Separate opinion of Judge Higgins

Document Number
110-19990602-ORD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
110-19990602-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE HIGGINS

Limitations ratione temporis to declarations made under Article 36, para-
graph 2, of the Statute - "Disputes" - "Situutions or Facts" - Reciprocity
- "Continuing" events or violationsof law - Primafacie jurisdiction for pur-
poses of Article 41 of the Statute - Matters to be decidedat provisional meas-
uresphase and matters to be reserved for more thorough later consideration -
Two alternative consequencesof an absence of primafacie jurisdiction - Judi-
cial authority and creativity dependent on jurisdiction.

1. Where one State has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court under
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute with a limitation ratione temporis
and the other State has accepted the jurisdiction without such a limita-
tion,

"nevertheless, as a consequence of the condition of reciprocity stipu-
lated in paragraph 2 of Article 36 of the Statute of the Court, it is
recognized that this limitation holds good as between the Parties"
(Phosphates in Morocco, Judgment, 1938, P.C. 1.J., Series AIB,
No. 74, p. 22).

2. The declaration accepting the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction made

by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 25 April 1999 States in part
that :

"1hereby declare that the Government of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia recognizes, in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 2,
of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, as compulsory
ipso facto and without special agreement, in relation to any other
State accepting the same obligation, that is on condition of recipro-
city, thejurisdiction of the said Court in al1disputes arising or which
may arise after the signature of the present Declaration, with regard

to the situations or facts subsequent to this signature, except in cases
where the parties have agreed or shall agree to have recourse to
another procedure or to another method of pacific settlement . . ."

This follows, with a small variation, the well-known so-called "Belgian
declaration" of 1925by which any retrospectivejurisdiction of the Court
ratione temporis was precluded both as to disputes and as to situations
and facts.
3. The declaration made by the Netherlands contains no such limita-

tion, but it applies inter se to identify the scope ratione temporis of the580 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. HIGGINS)

Court's jurisdiction, for the reason set out in paragraph 1 of this
opinion.
4. It may, of course, be the case that, while the dispute has clearly
arisen subsequent to the critical date for jurisdiction, the situations or
facts giving rise to the dispute appear to have occurred before that date.
That was exactly the situation in the Phosphates in Morocco case, where
the Permanent Court addressed the possibility that acts "accomplished
after the crucial date", when "taken in conjunction with earlier acts to

which they are closely linked, constitute as a whole a single, continuing
and progressive illegal act which was not fully accomplished until after
the crucial date" (Pl~osplzatesin Morocco, Judgment, 1938, P.C.I.J.,
Series AIB, No. 74. p. 23). Equally, there exists the possibility that acts
carried out prior to the crucial date "nevertheless gave rise to a perma-
nent situation inconsistent with international law which has continued to
exist after thesaid date" (ibid.). This latter eventuality is indeed reflected
in the International Law Commission's Draft Article 25on State Respon-
sibility (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, Vol. II, Part II,
p. 80).

5. It is not the Courtalone which has had to formulate jurisprudence
on the concept of "continuing events": so has the European Court of
Human Rights (see Yagciand Surgin v. Turkey, European Human Rights
Reports, 1995, p. 505); and so also has the Human Rights Committee
(see Guyeet al. v. France, No. 19611985,3April 1989,35th Session); and
Siminek v. The Czech Repuhlic (No. 51611992,3 1July 1995,54th Session).

6. The Court gave its own answers to this issue in Phosphates in
Morocco. It explained that the problem of whether there were "continu-
ing events" that gave rise to a cause of action after the crucial date must
be examined in the particular context of each case. But two factors
always have to be borne in mind: the first is that

"it is necessary always to bear in mind the will of the State which
only accepted the compulsory jurisdiction within specified limits,
and consequently only intended to submit to that jurisdiction dis-
putes having actually arisen from situations or facts subsequent to
its acceptance" (Phosphutes in Morocco, Judgment, 1938, P.C.1.J.,
Series AIB, No. 74, p. 24).
And second, it was necessary to see if the facts were merely a necessary
and logical consequence of earlier ones which were barred from scrutiny
by the temporal reservation. On the particular facts of the Phosphates
case, the Court found that the cited facts and situations could not be

viewed as "a final step and crowning point" of the earlier events (ibid.,
p. 26) nor did they "alter the situation which had already been estab-lished" (P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 74,p. 27). Nor could they be separated
from those that had arisen before the crucial date.

7. That this particular jurisdictional problem, as any other, requires
close attention to be given to the intention of the State issuing itseclara-
tion with limitations or reservations was stated by the Permanent Court
in the Phosphates in Morocco case and recently affirmed by this Court in
the case of Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the
Court, Judgment (1.C. J. Reports 1998,p. 454, para. 49). It is striking that
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia did not advance arguments before

the Court suggestingeither continuing events or a continuing dispute (the
latter not having been an issue in Phosphutes in Morocco). It squarely
based itself on a dispute it perceived as arising, and situations and facts
that it perceived as occurring, after the crucial date of 25 April. It did not
wish any dispute there may have been between itselfand the Netherlands
prior to 25 April to be subject to the Court's jurisdiction, nor any situa-
tions and facts relating to such dispute. That was the intention of the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and it was clear. But within that intent
there was also a hope - the hope that there could be identified a dispute
that arose only after 25 April. Certainly there were events, occurring
after 25 April, that were the subject of the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via'scomplaint (though these were not specifiedby date or in any detail).
But the Court has not been able to see a dispute arising only after
25 April. The claim that aerial bombing by NATO, and NATO States,
was illegal,was made in the Security Council on 24 March and 26 March,
and rebutted there. The conditions specified in the Mavrommatis case
(Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,

Series A, No. 2) for the existence of a dispute were thus met at that time.

8. No doubt the continuation of the bombing and the targets hit after
25April has aggravated and intensified the dispute. But every aerial bom-
bardment subsequent to 25 April does not constitute a new dispute. In
short, there are situations and facts occurring subsequent to the crucial
date, but there is not at the present time a dispute urising subsequent to
that date. In effectively realizing the intention (which the Court must
respect) of its declaration, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not
able also to realize its hope. Its declaration accordinglyfails to invest the
Court with jurisdiction. 9. Of course, in the Phosphates in Morocco case the Court was address-
ing temporal limits at the phase of preliminary objections. But because
the Court must be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, at least prima facie,
before consideringwhether the conditions of Article 41 of the Statute are
met for the indication of interim measures of protection, the question
must be dealt with here at this stage, albeit on a provisional basis.

10. Complex issues arise for the Court in satisfying itself that it has a
jurisdiction at least sufficient toonsider indicating provisional measures
under Article 41 of the Statute.

11. Minimal guidance is provided in the Statute and in the Rules of
Court as to legal requirements relating to the indication of provisional
measures. Article 41 of the Statute merely provides that the Court "shall
have the power to indicate, if it considers that circumstances so require,
any provisional measures which ought to be taken to preserve the respec-
tive rights of either party". This shows both the function of interim meas-
ures and the fact that the Court has a discretion as to their indication -
but nothing else.The Rules of Procedure in their successiveversions have
provided little guidance on the application of Article 41 of the Statute,
with those of 1936and 1978reflecting the most significant developments
in the practice (for details, see Guyomar, Commentaire du Règlement de
la Cour lnternationule de Justice. 2nd ed.). It has been through the case
law of the Court that the many different legal elements relating to pro-
visional measures have evolved (no interim judgment to be given: case
concerning the Factory ut Chorzoul, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 12; nexus
between rights to be protected and the measures sought: Legal Status of
the South-Eastern Territory of Greenland, P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 48;

Polish Agrarian Reforrn and German Minority. P.C.I.J., Series AIB,
No. 58; meaning of the protection of the rights of the parties; the ques-
tion of extension and aggravation of the dispute: Electricity Company of
Sofia and Bulgaria, P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 79.

12. It is equally through its case law that the Court has had to address
the jurisdictional problems that arise when a request for the indication of
provisional measures is made before the Court has definitively estab-
lished its jurisdiction in a case.
13. In the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case, the Court stated that, because
"it cannot be accepted a priori" that the claim "falls completely outside
the scope of international jurisdiction" the Court could entertain the
request for interim measures of protection (Interim Protection, Order of
5 July 1951. 1.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 93). At the same time, the Court
noted that the indication of such measures "in no way prejudges the
question of the jurisdiction of the Court to deal with the merits of the
case and leaves unaffected the right of the Respondent to submit argu-
ments against such jurisdiction" (ibid. ).

14. This latter statement of the consequences for subsequent phases ofan Order for interim measures has remained essentially unchanged over

the years. However, the jurisdictional prerequisites for the issuance of
interim measures of protection have undergone important developments
in the jurisprudence. Indeed, the debate had already been heavily engaged
within the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case itself. In their dissenting opinions,
Judges Winiarski and Badawi Pasha viewed the Court as finding that it
was competent to indicate interim measures of protection "if prima facie
the total lack of jurisdiction of the Court is not patent, that is . ..there
is a possibility, however remote, that the Court may be competent" (ibid.,
p. 97). But observing that interim measures of protection were in inter-
national law even more exceptional than in municipal law, as they were
"a scarcely tolerable interference in the affairs of a sovereign State", they
ought not to be indicated unless the Court's jurisdiction was "reasonably
probable".

15. In Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), the Court
refined the formula, stating that when considering a request for the indi-

cation of provisional measures, it had no need "finally to satisfy itself
that it has jurisdiction on the merits of the case, yet it ought not to act
under Article 41 of the Statute if the absence ofjurisdiction on the merits
is manifest" (Interim Protection, Orderof 17 August 1972, 1.C.J. Reports
1972, p. 15).
16. In the Nuclear Tests case (1973), France insisted that the Court
was "manifestly not competent in the case". The Court, departing in part
from the formula it had used the year before in the Fisheries Jurisdiction
case, stated that it "need not . ..finally satisfy itself that it has jurisdic-
tion on the merits of the case", but that it ought not to indicate provi-
sional measures "unless the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear,
prima facie, to afford a basis on which thejurisdiction of the Court might
be founded" (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Interim Protection,
Order of 22 June 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 101).In none of the next
three provisional measures cases (Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of War,
Order of 13 July 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 328; Aegean Seu Conti-

nental Shelf; Order of 11 September 1976, 1. C.J. Reports 1976, p. 3;
United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran, Order of
17 December 1979, I.C.J. Reports 1979, p. 7) was the question of juris-
diction the main basis for the order.

17. In Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua,
Provisional Measures (Order of IO May 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984,
p. 179)the Court came back to the issue, repeating the exact formula of
the Nuclear Tests case. That formula is now firmly established (Arbitral
Abvardof 31 July 1989, Provisional Measures, Order of 2 March 1990,
I.C.J. Reports 1990, pp. 68-69 ;Passage through the Great Belt (Finland
v. Denmark), ProvisionalMeasures, Orderof29 July 1991,1.C.J. Reports1991, p. 17;Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of the Crime of Genocide, Provisional Measures, Order of 8 April
1993, 1.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 11, and Order of 13 September 1993, ibid.,
pp. 16-17; Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria,
Provisional Measures, Order of 15 March 1996, 1.C.J. Reports 1996(1),
p. 12; Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Paraguay v. United
States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 9 April 1998, 1.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 255, para. 23; and LaGrand, Provisional Measures,
Order of 3 March 1999, I.C. J. Reports 1999, p. 13, para. 13).

18. Thus a party seeking the indication of provisional measures must
show a prima facie basis upon which the Court's jurisdiction in the case
might be founded. That being said, several questions (which have a par-

ticular relevance in the present case) remain. What is sufficient to show
the required "prima facie" basis forjurisdiction? And what jurisdictional
matters will the Court look at, as necessary for this purpose, at the pro-
visional measures stage, and what will it reserve for any further hearings
on jurisdiction?

19. It is the practice of the Court that weighty and complex arguments
relating to itsjurisdiction will not usually be addressed at the provisional
measures phase but rather will be regarded as appropriate for resolution
only at the preliminary objections phase. The Co-Agent of the Swiss
Government in the Interhandel case suggested that the Court would not
wish, at the interim measures phase, to adjudicate "upon so complex and
delicate a question as the validity of the American reservation" (Inter-
handel, Interim Protection, Order of 24 October 1957, 1.C.J. Reports

1957, p. 111).The Court, there being able to base its refusa1to indicate
provisional measures on other grounds, gave no answer to this question.
In the Nuclear Tests case of 1973,Australia advanced detailed arguments
alleging the continued validity and applicability of the General Act of
1928as a separate basis for jurisdiction. Without distinguishing the Gen-
eral Act from Article 36 of the Statute, the Court satisfied itself with say-
ing that "the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear, prima facie, to
afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded"
(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Interim Protection, Order of
22 June 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 102).

20. In the Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nica-
ragua case (1984), the Court was faced, at the provisional measures
stage, with very complicated arguments relating both to the legal effect
of the United States declaration of 6 April 1984 and to the apparent
failure of Nicaragua to have deposited an instrument of ratification of

the protocol to bring its adherence to the Statute of the Permanent
Court of International Justice into effect. The Court briefly recounted585 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP. HIGGINS)

the legal problems associated with each of these provisions and stated
that it:

"will not now make any final determination of the question of the
present validity or invalidity of the declaration of 24 September
1929,and the question whether or not Nicaragua accordingly was or
was not, for thepurpose of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of
the Court a 'State accepting the same obligation' as the United
States of America at the date of filingof the Application, so as to be
able to rely on the United Statesdeclaration of 26 August 1946,nor
of the question whether, as a result of the declaration of 6 April
1984, the present Application is excluded from the scope of the
acceptance by the United States of the compulsory jurisdiction of
the Court . .."(Order of IOMay 1984, I. C.J. Reports 1984,p. 180).

The Court satisfied itself with saying that "the two declarations do
nevertheless appear to afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the
Court might be founded" (ibid.).
21. In the present case the Court has also not made any final determi-
nation upon the question of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's status
or otherwise as a Member of the United Nations and thus as a party to
the Statute having the right to make a declaration under Article 36, para-
graph 2, thereof. This is clearly amatter of the greatest complexity and
importance and was, understandably, not the subject of comprehensive
and systematic submissions in the recent oral hearings on provisional
measures.

22. Of course, just as with the question of Nicaragua's ratification of
its adherence to the Statute of the Permanent Court in the Military and

Paramilitary Activities inandagainst Nicaraguacase, it might be thought
that the status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a necessary
"préalable" to everything else. But when dealing with provisional meas-
ures the Court is faced with unavoidable tensions between the demands
of logic and the inability to determine with finality when operatingunder
urgency in response to a request for provisional measures. The opera-
tional principle is that matters of deep complexity will if possible be left
to one side in determining the prima facie jurisdiction of the Court for
purposes of Article 41.

23. In the Nuclear Tests cases and in the Military and Paramilitary
Activities case, the Court equally held over certain arguments relating to
declarations under the Statute. By contrast, the Court in this case has
addressed, for purposes of provisional measures, both the terms of the
declarations of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Netherlands
and the interaction of the declarations of the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia and the Netherlands. 24. The prima facie test of jurisdiction does not make it sufficient
merely to note the very existence of two declarations at this stage. This is
not to be deduced from the statement of the Court in the Cameroon
v. Nigeria provisional measures case that "the declarations made by the
Parties in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute consti-
tute a prima facie basis upon which its jurisdiction in the present case
might be founded" (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 21, para. 31). The
Nigerian request for a reconsideration of the rule in the Rights of
Passage case, as it bore on the interpretation of its own declaration,
clearly fell into that category of complex and weighty objections to juris-
diction that had to be deferred for proper consideration until the pre-

liminary objections phase. In that particular light (and because the
Rights of Passage principle was well established in the Court's case law),
the declarations would in the meantime be treated as establishing prima
faciejurisdiction.

25. The same guiding principles apply to treaties said to provjde a
basis for the Court's jurisdiction. Thus the several complicated argu-
ments that had been advanced in connection with Article IX of the Geno-
cide Convention were not addressed in the provisional measures phase of
the Genocide case of 1993; and it was against that background that the
Court said that Article IX of the Convention appeared to "afford a basis
on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded" (Application of
the Convention on the Prevention andPunishment of the Crime of Geno-

cide, Provisional Meusures, Order of 8 April 1993, 1.C.J. Reports 1993,
p. 16; and Order of 13 September 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 342).

26. But it should not be thought that mere invocation of a jurisdic-
tional clause, with nothing more, sufficesto establish a prima facie basis
of the Court's jurisdiction. It cannot be otherwise, because the jurisdic-
tion of the Court - even if one might regret this state of affairs as we
approach the twenty-first century - is based on consent. And consent to
jurisdiction cannot be established, even prima facie, when it is clear from
the terms of the declarations themselves that the necessary consent is not
prima facie present, or simply is not present, simpliciter. As Sir Hersch
Lauterpacht put it in his separate opinion in the Interhandel case, the test
of jurisdiction of the Court prima facie is met if, in the relevant instru-

ments, there are "no reservations obviously excluding its jurisdiction"
(I.C.J. Reports 1957,pp. 118-119).Reservations relevant for this purpose
are both those in a State's own declaration and those that it may rely on
reciprocally.

27. Yugoslavia made no submission at al1to the Court on either the
optional clause declaration of the Netherlands or on its interplay with its
own reservation. It did not tell the Court the implications of the recipro-city requirements in the Netherlands' declaration, when read together
with the clear terms of the Federal Republic's ownreservation. Nor did
the Netherlands rely reciprocally on Yugoslavia's declaration, no doubt
deeming that to be inconsistent with the position it took alleging the dec-
laration to be invalid. But the Court cannot fail to consider these matters,
and none of them is so obscure and complicated that it could not be dealt
with at this stage; and nor was that suggested by Yugoslavia.

28. As the Court stated in the Norwegian Loans case: "since two uni-
lateral declarations are involved [reciprocal] jurisdiction is conferred

upon the Court only to the extent to which the Declarations coincide in
conferring it" (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 23). And the Court
clearly stated in FisheriesJurisdiction (Spain v. Canada) that:

"Conditions or reservations thus do not by their terms derogate
from a wider acceptance already given. Rather, they operate to
define the parameters of the State's acceptance of the compulsory

jurisdiction of the Court." (I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 453, para. 44.)

Each of these dicta appears in the judgments on jurisdiction, these not
having been provisional measures cases. But a State seeking the introduc-
tion of provisional measures must show that jurisdiction prima facie
exists, notwithstanding conditions, reservations and the operation of reci-
procity between declarations.

29. The restraint upon the liberty of action of a State that necessarily
follows from the indication of provisional measures will not be counte-
nanced unless, prima facie, there isjurisdiction. But an absence of prima
facie jurisdiction at this stage and for this purpose does not necessarily
mean that jurisdiction may not, in the event, later be established. How-
ever, if in considering whether there is jurisdiction prima facie for pur-
poses of Article 41 of the Statute, it is clear beyond doubt that no juris-
diction exists in a particular case, good administration of justice requires
that the case be immediately struck off the List in limine.

30. Finally, it should not be thought that the Court, because it has had
to address the question of its prima faciejurisdiction in the case brought
by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, is indifferent to the great suffer-
ing in Kosovo and Yugoslavia. Indeed, the preambular paragraphs to itsOrder show otherwise. Nor does it seek to avoid making its contribution
to an elucidation of the heavily contested issuesof law. But the Court
take on its responsibilities within the United Nations system and use its
judicial authorityand creativity only when it has jurisdiction.case,
the Court's jurisdiction has yet to be established even prima facie.

(Signed R)osalyn HIGGINS.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE HIGGINS

Limitations ratione temporis to declarations made under Article 36, para-
graph 2, of the Statute - "Disputes" - "Situutions or Facts" - Reciprocity
- "Continuing" events or violationsof law - Primafacie jurisdiction for pur-
poses of Article 41 of the Statute - Matters to be decidedat provisional meas-
uresphase and matters to be reserved for more thorough later consideration -
Two alternative consequencesof an absence of primafacie jurisdiction - Judi-
cial authority and creativity dependent on jurisdiction.

1. Where one State has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court under
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute with a limitation ratione temporis
and the other State has accepted the jurisdiction without such a limita-
tion,

"nevertheless, as a consequence of the condition of reciprocity stipu-
lated in paragraph 2 of Article 36 of the Statute of the Court, it is
recognized that this limitation holds good as between the Parties"
(Phosphates in Morocco, Judgment, 1938, P.C. 1.J., Series AIB,
No. 74, p. 22).

2. The declaration accepting the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction made

by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 25 April 1999 States in part
that :

"1hereby declare that the Government of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia recognizes, in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 2,
of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, as compulsory
ipso facto and without special agreement, in relation to any other
State accepting the same obligation, that is on condition of recipro-
city, thejurisdiction of the said Court in al1disputes arising or which
may arise after the signature of the present Declaration, with regard

to the situations or facts subsequent to this signature, except in cases
where the parties have agreed or shall agree to have recourse to
another procedure or to another method of pacific settlement . . ."

This follows, with a small variation, the well-known so-called "Belgian
declaration" of 1925by which any retrospectivejurisdiction of the Court
ratione temporis was precluded both as to disputes and as to situations
and facts.
3. The declaration made by the Netherlands contains no such limita-

tion, but it applies inter se to identify the scope ratione temporis of the OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE MME HIGGINS

(Traduction]

Limitations ratione temporis des déclarationsfaites au titre de l'article 36,
paragraphe 2, du Statut - (DiffSrends))- ((Situations oufaits)- Récipro-
cité - Evénements«confinus» ou violations du droit - Compétence prima
facie auxJins de l'article41 du Statut- Questions à trancher lorsde laphase
des mesures conservatoires et questions à réserver à un examen ultériei~prlus
approfondi - Deux conséquencrssousforme d'alternative du défautde compé-
tence prima facie - L'autoritéde même quela créativité judiciaires sonttrihu-
taires de la compétence.

1. Quand un Etat a acceptéla juridiction de la Cour en vertu de l'ar-
ticle 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut, sous réserved'une limitation ratione
temporis et que l'autre Etat a accepté la juridiction de la Cour sans

joindre de limitation de cet ordre,
«il est [néanmoins]reconnu que, par l'effet de la condition de réci-

procité,inscrite au paragraphe 2 de I'article 36,du Statutde la Cour,
cette limitation fait droit entre les Parties)) (Phosphates du Maroc,
arrgt, 1938, C. P.J.I. série AIB no 74, p. 22).

2. Dans la déclaration par laquelle elle accepte la juridiction obliga-
toire de la Cour, la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie dit notamment,
le 25 avril 1999:

«Je déclarepar la présenteque le Gouvernement de la République
fédéralede Yougoslavie, conformément au paragraphe 2 de l'article
36 du Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice, reconnaît comme

obligatoire de plein droit et sans convention spéciale, à l'égardde
tout autre Etat acceptantla mêmeobligation, c'est-à-dire sous condi-
tion de réciprocité,lajuridiction de la Cour pour tous les différends,
surgissant ou pouvant surgir après la signature de la présentedécla-
ration, qui ont traità des situations ou à des faits postérieurs à ladite
signature, à l'exception des affaires pour lesquelles les parties ont

convenu ou conviendront d'avoir recours à une autre procédureou à
une autre méthodede règlement pacifique ..»

A une légèrevariation près,ce texte suit un précédentbien connu, le texte
de ce qu'on appelle «la déclaration belge)) de 1925, qui exclut ratione
temporis toute compétence rétroactive dela Cour, tant pour les diffé-
rends que pour les situations et les faits.
3. La déclaration d'acceptation des Pays-Bas ne contient pas de limita-
tion de ce type, mais celle-ci s'applique entre les parties pour déterminer580 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. HIGGINS)

Court's jurisdiction, for the reason set out in paragraph 1 of this
opinion.
4. It may, of course, be the case that, while the dispute has clearly
arisen subsequent to the critical date for jurisdiction, the situations or
facts giving rise to the dispute appear to have occurred before that date.
That was exactly the situation in the Phosphates in Morocco case, where
the Permanent Court addressed the possibility that acts "accomplished
after the crucial date", when "taken in conjunction with earlier acts to

which they are closely linked, constitute as a whole a single, continuing
and progressive illegal act which was not fully accomplished until after
the crucial date" (Pl~osplzatesin Morocco, Judgment, 1938, P.C.I.J.,
Series AIB, No. 74. p. 23). Equally, there exists the possibility that acts
carried out prior to the crucial date "nevertheless gave rise to a perma-
nent situation inconsistent with international law which has continued to
exist after thesaid date" (ibid.). This latter eventuality is indeed reflected
in the International Law Commission's Draft Article 25on State Respon-
sibility (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, Vol. II, Part II,
p. 80).

5. It is not the Courtalone which has had to formulate jurisprudence
on the concept of "continuing events": so has the European Court of
Human Rights (see Yagciand Surgin v. Turkey, European Human Rights
Reports, 1995, p. 505); and so also has the Human Rights Committee
(see Guyeet al. v. France, No. 19611985,3April 1989,35th Session); and
Siminek v. The Czech Repuhlic (No. 51611992,3 1July 1995,54th Session).

6. The Court gave its own answers to this issue in Phosphates in
Morocco. It explained that the problem of whether there were "continu-
ing events" that gave rise to a cause of action after the crucial date must
be examined in the particular context of each case. But two factors
always have to be borne in mind: the first is that

"it is necessary always to bear in mind the will of the State which
only accepted the compulsory jurisdiction within specified limits,
and consequently only intended to submit to that jurisdiction dis-
putes having actually arisen from situations or facts subsequent to
its acceptance" (Phosphutes in Morocco, Judgment, 1938, P.C.1.J.,
Series AIB, No. 74, p. 24).
And second, it was necessary to see if the facts were merely a necessary
and logical consequence of earlier ones which were barred from scrutiny
by the temporal reservation. On the particular facts of the Phosphates
case, the Court found that the cited facts and situations could not be

viewed as "a final step and crowning point" of the earlier events (ibid.,
p. 26) nor did they "alter the situation which had already been estab-la portéeratione temporis de la juridiction de la Cour, pour la raison que
j'expose au paragraphe 1ci-dessus.
4. Il peut évidemment arriver que, mêmesi le différend a manifes-
tement surgi postérieurement à la date critique pour l'attribution de la
compétence, les situations ou les faits qui sontà l'origine du différend
paraissent être antérieursà cette date. Ce fut là exactement la situation

dans l'affaire deshosphates du Maroc où la Cour permanente a analysé
la possibilitéque des actes ((accomplisaprès la date critique)), lorsqu'ils
sont «mis en rapport avec des faits antérieurs auxquels ils sont intime-
ment unis ..constituent dans leur ensemble un seul fait illicite continu et
progressif, qui n'est arrivéà sa perfection qu'après la date critique))
(Phosphates du Maroc, arrêt,1938, C.P. JI. sérieAIB no 74, p. 23). De
même, il est possible que certains faits, bien que réalisàsune époque
antérieure à la date critique «donne[nt] naissancà une situation perma-
nente contraire au droit international qui s'estprolongée au-delà de cette
date)) (ibid.). D'ailleurs, la Commission du droit international tient
compte de cette dernière éventualitédans son projet d'article 25 sur la
responsabilitédes Etats (Annuaire de la Commission du droit internatio-
nal, vol. II, deuxièmepartie, p. 101).

5. La Cour n'est pas seuleà avoir dû constituer une jurisprudence sur
la notion d'«événementcontinu)) ou de «fait ayant un caractère de conti-
nuité)):la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme a dû en faire autant
(voir l'affaireagci et Sargin c. Turquie, Recueil dejurisprudence dela
Cour européenne des droitsde l'homme, 1995, p. 505); et le Comitédes
droits de l'homme a également dû en faire autant (voir Guye et al.
c. France,communication no19611985,3 avril 1989,trente-cinquièmeses-
sion); etSiminek c. la République tchèque(communication no 51611992,
3 1juillet 1995,cinquante-quatrième session).
6. La Cour a donnéses propres réponses à cette question dans l'affaire
des Phosphates du Maroc. Elle a expliqué qu'ilfaut examiner dans le
cadre particulier de chaque affaire le problème de savoir s'il existe des
((événements continus))qui sont à l'origine de l'action intentéepostérieu-

rement à la date critique. Mais il y a deux élémentà ne jamais oublier.
Le premier est que:
((il faut toutefois garder toujours présentà l'esprit la volonté de
I'Etat qui, n'ayant acceptéla juridiction obligatoire que dans cer-
taines limites, n'a entendu y soumettre que les seuls différendsqui
sont réellementnésde situations ou de faits postérieurs à son ac-
ceptation» (Phosphutes du Maroc, arrêt,1938. C.P. J.I.série AIB

no 74, p. 24).
Et le second élément estqu'il faut voir si les faits sont simplement une
conséquence nécessaire et logique de faitsantérieurs que la réserved'ordre
temporel a empêchéd'examiner. S'agissant des faits particuliers de
l'affaire desPhosphates du Maroc, la Cour a estiméque les faits et les
situations invoquées nepouvaient pas êtreconsidéréscomme «le terme

final et le couronnement)) des événementsantérieurs (ihid., p. 26) et qu'ilslished" (P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 74,p. 27). Nor could they be separated
from those that had arisen before the crucial date.

7. That this particular jurisdictional problem, as any other, requires
close attention to be given to the intention of the State issuing itseclara-
tion with limitations or reservations was stated by the Permanent Court
in the Phosphates in Morocco case and recently affirmed by this Court in
the case of Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the
Court, Judgment (1.C. J. Reports 1998,p. 454, para. 49). It is striking that
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia did not advance arguments before

the Court suggestingeither continuing events or a continuing dispute (the
latter not having been an issue in Phosphutes in Morocco). It squarely
based itself on a dispute it perceived as arising, and situations and facts
that it perceived as occurring, after the crucial date of 25 April. It did not
wish any dispute there may have been between itselfand the Netherlands
prior to 25 April to be subject to the Court's jurisdiction, nor any situa-
tions and facts relating to such dispute. That was the intention of the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and it was clear. But within that intent
there was also a hope - the hope that there could be identified a dispute
that arose only after 25 April. Certainly there were events, occurring
after 25 April, that were the subject of the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via'scomplaint (though these were not specifiedby date or in any detail).
But the Court has not been able to see a dispute arising only after
25 April. The claim that aerial bombing by NATO, and NATO States,
was illegal,was made in the Security Council on 24 March and 26 March,
and rebutted there. The conditions specified in the Mavrommatis case
(Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,

Series A, No. 2) for the existence of a dispute were thus met at that time.

8. No doubt the continuation of the bombing and the targets hit after
25April has aggravated and intensified the dispute. But every aerial bom-
bardment subsequent to 25 April does not constitute a new dispute. In
short, there are situations and facts occurring subsequent to the crucial
date, but there is not at the present time a dispute urising subsequent to
that date. In effectively realizing the intention (which the Court must
respect) of its declaration, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not
able also to realize its hope. Its declaration accordinglyfails to invest the
Court with jurisdiction. LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND.HIGGINS) 581

ne «modifi[aient] aucunement l'état de choses créé à cet égard))par les
événementsantérieurs (op. cit., p. 27). Il n'étaitpas non plus possible de
séparerles faits et les situations invoquésde ceux qui étaient antérieurs
la date critique.
7. La Cour permanente a donc déclarédans l'affaire des Phosphates
du Maroc que ce problème particulier de compétence impose, comme
n'importe quel autre problème dans ce domaine, de considérer avec soin

l'intention de1'Etatqui assortit sa déclarationd'acceptation de la juridic-
tion de la Cour de certaines limitations ou réserveset la Cour actuellel'a
récemment affirmé aussidans l'affaire de la Compétenceen matière de
pêcheries (Espagnec. Cunada,compétencede la Cour,arrêt,C.1.J. Recueil
1998, p. 454, par. 49). 11est étonnantque la Républiquefédéralede You-
goslavie n'ait pas plaidédevant la Cour soit le caractère continu de cer-
tains événements, soitle caractère continu du différend (cedernier point
n'ayant pas fait problème dans l'affaire des Phosphates du Maroc). La
Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie s'est fermement appuyée surun dif-
férend perçucomme ayant surgi et sur des situations et des faits perçus
comme s'étant produits aprèsla date critique du 25 avril. La République
fédéralede Yougoslavie ne voulait pas que tout différendqui aurait pu
exister entre elle-mêmeet les Pays-Bas antérieurementau 25 avril relèvede

la compétencede la Cour, non plus que certaines situations et certains
faits en rapport avec ce différend.C'étaitlà l'intention de la République
fédéralede Yougoslavie et cette intention étaitclaire. Mais cette intention
renfermait aussi un espoir - l'espoir qu'il serait possibled'établirI'exis-
tence d'un différend quin'aurait surgi que postérieurement au 25 avril.
Certes, il s'estproduit postérieurementau 25 avril des événementsqui font
bien l'objet de la plainte de la Républiquefédérale de Yougoslavie (encore
que cesévénements n'aientpas étédéfinispar leur date ni par des détails).
Mais la Cour n'a pas été en mesure de constater la présenced'un différend
qui n'aurait suri que postérieurement au 25 avril. La plainte suivant
laquelle les bombardements aériensde I'OTAN et des Etats membres de
I'OTAN étaient illicites a été formulée au Conseil de sécuritéles 24 et
26 mars et a été récusé au Conseil. Lesconditions à réunirpour qu'existe
un différend telles qu'elles ont étédéfiniesdans l'affaire Mavrommatis

(Concessions Muvrommatis en Palestine, arrtt no2, 1924, C.P.J.I. sérieA
no2) ont donc été réunie às ce moment-là.
8. Incontestablement, la poursuite des bombardements et les frappes
atteignant leurs objectifs postérieurement au 25 avril ont aggravé et
intensifiéle différend. Mais chacun des bombardements aériens posté-
rieurs au 25 avril ne constitue pas un différendnouveau. En résumé,il y
a des situations et des faits qui se produisent postérieurement à la date
critique, mais il n'existe pas actuellement de différenden train de surgir
postérieurement a cette date. Tout en concrétisant bien l'intention mise
dans sa déclaration d'acceptation (intention que la Cour se doit de res-
pecter), la République féderalede Yougoslavie n'a pas étéen mesure de
concrétiser enoutre l'espoir qu'elley mettait aussi. En conséquence, sa
déclaration ne donne pas compétence a la Cour. 9. Of course, in the Phosphates in Morocco case the Court was address-
ing temporal limits at the phase of preliminary objections. But because
the Court must be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, at least prima facie,
before consideringwhether the conditions of Article 41 of the Statute are
met for the indication of interim measures of protection, the question
must be dealt with here at this stage, albeit on a provisional basis.

10. Complex issues arise for the Court in satisfying itself that it has a
jurisdiction at least sufficient toonsider indicating provisional measures
under Article 41 of the Statute.

11. Minimal guidance is provided in the Statute and in the Rules of
Court as to legal requirements relating to the indication of provisional
measures. Article 41 of the Statute merely provides that the Court "shall
have the power to indicate, if it considers that circumstances so require,
any provisional measures which ought to be taken to preserve the respec-
tive rights of either party". This shows both the function of interim meas-
ures and the fact that the Court has a discretion as to their indication -
but nothing else.The Rules of Procedure in their successiveversions have
provided little guidance on the application of Article 41 of the Statute,
with those of 1936and 1978reflecting the most significant developments
in the practice (for details, see Guyomar, Commentaire du Règlement de
la Cour lnternationule de Justice. 2nd ed.). It has been through the case
law of the Court that the many different legal elements relating to pro-
visional measures have evolved (no interim judgment to be given: case
concerning the Factory ut Chorzoul, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 12; nexus
between rights to be protected and the measures sought: Legal Status of
the South-Eastern Territory of Greenland, P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 48;

Polish Agrarian Reforrn and German Minority. P.C.I.J., Series AIB,
No. 58; meaning of the protection of the rights of the parties; the ques-
tion of extension and aggravation of the dispute: Electricity Company of
Sofia and Bulgaria, P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 79.

12. It is equally through its case law that the Court has had to address
the jurisdictional problems that arise when a request for the indication of
provisional measures is made before the Court has definitively estab-
lished its jurisdiction in a case.
13. In the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case, the Court stated that, because
"it cannot be accepted a priori" that the claim "falls completely outside
the scope of international jurisdiction" the Court could entertain the
request for interim measures of protection (Interim Protection, Order of
5 July 1951. 1.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 93). At the same time, the Court
noted that the indication of such measures "in no way prejudges the
question of the jurisdiction of the Court to deal with the merits of the
case and leaves unaffected the right of the Respondent to submit argu-
ments against such jurisdiction" (ibid. ).

14. This latter statement of the consequences for subsequent phases of 9. Certes, dans I'affaire des Phosphates du Maroc, la Cour examinait
les limitations d'ordre temporel de la déclaration d'acceptation au stade
des exceptions préliminaires. Mais la Cour devant s'assurer qu'elle est
compétente,tout au moins primafacie, avant d'examiner si lesconditions
prescritesà l'article 41 du Statut pour I'indication de mesures conserva-
toires sont bien réunies,il faut en l'espècetraiter la questione stade-ci,
à titre provisoire toutefois.
10. Des questions complexes se posent à la Cour quand elle veut
s'assurer qu'elle est compétente, ne serait-ce qu'assez compétente pour
envisager d'indiquer des mesures conservatoires conformément à l'article
41 du Statut.
Il. Le Statut et le Règlement de la Cour ne donnent qu'un minimum
d'indications quant aux conditions d'ordre juridique qui président à la

prescription de mesures conservatoires. L'article 41 du Statut stipule sim-
plement que la Cour «a le pouvoir d'indiquer, si elle estime que les cir-
constances l'exigent, quelles mesures conservatoires du droit de chacun
doivent êtreprises à titre provisoire)). Cela dit quel est le rôle des mesures
conservatoires et cela dit aussi que la Cour jouit d'une certaine latitude
quant à I'indication de telles mesures- mais cela ne dit rien d'autre. Le
Règlement, dans ses versions successives, ne fournit pas beaucoup d'élé-
ments utiles sur l'application de l'article41 du Statut, lesversions de 1936
et de 1978montrant à cet égardles points les plus importants de I'évolu-
tion de la pratique (pour avoir des détails,voir Guyomar, Commentaire
du Règlement de la Cour internationale de Justice, 2"éd.).C'est àtravers
la jurisprudence de la Cour que les nombreux élémentsdifférentsd'ordre

juridique concernant les mesures conservatoires ont évolué(il ne faut pas
rendre d'arrêtprovisoire: affaire de l'Usine de Chorzbw, C.P.J. 1.sérieA
no 12; le lien entre les droità protégeret les mesures demandées:Statut
juridique du territoire du sud-est du Groënland, C.P.J.I. sérieAIB no48;
Réforme agraire polonaise et minorité allemande, C.P.J.I. série A/B
no 58; signification de la protection des droits de chacun; question de
l'extension et de l'aggravation du différend: Compagnie d'électricitéde
Sofia et de Bulgarie, C. P.J.I.sérieAIB no 79).
12. C'est égalementpar sa pratique que la Cour a dû examiner lespro-
blèmesdejuridiction qui se posent quand elleest saisied'une demande en
indication de mesures conservatoires avant d'avoir établidéfinitivement
qu'elle estcompétentepour connaître de I'affaire.

13. Dans I'affaire de 1'Anglo-IranianOil Co., la Cour a dit que, parce
qu'<conne saurait admettre a priori)) qu'une demande ((échappecomplè-
tement à la juridiction internationale)), la Cour pouvait examiner la
demande en indication de mesures conservatoires (mesures conserva-
toires, ordonnance du 5juillet 1951, C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 93). En même
temps, la Cour a considéréque I'indication de telles mesures «ne préjuge
en rien la compétence de la Cour pour connaître du fond de l'affaire et
laisse intact le droit du défendeur de fairevaloir ses moyensà l'effetde la
contester)) (ibid).
14. Cette dernière déclaration de principe relative aux conséquencesan Order for interim measures has remained essentially unchanged over

the years. However, the jurisdictional prerequisites for the issuance of
interim measures of protection have undergone important developments
in the jurisprudence. Indeed, the debate had already been heavily engaged
within the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case itself. In their dissenting opinions,
Judges Winiarski and Badawi Pasha viewed the Court as finding that it
was competent to indicate interim measures of protection "if prima facie
the total lack of jurisdiction of the Court is not patent, that is . ..there
is a possibility, however remote, that the Court may be competent" (ibid.,
p. 97). But observing that interim measures of protection were in inter-
national law even more exceptional than in municipal law, as they were
"a scarcely tolerable interference in the affairs of a sovereign State", they
ought not to be indicated unless the Court's jurisdiction was "reasonably
probable".

15. In Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), the Court
refined the formula, stating that when considering a request for the indi-

cation of provisional measures, it had no need "finally to satisfy itself
that it has jurisdiction on the merits of the case, yet it ought not to act
under Article 41 of the Statute if the absence ofjurisdiction on the merits
is manifest" (Interim Protection, Orderof 17 August 1972, 1.C.J. Reports
1972, p. 15).
16. In the Nuclear Tests case (1973), France insisted that the Court
was "manifestly not competent in the case". The Court, departing in part
from the formula it had used the year before in the Fisheries Jurisdiction
case, stated that it "need not . ..finally satisfy itself that it has jurisdic-
tion on the merits of the case", but that it ought not to indicate provi-
sional measures "unless the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear,
prima facie, to afford a basis on which thejurisdiction of the Court might
be founded" (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Interim Protection,
Order of 22 June 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 101).In none of the next
three provisional measures cases (Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of War,
Order of 13 July 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 328; Aegean Seu Conti-

nental Shelf; Order of 11 September 1976, 1. C.J. Reports 1976, p. 3;
United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran, Order of
17 December 1979, I.C.J. Reports 1979, p. 7) was the question of juris-
diction the main basis for the order.

17. In Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua,
Provisional Measures (Order of IO May 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984,
p. 179)the Court came back to the issue, repeating the exact formula of
the Nuclear Tests case. That formula is now firmly established (Arbitral
Abvardof 31 July 1989, Provisional Measures, Order of 2 March 1990,
I.C.J. Reports 1990, pp. 68-69 ;Passage through the Great Belt (Finland
v. Denmark), ProvisionalMeasures, Orderof29 July 1991,1.C.J. Reportsd'une ordonnance prescrivant des mesures conservatoires pour la suite
de la procédureest restéepratiquement inchangée avecle temps. En re-
vanche, les préalables d'ordre juridictionnel autorisant à prescrire des
mesures conservatoires ont beaucoup évoluédans la jurisprudence de la
Cour. Au reste, le débats'étaitd'ores et déjàactivement engagé avec l'af-
faire de 1'Anglo-lraniun Oil Co. elle-même.Dans leur opinion dissidente
commune, les juges Winiarski et Badawi Pasha constatent que la Cour
estime pouvoir indiquer des mesures conservatoires «si prima facie l'in-
compétence totale n'est pas évidente,donc s'il existe une possibilité,si
faible soit-elle,de compétencepour la Cour» (ibid.,p. 97). Mais lesmêmes
auteurs font observer qu'en droit international, ces mesures ont un carac-
tèreexceptionnel à un plus haut degré encorequ'en droit interne car elles
représentent «une ingérence à peine tolérabledans les affaires d'un Etat

souverain)),de sorte qu'il nefaut pas indiquer de telles mesures sauf si la
compétencede la Cour est ((raisonnablementprobable)).
15. Dans l'affairede la Compétenceenmatièrede pêcheries(Royaume-
Uni c. Islande), la Cour a affiné laformule, déclarant que, lorsqu'elle
est saisie d'une demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, elle n'a
pas besoin «de s'assurer de manière concluante de sa compétencequant
au fond de l'affaire, mais ...ne doit cependant pas appliquer l'article 41
du Statut lorsque son incompétence au fond est manifeste)) (mesures
conservatoires, ordonnance du 17 août 1972, C.I.J. Recueil 1972, p. 15).
16. Dans l'affaire desEssais nucléaires(1973),la France a dit avec fer-
metéque la Cour étaitmanifestement ((incompétenteen l'espèce)). S'écar-
tant légèrementde la formule qu'elle avait employéel'annéeprécédente
dans l'affaire de la Compétenceen matière de pêcheries,la Cour a dit
alors qu'elle «n'a pas besoin ...de s'assurer de façon concluante de sa
compétencequant au fond de l'affaire)), mais qu'elle nedoit pas indiquer
de telles mesures «si les dispositions invoquéespar le demandeur ne se

présentent pas comme constituant, prima facie, une base sur laquelle la
compétence dela Cour pourrait être fondée))(Essais nucléaires(Austra-
lie c. France), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 22juin 1973, C.l.J.
Recueil 1973, p. 101).Dans aucune des trois affaires de mesures conser-
vatoires qui ont suivi(Procèsde prisonniers de guerrepakistanais, ordon-
nance du 13juillet 1973, C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 328; Plateau continental
de la mer Egée, ordonnancedu 11 septembre 1976, C.1.J. Recueil 1976,
p. 3; Personnel diplomatique et consulaire des Etats-Unis a Téhéran,
ordonnance du 15 décembre1979, C.I.J. Recueil 1979, p. 7), la ques-
tion de la compétencen'a constitué le principal fondement de l'ordon-
nance.
17. Dans l'affaire des Activitésmilitaires et paramilitaires au Nicara-
gua et contre celui-ci, mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du IO mai
1984, C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 179, la Cour est revenue sur la question,
reprenant exactement la formule qu'elle avait employéedans l'affaire des
Essais nucléaires.Cette formule est désormais solidement établie (Sen-

tence arbitrale du 31juillet 1989, mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du
2 mars 1990, C.I.J. Recueil 1990, p. 68-69; Passage par le Grand-Belt,1991, p. 17;Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of the Crime of Genocide, Provisional Measures, Order of 8 April
1993, 1.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 11, and Order of 13 September 1993, ibid.,
pp. 16-17; Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria,
Provisional Measures, Order of 15 March 1996, 1.C.J. Reports 1996(1),
p. 12; Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Paraguay v. United
States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 9 April 1998, 1.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 255, para. 23; and LaGrand, Provisional Measures,
Order of 3 March 1999, I.C. J. Reports 1999, p. 13, para. 13).

18. Thus a party seeking the indication of provisional measures must
show a prima facie basis upon which the Court's jurisdiction in the case
might be founded. That being said, several questions (which have a par-

ticular relevance in the present case) remain. What is sufficient to show
the required "prima facie" basis forjurisdiction? And what jurisdictional
matters will the Court look at, as necessary for this purpose, at the pro-
visional measures stage, and what will it reserve for any further hearings
on jurisdiction?

19. It is the practice of the Court that weighty and complex arguments
relating to itsjurisdiction will not usually be addressed at the provisional
measures phase but rather will be regarded as appropriate for resolution
only at the preliminary objections phase. The Co-Agent of the Swiss
Government in the Interhandel case suggested that the Court would not
wish, at the interim measures phase, to adjudicate "upon so complex and
delicate a question as the validity of the American reservation" (Inter-
handel, Interim Protection, Order of 24 October 1957, 1.C.J. Reports

1957, p. 111).The Court, there being able to base its refusa1to indicate
provisional measures on other grounds, gave no answer to this question.
In the Nuclear Tests case of 1973,Australia advanced detailed arguments
alleging the continued validity and applicability of the General Act of
1928as a separate basis for jurisdiction. Without distinguishing the Gen-
eral Act from Article 36 of the Statute, the Court satisfied itself with say-
ing that "the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear, prima facie, to
afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded"
(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Interim Protection, Order of
22 June 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 102).

20. In the Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nica-
ragua case (1984), the Court was faced, at the provisional measures
stage, with very complicated arguments relating both to the legal effect
of the United States declaration of 6 April 1984 and to the apparent
failure of Nicaragua to have deposited an instrument of ratification of

the protocol to bring its adherence to the Statute of the Permanent
Court of International Justice into effect. The Court briefly recounted LICÉITÉDE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. HIGGINS) 584

(Finlande c. Danemark), mesures conservatoires, ordonnancedu29juillet
1991, C.I.J Recueil 1991, p. 17;Application dela conventionpour lupré-
vention et lu répressiondu crime de génocide,mesures conservutoires,
ortlonnancedu 8 avril 1993, C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 11,et ordonnunce du
13septembre 1993, ibid., p. 16-17;Frontièreterrestre et maritime entre le
Cameroun et le Nigéria, mesures conservatoires,ordonnance du 15 murs
1996, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 12; Convention de Vienne sur les relu-
tions consulaires (Puraguuy cc.Etats-Unis d'Amérique), mesures conser-

vatoires, ordonnancedu 9 avril 1998, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 255, par. 23;
et LuGrand, mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 3 murs 1999, C.I.J.
Recueil 1999, p. 13, par. 13).
18. Donc, quand l'une des parties présente unedemande en indication
de mesures conservatoires, elle doit montrer qu'il existerima facie une
base sur laquelle la compétence dela Cour pourrait être fondéeC . ela dit,
il se pose encore plusieurs questions (qui intéressenttout particulièrement
la présente espèce). Qu'est-cequi suffitmontrer l'existencede la base de
compétence prima facie dont on a besoin? Et quelles questions juridic-
tionnelles la Cour va-t-elle examiner au stade des mesures conservatoires
parce qu'elles sont indispensables pour fonder la compétenceprimafacie,
et quelles questions d'ordrejuridictionnel va-t-elle réserver,lecaséchéant,
à un examen ultérieursur la com~étence?
19. Dans sa pratique, la Cour n'examine habituellement pas au stade

des mesures conservatoires les fortes raisons et les thèses complexesqui
lui sont présentéesau sujet de sa compétence,elle attend plutôt pour sta-
tuer à cet égardla phase des exceptions préliminaires.Dans l'affaire de
I'lnterhandel, le coagent du Gouvernement suisse a émis l'idéeque, au
stade des mesures conservatoires, la Cour ne voudrait pas se prononcer
«sur une question aussi complexe et délicateque la validitéde la réserve
américaine)) (Interhandel. mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 24 oc-
tobre 1957, C.I.J Recueil 1957,p. 111). La Cour, qui pouvait en l'espèce
faire appelA d'autres motifs pour refuser d'indiquer des mesures conser-
vatoires, n'a pas répondu à cette question. Dans l'affaire des Essais
nucléaires de 1973, l'Australie a présenté uneargumentation détaillée,
alléguantque l'Actegénéralde 1928étaitencore en vigueur et applicable,
constituant ainsi un fondement de compétence indépendant. Sans faire de

distinction entrel'Acte généralet l'article 36 du Statut, la Cour a conclu
que «les dispositions invoquéespar ledemandeur se présent[ai]entcomme
constituant,prima facie, une base sur laquelle la compétence dela Cour
pourrait être fondée))(Essuis nucléaires(Australie c. France), mesures
conservatoires, ordonnance du 22juin 1973, C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 102).
20. Dans l'affaire des Activités militaireset paramilitaires au Nicaru-
gua et contre celui-ci (1984), la Cour s'est trouvée,au stade des mesures
conservatoires, face à des thèses extrêmement complexesportant sur
l'effetjuridique de la déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction obliga-
toire de la Cour faite le 6 avril 1984 par les Etats-Unis, d'une part, et,
de l'autre, sur le fait qu'apparemment le Nicaragua n'avait pas déposé
d'instrument de ratification du protocole pour rendre effective sondhé-585 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP. HIGGINS)

the legal problems associated with each of these provisions and stated
that it:

"will not now make any final determination of the question of the
present validity or invalidity of the declaration of 24 September
1929,and the question whether or not Nicaragua accordingly was or
was not, for thepurpose of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of
the Court a 'State accepting the same obligation' as the United
States of America at the date of filingof the Application, so as to be
able to rely on the United Statesdeclaration of 26 August 1946,nor
of the question whether, as a result of the declaration of 6 April
1984, the present Application is excluded from the scope of the
acceptance by the United States of the compulsory jurisdiction of
the Court . .."(Order of IOMay 1984, I. C.J. Reports 1984,p. 180).

The Court satisfied itself with saying that "the two declarations do
nevertheless appear to afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the
Court might be founded" (ibid.).
21. In the present case the Court has also not made any final determi-
nation upon the question of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's status
or otherwise as a Member of the United Nations and thus as a party to
the Statute having the right to make a declaration under Article 36, para-
graph 2, thereof. This is clearly amatter of the greatest complexity and
importance and was, understandably, not the subject of comprehensive
and systematic submissions in the recent oral hearings on provisional
measures.

22. Of course, just as with the question of Nicaragua's ratification of
its adherence to the Statute of the Permanent Court in the Military and

Paramilitary Activities inandagainst Nicaraguacase, it might be thought
that the status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a necessary
"préalable" to everything else. But when dealing with provisional meas-
ures the Court is faced with unavoidable tensions between the demands
of logic and the inability to determine with finality when operatingunder
urgency in response to a request for provisional measures. The opera-
tional principle is that matters of deep complexity will if possible be left
to one side in determining the prima facie jurisdiction of the Court for
purposes of Article 41.

23. In the Nuclear Tests cases and in the Military and Paramilitary
Activities case, the Court equally held over certain arguments relating to
declarations under the Statute. By contrast, the Court in this case has
addressed, for purposes of provisional measures, both the terms of the
declarations of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Netherlands
and the interaction of the declarations of the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia and the Netherlands.sion au Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale. La Cour
a rapidement fait le point des problèmes d'ordre juridique liés à chacune
de ces dispositions et elle a considéré qu'elle:
«n'entend[ait] pas se prononcer définitivementpour l'instant sur la
question de savoir si la déclarationdu 24 septembre 1929est valable
ou non et si en conséquencele Nicaragua est ou n'est pas, aux finsde

l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour, un «Etat acceptant
la mêmeobligation)) que les Etats-Unis d'Amérique a la date du
dépôtde la requête,de manière à pouvoir se prévaloir dela déclara-
tion américainedu 26 août 1946,ni sur celle de savoir si, du fait de
la déclarationdu 6 avril 1984,la présenterequête n'entre plusdans le
cadre de l'acceptation par les Etats-Unis de lajuridiction obligatoire
de la Cour.. .» (ordonnance du 1O mai 1984, C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 180).

La Cour s'est contentée dedire: «les deux déclarations paraissent cons-
tituer néanmoins une base sur laquelle la compétence dela Cour pourrait
ètre fondée))(ibid. ).
21. Dans la présenteespèce,la Cour ne s'est pas non plus prononcée
définitivementsur la question de savoir sila Républiquefédéralede You-
goslavie étaittoujours ou non Membre des Nations Unies et, dans I'affir-
mative, partie a ce titre au Statut ayant le droit de faire une déclara-
tion en vertu de l'article 36, paragraphe 2, dudit Statut. Il s'agit la d'une
question extrêmementcomplexe et importante et il est compréhensible
qu'elle n'ait pas fait l'objet d'exposésapprofondis et systématiqueslors
de la procédure orale récenteportant sur l'indication de mesures conser-
vatoires.
22. Bien sûr, tout comme il en fut pour la question de la ratification
par le Nicaragua de son adhésion au Statut de la Cour permanente dans
l'affaire desActivitésmilitaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui-ci,on peut penser qu'en l'espèce, lestatutde la Républiquefédérale

de Yougoslavie constituait un préalable indispensable à tout le reste.
Mais, quand elle se penche sur une demande en indication de mesures
conservatoires, la Cour est aux prises avec d'inévitablestensions entre les
exigencesde la logique et l'impossibilitéoù elle setrouve de se prononcer
à titre définitifquand elle est en proie a l'urgence. Pour pouvoir agir, le
principe qu'elle adopte est que les questions d'une grande complexité
seront, s'il est possible, laisséesde côtéquand elle établit si elle arima
facie compétenceaux fins de l'article 41 de son Statut.
23. Dans les affaires des Essais nucléaireset dans celle des Activités
militaires etparamilitaires, la Cour a, chaque fois, laisséde mêmeen sus-
pens certaines thèsesconcernant les déclarationsfaites en vertu du Statut.
Par opposition, dans la présente espèce, laCour, aux fins de l'indication
de mesures conservatoires, a examinéle texte même desdéclarationsde la
République fédéralede Yougoslavie et des Pays-Bas ainsi que I'interac-
tion de ces deux déclarations dela Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie et
des Pays-Bas. 24. The prima facie test of jurisdiction does not make it sufficient
merely to note the very existence of two declarations at this stage. This is
not to be deduced from the statement of the Court in the Cameroon
v. Nigeria provisional measures case that "the declarations made by the
Parties in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute consti-
tute a prima facie basis upon which its jurisdiction in the present case
might be founded" (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 21, para. 31). The
Nigerian request for a reconsideration of the rule in the Rights of
Passage case, as it bore on the interpretation of its own declaration,
clearly fell into that category of complex and weighty objections to juris-
diction that had to be deferred for proper consideration until the pre-

liminary objections phase. In that particular light (and because the
Rights of Passage principle was well established in the Court's case law),
the declarations would in the meantime be treated as establishing prima
faciejurisdiction.

25. The same guiding principles apply to treaties said to provjde a
basis for the Court's jurisdiction. Thus the several complicated argu-
ments that had been advanced in connection with Article IX of the Geno-
cide Convention were not addressed in the provisional measures phase of
the Genocide case of 1993; and it was against that background that the
Court said that Article IX of the Convention appeared to "afford a basis
on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded" (Application of
the Convention on the Prevention andPunishment of the Crime of Geno-

cide, Provisional Meusures, Order of 8 April 1993, 1.C.J. Reports 1993,
p. 16; and Order of 13 September 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 342).

26. But it should not be thought that mere invocation of a jurisdic-
tional clause, with nothing more, sufficesto establish a prima facie basis
of the Court's jurisdiction. It cannot be otherwise, because the jurisdic-
tion of the Court - even if one might regret this state of affairs as we
approach the twenty-first century - is based on consent. And consent to
jurisdiction cannot be established, even prima facie, when it is clear from
the terms of the declarations themselves that the necessary consent is not
prima facie present, or simply is not present, simpliciter. As Sir Hersch
Lauterpacht put it in his separate opinion in the Interhandel case, the test
of jurisdiction of the Court prima facie is met if, in the relevant instru-

ments, there are "no reservations obviously excluding its jurisdiction"
(I.C.J. Reports 1957,pp. 118-119).Reservations relevant for this purpose
are both those in a State's own declaration and those that it may rely on
reciprocally.

27. Yugoslavia made no submission at al1to the Court on either the
optional clause declaration of the Netherlands or on its interplay with its
own reservation. It did not tell the Court the implications of the recipro- LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND.HICCINS) 586

24. Le critère de la compétence prima facie ne permet pas de se
contenter de prendre acte de l'existencede deux déclarations à ce stade.
Ce n'est pas ce qu'il faut déduire del'extrait de l'ordonnance que la Cour
rend au stade des mesures conservatoires dans l'affaireCameroun c.Nigé-
ria, quand elle dit que «les déclarations faites par les Parties conformé-
ment au paragraphe 2 de I'article 36 de son statut constitue prirnafacie

une base sur laquelle sa compétence pourrait être fondéeen Ikspèce»
(C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 21, par. 31). Le Nigéria souhaitait voir la
Cour revenir sur la règlede l'affaire duDroit de passage, parce que cela
avait une incidence sur l'interprétation donner à sa propre déclaration,
mais cette demande relevait manifestement de cette catégorie d'excep-
tions a la compétencefort complexes et lourdes de conséquencesdont il
fallait différertout examen véritablejusqu'au stade des exceptions préli-
minaires. Adoptant cette optique particulière, (et aussi parce que le prin-
cipe de l'affaire duDroit depassage étaitsolidement ancrédans sa juris-
prudence), la Cour a décidéde traiter entre-temps les déclarations en
question comme lui donnant compétence prima faiie.

25. Les mêmes principesdirecteurs s'appliquent aux traitéscensésfon-
der la juridiction de la Cour. C'est pourquoi plusieurs thèses complexes
présentéesau sujet de l'article IX de la convention sur le génociden'ont
pas été examinéeasu stade des mesures conservatoires lors des affairesde
1993relatives à l'Application de la convention sur le génocide;et c'est sur
cette toile de fond que la Cour a dit alors que l'article de la convention
semblait ((constituer une base sur laquelle la compétence de la Cour
pourrait êtrefondée)) (Application de la conventionpour lapréventionet
la répressiondu crime de génocide,mesures conservatoires, ordonnance
du 8 avril 1993, C.I.J. Recueil 1993,p. 16,et ordonnancedu 13 septembre
1993, ibid.,p. 342).

26. Mais il ne faudrait pas penser pour autant qu'il suffitd'invoquer
une clause juridictionnelle, sans plus, pour constituer en faveur de la
Cour une base de compétence prima facie. Il ne peut en être autrement
parce que la compétence de la Cour - quand bien mêmeon regretterait
cet étatde choses à la veille du XXIe siècle-repose sur le consentement.
Et le consentement à la compétencene peut pas être établif ,ût-ce prima
facie,quand ilressort clairement du texte mêmede la déclarationd'accep-
tation de la juridiction que ce consentement indispensable n'existe pas
prima Jucie, ou plus simplement encore, n'existe pas. Comme l'a dit sir
Hersch Lauter~acht dans son o~inion individuelle à l'issuede l'affaire de
l'lnterhandel, les critères de la compétenceprima ,fa& de la Cour sont

remplis quand il n'existe dans les instruments pertinents ((aucune réserve
excluant manifestement cette compétence)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 119).
Les réservespertinentes àcette fin sont à la fois celles qui figurent dans
la propre déclaration d'un Etat et celles sur lesquelles ledit Etat peut
compter par voie de réciprocité.
27. La Yougoslavie n'a formulé àl'intention de la Cour aucune conclu-
sion sur la déclaration faite par les Pays-Bas au titre de la clause facul-
tative ni sur le fait que cetteéclaration pourrait intervenir dans l'appli-city requirements in the Netherlands' declaration, when read together
with the clear terms of the Federal Republic's ownreservation. Nor did
the Netherlands rely reciprocally on Yugoslavia's declaration, no doubt
deeming that to be inconsistent with the position it took alleging the dec-
laration to be invalid. But the Court cannot fail to consider these matters,
and none of them is so obscure and complicated that it could not be dealt
with at this stage; and nor was that suggested by Yugoslavia.

28. As the Court stated in the Norwegian Loans case: "since two uni-
lateral declarations are involved [reciprocal] jurisdiction is conferred

upon the Court only to the extent to which the Declarations coincide in
conferring it" (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 23). And the Court
clearly stated in FisheriesJurisdiction (Spain v. Canada) that:

"Conditions or reservations thus do not by their terms derogate
from a wider acceptance already given. Rather, they operate to
define the parameters of the State's acceptance of the compulsory

jurisdiction of the Court." (I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 453, para. 44.)

Each of these dicta appears in the judgments on jurisdiction, these not
having been provisional measures cases. But a State seeking the introduc-
tion of provisional measures must show that jurisdiction prima facie
exists, notwithstanding conditions, reservations and the operation of reci-
procity between declarations.

29. The restraint upon the liberty of action of a State that necessarily
follows from the indication of provisional measures will not be counte-
nanced unless, prima facie, there isjurisdiction. But an absence of prima
facie jurisdiction at this stage and for this purpose does not necessarily
mean that jurisdiction may not, in the event, later be established. How-
ever, if in considering whether there is jurisdiction prima facie for pur-
poses of Article 41 of the Statute, it is clear beyond doubt that no juris-
diction exists in a particular case, good administration of justice requires
that the case be immediately struck off the List in limine.

30. Finally, it should not be thought that the Court, because it has had
to address the question of its prima faciejurisdiction in the case brought
by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, is indifferent to the great suffer-
ing in Kosovo and Yugoslavia. Indeed, the preambular paragraphs to its LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND.HIGGINS) 587

cation de sa propre réserve.La Yougoslavie n'a pas dit à la Cour quelles
incidences il fallait tirer de la condition de réciprocitéfigurant dans la
déclaration des Pays-Bas, quand on l'associe au texte très clair de la
réserveformuléepar la République fédéralede Yougoslavie elle-même.
De leur côté,les Pays-Bas n'ont pas tablépar voie de réciprocitésur la

déclaration yougoslave, estimant sans doute que celle-cin'étaitpas com-
patible avec la position adoptée par eux, qui est que la déclaration you-
goslave n'est pas valable. Mais la Cour ne peut pas s'abstenir de consi-
dérerces questions et aucune d'elles n'estàce point obscure et complexe
qu'elle ne puisse pas êtreexaminée àce stade; la Yougoslavie n'a pas non
plus laisséentendre que tel étaitle cas.
28. Comme la Cour l'a dit dans I'affaire de Certains emprunts norvé-
giens, quand «il s'agit de deux déclarations unilatérales..compétence
lui est conférée [parvoie de réciprocité] seulementdans la mesure où elles
coïncident pour la luiconférer))(arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 23). Dans
l'affaire de la Compétence en mati2re de pecheries (Espagne c. Canada),

la Cour a déclarénettement:
((lesconditions ou réserves,de par leur libellé,n'ont donc pas pour
effet de dérogerà une acceptation de caractère plus large déjàdon-
née. Elles serventplutôtà déterminerl'étenduede l'acceptation par
1'Etatde la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour. » (C.I.J. Recueil 1998,

p. 453, par.44.)
Chacun de ces prononcés, dela part de la Cour, figure dans des décisions
relatives à la compétence, car il ne s'agissait pas d'affaires relativeà
I'indication de mesures conservatoires. Mais ilfaut que I'Etat qui demande
à la Cour d'adopter des mesures conservatoires montre qu'elle estprima

jacie compétente, indépendammentdes conditions ou des réservesaccom-
pagnant les déclarations et du jeu de la réciprocitéd'une déclaration à
l'autre.
29. Les restrictionsà la liberté d'action d'un Etat qui accompagnent
obligatoirement I'indication de mesures conservatoires ne seront pas tolé-
rées à moins qu'il n'y ait compétenceprimafacie. Mais l'absence de com-
pétenceprima facie à ce stade età cette fin ne veut pas nécessairement
dire qu'il nesera pas possible, le cas échéant, d'étaultérieurementque
la Cour est compétente. Toutefois, si, quand on examine si la Cour est
compétenteprima facie aux fins de l'article 41 du Statut, il apparaît clai-
rement, sans l'ombre d'un doute, qu'elle n'est pas compétente pour

connaître d'une affaire donnée, la bonne administration de la justice
impose de rayer immédiatement l'affaire du rôle inlimine.

30. Un dernier mot: il ne faudrait pas non plus penser que, parce
qu'elle a dû examiner la question de sa compétenceprima facie dans
l'affaire introduite par la République fédéralede Yougoslavie, la Cour
reste indifférenteaux souffrances endurées par le Kosovo et par laYou-Order show otherwise. Nor does it seek to avoid making its contribution
to an elucidation of the heavily contested issuesof law. But the Court
take on its responsibilities within the United Nations system and use its
judicial authorityand creativity only when it has jurisdiction.case,
the Court's jurisdiction has yet to be established even prima facie.

(Signed R)osalyn HIGGINS.goslavie. Du reste, le préambule de son ordonnance montre que tel n'est
pas le cas. Elle ne cherche pas non pluséviterde participerà la solution
des problèmes de droit qui se posent et qui donnent lieu à d'intenses
débats.Mais la Cour ne peut assumer ses responsabilitésdans le cadre du
système desNations Unies et faire appel a son autorité età sa créativité

judiciaires que lorsqu'elle est compétente. Dans la présente affaire, la
compétence dela Cour est encore à établir, fût-cprima facir.

(Signé) Rosalyn HIGGINS.

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Separate opinion of Judge Higgins

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