Separate Opinion by Judge ad hoc Mavungu (translation)

Document Number
126-20020710-ORD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
126-20020710-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARA'TE OPINION OF JUDGE MAVUNGU

[Translation]

1. The Court's findings on the request for the indication of provisional
measures submitted by the Democratic Republic of the Congo show - if
that were needed - how complex this case is. There are those who may

not understand why the Court, principal judicial organ of the United
Nations, was not able to indicate provisional measures, including in par-
ticular measures having a military dimension', in view of the humanitar-
ian tragedies and serious violations, both of human rights and of the
basic principles of international humanitarian law, that have been wit-

nessed on its territory2.The Court notes, moreover, that it is deeply con-
cerned by the huma11tragedy in the eastern provinces of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo resulting from the fighting there (paragraph 54 of
the Order).

2. Some may also not understand why the Court should have ordered
provisional measures in the "parallel case" between the Democratic
Republic of the Congo and Uganda (Armed Activities or1the Territory of
the Congo (Dernocrutic Repuhlic cf the Congo v. Uganda), Proi~isionul
me usure.^, Order of1 JuIj~2000, 1.C.J. Reports 2000, p. 11 l), but not in

the case at issue between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and
Rwanda. The complaints lodged against both States by the Congo are
substantially the same.
3. In its Order of 1 July 2000, the Court indicated the following

measure in particular :

"Both Parties must,forthwith, prevent and refrain from any action,
and in particular any armed action, which might prejudice the rights
of the other Party in respect of whatever judgment the Court may

' For an analysis of the issue, see Raymond Ranjeva. "La prescription par la Cour
internationale de Justice de mesures conservatoiresrtée militaire", in Emile Yakpo
ancl Tahar Boumedra (eds.)Liber Amicoruni Judge MolicitnttzBerijuoui. 1999, pp. 449-
459.
See in particular the report by Mr. Roberto Garreton, Special Rapporteur on the
hurnan rights situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, presented at the 57th
session of the United Nations Human Rights Commission of 1 February 2001: tenth
Republic of the Congo,-Sl20021169.of 15 February 2002; Security Council resolutiontic
1417 (2002) of 14June 2002; resolution of the European Parliament of 14 June 2002 on
the situation in themocratic Republic of the Congo. ARMED ACTlVITlES (SEP. OP. MAVUYGU) 273

render in the case, or which might aggravate or extend the dispute

before the Court or make it more difficult to resolve." (1. C.J. Reports
2000, p. 129, para. 47 (l).)

4. There is no such indication in the present case. However, the Court
did point out that, "whether or not States accept the jurisdiction of the
Court, they remain in any event responsible for acts attributable to them
that violate international law". It further noted that the Security Council

has adopted a number of resolutions concerning the situation in the
region whereby it dernanded an end to violations of human rights and of
international humanitarian law (paragraph 93 of the Order).

5. According to its established case law, the Court can only indicate
provisional measures if it has prima facie jurisdiction and if so required
by the circumstances of a given case: the degree of urgency, the protec-
tion of the rights of parties, the need to contain or not to aggravate the

dispute (see itlfru). In the present case, the Court did not indicate provi-
sional measures because the provisions relied on by the Applicant do not
appear to furnish a prima facie basis for its jurisdiction.
6. Whilst approvirig the general tenor of the Order, 1can only partially
agree with its operative provisions. 1 believe that the Court could have

established its prima facie jurisdiction on the basis of at least two com-
promissory clauses and indicated certain provisional measures or, at the
very least, could have indicated such measures proprio rîzotuin the light
of the deplorable hurnan tragedy, the losses of human life and the terrible

suffering in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo as a result
of the fighting there (paragraph 54 of the Order). My argument will be
substantiated in the following paragraphs.
7. The complexity of the case submitted to the Court stems from

several elements, and in particular the following: the prior procedural
history of the case3, the arguments raised to establish the Court's juris-
diction4, the number of provisional measures sought and the nature of

' The first Applicatiori instituting proceedings by the Democratic Republic of the
Congo against Rwanda was lodged on 23 June 1999,before being withdrawn on 15Janu-
ary 2001.
The Democratic Repiiblic of the Congo relied on a number of legal grounds to estab-
lish the jurisdiction of the Court: general jurisdiction (Cnited Nations Charter, Statute of
the Court, case law of the Court); jurisdictionsuant to specific international treaties
(International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,
Convention on the Preverition and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Convention on
the Elimination ofAll Forms of Discrimination against Wonien, the Constitution of the
World Health Organization, the Constitution of Unesco, the Convention for the Suppres-
sion of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation);jurisdiction derived from the
supremacy of peremptory norms - -jus cogen.- (International Bill of Human Rights,
African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, Convention on the Rights of the Child,
etc.'l.certain of them5 and, lastly, the extent of the violations of human rights
and of the basic rules of international humanitarian law6.
8. My zrgument will address two fundamental questions: the founda-
tion of the Court's jurisdiction (1)and the conditions for the indication of

provisional measures (II).

1. THEFOUNDATIO ONF THE COURT'S J~IRISDICTION

9. It is a general principle of international law that no State may be
brought before an international court by another State without its con-
sent '.This principle was upheld by the Washington Committee of Jurists
responsible for drafting the Statute of the International Court of Justice
when they abandoned the idea of providing therein for the automatic

compulsory jurisdiction of the Court in favour of jurisdiction being sub-
ject to the acceptance of Statesx. The Committee fèared that the institu-
tion of automatic compulsory jurisdiction might impede the ratification
of the Charter, and irideed of the Statute, by a large number of States and
in particular by most of the major powers9. A provision for acceptance of
an optional compulsory jurisdiction clause appeared to be the most

appropriate solution: the Court's jurisdiction is thus both optional and
conipulsory 'O.
10. The Court has had occasion to assert and reconfirm the principle
of State consent in a number of cases. Thus in the case concerning East
Tinzor (Portugal v. Austualiu) it stated:

"The Court recalls in this respect that one of the fundamental

principles of its Statute is that it cannot decide a dispute between
States without the consent of those States to its jurisdiction." (1.C.J.
Reports 1995, p. 101, para. 26.)

11. When proceedings before the Court are instituted by means of an

'TheDemocratic Republic of the Congo called for no less than 19measures, including
some that related to the rrierits of the case (e.g.. "fair and equitable compensation for the
damage suffered").
"There is a certain discrepancy between the extent of the violations of human rights
and of international humanitarian law and the narrowness of the Court's jurisdiction to
indicatc provisional measlires.
' In the same vein, see Michel Dubisson,Lri Cour int<~ri~utiotee Ju.~tice1964,
p. 152; Shabtai Rosenne. ThLrrii und Pructicoftlie I~~tewzlrtionulCo1965,p. 313.

See Article 36,ragrilph 1, of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. This
Article is essentially thee, save in certain very minor respects. as Article 36 of the
Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice (P.C.I.J.).
"'See Article 36, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the Statute.application. the latter must indicate, in addition to the parties to the dis-
pute and subject-matter, "the legal grounds upon which the jurisdiction
of the Court is said to be based"ll.
12. However, in the last resort, any question relating to the Court's

jurisdiction must be settled by the Court itself 12:

"The Court ]points out that the establishment or otherwise of
jurisdiction is not a matter for the parties but for the Court itself.
Although a party seeking to assert a fact must bear the burden of
proving it (see Militury and Parun~ilitayJ Activities in and uguinst
Nicurugua (Nituruguu v. United States of .41?1ericu),Juuisdiction

und Adwzissibility, Judgment, 1. C. J. Reports 1984, p. 437, para. IOI),
this has no relevance for the establishment of the Court's jurisdic-
ti.on, which is a 'question of law to be resolved in the light of the
relevant facts' (Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua
v. Ho~zcluras), Juri.sdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1988, p. 76, para. 16)." (Fisheries Juris~/ictiotz (Spain v.

Canadu), Jurisdiction cg'the Court, Juclgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1998,
p. 450, para. 37.)

13. The Democraitic Republic of the Congo, in its Application insti-
tuting proceedings, i1.srequest for the indication of provisional measures
and its oral arguments at the public hearings of 13 and 14 June 2002,
submitted a number of legal grounds for the jurisdiction of the Court,

and in particulas: its declaration of acceptance of the compulsory juris-
diction of the Court, and various compromissory clauses and peremptory
norms (jus cogen~).

1. The Congolese Declurcrtion of'Acceptance oj the Cotî?pulsory Juris-
diction oj the Court

14. Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute provides:

"The States parties to the present Statute may at any time declare
that they recognize as compulsory ipso facto and without special
agreement, in relation to any other State accepting the same obliga-

tion, the jurisdiction of the Court in al1legal disputes . . ."

15. Under this provision, commonly known as the "optional compul-

''See Article 40, paragra1,of the Statute and Article 38. paragraphs 1and 2, of the
Rules.
'*Article 36. paragraph 6, of the Statute stipula"In the event of a dispute as to
whether the Court has jiurisdiction, the matter shall be settled by the decision of the
Court." ARlWED ACTIVITIES (SEP. OP. MAVUNGU)
276

sory jurisdiction clause" 13,any State party to the Statute may accept the
Court's jurisdiction and thereby give the Court general compulsory juris-
diction over the disputes provided for in Article 36, paragraph 2, of the
Statute.

16. The above-mentioned optional clause is simply a restatement
of the clause contairied in the Statute of the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice, which only differed in that it allowed States the
possibility of acceptirigthe Court's jurisdiction in either al1or only certain
of the categories of legal disputes provided for in Article 36, whereas
acceptance under the Statute of the International Court of Justice covers

al1such disputes.
17. The optional clause régime leavesit up to the States parties to the
Statute to choose whether or not to make such a declaration. In accord-
ance with this principle the Democratic Republic of the Congo accepted
the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court by a declaration of 8 February
1989,whose terms are as follows :

"The Executive Council of the Republic of Zaire [currently the
Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo] recognizes
as compulsory ipsojucto and without special agreement, in relation
to any other State accepting the same obligation, the jurisdiction of

the International Court of Justice in al1legal disputes concerning:

(u) the interpretation of a treaty ;

(b) any question of international law;
(c) the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute
a breach of an international obligation;
(d) the nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach
of an international obligation.
.............................

18. Whilst the declaration of acceptance of the Court's compulsory
jurisdiction is a unilateral instrument, the declarant State nevertheless
establishes a true consensual relationship with the other States parties to
the optional clause system. The Rwandese Government has, however,

never made any optional declaration under Article 36, paragraph 2, of
the Statute. As a result, the Court's jurisdiction cannot be founded on the
declaration by the Congolese Government. This was indeed admitted by
the Congo in oral argument:

''For further analysis of this issueinter uliuDubisson, op. rit.pp. 159 et secl.;
Edvard Hambro, "Some Observations on the Compulsory Jurisdiction of the Interna-
tioniil Court of JusticBritislz Yeur Book (~f'lntcrnutiLUII',Vol. 25, 1948.pp. 133-
157; "The Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice"Reciiril (les cours de
I'Accrtii.mdetiroit internrrrioncrlde Lu HUJV(RCADI)Vol. 76, 1950,pp. 125-215: Jean-
Pierre Quéneudec, "Les Etats africains et la compétenUe la CIJ", Annules ufriruit~c~s
1967, pp. 27-50; Humphi-ey Waldock, "Decline of the Optional Clause". British Yeur
Book ofInt<~rncitioiztrLlVol. 32, 1955-1956,pp. 244-287. "The Governinent of the Democratic Republic of the Congo is
aware that the present case or, more precisely, that the jurisdiction
of the Court in this case, cannot be established either on the basis of

a special agreement, which does not exist here, or on acceptance of
the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court, the Republic of the Congo
having made a declaration of acceptance while Rwanda has hitherto
refrained from doing so." (CR 2002136,p. 32 )
19. The existence of declarations accepting the compulsory jurisdiction

of the Court between the parties to a dispute is thus indispensable in
order for the Court's iurisdiction to be founded on such instruments.
Even then, the Court's jurisdiction can arise only from a comparison
between the broadesi declaration and the most restrictive one, with the
latter prevailing as the lowest common denonîinator 14.In the case con-
cerning Arnzed Activities on the Territory of th<,Congo (Democrutic
Repuhlic oj the Congo v. Ugunda), the Court based its finding of prima
facie jurisdiction on the Congolese declaration of 8 February 1989 and
on the Ugandan declaration of 3 October 1963:

"Whereas the Court considers that the declarations made by the
Parties in accordance with Article 36,paragraph 2, of the Statute con-
stitute a prima fiicie basis upon which its jurisdiction in the present
case might be founded." (I.C.J. Reports 2000, p. 123,para. 34.)

2. T/ze Compromissory C'luust~s

20. The Democratic Republic of the Congo relied on a number of
compromissory clausirs for purposes of establishing the Court's jurisdic-
tion. These clauses can be divided into three categories in the light of the
reservations submittesdby Rwanda, the grounds of defence raised by the

Parties and the evolut.ionof international law :those clauses which estab-
lish the Court's jurisdiction, those clauses capable of establishing the
Court'sjurisdiction and those clauses incapable of establishing the Court's
jurisdiction.

A. Clauses c~stuhlishiirgthe Court'sjurisdiction

21. 1consider that three treaties should be placed under this heading:
the Constitution of the World Health Organizatioil of 22 July 1946,the
Montreal Conventiori for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the
Safety of Civil Aviation of 23 September 1971and the Convention on the
Elimination of Al1Forms of Discrimination against Women of 18Decem-
ber 1979.
22. The Rwandese Government has made no reservations with respect
to the compromissorj~clauses providing for the jurisdiction of the Court

l4For an analysis of the declarations by African States, see inter iilici Mvumbi-di-
Ngoina Mavungu, Le r6glement judiciaire des di/fCrend~.interi.tatiyue.s en Afiiqiie, 1992,
pp. 156et seq.contained in the above-mentioned treaties. The Court's jurisdiction was
disputed on the grounds that the prior conditions for its seisin were not
fulfilled, that there was no element of urgency, or that the Democratic

Republic of the Congo had not stipulated in its Application which rights
had been violated in the light of any particular convention.

(1) The Constitution qf tlze World Heultlz Orgunization (WHO)

23. The Constitution of the WHO of 22 July 1946contains a compro-
missory clause which reads as follows:

"Any question or dispute concerning the interpretation or applica-
tion of this Constitution which is not settled by negotiation or by the
Health Assembly shall be referred to the International Court of Jus-

tice in conformi1.y with the Statute of the Court, unless the parties
concerned agree on another mode of settlement." (Art. 75.)

24. Rwanda contested the jurisdiction of the Court founded on
Article 75 of the WHO Constitution on the following grounds:

"The Congo has made no attempt to identify which provision of
the Constitution it considers to be in issue. Nor has it made any
effort to satisfy the procedural condition for seising the Court . . .
Article 75 confers jurisdiction on the Court if - and only if - the
dispute in questiion has not been settled by negotiation or by the

Health Assembly . . . The Congo has made no attempt to do so.
That being the case, Article 75 cannot afford a basis for jurisdiction
in the present case." (CR 2002137,p. 24.)

25. The decline in the health of the Congolese population and in medi-
cal infrastructures as a result of the war has been condemned by various
institutions, both public and private. The consequences of this situation
include: losses of huinan life, the widespread propagation of the HIVI

AIDS virus, the re-eniergence of diseases previously eradicated (tubercu-
losis, leprosy, onchocercosis or river blindness, sleeping sickness, cholera,
etc.), and the appearance of other diseases (cretinisin, etc.). The National
Vaccination Days (NVD) in the campaign against polio, which involve
some 13million children living in Congolese territory, are often disturbed

in tlie areasof conflict.
26. In a report of 2001 the humanitarian organizations Oxfam, Save
the Children and Christian Aid noted the following:

"Prior to start of the conflict in 1998,available health data showed
that the existing rnfrastructure was already failing to deliver quality,
affordable care to the majority of the DRC's population. The war
has made this situation even worse. Hospitals, clinics, and health
posts have been destroyed, medication cannot be delivered, and
routine vaccination programmes have been disrupted. Many people struggle to pay for health services; some cannot afford to pay at all.

Moreover, many people now live in such difficult conditions that
they run a rnucll greater risk of falling i11." l5

27. In the same vein, the European Parliamelit, in its resolution of
14 June 2002 on the situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo,

reported on the worsening of social conditions as a result of the continu-
ing fighting :

"Whereas the three-and-a-half year confict in the DRC has
dramatically increased the rates of malnutrition and mortality in
that country, with 70 per cent of the people living in the war affected
areas having no access to health care or adequate food supplies."

(Preamble, point D.)

28. These statements clearly establish a link between the situation of
conflict and the popiulation's worsening living conditions. It is true that
the WHO Constitution provides primarily for obligations to be fulfilled
by the organization itselfI6. However, any State uhich becomes a Mem-
ber of the WHO has a duty not only to CO-operatewith the organization

to assist in fulfilling the mission assigned to it, but also to act in order to
provide the population with the best possible level of health. Any failure
to uphold the right to health is contrary to the object and purpose of the
WHO Constitution l;'It would be wrong to assert that this Constitution
does not lay down any obligations for Member States. In his dissenting

opinion in the case concerning Legalitj~of the Use by a Stute of Nuclear
Weuponns in Armed (lonjlict, Judge Weeramantry raised the issue of the
obligations of States under the WHO Constitution:

"Quite apart from their responsibilities under customary interna-
tional law and any other conventions to which they are parties, the

States that are parties to the WHO Constitution, which is itself an
international treaty, accepted certain pririciples and obligations.

There is thus a cornmitment to the attainment by al1people to the
highest possible level of health, to regarding the achievement of the

''"No End in Sight: The Human Tragedy of the Conflict in the Democratic Republic
of the Congo", Activity.eport. August 2001, p. 20; see also Garretop. citp. 32.
IhArticle1 stipulates that the objective of the WHO is "the attainment by al1peoples of
the highest possible level of health".
I7For an analysis of thie right to health as a human right, see Mohammed Bedjaoui,
"Le droità la santé, espoirs, réalités, illusionJournal internutionul de hiokthiyue,
Vol. 9, No. 3, 1998, pp. 33-38. Article 12 of the International CovenanEconomiç,
Social and Cultural Rights,f 16 December 1966,enshrines the right to health. ARMED ACTIVlTlES (SEP. OP. MAVUNGU) 280

highest achieviible standard of health as a fundamental right of

every person on the planet, a recognition of health as fundamental
to peace, and of the duty of State co-operation to achieve this ideal."
(1.C.J. Reports 1996 (Z), p. 146.) l8

29. The dispute between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and
Rwanda concerns the application of the WHO Constitution in the case of
alleged violations of the obligations thereunder. Article 75 lays down a

prior condition before the Court can be seised: negotiation or the inter-
vention of the Health Assembly. In oral argument, the Democratic Repub-
lic of the Congo, without providing any evidence therefor, informed the
Court of various negotiations between the two Parties with a view to

achieving a global isettlement of the armed conflict on Congolese terri-
tory, including by the organization of arbitration (CR 2002138, pp. 10-
11). Very possibly the discussions between the Congolese and Rwandan
authorities did not specifically concern the obligations of their respective

States under the WI-IO Constitution, but rather the upholding of human
ri"hts and of international humanitarian law. as well as the withdrawal of
foreign troops from Congolese territory and the conditionsfor such with-
drawal. The allegations by the Democratic Republic of the Congo con-
cerning the violatiolns of the right to health forni part of the overall

violations of human rightL and of international humanitarian law. It mav
therefore be reasonably considered that the Parties attempted to settle the
dispute by negotiation 19.
30. When a jurisdiction clause provides for recourse to prior diplo-

matic negotiations, it is self-evident that the parties have to comply there-
with. This requiremlrnt is rather an obligation of conduct than of result.
In the light of the Court's case law, it is for the Court itself to ruleproprio
motu on compliance or non-compliance with that obligation. The Court

has moreover given a wide interpretation to the notion of "diplomatic
negotiations" (exchanges of views: diplomatic notes, protests, discussions
within an international organization, talk~)~".

'Yhe preamble to the WHO Constitution provides:
"The health of al1peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace and security
and is dependent upon the fullest co-operation of indi~iduals and Sta. . Gov-
ernments have a responsibility for the health of their peoples."

'Toncerning the legal value of the principle of recourse to prior diplomatic negotia-
tioiis, see Georges Abi-Saab, Leexception.pri.lin~irzusuns lu proc6dure rlr lu Cour
intt~rnutionule, 1967, p. 125; Paul Guggenheim, Trait(. dc clroir intc~rnutlublic.,
Vol. II. 1953,p. 148; Ch:arlesDe Vischer. Aspc,ct.src'c,c.ntt.istidroit procédurulde lu Cour
intc~rnirtiotiulcd~eJu.~ticr,1966, p. 86; Jacques Soubeyrol, "La négociation diplomatique,
élémentdu contentieux international", Rei>ucg(.ni.rirle dc droit interncitionul public,
Vol. 68, 1964, p. 323; Waldock, op. c,it.,p. 266.
'" See inter ulicrRighi of'Pu.s.rcigeover.Indiun Tt,rritor,v.I.C.J1960,opp. 148-
149: South n'est Af'ricu. PrelirtiinObjections,I.C.J. Rei~orts 1962, pp. 344 ri s;q.
Border und Trunshortier Arnied action.^ (Nicurugucr v. Honriurus), 1.C J. Rc.port.s1988,
pp. 99 et .secl. 31. The attitude of each Party during the prior negotiations is crucial
in order to assess whether or not this requirement has been met:

"Negotiationis do not of necessity always presuppose a more or
less lengthy series of notes and despatches; it may suffice that a dis-
cussion should have been commenced, and this discussion may have
been very short; this will be the case if a deadlock is reached, or if

finally a point is reached at which one of the Parties definitely
declares himself unable, or refuses, to give way, and there can there-
fore be no douibt that the dispute cannot be settled by diplomatic
negotiation." (Mavrolîzmati.~ Jerusalem Concc~ssions, Judgnîent
No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 13.)

32. Article 75 of the Constitution of the WHO provides that the dis-
pute "shall be referred to the International Court of Justice in conformity
with the Statute of the Court, unless the parties concerned agree on

another mode of settlernent". It was apparent from the Parties' oral
pleadings that the dispute was not capable of settlement by arbitration,
nor could it be referred to the Court by a special agreement for judicial
settlement. The only remaining option was seisin of the Court by an
application instituting proceedings.

(2) Tlze Montreil1 Convention ,for the Suppre.ssion of Unla,-fUI Act.\.
against the Sufety of Civil Aviution

33. The Democratic Republic of the Congo also relied upon
Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention of 1971 to establish
the jurisdiction of the Court. The compromissory clause contained in
that Article provides for prior conditions to be met before seisin of the

Court: the dispute must pertain to the interpretation or to the application
of the Convention; the parties must have attempted to settle the dispute
by means of negotiation or arbitration".
34. It should be observed that Rwanda has made no reservation to the
above-mentioned cornpromissory clause. Accordingly, two essential ele-

ments have to be considered in order to establish the jurisdiction of
the Court and to lead it to indicate one or more provisional measures on
the basis of the Montreal Convention: on the one hand, fulfilment of
the conditions precedent and, on the other, satisfaction of the conditions

" In the case concerning Questionsof'Interpreturion uizd Applicuriof'the 1971
1l4orztreolCotzorntion uris,from tl~e Aeriul Inci~lc,~itut Lockrrbie (Lihyun Aruh
Joniuliirij~crv. United StofAn~rricrr).the Court retùsed to grant the Libyan request
for the indication ofo.v.isiona1measures:

"the requested provisional measures should not be indicated because Libya had not
presented a prima facie case that the provisions of the Montreal Convention pro-
vide a possible basilsfor jurisdiction inasmuch as the six-month period prescribed
by Article 14, paragaph 1, of the Convention had not yet expired wheii Libya's
Application was filed; and that Libya had not established tha: the United States
had refused to arbitrate"Provisio~icilMerrsures, 0rdc.r of 14 April 1I.C.J.
R(,port.r.1992, p. IZ:!,para. 25). AF.MED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP.MAVUNGU) 282

that govern provisional measures (urgency, the protection of the rights
of the parties and the need to avoid any aggravation of the dispute).
35. The arguments in the previous section concerning prior diplomatic
negotiations may al:iobe applied here. In regard to arbitration, it would

appear that the Dernocratic Republic of the Congo met with refusal by
Rwanda, despite the proposals in this regard stated to have been made
in July 2001 (Lusak.a), September 2001 (Durban), January 2002 (Blan-
tyre) and March 2002 (Lusaka). Prima facie, the dispute was not suscep-
tible of settlementbq arbitration: there was or should have been no other
option than to refer it to the Court.

36. Establishmeni: of its jurisdiction is not sufficient in itself for the
Court to indicate provisional measures. The applicant has to show, in a
given case, that the conditions governing such ineasures are met. Not
only did the Democi-atic Republic of the Congo fail "to ask the Court to

indicate any provisional measure relating to the preservation of rights
which it believes it holds under the Montreal Convention", but in addi-
tion the disputed evt:nt dates back to 9 October 1998.The urgency which
justifies the indication of provisional measures would thus seem to have
disappeared. The occasion for consideratioil of the incident would be
during the examinatiionof the merits of the case, unless the current inten-
sity of air traffic between Kinshasa and the eastern provinces, following
the signing on 19 April 2002 at Sun City of a political agreement
(between the CongolleseGovernment, civil society, the unarmed political
opposition and the armed political opposition (with the exception of the
RCDIGoma)) justifies the indication of a preventive measure for the pro-

tection of commerci;ll aircraft and their passengers.

37. Some clarification of the imputability of the wrongful act is called
for. The international responsibility of a State derives from the violation
of a norm and from the attribution of such violation to that State. In the
present case, the shooting-down of the Boeing 727(belonging to the com-
pany Congo Airlines) on 9 October 1998in Kindu (Maniema Province)
was attributed not only to Rwanda, but also to Uganda and to Burundi.
In its Memorial of 210April 20002', Rwanda denied the Congo's charges
on the ground that three States could not be accused of one and the same
act.

38. Since the start of the armed conflict in Congolese territory, in
August 1998, Rwanda, Uganda and Burundi hake been accused by the

cation had been lodgedy the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and stated therein:ppli-

"Moreover, Rwancia notes that Congo has made identical allegations in respect of
againstthose two States." (Memorial of the Rwandese Republic, 21 April 2000,ns
p. 13. para. 2.19.)Democratic Republic of the Congo of involvement in armed activities on

its territory. lt follows that, depending on the circumstances, the respon-
sibility of those States may be established either individually or collec-
tively.

(3) The Convention on the Eliminution of Al1 Forrns of Discriminu-
tion aguirzst Women

39. Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination against Women of 18 December 1979was
cited by the Democratic Republic of the Congo for the purpose of estab-
lishing the Court's prima facie jurisdiction. The following rights are
claimed to have been impaired or nullified: the right to life, the right to
physical and mental integrity, the right to dignity, the right to health etc.
In its oral pleadings, the Democratic Republic of the Congo cited viola-
tions of human rights and of international humanitarian law of which
women had been the victims: sexual violence, sqstematic spread of the
AIDS virus etc. Further, 15 women were alleged to have been buried
alive at Mwenga (South Kivu Province) in November 199923.
40. Al1of these acts are claimed to be contrary to Article 1of the Con-
vention, which provides that discrimination against women

"shall mean any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the
basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullify-
ing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women .. .on a basis
of equality betv~eenmen and women. of huinan rights and funda-
mental freedomç in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or
any other field".

41. Could Article 29, paragraph 1. of the Con~ention on Discrimina-
tion against Women apply in this case? The compromissory clause con-
tained in that Article is identical to that in Article 14,paragraph 1,of the
Montreal Convention of 1971 (see supra). Mutatis mutarzdis, the same
reasoning is equally applicable here.
42. However, it has to be shown that the above-mentioned allega-
tions against the Respondent are covered by the spirit and letter of the
1979Convention. It is true that the allegations made by the Democratic

Republic of the Congo concern violations of the basic rules of interna-
tional humanitarian law, particularly in light of Article 27, paragraph 2,
of the Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian
Persons in Time of War of 12 August 194924and Article 76, para-
graph 1,of Additional Protocol 1to the Geneva Conventions relating to

'"rticle 27. paragraph 2, provides: "Women shall be the object of special respect and
shall be protected in particular against rape, forced prostitution and any other form of
indecent assault." AR.MED ACTlVlTIES (SEP. OP. MAVIJNGU) 284

the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts of 8 June
1977 25.
43. It is likewise true that the Convention of 18 December 1979 was

adopted in order to provide better protection to women by prohibiting
any discrimination between men and womeii of whatever kind. To this
end the States parties have undertaken to "take al1appropriate measures
to eliminate discrimination against women by any person, organization
or enterprise" (Art. 2 (d)).

44. Generally, the main aims of the 1979Convention are to protect the
dignity of women and to allow them full enjoyment of their rights. On an
extensive interpretation, itmay be concluded that every violation of a

right suffered by a woman by reason of being a woman would be covered
by the Convention. I-Iere,the Applicant is not seeking to have the alleged
violations extended also to men in order that the discrimination should
cease, but to secure the cessation of violent acts allegedly committed
against women - in this case by armed groups - because they are being
targeted as women.

45. The issue of the Court's territorial or ratione loci jurisdiction over

violations of human rights alleged to have taken place on the territory of
the Applicant and attributable to the Respondent has not been raised at
this stage of the proceedings. It is generally accepted that a State party to
a convention can incur responsibility if it commits a wrongful act con-
trary to that convention on the territory of another state party. Thus in
the case of Loizidou v. Turkey the European Court of Human Rights,
interpreting the term "jurisdiction" in Article 1of the European Human
Rights Convention, stated the following: "the responsibility of a Con-

tracting Party may also arise when as a consequence of military action -
whether lawful or unlawful - it exerciseseffectivecontrol of an area out-
side its nationa! territory"".

46. Addressing the issue of the territorial or rrltione locijurisdiction
of the African Cotrimission on Human and Peoples' Rights, Fatsah
Ouguergouz takes the view that :

"Neither the Pifrican Charter nor the Commission's Rules address
this question. It is, however, implicit that the Commission can deal
with violations of human and peoples' rights occurring on the terri-
tory of any State party to the Afsican Charter. Nor is it excluded
that it can also deal with a violation of a human right attributable tc

" Article 76, paragraph 1, of Additional Protocol 1incorporatesthe text of Articlz 27,
paragraph 2, of the Fourth Convention.
'Vited by Vincent Berger, Jurisprudence il(,la Cour europkenne r1e.sdroits dc,I'homrizc.,
2000, p. 554; see also Gérard Cohen-Jonathan, La c,onventioncuropkenne des droits de
l'liotnrnc,.1989. p. 94. a State party even if that violation took place outside the territory
subject to the latter's juri~diction."~'

47. Thus there czinbe no dispute as to the Court's jurisdiction ratione
loci on account of internationally wrongful acts allegedly committed by
one State on the territory of another, even in the case of human rights
violations.

B. Provi.sior~scapable qf'founding the Court'sju~.isdiction

48. Article IX of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide of 9 December 1948 was invoked by the Demo-
cratic Republic of the Congo as a basis for the Court's jurisdiction. That
compromissory clause reads as follows:

"Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpre-
tation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including
those relating tc, the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any

of the other acts enumerated in article III, shall be submitted to the
International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to
the dispute."

49. When it became party to the 1948 Convention, Rwanda made a
reservation excluding the Court's jurisdiction: "the Rwandese Republic
does not consider itself bound by Article IX of the Convention". That
reservation raises atiumber of issues. 1sit compatible with the object and
purpose of the Conveniion? 1s the Democratic Republic of the Congo

entitled to object to Rwanda's reservation, 27 years after the latter's
accession to the Convention? 1s the Court entitled to construe the 1948
Convention taking iiccount of the developrnent of international law in
this area, particularly in light of the entry into force of the Rome Statute
of the International Criminal Court of 17 July 1998?

50. The Democratic Republic of the Congo has objected to Rwanda's
reservation on the e"ound that the Genocide Convention contains norms
of jus cogens: genocide is a crime under international law. The Congo
likewise considers that Rwanda, having successfully asked the Security
Council for the creiltion of an ad hoc international criminal court to

try and punish crimes committed on Rwandan territory in 1994, is not
entitled to take two attitudes to genocide:

"In the present case Rwanda cannot, a fortiori, reject the juris-
diction of the International Court of Justice having requested

''LUchorte ufiicuine (ledroits dL"k0r1~tet despeuples, 1993, p. 316. Having been
seised ofa communication-complaint by the Democratic Republic of the Congo on
24 February 1999 againsi. Burundi, Uganda and Rwanda regarding massive grave viola-
tions ofhuman and peoples' rights allegedly committed by the armed forces of those
countries on Congolese territory, the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights
declared communication 227199admissible under Articles 47, 48, 49. 50. 51 of the Charter
and 97, 99 and 100 ofhe Rules of Procedure. (SI199411 115) and procured the creation by the international

community of an ad hoc international criminal tribunal to try the
Rwandan perpetrators of genocide in 1994. To conclude otherwise
would leave beyond the scope of judicial intervention the serious
acts of genocide committed against Congolese populations and
the international community of which Rmanda stands accused."

(CR 2002136, p. 52.)
51. Relying on the Court's jurisprudence in the cases concerning Legal-

ity of'Useof Force (Yugo.slavia v. Spain) ( Yugoslavia v. United States of
America) "Rwandla rejected the argument put forward by the Demo-
cratic Republic of tlheCongo. It does not deny that the substantive pro-
visions prohibiting ggenocidehave the status ofjus cogens, but it contends
that the jurisdictional clause in Article IX does not have that character-

istic (see CR 2002137,p. 16).
52. Contrary to the position under other compromissory clauses, the
only forum provideti in Article IX of the 1948 Convention for the settle-
ment of any dispute:relating thereto is the Court. As a result, any State
which, on becoming party to that Convention, makes a reservation to the

jui-isdictional clause would escape judicial sanction in the event that its
representatives or agents should commit acts constituting the crime of
'2no oc ide.
53. It is well established that a reservation to an international treaty is
acceptable only if it is not incompatible with the object and purpose of

thüt treaty19. It is true, as the Court points out, that the Genocide Con-
vention does not prohibit reservations (see paragraph 72 of the Order).
But that does not mleanthat States may make whatever reservations they
please. Moreover, the Court stated as much in its Advisory Opinion on
Reservations to the Convention on the Prevenfion and Punislîment of the

Crivlze of'Genocide :
"lt has neverithelessbeen argued that any State entitled to become

a party to the Genocide Convention may do so while making any
reservation it chooses by virtue of its sovereignty. The Court cannot
share this view. It is obvious that so extreme an application of the
idea of State sovereignty could lead to a coinplete disregard of the

object and purpose of the Convention." (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 24.)

54. The object and purpose of the 1948 Convention is, on the one

'K In those cases. the Court was unable to establish its jurisdiction, even prima facie, on
the ground that Spain and the United States had made reservntions to the Article IX juris-
dictional clause (see I.Creport.^IYYY (II). p. 772: ihid.. p. 916).
'')See Article 19 l1.j of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 23 May 1969.
On reservations. seentcr ciliciSuzanne Bastid, Les truitts dulis lu vie internationule. Con-
clirsion et <ffr,ts. 1985. pp. 71-77. Pierre-Henri Imbert, Le.\ ciux rruitts multi-
Maria Ruda, "Reservations to Treaties". RC'ADI. Vol. 146, 1975, pp. 139-148.1957; José-hand, to clarify the notion of genocide and, on the other, to induce States
parties to prevent any act of genocide and, in the event of failure to do

so, to punish it. The mechanism for the settlement of disputes between
States provided for by the Convention is an essential element in its appli-
cation, and thus in ensuring its respect by States parties. In this regard
Maurice Arbour notes :

"The object and purpose of the Genocide Convention is clearly
the punishment of Genocide. But can it be said that certain articles
concerning the i~pplication of the Convention, such as obligatory
recourse to the International Court of Justice in the case of disputes,
are necessarily excluded from the scope of the Convention's object

and purpo~e?"'~'
55. Without settling the question raised by Maurice Arbour, and

adhering to its jurisprudence on the matter. the Court stated: "ihat
reservat~on does not bear on the substance of the law, but only on the
Court's jurisdiction; whereas it therefore does not appear contrary to the
object and purpose of the Convention" (see paragraph 72 of the Order).
56. The Court will undoubtedly have to return to this issue when it
considers the merits of the case. As principal judicial organ of the United
Nations, the Court i:;under a duty to make its contribution to the pun-
ishment of genocide, since this is a "crime under international law" (see

Article 1 of the Convention). It should be noted that Article 120 of the
Rome Statute does not allow of any reservation.
57. It would seerri that the Court is in a dilemma: to declare any
reservation to the Article IX jurisdictional clause incompatible with the
object and purpose of the Convention would be to create a veritable
"revolution". Not orily would such a position represent a break with its
previous case law3', but it could result in States parties to the Convention
which have excluded the Court's jurisdiction by making reservations to

the jurisdictional claiusedenouncing the Convention under Article XIV.
A choice will have to be made.
58. The international community has endowed the Court with a key
role in the punishment of genocide. Neither negotiation nor arbitration
would be appropriaie mechanisms for dealing with a dispute between
States in this regard :

"The Genocide Convention is one of the rare cases where the pos-
sibility of interv~rntionby the International Court of Justice may be
regarded as an essential condition in order to render the Convention

effective. For the Court representsthe only means of recourse against

"' Droit internutionul publie, 3rd ed., 1997, p. 89.
3' See the cases concerning Legulity of UofeForce (Yugosliviu v. Spain)(Yugo-
.slrril. United Srute.sof'Americu), I.C.J. Reports 1999 (Il;, pp. 772 and 916.

72 ARMED ACTIVlTlES (SEP. OP. MAVU~GU) 288

violations of a treaty the object of which is precisely to prohibit
States from com~nitting certain a~ts.''~~

59. The Court's jurisdiction will also have to be assessed in light of the
facts presented by the Applicant as constituting genocide (see CR 2002136,
pp. 22-24, 44-48).

C. Pvovisions not cupuhle of founding the Court'sjurisdiction

60. Certain of the i;ompromissory clauses cited by the Applicant can-
not, for various reasons, constitute a basis for the Court's jurisdiction.
This is true in particular of the Constitution of Unesco (Art. XIV,
para. 2) and the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman
or Degrading Punish~nents or Treatments (Art. 30. para. 1).

(1) The Unesco Constitution

61. The Unesco Constitution of 16 November 1945 provides in
Article XIV, paragraph 2:

"Any question or dispute concerning the interpretation of this
Constitution shall be referred for determination to the International
Court of Justice or to an arbitral tribunal, as the General Confer-
ence may determine under its rules of procedure."

62. This jurisdictional clause is confined to disputes concerning the
interpvetution of the (Zonstitution. Moreover, seisin of the Court is made
subject to special conditions. In the present case the Democratic Republic
of the Congo accuse:; Rwanda of hindering the exercise of the right to
education in the areais of Congolese territory which it controls. That dis-

pute concerns the actual application of the Constitution and not the
interpretation of some provision thereofi3.

63. As regards thir protection of human rights under Unesco, the
latter's Executive Board has set up a Committee on Conventions and
Recommendations. The task of that Committee is to examine periodic

reports from membi:r States on the application of conventions and
recommendations at the request of the Executive Board.
64. In its decision 104 EX13.3 of 1978, the Executive Board gave the
Committee power to examine communications concerning the exercise of
human rights in respect of matters falling within Unesco's competence
(the campaign against discrimination in education, for example). Such

conimunications can come from private individuals or from associations
which consider themselves to have been victims of a violation of human

l2Imbert, op. cir., p. 344: see also Joe Verhoeven, "Le crime de génocide.Originalitéet
ambiguïté", Rrvubelgede droit internation199111,pp. 5-76.
3?For Rwanda's argument see CR 2002137,pp. 18-19.See also the Court's position in
paragraph 85 of the Order.rights in a field covered by Unesco's remit. The communications must
provide relevant evidence, be submitted within a reasonable time and
show that attempts have been made to exhaust local remedie~'~.

(2) The Conventicln aguinst Torture

65. There are a niimber of reports of torture and cruel, inhuman or
degrading treatment on the territory of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo as a result of the armed conflicts5. The right of every individual
not to be subjected i;o torture or to cruel treatment forms part of the

"inviolable core" of human rights which every State must respect, whether
or not itis party to the Convention against Torture. That Convention
enshrines norms of jzrs cogens.
66. The Dem0crat.i~Republic of the Congo is party to the Convention

against Torture, whereas Rwanda is not. This saises the problem of
whether the jurisdictional clause provided for in Article 30,paragraph 1,
is opposable to the R.wandese Republic. While it is true that peremptory
norms are applicable erga omnes, a compromissory clause is not oppos-
able to a State which is not party to a convention containing that clause.

The Court's jurisdiction has to be accepted, either generally, or specifi-
cally:

"the Court has repeatedly stated 'that one of the fundamental prin-
ciples of its Statiute is that it cannot decide a dispute between States
without the consent of those States to its jurisdiction' (East Timor
(Portugal v. A~~strulia), Judgmenr, 1.C:J. Reports 1995, p. 101,
para. 26)" (Leg'g~~lio tf Use of Force (Yugo.sla~~i Vu.Canada), Pro-

visional Measur,is, Order of 2 June 1999, I.(-.J. Reports 1999 (I),
p. 266, para. 19'1.

67. The opposability of a norm of jus cogens is one thing, the rule
regarding consent to the Court's jurisdiction, whether under a com-
promissory clause or any other instrument, is quite another3% It is a
well-established principle that the Court's jurisdiction derives from the

consent of the partiesT7.

II.THECONDITION FOR THE INDICATIO NF PR~VISIONA MLEASURES

68. The hearings at which the Parties made their oral presentations
took place at a time when the Security Council was examining a request

" See Nicholas Valticos, "Les mécanismesinternationaux de protection des droits de
l'homme", in Intrrnuti»nul Lait,: Achievet?lent.s utid Prgeneral editor Moham-
med Bedjaoui. 1991, 2 vols., Vol. 2, p. 1228.
2ïSee in particular Gairretop. cit.White Paper (4 vols.) published by the Demo-
cratic Republic of the Congo, Ministry for Human Rights, 1999-2002.
'"ee EUSI TN770r(Po~tz~guIv. Au~~~uliu)C.J.Rrport.~1995, p. 102,para. 29.
'7See lan BrownliePrincipkesofPi~hlicI17tc,rncztlciii3rd ed., 1979,pp. 716-717.by the Democratic Republic of the Congo for reclassification of the man-
date of the United Nations Mission to the Congo (MONUC)38 as well as
the possibility of extending that mandate1? Some might query the com-

patibility of two United Nations organs being seised of the same matter.
In other words, was the Court entitled to indicate provisional measures
at a time when the Security Council was considering developments in the
armed conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, notably in light

of the events which occurred in Kisangani in May 2002?
69. Under Article 24 of the United Nations Charter, the Security
Council has primary responsibility for the maintenance of international
peace and security. That responsibility is only primary and not exclusive.

The other organs of the United Nations also contribute to the mainte-
nance of international peace and security, by virtue of their statutory and
implicit powers. The Court has an important role to play as principal
judicial organ of the United Nations; it is the "guardian of international
law". In this regard, Laurence Boisson de Chazournes notes:

"The course of the history of the International Court of Justice is
marked by cases which have enabled it to contribute to the develop-

ment and consolidation of the international legal order and to estab-
lish a solid basiij for its contribution to the maintenance of inter-
national peace and security." 40

70. Thus there was nothing to prevent the Court from indicating pro-

visional measures once the relevant conditions were satisfied. The Court's
action is complementary to that of the Security Council in regard to the
maintenance of international peace and security : "The Council has func-
tions of a political nature assigned to it, whereas the Court exercises

purely judicial functions. Both organs can therefore perform their sepa-
rate but complementary functions with respect to the same events." (Mili-
tary and Paramilitar,~Activities in and against Nii.arugua (Nicaragua v.
United States of Aunericu), Jurisdiction and Adn~issihility, Judgrnent,

I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 434-435; Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime oj'Genocide (Bosniu and Herze-
govinu v. Yugoslavia), Provisionul Measure.~, Oder of 8 April 1993,
I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 19, para. 33; Armed Activities on the Territory

oj'lhe Congo (Dernocratic Repubiic of'the Congo v. Ugunda), Provi.siona1
Mea.rurrs, Order qf 1'July 2000, I.C.J. Reports 2000, p. 126, para. 36.)

18The Democratic Republic of the Congo wants MONUC' to become a peacekeeping
mission under Chapter VI1of the Charter.
MONUC's mandate was extended to 30 June 2003. See Security Council resolu-
tion 1417(2002) of 14June 2002.
j'"Les ordonnances en indication de mesures conservatoires dans l'affaire relàtive
l'Appli<,cirion(le lu conventioil pour lu prPvet~lu rc'pressiondu cririfr tle gC.rzocide
(Bosnie-HerzGgovinie c. Yougo.sluvie]", Annuuire Jrc/tclrriroi( interncitioriul, 1993,
p. 514; sec also pp. 534-536. blood, on the pretext that they had been in communication with the
rebels on accourit of their having belonged to the former Zairian
Armed Forces (F;AZ)."4"

75. Over and above the events in Kisangani, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo in fact cited the entirety of its dispute with Rwanda sicce
the start of the war. Hence the difficulty of identifying the urgency of
certain measures requested of the Court.

2. Preservation qf the Parties' Rigllts

76. Provisional measures do not prejudge the parties' rights on the
merits and must have as their purpose the preservation of those rights, in
order to prevent any irreparable harm. The Court has had occasion to
recall this principle in a number of cases:

"Whereas the power to indicate provisional measures which is
conferred on the Court by Article 41 of the Statute presupposes the
possibility of irreparable damage being caused to the rights at issue
in judicialproceedings and has therefore as its purpose to safeguard
the rights of each Party pending the delivery of the Court's decision
on the merits." (.FrontierDispute (Burkina FasolRepuhlic of Mali),
Provi.siona1Measures, Order uf 10 Junuary 1986, I.C.J. Reports

1986, p. 8, para. 13; see alsoArmed Actiilities on the Territory of the
Congo (Democr~cticRepuhlic of the Congo v. Uganda), Provisional
Measures, Order of 1 July 2000, I.C.J. Reports 2000, p. 127,
para. 39.)
77. Clearly, the Democratic Republic of the Congo was seeking to
limit the irreparable, there having already been fatalities; for Rwanda,

the preservation of its rights required avoiding being imputed ah initio
with alleged massive serious violations of human rights. In its oral plead-
ings, the Respondent placed the emphasis rather on issues of the Court's
jurisdiction (see CR 2002137).

3. Non-aggravation oj the Dispute

78. Whether or noi;the parties so request, the Court is entitled to indi-
cate provisional measures in order to avoid any aggravation of the dis-
pute. Any extension of the dispute may set at naught the Court's efforts
to contribute to international peace and security by settling international
disputes by peaceful means, by applying the law. The Court thus has a

discretionary power to indicate provisional measures with a view to
restricting the scope of a dispute:
"Considering that, independently of the requests for the indication

" Request for the indication of provisional measures, 28 May 2002, pp. 16-17.

77 of provisional measures submitted by the Parties to preserve specific
rights, the Court possesses by virtue of Article 41 of the Statute the
power to indicate provisional measures with a view to preventing the
aggravation or extension of the dispute whenever it considers that

circumstances so require." (Land and Maritinle Boundacv bet,z.eerz
Cunîeroon and Aiigeria (Canzeroon v. Nigericl). Proi~isional Mea-
sures, Order of 1.5Murch 1996, 1.C.J. Report5 1996 (1), pp. 22-23,

para. 41 .)

79. The Court is bound to indicate provisional measures, or in any event
ought to do so, whenever there is a war situation or where there are serious
violations of human rights or of international humanitarian law. Thus the

Court has indicated measures having a military dimension in a number of
cases45,refusing to grant them where they were not appropriate".

4. The Court's Pri~nuFacie J~lrisdiction

80. Establishment of the Court's jurisdiction, even prima facie, lies at
the heart of the Congo's case. It is the essential, primary condition, from

which al1 the others flow. The Court refused to indicate provisional
measures because, fc~llowing a consideration of the grounds of law
presented by the Applicant, it was not apparent that its jurisdiction was
established. This approach is consistent with its established case law:

"Whereas, on a request for the indication of provisional measures
the Court need not, before deciding whether or not to indicate them,
finally satisfy itself that it has jurisdiction on the merits of the case,

but whereas it m,aynot indicate them unless the provisions invoked
by the Applicant appear, prima facie, to afford a basis on which the
jurisdiction of the Court might be founded." (I,aGrund (Gernzuny v.

United States of America), Provisional Meusur-es,Order oj 3 Murch
1999, 1.C.J. Rrj~orfs 1999 (1). p. 13, para. 13.)47

45 See Militury cind Pur.umilitur.vActivities in und crgain.stNicuruguu (Nicuruguu v.
Unitcd Srcltesof Anzericci), Provisionc~lMeusurc,~,Order cfIO Muy 1984. 1.C.J. R<,ports
1984. p. 169: Frontier Dispute i Burkincl Fu.solRepuhlicof Mcrli), Provi.~ionulMc~usurcs,
Order of 10 Januury 1986, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 554: Applicution of the Conijention on
the t'rcrention irntl Punislrmrnt »f' rlze Crimof Genoc,ir/e(Bosnicl und Hc,r:egosinrrv.
Y~~~yoslut~(iSncrhirr crtl dont(,rze,gro)),Provisionul Mr~usure\, Orcieof 8 April 1993.
1.C.J. Reports 1YY.?,p. 3; Lund und Muritinle Bounr/ury ber~t.c~eC numrroon und Nigeria
(Cu(ir?rrroon. i\ri,ser,cProvisiontrl Meusiire.~,Order oj 15 Murch 1996, 1.C.J, Reports
1996. p. 13; Armer/ Activiries on tlie Territory of'tlic.C'oizgo(l>eirir~cicepublic of'the
Congo v. (Igunric i. Proi.i.siot~ulMru.sures, Order of' 1 .Jul~.2000, 1.J. Reports 2000,
p. 111.
4h See Ranjeva. op. cit., p. 459.
" See also Lrgcilitycf' Use (ifForce (Yugosluvirrv. Cunciduj, Proiiri»nul Meusures,
Orrlerof 2 June 1999. 1.C J. Reports 1999 (1).p. 266, para. 31. ARMED ACTIVITlES (SEP.OP. MAVUNGU) 294

81. As 1 have a1rt:ady stated, the contrast is striking between the
provisional measures sought by the Applicant and the grounds of law
invoked to found the Court's jurisdiction. 1 am of the opinion that
certain provisionalmeasures could have been indicated, having regard to
the nature of the dispute, even if the basis of jurisdiction was a narrow
one.

(Signed) Jean-Pierrre MAVUNGU.

Bilingual Content

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. MAVUNGU

1. Les conclusions auxquelles la Cour est arrivéedans la demande en
indication de mesures conservatoires présentéepar la République démo-
cratique du Congo montre, si besoin est, la complexité de l'affaire sou-
mise à la haute juridiction. D'aucuns ne comprendraient pas que la Cour,
organe judiciaire principal de l'organisation des Nations Unies, n'ait pas

pu indiquer des mesures conservatoires, y compris et surtout à portée
militaire', compte tenu des drames humanitaires et des violations graves
des droits de I'homme ainsi que des règlesde base du droit international
humanitaire constatées sur le terrain2. La Cour note d'ailleurs qu'elle est
profondément préoccupéepar le drame humain qui sévitdans les pro-
vinces orientales de la République démocratique du Congo du fait de
la guerre (voir paragraphe 54 de l'ordonnance).

2. D'aucuns ne comprendraient pas non plus que la Cour ait prescrit
des mesures conservatoires dans l'«affaire jumelle)) qui oppose la Répu-
blique démocratique du Congo A l'Ouganda (Activitésarrîzées.surle ter-
ritoire du Congo (République diinocrutique du Congo c. Ouganda),
mesures con.servatoires, ordonnance du 1" juillet 2000, C.1J. Recueil
2000, p. 11l), mais pas dans la présente affaire qui oppose la République

démocratique du Congo au Rwanda. A quelque chose près, la partie
congolaise formule les mêmes griefs i l'un etA l'autre.
3. Dans son ordonnance du 1" juillet 2000, la Cour a notamment pres-
crit la mesure suivante:

«les deux Parties doivent, immédiatement, prévenir et s'abstenir de
tout acte, et en particulier de toute action armée, qui risquerait de

porter atteinte aux droits de l'autre Partie au regard de tout arrêt

' Pour une analyse de la question, voir Raymond Ranjeva, «La prescription par la
Cour internationale de Justice de mesures conservatoiresilitaire)),dans: Emile
Yakpo et Tahar Boumedra (dir. publ.), Liber Amicorur?~Judge Molzcrmn~edBrdjuoui,
199Voir notamment rapport de. Roberto Garreton, rapporteur spécialsur la situation
des droits de I'homme en République démocratiquedu Congo, présentéinquante-
septième sessionde la Commission des droits de I'hommedes Nations Unies, du 1" février
2001; dixième rapport du Secrétaire généralsur la mission de I'Organisation des
Nations Unies en République démocratique du Congo,. S/2002/169, du 15 février
2002; résolution 1417 (2002) du Conseil de sécuritédu 14 juin 2002; résolution du
Parlement européen du 14 juin 2002 sur la situation en République démocratique du
Congo. SEPARA'TE OPINION OF JUDGE MAVUNGU

[Translation]

1. The Court's findings on the request for the indication of provisional
measures submitted by the Democratic Republic of the Congo show - if
that were needed - how complex this case is. There are those who may

not understand why the Court, principal judicial organ of the United
Nations, was not able to indicate provisional measures, including in par-
ticular measures having a military dimension', in view of the humanitar-
ian tragedies and serious violations, both of human rights and of the
basic principles of international humanitarian law, that have been wit-

nessed on its territory2.The Court notes, moreover, that it is deeply con-
cerned by the huma11tragedy in the eastern provinces of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo resulting from the fighting there (paragraph 54 of
the Order).

2. Some may also not understand why the Court should have ordered
provisional measures in the "parallel case" between the Democratic
Republic of the Congo and Uganda (Armed Activities or1the Territory of
the Congo (Dernocrutic Repuhlic cf the Congo v. Uganda), Proi~isionul
me usure.^, Order of1 JuIj~2000, 1.C.J. Reports 2000, p. 11 l), but not in

the case at issue between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and
Rwanda. The complaints lodged against both States by the Congo are
substantially the same.
3. In its Order of 1 July 2000, the Court indicated the following

measure in particular :

"Both Parties must,forthwith, prevent and refrain from any action,
and in particular any armed action, which might prejudice the rights
of the other Party in respect of whatever judgment the Court may

' For an analysis of the issue, see Raymond Ranjeva. "La prescription par la Cour
internationale de Justice de mesures conservatoiresrtée militaire", in Emile Yakpo
ancl Tahar Boumedra (eds.)Liber Amicoruni Judge MolicitnttzBerijuoui. 1999, pp. 449-
459.
See in particular the report by Mr. Roberto Garreton, Special Rapporteur on the
hurnan rights situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, presented at the 57th
session of the United Nations Human Rights Commission of 1 February 2001: tenth
Republic of the Congo,-Sl20021169.of 15 February 2002; Security Council resolutiontic
1417 (2002) of 14June 2002; resolution of the European Parliament of 14 June 2002 on
the situation in themocratic Republic of the Congo.273 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. MAVUNGU)

que la Cour pourrait rendre en l'affaire, ou qui risquerait d'aggraver
ou d'étendrele différendporté devant el!e ou d'en rendre la solution

plus difficile)) (C.I.J. Recueil 2000, p. 129, par. 47, al. 1).
4. 11n'y a aucune indication similaire dans la présente instance. Tou-

tefois, la Cour a rappeléque «les Etats, qu'ils acceptent ou non lajuridic-
tion de la Cour, demeurent en tout état de cause responsables des actes
contraires au droit international qui leur seraient imputables)). Qu'en
l'espèce,le Conseil de sécuritéa adopté plusieurs résolutions sur la situa-

tion dans la région et que celles-ci prescrivent la fin des violations des
droits de l'homme et du droit international humanitaire (voir le para-
graphe 93 de l'ordonnance).
5. De jurisprudence constante, la Cour ne peut indiquer des mesures
conservatoires que si la compétence est établieprima Jacie et que si les

circonstances, dans un cas d'espèce, l'exigent: l'urgence, la préservation
des droits des parties, la nécessitéde contenir ou de ne pas aggraver le
différend (voir infra). En l'espèce,la Cour n'a pas indiqué des mesures
conservatoires du fait que les dispositions invoquéespar le demandeur ne

semblent pas prima facie établir sa compétence.
6. Tout en approuvant l'ordonnance de la Cour dans ses grandes
lignes,je ne partage que partiellement son dispositif. Je pense que la Cour
pouvait établir sa compétence prima frrcie en se fondant sur au moins
deux clauses compromissoires et indiquer quelques mesures conserva-

toires ou, A tout le moins, prescrire celles-ci proprio n~otuau regard du
drame humain, des pertes en vies humaines et des terribles souffrances
que l'on déploredans l'est de la République démocratique du Congo A la
suite du conflit armé (paragraphe 54 de l'ordonnance). Les lignes qui

suivent étayeront mon argumentation.
7. La complexité de l'affaire portée devant la Cour découle de plu-
sieurs éléments,notamment: les péripéties quiont émaillé la saisinede la
Cour', les moyens invoqués pour établir la compétence de la Cour4, le
nombre de mesures conservatoires sollicitées et la nature de certaines

' La premièrerequête introductive d'instancede la République démocratiquedu Congo
contre le Rwanda a été déposélee3 juin 1999. avant d'êtreretiréele 15janvier 2001.

établirla compétence dela Cour: compétencegénérale(Charte des Nations Unies, Statut
de la Cour, jurisprudence de la Cour); compétence au regard des traités internationaux
spécifiques(convention internationale sur l'éliminationde toutes les formes de discrimina-
tion raciale, convention pour la prévention et la répressiondu crime de génocide,conven-
tion sur l'élimination de toutes les formes de discriminationgarddes femmes. la
Constitution de l'organisation mondiale de la Santé, l'acte constitutif de l'Unesco, la
convention pour la révressiond'actes illicitesdirigéscontre la sécuritéde l'aviation civile):
compétence découlant de la suprématie des normes impératives - jus cogens -
(charte internationale des droits de l'homme, charte africaine des droits de l'homme
et des peuples, convention relative aux droitsenfant...). ARMED ACTlVITlES (SEP. OP. MAVUYGU) 273

render in the case, or which might aggravate or extend the dispute

before the Court or make it more difficult to resolve." (1. C.J. Reports
2000, p. 129, para. 47 (l).)

4. There is no such indication in the present case. However, the Court
did point out that, "whether or not States accept the jurisdiction of the
Court, they remain in any event responsible for acts attributable to them
that violate international law". It further noted that the Security Council

has adopted a number of resolutions concerning the situation in the
region whereby it dernanded an end to violations of human rights and of
international humanitarian law (paragraph 93 of the Order).

5. According to its established case law, the Court can only indicate
provisional measures if it has prima facie jurisdiction and if so required
by the circumstances of a given case: the degree of urgency, the protec-
tion of the rights of parties, the need to contain or not to aggravate the

dispute (see itlfru). In the present case, the Court did not indicate provi-
sional measures because the provisions relied on by the Applicant do not
appear to furnish a prima facie basis for its jurisdiction.
6. Whilst approvirig the general tenor of the Order, 1can only partially
agree with its operative provisions. 1 believe that the Court could have

established its prima facie jurisdiction on the basis of at least two com-
promissory clauses and indicated certain provisional measures or, at the
very least, could have indicated such measures proprio rîzotuin the light
of the deplorable hurnan tragedy, the losses of human life and the terrible

suffering in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo as a result
of the fighting there (paragraph 54 of the Order). My argument will be
substantiated in the following paragraphs.
7. The complexity of the case submitted to the Court stems from

several elements, and in particular the following: the prior procedural
history of the case3, the arguments raised to establish the Court's juris-
diction4, the number of provisional measures sought and the nature of

' The first Applicatiori instituting proceedings by the Democratic Republic of the
Congo against Rwanda was lodged on 23 June 1999,before being withdrawn on 15Janu-
ary 2001.
The Democratic Repiiblic of the Congo relied on a number of legal grounds to estab-
lish the jurisdiction of the Court: general jurisdiction (Cnited Nations Charter, Statute of
the Court, case law of the Court); jurisdictionsuant to specific international treaties
(International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,
Convention on the Preverition and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Convention on
the Elimination ofAll Forms of Discrimination against Wonien, the Constitution of the
World Health Organization, the Constitution of Unesco, the Convention for the Suppres-
sion of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation);jurisdiction derived from the
supremacy of peremptory norms - -jus cogen.- (International Bill of Human Rights,
African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, Convention on the Rights of the Child,
etc.'l.274 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. MAVUNGU)

d'entre elles5,l'étendue desviolations des droits de l'homme et des règles
de base du droit international humanitaire6.
8. Mon argumentation abordera deux questions fondamentales: le

fondement de la compétence de la Cour (1)et les conditions d'indication
de mesures conservatoires (II).

9. Il est un principe de droit international généralqu'aucun Etat ne
peut êtreattrait devant une juridiction internationale par un autre Etat
sans son consentement7. C'est au nom de ce principe que le Comité des
juristes de Washington chargé de préparer le Statut de la Cour interna-

tionale de Justice abandonna l'idéede prévoir dans le Statut la compé-
tence obligatoire automatique de la Cour en faveur de la compétence
subordonnée au consentement des Etats8. Le Comité craignit que I'insti-
tution de la compétence obligatoire automatique n'empêchâtla ratifica-
tion de la Charte, de surcroît du Statut, par un grand nombre dlEtats, en

particulier par la majorité des grandes puissances? La souscription d'une
clause facultative de juridiction obligatoire parut la formule la mieux
appropriée: la compétence de la Cour est donc A la fois facultative et
obligatoire ln.
10. La Cour a d'ailleurs eu l'occasion d'affirmer et de réaffirmer

le principe du consentement des Etats dans plusieurs affaires. Ainsi,
dans l'affaire du Timor oriental (Portugal c. Au.str~ilie), la Cour a
déclaré :

«La Cour rappellera à cet égardque l'un des principes fondamen-
taux de son Statut est qu'elle ne peut trancher un différendentre des
Etats sans que ceux-ci aient consenti asa juridiction. »(C.1. J.Recueil
1995, p. 101, par. 26.)

11. Lorsque la Cour est saisie par une requête,celle-ci doit indiquer

La Républiquedémocratique du Congo a sollicitépas moins de dix-neuf mesures dont
certaines touchent au fond de l'affaire (((réparationsjustes et équitables pour les dom-
mages subis)),par exemple).
Il y a un certain fosséentre l'étenduedes violations des droits de l'homme ainsi que du
des mesures conservatoires.aire et l'étroitessede la compétence de la Cour pour indiquer
' Dans le mêmesens. voir Michel Dubisson, Lo COurinternufionrilecleJustice, 1964,
p. 152;Shabtai Rosenne, Tl~eLuir und Prrictice($the Internritionul Court, vol. 1. 1965,
p. 313.
Cf. l'article 36. paragrap1,du Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice. Cet
article ressemblà,quelques nuances prèsà l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour permanente
de Justice internationale (ci-après: C.P.J.I.).
' Cf. Dubisson,op.cit.. p. 145.
"' Cf. l'article 36, paragrap1 et2, du Statut.certain of them5 and, lastly, the extent of the violations of human rights
and of the basic rules of international humanitarian law6.
8. My zrgument will address two fundamental questions: the founda-
tion of the Court's jurisdiction (1)and the conditions for the indication of

provisional measures (II).

1. THEFOUNDATIO ONF THE COURT'S J~IRISDICTION

9. It is a general principle of international law that no State may be
brought before an international court by another State without its con-
sent '.This principle was upheld by the Washington Committee of Jurists
responsible for drafting the Statute of the International Court of Justice
when they abandoned the idea of providing therein for the automatic

compulsory jurisdiction of the Court in favour of jurisdiction being sub-
ject to the acceptance of Statesx. The Committee fèared that the institu-
tion of automatic compulsory jurisdiction might impede the ratification
of the Charter, and irideed of the Statute, by a large number of States and
in particular by most of the major powers9. A provision for acceptance of
an optional compulsory jurisdiction clause appeared to be the most

appropriate solution: the Court's jurisdiction is thus both optional and
conipulsory 'O.
10. The Court has had occasion to assert and reconfirm the principle
of State consent in a number of cases. Thus in the case concerning East
Tinzor (Portugal v. Austualiu) it stated:

"The Court recalls in this respect that one of the fundamental

principles of its Statute is that it cannot decide a dispute between
States without the consent of those States to its jurisdiction." (1.C.J.
Reports 1995, p. 101, para. 26.)

11. When proceedings before the Court are instituted by means of an

'TheDemocratic Republic of the Congo called for no less than 19measures, including
some that related to the rrierits of the case (e.g.. "fair and equitable compensation for the
damage suffered").
"There is a certain discrepancy between the extent of the violations of human rights
and of international humanitarian law and the narrowness of the Court's jurisdiction to
indicatc provisional measlires.
' In the same vein, see Michel Dubisson,Lri Cour int<~ri~utiotee Ju.~tice1964,
p. 152; Shabtai Rosenne. ThLrrii und Pructicoftlie I~~tewzlrtionulCo1965,p. 313.

See Article 36,ragrilph 1, of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. This
Article is essentially thee, save in certain very minor respects. as Article 36 of the
Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice (P.C.I.J.).
"'See Article 36, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the Statute.outre les parties au différend et l'objet de celui-ci, «les moyens de
droit sur lesquels le demandeur prétend fonder la compétence de la
Cour » l .
12. Cependant, en définitive,il revient à la Cour elle-mêmede trancher

toute question relative iisa compétence1':

«La Cour fera observer qu'établirou ne pas établir sa compétence
n'est pas une question qui relèvedes parties; elle est du ressort de la
Cour elle-même.S'ilest vrai que c'est i la partie qui cherche à établir
un fait qu'incombe la charge de la preuve (voir Activités militaires et
paramilitaires au Nicurugua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-

Unis d'Anzérique), compétence et recevabilité,arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1984, p. 437, par. 101), cela est sans pertinence aux fins d'établir la
compétence de la Cour, car ils'agit là d'«une question de droit qui
doit être tranchéeà la lumière des faits pertinents)) (Actions arnzées
frontalières et transf~o1zta1iPre.(sNicaragua c. Honduras), con~pé-

tence et recevabilité, arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1988, p. 76, par. 16).»
(Compétence en matière de pêcheries(Espagne c. Ccirzada),arrêt,
C. I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 450, par. 37.)

13. Tant dans sa requête introductive d'instance, dans sa demande en
indication de mesures conservatoires que dans ses observations orales,
faites aux audiences publiques tenues les 13 et 14 juin 2002, la Répu-

blique démocratique du Congo a invoqué plusieurs moyens de droit
pour établir la compétence de la Cour, notamment: sa déclaration d'ac-
ceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour, des clauses compro-
missoires et les normes impératives (jus coger~s).

1. La déclaration congoluise d'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire
de la Cour

14. L'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut dispose que:

«Les Etats Parties au présent Statut pourront, 2 n'importe quel

moment, déclarer reconnaître comme obligatoire de plein droit et
sans convention spéciale, à l'égardde tout autre Etat acceptant la
mêmeobligation, la juridiction de la Cour sur tous les différends
d'ordre juridique ..))

15. Cette disposition, communément appelée ((clause facultative de

Voir l'article 40, paragraphe 1, du Statut et l'article 38, paragraphes 1 et 2, du
Règlement.
" L'article 36, paragraphe 6, du Statut prévoit: «En cas de contestation sur le point de
savoir si la Cour est compétente, la Cour dDcide.application. the latter must indicate, in addition to the parties to the dis-
pute and subject-matter, "the legal grounds upon which the jurisdiction
of the Court is said to be based"ll.
12. However, in the last resort, any question relating to the Court's

jurisdiction must be settled by the Court itself 12:

"The Court ]points out that the establishment or otherwise of
jurisdiction is not a matter for the parties but for the Court itself.
Although a party seeking to assert a fact must bear the burden of
proving it (see Militury and Parun~ilitayJ Activities in and uguinst
Nicurugua (Nituruguu v. United States of .41?1ericu),Juuisdiction

und Adwzissibility, Judgment, 1. C. J. Reports 1984, p. 437, para. IOI),
this has no relevance for the establishment of the Court's jurisdic-
ti.on, which is a 'question of law to be resolved in the light of the
relevant facts' (Border and Transborder Armed Actions (Nicaragua
v. Ho~zcluras), Juri.sdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1988, p. 76, para. 16)." (Fisheries Juris~/ictiotz (Spain v.

Canadu), Jurisdiction cg'the Court, Juclgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1998,
p. 450, para. 37.)

13. The Democraitic Republic of the Congo, in its Application insti-
tuting proceedings, i1.srequest for the indication of provisional measures
and its oral arguments at the public hearings of 13 and 14 June 2002,
submitted a number of legal grounds for the jurisdiction of the Court,

and in particulas: its declaration of acceptance of the compulsory juris-
diction of the Court, and various compromissory clauses and peremptory
norms (jus cogen~).

1. The Congolese Declurcrtion of'Acceptance oj the Cotî?pulsory Juris-
diction oj the Court

14. Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute provides:

"The States parties to the present Statute may at any time declare
that they recognize as compulsory ipso facto and without special
agreement, in relation to any other State accepting the same obliga-

tion, the jurisdiction of the Court in al1legal disputes . . ."

15. Under this provision, commonly known as the "optional compul-

''See Article 40, paragra1,of the Statute and Article 38. paragraphs 1and 2, of the
Rules.
'*Article 36. paragraph 6, of the Statute stipula"In the event of a dispute as to
whether the Court has jiurisdiction, the matter shall be settled by the decision of the
Court."276 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. MAVUNGU)

juridiction obligatoire de la Cour>)", permet à tout Etat partie au Statut
d'accepter la compétence de la Cour et, de ce fait, de lui conférer une

compétence obligatoire généralesur les différends visésa l'article 36,
paragraphe 2, du Statut.
16. La clause facultative susvisée n'est que la reconduction de celle
contenue dans le Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale,
a la seule différenceque cet instrument prévoyait la possibilitépour les
Etats d'accepter la juiidiction de la Cour sur toutes ou quelques-unes des
catégoriesde différendsd'ordre juridique visées a l'article 36, alors que le
Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice prévoit un régimeunique.

17. La formule de clause facultative (Optional Clause} laisse toute
latitude aux Etats parties au Statut d'y souscrire ou non. C'est au nom de
ce principe que la République démocratique du Congo a acceptéla juri-
diction obligatoire de la Cour par une déclaration du 8 février 1989 et
dont la teneur est la suivante:

«Le Conseil exécutif de la République du Zaïre [actuellement
Gouvernement de la République démocratiquedu Congo] reconnaît
comme obligatoire de plein droit et sans convention spéciale, a
l'égardde tout autre Etat acceptant la mêmeobligation, la juridic-
tion de la Cour internationale de Justice pour tous différendsd'ordre
juridique ayant pour objet:

a) l'interprétation d'un traité;
b) tout point de droit international;
c) la réalitéde tout fait qui, s'il était établi, constituerait la viola-
tion d'un engagement international;
d) la nature ou l'étenduede la réparation due pour la rupture d'un
engagement international.

18. La déclaration d'acceptation de la clause facultative de juridiction
obligatoire de la Cour est un acte unilatéral; mais 1'Etatdéclarant établit
néanmoins un véritable lien consensuel avec les autres Etats parties au
systéme de la clause facultative. Or, le Gouvernement rwandais n'a

jamais souscrit à la clause facultative prévue par l'article 36, para-
graphe 2, du Statut. En conséquence, lacompétence de la Cour ne peut
être établiesur la base de la seule déclaration faite par le Gouver-
nement congolais. La partie congolaise l'a d'ailleurs admis dans ses
observations orales :

l3Pour une analyse de la question. voir notamment: Dubisson, op. cit., p. 159et suiv.;
Edvard Hambro, «Some Observations on the Compulsory Jurisdiçtion of the Interna-
tional Court of Justice)), BritishrBook oj'Interr1citioncilLuit., vol. 25, 1948, p. 133-
157; «The Jurisdiction of the International Court of JusticRecuc~ilifes coiirs clr
I'Accrtl6n?iede clroit interi~ufionrilil. lu Hqe (RCAD76,1950, p. 125-215; Jean-
1967, p. 27-50; Humphrey Waldock, ((Deçline of the Optional Clause)), British Yeclr
Book nf InternrrtionrilLuit,. vol. 32, 1955-1956,p. 244-287. ARlWED ACTIVITIES (SEP. OP. MAVUNGU)
276

sory jurisdiction clause" 13,any State party to the Statute may accept the
Court's jurisdiction and thereby give the Court general compulsory juris-
diction over the disputes provided for in Article 36, paragraph 2, of the
Statute.

16. The above-mentioned optional clause is simply a restatement
of the clause contairied in the Statute of the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice, which only differed in that it allowed States the
possibility of acceptirigthe Court's jurisdiction in either al1or only certain
of the categories of legal disputes provided for in Article 36, whereas
acceptance under the Statute of the International Court of Justice covers

al1such disputes.
17. The optional clause régime leavesit up to the States parties to the
Statute to choose whether or not to make such a declaration. In accord-
ance with this principle the Democratic Republic of the Congo accepted
the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court by a declaration of 8 February
1989,whose terms are as follows :

"The Executive Council of the Republic of Zaire [currently the
Government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo] recognizes
as compulsory ipsojucto and without special agreement, in relation
to any other State accepting the same obligation, the jurisdiction of

the International Court of Justice in al1legal disputes concerning:

(u) the interpretation of a treaty ;

(b) any question of international law;
(c) the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute
a breach of an international obligation;
(d) the nature or extent of the reparation to be made for the breach
of an international obligation.
.............................

18. Whilst the declaration of acceptance of the Court's compulsory
jurisdiction is a unilateral instrument, the declarant State nevertheless
establishes a true consensual relationship with the other States parties to
the optional clause system. The Rwandese Government has, however,

never made any optional declaration under Article 36, paragraph 2, of
the Statute. As a result, the Court's jurisdiction cannot be founded on the
declaration by the Congolese Government. This was indeed admitted by
the Congo in oral argument:

''For further analysis of this issueinter uliuDubisson, op. rit.pp. 159 et secl.;
Edvard Hambro, "Some Observations on the Compulsory Jurisdiction of the Interna-
tioniil Court of JusticBritislz Yeur Book (~f'lntcrnutiLUII',Vol. 25, 1948.pp. 133-
157; "The Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice"Reciiril (les cours de
I'Accrtii.mdetiroit internrrrioncrlde Lu HUJV(RCADI)Vol. 76, 1950,pp. 125-215: Jean-
Pierre Quéneudec, "Les Etats africains et la compétenUe la CIJ", Annules ufriruit~c~s
1967, pp. 27-50; Humphi-ey Waldock, "Decline of the Optional Clause". British Yeur
Book ofInt<~rncitioiztrLlVol. 32, 1955-1956,pp. 244-287.277 ACTIVITÉ~ ARMÉES (OP. IND. MAVUNGU)

«Le Gouvernement de la République démocratiquedu Congo sait
que la présente cause, plus exactement, que la compétence de la
Cour dans cette présente cause ne peut être établieni sur la base

d'un compromis qui, en l'espècen'existe pas, ni sur l'acceptation de
la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour, la Républiquedu Congo ayant
procédé à une telle déclaration, le Rwanda s'en étant abstenu a ce
jour. » (CR 2002136,p. 32.)
19. Donc, l'existence des déclarations d'acceptation de la juridiction

obligatoire de la Cour entre les parties à un différend est indispensable
Dour fonder la comdtence de la Cour sur la base de tels textes. Même
dans cette hypothèse, la compétence dela Cour ne naîtra que de la com-
paraison entre la déclaration la plus libérale et ladéclarationla plus res-
trictive; c'est cette dernière qui l'emportera en tant que dénominateur
commun le plus bas 14.Dans l'affaire desActivités artnéessur le territoire
du Congo (Rbpublique démocratique du Congo c. Ouganda), la Cour a
établisa compétence prima facie sur la base de la déclarationcongolaise
du 8 février1989et de la déclaration ougandaise du 3 octobre 1963:

((Considérantque la Cour estime que lesdéclarationsfaites par les
Parties conformément au paragraphe 2 de l'article 36 de son Statut
constituentprima jùcie une base sur laquelle sa compétencepourrait
êtrefondée en l'espèce.» (C.I.J. Recueil 2000, p. 123,par. 34.)

2. Les clauses compromissoires

20. La République démocratique du Congo a invoqué plusieurs
clauses compromissoires aux fins d'établir la compétence de la Cour.
Celles-cipeuvent êtrerangéesen trois catégoriesau regard des réservesfor-
muléespar le Rwanda, des moyens de défense présentép sar les Parties

et de l'évolutiondu droit international: les clauses établissant la com-
pétence de la Cour, les clauses pouvant établir la compétence de la
Cour et les clauses ne pouvant pas établir la compétence dela Cour.

A. Les clauses établissant la compétencede /a Cour

21. Je suis d'avis que trois traités soàtranger sous cette rubrique: la
Constitution de l'organisation mondiale de la Santédu 22juillet 1946,la
convention de Montréal pour la répressiond'actes illicites dirigéscontre
la sécurité del'aviation civile du 23 septembre 1971et la convention sur
l'é!iminationde toutes les formes de discrimination à l'égard des femmes
du 18 décembre 1979.
22. Le Gouvernement du Rwanda n'a pas formulé des réservesaux
clauses compromissoires prévoyant la compétence de laCour contenues

'?Pour une analyse des déclarations faites par les Etats africains, voir notamment
Mvumbi-di-Ngoma Mavungu, Le r6gletiient judiciciire des diffbrerzds interbtrrtiques en
Africllcc,,1992, p. 156et suiv. "The Governinent of the Democratic Republic of the Congo is
aware that the present case or, more precisely, that the jurisdiction
of the Court in this case, cannot be established either on the basis of

a special agreement, which does not exist here, or on acceptance of
the compulsory jurisdiction of the Court, the Republic of the Congo
having made a declaration of acceptance while Rwanda has hitherto
refrained from doing so." (CR 2002136,p. 32 )
19. The existence of declarations accepting the compulsory jurisdiction

of the Court between the parties to a dispute is thus indispensable in
order for the Court's iurisdiction to be founded on such instruments.
Even then, the Court's jurisdiction can arise only from a comparison
between the broadesi declaration and the most restrictive one, with the
latter prevailing as the lowest common denonîinator 14.In the case con-
cerning Arnzed Activities on the Territory of th<,Congo (Democrutic
Repuhlic oj the Congo v. Ugunda), the Court based its finding of prima
facie jurisdiction on the Congolese declaration of 8 February 1989 and
on the Ugandan declaration of 3 October 1963:

"Whereas the Court considers that the declarations made by the
Parties in accordance with Article 36,paragraph 2, of the Statute con-
stitute a prima fiicie basis upon which its jurisdiction in the present
case might be founded." (I.C.J. Reports 2000, p. 123,para. 34.)

2. T/ze Compromissory C'luust~s

20. The Democratic Republic of the Congo relied on a number of
compromissory clausirs for purposes of establishing the Court's jurisdic-
tion. These clauses can be divided into three categories in the light of the
reservations submittesdby Rwanda, the grounds of defence raised by the

Parties and the evolut.ionof international law :those clauses which estab-
lish the Court's jurisdiction, those clauses capable of establishing the
Court'sjurisdiction and those clauses incapable of establishing the Court's
jurisdiction.

A. Clauses c~stuhlishiirgthe Court'sjurisdiction

21. 1consider that three treaties should be placed under this heading:
the Constitution of the World Health Organizatioil of 22 July 1946,the
Montreal Conventiori for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the
Safety of Civil Aviation of 23 September 1971and the Convention on the
Elimination of Al1Forms of Discrimination against Women of 18Decem-
ber 1979.
22. The Rwandese Government has made no reservations with respect
to the compromissorj~clauses providing for the jurisdiction of the Court

l4For an analysis of the declarations by African States, see inter iilici Mvumbi-di-
Ngoina Mavungu, Le r6glement judiciaire des di/fCrend~.interi.tatiyue.s en Afiiqiie, 1992,
pp. 156et seq.278 ACTIVITÉS ARMEES (OP. IND. MAVUNGU)

dans les traités susmentionnés. La compétence de la Cour a été contestée
aux motifs que les conditions préalables à sa saisine n'auraient pas été
remplies, que l'élément d'urgence faisaitdéfaut ou que la République
démocratique du Congo n'avait pas spécifiédans sa demande les droits
qui auraient étéviolésau regard de telle ou telle convention.

1) La Constitution de I'Ovganisutionmorzdialede la Sant6 (OMS)

23. La Constitution de l'OMS du 22 juillet 1946 contient une clause
compromissoire qui se lit comme suit:

«Toute question ou différend concernant l'interprétation ou
l'application de cette Constitution, qui n'aura pas étéréglépar voie
de négociation ou par l'Assemblée dela Santé, sera déféré par les
parties à la Cour internationale de Justice conformément au Statut
de ladite Cour, à moins que les parties intéressées neconvientlent

d'un autre mode de règlement.» (Art. 75.)
24. Le Rwanda a écartéla compétence de la Cour sur la base de
l'article 75 de la Constitution de l'OMS pour les motifs ci-aprés:

«Le Congo n'a pas pris la peine de préciser quellesdispositions de
cet acte constitutif étaient selon lui en cause. De même,il n'a aucu-
nement cherché à satisfaire à la condition de procédure requise pour

saisir la Cour..L'article 75 de la Constitution de l'OMS dispose que
la Cour a compétence si - et seulement si- le différenden question
n'a pas étéréglépar voie de négociation ou par l'Assemblée dela
Santé... Or, le Congo n'a rien fait en ce sens. L'article 75 ne saurait
en conséquence fonder la compétence de la Cour dans la présente

espèce.» (CR 2002137,p. 24.)
25. La détérioration de la santé des populations congolaises et des
infrastructures sanitaires, du fait de la guerre, a été stigmatiséepar
diverses institutions, tant publiques que privées. Cette situation a pour

conséquences, notamment: les pertes en vies humaines, la propagation à
grande échelledu virus VIHISida, la résurgence des maladies naguère éra-
diquées (tuberculose, lépre, onchocercose ou cécité des rivières, maladie
du sommeil, choléra ...) et l'apparition d'autres maladies (crétinisme...).
Les journées nationales de vaccination (JNV) contre la poliomyélite, qui

touchent près de treize millions d'enfants vivant sur le territoire congo-
lais, sont souvent perturbées dans les zones de conflit.
26. Dans un rapport de 2001. les organisations humanitaires Oxfam,
Save the Children et Christian Aid ont notéce qui suit:

((Avant le début de la guerre en 1998, les donnéesdisponibles sur
la santé ont montré que l'infrastructure existante n'était pas en
mesure d'offrir un service de qualité à un prix abordable à la majo-
rité de la population de la République démocratique du Congo. La
guerre a rendu cette situation encore pire. Les hôpitaux, les centres

de santé et les postes de santé ont étédétruits, les médicaments necontained in the above-mentioned treaties. The Court's jurisdiction was
disputed on the grounds that the prior conditions for its seisin were not
fulfilled, that there was no element of urgency, or that the Democratic

Republic of the Congo had not stipulated in its Application which rights
had been violated in the light of any particular convention.

(1) The Constitution qf tlze World Heultlz Orgunization (WHO)

23. The Constitution of the WHO of 22 July 1946contains a compro-
missory clause which reads as follows:

"Any question or dispute concerning the interpretation or applica-
tion of this Constitution which is not settled by negotiation or by the
Health Assembly shall be referred to the International Court of Jus-

tice in conformi1.y with the Statute of the Court, unless the parties
concerned agree on another mode of settlement." (Art. 75.)

24. Rwanda contested the jurisdiction of the Court founded on
Article 75 of the WHO Constitution on the following grounds:

"The Congo has made no attempt to identify which provision of
the Constitution it considers to be in issue. Nor has it made any
effort to satisfy the procedural condition for seising the Court . . .
Article 75 confers jurisdiction on the Court if - and only if - the
dispute in questiion has not been settled by negotiation or by the

Health Assembly . . . The Congo has made no attempt to do so.
That being the case, Article 75 cannot afford a basis for jurisdiction
in the present case." (CR 2002137,p. 24.)

25. The decline in the health of the Congolese population and in medi-
cal infrastructures as a result of the war has been condemned by various
institutions, both public and private. The consequences of this situation
include: losses of huinan life, the widespread propagation of the HIVI

AIDS virus, the re-eniergence of diseases previously eradicated (tubercu-
losis, leprosy, onchocercosis or river blindness, sleeping sickness, cholera,
etc.), and the appearance of other diseases (cretinisin, etc.). The National
Vaccination Days (NVD) in the campaign against polio, which involve
some 13million children living in Congolese territory, are often disturbed

in tlie areasof conflict.
26. In a report of 2001 the humanitarian organizations Oxfam, Save
the Children and Christian Aid noted the following:

"Prior to start of the conflict in 1998,available health data showed
that the existing rnfrastructure was already failing to deliver quality,
affordable care to the majority of the DRC's population. The war
has made this situation even worse. Hospitals, clinics, and health
posts have been destroyed, medication cannot be delivered, and
routine vaccination programmes have been disrupted. Many people ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. MAVUNGU)

peuvent plus êtrelivréset les programmes réguliers de vaccination
ont étéinterrompus. Beaucoup de personnes se battent pour payer

des services de santé, d'autres ne peuvent pas se le permettre. Pis
encore, beaucoup de personnes vivent maintenant dans des condi-
tions tellement difficiles qu'elles courent un plus grand risque de
tomber malade. » ''

27. Dans le mêmeordre d'idées,le Parlement européen, dans sa réso-
lution du 14juin 2002 sur la situation en République démocratique du

Congo, a relevéla dégradation des conditions sociales à cause de la per-
sistance du conflit armé:

((Considérant que trois ans et demi de conflit en RDC ont entraîné
une augmentation dramatique des taux de malnutrition et de mor-
talité dans le pays, 70'%,des personnes qui habitent dans les zones
touchées par la guerre n'ayant pas accèsaux soins de santéou à un

approvisionnement alimentaire suffisant.» (Préambule, point D.)
28. Les textes susmentionnés établissent clairement un lien entre la

situation de belligérance etla dégradation des conditions de vie des popu-
lations. Il est vrai que la Constitution de l'OMS prévoit prioritairement
des obligations à charge de l'Organisation1? Cependant, tout Etat qui
devient membre de I'OMS se doit non seulement de coopérer avec l'Orga-
nisation pour l'aider à remplir le but qui lui a été assigné, mais également

d'agir afin d'offrir aux populations le meilleur état de santépossible. Ne
pas concourir à l'exercice du droit à la santé, c'est aller à l'encontre de
l'objet et du but de la Constitution de I'OMS 17.11serait faux d'affirmer
que cet acte constitutif ne prescrit aucune obligation aux Etats membres.

Dans son opinion dissidente dans l'affaire relative à la Licéitéde l'ufilisa-
tion deleusrmes nucléuire;\par un Etut u'an~ un conjit umé, M. Weera-
mantry s'est interrogé sur les obligations des Etats en vertu de la Cons-
titution de l'OMS:

«Mises à part les responsabilités qui leur incombent en vertu du
droit international coutumier et des autres conventions qui peuvent

les lier, les Etats parties la Constitution de l'OMS, qui est elle-même
un traité international, ont acceptécertains principes et obligations

Ainsi, l'engagement est pris d'amener tous les peuples au niveau
de santé le plus élevépossible et de considérer la possession du

''Aucune /ierspecfive vtreIritriigtdic,hutrluinei/u confiil en Rtpi~hliqirer/tm»<rrrtiqu<~
ditCongo, rapport d'activités,août 2001, p. 20: voir égalementGarreton, op.p.32.,
'"'article 1énonce que le but de I'OMS «est d'amener tous les peuples au niveau de
santéle plus élevépossible».
l7Pour un essai d'analyse du droità la santé en tant que droit de l'homme, lire
Mohammed Bejdaoui, ((Le droià la santé, espoirs, réalités,illusions», Journcil inrerrzu-
fionalribioi.thiyue, vol. 9. no 3, 1998,p. 33-38. L'article 12du Pacte international sur les
droits économiques. sociaux. culturels, du 16décembre 1966,consacre le droitanté. struggle to pay for health services; some cannot afford to pay at all.

Moreover, many people now live in such difficult conditions that
they run a rnucll greater risk of falling i11." l5

27. In the same vein, the European Parliamelit, in its resolution of
14 June 2002 on the situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo,

reported on the worsening of social conditions as a result of the continu-
ing fighting :

"Whereas the three-and-a-half year confict in the DRC has
dramatically increased the rates of malnutrition and mortality in
that country, with 70 per cent of the people living in the war affected
areas having no access to health care or adequate food supplies."

(Preamble, point D.)

28. These statements clearly establish a link between the situation of
conflict and the popiulation's worsening living conditions. It is true that
the WHO Constitution provides primarily for obligations to be fulfilled
by the organization itselfI6. However, any State uhich becomes a Mem-
ber of the WHO has a duty not only to CO-operatewith the organization

to assist in fulfilling the mission assigned to it, but also to act in order to
provide the population with the best possible level of health. Any failure
to uphold the right to health is contrary to the object and purpose of the
WHO Constitution l;'It would be wrong to assert that this Constitution
does not lay down any obligations for Member States. In his dissenting

opinion in the case concerning Legalitj~of the Use by a Stute of Nuclear
Weuponns in Armed (lonjlict, Judge Weeramantry raised the issue of the
obligations of States under the WHO Constitution:

"Quite apart from their responsibilities under customary interna-
tional law and any other conventions to which they are parties, the

States that are parties to the WHO Constitution, which is itself an
international treaty, accepted certain pririciples and obligations.

There is thus a cornmitment to the attainment by al1people to the
highest possible level of health, to regarding the achievement of the

''"No End in Sight: The Human Tragedy of the Conflict in the Democratic Republic
of the Congo", Activity.eport. August 2001, p. 20; see also Garretop. citp. 32.
IhArticle1 stipulates that the objective of the WHO is "the attainment by al1peoples of
the highest possible level of health".
I7For an analysis of thie right to health as a human right, see Mohammed Bedjaoui,
"Le droità la santé, espoirs, réalités, illusionJournal internutionul de hiokthiyue,
Vol. 9, No. 3, 1998, pp. 33-38. Article 12 of the International CovenanEconomiç,
Social and Cultural Rights,f 16 December 1966,enshrines the right to health. meilleur état de santépossible comme un droit fondamental de tous
les êtres humains, la santé est reconnue comme une condition de la
paix et le devoir de tous les Etats de coopérer pour atteindre l'idéal
fix est établi ...» (C.1J. Recueil 1996 (1), p. 146.) lx

29. Le différendqui oppose la République démocratique du Congo au
Rwanda concerne l'application de la Constitution de l'OMS pour des pré-

tendues violations des obligations y relatives. L'article 75 prévoit une
condition préalable avant la saisine de la Cour: la négociation ou I'inter-
vention de l'Assembléede la Santé.Dans ses observations orales, la Répu-
blique démocratique du Congo, sans fournir d'élémentsde preuve, a

informéla Cour de différentes négociations quiont eu lieu entre les deux
Parties en vue de parvenir à un règlement global du conflit armé sur le
territoire congolais, y compris par l'organisation de l'arbitrage (CR 20021
38, p. 10-11). C'est fort possible que les discussions entre les autorités

congolaises et rwandaises ne se soient pas portées spécialement sur les
obligations de leurs Etats respectifs au regard de la Constitution de
l'OMS, mais plutôt sur le respect des droits de l'homme et du droit inter-

national humanitaire, ainsi que sur le retrait des troupes étrangèresdu ter-
ritoire congolais et les conditions de ce retrait. Les allégations des viola-
tions du droit a la santé formulées par la République démocratique du
Congo rentrent dans l'ensemble des violations des droits de l'homme et du

droit international humanitaire. Ainsi, on peut raisonnablement considé-
rer que les Parties ont tentéde résoudre le différendpar la négociation".
30. Lorsque la clause de juridiction prévoitle recours aux négociations
diplomatiques préalables, il va de soi que les parties doivent s'y confor-

mer. Cette exigence est plus une obligation de comportement que de
résultat. A la lumière de la jurisprudence de la Cour, il revient à l'organe
judiciaire de se prononcer proprio motu sur l'observation ou l'inobserva-
tion d'une telle obligation. La Cour a d'ailleurs interprété de manière

extensive la notion de ((négociations diplomatiques» (échangesde vues:
notes diplomatiques, protestations, discussions au sein d'une organisa-
tion internationale, pourparler^)^".

lxLe préambule de la Constitution de l'OMS énonceque:

«La santéde tous les peuples est une condition fondamentale de la paix du monde
et de la sécurité;elle dépend de la coopération la plus étroite des individus et des
Etat...Les gouvernements ont la responsabilité de la santéde leurs peup))s.
lYSur la valeur juridique du principe du recours aux négociations diplomatiques préa-
lables, voir Georgesbi-Saab, Les c,.wceptionspri.linlinuirrs duns lu procéduredelu Cour
infcrnutioncile, 1967, p. 125; Paul Guggenheim, Truifc'rierlroit internurionulpuhlic, t. II,
1953, p. 148; Charles De Visscher. Aspects récents duclroitprocidurde lu Cour intrr-
nulionule de Jusrice, 1966,p. 86; Jacques Soubeyrol, «La négociation diplomatique, élé-
ment du contentieux international,Revue génértilerlerlroit internationalpublic, vol. 68,
1964, p. 323; Waldock, op. rit, p. 266.

149; Sud-Ouest africain, excepfions pri.liniinuirc,s, C.I.J. RIY62,lp. 344 et suiv.;148-
Actions urrnée.f~ronrulic'pistrunsJrontulil.re.<(Nimruguc.Honduru~ J, C.1J. Recuc3il

1988. p. 99 et suiv. ARMED ACTIVlTlES (SEP. OP. MAVUNGU) 280

highest achieviible standard of health as a fundamental right of

every person on the planet, a recognition of health as fundamental
to peace, and of the duty of State co-operation to achieve this ideal."
(1.C.J. Reports 1996 (Z), p. 146.) l8

29. The dispute between the Democratic Republic of the Congo and
Rwanda concerns the application of the WHO Constitution in the case of
alleged violations of the obligations thereunder. Article 75 lays down a

prior condition before the Court can be seised: negotiation or the inter-
vention of the Health Assembly. In oral argument, the Democratic Repub-
lic of the Congo, without providing any evidence therefor, informed the
Court of various negotiations between the two Parties with a view to

achieving a global isettlement of the armed conflict on Congolese terri-
tory, including by the organization of arbitration (CR 2002138, pp. 10-
11). Very possibly the discussions between the Congolese and Rwandan
authorities did not specifically concern the obligations of their respective

States under the WI-IO Constitution, but rather the upholding of human
ri"hts and of international humanitarian law. as well as the withdrawal of
foreign troops from Congolese territory and the conditionsfor such with-
drawal. The allegations by the Democratic Republic of the Congo con-
cerning the violatiolns of the right to health forni part of the overall

violations of human rightL and of international humanitarian law. It mav
therefore be reasonably considered that the Parties attempted to settle the
dispute by negotiation 19.
30. When a jurisdiction clause provides for recourse to prior diplo-

matic negotiations, it is self-evident that the parties have to comply there-
with. This requiremlrnt is rather an obligation of conduct than of result.
In the light of the Court's case law, it is for the Court itself to ruleproprio
motu on compliance or non-compliance with that obligation. The Court

has moreover given a wide interpretation to the notion of "diplomatic
negotiations" (exchanges of views: diplomatic notes, protests, discussions
within an international organization, talk~)~".

'Yhe preamble to the WHO Constitution provides:
"The health of al1peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace and security
and is dependent upon the fullest co-operation of indi~iduals and Sta. . Gov-
ernments have a responsibility for the health of their peoples."

'Toncerning the legal value of the principle of recourse to prior diplomatic negotia-
tioiis, see Georges Abi-Saab, Leexception.pri.lin~irzusuns lu proc6dure rlr lu Cour
intt~rnutionule, 1967, p. 125; Paul Guggenheim, Trait(. dc clroir intc~rnutlublic.,
Vol. II. 1953,p. 148; Ch:arlesDe Vischer. Aspc,ct.src'c,c.ntt.istidroit procédurulde lu Cour
intc~rnirtiotiulcd~eJu.~ticr,1966, p. 86; Jacques Soubeyrol, "La négociation diplomatique,
élémentdu contentieux international", Rei>ucg(.ni.rirle dc droit interncitionul public,
Vol. 68, 1964, p. 323; Waldock, op. c,it.,p. 266.
'" See inter ulicrRighi of'Pu.s.rcigeover.Indiun Tt,rritor,v.I.C.J1960,opp. 148-
149: South n'est Af'ricu. PrelirtiinObjections,I.C.J. Rei~orts 1962, pp. 344 ri s;q.
Border und Trunshortier Arnied action.^ (Nicurugucr v. Honriurus), 1.C J. Rc.port.s1988,
pp. 99 et .secl. 31. L'attitude de chaque partie durant les négociations préalablesest
déterminante pour apprécierla réalisationou non de cette exigence:
«Une négociation nesuppose pas toujours et nécessairementune
série plus oumoins longue de notes et de dépêchesc ;e peut êtreassez

qu'une conversation ait étéentamée; cette conversation a pu être
trèscourte: tel est le cas si elle a rencontréun point mort, si elle s'est
heurtéefinalement a un nonpossumus ou à un non volunzuspéremp-
toire de l'une desParties et qu'ainsi il est apparu avec évidenceque
le différend n'estpas susceptible d'êtreréglépar une négociation
diplomatique. » (Affaire des Concessions Muvrommatis en Palestine,
arrêt no2, 1924, C.P. J.I. sérieA no2, p. 13.)

32. L'article 75 de la Constitution de l'OMS prévoitque le différend
((sera déféré par les parties a la Cour internationale de Justice conformé-
ment au Statut de ladite Cour, à moins que les parties intéresséesne
conviennent d'un autre mode de règlement ». Au regard des observations

orales des Parties, il est apparu que le différendne pouvait pas être réglé
par une procédure arbitrale, et ne pouvait pas non plus êtresoumis a la
Cour par la conclusion d'un compromis de règlementjudiciaire. Il ne res-
tait plus que la saisine de la Cour par une requêteintroductive d'instance.

2) La convention de Montréalpour la répressiond'actes illicites diri-
géscontre la sécurité del'aviation civile

33. La République démocratiquedu Congo a égalementinvoquéI'ar-
ticle 14,paragraphe 1,de la convention de Montréal de 1971pour fonder

la compétence de la Cour. La clause compromissoire que contient cet
article prévoit des conditions préalables avant la saisine de la Cour: le
différend doit porter sur l'interprétation ou l'application de la conven-
tion; les parties doivent avoir tenté de résoudre le différendpar voie de
négociationou par arbitrage2'.
34. Il y a lieu de noter que le Rwanda n'a pas formulé deréservea la

clause compromissoire susmentionnée. De ce fait, deux éléments essen-
tiels devraient être prisen considérationpour établirla compétence dela
Cour et pour l'amener à indiquer une ou des mesures conservatoires au
regard de la convention de Montréal: d'une part, l'observation des condi-
tions préalables et, d'autre part, la réuniondes conditions qui gouvernent

2'Dans l'affaire relatàvdes Questions c/'interpr(.tutionet cl'uppliIcconi,en-
tion tic Montréccle1971 r6suItunt dc~l'incidc,ntrr6riende Lockerhie (Jumul~iri~uurube
libjennc. c. Etcits-Unis d'ilméricluej,la Cour n'a àala demande libyenne en indi-
cation de mesures conservatoires:
«il n'y avait pas lieu d'indiquer les mesures conservatoires demandées par la Libye
parce que la Libye n'avait pas établi,iufacic~q,ue les dispositions de la conven-
tion de Montréal pouvaient constituer une base de compétencedans la mesure où le
délaide six mois prescrit par le paragraphe 1 de l'article 14 de ladite convention
n'ctait pas expirélors du dépôtde la requêtede la Libye; et que la Libye n'avait pas
établique les Etats-Unis eussent retùsébitrage» (mesures consrrvutoires, oru'on-
nrincedu 14uvril 1992, 1.J. Rr<,ueillYY2, p. 122, par. 25). 31. The attitude of each Party during the prior negotiations is crucial
in order to assess whether or not this requirement has been met:

"Negotiationis do not of necessity always presuppose a more or
less lengthy series of notes and despatches; it may suffice that a dis-
cussion should have been commenced, and this discussion may have
been very short; this will be the case if a deadlock is reached, or if

finally a point is reached at which one of the Parties definitely
declares himself unable, or refuses, to give way, and there can there-
fore be no douibt that the dispute cannot be settled by diplomatic
negotiation." (Mavrolîzmati.~ Jerusalem Concc~ssions, Judgnîent
No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 13.)

32. Article 75 of the Constitution of the WHO provides that the dis-
pute "shall be referred to the International Court of Justice in conformity
with the Statute of the Court, unless the parties concerned agree on

another mode of settlernent". It was apparent from the Parties' oral
pleadings that the dispute was not capable of settlement by arbitration,
nor could it be referred to the Court by a special agreement for judicial
settlement. The only remaining option was seisin of the Court by an
application instituting proceedings.

(2) Tlze Montreil1 Convention ,for the Suppre.ssion of Unla,-fUI Act.\.
against the Sufety of Civil Aviution

33. The Democratic Republic of the Congo also relied upon
Article 14, paragraph 1, of the Montreal Convention of 1971 to establish
the jurisdiction of the Court. The compromissory clause contained in
that Article provides for prior conditions to be met before seisin of the

Court: the dispute must pertain to the interpretation or to the application
of the Convention; the parties must have attempted to settle the dispute
by means of negotiation or arbitration".
34. It should be observed that Rwanda has made no reservation to the
above-mentioned cornpromissory clause. Accordingly, two essential ele-

ments have to be considered in order to establish the jurisdiction of
the Court and to lead it to indicate one or more provisional measures on
the basis of the Montreal Convention: on the one hand, fulfilment of
the conditions precedent and, on the other, satisfaction of the conditions

" In the case concerning Questionsof'Interpreturion uizd Applicuriof'the 1971
1l4orztreolCotzorntion uris,from tl~e Aeriul Inci~lc,~itut Lockrrbie (Lihyun Aruh
Joniuliirij~crv. United StofAn~rricrr).the Court retùsed to grant the Libyan request
for the indication ofo.v.isiona1measures:

"the requested provisional measures should not be indicated because Libya had not
presented a prima facie case that the provisions of the Montreal Convention pro-
vide a possible basilsfor jurisdiction inasmuch as the six-month period prescribed
by Article 14, paragaph 1, of the Convention had not yet expired wheii Libya's
Application was filed; and that Libya had not established tha: the United States
had refused to arbitrate"Provisio~icilMerrsures, 0rdc.r of 14 April 1I.C.J.
R(,port.r.1992, p. IZ:!,para. 25).les mesures conservatoires (l'urgence, la préservation des droits des
parties, la nécessitéde ne pas aggraver le différend).
35. Les réflexionsqui ont été faitessur les négociationsdiplomatiques
préalablesdans le point précédent peuvent aussis'appliquer dans le cas

d'espèce. S'agissantde l'organisation de l'arbitrage, la République démo-
cratique du Congo se serait heurtée au refus du Rwanda, malgréles pro-
positions qui auraient été faitesdans ce sens en juillet 2001 (Lusaka),
septembre 2001 (Durban), janvier 2002 (Blantyre) et en mars 2002
(Lusaka). A première vue, le différend ne pouvait pas êtreréglépar
l'organisation d'un arbitrage: le recours à la Cour s'imposait ou devait
s'imposer.
36. L'établissementde la compétence dela Cour n'est pas un élément
suffisant vour l'amener à ~rescriredes mesures conservatoires. Le deman-

deur doit démontrer, dans un cas d'espèce,que les conditions qui gou-
vernent celles-ci sont remplies. Non seulement la République démocra-
tique du Congo «n'a demandé i la Cour I'indication d'aucune mesure
conservatoire en rapport avec la sauvegarde des droits qu'[elle]estime
tenir de la convention de Montréal)),mais le fait incriminéremonte au
9 octobre 1998. L'urgence qui justifie I'indication de mesures conserva-
toires aurait perdu de sa substance. La question trouverait certainement
sa place lors de l'examen du fond de l'affaire, a moins que l'intensité
actuelle du trafic aérien entre Kinshasa et les provinces orientales,près
la conclusion de l'accord politique de Sun City (entre le Gouvernement

congolais, la sociétécivile, l'opposition politique non armée et l'opposi-
tion politique armée (àl'exception du Rassemblement congolais pour la
démocratie - RCDJGoma)), le 19 avril 2002, ne justifie I'indication
d'une mesure préventive deprotection des aéronefs commerciaux etde
leurs passagers.
37. Une clarification de l'imputabilitédu fait illicite s'impose. La res-
ponsabilitéinternationale d'un Etat découlede la violation d'une norme
et de l'attribution de cette violationcet Etat. En l'espèce,la destruction
du Boeing 727 (propriétéde la compagnie Congo Airlines), le 9 octobre

1998, a Kindu (province du Maniema), a étéimputée aussi bien au
Rwanda, à l'Ouganda qu'au Burundi. Dans son mémoiredu 20 avril
2000n, le Rwanda a réfuté l'allégationformulée par la République
démocratiquedu Congo au motif que trois Etats ne pouvaient êtreaccu-
sésd'un seul et mêmeacte.
38. Depuis le débutdu conflit armé surle territoire du Congo, en août
1998, le Rwanda, l'Ouganda et le Burundi ont étéaccuséspar la Répu-

2'Le Rwanda a déposéun mémoireà la Cour, le 21 avril 2000,après l'introduction de
la premièrerequêtepar la Républiquedémocratique du Congo, et dans lequel il soutient:
«Le Rwanda note de surcroît que le Congo a avancédes allégations identiques au
sujet du mêmeincident contre le Burundi etganda dans les requêtes distinctes
qu'il a déposéescontre ces deux Etats.)) (Mémoire de la République rwandaise,
21 avril 2000, p. 13. par.[Trudlrctiodu Grciff..] AF.MED ACTIVITIES (SEP.OP.MAVUNGU) 282

that govern provisional measures (urgency, the protection of the rights
of the parties and the need to avoid any aggravation of the dispute).
35. The arguments in the previous section concerning prior diplomatic
negotiations may al:iobe applied here. In regard to arbitration, it would

appear that the Dernocratic Republic of the Congo met with refusal by
Rwanda, despite the proposals in this regard stated to have been made
in July 2001 (Lusak.a), September 2001 (Durban), January 2002 (Blan-
tyre) and March 2002 (Lusaka). Prima facie, the dispute was not suscep-
tible of settlementbq arbitration: there was or should have been no other
option than to refer it to the Court.

36. Establishmeni: of its jurisdiction is not sufficient in itself for the
Court to indicate provisional measures. The applicant has to show, in a
given case, that the conditions governing such ineasures are met. Not
only did the Democi-atic Republic of the Congo fail "to ask the Court to

indicate any provisional measure relating to the preservation of rights
which it believes it holds under the Montreal Convention", but in addi-
tion the disputed evt:nt dates back to 9 October 1998.The urgency which
justifies the indication of provisional measures would thus seem to have
disappeared. The occasion for consideratioil of the incident would be
during the examinatiionof the merits of the case, unless the current inten-
sity of air traffic between Kinshasa and the eastern provinces, following
the signing on 19 April 2002 at Sun City of a political agreement
(between the CongolleseGovernment, civil society, the unarmed political
opposition and the armed political opposition (with the exception of the
RCDIGoma)) justifies the indication of a preventive measure for the pro-

tection of commerci;ll aircraft and their passengers.

37. Some clarification of the imputability of the wrongful act is called
for. The international responsibility of a State derives from the violation
of a norm and from the attribution of such violation to that State. In the
present case, the shooting-down of the Boeing 727(belonging to the com-
pany Congo Airlines) on 9 October 1998in Kindu (Maniema Province)
was attributed not only to Rwanda, but also to Uganda and to Burundi.
In its Memorial of 210April 20002', Rwanda denied the Congo's charges
on the ground that three States could not be accused of one and the same
act.

38. Since the start of the armed conflict in Congolese territory, in
August 1998, Rwanda, Uganda and Burundi hake been accused by the

cation had been lodgedy the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and stated therein:ppli-

"Moreover, Rwancia notes that Congo has made identical allegations in respect of
againstthose two States." (Memorial of the Rwandese Republic, 21 April 2000,ns
p. 13. para. 2.19.)283 ACTIVITES ARMÉES (OP. IND. MAVUNGU)

blique démocratique du Congo de se livrer à des activités arméessur son
territoire. Par conséquent, la responsabilité de ces Etats peut être établie

individuellement ou collectivement. selon les circonstances.

3) La convention sur 1'6liminationde toutes lesformes de discrimina-
tion ril'6gurcldes,femmes

39. L'article 29, paragraphe 1,de la convention sur l'élimination de
toutes les formes de discrimination à I'égard des femmes,du 18décembre
1979,a étécitépar la République démocratique du Congo aux fins d'éta-
blirprima facie la compétence de la Cour. Les droits ci-après auraient été
affectésou détruits: droit à la vie, droit à l'intégrité physiqueet morale,

droit à la dignité, droit 5 la santé ...Dans ses observations orales, la
République démocratique du Congo a fait état des violations des droits
de l'homme et du droit international humanitaire dont seraient victimes
les femmes: violences sexuelles,diffusion systématique du virus du sida ...
De plus, quinze femmes auraient étéenterrées vivantes à Mwenga (pro-

vince du Sud-Kivu) en novembre 1999?'.
40. Tous ces actes seraient contraires à l'article I de la convention qui
prévoit que la discrimination a I'égard des femmes

((visetoute distinction, exclusion ou restriction fondée sur le sexe qui
a pour effet ou pour but de compromettre ou de détruire la recon-
naissance, lajouissance ou l'exercicepar les femmes ..., sur la base de
l'égalitéde l'homme et de la femme, des droits de l'homme et des

libertés fondamentales dans les domaines politique, économique,
social, culturel et civil ou dans tout autre domaine)).

41. L'article 29, paragraphe 1,de la convention sur la discrimination à
I'égard des femmes pouvait-il s'appliquer en l'espèce?La clause compro-
missoire que contient cet article est identique a celle prévue par I'ar-
ticle 14,paragraphe 1,de la convention de Montréal de 1971(voir supra).

Mirtatis mutandis, le mêmeraisonnement peut également s'appliquer ici.
42. Cependant, il convient de démontrer que les allégations susmen-
tionnées a la charge du défendeur sont couvertes par l'esprit et la lettre de
la convention de 1979. 11est vrai aue les allégaLions formuléesDar la
République démocratique du Congo concernent des violations des règles

de base du droit international humanitaire, principalement au regard de
l'article 27, paragraphe 2, de la IV" convention de Genève relative a la
protection des personnes civiles en temps de guerre, du 12 août 194924,
ainsi que de l'article 76, paragraphe 1, du protocole additionnel 1 aux

'? Voir CR 2002137.p. 23.
'4 L'article 27, paragraphe 2, a la teneur suivante: <<Lesfemmes seront spécialement
protégéescontre toute atteinteeur honneur, et notamment contre le viol, la contrainte
à la prostitution et tout attànleur pudeur.»Democratic Republic of the Congo of involvement in armed activities on

its territory. lt follows that, depending on the circumstances, the respon-
sibility of those States may be established either individually or collec-
tively.

(3) The Convention on the Eliminution of Al1 Forrns of Discriminu-
tion aguirzst Women

39. Article 29, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Elimination of
All Forms of Discrimination against Women of 18 December 1979was
cited by the Democratic Republic of the Congo for the purpose of estab-
lishing the Court's prima facie jurisdiction. The following rights are
claimed to have been impaired or nullified: the right to life, the right to
physical and mental integrity, the right to dignity, the right to health etc.
In its oral pleadings, the Democratic Republic of the Congo cited viola-
tions of human rights and of international humanitarian law of which
women had been the victims: sexual violence, sqstematic spread of the
AIDS virus etc. Further, 15 women were alleged to have been buried
alive at Mwenga (South Kivu Province) in November 199923.
40. Al1of these acts are claimed to be contrary to Article 1of the Con-
vention, which provides that discrimination against women

"shall mean any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the
basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullify-
ing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women .. .on a basis
of equality betv~eenmen and women. of huinan rights and funda-
mental freedomç in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or
any other field".

41. Could Article 29, paragraph 1. of the Con~ention on Discrimina-
tion against Women apply in this case? The compromissory clause con-
tained in that Article is identical to that in Article 14,paragraph 1,of the
Montreal Convention of 1971 (see supra). Mutatis mutarzdis, the same
reasoning is equally applicable here.
42. However, it has to be shown that the above-mentioned allega-
tions against the Respondent are covered by the spirit and letter of the
1979Convention. It is true that the allegations made by the Democratic

Republic of the Congo concern violations of the basic rules of interna-
tional humanitarian law, particularly in light of Article 27, paragraph 2,
of the Fourth Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of Civilian
Persons in Time of War of 12 August 194924and Article 76, para-
graph 1,of Additional Protocol 1to the Geneva Conventions relating to

'"rticle 27. paragraph 2, provides: "Women shall be the object of special respect and
shall be protected in particular against rape, forced prostitution and any other form of
indecent assault."284 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND.MAVUNGU)

conventions de Genève, relatif à la protection des victimes des conflits
armésinternationaux, du 8juin 197725.
43. Il est égalementvrai que la convention du 18décembre1979a été
adoptée pour mieux protéger les femmes, en proscrivant toute discrimi-

nation entre l'homme et la femme, de quelque nature que ce soit. A cet
effet, les Etats parties ont pris l'engagement de: «Prendre toutes mesures
appropriées pour éliminer la discrimination pratiquée à l'égard des
femmes par une personne, une organisation ou une entreprise quel-
conque» (art. 2, al.dl).
44. De manièregénérale, la conventionde 1979a pour buts principaux
de protégerla dignitédes femmes et de permettre àcelles-cidejouir plei-
nement de leurs droits. Par une interprétation extensive, il y a lieu de

conclure que toute violation d'un droit dont la femme serait victime
parce qu'elle est femmerentrerait sous le coup de la convention. Ici, il ne
s'agit pas de souhaiter l'extension desviolations alléguéespar le deman-
deur également aux hommes pour que la discrimination cesse, mais
d'obtenir la cessation des violences qui seraient commises à l'égard des
femmes,en l'occurrencepar des groupes armes, parce que celles-ciseraient
ciblées entant que telles.
45. La question de la compétence territoriale ou ratione loci de la
Cour, sur des prétendues violations des droits de I'homme survenuessur

le territoireu-demandeur et imputables au défendeur, n'a pasété soule-
vée i ce stade de la procédure. Il est généralementadmis qu'un Etat par-
tieà une convention peut engager sa responsabilitépour la commission
d'un acte illicite, contraire ladite convention, sur le territoire d'un autre
Etat partie. Ainsi, dans l'affaireLoizidou c. Turquie, la Cour européenne
des droits de l'homme, interprétant la notion de «juridiction» au sens de
l'article1de la convention européenne des droits de l'homme, s'estpro-
noncée en ces termes: «Une Partie contractante peut également voir

engager sa responsabilité lorsque, par suite d'une action militaire -
légale ounon -, elleexerceen pratique lecontrôle sur une zone situéeen
dehors de son territoire national. »2"
46. S'interrogeant sur la compétence territoriale ou ratione locide la
Commission africaine des droits de l'homme et des peuples, Fatsah
Ouguergouz est d'avis que:

«Ni la charte africaine, ni le règlement netraite de cette question.
11est toutefois implicite que la Commission peut connaître des vio-
lations des droits de l'homme et des peuples survenant sur le terri-
toire de tout Etat partie à la charte africaine. Il n'est pas non plus
impossible qu'elle puisse égalementconnaître d'une violation de

" L'article 76, paragraphe 1,du protocole additionnel 1a repris le texte de l'article 27,
paragraphe 2, de la IV' convention.
2hCitéepar Vincent Berger. Jurisprudence de lu Cour curop(.ennedes droits cleI'l~oninze,
2000, p. 554; voir également Gérard Cohen-Jonatlian, COIZI~CI~europ~;cnnedes
droitv UeI'lionzn~e,19p. 94. AR.MED ACTlVlTIES (SEP. OP. MAVIJNGU) 284

the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts of 8 June
1977 25.
43. It is likewise true that the Convention of 18 December 1979 was

adopted in order to provide better protection to women by prohibiting
any discrimination between men and womeii of whatever kind. To this
end the States parties have undertaken to "take al1appropriate measures
to eliminate discrimination against women by any person, organization
or enterprise" (Art. 2 (d)).

44. Generally, the main aims of the 1979Convention are to protect the
dignity of women and to allow them full enjoyment of their rights. On an
extensive interpretation, itmay be concluded that every violation of a

right suffered by a woman by reason of being a woman would be covered
by the Convention. I-Iere,the Applicant is not seeking to have the alleged
violations extended also to men in order that the discrimination should
cease, but to secure the cessation of violent acts allegedly committed
against women - in this case by armed groups - because they are being
targeted as women.

45. The issue of the Court's territorial or ratione loci jurisdiction over

violations of human rights alleged to have taken place on the territory of
the Applicant and attributable to the Respondent has not been raised at
this stage of the proceedings. It is generally accepted that a State party to
a convention can incur responsibility if it commits a wrongful act con-
trary to that convention on the territory of another state party. Thus in
the case of Loizidou v. Turkey the European Court of Human Rights,
interpreting the term "jurisdiction" in Article 1of the European Human
Rights Convention, stated the following: "the responsibility of a Con-

tracting Party may also arise when as a consequence of military action -
whether lawful or unlawful - it exerciseseffectivecontrol of an area out-
side its nationa! territory"".

46. Addressing the issue of the territorial or rrltione locijurisdiction
of the African Cotrimission on Human and Peoples' Rights, Fatsah
Ouguergouz takes the view that :

"Neither the Pifrican Charter nor the Commission's Rules address
this question. It is, however, implicit that the Commission can deal
with violations of human and peoples' rights occurring on the terri-
tory of any State party to the Afsican Charter. Nor is it excluded
that it can also deal with a violation of a human right attributable tc

" Article 76, paragraph 1, of Additional Protocol 1incorporatesthe text of Articlz 27,
paragraph 2, of the Fourth Convention.
'Vited by Vincent Berger, Jurisprudence il(,la Cour europkenne r1e.sdroits dc,I'homrizc.,
2000, p. 554; see also Gérard Cohen-Jonathan, La c,onventioncuropkenne des droits de
l'liotnrnc,.1989. p. 94.285 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. MAVUNGU)

droit de l'homme imputable à un Etat partie mêmesi celle-ci a eu
lieu en dehors du territoire soumisà la juridiction de ce dernier»27

47. Donc, il ne saurait y avoir une contestation de la compétence de la
Cour ratione loci pour des faits internationalement illicites qui seraient
commis par un Etat sur le territoire d'un autre Etat, même lorsqu'il s'agit
des violations des droits de l'homme.

B. Les clau.sespouvant établir luconqétence de la Cour

48. L'article IX de la convention pour la préventionet la répressiondu
crime de génocide,du 9 décembre1948,a étéinvoquépar la République
démocratiquedu Congo pour fonder la compétencedela Cour. La clause
compromissoire a la teneur suivante :
«Les différendsentre les Parties contractantes relatifà l'interpré-

tation, l'application ou l'exécutionde la présenteconvention,y com-
pris ceux relatifsila responsabilitéd'un Etat en matière degénocide
ou de l'un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à l'article III,seront
soumis i la Cour internationale de Justice,à la requêted'une Partie
au différend.»

49. En devenant partie àla convention de 1948,le Rwanda a formulé
une réservequi écartela compétence de la Cour: «la République rwan-
daise ne se considère pas comme liéepar l'article IX de ladite conven-
tion)). Cette réserve souléve plusieursquestions: est-elle compatible à
l'objet et au but de la convention? La République démocratique du
Congo est-elle fondée àfaire une objection à la réserverwandaise, vingt-
sept ans après l'adhésiondu Rwanda à la convention? La Cour peut-elle
lire la convention de 1948en tenant compte de l'évolutiondu droit inter-

national en la matière, particulièrement au regard de l'entrée en vigueur
du statut de Rome sur la Cour pénaleinternationale, du 17juillet 1998?
50. La République démocratiquedu Congo a fait une objection à la
réserveformuléepar le Rwanda au motif que la convention sur le géno-
cide contient des normes relevant du jus cogerzs;le génocide estun crime
du droit des gens. De mêmeelleest d'avis que le Rwanda, qui a demandé
et obtenu auprès du Conseil de sécuritéla création d'un tribunal pénal
international ad hoc pour juger et punir lescrimes commis sur le territoire

rwandais en 1994,ne peut avoir deux attitudes face au génocide:
Le Rwanda ne peut en l'espèce, à fortiori, rejeter la compétence
de la Cour internationale de Justice, lui qui a demandé(SI199411115)

27Lu clztrrre~ifricuinedes clroit.sde I'l~opcuples. 1993, p. 316. Saisie d'une
communication-plainte de la République démocratique du Congo, du 24 février 1999,
contre le Burundi, l'Ouganda et le Rwanda, portant sur les violations graves et massives
des droits de l'homme et des peuples que les forces arméesde ces pays auraient commises
sur le territoire congolais, la Commission africaine des droits de l'homme et des peuples a
déclaréla recevabilitéde la communication 227199selon lesarticles 47, 48, 49,
Charte et 97, 99 et 10règlementde l'Ordre. a State party even if that violation took place outside the territory
subject to the latter's juri~diction."~'

47. Thus there czinbe no dispute as to the Court's jurisdiction ratione
loci on account of internationally wrongful acts allegedly committed by
one State on the territory of another, even in the case of human rights
violations.

B. Provi.sior~scapable qf'founding the Court'sju~.isdiction

48. Article IX of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide of 9 December 1948 was invoked by the Demo-
cratic Republic of the Congo as a basis for the Court's jurisdiction. That
compromissory clause reads as follows:

"Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpre-
tation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including
those relating tc, the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any

of the other acts enumerated in article III, shall be submitted to the
International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to
the dispute."

49. When it became party to the 1948 Convention, Rwanda made a
reservation excluding the Court's jurisdiction: "the Rwandese Republic
does not consider itself bound by Article IX of the Convention". That
reservation raises atiumber of issues. 1sit compatible with the object and
purpose of the Conveniion? 1s the Democratic Republic of the Congo

entitled to object to Rwanda's reservation, 27 years after the latter's
accession to the Convention? 1s the Court entitled to construe the 1948
Convention taking iiccount of the developrnent of international law in
this area, particularly in light of the entry into force of the Rome Statute
of the International Criminal Court of 17 July 1998?

50. The Democratic Republic of the Congo has objected to Rwanda's
reservation on the e"ound that the Genocide Convention contains norms
of jus cogens: genocide is a crime under international law. The Congo
likewise considers that Rwanda, having successfully asked the Security
Council for the creiltion of an ad hoc international criminal court to

try and punish crimes committed on Rwandan territory in 1994, is not
entitled to take two attitudes to genocide:

"In the present case Rwanda cannot, a fortiori, reject the juris-
diction of the International Court of Justice having requested

''LUchorte ufiicuine (ledroits dL"k0r1~tet despeuples, 1993, p. 316. Having been
seised ofa communication-complaint by the Democratic Republic of the Congo on
24 February 1999 againsi. Burundi, Uganda and Rwanda regarding massive grave viola-
tions ofhuman and peoples' rights allegedly committed by the armed forces of those
countries on Congolese territory, the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights
declared communication 227199admissible under Articles 47, 48, 49. 50. 51 of the Charter
and 97, 99 and 100 ofhe Rules of Procedure.286 ACTIVITÉS AR~LIÉES(OP. IND. MAVUNGU)

et obtenu l'institution par la communauté internationale d'un tribu-
nal pénal international ad hoc en vue de poursuivre les génocidaires
rwandais de 1994. Réfléchirautrement serait laisser hors du champ
judiciaire les faits graves de génocide mis à charge du Rwanda et
commis au détriment des populations congolaises et de la com-

munauté internationale. » (CR 2002136,p. 52.)

51. S'appuyant sur la jurisprudence de la Cour dans les affaires rela-
tives à la Licéité del'emploi de luforce ( Yougoslavie c. Espagne) ( You-
goslavie c. Etuts-Unis d'Amérique) 2R,le Rwanda a rejetél'argumentation
développéepar la République démocratique du Congo. 11ne nie pas que
les dispositions de fond interdisant le génocide ont le statut de normes

impératives, mais la clause juridictionnelle de I'article IX n'aurait pas
cette caractéristique (cf. CR 2002137,p. 16).
52. Contrairement a d'autres clauses compromissoires, celle contenue
dans I'article IX de la convention de 1948ne prévoit que la Cour comme
organe de règlement de tout différend y relatif. Par conséquent, tout Etat

qui devient partie à cette convention en formulant une réserveà la clause
de juridiction échapperait à toute condamnation sur le plan judiciaire,
dans I'hypothéseoù des actes constitutifs de crime de génocide seraient
commis par ses représentants ou ses agents.
53. Il est établiqu'une réserveà un traitéinternational n'est acceptable

que si elle ne porte pas atteinte à l'objet et au but de ce traité". Ilest vrai
que, comme la Cour l'indique, la convention sur le génocide n'interdit
pas les réserves (voir paragraphe 72 de l'ordonnance). Mais cela ne
voudrait pas dire pour autant que les Etats parties peuvent formuler
toutes réserves.La Cour s'est d'ailleurs prononcée dans ce sens dans son

avis consultatif sur les Réservesù lu convention pour la prévention et lu
répressioiz(lu crin~rde génocide :

«Il a été soutenu cependant que tout Etat ayant qualitépour deve-
nir partie à la convention sur le génocide peut le devenir tout en y
apportant, à volontéet en vertu de sa souveraineté, n'importe quelle
réserve.La Cour estime que ce point de vue ne peut être retenu. Il est
manifeste qu'une application aussi extrêmede l'idéede la souverai-

netéétatique pourrait conduire à une complète méconnaissance de
l'objet et du but de la convention.)) (C.I. J. Recueil 1951, p. 24.)

54. Or, l'objet et le but poursuivis par la convention de 1948, c'est,

'"ans ces affaires, la Cour n'a pas établi sacompétence, mêmel~rimtr,furie, du fait
que l'Espagne et les Etats-Unis d'Amérique ont formulé des réserves la clause de la
juridiction prévue par I'articlevoir C.I.J. Recuei1999 (Il). p. 772; ihid., p. 916).
'' Voir l'article 19, alinéac), de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités du
23 mai 1969. Sur les réserves, voir notamment Suzanne Bastid, Les rruiti.r c/utz.rlu vie
inrerncrriotiu. onclusioel flets,1985,p. 71-77. Pierre-Henri Imbert, Le.srtserivs cru.v
trrrit4stnulriluri.ruu.u,1979; Daniel Kappeler. Les ri..servcsrkrnrilses truites intc~rnutionaus.
1957;José-Maria Ruda, «Reservations to Treaties)), RCADI, vol. 146, 1975,p. 139-148. (SI199411 115) and procured the creation by the international

community of an ad hoc international criminal tribunal to try the
Rwandan perpetrators of genocide in 1994. To conclude otherwise
would leave beyond the scope of judicial intervention the serious
acts of genocide committed against Congolese populations and
the international community of which Rmanda stands accused."

(CR 2002136, p. 52.)
51. Relying on the Court's jurisprudence in the cases concerning Legal-

ity of'Useof Force (Yugo.slavia v. Spain) ( Yugoslavia v. United States of
America) "Rwandla rejected the argument put forward by the Demo-
cratic Republic of tlheCongo. It does not deny that the substantive pro-
visions prohibiting ggenocidehave the status ofjus cogens, but it contends
that the jurisdictional clause in Article IX does not have that character-

istic (see CR 2002137,p. 16).
52. Contrary to the position under other compromissory clauses, the
only forum provideti in Article IX of the 1948 Convention for the settle-
ment of any dispute:relating thereto is the Court. As a result, any State
which, on becoming party to that Convention, makes a reservation to the

jui-isdictional clause would escape judicial sanction in the event that its
representatives or agents should commit acts constituting the crime of
'2no oc ide.
53. It is well established that a reservation to an international treaty is
acceptable only if it is not incompatible with the object and purpose of

thüt treaty19. It is true, as the Court points out, that the Genocide Con-
vention does not prohibit reservations (see paragraph 72 of the Order).
But that does not mleanthat States may make whatever reservations they
please. Moreover, the Court stated as much in its Advisory Opinion on
Reservations to the Convention on the Prevenfion and Punislîment of the

Crivlze of'Genocide :
"lt has neverithelessbeen argued that any State entitled to become

a party to the Genocide Convention may do so while making any
reservation it chooses by virtue of its sovereignty. The Court cannot
share this view. It is obvious that so extreme an application of the
idea of State sovereignty could lead to a coinplete disregard of the

object and purpose of the Convention." (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 24.)

54. The object and purpose of the 1948 Convention is, on the one

'K In those cases. the Court was unable to establish its jurisdiction, even prima facie, on
the ground that Spain and the United States had made reservntions to the Article IX juris-
dictional clause (see I.Creport.^IYYY (II). p. 772: ihid.. p. 916).
'')See Article 19 l1.j of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of 23 May 1969.
On reservations. seentcr ciliciSuzanne Bastid, Les truitts dulis lu vie internationule. Con-
clirsion et <ffr,ts. 1985. pp. 71-77. Pierre-Henri Imbert, Le.\ ciux rruitts multi-
Maria Ruda, "Reservations to Treaties". RC'ADI. Vol. 146, 1975, pp. 139-148.1957; José-287 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND.MAVUNGU)

d'une part, clarifier le concept de génocideet, d'autre part, amener les
Etats parties à prévenir tout acte de génocide, à défaut le réprimer. Le
mécanisme de règlement des différends interétatiques prévu par la
convention est un élément essentielpour son application, donc pour
son respect par les Etats parties. A ce sujet Maurice Arbour note:

«L'objet et le but de la convention sur le génocide, c'est évidem-
ment la répression du génocide. Mais peut-on dire que certains
articles relatifà la mise en Œuvre de cette convention, comme le
recours obligatoire de la Cour internationale de Justice en cas de

différend, sont nécessairement exclus du champ d'application de
I'objet et du but de ce traité?))'"

55. Sans trancher la question soulevéepar Maurice Arbour et respec-
tant sa jurisprudence sur la question, la Cour a déclaréque: ((ladite
réservene porte pas sur le fond du droit, mais sur la seule compétencede
la Cour; qu'elle n'apparaît dèsiors pas contraire à I'objet et au but de la
convention » (voir paragraphe 72 de l'ordonnance).
56. Sans aucun doute, la question reviendra devant la Cour lors
de l'examen de l'affaire au fond. Organe judiciaire principal des
Nations Unies, la Cour se doit d'apporter sa contribution à la répression

du génocide; celui-ci étant déclarécomme «crime du droit des gens»
(voir article1 de la convention). Il y a lieu de noter que l'article 120 du
statut de Rome n'admet aucune réserve.
57. La Cour se trouverait devant un dilemme: déclarerincompatible à
l'objet et au but de la convention toute réserve à la clause de juridiction
prévue à l'article IX, c'est créer une véritable«révolution». Non seule-
ment qu'une telle prise de position trancherait avec sa jurisprudence",
mais cela pourrait conduire des Etats parties à la convention, ayant

écartéla compétence de la Cour par la formulation des réserves à la
clause de juridiction, de la dénoncer conformément à I'article XIV. Un
choix devrait s'imposer.
58. La communauté internationale a investi lejuge d'une mission capi-
tale dans la répression du génocide. Ni lanégociation, ni l'arbitrage ne
seraient des mécanismes appropriés pour connaître un différend iriter-
étatique y relatif:

«La convention sur le génocideest l'un desrares cas où la possi-
bilitéd'intervention de la Cour internationale de Justice peut être
considéréecomme une condition essentielle de l'efficacitéde l'accord.
Le juge est, en effet, le seul recours contre les violations éventuelles

'"Droit international public, 3"éd.,1997,p. 89.
" Voir lesaffaires relaàila Licc'it4de l'emploi delu(Yougo.slaic. Espagne)
(Youg».slriv1,Et~lt.s-U~i.ls'Arni.riqucJ.Rccuril1999 (II). p. 772 et 916.hand, to clarify the notion of genocide and, on the other, to induce States
parties to prevent any act of genocide and, in the event of failure to do

so, to punish it. The mechanism for the settlement of disputes between
States provided for by the Convention is an essential element in its appli-
cation, and thus in ensuring its respect by States parties. In this regard
Maurice Arbour notes :

"The object and purpose of the Genocide Convention is clearly
the punishment of Genocide. But can it be said that certain articles
concerning the i~pplication of the Convention, such as obligatory
recourse to the International Court of Justice in the case of disputes,
are necessarily excluded from the scope of the Convention's object

and purpo~e?"'~'
55. Without settling the question raised by Maurice Arbour, and

adhering to its jurisprudence on the matter. the Court stated: "ihat
reservat~on does not bear on the substance of the law, but only on the
Court's jurisdiction; whereas it therefore does not appear contrary to the
object and purpose of the Convention" (see paragraph 72 of the Order).
56. The Court will undoubtedly have to return to this issue when it
considers the merits of the case. As principal judicial organ of the United
Nations, the Court i:;under a duty to make its contribution to the pun-
ishment of genocide, since this is a "crime under international law" (see

Article 1 of the Convention). It should be noted that Article 120 of the
Rome Statute does not allow of any reservation.
57. It would seerri that the Court is in a dilemma: to declare any
reservation to the Article IX jurisdictional clause incompatible with the
object and purpose of the Convention would be to create a veritable
"revolution". Not orily would such a position represent a break with its
previous case law3', but it could result in States parties to the Convention
which have excluded the Court's jurisdiction by making reservations to

the jurisdictional claiusedenouncing the Convention under Article XIV.
A choice will have to be made.
58. The international community has endowed the Court with a key
role in the punishment of genocide. Neither negotiation nor arbitration
would be appropriaie mechanisms for dealing with a dispute between
States in this regard :

"The Genocide Convention is one of the rare cases where the pos-
sibility of interv~rntionby the International Court of Justice may be
regarded as an essential condition in order to render the Convention

effective. For the Court representsthe only means of recourse against

"' Droit internutionul publie, 3rd ed., 1997, p. 89.
3' See the cases concerning Legulity of UofeForce (Yugosliviu v. Spain)(Yugo-
.slrril. United Srute.sof'Americu), I.C.J. Reports 1999 (Il;, pp. 772 and 916.

72 d'un traitédont l'objet est précisémend t'interdire aux Etats de com-
mettre certains actes.»32

59. La compétence dela Cour devrait aussi êtreapprécike à la lumière
des faits présentéspar le demandeur comme étant constitutifs de géno-
cide (voir CR 2002136,p. 22-24, 44-48).

C. Les clauses ne pouvunt pas établir la compétencede lu Cour

60. Il est des clauses compromissoires invoquéespar le demandeur qui
ne peuvent, pour des raisons diverses, fonder la compétence dela Cour.
C'est le cas notamment de l'acte constitutif del'Unesco (art. XIV, par. 2)

et de la convention contre la torture et autres peines ou traitements
cruels, inhumains ou dégradants (art. 30, par. 1).

1) La corzventionportant créationde l'Unesco

61. La convention portant création del'Unesco, du 16novembre 1945,
prévoit à son article XIV, paragraphe 2, que:

((Toutes questions et tous différends relatifsà I'interprétation de
la présenteconvention seront soumis pour décision à la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice ou à un tribunal arbitral, selon ce que décidera
la Conférencegénéraleconformément à son règlementintérieur.»

62. La clause de juridiction susmentionnéene concerne que les diffé-
rends relatifsà l'interprétationde la convention. De plus, la saisine de la
Cour est soumise à des conditions particulières. Or, en l'espèce,la Répu-
blique démocratique du Congo reprocherait au Rwanda certaines
entraves a l'exercicedu droit a l'éducationdans les zones qu'il contrôle
sur territoire congolais. Ce différend porte sur l'application même de
la convention, et non sur I'interprétation d'unedisposition quelconque
de celle-ci3'.
63. S'agissant de la protection des droits de l'homme dans le cadre de

l'Unesco, le Conseil exécutifde cette organisation a institué un Comité
sur les conventions et recommandations. Ce Comité apour tâche d'exa-
miner les rapports périodiques desEtats membres sur l'application des
conventions et recommandations à la demande du Conseil exécutif.
64. Dans sa décision104 EXl3.3 de 1978,le Conseil exécutifa donné
compétenceau Comitéd'examiner les communications relatives à I'exer-
cice des droits de l'homme dans les domaines relevant de la compétence
de l'Unesco (luttecontre la discrimination dans le domaine de I'enseigne-
ment, par exemple). Ces communications peuvent provenir de particu-

liers ou d'associations qui estiment être victimes d'une violation des

" Imbert, op. cit., p. 344. Voir aussi Joe Verhoeven. «Le crime de génocide.Originalité
et ambiguïté)),vuehel~etirdroir inter.rzut199111,p.5-26.
33Pour l'argumentation développéepar le Rwanda, voir CR 2002p.18-19. Voir
égalementla prise de position de la Cour au paragraphe 85 de l'ordonnance. ARMED ACTIVlTlES (SEP. OP. MAVU~GU) 288

violations of a treaty the object of which is precisely to prohibit
States from com~nitting certain a~ts.''~~

59. The Court's jurisdiction will also have to be assessed in light of the
facts presented by the Applicant as constituting genocide (see CR 2002136,
pp. 22-24, 44-48).

C. Pvovisions not cupuhle of founding the Court'sjurisdiction

60. Certain of the i;ompromissory clauses cited by the Applicant can-
not, for various reasons, constitute a basis for the Court's jurisdiction.
This is true in particular of the Constitution of Unesco (Art. XIV,
para. 2) and the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman
or Degrading Punish~nents or Treatments (Art. 30. para. 1).

(1) The Unesco Constitution

61. The Unesco Constitution of 16 November 1945 provides in
Article XIV, paragraph 2:

"Any question or dispute concerning the interpretation of this
Constitution shall be referred for determination to the International
Court of Justice or to an arbitral tribunal, as the General Confer-
ence may determine under its rules of procedure."

62. This jurisdictional clause is confined to disputes concerning the
interpvetution of the (Zonstitution. Moreover, seisin of the Court is made
subject to special conditions. In the present case the Democratic Republic
of the Congo accuse:; Rwanda of hindering the exercise of the right to
education in the areais of Congolese territory which it controls. That dis-

pute concerns the actual application of the Constitution and not the
interpretation of some provision thereofi3.

63. As regards thir protection of human rights under Unesco, the
latter's Executive Board has set up a Committee on Conventions and
Recommendations. The task of that Committee is to examine periodic

reports from membi:r States on the application of conventions and
recommendations at the request of the Executive Board.
64. In its decision 104 EX13.3 of 1978, the Executive Board gave the
Committee power to examine communications concerning the exercise of
human rights in respect of matters falling within Unesco's competence
(the campaign against discrimination in education, for example). Such

conimunications can come from private individuals or from associations
which consider themselves to have been victims of a violation of human

l2Imbert, op. cir., p. 344: see also Joe Verhoeven, "Le crime de génocide.Originalitéet
ambiguïté", Rrvubelgede droit internation199111,pp. 5-76.
3?For Rwanda's argument see CR 2002137,pp. 18-19.See also the Court's position in
paragraph 85 of the Order.289 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND. MAVUNGU)

droits de l'homme de la compétence de l'Unesco. Les communications
doivent indiquer des preuves pertinentes, être présentéesdans un délai
raisonnable et démontrer la tentative d'épuisement des voiesde recours
internes 34.

2) La convention contre lu torture
65. Des documents divers font étatdes cas de torture et de traitements

cruels, inhumains ou dégradants sur le territoire de la République démo-
cratique du Congo en raison du conflit armé35.Le droit pour tout indi-
vidu de ne pas être soumisà la torture ou a des traitements cruels fait
partie du «noyau intangible)) des droits de l'homme que chaque Etat doit

respecter, qu'il soit partie ou non a la convention contre la torture.
Celle-ci consacre des normes relevant du jus cogens.
66. La République démocratique du Congo est partie i la convention
contre la torture, alors que le Rwanda ne l'est pas. Il se pose le problème

de l'opposabilité de la clause de juridiction prévueen son article 30,para-
graphe 1,à la République rwandaise. S'il est vrai que les normes impé-
ratives sont d'application erga omnes, une clause compromissoire n'est
pas opposable à un Etat qui n'est pas partie iiune convention qui
contient celle-ci. La compétence de la Cour doit êtreacceptée, soit d'une

manii-re générale, soitd'une manière spécifique:
«la Cour a déclaré A maintes reprises «que l'un des principes fon-

damentaux de son Statut est qu'elle ne peut trancher un différend
entre des Etats sans que ceux-ci aient consenti à sa juridiction))
(Timor orientul (Portugcil c. Australie), arrêt,C.1 J. Recueil 1995,
p. 101, par. 26))) (Licéitéde l'emploi de lu jbrce (Yougoslavie
c. Canada), mesures corzseri~atoires, C. 1J. Recueil 1999 (1), p. 266,

par. 19).
67. L'opposabilité d'une norme dejus cogens est une chose, la règledu

consentement à la juridiction de la Cour, au regard d'une clause compro-
missoire ou de tout autre instrument. en est une autre3%C'est un ~rinciue
bien établi que la compétence de la'Cour découle du consentement àes
parties 37.

68. Les audiences relatives aux observations orales des Parties se sont
dérouléesau moment où le Conseil de sécurité examinait, d'unepart, la

34Cf. Nicolas Valticos, «Les mécanismesinternationaux de protection des droits de
l'homme», Droit interriutior~cil:hilrin rt persprctii~e.~,Rédacteur général:Mohammed
Bedjaoui, 1991,2volumes, vol. 2p. 1228.
35Voir notamment Garreton, op. cil;Livre blanc(4tomes) publiépar la République
démocratique du Congo, ministère des droits humains, Kinshasa,9-2002.
3hVoir Tinqororirntcrl(Portugal c. Au.~tralirj, C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 102, par. 29.
37Voir Ian Browtilie, Principof.Puhli<Ititrrricrtio~lit., 3' éd., 1979, p. 716-717.rights in a field covered by Unesco's remit. The communications must
provide relevant evidence, be submitted within a reasonable time and
show that attempts have been made to exhaust local remedie~'~.

(2) The Conventicln aguinst Torture

65. There are a niimber of reports of torture and cruel, inhuman or
degrading treatment on the territory of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo as a result of the armed conflicts5. The right of every individual
not to be subjected i;o torture or to cruel treatment forms part of the

"inviolable core" of human rights which every State must respect, whether
or not itis party to the Convention against Torture. That Convention
enshrines norms of jzrs cogens.
66. The Dem0crat.i~Republic of the Congo is party to the Convention

against Torture, whereas Rwanda is not. This saises the problem of
whether the jurisdictional clause provided for in Article 30,paragraph 1,
is opposable to the R.wandese Republic. While it is true that peremptory
norms are applicable erga omnes, a compromissory clause is not oppos-
able to a State which is not party to a convention containing that clause.

The Court's jurisdiction has to be accepted, either generally, or specifi-
cally:

"the Court has repeatedly stated 'that one of the fundamental prin-
ciples of its Statiute is that it cannot decide a dispute between States
without the consent of those States to its jurisdiction' (East Timor
(Portugal v. A~~strulia), Judgmenr, 1.C:J. Reports 1995, p. 101,
para. 26)" (Leg'g~~lio tf Use of Force (Yugo.sla~~i Vu.Canada), Pro-

visional Measur,is, Order of 2 June 1999, I.(-.J. Reports 1999 (I),
p. 266, para. 19'1.

67. The opposability of a norm of jus cogens is one thing, the rule
regarding consent to the Court's jurisdiction, whether under a com-
promissory clause or any other instrument, is quite another3% It is a
well-established principle that the Court's jurisdiction derives from the

consent of the partiesT7.

II.THECONDITION FOR THE INDICATIO NF PR~VISIONA MLEASURES

68. The hearings at which the Parties made their oral presentations
took place at a time when the Security Council was examining a request

" See Nicholas Valticos, "Les mécanismesinternationaux de protection des droits de
l'homme", in Intrrnuti»nul Lait,: Achievet?lent.s utid Prgeneral editor Moham-
med Bedjaoui. 1991, 2 vols., Vol. 2, p. 1228.
2ïSee in particular Gairretop. cit.White Paper (4 vols.) published by the Demo-
cratic Republic of the Congo, Ministry for Human Rights, 1999-2002.
'"ee EUSI TN770r(Po~tz~guIv. Au~~~uliu)C.J.Rrport.~1995, p. 102,para. 29.
'7See lan BrownliePrincipkesofPi~hlicI17tc,rncztlciii3rd ed., 1979,pp. 716-717.290 ACTIVITES ARMÉES (OP. IND. MAVUNGU)

demande de la Républiquedémocratiquedu Congo tendant à la requalifi-
cation du mandat de la Mission desNations Unies au Congo (MONUC)38
et, d'autre part, la possibilité deprolonger lemandat decelle-ci39.D'aucuns
pouvaient s'interrogersur la compatibilitéde la saisine de deuxorganes des
Nations Unies. Autrement dit. la Cour était-elleen droit de ~rescriredes

mesuresconservatoires alorsque leConseilde sécurité sepenchait sur l'évo-
lution du conflit arméen République démocratique du Congo, à la lumière
notamment des événements survenus à Kisangani, en mai 2002?
69. Aux termes de l'article 24 de la Charte des Nations Unies, le
Conseil de sécurité possède la responsabilitéprincipale du maintien de la
paix et de la sécurité internationales.Cette responsabilitén'est que prin-
cipale et non pas exclusive. Les autres organes des Nations Unies contri-

buent égalementau maintien de la paix et de la sécuritéinternationales,
en vertu de leurs pouvoirs statutaires et implicites. La Cour a un rôle
important à jouer en tant qu'organe judiciaire principal des Nations
Unies; c'est la((gardienne du droit international)). A ce sujet, Laurence
Boisson de Chazournes note que:

((L'histoire de la Cour internationale de Justice est jalonnée d'af-
faires ayant permis à cet organe de contribuer au développement et

a la consolidation de l'ordre juridique international et d'asseoir sa
contribution au maintien de la paix et de la sécuritéinternatio-
nales.))40

70. Donc, rien n'interdisait à la Cour de prescrire des mesures conser-
vatoires dèslors que les conditions y relatives étaientremplies. L'action
de la Cour est complémentaire à celledu Conseil de sécurité s'agissand tu
maintien de la paix et de la sécuritéinternationales: «Le Conseil a des

attributions politiques; la Cour exercedes fonctions purement judiciaires.
Les deux organes peuvent donc s'acquitter de leurs fonctions distinctes
mais complémentaires a propos des mêmesévénements .)(Activitésnzili-
taires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua
c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1984, p. 434-435; Application de lu convention pour laprévention

et h répression ducrime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougo.slu-
vie), mesures con.servatoires, ordonnance du 8 avril 1993, C.I.J. Recueil
1993, p. 19, par. 33; Activités arméessur le territoire du Congo (Rkpu-
blique dénîocratique du Congo c. Ouganda), mesures coiz.servutoires,
ordonnance du II" juillet 2000, C.I.J.Recueil 2000, p. 126,par. 36.)

'RLa Républiquedémocratique du Congo souhaiteque la MONUC devienne une mis-
sion d'imposition de la paix au regard du chapitre la Charte.
''Le mandat de la MONUC a étéprorogéjusqu'au 30juin 2003. Cf. la résolution 1417
(2002) du Conseil de sécurité.du 14juin 2002.
4" Les ordonnances en indication de mesures conservatoires dans l'affaireàrelative
I'Appliciitide Itconvention pour Liprévention et Ir rtpressiori du criirze(le génocirie
(Boxnie-Her-tgovinec. Yozigosltrvie)». AnrzuuireJrcinpris de droit intc~rl,993,onu1
p. 514; voir aussi p. 534-536.by the Democratic Republic of the Congo for reclassification of the man-
date of the United Nations Mission to the Congo (MONUC)38 as well as
the possibility of extending that mandate1? Some might query the com-

patibility of two United Nations organs being seised of the same matter.
In other words, was the Court entitled to indicate provisional measures
at a time when the Security Council was considering developments in the
armed conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, notably in light

of the events which occurred in Kisangani in May 2002?
69. Under Article 24 of the United Nations Charter, the Security
Council has primary responsibility for the maintenance of international
peace and security. That responsibility is only primary and not exclusive.

The other organs of the United Nations also contribute to the mainte-
nance of international peace and security, by virtue of their statutory and
implicit powers. The Court has an important role to play as principal
judicial organ of the United Nations; it is the "guardian of international
law". In this regard, Laurence Boisson de Chazournes notes:

"The course of the history of the International Court of Justice is
marked by cases which have enabled it to contribute to the develop-

ment and consolidation of the international legal order and to estab-
lish a solid basiij for its contribution to the maintenance of inter-
national peace and security." 40

70. Thus there was nothing to prevent the Court from indicating pro-

visional measures once the relevant conditions were satisfied. The Court's
action is complementary to that of the Security Council in regard to the
maintenance of international peace and security : "The Council has func-
tions of a political nature assigned to it, whereas the Court exercises

purely judicial functions. Both organs can therefore perform their sepa-
rate but complementary functions with respect to the same events." (Mili-
tary and Paramilitar,~Activities in and against Nii.arugua (Nicaragua v.
United States of Aunericu), Jurisdiction and Adn~issihility, Judgrnent,

I.C.J. Reports 1984, pp. 434-435; Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime oj'Genocide (Bosniu and Herze-
govinu v. Yugoslavia), Provisionul Measure.~, Oder of 8 April 1993,
I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 19, para. 33; Armed Activities on the Territory

oj'lhe Congo (Dernocratic Repubiic of'the Congo v. Ugunda), Provi.siona1
Mea.rurrs, Order qf 1'July 2000, I.C.J. Reports 2000, p. 126, para. 36.)

18The Democratic Republic of the Congo wants MONUC' to become a peacekeeping
mission under Chapter VI1of the Charter.
MONUC's mandate was extended to 30 June 2003. See Security Council resolu-
tion 1417(2002) of 14June 2002.
j'"Les ordonnances en indication de mesures conservatoires dans l'affaire relàtive
l'Appli<,cirion(le lu conventioil pour lu prPvet~lu rc'pressiondu cririfr tle gC.rzocide
(Bosnie-HerzGgovinie c. Yougo.sluvie]", Annuuire Jrc/tclrriroi( interncitioriul, 1993,
p. 514; sec also pp. 534-536.291 ACTIVITÉS ARMÉES (OP. IND.MAVUNGU)

71. L'indication de mesures conservatoires est subordonnée à plusieurs
conditions: l'urgence, la préservation desdroits des parties, la nécessité
de ne pas aggraver le différend et l'établissement pvirna fucie de la com-
pétencede la Cour.

72. En l'espèce, lademande de la République démocratiquedu Congo
comprend dix-neuf éléments(voir le paragraphe 13de l'ordonnance). Le
contraste est saisissant entre l'étendue des mesures sollicitées et I'étroi-
tesse des bases de compétence de la Cour. En effet, les mesures faisant
l'objet de la demande couvrent presque tous les aspects du conflit armé
en République démocratiquedu Congo: retrait des troupes étrangères,

mettre fin au pillage des ressources naturelles et autres richesses, respect
des droits de l'homme et du droit international humanitaire. restauration
de la souverainetéet de l'intégritéterritoriale de la République démocra-
tique du Congo, etc.41.

1. L'urgence

73. En saisissant la Cour conformément à l'article 41 du Statut et de
l'article 73 du Règlement, le demandeur doit démontrer le caractère
urgent de la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, vu que
l'examen de celle-cia priorité sur toutes autres affaires. La Cour a I'obli-
gation de statuer d'urgence sur une telle demande4'.

74. L'urgence de la demande est une exigencefondamentale en matière
de mesures conservatoire^^^E . n l'espèce,la République démocratiquedu
Congo a saisi la Cour le 28 mai 2002, à la suite notammerit des événe-
ments survenus à Kisangani les 14et 15mai 2002:

«Du 14 au 15 mai 2002 à Kisangani, des violations massives,
graves et flagrantes des droits humains ont été perpétréepsar les
militaires du Rwanda et ceux congolais et rwandais du RCDIGo-
ma et cela, en représaillesaux revendications légitimesde la popu-
lation civile et de quelques hommes en uniforme qui réclamaient

simplement le départ des militaires rwandais du territoire congo-
lais. De nombreuses sources indépendantes, dont la MONUC et le
RHODECIC, font étatde plus de cinquante personnes déjàabattues
et une dizaine de blessés.D'autres sources précisent qu'àce jour,

4'Voir les différentes résolutions du Conseil de sécurité,notamment: 1234 (1999).
1304 (2000). 1341 (2001). 1355001), 1376 (2001). 1399(2002), 1417(2002).
?'Voir article 74. paragraphes 1et 2, du Règlementde la Cour.Dans I'affairedes Acti-
i.it6.vcirniur le,territoire cluCongo (Rc'/7uhliqued6moc.rntic/uedri Congo c. Ou,yundu).
la Cour a déclaréque «de telles mesures ne sont justifiéesque s'il y a )(C.I.J.
Rc,cuei12000,p. 127.par.39); voir aussi LaCrrrnd (AIIc~c.Etuts-Unis d'An~rriclue),
rnr.surc,scoriser.i:crtoir~~o.rsc,loilnrrncc1Y99, C.I.J. Recuei1Y99 JI), p. 15,
par. 22.
Voir Pierre-Marie Martin, ((Renouveau des mesures conservatoires: les ordonnances
récentesde la Cour internationale de Justice)), Journcildirclroitinternutioriul,t. 102, 1975.
p.51 ;Joe Verhoeven, Droit internutioncilpuhlic. précisde la facultédedroit del'université
catholique de Louvain, 2000, p. 767. plusieurs policiers et militaires ont été lâchement tuésau motif
qu'ils avaient étéen intelligence avec les insurgés enraison de leur
appartenance aux ex-forces arméeszaïroises (FAZ). »44

75. Au-delà des événementsde Kisangani, la République démocra-
tique du Congo a soulevé,en fait, l'ensemble de son contentieux avec le
Rwanda, depuis le début de la guerre. D'où la difficultéde décelerle
caractère urgent de certaines mesures demandées à la Cour.

2. La préservation des droits des parties

76. Les mesures conservatoires ne préjugentpas des droits des parties
au fond et doivent avoir pour finalitéde préserver ceux-ci,afin d'éviter
tout préjudiceirréparable. La Cour a eu l'occasion de rappeler ce prin-
cipe dans plusieurs affaires:

((Considérant que le pouvoir d'indiquer des mesures conserva-
toires conféréà la Cour par l'article 41 du Statut présupposequ'un
préjudice irréparable risque d'êtrecausé aux droits en litige dans
une procédurejudiciaire et a donc pour objet de sauvegarder le droit
de chacune des Parties en attendant que la Cour rende sa décision
au fond.))(Différendfrontalier (Burkina Fa.solRépubliquedu Mali),
ilzesuresconservatoires, ordonnance du 10janvier 1986, C.1J. Recueil
1986, C.1.J. Recueil 1986, p. 8, par. 13;voir aussi Activités armées

sur le territoire du Congo (République démocratique du Congo
c. Ouguncla), mesures conservatoires, or~lonnancedu 1"'juillet 2000,
C.1.J.Recueil 2000, p. 127, par. 39.)
77. Pour la République démocratique du Congo, il s'agissait certai-
nement de limiter l'irréparable puisqu'ily avait déjàmort d'hommes; et
pour le Rwanda, la préservation de ses droits devait consister A ne pas

se faire imputer d'embléeles allégations des violations graves et mas-
sives des droits de l'homme. Dans ses observations orales, le défen-
deur s'est plus appesanti sur les questions de compétence de la Cour
(voir CR 2002137).

3. La non-aggravation du d$;férend

78. Que les Parties le demandent ou non, la Cour est en droit de pres-
crire des mesures conservatoires afin d'éviterl'aggravation du différend.
Toute extension du différendpeut annihiler les efforts du juge de contri-
buer à la paix et à la sécuritéinternationales, par le règlement pacifique
des différendsinternationaux, par l'application du droit. La Cour dispose
donc d'un pouvoir d'appréciation aux fins de prescrire des mesures
conservatoires dans le but de circonscrire tout différend:

((Considérant que, indépendamment des demandes en indication

4Wemande en indication de mesures conservatoires, 28 mai 2002, p. 16-17

77 blood, on the pretext that they had been in communication with the
rebels on accourit of their having belonged to the former Zairian
Armed Forces (F;AZ)."4"

75. Over and above the events in Kisangani, the Democratic Republic
of the Congo in fact cited the entirety of its dispute with Rwanda sicce
the start of the war. Hence the difficulty of identifying the urgency of
certain measures requested of the Court.

2. Preservation qf the Parties' Rigllts

76. Provisional measures do not prejudge the parties' rights on the
merits and must have as their purpose the preservation of those rights, in
order to prevent any irreparable harm. The Court has had occasion to
recall this principle in a number of cases:

"Whereas the power to indicate provisional measures which is
conferred on the Court by Article 41 of the Statute presupposes the
possibility of irreparable damage being caused to the rights at issue
in judicialproceedings and has therefore as its purpose to safeguard
the rights of each Party pending the delivery of the Court's decision
on the merits." (.FrontierDispute (Burkina FasolRepuhlic of Mali),
Provi.siona1Measures, Order uf 10 Junuary 1986, I.C.J. Reports

1986, p. 8, para. 13; see alsoArmed Actiilities on the Territory of the
Congo (Democr~cticRepuhlic of the Congo v. Uganda), Provisional
Measures, Order of 1 July 2000, I.C.J. Reports 2000, p. 127,
para. 39.)
77. Clearly, the Democratic Republic of the Congo was seeking to
limit the irreparable, there having already been fatalities; for Rwanda,

the preservation of its rights required avoiding being imputed ah initio
with alleged massive serious violations of human rights. In its oral plead-
ings, the Respondent placed the emphasis rather on issues of the Court's
jurisdiction (see CR 2002137).

3. Non-aggravation oj the Dispute

78. Whether or noi;the parties so request, the Court is entitled to indi-
cate provisional measures in order to avoid any aggravation of the dis-
pute. Any extension of the dispute may set at naught the Court's efforts
to contribute to international peace and security by settling international
disputes by peaceful means, by applying the law. The Court thus has a

discretionary power to indicate provisional measures with a view to
restricting the scope of a dispute:
"Considering that, independently of the requests for the indication

" Request for the indication of provisional measures, 28 May 2002, pp. 16-17.

77 de mesures conservatoires présentéespar les parties i l'effet de sau-
vegarder des droits déterminés,la Cour dispose, en vertu de I'ar-

ticle 41 de son Statut, du pouvoir d'indiquer des mesures conserva-
toires en vue d'empêcher l'aggravation ou l'extension du diffé-
rend quand elle estime que les circonstances l'exigent.)) (Frontière
terrestre et nzuritinze entre le Cumeroun et le Nigkriu (Cumeroun c.

Nigkriuj, mesur-e.rconsrrvritoire.~, orrlonnatzce du 15 rvlurs 1996,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (1), p. 22-23, par. 41.)

79. L'indication de mesures conservatoires s'impose, en tout casdevrait
s'imposer, lorsqu'il y a une situation de belligéranceou lorsqu'il y a des

violations graves des droits de l'homme et du droit international huma-
nitaire. Ainsi, la Cour a prescrit des mesures de portée militaire dans plu-
sieurs cas4'; le rejet intervenant pour défaut d'intérêd te ces mesures4h.

4. Lu compétencede lu Cour prima facie

80. L'établissement de lacompétence de la Cour mêmeprimujacie est
au cŒur de l'affaire qui oppose la République démocratique du Congo.
C'est la condition essentielle, primaire, d'où les autres découlent. La

Cour a refuséde prescrire des mesures conservatoires parce que, après
l'examen des moyens de droit présentéspar le demandeur, il n'apparaît
pas que sa compétence soit établie. Cette attitude est conforme à sa juris-
prudence constante :

((Considérant qu'en présence d'une demande en indication de
mesures conservatoires la Cour n'a pas besoin, avant de décider
d'indiquer ou non de telles mesures, de s'assurer d'une manière défi-
nitive qu'elle a compétence quant au fond de l'affaire, mais qu'elle

ne peut cependant indiquer ces mesures que si les dispositions invo-
quéespar le demandeur semblent prinzafurie constituer une base sur
laquelle la compétence de la Cour pourrait être fondée. » (LuCrund
(Allemagne c. Etuts-Unis d'Atnérique), niesures con.servutoires,

ordonnunce du 3 3r?7ar 1s999, C.I. J. Recueil 1999 (I), p. 13,par. 13.)47

4' Voir Actii,ité.iilituires et purui?iiliLIUNicuruguu et co~ztrerclui-ci (Nicuruguc~
c. Eturs-Unis JA'ArnC.rique).irirsurcs consc,rocitoire.s.orclonnunce du1IO t7zcii 1984,
C.I J. Reclrt~il1984,p. 169: Difj%Brenfdrontcilie(Burkitza FrrsolR<'puhlicltrdeu Muli).
n?e.surC.s~onservcitoirs.rdOittI~ntueIOjunvier 1986, C.IJ. Recueil 1986,p.554; Appli-
cution de lu coni~rntionpour le1pr6vention et lu r6prc~szu crinle de gc;n«cicie(Bosriie-
HcrzPgoi~incc. Yougo.slcii.ie) (Serhie et Mont6tz6gro). or(ionizunc,u'Lr8 civril 1993,
C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 3: Froiziii.reterrestre et ti~uritit?~oe~itrcle Cumcjrounrf le Nigeria
(Cumerozin c. hTigi.riu), mesures conservcrtoires. ordorinuncr du 15 nzars 1996, p. 13;
Activit6.s urnzée.~sur le territoire ti~r Congo (R&puhliqire clCiiiocrutiquc~du Congo
c. Ougcinciu).incsurc.rcoii.~eri~rrtoi.si,orintinc.cc,lirI"',juillet 111., p.

4h Voir Ranjeva, op. cit.p.459.
47 Voir aussi LicBit<leI'eniploiclelufbrce (Yougo.tlei~~ice. Ccinudu), n?esuresconser-
i,rrioirr.r.ordotzncincrciu2 juin 1999. C.I.J. Rerireil 199p.(266,par. 20. of provisional measures submitted by the Parties to preserve specific
rights, the Court possesses by virtue of Article 41 of the Statute the
power to indicate provisional measures with a view to preventing the
aggravation or extension of the dispute whenever it considers that

circumstances so require." (Land and Maritinle Boundacv bet,z.eerz
Cunîeroon and Aiigeria (Canzeroon v. Nigericl). Proi~isional Mea-
sures, Order of 1.5Murch 1996, 1.C.J. Report5 1996 (1), pp. 22-23,

para. 41 .)

79. The Court is bound to indicate provisional measures, or in any event
ought to do so, whenever there is a war situation or where there are serious
violations of human rights or of international humanitarian law. Thus the

Court has indicated measures having a military dimension in a number of
cases45,refusing to grant them where they were not appropriate".

4. The Court's Pri~nuFacie J~lrisdiction

80. Establishment of the Court's jurisdiction, even prima facie, lies at
the heart of the Congo's case. It is the essential, primary condition, from

which al1 the others flow. The Court refused to indicate provisional
measures because, fc~llowing a consideration of the grounds of law
presented by the Applicant, it was not apparent that its jurisdiction was
established. This approach is consistent with its established case law:

"Whereas, on a request for the indication of provisional measures
the Court need not, before deciding whether or not to indicate them,
finally satisfy itself that it has jurisdiction on the merits of the case,

but whereas it m,aynot indicate them unless the provisions invoked
by the Applicant appear, prima facie, to afford a basis on which the
jurisdiction of the Court might be founded." (I,aGrund (Gernzuny v.

United States of America), Provisional Meusur-es,Order oj 3 Murch
1999, 1.C.J. Rrj~orfs 1999 (1). p. 13, para. 13.)47

45 See Militury cind Pur.umilitur.vActivities in und crgain.stNicuruguu (Nicuruguu v.
Unitcd Srcltesof Anzericci), Provisionc~lMeusurc,~,Order cfIO Muy 1984. 1.C.J. R<,ports
1984. p. 169: Frontier Dispute i Burkincl Fu.solRepuhlicof Mcrli), Provi.~ionulMc~usurcs,
Order of 10 Januury 1986, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 554: Applicution of the Conijention on
the t'rcrention irntl Punislrmrnt »f' rlze Crimof Genoc,ir/e(Bosnicl und Hc,r:egosinrrv.
Y~~~yoslut~(iSncrhirr crtl dont(,rze,gro)),Provisionul Mr~usure\, Orcieof 8 April 1993.
1.C.J. Reports 1YY.?,p. 3; Lund und Muritinle Bounr/ury ber~t.c~eC numrroon und Nigeria
(Cu(ir?rrroon. i\ri,ser,cProvisiontrl Meusiire.~,Order oj 15 Murch 1996, 1.C.J, Reports
1996. p. 13; Armer/ Activiries on tlie Territory of'tlic.C'oizgo(l>eirir~cicepublic of'the
Congo v. (Igunric i. Proi.i.siot~ulMru.sures, Order of' 1 .Jul~.2000, 1.J. Reports 2000,
p. 111.
4h See Ranjeva. op. cit., p. 459.
" See also Lrgcilitycf' Use (ifForce (Yugosluvirrv. Cunciduj, Proiiri»nul Meusures,
Orrlerof 2 June 1999. 1.C J. Reports 1999 (1).p. 266, para. 31.294 ACTIVITÉS ARMEES (OP. IND. MAVUNGU)

81. Comme indiqué ci-dessus, le contraste est frappant entre les me-
sures conservatoires sollicitéespar le demandeur et les moyens de droit

invoquéspour fonder la compétencede la Cour. Je suis d'avis que cer-
taines mesures conservatoires auraient pu êtreindiquées,compte tenu de
la nature du différend, même si la base de la compétenceétait étroite.

(Signé) Jean-Pierre MAVUNGU. ARMED ACTIVITlES (SEP.OP. MAVUNGU) 294

81. As 1 have a1rt:ady stated, the contrast is striking between the
provisional measures sought by the Applicant and the grounds of law
invoked to found the Court's jurisdiction. 1 am of the opinion that
certain provisionalmeasures could have been indicated, having regard to
the nature of the dispute, even if the basis of jurisdiction was a narrow
one.

(Signed) Jean-Pierrre MAVUNGU.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate Opinion by Judge ad hoc Mavungu (translation)

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