Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Sur

Document Number
144-20090528-ORD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
144-20090528-ORD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC SUR

[Translation]

Agreement with the operative part of the Order — Points concerning
the position of a judge ad hoc — No analysis of the change in substance of
Belgium’s request for the indication of provisional measures — Need to
respond to the Parties on their arguments — Method by which the Court
examines the preconditions for the exercise of its power to indicate
provisional measures — Article 41 of the Statute gives the Court an
independent power not subject to a prerequisite showing of the partiecon-
sent — Replace the affirmative demonstration of prima facie jurisdictiand
admissibility required by current practice with a negative demonstration —
Limited to a finding that the Court is not manifestly without jurisdiction and
that the Application is not manifestly inadmissible — Disappearance of the sub-

ject of the dispute.

1. I have voted in favour of the decision of the Court in the present
Order, sharing in the conviction held by nearly all Members of the Court

that there is no need, on the grounds set out in the reasoning in the
Order, for the provisional measures sought by Belgium to guarantee that
Mr. Habré remains under the surveillance and control of the Senegalese
authorities. My purpose in this separate opinion is simply to make sev-
eral points; these have to do, first, with the special position occupied by

a judge ad hoc, then with the method followed by the Court in laying the
groundwork for its decision and finally with the question of whether or
not there is still a dispute between Belgium and Senegal in the present case.

T HE POSITION OF A JUDGE AD HOC

2. A judge ad hoc is in every sense a judge, not the representative or
advocate of the party having chosen him, but he is a judge for the occa-
sion, not a permanent judge. As Judge ad hoc Lauterpacht pointed out in
his separate opinion appended to the Court’s Order of 13 September
1993 in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Preven-

tion and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herze-
govina v. Yugoslavia) (Serbia and Montenegro) :

“consistently with the duty of impartiality by which the ad hoc judge
is bound, there is still something specific that distinguishes his role.
He has, I believe, the special obligation to endeavour to ensure that,
so far as is reasonable, every relevant argument in favour of the

party that has appointed him has been fully appreciated in the
course of collegial consideration and, ultimately, is reflected —

66 though not necessarily accepted — in any separate or dissenting
opinion that he may write.” (Provisional Measures, Order of 13 Sep-

tember 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993 , p. 409, para. 6.)

I subscribe to this analysis. I would only add my view that, for a judge
ad hoc to ensure the proper hearing and appreciation of the arguments
put forward by the party having chosen him, it is not enough for him

merely to express his own opinion, be it separate or dissenting, since in
this case the arguments are simply reflected in an opinion appended to
the decision; he is also under a duty to do his utmost to ensure that they
figure in the decision itself, even if they are not upheld. It is only insofar

as he does not succeed in this that he should give voice personally to
those arguments. Generally, a judge ad hoc is more naturally inclined to
see things from the parties’ perspective; he is in a position to appreciate
more fully how a decision will affect the parties and how they will per-
ceive it. Thus, he helps to ensure that, in keeping with the age-old maxim,

justice is not only fair but also seen to be fair.

3. On this point, I have only one regret to express: that the Court did
not consider it worthwhile to draw attention to the change in substance
of Belgium’s request for the indication of provisional measures and to

note the significance of this. In replacing control by “Senegalese judicial
authorities” with control by “Senegalese authorities”, Belgium signifi-
cantly changed the purport of its request. Under Senegalese law, placing
Mr. Habré under judicial supervision would have been possible only
if he had been criminally charged and such a charge would have been

tantamount to granting Belgium the relief sought in one of its
principal claims, i.e., Mr. Habré’s prosecution by Senegal. Had this
relief been awarded, Belgium would have secured by provisional
measures what it is seeking on the merits, thereby prejudging any
future decision on the merits, notwithstanding that the Court’s

decision on jurisdiction and the admissibility of the Application is no
more than prima facie. The relief thus sought manifestly exceeded
the permissible bounds of provisional measures and this argument,
propounded by Senegal at the hearings, would appear to have
prompted Belgium to amend the terms of its request to seek only

“control [by] the Senegalese authorities”, meaning administrative
control and surveillance. Let it be added that the “Convention
against Torture”, invoked by Belgium as the basis for its request,
provides only for the States parties to take “legal measures to ensure
[the suspect’s] presence”, “as provided in the law” of those States,

not for judicial control (Art. 6, para. 1). As Mr. Habré is already
subject to administrative control, the final submission amounted to a
request for such control to be made permanent, rather than for
a new judicial measure required of Senegal.

67 4. The Court has confined itself to implicitly acknowledging this change

in the introductory paragraphs of its reasoning (paragraphs 15 and 34 of
the Order), wherein it sets out the Parties’ positions, and to considering
only Belgium’s final submission, saying nothing at all in its own analysis
(paragraphs 56 to 73 of the Order) about the existence and significance of
this change. However, the statement of reasoning should do more than

just restate and organize the conflicting positions expressed in the written
and oral proceedings; it should also set out the steps in the Court’s logic
and respond to the Parties on the arguments they have put forward.
Thus, the arguments Senegal propounded on the initial request in the

hearings — although Belgium has offered no explanation on the subject,
those arguments in all likelihood led it to amend that request — have
from all appearances been ignored. This is to be regretted inasmuch as it
is important, vis-à-vis the Parties’ perception of the soundness of the

Court’s decisions, for those decisions to lay out the positions of the
Parties fully and objectively and to offer assurance that the Parties’ views
have been given thorough consideration. This is especially important in
the present case, in which the Parties’ positions on other points evolved

during the hearings and these other changes are reflected in the decision.
In my view, to achieve this desirable result it would have been sufficient
for the Court to note in paragraph 60 or paragraph 61: that as a result of
Belgium’s modification of its request in the course of the hearings, it was

no longer a question of forcing Senegal to take a new approach to
Mr. Habré, but instead simply of making it mandatory under interna-
tional law for Senegal to maintain its present approach; that Belgium
was at liberty to amend the terms of its request; and that the Court ruled
on the request as thus amended. As the Court determines its jurisdiction

as of the filing of the Application and assesses a request for provisional
measures as of the time of deliberation, it would have been helpful to
draw attention to this difference.

T HE M ETHOD FOLLOWED BY THE C OURT

5. This is especially important given the increasing number of requests

for the indication of provisional measures; regardless of their content,
these often betoken a litigation strategy aimed at enabling a party whose
request for provisional measures is granted to secure an advantage — at
least a psychological one — in later proceedings. This fact moreover

leads the Court to weigh very carefully those circumstances under which
it will grant such measures, whose binding force has by now been firmly
established (LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 506, para. 109). Fortunately, the work of ration-
alizing the granting of provisional measures through the jurisprudence in

response to the growing number of requests facing the Court, a task
begun a number of years and decisions ago, has by now been accom-
plished and the method followed in the present Order illustrates it. The

68Court has been particularly attentive to the manner in which it has set
out its chain of reasoning and has exercised the utmost care and vigilance

in its choice of words to describe the steps to be followed in the exercise
of its power to indicate provisional measures, as established in Article 41
of the Statute of the Court. It has elaborated more on what it considers
to be the essential preconditions for the exercise of the power than on the
power itself. Thus, 22 paragraphs are devoted to the conditions and 12 to

the exercise of the power in the present circumstances.

6. The Court has thereby made clear its concern to take the greatest

possible account of State consent to its jurisdiction by carefully consid-
ering its jurisdiction and the admissibility of the Application, even prima
facie. It considers it particularly important to do so, given that the bind-
ing force of provisional measures is now beyond doubt and the Court
feels itself duty-bound to ascertain that the exercise of its power to indi-

cate provisional measures is founded on bases which are plausible at the
outset. Yet it might be asked whether the Court is not overcautious on
this point and whether this cautiousness may not actually lead to out-
comes that can subsequently be seen as adversely affecting how its deci-
sions are perceived.

7. Before turning to that question, a preliminary one: may a judge ad
hoc issue an opinion on points concerning the jurisprudence and extend-
ing beyond the scope of the specific case before the Court? Should he not
confine himself to the case for which he has been chosen without ventur-
ing into broader issues? He undoubtedly may do so, since he is a judge

and since the entirety of the case before the Court and the Court’s
method in addressing it are of full concern to him. It is especially clear
that he may, since his duty is not to represent the party which chose him
but to don the mantle of independence and objectivity borne by all
judges, even though he may be subjectively inclined, no doubt uninten-

tionally, to have a particular interest in seeing that the positions of that
party are given fair consideration. He may even be freer in the general
opinions he expresses than a permanent judge, as he is less constrained by
the settled jurisprudence and freer to explore alternative paths.

8. To return to the Court’s possibly excessive cautiousness in respect
of the conditions for exercising its power under Article 41, it will be
observed that the Court’s power under this Article is truly independent;
as such, it is not subject to any prerequisite demonstration that the
parties have consented to the Court’s jurisdiction. In other words, this

power derives from the Statute, not from the consent of the parties. In
this respect it is similar to that conferred on the Court by Article 36,
paragraph 6, of the Statute, i.e., the power to decide whether it has juris-
diction in the face of a challenge by one of the parties: “In the event of a

dispute as to whether the Court has jurisdiction, the matter shall be set-
tled by the decision of the Court.” Along the same lines, all that Arti-

69cle 41 demands of the Court is that it satisfy itself that the circumstances
of the case require the indication of provisional measures to preserve the

respective rights of either party. While the Court may of course include
among these circumstances the likelihood that it has jurisdiction and that
the Application is admissible, nothing strictly requires it to do so.
9. It would no doubt be pointless and even risky for the Court to indi-
cate provisional measures when its jurisdiction is clearly lacking, because

for example: there is no express basis for it, no unilateral declaration
under Article 36, paragraph 2, recognizing the Court’s jurisdiction; or a
reservation clearly excludes it; or there is no compromissory clause in a
treaty; or a party has rejected such a clause. The Court’s lack of jurisdic-

tion in these cases is manifest, as would be the inadmissibility of an appli-
cation founded on a treaty not in force, or brought against a State that is
not party to the treaty in question and has not assumed the obligations
under it. But the Court could satisfy itself in other situations with a find-
ing that it does not manifestly lack jurisdiction, because there is an

express basis of jurisdiction which it can rely on, and that the Application
is not manifestly inadmissible, to conclude that under these circum-
stances it is empowered to exercise its independent power, either at the
request of a party or on its own motion. In such cases it would focus its
examination of the need for provisional measures on the actual substance

of the request and on the factors which may make such measures essen-
tial, that is to say, urgency, the importance of the rights to be preserved,
and the risk of irreparable injury if no such measures are ordered.

10. The Court would thus replace the affirmative showing required by

its current practice — that it has prima facie jurisdiction and the Applica-
tion is prima facie admissible — with a negative showing — that it is not
manifestly without jurisdiction and the Application is not manifestly
inadmissible. This simplification would not appear to present any draw-
backs in cases where the Court holds that provisional measures are not

necessary, where, in other words, it rejects a request for them. But what
about cases where it decides to order such measures, with the risk that it
might later conclude that it lacks jurisdiction or that the Application is
inadmissible? The situation would be no different from that now prevail-
ing, because a prima facie examination leading to provisional findings in

the affirmative may very well fail to be confirmed subsequently. The
resulting drawback would however be less important here, because the
Court would have committed itself to a lesser degree and would not run
the risk of being seen to have taken inconsistent positions.
11. True, a prima facie examination does not prejudge subsequent

questions, as the Court regularly points out – for example, in para-
graph 74 of the present Order. But, first, it is not easy — and that much
harder for non-specialists — to distinguish between matters within the
scope of prima facie examination and those within the scope of in-depth

examination. A perception may arise that the line between them is vague,
shifting, and dependent on the circumstances, and a two-fold risk thereby

70ensues: that in fact a presumption of jurisdiction or admissibility is cre-

ated when these are found prima facie; and that there then arises a sense
of inconsistency in the Court’s case law if the Court, having found juris-
diction and admissibility prima facie, then goes on ultimately to deny
them. This would be liable to produce, mutatis mutandis, the situation,
unfortunate in all regards, in which the Court found itself after the Judg-

ment in the South West Africa case in 1966 ((Ethiopia v. South Africa;
Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966 ,
p. 292).
12. Were it to limit itself to a simple, summary analysis, rejecting the

possibility of ordering provisional measures only if it deemed itself mani-
festly without jurisdiction or the Application manifestly inadmissible, the
Court would also be able to devote more time and attention to all of the
circumstances, legal and factual, which might make such measures essen-

tial, thereby fully meeting the requirements of Article 41; it would do so
instead of conducting the initial examination of jurisdiction and admis-
sibility, in respect of which the starting-point is clear but the end-point
much less so. One might even venture to presuppose that an examination

of manifest lack of jurisdiction and manifest inadmissibility would not
necessarily differ much from current practice. Yet, by taking a negative
instead of affirmative provisional position, the Court would ward off all
criticism as to inconsistency in judgment, if not even reversal of position.

It would moreover be acting more in keeping with Article 41 of the Stat-
ute, and the Rules of Court, which also say nothing about issues of juris-
diction and admissibility in connection with provisional measures
(Arts. 73-78 of the Rules of Court). To reach this point, the Court’s juris-
prudence would have to evolve — but there have already been significant

developments in the law of provisional measures against the backdrop of
the growing role played by international courts.

T HE D ISAPPEARANCE OF THE S UBJECT OF THE D ISPUTE

13. Without now entering into an in-depth examination of the issue of
whether a dispute existed between Belgium and Senegal when the Appli-

cation was filed, we can ask whether any such dispute still existed when
the decision on the Order was made. It is appropriate here to reflect on
the very concept of a justiciable dispute, which it is the Court’s function,
in the words of Article 38, paragraph 1, of the Statute, “to decide in

accordance with international law” — that is to say, that the Court must
concern itself with the actual dispute laid before it, not make general,
abstract pronouncements of law, the scope of which would in any event
be limited by the fact that the doctrine of res judicata restricts the binding
force of a decision to the parties. In the present case, while Belgium main-

tains that Senegal has violated the Convention against Torture by failing
to prosecute Mr. Habré, if not extradite him, or by excessively delaying
the prosecution, it does not ask the Court in its Application to find this

71alleged violation. The relief it seeks is declaratory in nature and aims at a
statement by the Court that Senegal is under an obligation to prosecute

Mr. Habré or, failing which, to extradite him. But it is clear that, assum-
ing there to have been possible uncertainty on this subject when the
Application was filed, the judicial debate has, in my opinion, shown that
there was no dispute, or there is no longer any, between the Parties on
these points.

14. I find the following statement in paragraph 48 of the Order to be
inappropriate:

“the Parties nonetheless seem to continue to differ on other ques-
tions relating to the interpretation or application of the Convention
against Torture, such as that of the time frame within which the
obligations provided for in Article 7 must be fulfilled or that of the

circumstances (financial, legal or other difficulties) which might be
relevant in considering whether or not a failure to fulfil those obli-
gations has occurred; whereas, moreover, the Parties seem to con-
tinue to hold differing views as to how Senegal should fulfil its treaty
obligations”.

These differences are not the subject-matter of the claim presented by
Belgium but merely elements of the grounds supporting its Application.

While the view may no doubt be taken, in reliance on the seminal deci-
sion in the Mavrommatis case, that “[a] dispute is a disagreement on a
point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or of interests between two
persons” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 , p. 11), deeper analysis of the jurisprudence

points to a narrower meaning of “dispute”, at least when seen from the
judicial perspective. As Professor Jean Combacau has written in sum-
marizing this analysis,

“disagreements, conflicts . . . constitute disputes only if they emerge
in connection with a claim asserted by one State against another and
rejected by the second; neither abstract debates . . . nor even differ-
ing judgments as to the behaviour that should be adopted in a given

situation fall within the category of international dispute: the con-
cept of international dispute implies the assertion of conflicting
claims, not just arguments; and a dispute arises only where one State
demands certain conduct on the part of another and meets with a
refusal” (Jean Combacau and Serge Sur, Droit international public ,

8th ed., 2008, p. 556) [translation by the Registry] .
Thus, “[i]t must be shown that the claim of one party is positively

opposed by the other” (case concerning South West Africa (Ethiopia v.
South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 328).
15. That being the case, it is difficult to see any dispute between Bel-

gium and Senegal. The two States are in agreement that the “Convention
against Torture” places the States party to it under an obligation to

72establish their criminal jurisdiction and to prosecute persons accused of

the crimes it covers or, failing that, to extradite them. Senegal has expres-
sed its resolve to prosecute, as demanded of it by Belgium, whose
Application does not refer to any specific time frame but rather to a deci-
sion in principle. The steps taken by Senegal in amending its constitution
and legislation to establish its jurisdiction to conduct such a trial are con-

crete, have been taken without undue delay and give proof of its sincer-
ity; it is clear to see what it has done, and continues to do, to obtain the
assistance needed to hold the trial. Given this, and it being advisable to
refrain in the present separate opinion from proceeding any further so as

to avoid encroaching on substantive issues which may come before the
Court later in the proceedings, it is apparent that the dispute, assuming it
to have existed earlier, no longer exists as the present Order is being
handed down, since Belgium’s claims have been satisfied by Senegal’s

repeated statements that it will try Mr. Habré as soon as possible for all
of the crimes of which he stands accused. In my view, the Court should
have so found and inferred the consequences by declaring, as it did in the
cases concerning Nuclear Tests ((Australia v. France) and (New Zea-

land v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 272), that, as the
claim has by now ceased to have any object, there is no longer anything
to be decided.

(Signed) Serge S UR .

73

Bilingual Content

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC SUR

Accord avec le dispositif de l’ordonnance — Précisions sur la position d’un

juge ad hoc — Changement du contenu de la demande de la Belgique en indi-
cation de mesures conservatoires non analysé — Nécessité de rendre compte
aux Parties des arguments qu’elles ont utilisés — Méthode d’examen par la
Cour des conditions préalables à l’exercice de son pouvoir d’indiquer des
mesures conservatoires — L’article 41 du Statut de la Cour lui confère un
pouvoir autonome non soumis à l’établissement préalable du consentement des
parties — Substituer à la pratique actuelle de démonstration positive de la
compétence et de la recevabilité prima facie une démonstration négative — Se
contenter de constater que la Cour n’est pas manifestement incompétente et
que la requête n’est pas manifestement irrecevable — Disparition de l’objet du
différend.

1. J’ai voté en faveur de la décision de la Cour dans la présente ordon-
nance, convaincu, comme la quasi-unanimité de ses membres, que les
mesures conservatoires demandées par la Belgique pour assurer que
M. Habré demeure sous la surveillance et le contrôle des autorités séné-

galaises n’étaient pas nécessaires, pour les motifs indiqués dans la moti-
vation de ladite ordonnance. L’objet de cette opinion individuelle est
simplement de préciser quelques points qui touchent d’abord à la posi-
tion particulière d’un juge ad hoc, ensuite à la méthode suivie par la Cour
pour la préparation de sa décision, et enfin à la subsistance ou non d’un

différend entre la Belgique et le Sénégal dans la présente affaire.

L A POSITION DU JUGE AD HOC

2. Un juge ad hoc est pleinement un juge, et non le représentant ou
l’avocat de la partie qui l’a désigné, mais il est un juge occasionnel, non
un juge institutionnel. Comme l’a souligné le juge ad hoc Lauterpacht

dans son opinion individuelle jointe à l’ordonnance du 13 septembre 1993
rendue par la Cour dans l’affaire de l’Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténégro)) :

«tout en étant tenu par son devoir d’impartialité, le juge ad hoc joue
un rôle particulier. Selon moi, il est spécialement tenu de veiller à ce
que, dans toute la mesure possible, chacun des arguments pertinents

de la partie qui l’a désigné ait été pleinement pris en considération au
cours de l’examen collégial et soit, en fin de compte, reflété — à
défaut d’être accepté — dans sa propre opinion individuelle ou dis-

66 SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC SUR

[Translation]

Agreement with the operative part of the Order — Points concerning
the position of a judge ad hoc — No analysis of the change in substance of
Belgium’s request for the indication of provisional measures — Need to
respond to the Parties on their arguments — Method by which the Court
examines the preconditions for the exercise of its power to indicate
provisional measures — Article 41 of the Statute gives the Court an
independent power not subject to a prerequisite showing of the partiecon-
sent — Replace the affirmative demonstration of prima facie jurisdictiand
admissibility required by current practice with a negative demonstration —
Limited to a finding that the Court is not manifestly without jurisdiction and
that the Application is not manifestly inadmissible — Disappearance of the sub-

ject of the dispute.

1. I have voted in favour of the decision of the Court in the present
Order, sharing in the conviction held by nearly all Members of the Court

that there is no need, on the grounds set out in the reasoning in the
Order, for the provisional measures sought by Belgium to guarantee that
Mr. Habré remains under the surveillance and control of the Senegalese
authorities. My purpose in this separate opinion is simply to make sev-
eral points; these have to do, first, with the special position occupied by

a judge ad hoc, then with the method followed by the Court in laying the
groundwork for its decision and finally with the question of whether or
not there is still a dispute between Belgium and Senegal in the present case.

T HE POSITION OF A JUDGE AD HOC

2. A judge ad hoc is in every sense a judge, not the representative or
advocate of the party having chosen him, but he is a judge for the occa-
sion, not a permanent judge. As Judge ad hoc Lauterpacht pointed out in
his separate opinion appended to the Court’s Order of 13 September
1993 in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Preven-

tion and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herze-
govina v. Yugoslavia) (Serbia and Montenegro) :

“consistently with the duty of impartiality by which the ad hoc judge
is bound, there is still something specific that distinguishes his role.
He has, I believe, the special obligation to endeavour to ensure that,
so far as is reasonable, every relevant argument in favour of the

party that has appointed him has been fully appreciated in the
course of collegial consideration and, ultimately, is reflected —

66 sidente.» (Mesures conservatoires , ordonnance du 13 septembre 1993,
C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 409, par. 6.)

Je fais mienne cette analyse. J’ajouterai seulement que, à mon sens, ce
n’est pas seulement par l’expression d’une opinion séparée, individuelle
ou dissidente qu’un juge ad hoc peut aboutir à ce que les arguments pré-

sentés par la partie qui l’a désigné soient convenablement entendus et pris
en considération, car alors ils ne sont reflétés que dans une opinion jointe
à la décision, mais qu’il est de son devoir de faire tous ses efforts pour
qu’ils figurent au même titre dans la décision elle-même, quand bien

même il n’y serait pas fait droit, et que ce n’est que dans la mesure où il
n’y est pas parvenu qu’il est conduit à en faire part de façon personnelle.
Plus largement, un juge ad hoc se place plus spontanément du point de
vue des parties, il est à même de mesurer plus complètement l’impact et la
perception d’une décision par celles-ci. Ainsi, il contribue à faire en sorte

que, conformément à l’ancien adage, la justice ne soit pas simplement
juste, mais encore qu’elle le paraisse.
3. Sur ce point, je n’aurai qu’un regret à émettre: que la Cour ait
considéré inutile de souligner le changement de contenu de la demande de
la Belgique en indication de mesures conservatoires, et d’en noter la por-

tée. En effet, en substituant l’imposition d’un contrôle des «autorités
sénégalaises» à celle des «autorités judiciaires sénégalaises», la Belgique
a considérablement modifié la signification de sa demande. Vouloir que
le Sénégal place M. Habré sous contrôle judiciaire n’était possible, en
droit sénégalais, que sur la base d’une incrimination pénale, et cette incri-

mination aurait conduit à accorder à la Belgique ce qui fait l’objet de
l’une des demandes de sa requête principale, à savoir que des poursuites
pénales soient diligentées par le Sénégal contre M. Habré. Faire droit à
cette demande aurait donc conduit à accorder à la Belgique dans le cadre
de mesures conservatoires ce qu’elle demande sur le fond, préjugeant

ainsi d’une éventuelle future décision sur le fond, alors même que la
Cour ne s’est prononcée que prima facie sur sa compétence et sur la receva-
bilité de la requête. Une telle demande excédait donc manifestement la
portée que peuvent revêtir des mesures conservatoires, et cette argumen-
tation, développée à l’audience par le Sénégal, semble avoir conduit la

Belgique à modifier les termes de sa demande, en ne sollicitant plus qu’un
«contrôle des autorités sénégalaises», ce qui s’entend d’un contrôle et
d’une surveillance administratifs. On ajoutera que la «convention
contre la torture» invoquée par la Belgique comme fondement de
sa demande ne prévoit que des «mesures juridiques nécessaires pour

assurer [la] présence» de la personne soupçonnée prises par les Etats
parties, «conformes à la législation» desdits Etats, et non un contrôle
judiciaire (art. 6, par. 1). Comme M. Habré est d’ores et déjà soumis
à un tel contrôle administratif, la demande finale revenait à demander

sa pérennisation, et non plus une mesure judiciaire nouvelle imposée au
Sénégal.

67 though not necessarily accepted — in any separate or dissenting
opinion that he may write.” (Provisional Measures, Order of 13 Sep-

tember 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993 , p. 409, para. 6.)

I subscribe to this analysis. I would only add my view that, for a judge
ad hoc to ensure the proper hearing and appreciation of the arguments
put forward by the party having chosen him, it is not enough for him

merely to express his own opinion, be it separate or dissenting, since in
this case the arguments are simply reflected in an opinion appended to
the decision; he is also under a duty to do his utmost to ensure that they
figure in the decision itself, even if they are not upheld. It is only insofar

as he does not succeed in this that he should give voice personally to
those arguments. Generally, a judge ad hoc is more naturally inclined to
see things from the parties’ perspective; he is in a position to appreciate
more fully how a decision will affect the parties and how they will per-
ceive it. Thus, he helps to ensure that, in keeping with the age-old maxim,

justice is not only fair but also seen to be fair.

3. On this point, I have only one regret to express: that the Court did
not consider it worthwhile to draw attention to the change in substance
of Belgium’s request for the indication of provisional measures and to

note the significance of this. In replacing control by “Senegalese judicial
authorities” with control by “Senegalese authorities”, Belgium signifi-
cantly changed the purport of its request. Under Senegalese law, placing
Mr. Habré under judicial supervision would have been possible only
if he had been criminally charged and such a charge would have been

tantamount to granting Belgium the relief sought in one of its
principal claims, i.e., Mr. Habré’s prosecution by Senegal. Had this
relief been awarded, Belgium would have secured by provisional
measures what it is seeking on the merits, thereby prejudging any
future decision on the merits, notwithstanding that the Court’s

decision on jurisdiction and the admissibility of the Application is no
more than prima facie. The relief thus sought manifestly exceeded
the permissible bounds of provisional measures and this argument,
propounded by Senegal at the hearings, would appear to have
prompted Belgium to amend the terms of its request to seek only

“control [by] the Senegalese authorities”, meaning administrative
control and surveillance. Let it be added that the “Convention
against Torture”, invoked by Belgium as the basis for its request,
provides only for the States parties to take “legal measures to ensure
[the suspect’s] presence”, “as provided in the law” of those States,

not for judicial control (Art. 6, para. 1). As Mr. Habré is already
subject to administrative control, the final submission amounted to a
request for such control to be made permanent, rather than for
a new judicial measure required of Senegal.

67 4. La Cour s’est bornée à constater implicitement le changement dans
les paragraphes introductifs de sa motivation (ordonnance, par. 15 et 34),

où elle décrit les positions des Parties, et à n’examiner que la demande
finale de la Belgique, faisant totalement silence dans ses analyses propres
(ordonnance, par. 56 à 73) sur l’existence et sur l’importance de cette
modification. Or, la motivation ne sert pas seulement à reprendre et à

organiser les positions antagonistes telles qu’elles s’expriment dans la
procédure écrite et orale, mais doit également retracer les étapes du rai-
sonnement de la Cour et rendre compte aux Parties des arguments
qu’elles ont utilisés. L’argumentation présentée par le Sénégal sur la
demande initiale au cours des audiences — argumentation qui a selon

toute vraisemblance conduit la Belgique à la modifier, encore qu’elle n’ait
fourni aucune explication à cet égard — est donc apparemment ignorée.
On peut le regretter dans la mesure où il est important, pour la percep-
tion par les Parties de la justesse des décisions prises par la Cour, qu’elles

rendent objectivement raison de l’ensemble de leurs positions et leur
assure qu’il en a bien été tenu compte. Cela est d’autant plus important
en l’occurrence que les positions des Parties ont évolué au cours des
audiences sur d’autres points, et que les autres évolutions se trouvent
reflétées dans la décision. Il aurait à mon sens suffi pour aboutir à ce

résultat souhaitable que la Cour notât au paragraphe 60 ou au paragra-
phe 61 que la modification de la demande de la Belgique au cours des
audiences conduisait non plus à imposer une nouvelle attitude du Sénégal
par rapport à M. Habré, mais simplement à rendre obligatoire en droit

international le maintien de son attitude actuelle; qu’il était loisible à la
Belgique de modifier les termes de sa demande et que la Cour statuait sur
la demande ainsi modifiée. Dans la mesure où elle apprécie sa compé-
tence par rapport au moment du dépôt de la requête et la demande de
mesures conservatoires par rapport au moment du délibéré, cette diffé-

rence aurait gagné à être rappelée.

L A MÉTHODE SUIVIE PAR LA COUR

5. Cela est d’autant plus important que les demandes en indication de
mesures conservatoires tendent à se développer, et que, au-delà de leur
contenu propre, elles correspondent fréquemment à une stratégie judi-
ciaire qui permet à une partie, dans l’hypothèse où elles sont accordées,

de prendre un avantage, au moins psychologique, pour la suite de l’ins-
tance. Cette donnée conduit au demeurant la Cour à peser très soigneu-
sement les conditions dans lesquelles elle décide de telles mesures, dont le
caractère obligatoire est maintenant pleinement établi (affaire LaGrand

(Allemagne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2001 , p. 506,
par. 109). Un effort de rationalisation par la jurisprudence des mesures
conservatoires face aux demandes croissantes auxquelles la Cour est
confrontée, effort amorcé depuis plusieurs années et plusieurs décisions,
est heureusement accompli et la méthode utilisée dans la présente ordon-

68 4. The Court has confined itself to implicitly acknowledging this change

in the introductory paragraphs of its reasoning (paragraphs 15 and 34 of
the Order), wherein it sets out the Parties’ positions, and to considering
only Belgium’s final submission, saying nothing at all in its own analysis
(paragraphs 56 to 73 of the Order) about the existence and significance of
this change. However, the statement of reasoning should do more than

just restate and organize the conflicting positions expressed in the written
and oral proceedings; it should also set out the steps in the Court’s logic
and respond to the Parties on the arguments they have put forward.
Thus, the arguments Senegal propounded on the initial request in the

hearings — although Belgium has offered no explanation on the subject,
those arguments in all likelihood led it to amend that request — have
from all appearances been ignored. This is to be regretted inasmuch as it
is important, vis-à-vis the Parties’ perception of the soundness of the

Court’s decisions, for those decisions to lay out the positions of the
Parties fully and objectively and to offer assurance that the Parties’ views
have been given thorough consideration. This is especially important in
the present case, in which the Parties’ positions on other points evolved

during the hearings and these other changes are reflected in the decision.
In my view, to achieve this desirable result it would have been sufficient
for the Court to note in paragraph 60 or paragraph 61: that as a result of
Belgium’s modification of its request in the course of the hearings, it was

no longer a question of forcing Senegal to take a new approach to
Mr. Habré, but instead simply of making it mandatory under interna-
tional law for Senegal to maintain its present approach; that Belgium
was at liberty to amend the terms of its request; and that the Court ruled
on the request as thus amended. As the Court determines its jurisdiction

as of the filing of the Application and assesses a request for provisional
measures as of the time of deliberation, it would have been helpful to
draw attention to this difference.

T HE M ETHOD FOLLOWED BY THE C OURT

5. This is especially important given the increasing number of requests

for the indication of provisional measures; regardless of their content,
these often betoken a litigation strategy aimed at enabling a party whose
request for provisional measures is granted to secure an advantage — at
least a psychological one — in later proceedings. This fact moreover

leads the Court to weigh very carefully those circumstances under which
it will grant such measures, whose binding force has by now been firmly
established (LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 506, para. 109). Fortunately, the work of ration-
alizing the granting of provisional measures through the jurisprudence in

response to the growing number of requests facing the Court, a task
begun a number of years and decisions ago, has by now been accom-
plished and the method followed in the present Order illustrates it. The

68nance en est une illustration. La Cour a particulièrement veillé aux arti-
culations de son raisonnement et choisi avec le plus grand soin et la plus

grande attention les termes qu’elle a utilisés pour indiquer le chemine-
ment qu’il convenait de suivre dans l’exercice de son pouvoir d’indiquer
des mesures conservatoires, tel qu’il est établi par l’article 41 de son Sta-
tut. Elle s’est plus longuement étendue sur les conditions qu’elle estime
préalables et indispensables à l’exercice de son pouvoir que sur ce pou-

voir lui-même. C’est ainsi que vingt-deux paragraphes sont consacrés à
l’examen des conditions et douze paragraphes à la mise en Œuvre du pou-
voir en la circonstance.
6. Ce faisant, la Cour a marqué son souci de tenir le plus grand

compte du consentement des Etats à sa juridiction, en examinant soi-
gneusement sa compétence et la recevabilité de la requête, même
prima facie. Elle s’y estime d’autant plus tenue que le caractère obliga-
toire des mesures conservatoires est désormais incontestable, et qu’elle
estime devoir s’assurer que l’exercice de son pouvoir d’indiquer des me-

sures conservatoires repose sur des bases, au départ, plausibles. Il est
cependant permis de s’interroger si, sur ce point, la Cour ne fait pas
montre d’une prudence excessive et si cette prudence ne risque pas, en
réalité, de la conduire à des résultats qui pourraient ultérieurement
apparaître fâcheux pour la manière dont ses décisions sont perçues.

7. Avant d’en venir à cette interrogation, une question préalable: un
juge ad hoc peut-il émettre une opinion sur des points qui débordent le
cas particulier soumis à la Cour et touchent à la jurisprudence? Ne
devrait-il pas se cantonner à l’affaire pour laquelle il est désigné sans
s’aventurer sur des terrains plus vastes? Sans doute, il le peut, dans la

mesure où il est un juge, où l’ensemble de l’affaire examinée par la Cour
et la méthode suivie par la Cour pour la traiter le concernent à part
entière. Il le peut d’autant plus que son devoir est de ne pas être le repré-
sentant de la partie qui l’a désigné, mais de s’élever à l’indépendance et à
l’objectivité de tout juge, quand bien même, involontairement sans doute,

il est subjectivement conduit à être particulièrement sensible à ce que les
positions de cette partie soient prises en considération de façon équitable.
Il peut même, pour les opinions générales qu’il émet, être plus libre qu’un
juge institutionnel, parce que moins lié à la jurisprudence établie et plus
libre d’explorer des voies alternatives.

8. Si l’on revient à la prudence peut-être excessive de la Cour quant
aux conditions de l’exercice du pouvoir qu’elle tire de l’article 41, on
observera que cet article lui confère un véritable pouvoir autonome qui,
en tant que tel, n’est pas soumis à l’établissement préalable du consente-
ment des parties à sa juridiction. En d’autres termes, ce pouvoir dérive du

Statut et non du consentement des parties. A cet égard, il est comparable
à celui que la Cour tire de l’article 36, paragraphe 6, du Statut, et qui est
celui de décider sur sa compétence en cas de contestation par l’une des
parties: «En cas de contestation sur le point de savoir si la Cour est com-

pétente, la Cour décide.» Dans le même esprit, ce que demande à la Cour
l’article 41, c’est uniquement de s’assurer que les circonstances de l’espèce

69Court has been particularly attentive to the manner in which it has set
out its chain of reasoning and has exercised the utmost care and vigilance

in its choice of words to describe the steps to be followed in the exercise
of its power to indicate provisional measures, as established in Article 41
of the Statute of the Court. It has elaborated more on what it considers
to be the essential preconditions for the exercise of the power than on the
power itself. Thus, 22 paragraphs are devoted to the conditions and 12 to

the exercise of the power in the present circumstances.

6. The Court has thereby made clear its concern to take the greatest

possible account of State consent to its jurisdiction by carefully consid-
ering its jurisdiction and the admissibility of the Application, even prima
facie. It considers it particularly important to do so, given that the bind-
ing force of provisional measures is now beyond doubt and the Court
feels itself duty-bound to ascertain that the exercise of its power to indi-

cate provisional measures is founded on bases which are plausible at the
outset. Yet it might be asked whether the Court is not overcautious on
this point and whether this cautiousness may not actually lead to out-
comes that can subsequently be seen as adversely affecting how its deci-
sions are perceived.

7. Before turning to that question, a preliminary one: may a judge ad
hoc issue an opinion on points concerning the jurisprudence and extend-
ing beyond the scope of the specific case before the Court? Should he not
confine himself to the case for which he has been chosen without ventur-
ing into broader issues? He undoubtedly may do so, since he is a judge

and since the entirety of the case before the Court and the Court’s
method in addressing it are of full concern to him. It is especially clear
that he may, since his duty is not to represent the party which chose him
but to don the mantle of independence and objectivity borne by all
judges, even though he may be subjectively inclined, no doubt uninten-

tionally, to have a particular interest in seeing that the positions of that
party are given fair consideration. He may even be freer in the general
opinions he expresses than a permanent judge, as he is less constrained by
the settled jurisprudence and freer to explore alternative paths.

8. To return to the Court’s possibly excessive cautiousness in respect
of the conditions for exercising its power under Article 41, it will be
observed that the Court’s power under this Article is truly independent;
as such, it is not subject to any prerequisite demonstration that the
parties have consented to the Court’s jurisdiction. In other words, this

power derives from the Statute, not from the consent of the parties. In
this respect it is similar to that conferred on the Court by Article 36,
paragraph 6, of the Statute, i.e., the power to decide whether it has juris-
diction in the face of a challenge by one of the parties: “In the event of a

dispute as to whether the Court has jurisdiction, the matter shall be set-
tled by the decision of the Court.” Along the same lines, all that Arti-

69exigent l’indication de telles mesures conservatoires du droit de chacune
des parties. Elle peut certes faire rentrer dans ces circonstances la plausi-

bilité de sa compétence et de la recevabilité de la requête, mais rien ne l’y
oblige formellement.

9. Sans doute il serait inutile et même dangereux pour la Cour d’indi-
quer de telles mesures alors qu’elle n’a manifestement pas compétence,

par exemple parce que n’existe aucune base formelle, déclaration unila-
térale d’acceptation de sa juridiction sur la base de l’article 36, para-
graphe 2, ou parce qu’une réserve écarte manifestement sa compétence,
ou encore en l’absence de toute clause compromissoire dans un traité, ou

de la non-acceptation d’une telle clause par une partie: alors son incom-
pétence serait manifeste; de même serait manifeste l’irrecevabilité d’une
requête qui se fonderait sur un traité non en vigueur, ou à l’encontre d’un
Etat qui n’y est pas partie et n’a pas accepté les obligations qui en décou-
lent. Mais la Cour pourrait se contenter de constater dans les autres

hypothèses qu’elle n’est pas manifestement incompétente, parce qu’elle
peut se référer à une base formelle, et que la requête n’est pas manifeste-
ment irrecevable pour estimer que ces circonstances la mettent en mesure
d’exercer son pouvoir autonome, soit à la demande d’une partie, soit de
sa propre initiative. Elle concentrerait alors son examen de la nécessité

des mesures conservatoires sur le fond même de la demande et sur les cir-
constances qui peuvent les rendre indispensables, c’est-à-dire l’urgence, la
pertinence des droits à sauvegarder et le risque de préjudice irréparable
qui résulterait de l’absence desdites mesures.
10. La Cour substituerait ainsi à sa pratique actuelle, qui repose sur

une démonstration positive — sa compétence prima facie et la recevabi-
lité prima facie de la requête —, une démonstration négative, celle qu’elle
n’est pas manifestement incompétente et que la requête n’est pas mani-
festement irrecevable. On n’aperçoit aucun inconvénient à cette simplifi-
cation si la Cour devait juger que les mesures conservatoires ne sont pas

indispensables, si donc elle écartait une demande éventuelle. Mais qu’en
est-il au cas où elle déciderait de telles mesures, au risque de ne pas ulté-
rieurement se reconnaître compétente ou d’estimer la requête principale
irrecevable? La situation ne serait pas différente de celle qui prévaut
actuellement, puisqu’un examen prima facie qui conduit à des conclu-

sions provisoirement positives peut très bien ne pas être ultérieurement
confirmé. L’inconvénient serait toutefois moindre, puisque la Cour se
serait moins engagée, et ne courrait pas le risque d’être perçue comme
ayant pris des positions contradictoires.
11. Sans doute un examen prima facie ne préjuge pas de la suite, et la

Cour le rappelle régulièrement — ainsi, au paragraphe 74 de la présente
ordonnance. Mais, d’une part, il n’est pas aisé, et à plus forte mesure il
devient difficilement compréhensible pour des non-spécialistes, de distin-
guer entre ce qui relève de l’examen prima facie et ce qui relève d’un exa-

men approfondi. La frontière peut être perçue comme ténue, mobile,
circonstancielle, ce qui comporte un double risque: créer en réalité une

70cle 41 demands of the Court is that it satisfy itself that the circumstances
of the case require the indication of provisional measures to preserve the

respective rights of either party. While the Court may of course include
among these circumstances the likelihood that it has jurisdiction and that
the Application is admissible, nothing strictly requires it to do so.
9. It would no doubt be pointless and even risky for the Court to indi-
cate provisional measures when its jurisdiction is clearly lacking, because

for example: there is no express basis for it, no unilateral declaration
under Article 36, paragraph 2, recognizing the Court’s jurisdiction; or a
reservation clearly excludes it; or there is no compromissory clause in a
treaty; or a party has rejected such a clause. The Court’s lack of jurisdic-

tion in these cases is manifest, as would be the inadmissibility of an appli-
cation founded on a treaty not in force, or brought against a State that is
not party to the treaty in question and has not assumed the obligations
under it. But the Court could satisfy itself in other situations with a find-
ing that it does not manifestly lack jurisdiction, because there is an

express basis of jurisdiction which it can rely on, and that the Application
is not manifestly inadmissible, to conclude that under these circum-
stances it is empowered to exercise its independent power, either at the
request of a party or on its own motion. In such cases it would focus its
examination of the need for provisional measures on the actual substance

of the request and on the factors which may make such measures essen-
tial, that is to say, urgency, the importance of the rights to be preserved,
and the risk of irreparable injury if no such measures are ordered.

10. The Court would thus replace the affirmative showing required by

its current practice — that it has prima facie jurisdiction and the Applica-
tion is prima facie admissible — with a negative showing — that it is not
manifestly without jurisdiction and the Application is not manifestly
inadmissible. This simplification would not appear to present any draw-
backs in cases where the Court holds that provisional measures are not

necessary, where, in other words, it rejects a request for them. But what
about cases where it decides to order such measures, with the risk that it
might later conclude that it lacks jurisdiction or that the Application is
inadmissible? The situation would be no different from that now prevail-
ing, because a prima facie examination leading to provisional findings in

the affirmative may very well fail to be confirmed subsequently. The
resulting drawback would however be less important here, because the
Court would have committed itself to a lesser degree and would not run
the risk of being seen to have taken inconsistent positions.
11. True, a prima facie examination does not prejudge subsequent

questions, as the Court regularly points out – for example, in para-
graph 74 of the present Order. But, first, it is not easy — and that much
harder for non-specialists — to distinguish between matters within the
scope of prima facie examination and those within the scope of in-depth

examination. A perception may arise that the line between them is vague,
shifting, and dependent on the circumstances, and a two-fold risk thereby

70présomption de compétence ou de recevabilité si celles-ci sont reconnues
prima facie ; susciter un sentiment de contradiction de jurisprudence si,

après les avoir reconnues prima facie, la Cour les écarte en définitive.
Mutatis mutandis, on risquerait de retrouver la situation, à tous égards
fâcheuse, qui fut celle de la Cour après l’arrêt dans l’affaire du Sud-Ouest
africain en 1966 ((Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud; Libéria c. Afrique du

Sud), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1966 , p. 292).

12. Se limiter à une simple analyse sommaire, n’écartant la possibilité
de mesures conservatoires que si elle s’estimait manifestement incompé-

tente ou si la requête était manifestement irrecevable, permettrait d’autre
part à la Cour de se pencher plus longuement et plus attentivement sur
l’ensemble des circonstances, de droit et de fait, qui pourraient rendre
indispensables ces mesures, répondant pleinement aux prescriptions de

l’article 41, au lieu de constituer un premier examen de la compétence et
de la recevabilité, dont on sait où il commence mais moins bien où il doit
s’arrêter. A la limite, on peut supposer que l’examen de l’incompétence et
de l’irrecevabilité manifestes ne serait pas nécessairement très différent
de la pratique actuelle. Mais, en prenant une position négative au lieu

d’une affirmation provisoire, la Cour écarterait toute critique de contra-
diction de jugement, voire de revirement de position. Elle agirait en
outre de façon plus fidèle aux prescriptions de l’article 41 de son Statut,
voire de son Règlement, qui ne mentionne pas davantage les questions

de compétence et de recevabilité à propos des mesures conservatoires
(articles 73-78 du Règlement). Sa jurisprudence devrait pour cela évo-
luer — mais le droit des mesures conservatoires a déjà connu de
notables évolutions dans un contexte où le rôle des juridictions inter-
nationales tend à s’affirmer.

LA DISPARITION DE L OBJET DU DIFFÉREND

13. Sans maintenant examiner au fond la question de savoir si un dif-
férend entre la Belgique et le Sénégal existait au moment du dépôt de la
requête, on peut s’interroger sur son maintien au moment de la décision
relative à l’ordonnance. Il convient ici de s’intéresser à la notion même de
différend justiciable, qu’il est de la mission de la Cour, suivant les termes

de l’article 38, paragraphe 1, de son Statut, «de régler conformément au
droit international» — c’est-à-dire que la Cour doit se préoccuper du dif-
férend concret dont elle est saisie et non dire le droit de façon abstraite et
générale, ce dont en toute hypothèse l’autorité relative de chose jugée de

ses décisions limiterait la portée. En l’occurrence, la Belgique, tout en
soutenant que le Sénégal avait violé la convention contre la torture en ne
déclenchant pas des poursuites contre M. Habré à défaut de l’extrader,
voire en différant à l’excès ces poursuites, ne demande pas dans sa
requête que la Cour constate cette violation alléguée. Ses demandes ont

71ensues: that in fact a presumption of jurisdiction or admissibility is cre-

ated when these are found prima facie; and that there then arises a sense
of inconsistency in the Court’s case law if the Court, having found juris-
diction and admissibility prima facie, then goes on ultimately to deny
them. This would be liable to produce, mutatis mutandis, the situation,
unfortunate in all regards, in which the Court found itself after the Judg-

ment in the South West Africa case in 1966 ((Ethiopia v. South Africa;
Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966 ,
p. 292).
12. Were it to limit itself to a simple, summary analysis, rejecting the

possibility of ordering provisional measures only if it deemed itself mani-
festly without jurisdiction or the Application manifestly inadmissible, the
Court would also be able to devote more time and attention to all of the
circumstances, legal and factual, which might make such measures essen-

tial, thereby fully meeting the requirements of Article 41; it would do so
instead of conducting the initial examination of jurisdiction and admis-
sibility, in respect of which the starting-point is clear but the end-point
much less so. One might even venture to presuppose that an examination

of manifest lack of jurisdiction and manifest inadmissibility would not
necessarily differ much from current practice. Yet, by taking a negative
instead of affirmative provisional position, the Court would ward off all
criticism as to inconsistency in judgment, if not even reversal of position.

It would moreover be acting more in keeping with Article 41 of the Stat-
ute, and the Rules of Court, which also say nothing about issues of juris-
diction and admissibility in connection with provisional measures
(Arts. 73-78 of the Rules of Court). To reach this point, the Court’s juris-
prudence would have to evolve — but there have already been significant

developments in the law of provisional measures against the backdrop of
the growing role played by international courts.

T HE D ISAPPEARANCE OF THE S UBJECT OF THE D ISPUTE

13. Without now entering into an in-depth examination of the issue of
whether a dispute existed between Belgium and Senegal when the Appli-

cation was filed, we can ask whether any such dispute still existed when
the decision on the Order was made. It is appropriate here to reflect on
the very concept of a justiciable dispute, which it is the Court’s function,
in the words of Article 38, paragraph 1, of the Statute, “to decide in

accordance with international law” — that is to say, that the Court must
concern itself with the actual dispute laid before it, not make general,
abstract pronouncements of law, the scope of which would in any event
be limited by the fact that the doctrine of res judicata restricts the binding
force of a decision to the parties. In the present case, while Belgium main-

tains that Senegal has violated the Convention against Torture by failing
to prosecute Mr. Habré, if not extradite him, or by excessively delaying
the prosecution, it does not ask the Court in its Application to find this

71un caractère déclaratoire et portent sur la reconnaissance par la Cour de

l’obligation pour le Sénégal de poursuivre pénalement M. Habré et, à
défaut, de l’extrader. Or il est clair que, à supposer que des doutes aient
pu exister à ce sujet lors du dépôt de la requête, le débat judiciaire a fait
apparaître à mon sens qu’il n’existait pas, ou plus, de différend entre les
Parties sur ces points.

14. C’est de façon inappropriée, selon moi, que le paragraphe 48 de
l’ordonnance relève:

«que les Parties semblent néanmoins continuer de s’opposer sur
d’autres questions d’interprétation ou d’application de la convention

contre la torture, telles que celle du délai dans lequel les obligations
prévues à l’article 7 doivent être remplies ou celle des circonstances
(difficultés financières, juridiques ou autres) qui seraient pertinentes
pour apprécier s’il y a eu ou non manquement auxdites obligations;
que les vues des Parties, par ailleurs, continuent apparemment de

diverger sur la façon dont le Sénégal devrait s’acquitter de ses obli-
gations».

Il s’agit en effet de divergences qui ne font pas l’objet de la demande
présentée par la Belgique, mais ne sont que des motifs à l’appui de sa
requête. Sans doute peut-on considérer, sur la base de la canonique déci-

sion Mavrommatis, qu’«[u]n différend est un désaccord sur un point de
droit ou de fait, une contradiction, une opposition de thèses juridiques ou
d’intérêts entre deux personnes» (Concessions Mavrommatis en Pales-
tine, arrêt n 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A n 2, p. 11). Toutefois, une analyse
plus approfondie de la jurisprudence conduit utilement à resserrer la

notion de différend, tout au moins sous l’angle judiciaire. Ainsi que l’écrit
le professeur Jean Combacau en résumant cette analyse,

«le désaccord, l’opposition ... ne sont constitutifs d’un différend que
s’ils se manifestent à l’occasion d’une réclamation adressée par un
Etat à un autre et à laquelle celui-ci refuse de faire droit; le conten-
tieux international n’inclut ni les disputes abstraites ... ni même des

différences d’appréciation sur la conduite à tenir dans une espèce
déterminée: son concept implique l’expression de prétentions, et pas
seulement de thèses, contradictoires; et le différend n’apparaît que là
où un Etat réclame d’un autre un certain comportement et se heurte

au refus de celui-ci» (Jean Combacau et Serge Sur, Droit internatio-
nal public,8 éd., 2008, p. 556).

En ce sens, «[i]l faut démontrer que la réclamation de l’une des parties se
heurte à l’opposition manifeste de l’autre» (affaire du Sud-Ouest africain
(Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions pré-
liminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 , p. 328).

15. On ne voit dès lors plus en quoi consiste le différend entre la Bel-
gique et le Sénégal. Les deux Etats conviennent que la «convention sur la
torture» impose aux Etats qui y sont parties d’établir leur compétence

72alleged violation. The relief it seeks is declaratory in nature and aims at a
statement by the Court that Senegal is under an obligation to prosecute

Mr. Habré or, failing which, to extradite him. But it is clear that, assum-
ing there to have been possible uncertainty on this subject when the
Application was filed, the judicial debate has, in my opinion, shown that
there was no dispute, or there is no longer any, between the Parties on
these points.

14. I find the following statement in paragraph 48 of the Order to be
inappropriate:

“the Parties nonetheless seem to continue to differ on other ques-
tions relating to the interpretation or application of the Convention
against Torture, such as that of the time frame within which the
obligations provided for in Article 7 must be fulfilled or that of the

circumstances (financial, legal or other difficulties) which might be
relevant in considering whether or not a failure to fulfil those obli-
gations has occurred; whereas, moreover, the Parties seem to con-
tinue to hold differing views as to how Senegal should fulfil its treaty
obligations”.

These differences are not the subject-matter of the claim presented by
Belgium but merely elements of the grounds supporting its Application.

While the view may no doubt be taken, in reliance on the seminal deci-
sion in the Mavrommatis case, that “[a] dispute is a disagreement on a
point of law or fact, a conflict of legal views or of interests between two
persons” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 , p. 11), deeper analysis of the jurisprudence

points to a narrower meaning of “dispute”, at least when seen from the
judicial perspective. As Professor Jean Combacau has written in sum-
marizing this analysis,

“disagreements, conflicts . . . constitute disputes only if they emerge
in connection with a claim asserted by one State against another and
rejected by the second; neither abstract debates . . . nor even differ-
ing judgments as to the behaviour that should be adopted in a given

situation fall within the category of international dispute: the con-
cept of international dispute implies the assertion of conflicting
claims, not just arguments; and a dispute arises only where one State
demands certain conduct on the part of another and meets with a
refusal” (Jean Combacau and Serge Sur, Droit international public ,

8th ed., 2008, p. 556) [translation by the Registry] .
Thus, “[i]t must be shown that the claim of one party is positively

opposed by the other” (case concerning South West Africa (Ethiopia v.
South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 328).
15. That being the case, it is difficult to see any dispute between Bel-

gium and Senegal. The two States are in agreement that the “Convention
against Torture” places the States party to it under an obligation to

72pénale et de poursuivre les personnes accusées des incriminations qu’elle

prévoit, et à défaut de les extrader. Le Sénégal se déclare résolu à exercer
ces poursuites comme le réclame la Belgique, qui ne se réfère dans sa
requête à aucun délai particulier mais plutôt à une décision de principe.
Les mesures prises par le Sénégal pour adapter sa Constitution et sa légis-

lation afin d’établir sa compétence pour conduire un tel procès sont
concrètes, ont été prises dans un délai raisonnable et manifestent la réa-
lité de son intention; les appuis qu’il a recherchés et continue de recher-
cher pour permettre la tenue du procès sont patents. Dans ces conditions,

et sans qu’il soit souhaitable pour la présente opinion individuelle d’aller
plus loin pour ne pas empiéter sur des questions de fond qui pourraient
faire l’objet d’étapes ultérieures de la procédure devant la Cour, il appa-
raît que le différend, à supposer qu’il ait existé, n’existe plus au moment

où la présente ordonnance est rendue, puisque la Belgique a obtenu satis-
faction sur ses demandes du fait des déclarations réitérées du Sénégal de
procéder dès que possible au jugement de M. Habré pour l’ensemble des
crimes qui lui sont imputés. A mon sens, la Cour aurait dû le reconnaître

et en tirer les conséquences, en déclarant, comme dans les affaires des
Essais nucléaires ((Australie c. France) (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 272), que, la demande étant désormais sans
objet, il n’y avait plus rien à juger.

(Signé) Serge S UR .

73establish their criminal jurisdiction and to prosecute persons accused of

the crimes it covers or, failing that, to extradite them. Senegal has expres-
sed its resolve to prosecute, as demanded of it by Belgium, whose
Application does not refer to any specific time frame but rather to a deci-
sion in principle. The steps taken by Senegal in amending its constitution
and legislation to establish its jurisdiction to conduct such a trial are con-

crete, have been taken without undue delay and give proof of its sincer-
ity; it is clear to see what it has done, and continues to do, to obtain the
assistance needed to hold the trial. Given this, and it being advisable to
refrain in the present separate opinion from proceeding any further so as

to avoid encroaching on substantive issues which may come before the
Court later in the proceedings, it is apparent that the dispute, assuming it
to have existed earlier, no longer exists as the present Order is being
handed down, since Belgium’s claims have been satisfied by Senegal’s

repeated statements that it will try Mr. Habré as soon as possible for all
of the crimes of which he stands accused. In my view, the Court should
have so found and inferred the consequences by declaring, as it did in the
cases concerning Nuclear Tests ((Australia v. France) and (New Zea-

land v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 272), that, as the
claim has by now ceased to have any object, there is no longer anything
to be decided.

(Signed) Serge S UR .

73

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Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Sur

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