including a
review of relevant greek Courts decisions (in the Distomo Massacre case
and the Margellos and Others case), among other related aspects in his -
torical perspective ; and (d) the resurrectio of intervention in contempo -

rary international litigation. Let me turn to those points, one by one, fin a
logical sequence.

II. greece’s Application ffor permission to Intervenfe

3. In its Application for permission to intervene, of 13 January 2011,
based on Article 62 of the ICJ Statute, the Hellenic Republic (hereinafter
greece) pointed out that it was not requesting to intervene as a party tfo

the present case, and that it had in mind only clearly circumscribed
aspects of the procedure, concerning decisions of its own domestic courtfs
on claims pertaining to occurrences during the Second World War, inten-
ded to be enforced by Italian Courts. In its observations on greece’s

Application, of 23 march 2011, germany submitted that it did not

1greece’s Application for permission to intervene, of 13 January 2011, pp. 1-17 ;
Observations of greece in Reply to the Written Observations of germany and Italy, of
5 may 2011, pp. 1-3.
2 Written Observations of the Federal Republic of germany on the Application for
permission to Intervene Filed by greece, of 23 march 2011, pp. 1-7 ; Additional Observa-
tions of germany on Whether to grant the Application for permission to Intervene Filed
by greece, of 26 may 2011, pp. 1-4.
3 Written Observations of Italy on the Application for permission to Intervene Filed by

greece, of 22 march 2011, p. 1 ;Additional Observations of Italy on Whether to grant the
Application for permission to Intervene Filed by greece, of 23 may 2011, p. 1.

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formally object to it, but it substantially contradicted the grounds of
greece’s purported intervention under Article 62 of the ICJ Statute

(cf. infra). Italy, for its part, in a letter of 22 march 2011, plainly stated
that it had no objection to greece’s aforementioned Application.

4. greece’s Application hinged on Italian Court decisions which inter
alia rendered possible the enforcement in Italy of greek Court decisions
(cf. infra) that had granted civil claim damages against germany, pertain -

ing to grave violations of human rights and international humanitarian
law perpetrated by german troops in greece, particularly in the greek
village of distomo, during the Second World War (cf. infra). Such Court
decisions were denied enforcement in greece, since under greek law,

execution of a judgment against a foreign State is subject to prior consfent
of the minister of Justice, which was not given in the cas d’espèce 4.

5
5. In view of failed attempts to enforce those Court decisions , the
greek nationals concerned sought recognition and enforceability of those f
decisions in Italy. In its Application instituting proceedings before thfe
ICJ, germany seeks a determination by the ICJ of what it considers a

breach by Italy of its jurisdictional immunity. At this stage of the pro -
ceedings of the present case, what is before the Court is solely the quefs -
tion of greece’s purported intervention on the ground of Article 62 of the
Statute. greece itself clarified, in its Application of 13 January 2011, that

by requesting the Court permission to intervene it was “by no means afsk -
ing the Court to resolve a dispute between greece and the parties to the
proceedings (. . .)” 6.

III. The Limits of State Consefnt Revisited

6. As to the consent of the parties in the main case — which is not
strictly or formally at issue in the present case —, such consent does not
play a role in the proceedings conducive to the Court’s decision whetfher
or not to grant permission to intervene. As pointed out in a joint declafra -

tion in a recent Judgment of the Court (in the case of the Territorial and
Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Application by Honduras for
permission to Intervene, Judgment of 4 may 2011 (I.C.J. Reports 2011

(II), p. 420)),

“In the present joint declaration, we wish to stress the non-
existence of a ‘requirement’ of consent by the parties in the main

4
5 Cf. greek Code of Civil procedure, Article 923.
The greek nationals concerned did not succeed to obtain relief from the Europfean
Court of Human Rights (ECHR), where their cause (Kalogeropoulou and Others v. Greece
and6Germany case, Judgment of 12 december 2002) was dismissed.
Op. cit. supra note 1, p. 6.

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case, in relation to the requisites for applications for permission to inter -
vene set forth in Article 62 of the ICJ Statute. In our view, such consent
by the main parties to the proceedings is irrelevant to the asses sment
of an application for permission to intervene, and cannot be perceived

as a requirement under Article 62 of the Statute of the Court. (. . .)
State consent also has its limits, in respect of applications for per -
mission to intervene. (. . .)
Our understanding is in the sense that the consent of the parties to

the main case is not, in any way, a condition for intervention as a
non-party. The Court is, anyway, the master of its own jurisdiction,
and does not need to concern itself with the search for State consent
in deciding on an application for permission to intervene in interna -
tional legal proceedings.

In effect, third party intervention under the Statute of the Court
transcends individual State consent. What matters is the consent ori-
ginally expressed by States in becoming parties to the Court’s Statute,
or in recognizing the Court’s jurisdiction by other instrumentalitiesf,

such as compromissory clauses. The Court’s Chamber itself rightly
pointed out, in the Judgment of 1990 in the case concerning the Land,
Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute between El Salvador and Hon -
duras (Application by Nicaragua for permission to intervene), that

the competence of the Court, in the particular matter of intervention,
‘is not, like its competence to hear and determine the dispute referred
to it, derived from the consent of the parties to the case’. 7

There is no need for the Court to keep on searching instinctively

for individual State consent in the course of the international legal
proceedings. After all, the consent of contending States is alien to thef
institution of intervention under Article 62 of the ICJ Statute. We
trust that the point we make here, in the present joint declaration,

regarding the irrelevance of State consent in the consideration by the
Court of applications for permission to intervene, under Article 62 of
the Court’s Statute, may be helpful to elucidate the positions that tfhe
Court may take on the matter in its jurisprudential construction.” 8

7. In the cas d’espèce, anyway, there is no formal objection to greece’s
Application for permission to intervene (supra); even if there were any

such objection, it would have been immaterial for the purpose of the
Court’s assessment of the Application at issue for permission to intefr -
vene. State consent indeed has its limits ; the ICJ is not always restrained
by State consent, in relation not only to intervention, but also in respfect
of other aspects of the procedure before the Court, as I sought to demon -

strate in my extensive dissenting opinion (paras. 45-118, 136-144 and
156-214) in the Court’s Judgment of 1 April 2011 in the case concerning

7 Footnote omitted.
8 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II); joint declaration of Judges Cançado Trindade
and Yusuf, pp. 468-470, paras. 8, 10 and 13-15.

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the Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation) (I.C.J.
Reports 2011 (I), pp. 239-322) ; the ICJ is not an arbitral tribunal.

8. In its Application of 13 January 2011, greece made it clear that its
object was to inform the Court of the “nature” of its “legal rights and
interests” that “could be affected” by the Court’s decisiofn in the main
case advanced by germany before it (p. 10). The request by greece being

thus clearly circumscribed, and bearing in mind its own Court decisions,f
it is difficult to behold how the ICJ could in the main proceedings cirfcum -
vent or avoid making a finding that would not affect greece’s interest of
a legal nature (under Article 62 of the Statute).

IV. J us Gentium in the Twenty-First Cenftury:
Rights of States and Righfts of Individuals

1. States as Titulaires of Rights :
Greek Courts Decisions as Referred to by Germany

9. In the proceedings before the Court (with a written phase only) con-
cerning greece’s Application for permission to intervene (supra), in its

second round of submissions, germany referred to three judgments of
greek Courts, in order to substantiate its argument that it would be
“utterly” contradictory, in its view, that the enforcement of a greek judg -
ment in Italy could affect greece’s legal interests, given that the same
9
judgment was denied enforcement in greece . The relevant part of ger -
many’s additional observations read as follows :

“In the present case, the specific facts speak even more strongly
against an interest of a legal nature which greece could assert. In
2002, the greek Special Supreme Court under Article 100 of the
Constitution, which discharges the functions of a constitutional

court, confirmed with the Margellos judgment the jurisdictional immu -
nity of germany by overruling the findings of the Areios Pagos in the
Distomo case and thus rendering the decision of the regional court of
Livadia unenforceable in greece itself. moreover, greek legislation

(Code of Civil procedure, Art. 923) establishes that no jud gment
rendered against a foreign State may be enforced on greek territory
without an explicit authorization of the greek minister of Justice.
Such authorization was denied by the minister of Justice in respect
of the judgment of the Court of Livadia the execution of which was

later sought in Italy. The plaintiffs brought an application against
that refusal before the European Court of Human Rights. In

9Additional Observations of germany on Whether to grant the Application for
permission to Intervene Filed by greece, of 26 may 2011, paras. 5-6.

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Kalogeropoulou, the Strasbourg judges dismissed the application.
Thus, the official position of greece is that the Livadia judgment

cannot, and should not, be executed in greece. Accordingly, it must
be considered as utterly contradictory that greece should have an
official interest in the enforcement of the same judgment in Italy.”f 10

10. The three greek Court decisions cited by germany, in order of
judicial hierarchy, were : (a) the judgment of 1997 of the First Instance

Court of Livadia in the Distomo Massacre case ;(b) the judgment of 2000
of the Court of Cassation (Areios Pagos) in the same Distomo Massacre
case ; and(c) the judgment of 2002 of the greek Special Supreme Court

in the Margellos and Others case. It would be clarifying, at this stage,
to summarize the legal proceedings in greece, as referred to by germany
itself1.
11. In 1995, over 250 relatives of the victims of the massacre (of 1944)

in the village of distomo instituted proceedings against germany before
greek Courts, claiming compensation for loss of life and property for
acts perpetrated in June 1944 by german occupation forces (under the
Third Reich) in greece. The First Instance Court of Livadia held ger -

many liable to pay compensation to the relatives of the victims. germany
brought the case before the Court of Cassation (Areios Pagos) in greece,
claiming immunity, which was dismissed by the Areios Pagos.

12. Following the judgment by the Court of Cassation, the judgment
of the First Instance Court of Livadia awarding compensation became

final. As the german authorities did not comply with the latter judgment
awarding compensation, the claimants sought to enforce the aforemen -
tioned judgment against german property in greece. Yet, such enforce -
ment against a foreign State required the consent of the minister of

Justice (greek Code of Civil procedure, Art. 923), which was not given in
the cas d’espèce. The claimants then resorted to the European Court of
Human Rights (ECHR) 12, against the refusal of greece and germany to

comply with the decision of the First Instance Court of Livadia awardingf
compensation, but their application was dismissed by the ECHR.
13. parallel to that, proceedings in a similar but yet another case (the
Margellos and Others case) were also ongoing before greek Courts. The

Court of Cassation referred the Margellos and Others case to the greek
Special Supreme Court, asking essentially the following questions :
(a) whether the exception to State immunity for torts committed jure

imperii in the forum State constituted a generally recognized rule of cus -

10Additional Observations of germany on Whether to grant the Application for

per11ssion to Intervene Filed by greece 26 may 2011, para. 5.
12Ibid.
Invoking Article 6 (1) of the European Convention on Human Rights; ECHR, Kalo‑
geropoulou and Others v. Greece and Germany, Judgment of 12 december 2002 (Applica -
tion 59021/00).

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tomary international law; (b) and if so, whether it covered torts commit -
ted during an armed conflict against non-combatants uninvolved in the
conflict.

14. The greek Special Supreme Court, by a majority of six votes to
five, held, inter alia, that, under customary international law, a foreign
State continued to enjoy sovereign immunity in respect of a tort commit -
ted in the forum State irrespective of whether the conduct at issue vio -

lated jus cogens norms or whether the armed forces were participating in
an armed conflict. As a result of that, the effect of the latter Spefcial
Supreme Court judgment in the Margellos case was essentially to overrule
the judgment of the First Instance Court of Livadia awarding compensa -

tion 13 the plaintiffs, as confirmed by the Court of Cassation in thfe same
case .

2. States as Titulaires of Rights :

Summary of Greek Courts Decisions

(a) Judgment of the First Instance Court of Livadia in the distomo
massacre case (1997)

15. On 25 September 1997, the First Instance Court of Livadia found

that a State cannot rely on immunity when the act attributed to it was
perpetrated in breach of norms of jus cogens, and affirmed that a State
committing such a breach had indirectly waived immunity. Accordingly,
the Court of Livadia held germany liable and ordered it to pay compen -

sation to the relatives of the victims of the massacre of distomo. This
judgment became object of enforcement proceedings in Italy, which ger -
many referred to in its pleadings in the case before the Court 1. In con-
nection with jus cogens, the Court of Livadia expressly referred to the
IV Hague Convention of 19 October 1907, Article 46 of the Regulations

on the Laws and Customs of War annexed thereto, as well as to custom -
ary international law, and to the general principle of law ex injuria jus non
oritur.

(b) Judgment of the Court of Cassation (Areios pagos) in the distomo

massacre case (2000)

16. Subsequently, germany instituted proceedings, against the latter
judgment, before the greek Court of Cassation (Areios Pagos), claiming
immunity from the jurisdiction of greek Courts. On 4 may 2000, the

First Chamber of the Court of Cassation found, by seven votes to four,
in the Distomo Massacre case, that the greek Courts were competent to
exercise jurisdiction over the case. On the substantive law, the Court hfeld

13In the case, moved by germany against the prefecture of Voiotia, this latter-repre
sented 118 persons from the village of distomo.
14Cf. Annex 17 to germany’s memorial and Observations of greece in Reply to the
Written Observations of germany and Italy.

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first that State immunity is a generally accepted rule of international law
which, pursuant to Article 28 (1) of the greek Constitution, is part of the

greek legal order. Secondly, the Court held that it is now accepted by
European countries that State immunity is not absolute and applies only f
to sovereign acts performed jure imperii, and not to acts jure gestionis
performed by the State in the same manner as private individuals.

17. The Court of Cassation further held that restrictive immunity was
enshrined in the European Convention on State Immunity adopted in
Basel on 16 may 1972 (the “Basel Convention”). While only eight Euro -
pean States (including germany) ratified the Convention, all other Euro -
pean States accepted the doctrine of restrictive immunity. The Court of f

Cassation further found, in the same Distomo Massacre case, that there is
a generally accepted rule of customary international law to the effectf that
States are competent to exercise jurisdiction over claims for damages
against a foreign State, in relation to torts committed by its organs agfainst
persons or property on the territory of the forum State, even if the actfs in

question were performed jure imperii.

18. moreover, the Court of Cassation held that immunity is tacitly
waived whenever the acts at issue are performed in violation of jus cogens
norms (again referring to Article 46 of the Regulations on the Laws and

Customs of War Annexed to the IV Hague Convention of 1907). The
Areios Pagos also held, in the Distomo Massacre case, that an exception
to the immunity rule should apply when the acts for which compensation
was sought (especially crimes against humanity) had targeted individuals
in a given place who were neither directly nor indirectly connected withf

the military operations; moreover, immunity was tacitly waived whenever
such acts, as already indicated, were in breach of jus cogens.

(c) Judgment of the Greek Special Supreme Court in the margellos and

Others case (2002)

19. In a case parallel to the aforementioned one, in respect of the ques-
tion submitted to the greek Special Supreme Court, this latter held, on
17 September 2002, by a majority of six votes to five, that, at the current
stage of progressive development of international law, there does not
exist a generally accepted rule that would allow, by exception ensuing

from the principle of immunity, to prosecute lawfully a State before the
Court of another State for compensation for offenses that took place ofn
the territory of the forum State, wherein the armed forces of the defen -
dant State were involved, irrespective of whether the actions at issue vfio-
lated jus cogens norms.

20. Furthermore, the greek Special Supreme Court ruled that Arti -
cle 31 of the 1972 Basel Convention, which provided for immunity in

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respect of the acts of armed forces, was formulated in absolute terms. Tfhe
five minority judges, in their joint dissenting opinion, contrariwise,f sus -
tained that the prohibition of war crimes has the status of a peremptoryf

norm of international law (jus cogens), and that the provisions contained
in the IV Hague Convention of 1907 on the Laws and Customs of War
on Land are now generally recognized as peremptory norms of customary
international law (jus cogens).

3. States as Titulaires of Rights :
Approaches by Germany and Greece

21. In its Application of 13 January 2011 for permission to intervene,
greece also referred specifically to germany’s Application instituting pro-
ceedings (of 23 december 2008) in the main case 15, and submitted that:

“The legal interest of greece derives from the fact that germany
has acquiesced to, if not recognized, its international responsibility
vis-à-vis greece for all acts and omissions perpetrated by the Third

Reich between 6 April 1941, when germany invaded greece, and the
unconditional surrender of germany on 8 may 1945.” (p. 6).

greece further asserted, in its Application for permission to intervene, fits
rights and jurisdiction under general international law, relating to thef
judgments delivered by its domestic courts (cf. supra) and enforceable by

Italian Courts (pp. 4 and 8).
22. In its Response, of 23 march 2011, germany retorted that greece’s
approach could hardly demonstrate its “legal interest”. germany distin -
guished the interests of the individuals concerned from those of the

greek State. Referring to the interests of the individuals in relation to the
Distomo Massacre case, it stated :

“The private claimants who were successful in the Distomo case
have certainly a legal interest in seeing the judgments of the respon -
sible trial judgments (Court of First Instance of Livadia), confirmed

by the Areios Pagos, executed, be it in greece, in Italy or in any other
country where they may hope to get hold of assets of germany. But
this is not a legal interest of the greek State. (. . .) Italy overstepped
the limits of its legitimate sovereign power by lending a hand for the

execution of greek judgments that, after the binding decision of the
Special Supreme Court in the Margellos case, cannot be executed in
greece itself. The very subject-matter of the Court’s findings will fbe,
solely and exclusively, Italy’s conduct.” 16

15Under item 3, and its paragraph 10.
16Written Observations of germany on Whether to grant the Application for permis-
sion to Intervene Filed by greece, of 26 may 2011, para. 17.

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23. For its part, Italy, in a new letter of 23 may 2011, once again
plainly stated, in confirmation of its position, that it had no objectfion to
greece’s Application for permission to intervene. In turn, in its moref

recent submission, of 5 may 2011, greece contended that the elements in
the cas d’espèce revolved around the enforcement of decisions of the
Greek Judiciary 17. In its view, both

“a greek judicial body and greek nationals lie at the heart of the
Italian enforcement proceedings and of the conflict between enforce -
ment and immunity.

In consequence, the Court’s decision as to whether judgments —
Italian and greek — may be enforced in Italy is directly and primar -
ily of interest to greece and could affect the interests of a legal nature,
in particular regarding persons of greek nationality, enjoyed by
18
greece under general international law.”

24. In my understanding, it could hardly be denied that the question of
the enforceability of judgments of a State’s judiciary, which is partf and
parcel of the State concerned, conforms an interest of a legal nature off

that State, for the purposes of its purported intervention in internatiofnal
litigation. This is so, even if the ultimate beneficiaries of the enfofrcement
of those judgments are individuals, human beings, nationals of that State.
An interest relating to the enforcement (abroad) of judicial decisionsf can
only be qualified as an interest of a legal nature, and not of another kind

or of a distinct nature.

4. Individuals as Titulaires of Rights : The Legacy of the Individual’s

Subjectivity in the Law of Nations

25. In the present proceedings concerning the greek Application for
permission to intervene, curiously germany saw it fit to bring to the fore
the position of individuals as titulaires of rights — an issue which was, in

my perception, central in the recent consideration of the Italian countefr-
claim, which led to, data venia, a regrettable decision by the Court, in
its Order of 6 July 2010 in the present case of the Jurisdictional Immuni ‑
ties of the State, whereby it dismissed that counter-claim. I felt obliged to

leave on the records my firm dissenting opinion (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I),
pp. 329-397, paras. 1-179) on that decision of the Court, wherein I upheld,
inter alia, that claims as to rights which are inherent to human beings
(such as, in the ambit of the counter-claim, the right to personal integrity,

not to be subjected to forced labour) cannot be waived by States by
means of inter-State agreements. There can be no tacit or express waiver
in that respect, as the rights at stake are not rights of States, but off

17Observations of greece in Reply to the Written Observations of germany and Italy,
of 5 may 2011, para. 6.
18Ibid., para. 6.

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human beings. As I sustained, inter alia, in my aforementioned dissenting
opinion,

“States may, if they so wish, waive claims as to their own rights.
But they cannot waive claims for reparation of serious breaches of
rights that are not theirs, rights that are inherent to the human person.
Any purported waiver to this effect runs against the international
ordre public; is in breach of jus cogens. This broader outlook, in a

higher scale of values, is in line with the vision of the so-called ‘found-
ing fathers’ of the law of nations (the droit des gens, the jus gentium),
and with what I regard as the most lucid trend of contemporary inter -
national legal thinking.

One cannot build (and try to maintain) an international legal order

over the suffering of human beings, over the silence of the innocent
destined to oblivion. At the time of mass deportation of civilians, sentf
to forced labour along the two World Wars (in 1916-1918 and in
1943-1945) of the twentieth century (and not only the Second World
War), everyone already knew that that was a wrongfulact, an atrocity,

a serious violation of human rights and of international humanitarian
law, which came to be reckoned as amounting also to a war crime
and a crime against humanity. Above the will stands conscience,
which is, after all, what moves the law ahead, as its ultimate material
source, removing manifest injustice.” (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I),

pp. 396-397, paras. 178-179.)

26. The question of individual rights is again brought to the fore now,

in the present case, this time in respect of the greek Application for per -
mission to intervene (cf. supra). Likewise I deem it fit to lay on the records
my reflections on the matter. The first point to recall herein is thfe legacy
of the individual’s subjectivity in the law of nations. The notoriousf impor -
tance attributed to the matter by the so-called “founding fathers” of the

discipline should not be forgotten in our times. As early as throughout f
the sixteenth century, the conception of Francisco de Vitoria (author of
the renowned Relecciones Teológicas, 1538-1539) flourished, whereby the
law of nations regulates an international community (totus orbis) consti -
tuted of human beings organized socially in States and co-extensive withf

humanity itself ; the reparation of breaches of (human) rights reflects an
international necessity fulfilled by the law of nations, with the samef prin -
ciples of justice applying both to States and to individuals and peoplesf
who form them. On his turn, Alberico gentili (author of De Jure Belli,
1598) sustained, by the end of the sixteenth century, that law governs the
relationships between the members of the universal societas gentium.

27. In the seventeenth century, in the outlook advanced by Francisco
Suárez (author of the treaty De Legibus ac Deo Legislatore, 1612), the law

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of nations discloses the unity and universality of humankind, and regu -
lates the States in their relations as members of the universal society.f
Shortly afterwards, the conception elaborated by Hugo grotius (De Jure
Belli ac Pacis, 1625) sustained that societas gentium comprises the whole

of humankind, and the international community cannot pretend to base
itself on the voluntas of each State individually ; human beings — occupy -
ing a central position in international relations — have rights vis‑à‑vis the
sovereign State, which cannot demand obedience of their citizens in an

absolute way (the imperative of the common good), as the so-called “rai ‑
son d’Etat” has its limits, and cannot prescind from law. In this line of
reasoning, in the seventeenth century, Samuel pufendorf (De Jure Natu ‑
rae et Gentium, 1672) sustained as well the subjection of the legislator to
reason, while Christian Wolff (Jus Gentium Methodo Scientifica Pertrac ‑

tatum, 1749) pondered that, just as individuals ought to — in their asso -
ciation in the State — promote the common good, the State on its turn
has the correlative duty to seek its perfection 19.
28. The subsequent personification of the all-powerful State, inspired

mainly in the philosophy of law of Hegel, had a harmful influence in tfhe
evolution of international law by the end of the nineteenth century and fin
the first decades of the twentieth century. This doctrinal trend resisfted as
much as it could to the ideal of emancipation of the human being from

the absolute control of the State, and to the recognition of the individfual
as subject of international law. But the individual’s submission to tfhe
“will” of the State was never convincing to all, and it soon becamfe openly
challenged by the more lucid doctrine. The idea of absolute State sover -
eignty — which led to the irresponsibility and the alleged omnipotence of

the State, not impeding the successive atrocities committed by it (or in its
name) against human beings — appeared with the passing of time entirely
unfounded.
29. The massacre of distomo (1944), brought before the greek Courts

(cf. supra), is but one of such numerous State atrocities perpetrated
throughout the last century. much has been written on it ; the facts are of
public and notorious knowledge, and are not disputed. In one of the his -
torical accounts of that massacre, its facts have been so summed up :

“On the morning of June 10, 1944, in the village of distomo, in the
prefecture of Voiotia, greece, Nazi soldiers posed as merchants and

passed through distomo, looking for greek resistance fighters said
to be in the area. Because distomo was not a part of the resistance
movement, no guerrillas were found in the village. The soldiers moved
on to the town of delphi. After leaving delphi, on their way to the

town of Steiri, the greek resistance fighters attacked the germans
and killed eighteen german soldiers. The surviving Nazi soldiers then

19A. A. Cançado Trindade, “A personalidade e a Capacidade Jurídicas do Indivíduo
como Sujeito do direito Internacional”, Jornadas de Derecho Internacional [of the OAS]
(mexico City, december 2001), Washington d.C., Under-Secretariat for Legal Affairs of
the OAS, 2002, pp. 311-347.

26

5 CIJ1021.indb 48 13/06/13 14:08 517 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

turned around, marched back past delphi to distomo, and began a
reign of terror that ended in the brutal massacre of 218 men, women

and children.
The soldiers stormed the village and ordered all residents indoors.
They went on a two-hour, door-to-door rampage, bayoneting babies

in their cribs, tearing fetuses from pregnant women, and beheading
the village priest. The only survivors were those who were able to
escape to the mountains, but they have never fully recovered from the

horror of that day. In memory of the dead, the entire village was
dressed in black for years and the relatives of the distomo victims
mourn their dead to this day. This mass killing has been labeled as

one of the most savage civilian, non-Jewish massacres of World
War II.” 20

5. Individuals as Titulaires of Rights :
Their Presence and Participation

in the International Legal Order

30. Not surprisingly, human conscience has reacted against State atro-
cities of the kind. The State — it is nowadays reckoned — is responsible

for all its acts — both jure gestionis and jure imperii — as well as for all
its omissions, amounting to grave breaches of the rights of the human
person (human rights and international humanitarian law). In case of vfio -

lation of human rights, the direct access of the individual to national and
international jurisdictions is thus fully justified to vindicate such frights
(even against his own State) 21. The necessity of the legitimatio ad causam
22
of individuals in international law is in our times widely acknowledged .
After all, individuals have marked their presence and participation in tfhe
international legal order already for a long time.

31. The individual has, in fact, constantly remained in contact, directly
or indirectly, with the international legal order. He is subject of bothf
domestic and international law 23. In the inter-war period, the experiments

20E. Vournas, “Prefecture of Voiotia v.Federal Republic of Germany: Sovereign Immu-
nity and the Exception for Jus Cogens Violations”, 21 New York Law School Journal of
International and Comparative Law (2002), pp. 635-636.
21S. glaser, “Les droits de l’homme à la lumière du droit international positif ”,
Mélanges offerts à H. Rolin — Problèmes de droit des gens, paris, pedone, 1964, pp. 117-118,

and22f. pp. 105-106 and 114-116.
Cf. note 34 infra.
23On the historical evolution of the legal personality in the law of natiofns, cf. H. mosler,
“Réflexions sur la personnalité juridique en droit internatiofnal public”, Mélanges offerts à
H. Rolin — Problèmes de droit des gens, paris, pedone, 1964, pp. 228-251; g. Arangio-
Ruiz, Diritto Internazionale e Personalità Giuridica, Bologna, Coop. Libr. Univ., 1972,
pp. 9-268; g. Scelle, “Some Reflections on Juridical personality in International Law”,

Law and Politics in the World Community (ed. g. A. Lipsky), Berkeley/Los Angeles,
University of California press, 1953, pp. 49-58 and 336 ; J. A. Barberis, “Nouvelles ques -
tions concernant la personnalité juridique internationale”, 179 Recueil des cours de
l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (RCADI) (1983), pp. 157-238.

27

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24 25
of the minorities and mandates 26ystems under the League of Nations,
for example, bear witness thereof . They were followed, in that regard,
by the trusteeship system 27under the United Nations era, parallel to the

development under this latter, along the years, of the multiple mecha -
nisms — conventional and extraconventional — of international protec -
tion of human rights. Those early experiments in the twentieth century

were of relevance for subsequent developments in the international safe -
guard of the rights of the human person 28.

32. To that effect of evidencing and reasserting the constant contact of
the individual with the international legal order, the considerable evolfu -
tion in the last decades not only of the international law of human righfts,

but likewise of international humanitarian law, has contributed deci -
sively. This latter likewise considers the protected persons not only asf

simple object of regulation that they establish, but rather as true subjfects
of international law 29. In effect, the impact of the norms of the former

has, in turn, been having already for a long time repercussions in the cor ‑
pus juris and application of international humanitarian law. This latter, in
the light of the principle of humanity, gradually frees itself from a pufrely

inter-State obsolete outlook, placing an increasingly greater emphasis on

24
Cf., e.g., p. de Azcárate, League of Nations and National Minorities : An Experiment,
Washington, Carnegie Endowment for International peace, 1945, pp. 123-130 ; J. Stone,
International Guarantees of Minorities Rights, Oxford University press, 1932, p. 56 ;
A. N. mandelstam, “La protection des minorités”, 1 RCADI (1923), pp. 363-519.
25 Cf., e.g., g. diena, “Les mandats internationaux”, 5 RCADI (1924), pp. 246-261 ;

N. Bentwich, The Mandates System, London, Longmans, 1930, p. 114 ; Quincy Wright,
Mandates under the League of Nations, Chicago University press, 1930, pp. 169-172.
26 C. A. Norgaard, The Position of the Individual in International Law, Copenhagen,
munksgaard, 1962, pp. 109-131 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Exhaustion of Local Reme -
dies in International Law Experiments granting procedural Status to Individuals in the

First Half of the Twentieth Century”, 24 Netherlands International Law Review/Nederlands
Tijdschrift voor international Recht (1977), pp. 373-392.
27 Cf., e.g., C. E. Toussaint, The Trusteeship System of the United Nations, London,
Stevens, 1956, pp. 39, 47 and 249-250; J. Beauté, Le droit de pétition dans les territoires sous
tutelle, paris, LgdJ, 1962, pp. 48-136 ; g. Vedovato, “Les accords de tutelle”, 76 RCADI
(1950), pp. 613-694.
28
Cf., e.g., C. Th. Eustathiades, “Une nouvelle expérience en droit international — Les
recours individuels à la Commission des droits de l’homme”, Grundprobleme des internatio‑
nalen Rechts — Festschrift für J. Spiropoulos, Bonn, Schimmlebusch, 1957, pp. 111-137,
esp. pp. 77 and 121, note 32.
29 It is what ensues, e.g., from the position of the four geneva Conventions on Inter-

national Humanitarian Law of 1949, erected as from the rights of the proftected persons
(III Convention, Articles 14 and 78; IV Convention, Article 27). This is what, furthermore,
clearly ensues from the fact that the four geneva Conventions plainly prohibit the States
parties to derogate — by special agreements — from the rules enunciated in them and in
particular to restrict the rights of the persons protected set forth in fthem (I, II and

III geneva Conventions, Article 6; and IV geneva Convention, Article 7). In fact, as early
as in the passage from the nineteenth to the twentieth century, the fifrst Conventions on
international humanitarian law expressed concern for the fate of human bfeings in armed
conflicts, thus recognizing the individual as direct beneficiary of fthe international conven-
tional obligations.

28

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the protected persons and on the responsibility for the violation of thefir
rights .0

33. The attempts of the past to deny to individuals the condition of
subjects of international law, for not being recognized to them some of

the capacities which States have (such as,31.g., that of treaty-making), are
definitively devoid of any meaning . Besides unsustainable, that concep-
tion appears contaminated by an ominous ideological dogmatism, which

had as the main consequence to alienate the individual from the inter-
national legal order 32. In the brief historical period in which that statist
conception prevailed, in the light — or, more precisely, in the darkness —

of legal positivism, successive atrocities were committed against the hufman
being, on a scale without precedent. This is evidenced, in the factual
context of the present proceedings before this Court, by the massacre

of distomo, of 10 June 1944.
34. No one with sane conscience would today dare to deny that human
beings effectively possess rights and obligations which emanate directfly from

international law, with which they find themselves in direct contact. fThere is
nothing intrinsic to international law that impedes or renders such direfct

contact impossible. It is perfectly possible to conceptualize as subjectf of inter -
national law any person or entity, titulaire of rights and bearer of obligations,
which emanate directly from norms of international law. Such is the case of

human beings, who have thus fostered and strengthened their direct con -
tact — without intermediaries — with the international legal order . 33
35. In sum, the very process of formation and application of the norms

of international law ceases to be a monopoly of the States. Furthermore,f
beyond the individual’s presence and participation in the internationfal
legal order, to the recognition of his rights, as subject of international

30
On the historical roots of this development, cf. E. W. petit de gabriel, Las Exigen ‑
cias de Humanidad en el Derecho Internacional Tradicional (1789‑1939), madrid, Tecnos,
2003, pp. 149, 171 and 210.
31 Nor at domestic law level, not all individuals participate, directly or indirectly, in the
law-making process, and they do not thereby cease to be subjects of law.f That doctrinal
trend, attempting to insist on such a rigid definition of internationafl subjectivity, condi -

tioning this latter to the very formation of international norms and compliance with them,
simply does not sustain itself, not even at the level of domestic law, ifn which it is not
required — it has never been —, from all individuals to participate in the creation and
application of the legal norms in order to be subjects (titulaires) of rights, and to be bound
by the duties, emanated from such norms.
32 It is surprising — if not astonishing —, besides regrettable, to see that conception
repeated mechanically and ad nauseam by a doctrinal trend, apparently trying to make

believe that the intermediary of the State, between the individuals and fthe international legal
order, would be something inevitable and permanent. Nothing could be morfe fallacious.
33 The international movement in favour of human rights, launched by the Universal
declaration of Human Rights of 1948, came to disauthorize the aforementiofned false
analogies, and to overcome traditional distinctions (e.g., on the basisf of nationalit:)
subjects of law are all human beings as members of the “universal society” ; R. Cassin,
“L’homme, sujet de droit international et la protection des droits de l’homme dans la

société universelle”, La technique et les principes du droit public — Etudes en l’honneur de
G. Scelle, Vol. I, paris, LgdJ, 1950, pp. 81-82.

29

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law, ought to correspond the procedural capacity to vindicate them at
international level. It is by means of the consolidation of the full intfer-
national procedural capacity of individuals that the international pro-
34
tection of human rights becomes reality .

6. Individuals as Titulaires of Rights :
The Rescue of the Individual as Subject of International Law

36. Although the contemporary international scenario is entirely dis -

tinct from that of the epoch of the so-called “founding fathers” of inter -
national law (no one would deny it), who propounded a civitas maxima
gentium ruled by the law of nations, there is a recurrent human aspira -

tion, transmitted from one generation to another, along the last centurifes,
to the effect of the construction of an international legal order applficable
both to States (and international organizations) and to individuals, pfur -

suant to certain universal standards of justice. Hence the importance
which, in this new corpus juris of protection, the international legal per -
sonality of the individual assumes, as subject of both domestic and intefr-

national law.
37. The individual, as subject of international law on his own right,
was certainly distinguishable from his own State, and a wrong done to
35
him was a breach of classical jus gentium, as universal minimal law . The
whole new corpus juris of the international law of human rights has been
constructed on the basis of the imperatives of protection and the superifor

interests of the human being, irrespective of his link of nationality orf of
his political statute, or any other situation or circumstance. Hence thef
importance assumed, in this new law of protection, by the legal per-

sonality of the individual, as the subject (not mere “actor”) off both
domestic and international law 36.

34 Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Acceso Directo del Individuo a los Tribunales Inter ‑
nacionales de Derechos Humanos, Bilbao, Universidad de deusto, 2001, pp. 17-96. Even if,
by the circumstances of life, certain individuals (e.g., children, the fmentally ill, aged
persons, among others) cannot fully exercise their capacity (e.g., in fcivil law), this does not
mean that they cease to be titulaires of rights, opposable even to the State. Irrespective of

the circumstances, the individual is subject jure suo of international law, as sustained by the
more lucid doctrine, since the writings of the so-called founding fatherfs of the discipline ;
p. N. drost, Human Rights as Legal Rights, Leyden, Sijthoff, 1965, pp. 226-227, and cf.
pp. 215 and 223. Human rights were conceived as inherent to every human being, indepen-
dently of any circumstances.
35 C. parry, “Some Considerations upon the protection of Individuals in International
Law”, 90 RCADI (1956), pp. 686-688 and 697-698.
36 The application and expansion of the international law of human rights, fin turn, has

had sensible repercussions, not surprisingly, in the trends of contemporfary public interna-
tional law ; cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos
Humanos, Vol. I, 2nd ed., porto Alegre/Brazil, S. A. Fabris Ed., 2003, pp. 33-50, and
Vol. II, 1999, pp. 23-194 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Derecho Internacional de los
Derechos Humanos en el Siglo XXI, Santiago, Editorial Jurídica de Chile, 2001, pp. 15-58
and 375-427.

30

5 CIJ1021.indb 56 13/06/13 14:08 521 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

38. In fact, already in the first decades of the twentieth century, one
recognized the manifest inconveniences of the protection of individuals f
by the intermediary of their respective States of nationality, that is, fby the

exercise of discretionary diplomatic protection, which ren37red the “fcom -
plaining” States at a time “judges and parties” . In a monograph of
1931, André mandelstam warned as to the necessity of the recognition

of a juridical minimum — with the primacy of international law and of
human rights over the State legal order — below which the international
community should not allow the State to fall. In his vision, the “horfrible
experience of our time” demonstrated the urgency of the necessary

acknowledgement of this juridical minimum, to put an end to the “unlim -
ited power” of the State over the life and the freedom of its citizenfs, and
to the “complete impunity” of the State in breach of the “most fsacred
38
rights of the individual” .
39. In his “célèbre” Précis of 1932-1934, georges Scelle criticized the
fiction of the contraposition of an “inter-State society” to a (national)

society of individuals : one and the other — he pondered — are formed
by individuals, subjects of domestic law and of international law,
whether they are individuals moved by private interests, or else endowedf

with public functions (rulers and public officials) in charge of looking
after the interests of national and international collectivities. g. Scelle
then identified “the movement of extension of the legal personalityf of

individuals”, by means of the emergence of the right of individual pefti -
tion at international level, which led him to conclude that “individuals
are subjects of law both of national communities and the worldwide

internation39 community : they are directly subjects of the law of
national” .
40. Also in the American continent, in the twentieth century, even

before the adoption of the American and Universal declarations of
Human Rights of 1948, doctrinal manifestations flourished in favour off
the international juridical personality of the individuals, such as those
which are found, for example, in the writings of Alejandro Alvarez 40and
41
Hildebrando Accioly . And philip Jessup, in 1948, pondered that the old
conception of State sovereignty was not consistent with the higher inter -

37One started, as a consequence, to overcome such inconveniences, to nourifsh the idea
of the direct access of the individuals to the international jurisdiction, under certain confdi
tions, to vindicate their rights against States — a theme which came fto be effectively
considered by the Institut de droit international in its sessions of 192f7 and 1929.
38A. N. mandelstam, Les droits internationaux de l’homme, paris, Editions internatio -

nal39, 1931, pp. 95-96 and 138, and cf. p. 103.
g. Scelle, Précis de droit des gen— Principes et systématique, part I, paris, Sirey,
1932 (CNRS reprint, 1984), pp. 42-44, and cf. p. 48.
40A. Alvarez, La Reconstrucción del Derecho de Gentes — El Nuevo Orden y la Reno ‑
vación Social, Santiago de Chile, Ed. Nascimento, 1944, pp. 46-47 and 457-463, and cf.
pp. 81, 91 and 499-500.
41H. Accioly, Tratado de Direito Internacional Público, Vol. I, 1st ed., Rio de Janeiro,
Imprensa Nacional, 1933, pp. 71-75.

31

5 CIJ1021.indb 58 13/06/13 14:08 522 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

ests of the international community and the status of the individual as
42
subject of international law .
41. In Europe, in a celebrated book of 1950, Hersch Lauterpacht

asserted that “the individual is the final subject of all law”, there being
nothing inherent to international law impeding him to become subject of f
the law of nations and to become a party in proceedings before inter-
43
national tribunals . On his turn, in a perspicacious essay, also of 1950,
maurice Bourquin pondered that the growing concern of the international
law of the epoch with the problems which affected directly the human

being revealed the overcoming of the old exclusively inter-State vision of
the international legal order 44.

42. In his course delivered at the Hague Academy of International
Law, three years later, in 1953, Constantin Eustathiades linked the inter -
national subjectivity of the individuals to the broad theme of the interf-
45
national responsibility (of them, parallel to that of the States) . This
development heralded the emancipation of the individual from the tute -

lage of his own State, and the individual’s condition of subject of ifnter-
national law 4. The same conclusion was reached by paul guggenheim, in
a course delivered also at the Hague Academy, one year earlier, in 1952: as

the individual is “subject of duties” at international law level, fone cannot
deny his international legal personality, recognized also in fact by custom ‑
47
ary international law itself .

42
ph. C. Jessup, A Modern Law of Nations — An Introduction, New York, macmillan
Co., 1948, p. 41.
43H. Lauterpacht, International Law and Human Rights, London, Stevens, 1950,
pp. 51, 61 and 69, and cf. p. 70. Such recognition of the individual as subject of rights also
at international law level brought about a clear rejection of the old pofsitivist dogmas,

discredited and unsustainable, of the dualism of subjects in the domestifc and international
orders, and of the “will” of States as exclusive “source” off international law ; cf. ibid.,
pp. 8-9. On the “natural right” of petition of individuals, exercised falso in the general
interest, cf. ibid., pp. 247-251, and cf. pp. 286-291 and 337.
44 m. Bourquin, “L’humanisation du droit des gens”, La technique et les principes du

dro45 public . . ., op. cit. supra note 33, Vol. I, pp. 21-54.
As a reaction of the universal juridical conscience, the recognition of the rights and
duties of the individual at international level, and his capacity to actf in order to defend his
rights, are linked to his capacity to commit an international delict ; international responsi-
bility thus comprises, in his vision, both the protection of human rightfs as well as the
punishment of war criminals (forming a whole) ; C. Th. Eustathiades, “Les sujets du droit

international et la responsabilité internationale — Nouvelles tendances”, 84 RCADI
(1953), pp. 402, 412-413, 424, 586-589, 601 and 612.
46 Ibid., pp. 426-427, 547, 586-587, 608 and 610-611. Although not endorsing the theorfy
of duguit and Scelle (of the individuals as the sole subjects of international law) —
regarded as expression of the “sociological school” of international law inf France —,
Eustathiades recognized in it the great merit of reacting to the traditifonal doctrine

which visualized States as the sole subjects of international law ; the recognition of the
international subjectivity of individuals, parallel to that of States, cfame to transform the
structure of international law and to foster the spirit of internationalf solidarity; ibid.,
pp. 604-610.
47p. guggenheim, “Les principes de droit international public”, 80 RCADI (1952),
pp. 116, and cf. pp. 117-118.

32

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43. Still in the mid-twentieth century, in the first years of application
of the European Convention on Human Rights, there was support for
the view that the individuals had become “titulaires of legitimate inter-

national interests”, as, in international law, a process of emancipatfion of
the individuals from the “exclusive tutelage of the State agents” fhad already
48
started . In the legal doctrine of that time, the recognition of the
expansion of the protection of individuals at the international legal
order became evident 49. In the lucid words of B. V. A. Röling, the over -

coming of legal positivism was reassuring, as the individual, bearer of inter-
national rights and duties, was no longer at the mercy of his State, and

“Humanity of today instinctively turns to this natural law, for the
function of law is to serve the well-being of man, whereas present
positive international law tends to his destruction.” 50

44. This view was in keeping with the posture upheld by the Judge
Kotaro Tanaka, in his opinions in cases before the ICJ in that epoch,

that is an international law transcending the limitations of legal
positivism 51, and thus capable of responding effectively to the needs and
52
aspirations of the international community as a whole . In the late
sixties, the pressing need was pointed out of protecting internationallyf the
human person both individually and in groups 5, for unless such inter-

national protection was secured to individuals and groups of them, “tfhe

48
g. Sperduti, “L’individu et le droit international”, 90 RCADI (1956), pp. 824, 821
and 764. The juridical experience itself of the epoch contradicted categorically the
unfounded theory according to which the individuals were simple objects of the inter-
national legal order, and destructed other prejudices of State positivisfm ; ibid., pp. 821-

822; and cf. also g. Sperduti, L’Individuo nel Diritto Internazionale, milan, giuffrè Ed.,
1950, pp. 104-107.
49C. parry, “Some Considerations . . .”, op. cit. supra note 35, p. 722 ; B. V. A. Röling,
International Law in an Expanded World, Amsterdam, djambatan, 1960, pp. XXII and 1-2.
50B. V. A. Röling, op. cit. supra note 49, p. 2.
51Cf. Y. Saito, “Judge Tanaka, Natural Law and the principle of Equality”, The Living

Law of Nations — Essays in Memory of A. Grahl‑Madsen (eds. g. Alfredsson and p. maca-
lister-Smith), Kehl/Strasbourg, N. p. Engel publ., 1996, pp. 401-402 and 405-408 ;
K. Tanaka wanted law to be wholly liberated from both the State (“as asfserted by Hegel
and his followers”) and from the nation (Völk — as asserted by Savigny and puchta, and
other jurists of the “historical school”) ; ibid., p. 402.

52
Cf. V. gowlland-debbas, “Judicial Insights into Fundamental Values and Interests
of the International Community”, The International Court of Justice : Its Future Role after
Fifty Years (eds. A. S. muller et al.), The Hague, Kluwer, 1997, pp. 344-346.
53As acknowledged, e.g., by the 1994 Framework Convention for the protection of

National minorities of the Council of Europe (in force as from February 1998). Ffor earlier
general studies, cf., e.g., p. Thornberry, International Law and the Rights of Minorities,
Oxford, Clarendon press, 1992 (reprint), pp. 38-54; F. Ermacora, “The protection of
minorities before the United Nations”, 182 RCADI (1983), pp. 257-347.

33

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54
fate of the individual” would be “at the mercy of some Staatsrecht” . In
an essay published in 1967, René Cassin, who had participated in the pre -
paratory process of the elaboration of the Universal declaration of
55
Human Rights of 1948 , stressed the advance represented by the access
of individuals to international instances of protection, secured by manyf
56
human rights treaties .
45. To paul Reuter,

“Individuals become subjects of international law when two basic
conditions are fulfilled, namely, when they are titulaires of rights

established directly by international law, which they can exercise,
and are bearers of obligations sanctioned directly by international
57
law.”

A similar view was upheld by Eduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga, to whom f
“there is nothing inherent to the structure of the international legafl order”
which impedes the recognition to the individuals of rights that emanate f

directly from international law, as well as international remedies for tfhe
protection of those rights 58. Also in this line of reasoning, Julio Barberis

pondered in 1983 that, for individuals to be subjects of law, it is necefssary
that the legal order at issue attributes to them rights or obligations (fas is
59.
the case of international law)

54J. J. Lador-Lederer, International Group Protection, Leyden, Sijthoff, 1968, p. 19.
55As rapporteur of the Working group of the former United Nations Commission on

Human Rights, entrusted with the preparation of the draft declaration (from may 1947
to June 1948).
56In his own thoughtful words,
“if there still subsist on earth great zones where millions of men anfd women, resigned

to their destiny, do not dare to utter the least complaint nor even to cfonceive that
any remedy whatsoever is made possible, those territories diminish day affter day.
The awakening of conscience that an emancipation is possible, becomes infcreasingly
more general . . . The first condition of all justice, namely, the possibility of cornefring
the powerful so as to subject them to . . . public control, is nowadays fulfilled much

more often than in the past . . . The fact that the resignation without hope, that the
wall of silence and that the absence of any remedy are in the process of reduction or
disappearance, opens to moving humanity encouraging perspectives . . .” (R. Cassin,
“Vingt ans après la déclaration universelle”, 8 Revue de la Commission internationale
de juristes (1967), No. 2, pp. 9-10, and cf. pp. 11-17.)

57Thus, as from the moment when the individual is granted a remedy before an organ
of international protection (access to international jurisdiction) andf can thus initiate the
procedure of protection, he becomes subject of international law (p. Reuter, Droit inter‑

national public, 7th. ed., paris, pUF, 1993, pp. 235 and 238, and cf. p. 106).

58E. Jiménez de Aréchaga, El Derecho Internacional Contemporáneo, madrid, Tecnos,
1980, pp. 207-208.
59The subjects of law are, thus, heterogeneous — he added — and theoreticians who

beheld only States as such to be subjects simply distorted reality, failfing to take into
account the transformations undergone by the international community, which came to
admit that non-State actors also possess international legal personalityf (J. A. Barberis,
“Nouvelles questions concernant la personnalité juridique…”,f op. cit. supra note 23,
pp. 161, 169-172, 178 and 181).

34

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46. In fact, successive studies of instruments of international protec -

tion came to emphasize precisely the historical importance of the recognfi-
tion of the international legal personality of individuals as complaininfg
party before international organs 60. In my own thematic course delivered

at the Hague Academy of International Law in 1987, I pondered that the
continuous expansion of international law is also reflected in the multiple
contemporary mechanisms of international protection of human rights,

the operation of which cannot be dissociated from the new values
acknowledged by the international community. Individuals were at last
enabled “to exercise rights emanating directly from international lawf
(droit des gens)”. And I added :

“In this connection, the insight and conception of Vitoria devel -
oped in his manuscripts of 1532 (made public in 1538-1539) can be
properly recalled in 1987, four-and-a-half centuries later : it was a

conception of a universal law of nations, of individuals socially
organized in States and also composing humanity (. . .) ; redress of
violations of (human) rights, in fulfilment of an international needf,

owed its existence to the law of nations, with the same principles of
justice applying to both States and individuals or peoples forming
them.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

There is a growing and generalized acknowledgement that human
rights, rather than deriving from the State (or from the will of

individuals composing the State), all inhere in the human person, in
whom they find their ultimate point of convergence. (. . .) The non-
observance of human rights entails the international responsibility of
61
States for treatment of the human person.”

47. The international subjectivity of the human being (whether a child,
an elderly person, a person with a disability, a stateless person, or any
other) emerged with all vigour in the international legal thinking of tfhe

60 Cf., e.g., A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local
Remedies in International Law, Cambridge University press, 1983, pp. 1-445; A. Z. drzem-
czewski, European Human Rights Convention in Domestic Law, Oxford, Clarendon press,
1983, pp. 20-34 and 341 ; F. matscher, “La posizione processuale dell’Individuo come
Ricorrente dinanzi agli Organi della Convenzione Europea dei diritti dell’Uomo”, Studi in

Onore di G. Sperduti, milan, giuffrè Ed., 1984, pp. 601-620; J. A. Carrillo Salcedo, Dignidad
frente a Barbarie — La Declaración Universal de Derechos Humanos, Cincuenta Años ▯
Después, madrid, Ed. Trotta, 1999, pp. 27-145; E.-I. A. daes (rapporteur spécial)La
condition de l’individu et le droit international contemporain, United Nations doc. E/CN.4/
Sub.2/1988/33, of 18 July 1988, pp. 1-92; R. A. mullerson, “Human Rights and the
Individual as Subject of International Law : A Soviet View”, 1 European Journal of Inter ‑
national Law (1990), pp. 33-43.
61 A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Co-existence and Co-ordination of mechanisms of Inter-
national protection of Human Rights (At global and Regional Levels)”, 202 RCADI
(1987), pp. 411-412, and cf. pp. 32-33.

35

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twentieth century, as a reaction of the universal juridical conscience
against the successive atrocities committed against the humankind. By

the time that subjectivity so emerged, sovereign immunity had already
been erected, pursuant to an inter-State static outlook, placing States out -
side the reach of law. What was meant to be an exception (immunity)
showed itself as the rule, in the name of “absolute” sovereignty.

48. The advent of the juridical category of the international legal
personality of individuals came to fulfill one of the necessities of the inter -
national community — precisely one which appeared with prominence

— namely, that of providing protection to the human beings who com -
pose it, in particular those who find themselves in a situation of spefcial
vulnerability. Nowadays, if one has, on the one hand, a domestic court
decision such as that of the greek Special Supreme Court in the Margel ‑

los and Others case (2002), one also has, on the other hand, domestic
court decisions such as those of the greek Court of Cassation (Areios
Pagos) in the Distomo Massacre case (2000), and of the Italian Court of
Cassation in the Ferrini v. Federal Republic of Germany case (2004) 62.

49. It has lately become clear that State immunity is not a static
concept, tied up immutably to its historical origins, but that it also rfead -
justs itself within the evolving conceptual universe of contemporary jus
gentium. Furthermore, to the international legal doctrine of the second

half of the twentieth century, it did not pass unnoticed that individuals,
besides being titulaires of rights at international level, also have duties
which are attributed to them by international law itself. The consolida -

tion of the international legal personality of individuals, as active asf well
as passive subjects of international law, enhances accountability in intfer -
national law for abuses perpetrated against human beings. Thus, indi -
viduals are also bearers of duties under international law, and this reflects
63
the consolidation of their international legal personality .

7. Individuals as Titulaires of Rights :

The Historical Significance
of the International Subjectivity of the Individual

50. Ultimately, all law exists for the human being, and the law of
nations is no exception to that, guaranteeing to the individual his righfts

62
decision of 11 march 2004, which held that an Italian national, deported to germany
for forced labour in 1944, was entitled to compensation for such war crifme, as germany
could not claim State immunity in such a case of violation of a peremptofry norm of inter-
nat63nal law (jus cogens).
developments in international legal personality and international accountfability go
hand in hand, and this whole evolution bears witness of the formation off the opinio juris
communis to the effect that the gravity of certain violations of fundamental rfights of the
human person affects directly basic values of the international communfity as a whole.

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64
and the respect for his personality . The respect for the individual’s per -
sonality at international level is instrumentalized by the internationalf
right of individual petition. Human rights do assert themselves against fall

forms of domination or arbitrary power. The human being emerges, at
last, even in the most adverse conditions, as the ultimate subject of law,
domestically as well as internationally.

51. The international juridical subjectivity of the human being, as
foreseen by the so-called founders of international law (the droit des
gens), is nowadays a reality. At this beginning of the twenty-first centufry,
this highly significant conquest can be appreciated within the framework

of the historical process of humanization of international law, attentive
to fundamental values and the realization of superior common goals. On
the basis of the right of individual petition is erected the juridical

mechanism of emancipation of the human being vis‑à‑vis his own State
for the protection of his rights in the ambit of the international law off
human rights — an emancipation which comes at last to give an ethical

content to the norms of both domestic public law and international
law 6.
52. No one with sane conscience would deny that individuals effectively

possess rights and have duties which derive directly from international f
law, with which they are thus in direct contact. This evolution — contrib -
uting ultimately to the rule of law at national and international levels —
66
is to be appreciated in a wider dimension . The expansion of international
legal personality, nowadays encompassing that of individuals as active
and passive subjects of international law, goes pari passu with the

acknowledgement of accountability in international law. The universal
juridical conscience — as the ultimate material source of all law — seems
to have awakened to the realization of justice at national and interna -

tional levels. International law has gradually liberated itself from thef
chains of statism, and has again met with the conception of a true, and f
new, jus gentium.

64
F. A. von der Heydte, “L’individu et les tribunaux internationaux”f, 107 RCADI
(1962), p. 301; cf. also, in this respect, e.g., E. m. Borchard, “The Access of Individuals to
International Courts”, 24 American Journal of International Law (1930), pp. 359-365.

65 This is, furthermore, a logical development, as it does not seem reasonafble to con-
ceive rights at international level without the corresponding proceduralf capacity to vindi-
cate them. The recognition of the direct access of the individuals to the international
justice reveals the new primacy, in our days, of the raison de l’humanité over the raison
d’Etat, inspiring the current historical process ohumanization of international law

(A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Humanização do Direito Internacional, Belo Horizonte/Brazil,
Ed.66el Rey, 2006, pp. 3-409).
The subjects of international law have, already for a long time, ceased fto be reduced
to territorial entities. more than six decades ago, as acknowledged in the celebrated Advi -
sory Opinion of the International Court of Justice oReparations for Damages Injuries
Suffered in the Service of the United Nations (1949), the advent of international organiza -
tions had put an end to the States’ monopoly of the international legfal personality and
capacity, with all the juridical consequences which ensued therefrom.

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8. General Assessment

53. From all the aforementioned it can be seen, in the factual context

of the present case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State,
that the individuals concerned (private claimants) have had formal access
to domestic courts (in greece and Italy) as well as to an international
tribunal (the European Court of Human Rights) ; yet, they do not seem

to feel that they have found justice to date (material access to justice),
and they keep on seeking compensation for the wrongs suffered in the
past. As for the States concerned, they have had access to this Court —
the contending parties in the main case (germany and Italy), as well as
the intervening State (greece).

54. The Court has now before a case concerning the jurisdictional
immunities of the State, with repercussions to all titulaires of rights, States
and individuals alike. This is a case which has a direct bearing on the f
evolution of international law in our times. There is no reason for keepf -

ing on overworking the rights of States while at the same time overlook -
ing the rights of individuals. One and the other are meant to develop pari
passu in our days, attentive to superior common values. State immunity
and the fundamental rights of the human person are not to exclude
each other, as that would make immunity unacceptably tantamount to

impunity.

V. Concluding Observationfs: The R esuRRectio of Intervention

in Contemporary Interfnational Litigation

55. germany, a party to the main case, has asked the Court to pro -
nounce on Italy’s conduct also in respect of judgments delivered by greek
Courts (seeking the upholding of jurisdictional immunities). Whichever

Judgment the Court comes to deliver in the present case, it is bound to f
have a direct effect on greece. It is bound to affect third States. It is hard
to see how greece could not claim to have an interest of a legal nature in
such circumstances. An interest in the enforceability in a foreign Statef of
judgments of a State’s own judiciary appears to fall squarely within fthe

concept of an interest of a legal nature of the would-be intervening State.
In sum, in my perception, greece has demonstrated that it has an interest
of a legal nature that may indeed be affected by the Court’s Judgment in
the present case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State,
opposing germany to Italy.

56. In the ambit of the circumstances of the present case, intervention
has at last seen the light of the day. In a very recent case wherein it was
likewise requested, but not granted, concern was expressed, within the
Court, as to the need of a more proactive attitude of the ICJ as to the f

institution of intervention (under Article 62 of the ICJ Statute) in inter-

38

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67
national litigation . The same hope has been expressed in expert writing
in recent years as to the need for a more liberal attitude of the ICJ in rela -
tion to aspects of intervention 68. In the history of the ICJ, intervention

has never died, though it lay dormant in the peace palace for most of the
time of the Court’s history.

57. Twice before, permission to intervene was granted by the ICJ : by
its Chamber, in the case concerning the Land, Island and Maritime Fron ‑
tier Dispute between El Salvador and Honduras (Application by Nicara -

gua for permission to intervene, Judgment of 13 September 1990) (I.C.J.
Reports 1990, p. 92), and by the full Court itself, in the case concerning

the Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria,
wherein, by its Order of 21 October 1999 (I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II),
p. 1029), it authorized Equatorial guinea to intervene. Both cases con -

cerned land and maritime boundaries. This time, with the Order it adoptsf
today, 4 July 2011, the ICJ grants to greece permission to intervene in

the case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State, a domain
of great importance in and for the development of contemporary inter-

67 Territorial and Maritime Dispute(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Application by Costa Rica
for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II); joint dissenting opinion of

Jud68s Cançado Trindade and Yusuf, pp. 401-413, paras. 1-29.
Cf., e.g., S. Rosenne, Intervention in the International Court of Justice, dordrecht,
Nijhoff, 1993, pp. 79 and 104 (as to consent and to jurisdictional link); J. m. Ruda, “Inter
vention before the International Court of Justice”, Fifty Years of the International Court of
Justice — Essays in Honour of R. Jennings (eds. V. Lowe and m. Fitzmaurice),
Cambridge University press, 1996, p. 495 (no need of additional consent) ; K. mbaye,

“L’intérêt pour agir devant la Cour internationale de Justicfe”, 209 RCADI (1988),
pp. 340-341 (beyond consent) ; S. Torres Bernárdez, “L’intervention dans la procédure de
la Cour internationale de Justice”, 256 RCADI (1995), pp. 213-214, 223, 230-233, 252, 259
and 437 ; S. Rosenne, “Some Reflections on Intervention in the International Coufrt of
Justice”, 34 Netherlands International Law Review (1987), p. 89; E. decaux, “La juridiction

internationale permanente — L’intervention”, La juridiction internationale permanente
(SFdI — Colloque de Lyon), paris, pedone, 1987, pp. 219, 223, 229 and 255 ; A. J. J. de
Hoogh, “Intervention under Article 62 of the Statute and the Quest for Incidental Jurisdic-
tion without the Consent of the principal parties”, 6 Leiden Journal of International Law
(1993), pp. 17-46 ; R. St. J. macdonald and V. Hughes, “Intervention before the Interna -
tional Court of Justice”, 5 African Journal of International and Comparative Law (1993),

p. 33; d. W. greig, “Third party Rights and Intervention before the International Court”,
32 Virginia Journal of International Law (1992), pp. 289, 334, 352 and 367 ; J. g. Starke,
“Locus Standi of a Third State to Intervene in Contentious proceedings before the Inter-
national Court of Justice”, 58 Australian Law Journal (1984), p. 358 (as to “jurisdictional
links”); p. palchetti, “Opening the International Court of Justice to Third Statesf : Inter-

vention and Beyond”, 6 Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law (2002), pp. 158, 160
and 180-181 ; C. Chinkin, “Third-party Intervention before the International Court of
Justice”, 80 American Journal of International Law (1986), pp. 500-502, 515, 519 and 525 ;
g. Sperduti, “L’intervention de l’Etat tiers dans le procès intfernational : une nouvelle
orientation”, 31 Annuaire français de droit international (1985), pp. 288-290 and 293 ;

T. Licari, “Intervention under Article 62 of the Statute of the ICJ”, 8 Brooklyn Journal of
International Law (1982), pp. 286-287 ; g. morelli, “Note sull’Intervento nel processo
Internazionale”, 65 Rivista di Diritto Internazionale (1982), pp. 805-806, 808, 811 and 814
(widening dispute-settlement).

39

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national law. The Court has so decided at the height of its responsibilifties
as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (Article 92 of the

UN Charter).
58. Unlike land and maritime delimitation cases, or other cases con -
cerning predominantly bilateralized issues, the present case is of interfest
to third States — such as greece — other than the two contending par-
ties before the Court. The subject-matter is closely related to the evolu -

tion of international law itself in our times, being of relevance, ultimfately,
to all States, to the international community as a whole, and, in my perf -
ception, pointing towards an evolution into a true universal international
law.
59. The Court has found, in resolutory point (1) of the dispositif, and
the corresponding reasoning of the present Order, that this is a clear cfase

for intervention as a non-party under Article 62 of the ICJ Statute. In
sum, greece’s Application for permission to intervene fits squarely withifn
the requisites for intervention set forth under Article 62 of the Court’s
Statute. By granting to greece permission to intervene, the present Order
of the Court gives a proper expression to the principle of la bonne admi‑

nistration de la justice in the context of the cas d’espèce.
60. The present case also leaves as a lesson that we cannot approach a
matter like that of the jurisdictional immunities of the State, in circufm -
stances such as the present ones (having as factual origin grave breachfes
of human rights and international humanitarian law), from a strictly

inter-State dimension. In the present proceedings before the Court, con -
sideration has been given to States as titulaires of rights, as well as to
individuals as titulaires of rights. Even in a recent, individualized case,
such as that of Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic
Republic of the Congo) (Judgment of 30 November 2010), the facts under -
lying that dispute before the ICJ concerned ultimately the treatment disf -

pensed to an individual, the rights of an individual, as I pointed out ifn my
lengthy separate opinion (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 729-811, paras. 1-245)
in that case.

61. States, as well as individuals, are subjects of international law. The

outcome of the Court’s decision in the present Order in the case concern -
ing the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State, of historical importance,
shows that intervention in contemporary international litigation is alive
and well : it has at last seen the light of the day. What we behold today,
here at the peace palace, is a true resurrectio of intervention in present-day

international litigation ; its resurgere from its long sleep may come to
satisfy the needs not only of the States concerned, but of the individuafls
concerned as well, and ultimately of the international community as a
whole, in the conceptual universe of the new jus gentium of our times.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

40

5 CIJ1021.indb 76 13/06/13 14:08

Bilingual Content

505

SEpARATE OpINION
OF JUdgE CANçAdO TRINdAdE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. Introduction 1-2

II. greece’s Application ffor permission to Intervenfe 3-5

III. The Limits of State Consefnt Revisited 6-8

IV. Jus Gentium in the Twenty-First Cenftury : Rights of

States and Rights of Indifviduals 9-54
1. States as titulaires of rights : greek Courts decisions as

Referred to by germany 9-14
2. States as titulaires of rights : Summary of greek Courts deci
sions 15-20

(a) Judgment of the First Instance Court of Livadia in the
Distomo Massacre case (1997) 15

(b) Judgment of the Court of Cassation (Areios Pagos) in
the Distomo Massacre case (2000) 16-18
(c) Judgment of the greek Special Supreme Court in the

Margellos and Others case (2002) 19-20

3. States as titulaires of rights : Approaches by germany and
greece 21-24
4. Individuals as titulaires of rights : The legacy of the indivi-

dual’s subjectivity in the law of nations 25-29
5. Individuals as titulaires of rights: Their presence and partici
pation in the international legal order 30-35

6. Individuals as titulaires of rights : The rescue of the indivi-
dual as subject of international law 36-49

7. Individuals as titulaires of rights : The historical significance
of the international subjectivity of the individual 50-52
8. general assessment 53-54

V. Concluding Observationfs: The ResuRRectio of Interven-

tion in Contemporary fInternational Litigatfion 55-61

*

15

5 CIJ1021.indb 26 13/06/13 14:08 505

OpINION INdIVIdUELLE
dE m. LE JUgE CANçAdO TRINdAdE

[Traduction]

table des matières

Paragraphes

I. Introduction 1-2

II. Requête de la grèce à fin d’interventfion 3-5

III. Retour sur les limitesf du consentement de l’fÉtat 6-8

IV. Le Jus Gentium au XXI siècle: droits des États et dfroits

des individus 9-54
1. Les Etats en tant que titulaires de droits : décisions judi-

ciaires grecques visées par l’Allemagne 9-14
2. Les Etats en tant que titulaires de droits: résumé des déci -
sions rendues par les juridictions grecques 15-20

a) Jugement du tribunal de première instance de Livadia en
l’affaire du Massacre de Distomo (1997) 15

b) Arrêt de la Cour de cassation (Areios Pagos) en l’affaire
du Massacre de Distomo (2000) 16-18
c) Arrêt rendu par le Tribunal supérieur spécial grec en

l’affaire Margellos et autres (2002) 19-20

3. Les Etats en tant que titulaires de droits : l’approche de
l’Allemagne et celle de la grèce 21-24
4. Les individus en tant que titulaires de droits : l’héritage de la

subjectivité de l’individu en droit des gens 25-29
5. Les individus en tant que titulaires de droits: leur présence
dans l’ordre juridique international et leur participation à

celui-ci 30-35
6. Les individus en tant que titulaires de droits: la réhabilita
tion de l’individu en tant que sujet de droit international 36-49

7. Les individus en tant que titulaires de droits : la signification
historique de la subjectivité internationale de l’individu 50-52
8. Appréciation générale 53-54

V. Observations finales : la résurrection de l’fintervention

dans le contentieux ifnternational contemfporain 55-61

*

15

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I. Introduction

1. I have concurred with my vote to the adoption today, 4 July 2011,
by the International Court of Justice, of the present Order whereby it
grants to greece permission to intervene in the case concerning the Juris ‑

dictional Immunities of the State, opposing germany to Italy. given the
importance that I ascribe to the matters dealt with by the Court in the f
present Order, and those underlying it, I feel obliged to leave on the

records the foundations of my personal position on the matter, in all itfs
aspects. The dossier of the present case, relating to the proceedings before
the Court concerning greece’s Application for permission to intervene, is
conformed by six documents, namely : two submitted to the Court by the
1
applicant State, greece , and two presented by each of the two parties in
the main case before the Court, germany 2and Italy .3
2. In the present separate opinion, I shall consider the matter at issue

in dwelling upon the points developed hereunder, namely : (a) greece’s
Application for permission to intervene ; (b) the limits of State consent
revisited ; (c) jus gentium in the twenty-first century : rights of States and

rights of individuals (as submitted by the contending parties), including a
review of relevant greek Courts decisions (in the Distomo Massacre case
and the Margellos and Others case), among other related aspects in his -
torical perspective ; and (d) the resurrectio of intervention in contempo -

rary international litigation. Let me turn to those points, one by one, fin a
logical sequence.

II. greece’s Application ffor permission to Intervenfe

3. In its Application for permission to intervene, of 13 January 2011,
based on Article 62 of the ICJ Statute, the Hellenic Republic (hereinafter
greece) pointed out that it was not requesting to intervene as a party tfo

the present case, and that it had in mind only clearly circumscribed
aspects of the procedure, concerning decisions of its own domestic courtfs
on claims pertaining to occurrences during the Second World War, inten-
ded to be enforced by Italian Courts. In its observations on greece’s

Application, of 23 march 2011, germany submitted that it did not

1greece’s Application for permission to intervene, of 13 January 2011, pp. 1-17 ;
Observations of greece in Reply to the Written Observations of germany and Italy, of
5 may 2011, pp. 1-3.
2 Written Observations of the Federal Republic of germany on the Application for
permission to Intervene Filed by greece, of 23 march 2011, pp. 1-7 ; Additional Observa-
tions of germany on Whether to grant the Application for permission to Intervene Filed
by greece, of 26 may 2011, pp. 1-4.
3 Written Observations of Italy on the Application for permission to Intervene Filed by

greece, of 22 march 2011, p. 1 ;Additional Observations of Italy on Whether to grant the
Application for permission to Intervene Filed by greece, of 23 may 2011, p. 1.

16

5 CIJ1021.indb 28 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f06

I. Introduction

1. J’ai voté en faveur de l’adoption, ce 4 juillet 2011, de la présente
ordonnance par laquelle la Cour internationale de Justice autorise la
grèce à intervenir en l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de

l’Etat opposant l’Allemagne à l’Italie. Compte tenu de l’importancfe que
j’accorde aux questions examinées par la Cour dans cette ordonnance,
ainsi qu’à celles qui la sous-tendent, je me sens obligé d’exposer les fonde -

ments de ma position personnelle sur la question et ce, sur tous ses
aspects. Le dossier de la présente affaire contient, en ce qui concferne la
requête de la grèce à fin d’intervention, six documents : deux documents
présentés à la Cour par l’Etat demandant à intervenir, laf grèce 1, et deux

documents présentés par chacune des parties à la procédure principale
dont est saisie la Cour, l’Allemagne 2 et l’Italie .
2. J’examinerai, dans la présente opinion individuelle, la question

posée en m’intéressant tout particulièrement aux points suivfants : a) la
requête de la grèce à fin d’intervention; b) les limites du consentement de
l’Etat revisitées ;c) le jus gentium au XXI e siècle: droits des Etats et droits

des individus (tels que présentés par les parties en litige) — ce point
contient également un examen des décisions pertinentes rendues parf les
juridictions grecques (en l’affaire du Massacre de Distomo et en l’affaire
Margellos et autres), entre autres aspects y afférents d’un point de vue

historique ; et d) la résurrection de l’intervention dans le règlement
contemporain des différends internationaux. Je m’intéresseraif tour à tour
à chacune de ces questions, selon un ordre logique.

II. Requête de la grèce à fin d’interventfion

3. dans sa requête à fin d’intervention en date du 13 janvier 2011, fon -
dée sur l’article 62 du Statut de la Cour, la République hellénique (ci-après
la «grèce ») a indiqué qu’elle ne demandait pas à intervenir en tant fque

partie à l’affaire, et qu’elle ne s’intéressait qu’àf certains aspects bien défi -
nis de la procédure, à savoir ceux qui ont trait à des décisfions rendues par
ses tribunaux sur des demandes se rapportant à des faits survenus au f
cours de la seconde guerre mondiale et devant être exécutées pafr des juri -

dictions italiennes. dans ses observations écrites en date du 23 mars 2011

1Requête de la grèce à fin d’intervention en date du 13 janvier 2011, p. 1-17 ; observa-
tions de la grèce en réponse aux observations écrites de l’Allemagne et de l’Italie en date
du 5 mai 2011, p. 1-3.
2Observations écrites de l’Allemagne sur la requête à fin df’intervention déposée par
la grèce en date du 23 mars 2011, p. 1-7 ; observations additionnelles de l’Allemagne sur
l’admission de la requête à fin d’intervention déposéfe par la grèce en date du 26 mai 2011,
p. 1-4.
3Observations écrites de l’Italie sur la requête à fin d’fintervention déposée par la grèce

en date du 22 mars 2011, p. 1 ; observations additionnelles de l’Italie sur l’admission de la
requête à fin d’intervention déposée par la grèce en date du 23 mai 2011, p. 1.

16

5 CIJ1021.indb 29 13/06/13 14:08 507 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

formally object to it, but it substantially contradicted the grounds of
greece’s purported intervention under Article 62 of the ICJ Statute

(cf. infra). Italy, for its part, in a letter of 22 march 2011, plainly stated
that it had no objection to greece’s aforementioned Application.

4. greece’s Application hinged on Italian Court decisions which inter
alia rendered possible the enforcement in Italy of greek Court decisions
(cf. infra) that had granted civil claim damages against germany, pertain -

ing to grave violations of human rights and international humanitarian
law perpetrated by german troops in greece, particularly in the greek
village of distomo, during the Second World War (cf. infra). Such Court
decisions were denied enforcement in greece, since under greek law,

execution of a judgment against a foreign State is subject to prior consfent
of the minister of Justice, which was not given in the cas d’espèce 4.

5
5. In view of failed attempts to enforce those Court decisions , the
greek nationals concerned sought recognition and enforceability of those f
decisions in Italy. In its Application instituting proceedings before thfe
ICJ, germany seeks a determination by the ICJ of what it considers a

breach by Italy of its jurisdictional immunity. At this stage of the pro -
ceedings of the present case, what is before the Court is solely the quefs -
tion of greece’s purported intervention on the ground of Article 62 of the
Statute. greece itself clarified, in its Application of 13 January 2011, that

by requesting the Court permission to intervene it was “by no means afsk -
ing the Court to resolve a dispute between greece and the parties to the
proceedings (. . .)” 6.

III. The Limits of State Consefnt Revisited

6. As to the consent of the parties in the main case — which is not
strictly or formally at issue in the present case —, such consent does not
play a role in the proceedings conducive to the Court’s decision whetfher
or not to grant permission to intervene. As pointed out in a joint declafra -

tion in a recent Judgment of the Court (in the case of the Territorial and
Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Application by Honduras for
permission to Intervene, Judgment of 4 may 2011 (I.C.J. Reports 2011

(II), p. 420)),

“In the present joint declaration, we wish to stress the non-
existence of a ‘requirement’ of consent by the parties in the main

4
5 Cf. greek Code of Civil procedure, Article 923.
The greek nationals concerned did not succeed to obtain relief from the Europfean
Court of Human Rights (ECHR), where their cause (Kalogeropoulou and Others v. Greece
and6Germany case, Judgment of 12 december 2002) was dismissed.
Op. cit. supra note 1, p. 6.

17

5 CIJ1021.indb 30 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f07

sur la requête de la grèce à fin d’intervention, l’Allemagne a indiqué ne
pas élever d’objection formelle, tout en contestant sur le fond les fonde -

ments invoqués par la grèce pour intervenir en vertu de l’article 62 du
Statut (voir infra). L’Italie a pour sa part simplement indiqué, dans une
lettre du 22 mars 2011, qu’elle n’émettait pas d’objection à la demande de
la grèce.

4. La requête de la grèce s’articule autour de décisions rendues par des
juridictions italiennes ayant notamment permis l’exécution, en Itaflie, de
décisions émanant de juridictions grecques (voir infra) par lesquelles l’Al -
lemagne a été condamnée, au civil, à verser des dommages-intérêts à raison

de violations graves des droits de l’homme et du droit international fhuma -
nitaire perpétrées par des soldats allemands en grèce, en particulier dans
le village de distomo, durant la seconde guerre mondiale (voir infra). Le
ministère grec de la justice n’ayant pas, en l’espèce, déflivré l’autorisation

requise par le droit grec aux fins de l’exécution d’un jugemefnt contre un
Etat étranger , ces décisions n’ont pu être exécutées en grèce.
5. N’ayant ainsi pu obtenir l’exécution de ces décisions , les ressortis-
sants grecs concernés ont cherché à en obtenir la reconnaissancfe et l’exé -

cution en Italie. dans sa requête introductive d’instance, l’Allemagne prie
la Cour de se prononcer sur ce qu’elle considère comme une violatifon,
par l’Italie, de son immunité de juridiction. A ce stade, la seulef question
posée à la Cour est celle de l’intervention de la grèce en vertu de l’ar -

ticle 62 du Statut. La grèce a elle-même précisé, dans sa requête en date
du 13 janvier 2011, que, en demandant à la Cour à intervenir, elle ne la
priait « nullement … de régler un différend l’opposant aux parties à
6
l’instance » .

III. Retour sur les limitesf du consentement de l’fÉtat

6. Le consentement des parties à la procédure principale — qui n’est ni
à strictement parler ni formellement en cause en la présente afffaire — ne

joue aucun rôle dans le cadre de la procédure au terme de laquellef la Cour
décidera de faire ou non droit à la demande d’intervention. Ainfsi que cela
a été souligné dans une déclaration commune jointe à un récent arrêt de
la Cour (en l’affaire du Différend territorial et maritime (Nicaragua

c. Colombie), requête du Honduras à fin d’intervention, arrêt du 4 mai
2011 (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II), p. 420)),

«Sur ce point, nous tenons à souligner que, au regard des condi -
tions auxquelles cette disposition soumet les requêtes à fin d’finter -

4
5 Voir l’article 923 du code de procédure civile grec.
Les ressortissants grecs concernés n’ont pas obtenu réparation devant la Cour euro -
péenne des droits de l’homme (ci-après la «CEdH »), celle-ci ayant rejeté leur requête
(affaire Kalogeropoulou et autres c. Grèce et Allemagne, arrêt du 12 décembre 2002).
6 Op. cit. supra note 1, p. 7.

17

5 CIJ1021.indb 31 13/06/13 14:08 508 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

case, in relation to the requisites for applications for permission to inter -
vene set forth in Article 62 of the ICJ Statute. In our view, such consent
by the main parties to the proceedings is irrelevant to the asses sment
of an application for permission to intervene, and cannot be perceived

as a requirement under Article 62 of the Statute of the Court. (. . .)
State consent also has its limits, in respect of applications for per -
mission to intervene. (. . .)
Our understanding is in the sense that the consent of the parties to

the main case is not, in any way, a condition for intervention as a
non-party. The Court is, anyway, the master of its own jurisdiction,
and does not need to concern itself with the search for State consent
in deciding on an application for permission to intervene in interna -
tional legal proceedings.

In effect, third party intervention under the Statute of the Court
transcends individual State consent. What matters is the consent ori-
ginally expressed by States in becoming parties to the Court’s Statute,
or in recognizing the Court’s jurisdiction by other instrumentalitiesf,

such as compromissory clauses. The Court’s Chamber itself rightly
pointed out, in the Judgment of 1990 in the case concerning the Land,
Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute between El Salvador and Hon -
duras (Application by Nicaragua for permission to intervene), that

the competence of the Court, in the particular matter of intervention,
‘is not, like its competence to hear and determine the dispute referred
to it, derived from the consent of the parties to the case’. 7

There is no need for the Court to keep on searching instinctively

for individual State consent in the course of the international legal
proceedings. After all, the consent of contending States is alien to thef
institution of intervention under Article 62 of the ICJ Statute. We
trust that the point we make here, in the present joint declaration,

regarding the irrelevance of State consent in the consideration by the
Court of applications for permission to intervene, under Article 62 of
the Court’s Statute, may be helpful to elucidate the positions that tfhe
Court may take on the matter in its jurisprudential construction.” 8

7. In the cas d’espèce, anyway, there is no formal objection to greece’s
Application for permission to intervene (supra); even if there were any

such objection, it would have been immaterial for the purpose of the
Court’s assessment of the Application at issue for permission to intefr -
vene. State consent indeed has its limits ; the ICJ is not always restrained
by State consent, in relation not only to intervention, but also in respfect
of other aspects of the procedure before the Court, as I sought to demon -

strate in my extensive dissenting opinion (paras. 45-118, 136-144 and
156-214) in the Court’s Judgment of 1 April 2011 in the case concerning

7 Footnote omitted.
8 Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II); joint declaration of Judges Cançado Trindade
and Yusuf, pp. 468-470, paras. 8, 10 and 13-15.

18

5 CIJ1021.indb 32 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f08

vention, il n’existe aucune « exigence» de consentement des parties à
la procédure principale. Selon nous, pareil consentement est dépoufrvu
de pertinence aux fins de l’examen des requêtes à fin d’fintervention et
ne saurait être considéré comme une condition posée par l’farticle 62

du Statut…
En ce qui concerne les requêtes à fin d’intervention, le consfente -
ment des Etats a par ailleurs des effets limités…
Selon nous, le consentement des parties à la procédure principale f

ne constitue en effet nullement une condition pour qu’un Etat puissfe
intervenir en tant que non-partie. La Cour est quoi qu’il en soit
maîtresse de sa propre compétence et n’a pas, pour se prononcerf sur
une requête à fin d’intervention dans une affaire dont ellef est saisie,
à se soucier de l’existence d’un tel consentement.

de fait, l’intervention d’un Etat tiers, telle que prévue par lef Sta -
tut, transcende le consentement individuel des Etats. Ce qui importe,
c’est le consentement que ceux-ci ont exprimé à l’origine, lorsqu’ils
sont devenus parties au Statut de la Cour ou qu’ils ont de toute autrfe

façon accepté la compétence de celle-ci, notamment par le biaisf de
clauses compromissoires. Ainsi que la Chambre de la Cour l’a
elle-même indiqué à juste titre dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendfu en 1990 sur
la requête du Nicaragua à fin d’intervention en l’affairfe du Différend

frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El Salvador/Honduras), la
compétence de la Cour, dans le cas particulier de l’intervention, f« ne
découle pas du consentement des parties à l’instance, à la dfifférence
de sa compétence pour connaître de l’affaire qui lui a étéf soumise» 7.
La Cour n’a pas à rechercher automatiquement le consentement

de chaque Etat pendant le déroulement de la procédure, puisque aussi
bien le consentement des Etats parties à un différend est étrfanger à
l’institution de l’intervention en vertu de l’article 62 du Statut de la
Cour. Nous espérons que le point de vue que nous venons d’exposer,f

à savoir que la Cour n’a pas, lorsqu’elle examine une requêtfe à fin
d’intervention présentée sur la base de l’article 62, à se pencher sur la
question du consentement des Etats, se révélera utile à la Courf lors -
qu’elle aura à se prononcer sur de telles questions. » 8

7. En l’espèce, aucune objection formelle n’a de toute façon été élevée
à la demande d’intervention de la grèce (supra). Et, quand bien même de

telles objections auraient été faites, elles auraient été dépourvues de perti -
nence pour l’examen par la Cour de la requête à fin d’intefrvention. Le
consentement de l’Etat présente en effet certaines limites et nef s’impose
pas toujours à la Cour, que ce soit en ce qui concerne les demandes df’in -
tervention ou d’autres aspects des instances qui lui sont soumises, afinsi

que j’ai tenté de le démontrer dans l’opinion dissidente forft approfondie
(par. 45-118, 136-144 et 156-214) que j’ai jointe à l’arrêt de la Cour en

7 Note de bas de page omise.
8 Arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II); déclaration commune de mm. les juges Cançado Trin-
dade et Yusuf, p. 468-470, par. 8, 10 et 13-15.

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5 CIJ1021.indb 33 13/06/13 14:08 509 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

the Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation) (I.C.J.
Reports 2011 (I), pp. 239-322) ; the ICJ is not an arbitral tribunal.

8. In its Application of 13 January 2011, greece made it clear that its
object was to inform the Court of the “nature” of its “legal rights and
interests” that “could be affected” by the Court’s decisiofn in the main
case advanced by germany before it (p. 10). The request by greece being

thus clearly circumscribed, and bearing in mind its own Court decisions,f
it is difficult to behold how the ICJ could in the main proceedings cirfcum -
vent or avoid making a finding that would not affect greece’s interest of
a legal nature (under Article 62 of the Statute).

IV. J us Gentium in the Twenty-First Cenftury:
Rights of States and Righfts of Individuals

1. States as Titulaires of Rights :
Greek Courts Decisions as Referred to by Germany

9. In the proceedings before the Court (with a written phase only) con-
cerning greece’s Application for permission to intervene (supra), in its

second round of submissions, germany referred to three judgments of
greek Courts, in order to substantiate its argument that it would be
“utterly” contradictory, in its view, that the enforcement of a greek judg -
ment in Italy could affect greece’s legal interests, given that the same
9
judgment was denied enforcement in greece . The relevant part of ger -
many’s additional observations read as follows :

“In the present case, the specific facts speak even more strongly
against an interest of a legal nature which greece could assert. In
2002, the greek Special Supreme Court under Article 100 of the
Constitution, which discharges the functions of a constitutional

court, confirmed with the Margellos judgment the jurisdictional immu -
nity of germany by overruling the findings of the Areios Pagos in the
Distomo case and thus rendering the decision of the regional court of
Livadia unenforceable in greece itself. moreover, greek legislation

(Code of Civil procedure, Art. 923) establishes that no jud gment
rendered against a foreign State may be enforced on greek territory
without an explicit authorization of the greek minister of Justice.
Such authorization was denied by the minister of Justice in respect
of the judgment of the Court of Livadia the execution of which was

later sought in Italy. The plaintiffs brought an application against
that refusal before the European Court of Human Rights. In

9Additional Observations of germany on Whether to grant the Application for
permission to Intervene Filed by greece, of 26 may 2011, paras. 5-6.

19

5 CIJ1021.indb 34 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f09

er
date du 1 avril 2011 en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention
internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimin▯ation raciale
(Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie) (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (I), p. 239-322). La
Cour n’est pas un tribunal arbitral.

8. La grèce a clairement indiqué, dans sa requête en date du 13 jan -
vier 2011, que l’objet de celle-ci était d’informer la Cour de la « nature» de
ses « droits et intérêts d’ordre juridique » « auxquels … pourrait porter
atteinte» la décision qu’elle rendra dans la procédure principale inftro -

duite par l’Allemagne (p. 11). La requête de la grèce étant donc claire -
ment circonscrite, on imagine difficilement, gardant à l’esprit lfes décisions
rendues par ses juridictions, que la Cour puisse se prononcer dans la pro -
cédure principale sans que cela n’affecte l’intérêt d’fordre juridique de la
grèce (au sens de l’article 62 du Statut).

IV. Le Jus Gentium au XXI siècle :
droits des États et dfroits des individus

1. Les Etats en tant que titulaires de droits :
décisions judiciaires grecques visées par l’Allemagne

9. dans le cadre de la procédure relative à la requête à fin df’interven -
tion de la grèce (supra) (qui ne comporte qu’une phase écrite), l’Alle -

magne a, dans ses secondes écritures, cité trois décisions judifciaires
grecques à l’appui de son argument selon lequel il serait, selon elle,f «tota -
lement» contradictoire que l’exécution d’une décision grecque efn Italie
puisse affecter les intérêts juridiques de la grèce dès lors que l’exécution de
9
cette décision a été refusée en grèce . Le passage pertinent des observa -
tions additionnelles de l’Allemagne se lit comme suit :

«dans la présente instance, les faits de la cause permettent encore
moins à la grèce de faire valoir un intérêt d’ordre juridique. En 2002,
le Tribunal supérieur spécial grec créé par l’article 100 de la Consti -
tution, qui remplit les fonctions d’une cour constitutionnelle, a

confirmé dans son arrêt en l’affaire Margellos l’immunité juridiction -
nelle de l’Allemagne en infirmant la décision rendue par l’Areios Pagos
dans l’affaire Distomo, faisant ainsi obstacle à l’exécution de la déci -
sion du tribunal de première instance de Livadia sur le territoire grfec.

En outre, la législation grecque (code de procédure civile, art. 923)
prévoit qu’aucune décision rendue contre un Etat étranger nef peut
être exécutée sur le sol grec sans autorisation expresse du minfistre de
la justice grec. Or, ce dernier a refusé d’accorder son autorisation
dans le cas du jugement du tribunal de Livadia, dont l’exécution af

ensuite été demandée en Italie. Les plaignants ont saisi la Coufr euro -
péenne des droits de l’homme pour protester contre ce refus. dans

9 Observations additionnelles de l’Allemagne sur l’admission de la requête à fin d’inter-
vention déposée par la grèce en date du 26 mai 2011, par. 5-6.

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5 CIJ1021.indb 35 13/06/13 14:08 510 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

Kalogeropoulou, the Strasbourg judges dismissed the application.
Thus, the official position of greece is that the Livadia judgment

cannot, and should not, be executed in greece. Accordingly, it must
be considered as utterly contradictory that greece should have an
official interest in the enforcement of the same judgment in Italy.”f 10

10. The three greek Court decisions cited by germany, in order of
judicial hierarchy, were : (a) the judgment of 1997 of the First Instance

Court of Livadia in the Distomo Massacre case ;(b) the judgment of 2000
of the Court of Cassation (Areios Pagos) in the same Distomo Massacre
case ; and(c) the judgment of 2002 of the greek Special Supreme Court

in the Margellos and Others case. It would be clarifying, at this stage,
to summarize the legal proceedings in greece, as referred to by germany
itself1.
11. In 1995, over 250 relatives of the victims of the massacre (of 1944)

in the village of distomo instituted proceedings against germany before
greek Courts, claiming compensation for loss of life and property for
acts perpetrated in June 1944 by german occupation forces (under the
Third Reich) in greece. The First Instance Court of Livadia held ger -

many liable to pay compensation to the relatives of the victims. germany
brought the case before the Court of Cassation (Areios Pagos) in greece,
claiming immunity, which was dismissed by the Areios Pagos.

12. Following the judgment by the Court of Cassation, the judgment
of the First Instance Court of Livadia awarding compensation became

final. As the german authorities did not comply with the latter judgment
awarding compensation, the claimants sought to enforce the aforemen -
tioned judgment against german property in greece. Yet, such enforce -
ment against a foreign State required the consent of the minister of

Justice (greek Code of Civil procedure, Art. 923), which was not given in
the cas d’espèce. The claimants then resorted to the European Court of
Human Rights (ECHR) 12, against the refusal of greece and germany to

comply with the decision of the First Instance Court of Livadia awardingf
compensation, but their application was dismissed by the ECHR.
13. parallel to that, proceedings in a similar but yet another case (the
Margellos and Others case) were also ongoing before greek Courts. The

Court of Cassation referred the Margellos and Others case to the greek
Special Supreme Court, asking essentially the following questions :
(a) whether the exception to State immunity for torts committed jure

imperii in the forum State constituted a generally recognized rule of cus -

10Additional Observations of germany on Whether to grant the Application for

per11ssion to Intervene Filed by greece 26 may 2011, para. 5.
12Ibid.
Invoking Article 6 (1) of the European Convention on Human Rights; ECHR, Kalo‑
geropoulou and Others v. Greece and Germany, Judgment of 12 december 2002 (Applica -
tion 59021/00).

20

5 CIJ1021.indb 36 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f10

l’affaire Kalogeropoulou, les juges de Strasbourg ont rejeté la requête.
Ainsi, la position officielle de la grèce est que le jugement de Livadia

ne peut, et ne doit pas, être exécuté en grèce. En conséquence, il
serait totalement contradictoire que l’exécution de ce même jugfement
sur le sol italien puisse affecter un intérêt officiel de la grèce. » 10

10. Les trois décisions judiciaires grecques citées par l’Allemagne sont,
par ordre hiérarchique : a) le jugement rendu en 1997 par le tribunal de

première instance de Livadia en l’affaire du Massacre de Distomo ; b) l’ar -
rêt rendu en 2000 par la Cour de cassation (Areios Pagos) dans cette
même affaire; et c) l’arrêt rendu en 2002 par le Tribunal supérieur spécial

grec en l’affaire Margellos et autres. Il convient à ce stade, par souci de
clarté, de rappeler succinctement les procédures engagées en grèce aux -
quelles l’Allemagne s’est référée 1.
11. En 1995, plus de 250 personnes, parents de victimes du massacre

perpétré en 1944 dans le village de distomo, ont introduit une instance
contre l’Allemagne devant des juridictions grecques, demandant répfara -
tion à raison des pertes en vies humaines et des pertes matériellefs subies
du fait des actes commis au mois de juin 1944 par les forces d’occupation
e
allemandes (sous le III Reich) en grèce. Le tribunal de première instance
de Livadia a condamné l’Allemagne à verser des dommages-intéfrêts aux
parents des victimes. Arguant de son immunité, l’Allemagne s’esft pourvue

en cassation devant l’Areios Pagos, mais cette juridiction a rejeté son
pourvoi.
12. par suite de l’arrêt rendu par la Cour de cassation, le jugement duf
tribunal de première instance de Livadia ordonnant le paiement de

dommages-intérêts est devenu définitif. Les autorités allemandes nef s’y
étant toutefois pas conformées, les demandeurs ont cherché à en obtenir
l’exécution en sollicitant la saisie d’un bien allemand situéf en grèce. Il
était cependant nécessaire, s’agissant d’un Etat étrangerf, que le ministre

de la justice autorise une telle mesure d’exécution (code de procfédure civile
grec, art. 923), ce qu’il n’a pas fait en l’espèce. Les demandeurs ontf alors
saisi la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme (CEdH) 1, tirant grief du

refus de la grèce et de l’Allemagne d’exécuter la décision rendue par fle
tribunal de première instance de Livadia ; la CEdH a rejeté leur requête.
13. dans le même temps, une autre instance s’est parallèlement dérou -
lée devant des juridictions grecques dans une affaire similaire (lf’affaire

Margellos et autres). La Cour de cassation a renvoyé cette affaire devant
le Tribunal supérieur spécial grec, lui posant pour l’essentielf les questions
suivantes : a) l’exception à l’immunité de l’Etat en ce qui concerne lesf

actes délictuels commis jure imperii dans l’Etat du for est-elle une règle

10 Observations additionnelles de l’Allemagne sur l’admission de la rfequête à fin d’in -

ter11ntion déposée par la grèce en date du 26 mai 2011, par. 5.
12 Ibid.
Invoquant le paragraphe 1 de l’article 6 de la Convention européenne des droits
de l’homme ; CEdH, affaire Kalogeropoulou et autres c. Grèce et Allemagne, arrêt du
12 décembre 2002 (requête 59021/00).

20

5 CIJ1021.indb 37 13/06/13 14:08 511 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

tomary international law; (b) and if so, whether it covered torts commit -
ted during an armed conflict against non-combatants uninvolved in the
conflict.

14. The greek Special Supreme Court, by a majority of six votes to
five, held, inter alia, that, under customary international law, a foreign
State continued to enjoy sovereign immunity in respect of a tort commit -
ted in the forum State irrespective of whether the conduct at issue vio -

lated jus cogens norms or whether the armed forces were participating in
an armed conflict. As a result of that, the effect of the latter Spefcial
Supreme Court judgment in the Margellos case was essentially to overrule
the judgment of the First Instance Court of Livadia awarding compensa -

tion 13 the plaintiffs, as confirmed by the Court of Cassation in thfe same
case .

2. States as Titulaires of Rights :

Summary of Greek Courts Decisions

(a) Judgment of the First Instance Court of Livadia in the distomo
massacre case (1997)

15. On 25 September 1997, the First Instance Court of Livadia found

that a State cannot rely on immunity when the act attributed to it was
perpetrated in breach of norms of jus cogens, and affirmed that a State
committing such a breach had indirectly waived immunity. Accordingly,
the Court of Livadia held germany liable and ordered it to pay compen -

sation to the relatives of the victims of the massacre of distomo. This
judgment became object of enforcement proceedings in Italy, which ger -
many referred to in its pleadings in the case before the Court 1. In con-
nection with jus cogens, the Court of Livadia expressly referred to the
IV Hague Convention of 19 October 1907, Article 46 of the Regulations

on the Laws and Customs of War annexed thereto, as well as to custom -
ary international law, and to the general principle of law ex injuria jus non
oritur.

(b) Judgment of the Court of Cassation (Areios pagos) in the distomo

massacre case (2000)

16. Subsequently, germany instituted proceedings, against the latter
judgment, before the greek Court of Cassation (Areios Pagos), claiming
immunity from the jurisdiction of greek Courts. On 4 may 2000, the

First Chamber of the Court of Cassation found, by seven votes to four,
in the Distomo Massacre case, that the greek Courts were competent to
exercise jurisdiction over the case. On the substantive law, the Court hfeld

13In the case, moved by germany against the prefecture of Voiotia, this latter-repre
sented 118 persons from the village of distomo.
14Cf. Annex 17 to germany’s memorial and Observations of greece in Reply to the
Written Observations of germany and Italy.

21

5 CIJ1021.indb 38 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f11

généralement reconnue du droit international coutumier ? ; b) le cas
échéant, s’applique-t-elle aux actes délictuels commis durant un conflit
armé à l’encontre de non-combattants n’ayant pas pris part audit conflit ?

14. Le Tribunal supérieur spécial grec a notamment jugé, à une mfajo -
rité de six voix contre cinq, que, en vertu du droit international coutumier,
un Etat étranger bénéficie de l’immunité souveraine àf l’égard de tout acte
délictuel commis dans l’Etat du for, que le comportement en cause fsoit ou

non contraire à des normes du jus cogens ou que ses forces armées aient
ou non agi dans le cadre d’un conflit armé. L’arrêt rendu fpar le Tribunal
supérieur spécial en l’affaire Margellos a donc essentiellement eu pour
effet d’infirmer le jugement du tribunal de première instance fde Livadia

octroyant des dommages-intérêts13ux requérants, jugement que la Cour
de cassation avait confirmé .

2. Les Etats en tant que titulaires de droits :

résumé des décisions rendues par les juridictions grecques

a) Jugement du tribunal de première instance de Livadia en l’affair▯e du
massacre de distomo (1997)

15. Le 25 septembre 1997, le tribunal de première instance de Livadia a

jugé qu’un Etat ne pouvait se prévaloir de son immunité lorsfque l’acte qui
lui est attribué a été commis en violation de normes du jus cogens, et a
déclaré qu’un Etat commettant pareille violation renonçait ifndirectement à
son immunité. Ce tribunal a donc retenu la responsabilité de l’fAllemagne et

l’a condamnée à verser des dommages-intérêts aux parents des victimes du
massacre de distomo. Ce jugement a fait l’objet d’une procédure d’exécfution
en Italie, procédure à laquelle l’Allemagne s’est réféfrée dans les pièces qu’elle
a communiquées à la Cour en la présente affaire 14. En ce qui concerne le
jus cogens, le tribunal de Livadia s’est expressément référé à lfa quatrième

convention de La Haye du 19 octobre 1907, à l’article 46 du règlement con -
cernant les lois et les coutumes de la guerre y annexé, ainsi qu’au droit inte -r
national coutumier et au principe général de droit ex injuria jus non oritur.

b) Arrêt de la Cour de cassation (Areios pagos) en l’affaire du massacre

de distomo (2000)

16. Invoquant son immunité de juridiction devant les tribunaux grecs,
l’Allemagne s’est ensuite pourvue devant la Cour de cassation grecfque
(Areios Pagos) contre ce jugement de première instance. dans son arrêt

du 4 mai 2000, la première chambre de la Cour de cassation a jugé, par
sept voix contre quatre, que les juridictions grecques avaient compétfence
pour connaître de l’affaire du Massacre de Distomo. Sur le fond, la Cour

13dans le cadre du pourvoi que l’Allemagne a formé contre la préfefcture de Voiotia,
celle-ci représentait 118 personnes du village de distomo.
14Voir annexe 17 du mémoire de l’Allemagne et des observations de la grèce en
réponse aux observations écrites de l’Allemagne et de l’Italfie.

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5 CIJ1021.indb 39 13/06/13 14:08 512 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

first that State immunity is a generally accepted rule of international law
which, pursuant to Article 28 (1) of the greek Constitution, is part of the

greek legal order. Secondly, the Court held that it is now accepted by
European countries that State immunity is not absolute and applies only f
to sovereign acts performed jure imperii, and not to acts jure gestionis
performed by the State in the same manner as private individuals.

17. The Court of Cassation further held that restrictive immunity was
enshrined in the European Convention on State Immunity adopted in
Basel on 16 may 1972 (the “Basel Convention”). While only eight Euro -
pean States (including germany) ratified the Convention, all other Euro -
pean States accepted the doctrine of restrictive immunity. The Court of f

Cassation further found, in the same Distomo Massacre case, that there is
a generally accepted rule of customary international law to the effectf that
States are competent to exercise jurisdiction over claims for damages
against a foreign State, in relation to torts committed by its organs agfainst
persons or property on the territory of the forum State, even if the actfs in

question were performed jure imperii.

18. moreover, the Court of Cassation held that immunity is tacitly
waived whenever the acts at issue are performed in violation of jus cogens
norms (again referring to Article 46 of the Regulations on the Laws and

Customs of War Annexed to the IV Hague Convention of 1907). The
Areios Pagos also held, in the Distomo Massacre case, that an exception
to the immunity rule should apply when the acts for which compensation
was sought (especially crimes against humanity) had targeted individuals
in a given place who were neither directly nor indirectly connected withf

the military operations; moreover, immunity was tacitly waived whenever
such acts, as already indicated, were in breach of jus cogens.

(c) Judgment of the Greek Special Supreme Court in the margellos and

Others case (2002)

19. In a case parallel to the aforementioned one, in respect of the ques-
tion submitted to the greek Special Supreme Court, this latter held, on
17 September 2002, by a majority of six votes to five, that, at the current
stage of progressive development of international law, there does not
exist a generally accepted rule that would allow, by exception ensuing

from the principle of immunity, to prosecute lawfully a State before the
Court of another State for compensation for offenses that took place ofn
the territory of the forum State, wherein the armed forces of the defen -
dant State were involved, irrespective of whether the actions at issue vfio-
lated jus cogens norms.

20. Furthermore, the greek Special Supreme Court ruled that Arti -
cle 31 of the 1972 Basel Convention, which provided for immunity in

22

5 CIJ1021.indb 40 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f12

de cassation a tout d’abord déclaré que la règle de l’immfunité de l’Etat est
une règle généralement acceptée du droit international et quf’elle fait par-

tie, en vertu du paragraphe 1 de l’article 28 de la Constitution grecque, de
l’ordre juridique grec. La Cour a ensuite indiqué que les pays eurfopéens
reconnaissaient désormais que l’immunité de l’Etat n’est fpas absolue et
qu’elle ne s’applique qu’aux actes accomplis jure imperii et non aux actes
jure gestionis, accomplis par l’Etat agissant comme un particulier.

17. La Cour de cassation a de plus jugé que l’immunité restreinte éftait
consacrée dans la convention européenne sur l’immunité des Eftats
adoptée à Bâle le 16 mai 1972 (ci-après la « convention de Bâle »). En
Europe, si huit Etats seulement (y compris l’Allemagne) avaient ratifié
cette convention, tous les autres acceptaient la doctrine de l’immunité res-

treinte. La Cour de cassation a en outre estimé qu’il existait unef règle de
droit international coutumier généralement acceptée selon laqueflle les
Etats étaient compétents pour connaître des demandes de dommagefs-
intérêts formées à l’encontre d’un Etat étranger sef rapportant à des actes
délictuels commis par les organes de cet Etat contre des personnes ou des

biens sur le territoire de l’Etat du for et ce, même si les actes en question
avaient été accomplis jure imperii.
18. La Cour de cassation a par ailleurs jugé qu’un Etat renonçait
implicitement à son immunité lorsque les actes en question étaifent accom -
plis en violation de normes du jus cogens (se référant de nouveau à l’ar -

ticle 46 du règlement concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terrfe
annexé à la quatrième convention de La Haye de 1907). L’Areios Pagos a
précisé qu’il devrait être fait exception à la règle dfe l’immunité lorsque les
actes à raison desquels il était demandé réparation (en parfticulier s’agis -
sant de crimes contre l’humanité) avaient été commis à l’encontre d’indi -

vidus se trouvant en un endroit donné qui n’étaient ni directemfent ni
indirectement liés aux opérations militaires ; de plus, il était implicitement
renoncé à l’immunité dès lors que de tels actes étaienft, comme indiqué
précédemment, commis en violation du jus cogens.

c) Arrêt rendu par le Tribunal supérieur spécial grec en l’aff▯aire margellos

et autres (2002)

19. Répondant à une question qui lui avait été soumise dans le cadre
d’une affaire semblable à l’affaire susmentionnée, le Trfibunal supérieur spé -
cial grec a jugé — par une majorité de six voix contre cinq — dans une
décision en date du 17 septembre 2002 que, en l’état du développement du
droit international, il n’existait pas de règle généralementf acceptée qui per -

mettrait, en vertu d’une exception au principe de l’immunité, dfe poursuivre
licitement un Etat devant les juridictions d’un autre Etat afin d’fobtenir répa-
ration à raison de violations commises sur le territoire de l’Etatf du for au-x
quelles auraient pris part les forces armées de l’Etat défendeufr, que les actes
en question aient été ou non commis en violation de normes du jus cogens.

20. Le Tribunal supérieur spécial grec a en outre jugé que l’artficle 31
de la convention de Bâle de 1972, qui prévoit qu’un Etat jouit de l’immu -

22

5 CIJ1021.indb 41 13/06/13 14:08 513 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

respect of the acts of armed forces, was formulated in absolute terms. Tfhe
five minority judges, in their joint dissenting opinion, contrariwise,f sus -
tained that the prohibition of war crimes has the status of a peremptoryf

norm of international law (jus cogens), and that the provisions contained
in the IV Hague Convention of 1907 on the Laws and Customs of War
on Land are now generally recognized as peremptory norms of customary
international law (jus cogens).

3. States as Titulaires of Rights :
Approaches by Germany and Greece

21. In its Application of 13 January 2011 for permission to intervene,
greece also referred specifically to germany’s Application instituting pro-
ceedings (of 23 december 2008) in the main case 15, and submitted that:

“The legal interest of greece derives from the fact that germany
has acquiesced to, if not recognized, its international responsibility
vis-à-vis greece for all acts and omissions perpetrated by the Third

Reich between 6 April 1941, when germany invaded greece, and the
unconditional surrender of germany on 8 may 1945.” (p. 6).

greece further asserted, in its Application for permission to intervene, fits
rights and jurisdiction under general international law, relating to thef
judgments delivered by its domestic courts (cf. supra) and enforceable by

Italian Courts (pp. 4 and 8).
22. In its Response, of 23 march 2011, germany retorted that greece’s
approach could hardly demonstrate its “legal interest”. germany distin -
guished the interests of the individuals concerned from those of the

greek State. Referring to the interests of the individuals in relation to the
Distomo Massacre case, it stated :

“The private claimants who were successful in the Distomo case
have certainly a legal interest in seeing the judgments of the respon -
sible trial judgments (Court of First Instance of Livadia), confirmed

by the Areios Pagos, executed, be it in greece, in Italy or in any other
country where they may hope to get hold of assets of germany. But
this is not a legal interest of the greek State. (. . .) Italy overstepped
the limits of its legitimate sovereign power by lending a hand for the

execution of greek judgments that, after the binding decision of the
Special Supreme Court in the Margellos case, cannot be executed in
greece itself. The very subject-matter of the Court’s findings will fbe,
solely and exclusively, Italy’s conduct.” 16

15Under item 3, and its paragraph 10.
16Written Observations of germany on Whether to grant the Application for permis-
sion to Intervene Filed by greece, of 26 may 2011, para. 17.

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5 CIJ1021.indb 42 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f13

nité en ce qui concerne tout acte de ses forces armées, était fformulé en des
termes absolus. Les cinq juges minoritaires ont toutefois soutenu, dans
leur opinion dissidente commune, que l’interdiction de commettre des f

crimes de guerre faisait partie des normes impératives du droit interfnatio -
nal (jus cogens), et que les dispositions de la quatrième convention de
La Haye de 1907 concernant les lois et coutumes de la guerre sur terre
étaient désormais généralement reconnues comme des normes impératives

du droit international coutumier (jus cogens).

3. Les Etats en tant que titulaires de droits :
l’approche de l’Allemagne et celle de la Grèce

21. dans sa requête à fin d’intervention du 13 janvier 2011, la grèce
s’est aussi expressément référée à la requête introductive d’instance de
l’Allemagne (en date du 23 décembre 2008) 15et a avancé ce qui suit :

«[L’]intérêt d’ordre juridique [de la grèce] découle du fait que
l’Allemagne a, sinon reconnu, du moins tacitement admis sa respon -
sabilité internationale à l’égard de la grèce à raison de tous les actes
e
et omissions commis par le III Reich entre le 6 avril 1941, date de
l’invasion de la grèce par l’Allemagne, et le 8 mai 1945. » (p. 7.)

La grèce a en outre argué, dans sa requête, de ses droits et de sa fcompé -
tence en vertu du droit international général relativement aux défcisions
rendues par ses tribunaux internes (voir supra) et exécutoires par des juri -

dictions italiennes (p. 5 et 9).
22. dans sa réponse du 23 mars 2011, l’Allemagne a fait valoir que, en
présentant sa thèse comme elle le faisait, la grèce n’avait pas réussi à
démontrer son « intérêt d’ordre juridique ». Elle a opéré une distinction

entre les intérêts des individus concernés et ceux de l’Etatf grec. Se référant
aux intérêts des individus relativement à l’affaire du Massacre de Distomo,
elle a indiqué ce qui suit :

«Les particuliers qui ont obtenu gain de cause dans l’affaire Dis ‑
tomo ont certainement un intérêt juridique à voir les décisions fren -
dues en premier ressort par les autorités compétentes (tribunal dfe

première instance de Livadia), confirmées par l’Areios Pagos, exécu -
tées, que ce soit en grèce, en Italie ou dans tout autre pays où ils
peuvent espérer saisir des avoirs allemands. Toutefois, il ne s’agfit pas
d’un intérêt de l’Etat grec… [L’]Italie a outrepasséf les limites de son

pouvoir souverain légitime en prêtant la main à l’exécution de déci -
sions de la justice grecque qui, depuis le prononcé de l’arrêt fde la
Cour suprême spéciale en l’affaire Margellos, ne peuvent plus être
exécutées en grèce. Le seul, unique et véritable objet de la décision
16
de la Cour sera le comportement de l’Italie. »

15Au point 3 et au paragraphe 10.
16 Observations écrites de l’Allemagne sur l’admission de la requêfte à fin d’intervention
déposée par la grèce en date du 26 mai 2011, par. 17.

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5 CIJ1021.indb 43 13/06/13 14:08 514 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

23. For its part, Italy, in a new letter of 23 may 2011, once again
plainly stated, in confirmation of its position, that it had no objectfion to
greece’s Application for permission to intervene. In turn, in its moref

recent submission, of 5 may 2011, greece contended that the elements in
the cas d’espèce revolved around the enforcement of decisions of the
Greek Judiciary 17. In its view, both

“a greek judicial body and greek nationals lie at the heart of the
Italian enforcement proceedings and of the conflict between enforce -
ment and immunity.

In consequence, the Court’s decision as to whether judgments —
Italian and greek — may be enforced in Italy is directly and primar -
ily of interest to greece and could affect the interests of a legal nature,
in particular regarding persons of greek nationality, enjoyed by
18
greece under general international law.”

24. In my understanding, it could hardly be denied that the question of
the enforceability of judgments of a State’s judiciary, which is partf and
parcel of the State concerned, conforms an interest of a legal nature off

that State, for the purposes of its purported intervention in internatiofnal
litigation. This is so, even if the ultimate beneficiaries of the enfofrcement
of those judgments are individuals, human beings, nationals of that State.
An interest relating to the enforcement (abroad) of judicial decisionsf can
only be qualified as an interest of a legal nature, and not of another kind

or of a distinct nature.

4. Individuals as Titulaires of Rights : The Legacy of the Individual’s

Subjectivity in the Law of Nations

25. In the present proceedings concerning the greek Application for
permission to intervene, curiously germany saw it fit to bring to the fore
the position of individuals as titulaires of rights — an issue which was, in

my perception, central in the recent consideration of the Italian countefr-
claim, which led to, data venia, a regrettable decision by the Court, in
its Order of 6 July 2010 in the present case of the Jurisdictional Immuni ‑
ties of the State, whereby it dismissed that counter-claim. I felt obliged to

leave on the records my firm dissenting opinion (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I),
pp. 329-397, paras. 1-179) on that decision of the Court, wherein I upheld,
inter alia, that claims as to rights which are inherent to human beings
(such as, in the ambit of the counter-claim, the right to personal integrity,

not to be subjected to forced labour) cannot be waived by States by
means of inter-State agreements. There can be no tacit or express waiver
in that respect, as the rights at stake are not rights of States, but off

17Observations of greece in Reply to the Written Observations of germany and Italy,
of 5 may 2011, para. 6.
18Ibid., para. 6.

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5 CIJ1021.indb 44 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f14

23. L’Italie s’est quant à elle, dans une lettre en date du 23 mai 2011,
de nouveau contentée de dire, confirmant ainsi sa position, qu’eflle n’éle -
vait pas d’objection à la demande d’intervention de la grèce. La grèce a

pour sa part avancé, dans sa dernière communication en date du
5 mai 2011, qu’en l’espèce la question avait trait à l’exécution de décisions
judiciaires grecques 17. Selon elle,

«un organe juridictionnel grec et des citoyens grecs se trouvent au
centre de procédures d’exécution italiennes et entre le duel exfécution
versus immunité.

par voie de conséquence, la décision de la Cour quant à la suscefp -
tibilité que des jugements — italiens et grecs — reçoivent exécution
en Italie intéresse directement et principalement la grèce et pourrait
affecter les intérêts de nature juridique, notamment concernant fles

personnes de nationalité hellénique, dont jouit la grèce en vertu du
droit international général. » 18

24. Il est à mon sens difficile de nier que la question de l’exécuftion de
décisions rendues par la justice d’un Etat, qui fait partie intéfgrante de cet
Etat, constitue un intérêt d’ordre juridique dudit Etat aux fifns de son

intervention dans une instance judiciaire internationale. Tel est le casf
même si les bénéficiaires ultimes de l’exécution desditfes décisions sont des
individus, des êtres humains, des nationaux de cet Etat. Un intérêt se rap -
portant à l’exécution (à l’étranger) de décisionsf judiciaires ne peut qu’être
qualifié d’intérêt d’ordre juridique, et ne saurait être considéré comme un

intérêt d’un autre type ou de nature différente.

4. Les individus en tant que titulaires de droits :

l’héritage de la subjectivité de l’individu en droit des gen▯s

25. dans la présente procédure relative à la demande d’interventifon de
la grèce, l’Allemagne a curieusement jugé opportun de mettre en avafnt la
question des individus en tant que titulaires de droits — question qui était

à mon sens centrale aux fins du récent examen de la demande recofnven -
tionnelle de l’Italie ayant donné lieu, data venia, à une décision regrettable
de la Cour dans l’ordonnance qu’elle a rendue le 6 juillet 2010 en la
présente affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat, par

laquelle elle a rejeté ladite demande. J’avais éprouvé la néfcessité d’exposer
mon opinion fermement dissidente (C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (I), p. 329-397,
par. 1-179) relativement à cette décision de la Cour, opinion dans laqueflle
je faisais notamment valoir que les Etats ne sauraient renoncer à des

revendications portant sur des droits inhérents aux êtres humains f(tels
que, dans le contexte de cette demande reconventionnelle, le droit à fl’in -
tégrité de la personne, ou celui de ne pas être astreint au trafvail forcé) par

17 Observations de la grèce en réponse aux observations écrites de l’Allemagne et dfe
l’Italie en date du 5 mai 2011, par. 6.
18 Ibid., par. 6.

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5 CIJ1021.indb 45 13/06/13 14:08 515 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

human beings. As I sustained, inter alia, in my aforementioned dissenting
opinion,

“States may, if they so wish, waive claims as to their own rights.
But they cannot waive claims for reparation of serious breaches of
rights that are not theirs, rights that are inherent to the human person.
Any purported waiver to this effect runs against the international
ordre public; is in breach of jus cogens. This broader outlook, in a

higher scale of values, is in line with the vision of the so-called ‘found-
ing fathers’ of the law of nations (the droit des gens, the jus gentium),
and with what I regard as the most lucid trend of contemporary inter -
national legal thinking.

One cannot build (and try to maintain) an international legal order

over the suffering of human beings, over the silence of the innocent
destined to oblivion. At the time of mass deportation of civilians, sentf
to forced labour along the two World Wars (in 1916-1918 and in
1943-1945) of the twentieth century (and not only the Second World
War), everyone already knew that that was a wrongfulact, an atrocity,

a serious violation of human rights and of international humanitarian
law, which came to be reckoned as amounting also to a war crime
and a crime against humanity. Above the will stands conscience,
which is, after all, what moves the law ahead, as its ultimate material
source, removing manifest injustice.” (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I),

pp. 396-397, paras. 178-179.)

26. The question of individual rights is again brought to the fore now,

in the present case, this time in respect of the greek Application for per -
mission to intervene (cf. supra). Likewise I deem it fit to lay on the records
my reflections on the matter. The first point to recall herein is thfe legacy
of the individual’s subjectivity in the law of nations. The notoriousf impor -
tance attributed to the matter by the so-called “founding fathers” of the

discipline should not be forgotten in our times. As early as throughout f
the sixteenth century, the conception of Francisco de Vitoria (author of
the renowned Relecciones Teológicas, 1538-1539) flourished, whereby the
law of nations regulates an international community (totus orbis) consti -
tuted of human beings organized socially in States and co-extensive withf

humanity itself ; the reparation of breaches of (human) rights reflects an
international necessity fulfilled by the law of nations, with the samef prin -
ciples of justice applying both to States and to individuals and peoplesf
who form them. On his turn, Alberico gentili (author of De Jure Belli,
1598) sustained, by the end of the sixteenth century, that law governs the
relationships between the members of the universal societas gentium.

27. In the seventeenth century, in the outlook advanced by Francisco
Suárez (author of the treaty De Legibus ac Deo Legislatore, 1612), the law

25

5 CIJ1021.indb 46 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f15

le biais d’accords interétatiques. Il ne peut y avoir à cet éfgard de renon -
ciation tacite ou expresse, car les droits en cause ne sont pas des droifts des
Etats, mais ceux d’êtres humains. Ainsi que je l’ai notamment ffait valoir
dans mon opinion susmentionnée :

«Les Etats sont libres de renoncer à des revendications portant sur
leurs propres droits. mais ils ne sauraient renoncer aux revendica -
tions portant sur la réparation de violations graves de droits qui ne

sont pas les leurs, de droits qui sont inhérents à la personne humaine.
Toute prétendue renonciation en ce sens est contraire à l’ordref public
international et constitue une violation du jus cogens. Cette perspec -
tive plus large, dans le cadre d’une échelle de valeurs supérieure, est

conforme à la vision des « pères fondateurs » du droit des gens (le
jus gentium), ainsi qu’à ce qui représente à mon avis le courant le plfus
lucide de la pensée internationaliste contemporaine.
On ne saurait bâtir (et tenter de maintenir) un ordre juridique
international sur la souffrance d’êtres humains, sur le silence fdes

innocents voués à l’oubli. A l’époque où des civils furent déportés
en masse et furent envoyés au travail forcé au cours des deux
guerres mondiales (en 1916-1918 et en 1943-1945) du XX esiècle (et
non pas uniquement pendant la seconde guerre mondiale), nul
n’ignorait qu’il s’agissait là d’un acte illicite, d’une atrocité, d’une

violation grave des droits de l’homme et du droit international huma -
nitaire, qui finit par être reconnu comme un crime de guerre et un f
crime contre l’humanité. La conscience, supérieure à la volonté, fait
progresser le droit, dont elle est la source matérielle ultime, en élimi -

nant l’injustice manifeste. » (C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (I), p. 396-397,
par. 178-179.)

26. La question des droits de l’individu est de nouveau mise en lumièrfe
en la présente affaire, en ce qui concerne cette fois la requêtef à fin d’inter -
vention de la grèce (voir supra). Il me semble donc également opportun
de livrer mes réflexions sur ce point. La première chose à rafppeler est
l’héritage de la subjectivité de l’individu en droit des genfs. N’oublions

pas toute l’importance que les « pères fondateurs » de cette discipline
attachaient, comme chacun sait, à cette question. dès le XVI e siècle se
développa l’idée avancée par Francisco de Vitoria (l’auteur du célèbre
Relecciones Teológicas, 1538-1539) selon laquelle le droit des gens régit

une communauté internationale (totus orbis) composée d’êtres humains
organisés socialement en Etats et formant également l’humanitéf elle-
même; la réparation de violations des droits (de l’homme) traduit une
nécessité internationale que remplit le droit des gens, les mêmfes principes
de justice s’appliquant aussi bien aux Etats qu’aux individus et pfeuples les

composant. Alberico gentilie(auteur de De jure belli, 1598) fit à son tour
valoir, à la fin du XVI siècle, que le droit régit les rapports entre les
membres de la societas gentium universelle.
27. Au XVII e siècle, Francisco Suárez (auteur du traité De legibus ac
deo legislatore, 1612) avança l’idée que le droit des gens révèle l’funité et

25

5 CIJ1021.indb 47 13/06/13 14:08 516 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

of nations discloses the unity and universality of humankind, and regu -
lates the States in their relations as members of the universal society.f
Shortly afterwards, the conception elaborated by Hugo grotius (De Jure
Belli ac Pacis, 1625) sustained that societas gentium comprises the whole

of humankind, and the international community cannot pretend to base
itself on the voluntas of each State individually ; human beings — occupy -
ing a central position in international relations — have rights vis‑à‑vis the
sovereign State, which cannot demand obedience of their citizens in an

absolute way (the imperative of the common good), as the so-called “rai ‑
son d’Etat” has its limits, and cannot prescind from law. In this line of
reasoning, in the seventeenth century, Samuel pufendorf (De Jure Natu ‑
rae et Gentium, 1672) sustained as well the subjection of the legislator to
reason, while Christian Wolff (Jus Gentium Methodo Scientifica Pertrac ‑

tatum, 1749) pondered that, just as individuals ought to — in their asso -
ciation in the State — promote the common good, the State on its turn
has the correlative duty to seek its perfection 19.
28. The subsequent personification of the all-powerful State, inspired

mainly in the philosophy of law of Hegel, had a harmful influence in tfhe
evolution of international law by the end of the nineteenth century and fin
the first decades of the twentieth century. This doctrinal trend resisfted as
much as it could to the ideal of emancipation of the human being from

the absolute control of the State, and to the recognition of the individfual
as subject of international law. But the individual’s submission to tfhe
“will” of the State was never convincing to all, and it soon becamfe openly
challenged by the more lucid doctrine. The idea of absolute State sover -
eignty — which led to the irresponsibility and the alleged omnipotence of

the State, not impeding the successive atrocities committed by it (or in its
name) against human beings — appeared with the passing of time entirely
unfounded.
29. The massacre of distomo (1944), brought before the greek Courts

(cf. supra), is but one of such numerous State atrocities perpetrated
throughout the last century. much has been written on it ; the facts are of
public and notorious knowledge, and are not disputed. In one of the his -
torical accounts of that massacre, its facts have been so summed up :

“On the morning of June 10, 1944, in the village of distomo, in the
prefecture of Voiotia, greece, Nazi soldiers posed as merchants and

passed through distomo, looking for greek resistance fighters said
to be in the area. Because distomo was not a part of the resistance
movement, no guerrillas were found in the village. The soldiers moved
on to the town of delphi. After leaving delphi, on their way to the

town of Steiri, the greek resistance fighters attacked the germans
and killed eighteen german soldiers. The surviving Nazi soldiers then

19A. A. Cançado Trindade, “A personalidade e a Capacidade Jurídicas do Indivíduo
como Sujeito do direito Internacional”, Jornadas de Derecho Internacional [of the OAS]
(mexico City, december 2001), Washington d.C., Under-Secretariat for Legal Affairs of
the OAS, 2002, pp. 311-347.

26

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l’universalité du genre humain, et régit les rapports entre les Etats en tant
que membres de la société universelle. peu de temps après, Hugo grotius
(De jure belli ac pacis, 1625) fit valoir que la societas gentium englobe

l’humanité tout entière, et que la communauté internationalef ne peut pas
prétendre se fonder sur la volonté de chaque Etat pris individuellfement.
Les êtres humains — qui occupent une place centrale dans les relations
internationales — ont des droits vis-à-vis de l’Etat souverain, qui ne peut

exiger de ses citoyens l’obéissance absolue (l’impératif du bien commun),
la « raison d’Etat » ayant ses limites et ne pouvant écarter le droit. dans
ce même ordre d’idées, Samuel pufendorf (De jure naturae et gentium,
1672) avança au XVII esiècle que le législateur doit obéir à la raison, tan -

dis que Christian Wolff (Jus gentium methodo scientifica pertractatum,
1749) estimait que, tout comme les individus doivent — au sein de
l’Etat — promouvoir le bien commun, l’Etat a corrélativement pour oblif -
gation de rechercher la perfection 1.

28. La personnification ultérieure de l’Etat tout-puissant, qui troufve
principalement sa source dans la philosophie du droit de Hegel, eut une
influence néfaste sur l’évolution du droit international àf la fin du
e e
XIX siècle et au cours des premières décennies du XX siècle. Ce courant
doctrinal s’opposa autant qu’il le pouvait à l’idéal d’fémancipation de
l’être humain du contrôle absolu de l’Etat et à la reconnfaissance de l’indi -
vidu en tant que sujet de droit international. mais la soumission de l’indi -
vidu à la « volonté» de l’Etat n’emporta jamais totalement la conviction

et fut bientôt ouvertement contestée par le courant le plus lucidef de la
doctrine. L’idée de la souveraineté absolue de l’Etat — qui conduisit à
son irresponsabilité et sa prétendue omnipotence, et ne put empêfcher les
atrocités successivement commises par lui (ou en son nom) contre lefs êtres

humains — se révéla, avec le temps, totalement dépourvue de fondemenft.
29. Le massacre de distomo (1944), objet d’une affaire portée devant
les tribunaux grecs (voir supra), n’est que l’une des nombreuses atrocités
perpétrées par les Etats au cours du siècle passé. Beaucoup d’écrits ont été

publiés à ce sujet ; les faits sont de notoriété publique et sont incontestés.
Ce massacre fut notamment relaté comme suit :

«Le 10 juin 1944 au matin, des soldats nazis, qui se présentèrent
comme des marchands, entrèrent dans le village grec de distomo (pré -
fecture de Voiotia) à la recherche de résistants grecs supposéfs se trouver

dans la région. Le village de distomo ne faisant pas partie du mouve -
ment de résistance, ils n’y trouvèrent aucun membre de celle-cif. Les
soldats poursuivirent leur route en direction de delphes. Alors qu’ils
venaient de quitter cette ville pour se rendre à Steiri, les soldats fnazis

furent attaqués par des résistants grecs et dix-huit d’entre eux périrent.

19A. A. Cançado Trindade, « A personalidade e a Capacidade Jurídicas do Indivíduo
como Sujeito do direito Internacional »Jornadas de Derecho Internacional [de l’OEA]
(mexico, décembre 2001), Washington, d.C., sous-secrétariat des affaires juridiques de
l’OEA, 2002, p. 311-347.

26

5 CIJ1021.indb 49 13/06/13 14:08 517 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

turned around, marched back past delphi to distomo, and began a
reign of terror that ended in the brutal massacre of 218 men, women

and children.
The soldiers stormed the village and ordered all residents indoors.
They went on a two-hour, door-to-door rampage, bayoneting babies

in their cribs, tearing fetuses from pregnant women, and beheading
the village priest. The only survivors were those who were able to
escape to the mountains, but they have never fully recovered from the

horror of that day. In memory of the dead, the entire village was
dressed in black for years and the relatives of the distomo victims
mourn their dead to this day. This mass killing has been labeled as

one of the most savage civilian, non-Jewish massacres of World
War II.” 20

5. Individuals as Titulaires of Rights :
Their Presence and Participation

in the International Legal Order

30. Not surprisingly, human conscience has reacted against State atro-
cities of the kind. The State — it is nowadays reckoned — is responsible

for all its acts — both jure gestionis and jure imperii — as well as for all
its omissions, amounting to grave breaches of the rights of the human
person (human rights and international humanitarian law). In case of vfio -

lation of human rights, the direct access of the individual to national and
international jurisdictions is thus fully justified to vindicate such frights
(even against his own State) 21. The necessity of the legitimatio ad causam
22
of individuals in international law is in our times widely acknowledged .
After all, individuals have marked their presence and participation in tfhe
international legal order already for a long time.

31. The individual has, in fact, constantly remained in contact, directly
or indirectly, with the international legal order. He is subject of bothf
domestic and international law 23. In the inter-war period, the experiments

20E. Vournas, “Prefecture of Voiotia v.Federal Republic of Germany: Sovereign Immu-
nity and the Exception for Jus Cogens Violations”, 21 New York Law School Journal of
International and Comparative Law (2002), pp. 635-636.
21S. glaser, “Les droits de l’homme à la lumière du droit international positif ”,
Mélanges offerts à H. Rolin — Problèmes de droit des gens, paris, pedone, 1964, pp. 117-118,

and22f. pp. 105-106 and 114-116.
Cf. note 34 infra.
23On the historical evolution of the legal personality in the law of natiofns, cf. H. mosler,
“Réflexions sur la personnalité juridique en droit internatiofnal public”, Mélanges offerts à
H. Rolin — Problèmes de droit des gens, paris, pedone, 1964, pp. 228-251; g. Arangio-
Ruiz, Diritto Internazionale e Personalità Giuridica, Bologna, Coop. Libr. Univ., 1972,
pp. 9-268; g. Scelle, “Some Reflections on Juridical personality in International Law”,

Law and Politics in the World Community (ed. g. A. Lipsky), Berkeley/Los Angeles,
University of California press, 1953, pp. 49-58 and 336 ; J. A. Barberis, “Nouvelles ques -
tions concernant la personnalité juridique internationale”, 179 Recueil des cours de
l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (RCADI) (1983), pp. 157-238.

27

5 CIJ1021.indb 50 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f17

Les soldats nazis ayant survécu rebroussèrent alors chemin et, pasfsant
par delphes, retournèrent à distomo où ils firent régner la terreur,
massacrant avec cruauté 218 personnes, hommes, femmes et enfants.

Ces soldats prirent d’assaut le village et ordonnèrent à tous lfes habi -
tants de rester chez eux. Ils se livrèrent, deux heures durant, allant de
maison en maison, à un véritable massacr:eils tuèrent à la baïonnette les

jeunes enfants dans leur berceau, arrachèrent les fœtus du ventre fde leur
mère et décapitèrent le prêtre du village. Les seuls survivafnts, qui avaient
réussi à fuir dans les montagnes, ne se remirent jamais complètfement de

l’horreur qu’ils vécurent ce jour. En mémoire des disparus, ftous les habi -
tants du village se parèrent de noir des années durant; les parents des
victimes du massacre de distomo pleurent aujourd’hui encore leurs

morts. Ce meurtre de masse est considéré comme l’un des massacrfes de
civils non juifs les plus sauvages de la seconde guerre mondial» e.0

5. Les individus en tant que titulaires de droits :
leur présence dans l’ordre juridique international
et leur participation à celui‑ci

30. Sans surprise, la conscience humaine réagit contre les atrocités com -
mises par les Etats. L’Etat — cela est désormais reconnu — est responsable
de tous ses actes, jure gestionis et jure imperii, et omissions constitutifs de

violations graves des droits de la personne humaine (droits de l’homme et
droit international humanitaire). En cas de violation de droits de l’fhomme,
l’accès direct de l’individu à des juridictions nationales et internationales sef

justifie donc parfaitement 21ur lui permettre de faire valoir ses droifts (même
contre son propre Etat) . La nécessité de reconnaître lalegitimatio ad cau‑
samen droit international aux individus est aujourd’hui largement admise. 22
Après tout, les individus ont depuis déjà longtemps marqué lfeur présence

dans l’ordre juridique international et leur participation à celuif-ci.
31. L’individu a en réalité toujours été en contact — que ce soit direc -
tement ou indirectement — avec l’ordre juridique international. Il est
23
sujet de droit interne et de droit international . dans l’entre-deux guerres,

20E. Vournas, « Prefecture of Voiotia v. Federal Republic of Germany : Sovereign
Immunity and the Exception for Jus Cogens Violations »,New York Law School Journal of

Int21national and Comparative Law, vol. 21 (2002), p. 635-636.
S. glaser, « Les droits de l’homme à la lumière du droit international positfif »,
Mélanges offerts à H. Rolin — Problèmes de droit des gens, paris, pedone, 1964, p. 117-118;
voir également p. 105-106 et 114-116.
22Voir note 34 infra.
23Sur la question de l’évolution de la personnalité juridique en fdroit des gens, voir
H. mosler, « Réflexions sur la personnalité juridique en droit international fpublic »,
Mélanges offerts à H. Rolin — Problèmes de droit des gens, paris, pedone, 1964, p. 228-251;

g. Arangio-Ruiz, Diritto Internazionale e Personalità Giuridica, Bologne, Coop. libr. univ.,
1972, p. 9-268 ; g. Scelle, « Some Reflections on Juridical personality in International
Law », Law and Politics in the World Community (g. A. Lipsky, dir. publ.), Berkeley/Los
Angeles, University of California press, 1953, p. 49-58 et 336 ; J. A. Barberis, « Nouvelles
questions concernant la personnalité juridique internationale », Recueil des cours de l’Aca‑
démie de droit international de La Haye (RCADI), vol. 179 (1983), p. 157-238.

27

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24 25
of the minorities and mandates 26ystems under the League of Nations,
for example, bear witness thereof . They were followed, in that regard,
by the trusteeship system 27under the United Nations era, parallel to the

development under this latter, along the years, of the multiple mecha -
nisms — conventional and extraconventional — of international protec -
tion of human rights. Those early experiments in the twentieth century

were of relevance for subsequent developments in the international safe -
guard of the rights of the human person 28.

32. To that effect of evidencing and reasserting the constant contact of
the individual with the international legal order, the considerable evolfu -
tion in the last decades not only of the international law of human righfts,

but likewise of international humanitarian law, has contributed deci -
sively. This latter likewise considers the protected persons not only asf

simple object of regulation that they establish, but rather as true subjfects
of international law 29. In effect, the impact of the norms of the former

has, in turn, been having already for a long time repercussions in the cor ‑
pus juris and application of international humanitarian law. This latter, in
the light of the principle of humanity, gradually frees itself from a pufrely

inter-State obsolete outlook, placing an increasingly greater emphasis on

24
Cf., e.g., p. de Azcárate, League of Nations and National Minorities : An Experiment,
Washington, Carnegie Endowment for International peace, 1945, pp. 123-130 ; J. Stone,
International Guarantees of Minorities Rights, Oxford University press, 1932, p. 56 ;
A. N. mandelstam, “La protection des minorités”, 1 RCADI (1923), pp. 363-519.
25 Cf., e.g., g. diena, “Les mandats internationaux”, 5 RCADI (1924), pp. 246-261 ;

N. Bentwich, The Mandates System, London, Longmans, 1930, p. 114 ; Quincy Wright,
Mandates under the League of Nations, Chicago University press, 1930, pp. 169-172.
26 C. A. Norgaard, The Position of the Individual in International Law, Copenhagen,
munksgaard, 1962, pp. 109-131 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Exhaustion of Local Reme -
dies in International Law Experiments granting procedural Status to Individuals in the

First Half of the Twentieth Century”, 24 Netherlands International Law Review/Nederlands
Tijdschrift voor international Recht (1977), pp. 373-392.
27 Cf., e.g., C. E. Toussaint, The Trusteeship System of the United Nations, London,
Stevens, 1956, pp. 39, 47 and 249-250; J. Beauté, Le droit de pétition dans les territoires sous
tutelle, paris, LgdJ, 1962, pp. 48-136 ; g. Vedovato, “Les accords de tutelle”, 76 RCADI
(1950), pp. 613-694.
28
Cf., e.g., C. Th. Eustathiades, “Une nouvelle expérience en droit international — Les
recours individuels à la Commission des droits de l’homme”, Grundprobleme des internatio‑
nalen Rechts — Festschrift für J. Spiropoulos, Bonn, Schimmlebusch, 1957, pp. 111-137,
esp. pp. 77 and 121, note 32.
29 It is what ensues, e.g., from the position of the four geneva Conventions on Inter-

national Humanitarian Law of 1949, erected as from the rights of the proftected persons
(III Convention, Articles 14 and 78; IV Convention, Article 27). This is what, furthermore,
clearly ensues from the fact that the four geneva Conventions plainly prohibit the States
parties to derogate — by special agreements — from the rules enunciated in them and in
particular to restrict the rights of the persons protected set forth in fthem (I, II and

III geneva Conventions, Article 6; and IV geneva Convention, Article 7). In fact, as early
as in the passage from the nineteenth to the twentieth century, the fifrst Conventions on
international humanitarian law expressed concern for the fate of human bfeings in armed
conflicts, thus recognizing the individual as direct beneficiary of fthe international conven-
tional obligations.

28

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24 25
les expériences des systèmes des minorités et des mandats menées du
temps de la Société des Nations en témoignent 2. Est ensuite apparu le
27
régime de tutelle du temps de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, parallè-
lement au développement progressif, sous l’égide de celle-ci, de divers
mécanismes — conventionnels ou non — de protection internationale des
e
droits de l’homme. Ces expériences, qui remontent au début du XfX siècle,
eurent une incidence sur l’évolution ultérieure de la protectiofn internatio -
28
nale des droits de la personne humaine .
32. L’importante évolution que connurent, au cours des dernières

décennies, le droit international des droits de l’homme ainsi que fle droit
international humanitaire contribua de manière décisive à mettrfe en évi -

dence et à réaffirmer le rapport constant de l’individu à lf’ordre juridique
international. Le droit international humanitaire considère également les
personnes protégées non pas comme de simples objets des règles fainsi
29
créées, mais comme de véritables sujets de droit international . Les
normes du droit international des droits de l’homme ont dans les faitfs

depuis longtemps une incidence sur le corpus juris du droit international
humanitaire et son application. A la lumière du principe d’humanitfé,

cette matière se libère progressivement d’une conception — obsolète —

24
Voir, par exemple, p. de Azcárate, League of Nations and National Minorities : An
Experiment, Washington, Carnegie Endowment for International peace, 1945, p. 123-130 ;
J. Stone, International Guarantees of Minorities Rights, Oxford University press, 1932,
p. 56; A. N. mandelstam, «La protection des minorités »,RCADI, vol. 1 (1923), p. 363-519.
25Voir, par exemple, g. diena, « Les mandats internationaux », RCADI, vol. 5 (1924),

p. 246-261; N. Bentwich, The Mandates System, Londres, Longmans, 1930, p.114 ;Quincy
Wright, Mandates under the League of Nations, Chicago University press, 1930, p. 169-172.
26C. A. Norgaard, The Position of the Individual in International Law, Copenhague,
munksgaard, 1962, p. 109-131 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Exhaustion of Local Reme -

dies in International Law Experiments granting procedural Status to Individuals in the
First Half of the Twentieth Century », Netherlands International Law Review/Nederlands
Tijdschrift voor international Recht, vol. 24 (1977), p. 373-392.
27Voir, par exemple, C. E. Toussaint, The Trusteeship System of the United Nations,
Londres, Stevens, 1956, p. 39, 47 et 249-250 ; J. Beauté, Le droit de pétition dans les terri

toires sous tutelle, paris, LgdJ, 1962, p. 48-136 ; g. Vedovato, « Les accords de tutelle »,
RCADI, vol. 76 (1950), p. 613-694.
28Voir, par exemple, C. Th. Eustathiades, « Une nouvelle expérience en droit interna -
tional — Les recours individuels à la Commission des droits de l’hommef »,Grundprobleme
des internationalen Rechts — Festschrift für J. Spiropoulos, Bonn, Schimmlebusch, 1957,

p. 129-137, en particulier p. 77 et 121, note 32.
Tel est, par exemple, ce qui découle des quatre conventions de genève de 1949 rela-
tives au droit international humanitaire, établies à partir des drfoits des personnes protégées
(articles 14 et 78 de la troisième convention ; article 27 de la quatrième convention). Cela
découle en outre clairement du fait que ces quatre conventions interdfisent sans détour

aux Etats parties de déroger — par accord spécial — aux règles énoncées, et en particulier
de limiter les droits des personnes protégées par ces instruments f(article 6 des première,
deuxième et troisième conventions de genève ; article 7 de la quatrième convention). En
réalité, dès la fin du XIX siècle et le début du XXesiècle, les premières conventions rela -
tives au droit international humanitaire se préoccupaient du sort desf êtres humains durant

les conflits armés, reconnaissant ainsi l’individu en tant que bfénéficiaire direct des obliga-
tions conventionnelles internationales.

28

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the protected persons and on the responsibility for the violation of thefir
rights .0

33. The attempts of the past to deny to individuals the condition of
subjects of international law, for not being recognized to them some of

the capacities which States have (such as,31.g., that of treaty-making), are
definitively devoid of any meaning . Besides unsustainable, that concep-
tion appears contaminated by an ominous ideological dogmatism, which

had as the main consequence to alienate the individual from the inter-
national legal order 32. In the brief historical period in which that statist
conception prevailed, in the light — or, more precisely, in the darkness —

of legal positivism, successive atrocities were committed against the hufman
being, on a scale without precedent. This is evidenced, in the factual
context of the present proceedings before this Court, by the massacre

of distomo, of 10 June 1944.
34. No one with sane conscience would today dare to deny that human
beings effectively possess rights and obligations which emanate directfly from

international law, with which they find themselves in direct contact. fThere is
nothing intrinsic to international law that impedes or renders such direfct

contact impossible. It is perfectly possible to conceptualize as subjectf of inter -
national law any person or entity, titulaire of rights and bearer of obligations,
which emanate directly from norms of international law. Such is the case of

human beings, who have thus fostered and strengthened their direct con -
tact — without intermediaries — with the international legal order . 33
35. In sum, the very process of formation and application of the norms

of international law ceases to be a monopoly of the States. Furthermore,f
beyond the individual’s presence and participation in the internationfal
legal order, to the recognition of his rights, as subject of international

30
On the historical roots of this development, cf. E. W. petit de gabriel, Las Exigen ‑
cias de Humanidad en el Derecho Internacional Tradicional (1789‑1939), madrid, Tecnos,
2003, pp. 149, 171 and 210.
31 Nor at domestic law level, not all individuals participate, directly or indirectly, in the
law-making process, and they do not thereby cease to be subjects of law.f That doctrinal
trend, attempting to insist on such a rigid definition of internationafl subjectivity, condi -

tioning this latter to the very formation of international norms and compliance with them,
simply does not sustain itself, not even at the level of domestic law, ifn which it is not
required — it has never been —, from all individuals to participate in the creation and
application of the legal norms in order to be subjects (titulaires) of rights, and to be bound
by the duties, emanated from such norms.
32 It is surprising — if not astonishing —, besides regrettable, to see that conception
repeated mechanically and ad nauseam by a doctrinal trend, apparently trying to make

believe that the intermediary of the State, between the individuals and fthe international legal
order, would be something inevitable and permanent. Nothing could be morfe fallacious.
33 The international movement in favour of human rights, launched by the Universal
declaration of Human Rights of 1948, came to disauthorize the aforementiofned false
analogies, and to overcome traditional distinctions (e.g., on the basisf of nationalit:)
subjects of law are all human beings as members of the “universal society” ; R. Cassin,
“L’homme, sujet de droit international et la protection des droits de l’homme dans la

société universelle”, La technique et les principes du droit public — Etudes en l’honneur de
G. Scelle, Vol. I, paris, LgdJ, 1950, pp. 81-82.

29

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purement étatique et met de plus en plus l’accent sur les personnefs proté-
gées et sur la responsabilité à raison de la violation de leursf droits . 30

33. Les tentatives passées visant à nier aux individus le statut de sufjet de
droit international, au motif que ne leur étaient pas reconnues certafines

facultés conférées aux Etats (comme, par exemple, la capa31té de conclure
des traités), ont définitivement perdu tout sens . Outre qu’elle n’est pas
défendable, cette conception apparaît viciée par un sombre dogmatisme

idéologique, dont la principale conséquence a été d’aliéfner l’individu de
l’ordre juridique international 32. dans la brève période au cours de laquelle
cette conception étatique prévalait, à la lumière — ou, pour être plus exact,

à l’ombre — du positivisme juridique, des atrocités ont été commises
contre l’être humain, à une échelle sans précédent. Enf témoigne, dans le
contexte de la présente affaire soumise à la Cour, le massacre dfe distomo

du 10 juin 1944.
34. Nul n’oserait aujourd’hui nier, en conscience, que les êtres hufmains
possèdent bien des droits et des obligations découlant directementf du droit

international, avec lequel ils se trouvent en contact direct. Rien dans fle droit
international n’interdit, intrinsèquement, ou ne rend impossible cfe contact

direct. Chaque personne ou entité peut parfaitement être conceptuaflisée en
tant que sujet de droit international, en tant que titulaire de droits eft débi -
teur d’obligations découlant directement de normes du droit internfational. Il

en va ainsi des êtres humains, qui ont de la sorte favorisé et renforcé leur
contact direct — sans intermédiaire — avec l’ordre juridique international 33.
35. pour résumer, le processus même de formation et d’application defs

normes du droit international cesse d’être le monopole des Etats. fAu-delà
de sa présence dans l’ordre juridique international, de sa particifpation à
celui-ci, de la reconnaissance de ses droits en tant que sujet de droit inter -

30
Sur les origines de cette évolution, voir E. W. petit de gabriel, Las Exigencias de
Humanidad en el Derecho Internacional Tradicional (1789‑1939), madrid, Tecnos, 2003,
p. 149, 171 et 210.
31 Au plan national non plus, tous les individus ne prennent pas part, direfctement ou
indirectement, au processus de formation du droit ; ils n’en perdent pas pour autant leur
qualité de sujets de droit. Ce courant doctrinal, qui cherche à promouvoir une définition

aussi stricte de la subjectivité internationale, la subordonnant àf la formation même des
normes internationales et au respect de celles-ci, n’est pas défendable, pas même en droit
interne, qui ne requiert pas — et n’a jamais requis — de tous les individus qu’ils participent
à la formation et à l’application des normes juridiques pour êftre des sujets (titulaires) de
droit et être liés par les obligations découlant de ces normes.f
32 Il est surprenant — si ce n’est stupéfiant — en plus d’être regrettable de voir cette
conception répétée de manière machinale et ad nauseam par un certain courant doctrinal,

qui cherche apparemment à faire accroire que l’intermédiaire def l’Etat, entre les individus
et l’ordre juridique international, serait inévitable et permanentf.Rien n’est moins vrai.
33 Le mouvement international favorable aux droits de l’homme, initiéf par la déclara-
tion universelle des droits de l’homme de 1948, a ôté toute autorité aux analogies erronées
susmentionnées et est venu à bout des distinctions opérées tfraditionnellement (par exemple,
sur le fondement de la nationalité) : les sujets de droit sont tous les êtres humains en tant
que membres de la «société universelle » ; R.Cassin, «L’homme sujet de droit international

et la protection des droits de l’homme dans la société universeflle »,La technique et les prin‑
cipes du droit public — Etudes en l’honneur de G. Scelle, vol. I, paris, LgdJ, 1950, p. 81-82.

29

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law, ought to correspond the procedural capacity to vindicate them at
international level. It is by means of the consolidation of the full intfer-
national procedural capacity of individuals that the international pro-
34
tection of human rights becomes reality .

6. Individuals as Titulaires of Rights :
The Rescue of the Individual as Subject of International Law

36. Although the contemporary international scenario is entirely dis -

tinct from that of the epoch of the so-called “founding fathers” of inter -
national law (no one would deny it), who propounded a civitas maxima
gentium ruled by the law of nations, there is a recurrent human aspira -

tion, transmitted from one generation to another, along the last centurifes,
to the effect of the construction of an international legal order applficable
both to States (and international organizations) and to individuals, pfur -

suant to certain universal standards of justice. Hence the importance
which, in this new corpus juris of protection, the international legal per -
sonality of the individual assumes, as subject of both domestic and intefr-

national law.
37. The individual, as subject of international law on his own right,
was certainly distinguishable from his own State, and a wrong done to
35
him was a breach of classical jus gentium, as universal minimal law . The
whole new corpus juris of the international law of human rights has been
constructed on the basis of the imperatives of protection and the superifor

interests of the human being, irrespective of his link of nationality orf of
his political statute, or any other situation or circumstance. Hence thef
importance assumed, in this new law of protection, by the legal per-

sonality of the individual, as the subject (not mere “actor”) off both
domestic and international law 36.

34 Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Acceso Directo del Individuo a los Tribunales Inter ‑
nacionales de Derechos Humanos, Bilbao, Universidad de deusto, 2001, pp. 17-96. Even if,
by the circumstances of life, certain individuals (e.g., children, the fmentally ill, aged
persons, among others) cannot fully exercise their capacity (e.g., in fcivil law), this does not
mean that they cease to be titulaires of rights, opposable even to the State. Irrespective of

the circumstances, the individual is subject jure suo of international law, as sustained by the
more lucid doctrine, since the writings of the so-called founding fatherfs of the discipline ;
p. N. drost, Human Rights as Legal Rights, Leyden, Sijthoff, 1965, pp. 226-227, and cf.
pp. 215 and 223. Human rights were conceived as inherent to every human being, indepen-
dently of any circumstances.
35 C. parry, “Some Considerations upon the protection of Individuals in International
Law”, 90 RCADI (1956), pp. 686-688 and 697-698.
36 The application and expansion of the international law of human rights, fin turn, has

had sensible repercussions, not surprisingly, in the trends of contemporfary public interna-
tional law ; cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos
Humanos, Vol. I, 2nd ed., porto Alegre/Brazil, S. A. Fabris Ed., 2003, pp. 33-50, and
Vol. II, 1999, pp. 23-194 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Derecho Internacional de los
Derechos Humanos en el Siglo XXI, Santiago, Editorial Jurídica de Chile, 2001, pp. 15-58
and 375-427.

30

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national, l’individu doit pouvoir avoir la capacité, d’un pointf de vue pro-
cédural, de défendre ses droits au plan international. C’est enf renforçant

la pleine capacité procédurale des individus que la protection internatio -
nale des droits de l’homme devient réalité 34.

6. Les individus en tant que titulaires de droits :
la réhabilitation de l’individu en tant que sujet de droit interna▯tional

36. Bien que les réalités internationales ne soient aujourd’hui (nful ne le
niera) en rien comparables à ce qu’elles étaient à l’éfpoque des «pères fon -
dateurs» du droit international, qui ont avancé l’idée d’une civitas maxima

gentium régie par le droit des gens, il existe une aspiration humaine récur -
rente, transmise de génération en génération au cours des siècles passés et
ayant eu pour effet de créer un ordre juridique international applicable à

la fois aux Etats (et aux organisations internationales) et aux individus,
conformément à certaines normes universelles de justice. de là découle
l’importance que revêt la personnalité juridique internationalef des indivi -

dus, en tant que sujets de droit interne et de droit international, dansf ce
nouveau corpus juris de protection.
37. L’individu, en tant que sujet direct de droit international, pouvait

assurément être distingué de son propre Etat, et un tort commisf à son
encontre était une violation des normes classiques du jus gentium, en tant
que minimum juridique universel 3. Le nouveau corpus juris du droit inter-

national des droits de l’homme a été bâti sur les impératfifs de protection et
les intérêts supérieurs de l’être humain, indépendammefnt de son lien de
nationalité ou de son statut politique, ou de toute autre situation ofu circons -

tance. de là découle l’importance, dans ce nouveau droit de protection,f de
la personnalité juridique de l’individu en tant que sujet (et nonf simplement
en tant qu’«acteur») du droit interne et du droit international 3.

34
Voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Acceso Directo del Individuo a los Tribunales Inter‑
nacionales de Derechos Humanos, Bilbao, Universidad de deusto, 2001, p. 17-96. même
si la vie fait que certains individus (par exemple les enfants, les malades mentafux, les
personnes âgées ou autres) ne jouissent pas de la pleine capacité (par exemple en droit
civil), ils ne cessent pas pour autant d’être titulaires de droits opposables même aux Etats.
L’individu est sujet jure suo du droit international, en toutes circonstances, ainsi que cela
est avancé par la branche la plus lucide de la doctrine, depuis les éfcrits des « pères fonda-
teurs » de la discipline; p. N. drost, Human Rights as Legal Rights, Leyde, Sijthoff, 1965,

p. 226-227 ; voir également p. 215 et 223.Les droits de l’homme ont été conçus comme
inhérents à chaque être humain, en toutes circonstances.
35 C. parry, «Some Considerations upon the protection of Individuals in International
Law »,RCADI, vol. 90 (1956), p. 686-688 et 697-698.
36 La mise en œuvre et le développement du droit international des drfoits de l’homme
ont, à leur tour, eu une incidence sensible — et cela n’a rien d’étonnant — sur les diff-
rents courants du droit international public contemporain ; voir A. A. Cançado Trindade,
e
Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos, vol. I, 2 éd., porto Alegre/Brésil,
S. A. Fabris Ed., 2003, p. 33-50, et vol. II, 1999, p. 23-1; A. A. Cançado Trindade, El
Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos en el Siglo XXI, Santiago, Editorial Jurí -
dica de Chile, 2001, p. 15-58 et 375-427.

30

5 CIJ1021.indb 57 13/06/13 14:08 521 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

38. In fact, already in the first decades of the twentieth century, one
recognized the manifest inconveniences of the protection of individuals f
by the intermediary of their respective States of nationality, that is, fby the

exercise of discretionary diplomatic protection, which ren37red the “fcom -
plaining” States at a time “judges and parties” . In a monograph of
1931, André mandelstam warned as to the necessity of the recognition

of a juridical minimum — with the primacy of international law and of
human rights over the State legal order — below which the international
community should not allow the State to fall. In his vision, the “horfrible
experience of our time” demonstrated the urgency of the necessary

acknowledgement of this juridical minimum, to put an end to the “unlim -
ited power” of the State over the life and the freedom of its citizenfs, and
to the “complete impunity” of the State in breach of the “most fsacred
38
rights of the individual” .
39. In his “célèbre” Précis of 1932-1934, georges Scelle criticized the
fiction of the contraposition of an “inter-State society” to a (national)

society of individuals : one and the other — he pondered — are formed
by individuals, subjects of domestic law and of international law,
whether they are individuals moved by private interests, or else endowedf

with public functions (rulers and public officials) in charge of looking
after the interests of national and international collectivities. g. Scelle
then identified “the movement of extension of the legal personalityf of

individuals”, by means of the emergence of the right of individual pefti -
tion at international level, which led him to conclude that “individuals
are subjects of law both of national communities and the worldwide

internation39 community : they are directly subjects of the law of
national” .
40. Also in the American continent, in the twentieth century, even

before the adoption of the American and Universal declarations of
Human Rights of 1948, doctrinal manifestations flourished in favour off
the international juridical personality of the individuals, such as those
which are found, for example, in the writings of Alejandro Alvarez 40and
41
Hildebrando Accioly . And philip Jessup, in 1948, pondered that the old
conception of State sovereignty was not consistent with the higher inter -

37One started, as a consequence, to overcome such inconveniences, to nourifsh the idea
of the direct access of the individuals to the international jurisdiction, under certain confdi
tions, to vindicate their rights against States — a theme which came fto be effectively
considered by the Institut de droit international in its sessions of 192f7 and 1929.
38A. N. mandelstam, Les droits internationaux de l’homme, paris, Editions internatio -

nal39, 1931, pp. 95-96 and 138, and cf. p. 103.
g. Scelle, Précis de droit des gen— Principes et systématique, part I, paris, Sirey,
1932 (CNRS reprint, 1984), pp. 42-44, and cf. p. 48.
40A. Alvarez, La Reconstrucción del Derecho de Gentes — El Nuevo Orden y la Reno ‑
vación Social, Santiago de Chile, Ed. Nascimento, 1944, pp. 46-47 and 457-463, and cf.
pp. 81, 91 and 499-500.
41H. Accioly, Tratado de Direito Internacional Público, Vol. I, 1st ed., Rio de Janeiro,
Imprensa Nacional, 1933, pp. 71-75.

31

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38. En réalité, les inconvénients manifestes de la protection de l’findi -
vidu par l’intermédiaire de son Etat de nationalité, c’est-à-dire par l’exer -
cice discrétionnaire de la protection diplomatique, qui rendait les Eftats
37
«demandeurs» tout à la fois « juges et parties » , furent reconnus dès les
premières décennies du XX e siècle. En 1931, André mandelstam fit état,
dans une monographie, de la nécessité de reconnaître un minimum juri ‑

dique — le droit international et les droits de l’homme primant sur l’ordrfe
juridique étatique — au-dessous duquel la communauté internationale ne
devait pas permettre à l’Etat de descendre. pour lui, l’« horrible expé -

rience de notre temps» avait démontré qu’il était urgent de reconnaître ce f
minimum juridique, pour mettre fin au « pouvoir illimité » de l’Etat sur la
vie et la liberté de ses citoyens, et à la « complète impunité» de l’Etat qui
38
violait les « droits les plus sacrés de l’individu » .

39. dans son célèbre Précis de 1932-1934, georges Scelle critiqua la

fiction consistant à opposer une « société interétatique » à une société
(nationale) d’individus: l’une et l’autre — fit-il valoir — sont formées par
des individus, sujets de droit interne et de droit international, qu’ils soient

mus par des intérêts privés ou chargés d’exercer des foncftions publiques
(dirigeants et agents de l’Etat) visant à protéger les intéfrêts des collectivi -
tés nationales et internationales. g. Scelle décrivit ensuite « le mouvement

d’extension de la personnalité de l’individu » par l’émergence du droit de
pétition individuelle au plan international, ce qui l’amena à cfonclure que
«[l]es individus sont à la fois sujets de droit des collectivités nfationales et

de la collectivité internationale globale: ils sont directement sujets de droit
des gens » 3.

e
40. Au XX siècle, avant même l’adoption de la déclaration américainfe
des droits de l’homme et de la déclaration universelle des droits de
l’homme de 1948, la reconnaissance de la personnalité juridique inter-

nationale des individus apparut dans la doctrine américaine, comme
l’attestent notamment les écrits d’Alejandro Alvarez 40et de Hildebrando
Accioly 41. En 1948, philip Jessup fit valoir que l’ancienne conception de

la souveraineté de l’Etat ne correspondait pas aux intérêts supérieurs de

37
Ces inconvénients commencèrent dès lors à être surmontés et se développa l’idée d’un
accès direct de l’individu aux juridictions internationales, à certaines condiftions, afin de
faire valoir ses droits contre les Etats, thème qui fut de fait examifné par l’Institut de droit
international à ses sessions de 1927 et 1929.
38A. N. mandelstam, Les droits internationaux de l’homme, paris, Editions internatio -
nales, 1931, p. 95-96 et 138 ; voir également p. 103.
39g. Scelle, Précis de droit des gens — Principes et systématique, partie I, paris, Sirey,

19340(rééd. CNRS, 1984), p. 42-44 ; voir également p. 48.
A. Alvarez, La Reconstrucción del Derecho de Gentes — El Nuevo Orden y la Renova‑
ción Social, Santiago du Chili, Ed. Nascimento, 1944, p. 46-47 et 457-463 ; voir également
p. 81, 91 et 499-500.
41H. Accioly, Tratado de Direito Internacional Público, vol. I, éd., Rio de Janeiro,
Imprensa Nacional, 1933, p. 71-75.

31

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ests of the international community and the status of the individual as
42
subject of international law .
41. In Europe, in a celebrated book of 1950, Hersch Lauterpacht

asserted that “the individual is the final subject of all law”, there being
nothing inherent to international law impeding him to become subject of f
the law of nations and to become a party in proceedings before inter-
43
national tribunals . On his turn, in a perspicacious essay, also of 1950,
maurice Bourquin pondered that the growing concern of the international
law of the epoch with the problems which affected directly the human

being revealed the overcoming of the old exclusively inter-State vision of
the international legal order 44.

42. In his course delivered at the Hague Academy of International
Law, three years later, in 1953, Constantin Eustathiades linked the inter -
national subjectivity of the individuals to the broad theme of the interf-
45
national responsibility (of them, parallel to that of the States) . This
development heralded the emancipation of the individual from the tute -

lage of his own State, and the individual’s condition of subject of ifnter-
national law 4. The same conclusion was reached by paul guggenheim, in
a course delivered also at the Hague Academy, one year earlier, in 1952: as

the individual is “subject of duties” at international law level, fone cannot
deny his international legal personality, recognized also in fact by custom ‑
47
ary international law itself .

42
ph. C. Jessup, A Modern Law of Nations — An Introduction, New York, macmillan
Co., 1948, p. 41.
43H. Lauterpacht, International Law and Human Rights, London, Stevens, 1950,
pp. 51, 61 and 69, and cf. p. 70. Such recognition of the individual as subject of rights also
at international law level brought about a clear rejection of the old pofsitivist dogmas,

discredited and unsustainable, of the dualism of subjects in the domestifc and international
orders, and of the “will” of States as exclusive “source” off international law ; cf. ibid.,
pp. 8-9. On the “natural right” of petition of individuals, exercised falso in the general
interest, cf. ibid., pp. 247-251, and cf. pp. 286-291 and 337.
44 m. Bourquin, “L’humanisation du droit des gens”, La technique et les principes du

dro45 public . . ., op. cit. supra note 33, Vol. I, pp. 21-54.
As a reaction of the universal juridical conscience, the recognition of the rights and
duties of the individual at international level, and his capacity to actf in order to defend his
rights, are linked to his capacity to commit an international delict ; international responsi-
bility thus comprises, in his vision, both the protection of human rightfs as well as the
punishment of war criminals (forming a whole) ; C. Th. Eustathiades, “Les sujets du droit

international et la responsabilité internationale — Nouvelles tendances”, 84 RCADI
(1953), pp. 402, 412-413, 424, 586-589, 601 and 612.
46 Ibid., pp. 426-427, 547, 586-587, 608 and 610-611. Although not endorsing the theorfy
of duguit and Scelle (of the individuals as the sole subjects of international law) —
regarded as expression of the “sociological school” of international law inf France —,
Eustathiades recognized in it the great merit of reacting to the traditifonal doctrine

which visualized States as the sole subjects of international law ; the recognition of the
international subjectivity of individuals, parallel to that of States, cfame to transform the
structure of international law and to foster the spirit of internationalf solidarity; ibid.,
pp. 604-610.
47p. guggenheim, “Les principes de droit international public”, 80 RCADI (1952),
pp. 116, and cf. pp. 117-118.

32

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la communauté internationale et au statut de l’individu en tant que sujet
42
de droit international .
41. Sur le continent européen, dans un célèbre ouvrage de 1950,

Hersch Lauterpacht affirma que « l’individu est le sujet ultime du droit,
quel qu’il soit », rien d’inhérent au droit international ne l’empêchant f
de devenir sujet de droit des gens et partie à une instance devant une
43
juridiction internationale . maurice Bourquin avança à son tour avec
perspicacité, dans un essai datant également de 1950, que l’intérêt crois -
sant du droit international de l’époque pour les problèmes toucfhant

directement l’être humain révélait que l’ancienne conceptfion, exclusive -
ment interétatique, de l’ordre juridique international était défpassée . 44

42. dans le cours qu’il donna trois ans plus tard à l’Académie de droit
international de La Haye (en 1953), Constantin Eustathiades rattacha la
subjectivité internationale des individus au thème plus généfral de la res -
45
ponsabilité internationale (des individus, parallèlement à celfle des Etats).
Cette évolution augura l’émancipation de l’individu du joug fde son propre
46
Etat, et sa condition de sujet de droit international . paul guggenheim
était parvenu à la même conclusion, dans un cours également fdonné à
l’Académie de La Haye, l’année précédente, en 1952 : l’individu étant

«sujet de devoirs » au plan du droit international, on ne peut nier sa per -
sonnalité juridique internationale, également reconnue dans les fafits par
47
le droit international coutumier lui-même .

42
ph. C. Jessup, A Modern Law of Nations — An Introduction, New York, macmillan
Co., 1948, p. 41.
43H. Lauterpacht, International Law and Human Rights, Londres, Stevens, 1950, p. 51,
61 et 69; voir également p. 70. Cette reconnaissance de l’individu en tant que sujet de droit
également à l’échelle internationale entraîna clairement fun rejet des anciens dogmes positi-

vistes, discrédités et indéfendables, du dualisme entre les sujfets de droit interne et de droit
international, et de la « volonté » des Etats comme « source » exclusive du droit interna -
tional ;voir ibid., p. 8-9. Sur la question du «droit naturel » de pétition des individus, égale-
ment exercé dans l’intérêt général, voir ibid., p. 247-251 ; voir également p. 286-291 et 337.
44m. Bourquin, « L’humanisation du droit des gens », La technique et les principes du

droi45public…, op. cit. supra note 33, vol. I, p. 21-54.
En tant que réaction de la conscience juridique universelle, la reconfnaissance des droits
et des obligations de l’individu au plan international, ainsi que sa capacité à agir en vue de
défendre ses droits, est liée à sa capacité de commettre un délit international la respon-
sabilité internationale comprend dès lors, selon lui, à la foisf le fait de protéger les droits
de l’homme et celui de punir les criminels de guerre (qui forment unf tout) ; C. Th. Eusta-

thiades, « Les sujets du droit international et la responsabilité internationalef — Nouvelles
tendances »,RCADI, vol. 84 (1953), p. 402, 412-413, 424, 586-589, 601 et 612.
46Ibid., p. 426-427, 547, 586-587, 608 et 610-611. Bien que ne souscrivant pas à la
théorie de duguit et Scelle (des individus comme uniques sujets de droit internatiofnal),
regardée comme une expression de l’«école sociologique » du droit international en France,
Eustathiades reconnaissait qu’elle avait le grand mérite d’êftre une réaction à la doctrine

traditionnelle qui considérait l’Etat comme le seul sujet de droitf international ; la recon-
naissance de la subjectivité internationale de l’individu, parallèflement à celle des Etats, a
transformé la structure du droit international et renforcé l’esfprit de solidarité internatio -
nale ;ibid., p. 604-610.
47p. guggenheim, «Les principes de droit international public »,RCADI, vol. 80 (1952),
p. 116 ;voir également p. 117-118.

32

5 CIJ1021.indb 61 13/06/13 14:08 523 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

43. Still in the mid-twentieth century, in the first years of application
of the European Convention on Human Rights, there was support for
the view that the individuals had become “titulaires of legitimate inter-

national interests”, as, in international law, a process of emancipatfion of
the individuals from the “exclusive tutelage of the State agents” fhad already
48
started . In the legal doctrine of that time, the recognition of the
expansion of the protection of individuals at the international legal
order became evident 49. In the lucid words of B. V. A. Röling, the over -

coming of legal positivism was reassuring, as the individual, bearer of inter-
national rights and duties, was no longer at the mercy of his State, and

“Humanity of today instinctively turns to this natural law, for the
function of law is to serve the well-being of man, whereas present
positive international law tends to his destruction.” 50

44. This view was in keeping with the posture upheld by the Judge
Kotaro Tanaka, in his opinions in cases before the ICJ in that epoch,

that is an international law transcending the limitations of legal
positivism 51, and thus capable of responding effectively to the needs and
52
aspirations of the international community as a whole . In the late
sixties, the pressing need was pointed out of protecting internationallyf the
human person both individually and in groups 5, for unless such inter-

national protection was secured to individuals and groups of them, “tfhe

48
g. Sperduti, “L’individu et le droit international”, 90 RCADI (1956), pp. 824, 821
and 764. The juridical experience itself of the epoch contradicted categorically the
unfounded theory according to which the individuals were simple objects of the inter-
national legal order, and destructed other prejudices of State positivisfm ; ibid., pp. 821-

822; and cf. also g. Sperduti, L’Individuo nel Diritto Internazionale, milan, giuffrè Ed.,
1950, pp. 104-107.
49C. parry, “Some Considerations . . .”, op. cit. supra note 35, p. 722 ; B. V. A. Röling,
International Law in an Expanded World, Amsterdam, djambatan, 1960, pp. XXII and 1-2.
50B. V. A. Röling, op. cit. supra note 49, p. 2.
51Cf. Y. Saito, “Judge Tanaka, Natural Law and the principle of Equality”, The Living

Law of Nations — Essays in Memory of A. Grahl‑Madsen (eds. g. Alfredsson and p. maca-
lister-Smith), Kehl/Strasbourg, N. p. Engel publ., 1996, pp. 401-402 and 405-408 ;
K. Tanaka wanted law to be wholly liberated from both the State (“as asfserted by Hegel
and his followers”) and from the nation (Völk — as asserted by Savigny and puchta, and
other jurists of the “historical school”) ; ibid., p. 402.

52
Cf. V. gowlland-debbas, “Judicial Insights into Fundamental Values and Interests
of the International Community”, The International Court of Justice : Its Future Role after
Fifty Years (eds. A. S. muller et al.), The Hague, Kluwer, 1997, pp. 344-346.
53As acknowledged, e.g., by the 1994 Framework Convention for the protection of

National minorities of the Council of Europe (in force as from February 1998). Ffor earlier
general studies, cf., e.g., p. Thornberry, International Law and the Rights of Minorities,
Oxford, Clarendon press, 1992 (reprint), pp. 38-54; F. Ermacora, “The protection of
minorities before the United Nations”, 182 RCADI (1983), pp. 257-347.

33

5 CIJ1021.indb 62 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f23

e
43. Au milieu du XX siècle encore, dans les premières années de mise
en œuvre de la convention européenne des droits de l’homme, d’faucuns
défendaient l’idée que les individus étaient devenus des «ftitulaires d’inté -

rêts internationaux légitimes », un processus d’émancipation de l’individu
de la « tutelle exclusive des agents étatiques » ayant été initié en droit
48
international . La reconnaissance de l’expansion de la protection des
individus dans l’ordre juridique international devint évidente danfs la doc -
trine de l’époque . Comme le dit avec lucidité B. V. A. Röling, la victoire

emportée sur le positivisme juridique avait ceci de rassurant que l’findi -
vidu, titulaire de droits et débiteur d’obligations au plan internfational,

n’était plus à la merci de l’Etat dont il était ressortisfsant:

«Aujourd’hui, l’humanité se tourne instinctivement vers ce droitf
naturel, le droit ayant pour fonction de servir le bien-être de
l’homme, alors que le droit international positif actuel tend à saf
50
destruction. »

44. Cette approche s’inscrivait dans la droite ligne de l’idée exprfimée
par le juge Kotaro Tanaka dans ses opinions jointes aux décisions ren -

dues par la Cour à cette époque, à savoir un droit international transcen -
dant les limites du positivisme juridique , et dès lors à même de répondre

efficacement aux besoins et aspirations de la communauté internationfale
dans son ensemble 5. A la fin des années 1960, le besoin pressant de pro -
téger l’être humain, sur le plan international, tant individuelflement que
53
collectivement se fit sentir ; sauf à assurer une telle protection aux indivi-

48
g. Sperduti, « L’individu et le droit international », RCADI, vol. 90 (1956), p. 824,
821 et 764. L’expérience juridique de l’époque était elle-même en totale contradiction avec
la théorie, dépourvue de fondement, selon laquelle les individus éftaient de simples objets
de l’ordre juridique international, et détruisait d’autres préfjugés du positivisme étatique ;

ibid., p. 821-822; voir également g. Sperduti, L’Individuo nel Diritto Internazionale, milan,
giuffrè Ed., 1950, p. 104-107.
49C. parry, « Some Considerations… », op. cit. supra note 35, p. 722 ; B. V. A. Röling,
International Law in an Expanded World, Amsterdam, djambatan, 1960, p. XXII et 1-2.
50B. V. A. Röling, op. cit. supra note 49, p. 2.
51Voir Y. Saito, « Judge Tanaka, Natural Law and the principle of Equality » ,

The Living Law of Nations — Essays in Memory of A. Grahl‑Madsen (g. Alfredsson
et p. macalister-Smith, dir. publ.), Kehl/Strasbourg, N. p. Engel publ., 1996, p. 401-402
et 405-408 ; K. Tanaka voulait que le droit soit pleinement libéré, à la fois des Etafts
(«comme l’ont soutenu Hegel et ses disciples » ) et de la nation (Völk — comme l’ont
avancé Savigny et puchta ainsi que d’autres juristes de l’« école historique » ) ; ibid.,

p. 452.
Voir V. gowlland-debbas, « Judicial Insights into Fundamental Values and Interests
of the International Community », The International Court of Justice :Its Future Role after
Fifty Years (A. S. muller et al., dir. publ.), La Haye, Kluwer, 1997, p. 344-346.
53Ainsi que cela fut, par exemple, reconnu par la convention-cadre de 1994 pour

la protection des minorités nationales du Conseil de l’Europe (enftrée en vigueur en
février 1998). Voir, par exemple, pour des études générales antérieures, p. Thornberry,
International Law and the Rights of Minorities, Oxford, Clarendon press, 1992 (rééd.),
p. 38-54 ; F. Ermacora, « The protection of minorities before the United Nations »,
RCADI, vol. 182 (1983), p. 257-347.

33

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54
fate of the individual” would be “at the mercy of some Staatsrecht” . In
an essay published in 1967, René Cassin, who had participated in the pre -
paratory process of the elaboration of the Universal declaration of
55
Human Rights of 1948 , stressed the advance represented by the access
of individuals to international instances of protection, secured by manyf
56
human rights treaties .
45. To paul Reuter,

“Individuals become subjects of international law when two basic
conditions are fulfilled, namely, when they are titulaires of rights

established directly by international law, which they can exercise,
and are bearers of obligations sanctioned directly by international
57
law.”

A similar view was upheld by Eduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga, to whom f
“there is nothing inherent to the structure of the international legafl order”
which impedes the recognition to the individuals of rights that emanate f

directly from international law, as well as international remedies for tfhe
protection of those rights 58. Also in this line of reasoning, Julio Barberis

pondered in 1983 that, for individuals to be subjects of law, it is necefssary
that the legal order at issue attributes to them rights or obligations (fas is
59.
the case of international law)

54J. J. Lador-Lederer, International Group Protection, Leyden, Sijthoff, 1968, p. 19.
55As rapporteur of the Working group of the former United Nations Commission on

Human Rights, entrusted with the preparation of the draft declaration (from may 1947
to June 1948).
56In his own thoughtful words,
“if there still subsist on earth great zones where millions of men anfd women, resigned

to their destiny, do not dare to utter the least complaint nor even to cfonceive that
any remedy whatsoever is made possible, those territories diminish day affter day.
The awakening of conscience that an emancipation is possible, becomes infcreasingly
more general . . . The first condition of all justice, namely, the possibility of cornefring
the powerful so as to subject them to . . . public control, is nowadays fulfilled much

more often than in the past . . . The fact that the resignation without hope, that the
wall of silence and that the absence of any remedy are in the process of reduction or
disappearance, opens to moving humanity encouraging perspectives . . .” (R. Cassin,
“Vingt ans après la déclaration universelle”, 8 Revue de la Commission internationale
de juristes (1967), No. 2, pp. 9-10, and cf. pp. 11-17.)

57Thus, as from the moment when the individual is granted a remedy before an organ
of international protection (access to international jurisdiction) andf can thus initiate the
procedure of protection, he becomes subject of international law (p. Reuter, Droit inter‑

national public, 7th. ed., paris, pUF, 1993, pp. 235 and 238, and cf. p. 106).

58E. Jiménez de Aréchaga, El Derecho Internacional Contemporáneo, madrid, Tecnos,
1980, pp. 207-208.
59The subjects of law are, thus, heterogeneous — he added — and theoreticians who

beheld only States as such to be subjects simply distorted reality, failfing to take into
account the transformations undergone by the international community, which came to
admit that non-State actors also possess international legal personalityf (J. A. Barberis,
“Nouvelles questions concernant la personnalité juridique…”,f op. cit. supra note 23,
pp. 161, 169-172, 178 and 181).

34

5 CIJ1021.indb 64 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f24

dus et groupes d’individus, « le sort de l’individu » serait « à la merci de
quelque Staatsrecht » . dans un essai publié en 1967, René Cassin — qui

avait pris part au processus préparatoire d’élaboration de la déclaration
universelle des droits de l’homme de 1948 55— souligna l’avancée que

représentait l’accès des individus aux instances internationales de protec -
tion, garanti par de nombreux traités relatifs aux droits de l’homfme . 56
45. pour paul Reuter,

«Les particuliers deviennent sujets de droit international lorsque

deux conditions fondamentales sont réalisées, à savoir lorsqu’fils sont
titulaires de droits établis directement par le droit international qfu’ils

peuvent exercer, et que leur incombent des obligations sanctionnées
directement par le droit international. » 57

Eduardo Jiménez de Aréchaga mit en avant une idée similaire, estimant

que « rien dans la structure de l’ordre juridique international » ne faisait
obstacle à la reconnaissance, aux individus, de droits découlant dfirecte -

ment du droit international, ainsi que des voies de recours internationafles
permettant de protéger ces droits » 58. dans ce même ordre d’idées,

Julio Barberis fit valoir en 1983 que, pour que les individus soient sujets de
droit, il importe que l’ordre juridique en question leur confère des droits et
des obligations (comme le droit international) 59.

54J. J. Lador-Lederer, International Group Protection, Leyde, Sijthoff, 1968, p. 19.
55En tant que rapporteur du groupe de travail de l’ancienne commission fdes droits
de l’homme des Nations Unies, chargée de la préparation du projet de déclaration (de

mai 1947 à juin 1948).
56Comme le dit fort pertinemment René Cassin :

«s’il subsiste encore sur la terre … de grandes zones où des millions d’hommes et de
femmes résignés à leur destin n’osent pas proférer la moifndre plainte ou même ne
conçoivent pas qu’un recours quelconque soit possible, ces territofires se rétrécissent
de jour en jour. La prise de conscience de ce qu’une émancipation est possible
est devenue de plus en plus générale… [L]a condition première de toute justice,

c’est-à-dire la possibilité d’acculer les puissants à subi… un contrôle public, est
remplie beaucoup plus souvent que jadis… [L]e fait que la résignation sans espoir,
que le mur du silence et que l’absence de tout recours soient en voief de réduction
ou de disparition, ouvre à l’humanité en marche des perspectivefs encourageantes. »
(R. Cassin, « Vingt ans après la déclaration universelle » , Revue de la Commission
o
internationale de juristes, vol. 8 (1967), n, p. 9-10 ; voir également p. 11-17.)
57Ainsi, à partir du moment où l’individu a la possibilité d’introduire un recours devant

un organe international de protection (lorsqu’il a accès à une juridiction internationale) et
qu’il peut en conséquence initier une procédure de protection dfe ses droits, il devient sujet
de droit international (p. Reuter, Droit international public, 7 éd., paris, pUF, 1993, p. 235
et 238 ;voir également p. 106).
58E. Jiménez de Aréchaga, El Derecho Internacional Contemporáneo, madrid, Tecnos,

198059p. 207-208.
Les sujets de droit sont, dès lors, hétérogènes — ajouta-t-il — et les théoriciens qui
soutenaient que seuls les Etats, en tant que tels, étaient des sujetsf de droit déformaient la
réalité, faisant fi des transformations subies par la communauté internationale, qui finit
par reconnaître que les acteurs non étatiques possédaient également une personnalité juri -

dique internationale (J. A. Barberis, « Nouvelles questions concernant la personnalité juri-
dique… »,op. cit. supra note 23, p. 161, 169-172, 178 et 181).

34

5 CIJ1021.indb 65 13/06/13 14:08 525 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

46. In fact, successive studies of instruments of international protec -

tion came to emphasize precisely the historical importance of the recognfi-
tion of the international legal personality of individuals as complaininfg
party before international organs 60. In my own thematic course delivered

at the Hague Academy of International Law in 1987, I pondered that the
continuous expansion of international law is also reflected in the multiple
contemporary mechanisms of international protection of human rights,

the operation of which cannot be dissociated from the new values
acknowledged by the international community. Individuals were at last
enabled “to exercise rights emanating directly from international lawf
(droit des gens)”. And I added :

“In this connection, the insight and conception of Vitoria devel -
oped in his manuscripts of 1532 (made public in 1538-1539) can be
properly recalled in 1987, four-and-a-half centuries later : it was a

conception of a universal law of nations, of individuals socially
organized in States and also composing humanity (. . .) ; redress of
violations of (human) rights, in fulfilment of an international needf,

owed its existence to the law of nations, with the same principles of
justice applying to both States and individuals or peoples forming
them.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

There is a growing and generalized acknowledgement that human
rights, rather than deriving from the State (or from the will of

individuals composing the State), all inhere in the human person, in
whom they find their ultimate point of convergence. (. . .) The non-
observance of human rights entails the international responsibility of
61
States for treatment of the human person.”

47. The international subjectivity of the human being (whether a child,
an elderly person, a person with a disability, a stateless person, or any
other) emerged with all vigour in the international legal thinking of tfhe

60 Cf., e.g., A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the Rule of Exhaustion of Local
Remedies in International Law, Cambridge University press, 1983, pp. 1-445; A. Z. drzem-
czewski, European Human Rights Convention in Domestic Law, Oxford, Clarendon press,
1983, pp. 20-34 and 341 ; F. matscher, “La posizione processuale dell’Individuo come
Ricorrente dinanzi agli Organi della Convenzione Europea dei diritti dell’Uomo”, Studi in

Onore di G. Sperduti, milan, giuffrè Ed., 1984, pp. 601-620; J. A. Carrillo Salcedo, Dignidad
frente a Barbarie — La Declaración Universal de Derechos Humanos, Cincuenta Años ▯
Después, madrid, Ed. Trotta, 1999, pp. 27-145; E.-I. A. daes (rapporteur spécial)La
condition de l’individu et le droit international contemporain, United Nations doc. E/CN.4/
Sub.2/1988/33, of 18 July 1988, pp. 1-92; R. A. mullerson, “Human Rights and the
Individual as Subject of International Law : A Soviet View”, 1 European Journal of Inter ‑
national Law (1990), pp. 33-43.
61 A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Co-existence and Co-ordination of mechanisms of Inter-
national protection of Human Rights (At global and Regional Levels)”, 202 RCADI
(1987), pp. 411-412, and cf. pp. 32-33.

35

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46. En réalité, les études successives des instruments de protectiofn
internationale soulignèrent justement l’importance historique de lfa recon-
naissance de la personnalité juridique internationale des individus efn tant
60
que demandeurs devant des organes internationaux . dans le cours que
je donnais moi-même à l’Académie de droit international de La Haye
en 1987, j’avançais l’idée que l’expansion continue du droitf international

était également reflétée dans les divers mécanismes intfernationaux de
protection des droits de l’homme de l’époque, dont le fonctionnfement
ne pouvait être dissocié des valeurs alors nouvellement reconnues parf
la communauté internationale. Les individus étaient enfin en mesuref

«d’exercer des droits découlant directement du droit international f(droit
des gens)». Et, ajoutai-je :

«A cet égard, les idées et l’approche développées par Vitofria dans
ses écrits de 1532 (diffusés en 1538-1539) peuvent opportunément

être rappelées en 1987, quatre siècles et demi plus tard : il avançait
l’idée d’un droit des gens universel, d’individus organiséfs en société
au sein des Etats et composant également l’humanité… ; la répara -

tion des violations des droits (de l’homme), dans la réalisationf d’un
besoin international, devait son existence au droit des gens, les
mêmes principes de justice s’appliquant aux Etats et aux individusf,

ou aux peuples formant les Etats.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . f . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Il est de plus en plus souvent et généralement admis que les droitfs
de l’homme ne découlent pas de l’Etat (ou de la volonté des individus
composant l’Etat), mais sont tous inhérents à la personne humafine,
en laquelle ils trouvent leur point de convergence ultime… Les Etats f

engagent leur responsabilité internationale en ce qui concerne le trafi-
tement de la personne humaine s’ils ne respectent pas les droits de
l’homme. » 61

47. La subjectivité internationale de l’être humain (qu’il s’fagisse d’un

enfant, d’une personne âgée, d’une personne handicapée, df’un apatride
ou autre) se manifesta avec force dans la pensée juridique internatifonale

60
Voir, par exemple, A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Application of the Rule of
Exhaustion of Local Remedies in International Law, Cambridge University press, 1983,
p. 1-445; A. Z. drzemczewski, European Human Rights Convention in Domestic Law,
Oxford, Clarendon press, 1983, p. 20-34 et 341 ; F. matscher, « La posizione proces -
suale dell’Individuo come Ricorrente dinanzi agli Organi della Convenfzione Europea dei
diritti dell’Uomo », Studi in Onore di G. Sperduti, milan, giuffrè Ed., 1984, p. 601;620
J. A. Carrillo Salcedo, Dignidad frente a Barbarie — La Declaración Universal de Derechos

Humanos, Cincuenta Años Después, madrid, Ed. Trotta, 1999, p. 27-145 ; E.-I. A. daes
(rapporteur spécial), La condition de l’individu et le droit international contemporain,
Nations Unies, doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1988/33, du 18 juillet 1988, p. 1-92 ; R. A. mullerson,
«Human Rights and the Individual as Subject of International Law : A Soviet View »,
European Journal of International Law, vol. 1 (1990), p. 33-43.
61 A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Co-existence and Co-ordination of mechanisms of
International protection of Human Rights (At global and Regional Levels) », RCADI,
vol. 202 (1987), p. 411-412 ; voir également p. 32-33.

35

5 CIJ1021.indb 67 13/06/13 14:08 526 jurisdictional immunifties of the state (sepf. op. cançado trindadef)

twentieth century, as a reaction of the universal juridical conscience
against the successive atrocities committed against the humankind. By

the time that subjectivity so emerged, sovereign immunity had already
been erected, pursuant to an inter-State static outlook, placing States out -
side the reach of law. What was meant to be an exception (immunity)
showed itself as the rule, in the name of “absolute” sovereignty.

48. The advent of the juridical category of the international legal
personality of individuals came to fulfill one of the necessities of the inter -
national community — precisely one which appeared with prominence

— namely, that of providing protection to the human beings who com -
pose it, in particular those who find themselves in a situation of spefcial
vulnerability. Nowadays, if one has, on the one hand, a domestic court
decision such as that of the greek Special Supreme Court in the Margel ‑

los and Others case (2002), one also has, on the other hand, domestic
court decisions such as those of the greek Court of Cassation (Areios
Pagos) in the Distomo Massacre case (2000), and of the Italian Court of
Cassation in the Ferrini v. Federal Republic of Germany case (2004) 62.

49. It has lately become clear that State immunity is not a static
concept, tied up immutably to its historical origins, but that it also rfead -
justs itself within the evolving conceptual universe of contemporary jus
gentium. Furthermore, to the international legal doctrine of the second

half of the twentieth century, it did not pass unnoticed that individuals,
besides being titulaires of rights at international level, also have duties
which are attributed to them by international law itself. The consolida -

tion of the international legal personality of individuals, as active asf well
as passive subjects of international law, enhances accountability in intfer -
national law for abuses perpetrated against human beings. Thus, indi -
viduals are also bearers of duties under international law, and this reflects
63
the consolidation of their international legal personality .

7. Individuals as Titulaires of Rights :

The Historical Significance
of the International Subjectivity of the Individual

50. Ultimately, all law exists for the human being, and the law of
nations is no exception to that, guaranteeing to the individual his righfts

62
decision of 11 march 2004, which held that an Italian national, deported to germany
for forced labour in 1944, was entitled to compensation for such war crifme, as germany
could not claim State immunity in such a case of violation of a peremptofry norm of inter-
nat63nal law (jus cogens).
developments in international legal personality and international accountfability go
hand in hand, and this whole evolution bears witness of the formation off the opinio juris
communis to the effect that the gravity of certain violations of fundamental rfights of the
human person affects directly basic values of the international communfity as a whole.

36

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du XX siècle, la conscience juridique universelle ayant ainsi réagi aux f
atrocités successivement commises à l’encontre du genre humain.f

Lorsque cette subjectivité se fit ainsi jour, l’immunité souveraine avait
déjà été érigée, dans le cadre d’une approche interétatique immuable fqui
plaçait l’Etat hors de portée du droit. Ce qui devait être ufne exception

(l’immunité) s’était transformé en règle, au nom de la souverfaineté
« absolue ».
48. L’avènement de la personnalité juridique internationale des indivi -
dus en tant que catégorie juridique vint satisfaire l’un des besoins — pré-

cisément apparu de manière marquée — de la communauté internationale,
à savoir offrir une protection aux êtres humains qui la composent, spécia -
lement à ceux qui se trouvent dans une situation de particulière vfulnéra -
bilité. Aujourd’hui, s’il y a des décisions de tribunaux internes comme

l’arrêt rendu par le Tribunal supérieur spécial grec en l’affaire Margellos
et autres (2002), il y a aussi des décisions de tribunaux internes telles qufe
celles rendues par la Cour de cassation grecque (Areios Pagos) dans l’af -

faire du Massacre de Distomo (2000) ou par la Cour de cassation italie62e
en l’affaire Ferrini c. République fédérale d’Allemagne (2004) .
49. Il est, ces derniers temps, devenu clair que l’immunité de l’Etfat n’est
pas un concept statique, immuablement ancré dans ses origines historif-

ques, et qu’il s’adapte à l’évolution de l’univers confceptuel du jus gentium
contemporain. de surcroît, durant la seconde moitié du XX e siècle,
la doctrine internationale ne fut pas sans relever que les individus, ouftre
qu’ils sont titulaires de droits au niveau international, sont égaflement

débiteurs d’obligations découlant du droit international lui-même. La
consolidation de la person nalité juridique internationale des individus,
en tant que sujets actifs et passifs du droit international, vient renforcefr en

droit international l’obligation de rendre des comptes à raison defs abus
commis contre des êtres humains. Le droit international impose donc éfgale -
ment des obligations aux individus, ce qui traduit l’affermissementf de leur
personnalité juridique internationale 6.

7. Les individus en tant que titulaires de droits :
la signification historique

de la subjectivité internationale de l’individu

50. En définitive, le droit existe pour l’être humain, et le droift des gens
ne fait pas exception à la règle, puisqu’il garantit à l’findividu ses droits et

62décision du 11 mars 2004, au titre de laquelle il a été jugé qu’un ressortissantf italien,
déporté en Allemagne où il fut astreint au travail forcé en 1944, avait droit à des dommages-
intérêts à raison de ce crime de guerre, l’Allemagne ne pouvfant se prévaloir de son immunité
s’agissant d’une violation d’une norme impérative du droit ifnternational (jus cogens).
63
L’évolution de la personnalité juridique internationale et celle de la responsabilité
internationale vont de pair, et elles témoignent, ensemble, de la forfmation de l’opinio juris
communis, selon laquelle la gravité de certaines violations de droits fondamentaux de la
personne humaine a une incidence directe sur les valeurs fondamentales dfe la communauté
internationale dans son ensemble.

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64
and the respect for his personality . The respect for the individual’s per -
sonality at international level is instrumentalized by the internationalf
right of individual petition. Human rights do assert themselves against fall

forms of domination or arbitrary power. The human being emerges, at
last, even in the most adverse conditions, as the ultimate subject of law,
domestically as well as internationally.

51. The international juridical subjectivity of the human being, as
foreseen by the so-called founders of international law (the droit des
gens), is nowadays a reality. At this beginning of the twenty-first centufry,
this highly significant conquest can be appreciated within the framework

of the historical process of humanization of international law, attentive
to fundamental values and the realization of superior common goals. On
the basis of the right of individual petition is erected the juridical

mechanism of emancipation of the human being vis‑à‑vis his own State
for the protection of his rights in the ambit of the international law off
human rights — an emancipation which comes at last to give an ethical

content to the norms of both domestic public law and international
law 6.
52. No one with sane conscience would deny that individuals effectively

possess rights and have duties which derive directly from international f
law, with which they are thus in direct contact. This evolution — contrib -
uting ultimately to the rule of law at national and international levels —
66
is to be appreciated in a wider dimension . The expansion of international
legal personality, nowadays encompassing that of individuals as active
and passive subjects of international law, goes pari passu with the

acknowledgement of accountability in international law. The universal
juridical conscience — as the ultimate material source of all law — seems
to have awakened to the realization of justice at national and interna -

tional levels. International law has gradually liberated itself from thef
chains of statism, and has again met with the conception of a true, and f
new, jus gentium.

64
F. A. von der Heydte, “L’individu et les tribunaux internationaux”f, 107 RCADI
(1962), p. 301; cf. also, in this respect, e.g., E. m. Borchard, “The Access of Individuals to
International Courts”, 24 American Journal of International Law (1930), pp. 359-365.

65 This is, furthermore, a logical development, as it does not seem reasonafble to con-
ceive rights at international level without the corresponding proceduralf capacity to vindi-
cate them. The recognition of the direct access of the individuals to the international
justice reveals the new primacy, in our days, of the raison de l’humanité over the raison
d’Etat, inspiring the current historical process ohumanization of international law

(A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Humanização do Direito Internacional, Belo Horizonte/Brazil,
Ed.66el Rey, 2006, pp. 3-409).
The subjects of international law have, already for a long time, ceased fto be reduced
to territorial entities. more than six decades ago, as acknowledged in the celebrated Advi -
sory Opinion of the International Court of Justice oReparations for Damages Injuries
Suffered in the Service of the United Nations (1949), the advent of international organiza -
tions had put an end to the States’ monopoly of the international legfal personality and
capacity, with all the juridical consequences which ensued therefrom.

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64
le respect de sa personne . Au plan international, le respect de la per -
sonne est matérialisé par le droit de pétition individuelle. Lefs droits
de l’homme s’affirment contre toute forme de pouvoir, de domination f

ou d’arbitraire. L’être humain émerge enfin — même dans les pires
conditions — en tant que sujet ultime du droit, aussi bien interne qu’in -
ternational.

51. La subjectivité juridique internationale de l’être humain, tellfe
qu’envisagée par les « fondateurs» du droit international (le droit des
gens), est désormais une réalité. En ce début de XXI e siècle, cette victoire

hautement significative peut être appréciée dans le cadre du fprocessus
historique d’humanisation du droit international, lequel s’attache à des
valeurs fondamentales et à la réalisation d’objectifs supérifeurs communs.

Le mécanisme juridique d’émancipation de l’être humain pafr rapport à
son propre Etat aux fins de la protection de ses droits, dans les limiftes du
droit international des droits de l’homme, qui donne enfin un contefnu
65
éthique aux normes du droit public interne et du droit international ,
repose sur le droit de pétition individuelle.

52. Nul ne saurait, en conscience, nier que les individus sont bien titu -
laires de droits et débiteurs d’obligations découlant directemefnt du droit
international, avec lequel ils sont donc directement en contact. Cette éfvo -

lution — qui contribue en définitive à l’Etat de droit au plan nationafl et
international — doit être appréciée dans une perspective plus large 66.
L’expansion de la personnalité juridique internationale, qui englobe

aujourd’hui celle des individus en tant que sujets actifs et passifs fde droit
international, va pari passu avec la reconnaissance de la responsabilité en
droit international. La conscience juridique universelle — comme source

matérielle ultime du droit — semble s’être éveillée à la réalisation de la
justice aux plans national et international. Le droit international s’fest pro -
gressivement libéré des chaînes de l’étatisme et s’estf de nouveau rappro -

ché d’une véritable, et nouvelle, conception du jus gentium.

64 F. A. von der Heydte, « L’individu et les tribunaux internationaux », RCADI,
vol. 107 (1962), p. 301 ; voir également, à cet égard, par exemple, E. m. Borchard,The
Access of Individuals to International Courts »,American Journal of International Law,

vol6524 (1930), p. 359-365.
Il s’agit là, de surcroît, d’une évolution logique, en ce qu’il n’apparaît pas r-ison
nable de concevoir des droits au plan international sans que la faculté correspondante de
les faire valoir existe. La reconnaissance de l’accès direct des individus à la justice finter -
nationale traduit le fait nouveau que, de nos jours, la raison de l’hfumanité prime sur la
raison d’Etat, inspirant le processus historique actuel d’humanisation du droit international
(A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Humanização do Direito Internacional, Belo Horizonte/Brésil,
Ed. del Rey, 2006, p. 3-409).
66
depuis longtemps déjà, les sujets du droit international ne sont plus uniquement les
entités territoriales. Il y a plus de soixante ans, ainsi que cela a été reconnu dans le célèbre
avis consultatif de la Cour relatif à la Réparation des dommages subis au service des Nations
Unies (1949), l’avènement des organisations internationales avait misf un terme au mono -
pole des Etats en ce qui concerne la personnalité et la capacité juridiques internationales,
avec toutes les conséquences qui s’ensuivent sur le plan du droit.f

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8. General Assessment

53. From all the aforementioned it can be seen, in the factual context

of the present case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State,
that the individuals concerned (private claimants) have had formal access
to domestic courts (in greece and Italy) as well as to an international
tribunal (the European Court of Human Rights) ; yet, they do not seem

to feel that they have found justice to date (material access to justice),
and they keep on seeking compensation for the wrongs suffered in the
past. As for the States concerned, they have had access to this Court —
the contending parties in the main case (germany and Italy), as well as
the intervening State (greece).

54. The Court has now before a case concerning the jurisdictional
immunities of the State, with repercussions to all titulaires of rights, States
and individuals alike. This is a case which has a direct bearing on the f
evolution of international law in our times. There is no reason for keepf -

ing on overworking the rights of States while at the same time overlook -
ing the rights of individuals. One and the other are meant to develop pari
passu in our days, attentive to superior common values. State immunity
and the fundamental rights of the human person are not to exclude
each other, as that would make immunity unacceptably tantamount to

impunity.

V. Concluding Observationfs: The R esuRRectio of Intervention

in Contemporary Interfnational Litigation

55. germany, a party to the main case, has asked the Court to pro -
nounce on Italy’s conduct also in respect of judgments delivered by greek
Courts (seeking the upholding of jurisdictional immunities). Whichever

Judgment the Court comes to deliver in the present case, it is bound to f
have a direct effect on greece. It is bound to affect third States. It is hard
to see how greece could not claim to have an interest of a legal nature in
such circumstances. An interest in the enforceability in a foreign Statef of
judgments of a State’s own judiciary appears to fall squarely within fthe

concept of an interest of a legal nature of the would-be intervening State.
In sum, in my perception, greece has demonstrated that it has an interest
of a legal nature that may indeed be affected by the Court’s Judgment in
the present case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State,
opposing germany to Italy.

56. In the ambit of the circumstances of the present case, intervention
has at last seen the light of the day. In a very recent case wherein it was
likewise requested, but not granted, concern was expressed, within the
Court, as to the need of a more proactive attitude of the ICJ as to the f

institution of intervention (under Article 62 of the ICJ Statute) in inter-

38

5 CIJ1021.indb 72 13/06/13 14:08 immunités juridictionfnelles de l’état (op. ifnd. cançado trindade)5f28

8. Appréciation générale

53. Il ressort de tout ce qui précède que, dans le contexte factuel def la

présente affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat, les indi-
vidus concernés (les requérants individuels) ont eu formellement accès à
des juridictions internes (en grèce et en Italie) ainsi qu’à une juridiction
internationale (la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme) ; ils ne sem-
blent cependant pas considérer qu’ils ont obtenu justice (en ayant
matériellement accès à la justice), et ne cessent de chercher à obtenir réfpa -

ration des dommages qu’ils ont subis par le passé. Les Etats en cause,
qu’il s’agisse des parties à la procédure principale (l’Allemagne et l’Italie)f
ou de l’Etat intervenant (la grèce), ont quant à eux eu accès à la présente
Cour.
54. L’affaire dont la Cour est aujourd’hui saisie a trait aux immuniftés

juridictionnelles de l’Etat ; elle a des répercussions pour tous les titulaires
de droits, Etats comme individus. Cette affaire a une incidence directfe sur
l’évolution du droit international contemporain. Rien ne justifife de conti -
nuer à s’appesantir sur les droits des Etats tout en négligeantf les droits
des individus. Les uns et les autres doivent aujourd’hui se développerf

pari passu, dans le respect de valeurs communes supérieures. L’immunité
de l’Etat et les droits fondamentaux de la personne humaine ne doivenft
pas s’exclure l’un l’autre, au risque — inacceptable — d’assimiler l’immu -
nité à l’impunité.

V. Observations finales : la résurrection de l’fintervention
dans le contentieux ifnternational contemfporain

55. L’Allemagne, partie à la procédure principale, a également prié la

Cour de se prononcer sur le comportement de l’Italie en ce qui concerfne
des jugements rendus par des tribunaux grecs (en vue de voir son immu -
nité de juridiction confirmée). Quelle que soit la décision fque la Cour ren-
dra en la présente affaire, elle aura nécessairement un effet fdirect sur la
grèce: elle affectera nécessairement des Etats tiers. On voit mal commenft

la grèce pourrait dans de telles circonstances ne pas revendiquer un intéf -
rêt d’ordre juridique. Un intérêt se rapportant à l’exécution dans un Etat
étranger de décisions rendues par ses tribunaux semble s’inscrifre parfaite -
ment dans la notion d’intérêt d’ordre juridique de l’Etatf souhaitant inter-
venir. En résumé, la grèce a selon moi démontré qu’elle possédait un
intérêt d’ordre juridique effectivement susceptible d’êftre affecté par l’arrêt

que la Cour rendra en l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de
l’Etat opposant l’Allemagne à l’Italie.
56. dans le contexte de la présente affaire, l’intervention a enfinf vu la
lumière du jour. dans une très récente affaire, en laquelle des demandes
d’intervention avaient également été présentées (sans être admises), cer -

tains membres de la Cour ont fait valoir que la Cour devait être plusf
volontariste en ce qui concerne l’institution de l’intervention (fau titre de

38

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67
national litigation . The same hope has been expressed in expert writing
in recent years as to the need for a more liberal attitude of the ICJ in rela -
tion to aspects of intervention 68. In the history of the ICJ, intervention

has never died, though it lay dormant in the peace palace for most of the
time of the Court’s history.

57. Twice before, permission to intervene was granted by the ICJ : by
its Chamber, in the case concerning the Land, Island and Maritime Fron ‑
tier Dispute between El Salvador and Honduras (Application by Nicara -

gua for permission to intervene, Judgment of 13 September 1990) (I.C.J.
Reports 1990, p. 92), and by the full Court itself, in the case concerning

the Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria,
wherein, by its Order of 21 October 1999 (I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II),
p. 1029), it authorized Equatorial guinea to intervene. Both cases con -

cerned land and maritime boundaries. This time, with the Order it adoptsf
today, 4 July 2011, the ICJ grants to greece permission to intervene in

the case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State, a domain
of great importance in and for the development of contemporary inter-

67 Territorial and Maritime Dispute(Nicaragua v. Colombia), Application by Costa Rica
for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II); joint dissenting opinion of

Jud68s Cançado Trindade and Yusuf, pp. 401-413, paras. 1-29.
Cf., e.g., S. Rosenne, Intervention in the International Court of Justice, dordrecht,
Nijhoff, 1993, pp. 79 and 104 (as to consent and to jurisdictional link); J. m. Ruda, “Inter
vention before the International Court of Justice”, Fifty Years of the International Court of
Justice — Essays in Honour of R. Jennings (eds. V. Lowe and m. Fitzmaurice),
Cambridge University press, 1996, p. 495 (no need of additional consent) ; K. mbaye,

“L’intérêt pour agir devant la Cour internationale de Justicfe”, 209 RCADI (1988),
pp. 340-341 (beyond consent) ; S. Torres Bernárdez, “L’intervention dans la procédure de
la Cour internationale de Justice”, 256 RCADI (1995), pp. 213-214, 223, 230-233, 252, 259
and 437 ; S. Rosenne, “Some Reflections on Intervention in the International Coufrt of
Justice”, 34 Netherlands International Law Review (1987), p. 89; E. decaux, “La juridiction

internationale permanente — L’intervention”, La juridiction internationale permanente
(SFdI — Colloque de Lyon), paris, pedone, 1987, pp. 219, 223, 229 and 255 ; A. J. J. de
Hoogh, “Intervention under Article 62 of the Statute and the Quest for Incidental Jurisdic-
tion without the Consent of the principal parties”, 6 Leiden Journal of International Law
(1993), pp. 17-46 ; R. St. J. macdonald and V. Hughes, “Intervention before the Interna -
tional Court of Justice”, 5 African Journal of International and Comparative Law (1993),

p. 33; d. W. greig, “Third party Rights and Intervention before the International Court”,
32 Virginia Journal of International Law (1992), pp. 289, 334, 352 and 367 ; J. g. Starke,
“Locus Standi of a Third State to Intervene in Contentious proceedings before the Inter-
national Court of Justice”, 58 Australian Law Journal (1984), p. 358 (as to “jurisdictional
links”); p. palchetti, “Opening the International Court of Justice to Third Statesf : Inter-

vention and Beyond”, 6 Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law (2002), pp. 158, 160
and 180-181 ; C. Chinkin, “Third-party Intervention before the International Court of
Justice”, 80 American Journal of International Law (1986), pp. 500-502, 515, 519 and 525 ;
g. Sperduti, “L’intervention de l’Etat tiers dans le procès intfernational : une nouvelle
orientation”, 31 Annuaire français de droit international (1985), pp. 288-290 and 293 ;

T. Licari, “Intervention under Article 62 of the Statute of the ICJ”, 8 Brooklyn Journal of
International Law (1982), pp. 286-287 ; g. morelli, “Note sull’Intervento nel processo
Internazionale”, 65 Rivista di Diritto Internazionale (1982), pp. 805-806, 808, 811 and 814
(widening dispute-settlement).

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67
l’article 62 du Statut) . Ce souhait de voir la Cour adopter une approche
plus libérale relativement à certains aspects de l’intervention a aussi
été récemment exprimé par divers auteurs 68. dans l’histoire de la Cour,

l’intervention n’est jamais morte, bien qu’elle soit demeuréfe en sommeil
au palais de la paix durant la plus grande partie de cette histoire.

57. par deux fois, la Cour a admis des demandes d’intervention : l’une
de ses Chambres l’a fait en l’affaire relative au Différend frontalierterrestre,
insulaire et maritime entre El Salvador et le Honduras (requête du Nicara -

gua à fin d’intervention, arrêt du 13 septembre 1990) (C.I.J. Recueil 1990,
p. 92) et la Cour plénière l’a elle-même fait en l’affaire relative à la Fron ‑

tière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria, dans son ordon-
nance du 21 octobre 1999 (C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II), p. 1029) autorisant la
guinée équatoriale à intervenir. Ces deux affaires avaient trait à des fron -

tières terrestres et maritimes. Cette fois, avec l’ordonnance qu’elle a adop-
tée ce 4 juillet 2011, la Cour autorise la grèce à intervenir en l’affaire

relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat, domaine revêtant une très
grande importance dans le développement du droit international contemf -

67Différend territorial et maritime ((Nicaragua c. Colombie), requête du Costa Rica à
fin d’intervention, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II); opinion dissidente commune de mm. les

juge68Cançado Trindade et Yusuf, p. 401-413, par. 1-29.
Voir, par exemple, S. Rosenne, Intervention in the International Court of Justice,
dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1993, p. 79 et 104 (en ce qui concerne le consentement et le lien
juridictionnel); J. m. Ruda, « Intervention before the International Court of Justice »,
Fifty Years of the International Court of Justice — Essays in Honour of R. Jennings
(V. Lowe et m. Fitzmaurice, dir. publ.), Cambridge University press, 1996, p. 495

(non-lieu à consentement additionnel) ; K. mbaye, « L’intérêt pour agir devant la Cour
internationale de Justice »,RCADI, vol. 209 (1988), p. 340-341 (au-delà du consentement) ;
S. Torres Bernárdez, « L’intervention dans la procédure de la Cour internationale de
Justice », RCADI, vol. 256 (1995), p. 213-214, 223, 230-233, 252, 259 et 437 ; S. Rosenne,
«Some Reflections on Intervention in the International Court of Justicef », Netherlands

International Law Review, vol. 34 (1987), p. 89; E. decaux, « La juridiction internationale
permanente — L’intervention »,La juridiction internationale permanente (SFdI — colloque
de Lyon), paris, pedone, 1987, p. 219, 223, 229 et 255 ; A. J. J. de Hoogh, « Intervention
under Article 62 of the Statute and the Quest for Incidental Jurisdiction without the
Consent of the principal parties », Leiden Journal of International Law, vol. 6 (1993),
p. 17-46; R. St. J. macdonald et V. Hughes, « Intervention before the International Court

of Justice », African Journal of International and Comparative Law, vol. 5 (1993), p. 33 ;
d. W. greig, « Third party Rights and Intervention before the International Court »,
Virginia Journal of International Law, vol. 32 (1992), p. 289, 334, 352 et 367 ; J. g. Starke,
«Locus Standi of a Third State to Intervene in Contentious proceedings before the Inter -
national Court of Justice », Australian Law Journal, vol. 58 (1984), p. 358 (en ce qui

concerne les « liens juridictionnels »); p. palchetti, « Opening the International Court of
Justice to Third States : Intervention and Beyond », Max Planck Yearbook of United
Nations Law, vol. 6 (2002), p. 158, 160 et 180-181 ; C. Chinkin, « Third-party Intervention
before the International Court of Justice », American Journal of International Law,
vol. 80 (1986), p. 500-502, 515, 519 et 525; g. Sperduti, «L’intervention de l’Etat tiers dans

le procès international : une nouvelle orientation », Annuaire français de droit international,
vol. 31 (1985), p. 288-290 et 293; T. Licari, «Intervention under Article 62 of the Statute of
the ICJ », Brooklyn Journal of International Law, vol. 8 (1982), p. 286-287 ; g. morelli,
«Note sull’Intervento nel processo Internazionale », Rivista di Diritto Internazionale,
vol. 65 (1982), p. 805-806, 808, 811 et 814 (élargissant le règlement des différends).

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national law. The Court has so decided at the height of its responsibilifties
as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations (Article 92 of the

UN Charter).
58. Unlike land and maritime delimitation cases, or other cases con -
cerning predominantly bilateralized issues, the present case is of interfest
to third States — such as greece — other than the two contending par-
ties before the Court. The subject-matter is closely related to the evolu -

tion of international law itself in our times, being of relevance, ultimfately,
to all States, to the international community as a whole, and, in my perf -
ception, pointing towards an evolution into a true universal international
law.
59. The Court has found, in resolutory point (1) of the dispositif, and
the corresponding reasoning of the present Order, that this is a clear cfase

for intervention as a non-party under Article 62 of the ICJ Statute. In
sum, greece’s Application for permission to intervene fits squarely withifn
the requisites for intervention set forth under Article 62 of the Court’s
Statute. By granting to greece permission to intervene, the present Order
of the Court gives a proper expression to the principle of la bonne admi‑

nistration de la justice in the context of the cas d’espèce.
60. The present case also leaves as a lesson that we cannot approach a
matter like that of the jurisdictional immunities of the State, in circufm -
stances such as the present ones (having as factual origin grave breachfes
of human rights and international humanitarian law), from a strictly

inter-State dimension. In the present proceedings before the Court, con -
sideration has been given to States as titulaires of rights, as well as to
individuals as titulaires of rights. Even in a recent, individualized case,
such as that of Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic
Republic of the Congo) (Judgment of 30 November 2010), the facts under -
lying that dispute before the ICJ concerned ultimately the treatment disf -

pensed to an individual, the rights of an individual, as I pointed out ifn my
lengthy separate opinion (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 729-811, paras. 1-245)
in that case.

61. States, as well as individuals, are subjects of international law. The

outcome of the Court’s decision in the present Order in the case concern -
ing the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State, of historical importance,
shows that intervention in contemporary international litigation is alive
and well : it has at last seen the light of the day. What we behold today,
here at the peace palace, is a true resurrectio of intervention in present-day

international litigation ; its resurgere from its long sleep may come to
satisfy the needs not only of the States concerned, but of the individuafls
concerned as well, and ultimately of the international community as a
whole, in the conceptual universe of the new jus gentium of our times.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

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porain et aux fins de celui-ci. La Cour en a ainsi décidé en exerçant toutes
ses responsabilités en tant qu’organe judiciaire principal des Natfions Unies

(article 92 de la Charte des Nations Unies).
58. Contrairement aux affaires de délimitation terrestre et maritime, ofu
à d’autres affaires portant principalement sur des questions bilfatérales, la
présente affaire revêt un intérêt pour les Etats tiers, cofmme la grèce,
autres que les deux parties en litige devant la Cour. Le sujet est étroite -

ment lié à l’évolution actuelle du droit international lui-même en ce qu’il
intéresse, en définitive, tous les Etats, la communauté interfnationale dans
son ensemble, et, selon moi, va dans le sens d’une évolution vers fun droit
international véritablement universel.
59. La Cour a jugé, au point 1) du dispositif de la présente ordon -
nance, et dans les motifs y relatifs, qu’il s’agissait d’une affaire se prêtant

clairement à l’intervention en tant que non-partie en vertu de l’article 62
de son Statut. En résumé, la demande d’intervention de la grèce satisfait
parfaitement les conditions de l’intervention énoncées à l’farticle 62 du
Statut. En autorisant la grèce à intervenir, la présente ordonnance de la
Cour donne effet comme il convient au principe de la bonne administra -

tion de la justice dans le contexte du cas d’espèce.
60. La présente affaire aura également montré que l’on ne saurfait abor -
der une question comme les immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat, fdans
des circonstances telles qu’elles se présentent en l’espèce (pufisant leur
origine dans de graves violations des droits de l’homme et du droit inter -

national humanitaire), d’un point de vue purement interétatique. fdans la
procédure dont connaît actuellement la Cour, il a été tenu compte des
Etats comme titulaires de droits, mais aussi des individus comme titulaifres
de droits. même dans une récente affaire qui concernait un individu, telle
que l’affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République
démocratique du Congo) (arrêt du 30 novembre 2010), les faits sous-

tendant le différend porté devant la Cour avaient trait, en définitfive, au
traitement auquel avait été soumis un individu, aux droits d’unf individu,
ainsi que je l’ai indiqué dans la longue opinion individuelle (C.I.J. Recueil
2010 (II), p. 729-811 par. 1-245) que j’ai jointe à l’arrêt en question.
61. Les Etats, comme les individus, sont des sujets de droit internatio -

nal. La conclusion à laquelle la Cour est parvenue dans la présentfe ordon -
nance en l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat, qui
revêt une importance historique, montre que, dans le cadre des procèfs
internationaux contemporains, l’intervention se porte bien : elle a enfin
revu le jour. Nous assistons aujourd’hui, au palais de la paix, à une véri -

table résurrection de l’intervention dans le contentieux internatifonal
contemporain; le fait qu’elle resurgisse après un long sommeil pourrait
satisfaire les besoins non seulement des Etats, mais également des infdivi -
dus concernés et, en définitive, de la communauté internationfale dans son
ensemble, dans l’univers conceptuel du nouveau jus gentium.

(Signé) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

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5 CIJ1021.indb 77 13/06/13 14:08

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Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

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