Separate opinion of Judge Higgins

Document Number
112-19990602-ORD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
112-19990602-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE HIGGlNS

Limitations ratione temporis to declcirtrtion.~rnude un&r Artith 36. pura-
gruph 2, of'tl~c.Stutute - "Di.rputes" - "Situutions or Facts" - Rcciprocity
- "Conlinuing" rilents or vio1ution.sqf'laii- Primufac~i<ju~ristliction fbr pur-
poses of'Artic.le 41 dthe Stature - Mutters tu hc decideclut provisionul rneus-
Luesphase und muttcrs tu he reseri,ed,fOrmore tliorough later consirleration -
Two cilternative consequcrzcesof'an uhsencc of'prirircfrucir juri.sdic,tio- Judi-
cial trutl~orit~and cretrtii~idepcndcnt on jurisdiction.

1. Where one State has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court under
Article 36, paragraph 2,of the Statute with a limitation rrrtione ternpori.~
and the other State has accepted the jurisdiction without such a limita-
tion,

"nevertheless,as a consequenceof the condition of reciprocity stipulated
in paragraph 2 of Article 36 of the Statute of the Court, it is recognized

that this limitation holds good as between the Parties'"(Phospl~citesin
Morocto. Juclgtwent, 1938, P.C.I.J., Sc~riesAIB, No. 74, p. 22).

2. The declaration accepting the Court's compulsory jurisdiction made
by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 25 April 1999 states in part
that :

"1 hereby declare that the Government of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia recognizes, in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 2,
of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, as compulsory
ipso ,/ucto and without special agreement, in relation to any other

State accepting the same obligation, that is on condition of recipro-
city, the jurisdiction of the said Court in al1disputes arising or which
may arise after the signature of the present Declaration, with regard
to the situations or facts subsequent to this signature, except in cases
where the parties have agreed or shall agree to have recourse to

another procedure or to another method of pacifie settlement . . ."

This follows, with a small variation, the well-known so-called "Belgian
declaration" of 1925 by which any retrospective jurisdiction of the Court
ratione trrnporis was precluded both as to disputes and as to situations
and facts.

3. The declaration made by Spain contains no such limitation,
but it applies inter se to identify the scope ratione temporis of theCourt's jurisdiction, for the reason set out in paragraph 1 of this
opinion.
4. It may, of course, be the case that, while the dispute has clearly
arisen subsequent to the critical date for jurisdiction, the situations or
facts giving rise to the dispute appear to have occurred before that date.

That was exactly the situation in the Phosphates in Morocco case, where
the Permanent Court addressed the possibility that acts "accomplished
after the crucial date", when "taken in conjunction with earlier acts to
which they are closely linked, constitute as a whole a single, continuing
and progressive illegal act which was not fully accomplished until after
the crucial date" (P11o.vphate.s in Morocco, Judgment, 1938, P. C.I.J..

Seriijs AIB, No. 74, p. 23). Equally, there exists the possibility that acts
carried out prior to the crucial date "nevertheless gave rise to a perma-
nent situation inconsistent with international law which has continued to
exist after thesaid date" (ihirl.). This latter eventuality is indeed reflected
in the International Law Commission's Draft Article 25 on State Respon-
sibility (Yeuvhook of'the Irzter~zurionulLuir Colnnzission, Vol. II,Part II,
p. 80).

5. It is not the Court alone which has had to formulate jurisprudence
on the concept of "continuing events": so has the European Court of
Human Rights (see Yagciand Sargin v. Turkej~.European Huniun Riglzfs
Reports, 1995, p. 505); and so also has the Human Rights Committee
(see Guyi)et ul. v. Frunce, No. 19611985,3 April 1989,35th Session); and

Sitnint~kv. The Czcch Repuhlic (No. 51611992,3 1July 1995,54th Session).

6. The Court gave its own answers to this issue in Plzosphutes in
Morocco. It explained that the problem of whether there were "continu-
ing events" that gave rise to a cause of action after the crucial date must

be examined in the particular context of each case. But two factors
always have to be borne in mind: the first is that

"it is necessary always to bear in mind the will of the State which
only accepted the compulsory jurisdiction within specified limits,
and consequently only intended to submit to that jurisdiction dis-
putes having actually arisen from situations or F~ts subsequent to
its acceptance" (Pliosphutrs in Morocco, Juclgrncnt, 1938. P.C.I.J.,
Scrirs AIB, No. 74, p. 24).

And second, it was necessary to see if the facts were merely a necessary
and logical consequence of earlier ones which were barred from scrutiny
by the temporal reservation. On the particular facts of the Pho~pI~ute.~

case, the Court found that the cited facts and situations could not be
viewed as "a final step and crowning point" of the earlier events (ihicl.,
p. 26) nor did they "alter the situation which had already been estab-lished" (P.C.I.J., SeriesAIB, No. 74,p. 27). Nor could they be separated

from those that had arisen before the crucial date.

7. That this particular jurisdictional problem, as any other, requires
close attention to be givento the intention of the State issuing its declara-
tion with limitations or reservations was stated by the Permanent Court
in the Phosphutes in Morocco case and recently affirmed by this Court in
case of Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of' the
Court, Ji~dgment (I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 454, para. 49). 1tis striking that
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia did not advance arguments before
the Court suggestingeither continuing events or a continuing dispute (the

latter not having been an issue in Pho.splzatesin Morocco). It squarely
based itself on a dispute it perceived as arising, and situations and facts
that it perceived as occurring, after the crucial date of 25 April. It did not
wish any dispute there may have been between itself and Spain prior to
25 April to be subject to the Court's jurisdiction, nor any situations and
facts relating to such dispute; which element may be thought to have
been covered by Article 1 (hl of Spain's owndeclaration. That was the
intention of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and it was clear. But
within that intent there was also a hope - the hope that there could be
identified a dispute that arose only afrrr 25 April. Certainly there were
events, occurring after 25 April, that were the subject of the Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia's complaint (though these were not specifiedby
date or in any detail). But the Court has not been able to see a dispute
arising only after 25 April. The claim that aerial bombing by NATO, and
NATO States, was illegal,was made in the Security Council on 24 March
and 26 March. and rebutted there. The conditions specified in the Mai,-
rommatis case (Mavrommutis Palestine C~nces~sions,Judgment No. 2,
1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2) for the existence of a dispute were thus
met at that time.

8. No doubt the continuation of the bombing and the targets hit after
25 April has aggravated and intensified the dispute. But every aerial bom-
bardment subsequent to 25 April does not constitute a new dispute. In
short, there are situations and facts occurring subsequent to the crucial
date, but there is not at the present time a dispute urisingsubsequent to
that date. In effectively realizing the intention (which the Court must
respect) of its declaration, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not
able also to realize its hope. Its declaration accordingly fails to invest the
Court with jurisdiction. 9. Of course, in thePhosphates in Morocco case the Court was address-
ing temporal limits at the phase of preliminary objections. But because
the Court must be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, at least prima facie,

before consideringwhether the conditions of Article 41 of the Statute are
met for the indication of interim measures of protection, the question
must be dealt with here at this stage, albeit on a provisional basis.

10. Complex issues arise for the Court in satisfying itself that it has a
jurisdiction at least sufficienttoconsider indicating provisional measures
under Article 41 of the Statute.

II. Minimal guidance is provided in the Statute and in the Rules of
Court as to legal requirements relating to the indication of provisional
measures. Article 41 of the Statute merely provides that the Court "shall

have the power to indicate, if it considers that circumstances so require,
any provisional measures which ought to be taken to preserve the respec-
tive rights of either party". This shows both the function of interim meas-
ures and the fact that the Court has a discretion as to their indication -
but nothing else. The Rules of Procedure in their successiveversions have
provided little guidance on the application of Article 41 of the Statute,
with those of 1936and 1978reflecting the most significant developments
in the practice (for details, see Guyomar, Cornnientaire du Reglement de
lu Cour International de Justice, 2nd ed.). lt has been through the case
law of the Court that the many different legal elements relating to pro-
visional measures have evolved (no interim judgment to be given: case

concerning the Facfory at C/~orztiit.,P.C.1.J., Series A, No. 12; nexus
between rights to be protected and the measures sought: Legal Statzts of
the South-Eastern Territory of Greenland, P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 48;
Polish Agrarian Rejorm and Germun Minority, P.C. I.J.. Series AIB,
No. 58; meaning of the protection of the rights of the parties; the ques-
tion of extension and aggravation of the dispute: Electricity Company of
Soja and Bulgaria, P. C. IJ., Series AIE, No. 79.

12. It is equally through its case law that the Court has had to address
the jurisdictional problems that arise when a request for the indication of

provisional measures is made before the Court has definitively estab-
lished its jurisdiction in a case.
13. In the Anglo-lrarzian Oil Co. case, the Court stated that, because
"it cannot be accepted a priori" that the claim "falls completely outside
the scope of international jurisdiction" the Court could entertain the
request for interim measures of protection (Interim Protection, Order uf
5 July 1951, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 93). At the same time, the Court
noted that the indication of such measures "in no way prejudges the
question of the jurisdiction of the Court to deal with the merits of the
case and leaves unaffected the right of the Respondent to submit argu-
ments against such jurisdiction" (ihid.).
14. This latter statement of the consequences for subsequent phases ofan Order for interim measures has remained essentially unchanged over
the years. However, the jurisdictional pre-requisites for the issuance of

interim measures of protection have undergone important developments
in thejurisprudence. Indeed, thedebate had already been heavily engaged
within the Anglo-lruniun Oil Co. case itself. In their dissenting opinions,
Judges Winiarski and Badawi Pasha viewed the Court as finding that it
was competent to indicate interim measures of protection "if prima facie
the total lack of jurisdiction of the Court is not patent, that is . .. there
is a possibility, however remote, that the Court may be competent"
(I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 97). But observing that interim measures of pro-
tection were in international law even more exceptional than in municipal
law, as they were "a scarcely tolerable interference in the affairs of a sov-
ereign State", they ought not to be indicated unless the Court's jurisdic-

tion was "reasonably probable".

15. In Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdorn v. Ireland), the Court
refined the formula. stating that when considering a request for the indi-
cation of provisional measures, it had no need "finally to satisfy itself
that it has jurisdiction on the merits of the case, yet it ought not to act
under Article 41 of the Statute if the absence ofjurisdiction on the merits
is manifest" (Interim Profection, Order uf 17 August 1972,1.C.J. Reports
1972, p. 15).
16. In the Nuclear Tests case (1973), France insisted that the Court

was "manifestly not competent in the case". The Court, departing in part
from the formula it had used the year before in the Fisheries Jurisdiction
case, stated that it "need not .. .finally satisfy itself that it has jurisdic-
tion on the merits of the case", but that it ought not to indicate provi-
sional measures "unless the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear,
prima facie, to afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court might
be founded" (Nucleur Tests (Austrulia v. Fruncej, Interim Protection,
Order 91'22 June 1973, 1.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 101).In none of the next
three provisional measures cases (Trial of' Pakistutzi Pri.soner of War,
Order O/ 13 July 1973, 1.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 328; Aegean Seu Conti-
nental Shelf: Order qf 11 Septernber 1976, I.C. J. report.^ 1976, p. 3;

United States Diplomufic and Consulur Stuff in Trlzrun, Order of
17 Deceunber 1979, I.C.J. Reports 1979, p. 7) was the question of juris-
diction the main basis for the order.

17. In Militury und Paramilitury Activities in und against Nicarugua,
Provisiorzal me usure.^ (Order of 10 May 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984,
p. 179)the Court came back to the issue, repeating the exact formula of
the Nuclrar Tests case. That formula is now firmly established (Arbitral
A~t.urdof31 July 1989, Provisional Mrusurrs, Order of2 March 1990.
I.C.J. Reports 1990, pp. 68-69; Pussage through the Great Belt (Finland803 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. HIGGINS)

v. Denmark), Provisional me usure.^,Order of29 July 1991, 1.C.J. Reports
1991. p. 17; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of the Critne of Genocide, Provisional Measures, Order of8 April
1993, 1.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 11, and Order of'13 Septemher 1993, ibid.,

pp. 16-17; Lund und Maritime Bouncklry betiveetz Cameroon and Nigeriu,
Provisional Measures, Order of15 Murch 1996, 1.C.J. Reports 1996 (I),
p. 12; Vienna Convention on Consular Re1ution.s ( Paraguay v. United
States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of'9 April 1998, 1.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 255, para. 23: and LaCrand, Provisional me usure.^,
Order of 3 March 1999, 1C. J.Reports 1999, p. 13, para. 13).

18. Thus a party seeking the indication of provisional measures must
show a prima facie basis upon which the Court's jurisdiction in the case
might be founded. That being said, several questions (which have a par-
ticular relevance in the present case) remain. What is sufficient to show
the required "prima facie" basis for jurisdiction? And what jurisdictional
matters will the Court look at, as necessary for this purpose, at the pro-

visional measures stage, and what will it reserve for any further hearings
on jurisdiction?

19. It is the practice of the Court that weighty and complex arguments
relating to its jurisdiction will not usually be addressed at the provisional
measures phase but rather will be regarded as appropriate for resolution

only at the preliminary objections phase. The Co-Agent of the Swiss
Government in the Interhundc>lcase suggested that the Court would not
wish, at the interim measures phase, to adjudicate"upon so complex and
delicate a question as the validity of the American reservation" (lnter-
handel, Interiln Protection, Order 01 '4 Octoher 1957, 1.C.J. Reports
1957, p. 111). The Court, there being able to base its refusa1 to indicate

provisional measures on other grounds, gave no answer to this question.
In the Nucleur Te.rtscase of 1973,Australia advanced detailed arguments
alleging the continued validity and applicability of the General Act of
1928as a separate basis forjurisdiction. Without distinguishing the Gen-
eral Act from Article 36 of the Statute, the Court satisfied itself with say-
ing that "the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear, prima facie, to
afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded"

(Nuclecrr Tests (Awtrulia v. France), Int~rinz Protcc>tion. Oru'er of'
22 Junr 1973, I. C.J. Reports 1973, p. 102).

20. In the Militury and Puramilitury Activities in and uguinst Nicura-
guu case (1984), the Court was faced, at the provisional measures stage,
with very complicated arguments relating both to the legal effect of the
United States declaration of 6 April 1984 and to the apparent failure of

Nicaragua to have deposited an instrument of ratification of the protocol
to bring its adherence to the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna-tional Justice into effect. The Court briefly recounted the legal problems
associated with each of these provisions and stated that it:

"will not now make anv final determination of the auestion of the
present validity or invalidity of the declaration of '24 September
1929,and the question whether or not Nicaragua accordingly was or
was not, for thepurpose of Article 36,paragraph 2, of the Statute of
the Court a 'State accepting the same obligation' as the United
States of America at the date of filingof the Application, so as to be
able to rely on the United States declaration of 26 August 1946,nor
of the question whether, as a result of the declaration of 6 April
1984, the present Application is excluded from the scope of the
acceptance by the United States of the compulsory jurisdiction of
the Court .. ." (Order ofIO Muy 1984, I.C. J. Reports 1984, p. 180).

The Court satisfied itself with saying that "the two declarations do
nevertheless appear to afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the
Court might be founded" (ihid.).
21. In the present case the Court has also not made any final determi-
nation upon the question of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's status
or otherwise as a Member of the United Nations and thus as a party to
the Statute having the right to make a declaration under Article 36, para-

graph 2, thereof. This is clearly a matter of the greatest complexity and
importance and was, understandably, not the subject of comprehensive
and systematic submissions in the recent oral hearings on provisional
measures.
22. Of course, just as with the question of Nicaragua's ratification of
its adherence to the Statute of the Permanent Court in the Military and
Parumilitary Activitie.~in and against Nicaragua case, it might be thought
that the status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a necessary
"préalable" to everything else. But when dealing with provisional meas-
ures the Court is faced with unavoidable tensions between the demands
of logic and the inability to determine with finality when operating under
urgency in response to a request for provisional measures. The opera-
tional principle is that matters of deep complexity will if possible be left
to one side in determining the prima facie jurisdiction of the Court for
purposes of Article 41.

23. In the Nuclem Tests cases and in the Militury und Paratnilitary
Activitiescase, the Court equally held over certain arguments relating to
declarations under the Statute. By contrast, the Court in this case has
addressed, for purposes of provisional measures, both the terms of the
declarations of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Spain and the
interaction of the declarations of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and
Spain. 24. The prima facie test of jurisdiction does not make it sufficient
merely to note the very existence of two declarations at this stage. This is
not to be deduced from the statement of the Court in the Cumeroon
v. Nigeria provisional measures case that "the declarations made by the

Parties in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 2,of the Statute con-
stitute a prima facie basis upon which its jurisdiction in the present
case might be founded" (1. C.J. Reports 1996 (Il, p. 21, para. 31). The
Nigerian request for a reconsideration of the rule in the Rights of'
Pu,s.sugecase, as it bore on the interpretation of its own declaration,
clearly fell into that category of complex and weighty objections to juris-

diction that had to be deferred for proper consideration until the prelimi-
nary objections phase. In that particular light (and because the Rights
oj' Pussuge principle was well established in the Court's case law), the
declarations would in the meantime be treated as establishingprima facie
jurisdiction.

25. The same guiding principles apply to treaties said to provide a
basis for the Court's jurisdiction. Thus the several complicated argu-
ments that had been advanced in connection with Article IX of the Geno-
cide Convention were not addressed in the provisional measures phase of
the Genocidr case of 1993; and it was against that background that the

Court said that Article IX of the Convention appeared to "afford a basis
on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded" (Application of'
the Convention on thc Prevention und Punishment ig'the Crime uf'Geno-
cide, Provisional me usure.^, Order of 8 April 1993, I. C.J. Reports 1993.
p. 16;and 0rtlc.r of 13 Septemher 1993, 1.C. J. Reports 1993, p. 342).

26. But it should not be thought that mere invocation of a jurisdic-
tional clause, with nothing more, suffices to establish a prima facie basis
of the Court's jurisdiction. It cannot be otherwise, because the jurisdic-
tion of the Court - even if one might regret this state of affairs as we
approach the twenty-first century -- is based on consent. And consent to

jurisdiction cannot be established, even prima facie, when it is clear from
the terms of the declarations themselves that the necessary consent is not
prima facie present, or simply is not present, .simpliciter. As Sir Hersch
Lauterpacht put it in his separate opinion in the Interhundel case, the test
of jurisdiction of the Court prima facie is met if, in the relevant instru-
ments, there are "no reservations obviously excluding its jurisdiction"

(1.C.J. Reports 1957, pp. 118- 119).Reservations relevant for this purpose
areboth those in a State's own declaration and those that it may rely on
reciprocally.

27. Yugoslavia made no submission at al1to the Court on either the
Optional Clausedeclaration of Spain or on its interplay with itsown reser-

vation. It did not explain why the provisions of Article 1 (e) of the dec-laration of Spain did not exclude the jurisdiction of the Court on
the particular facts of this case. But the Court cannot fail to consider
these matters, and none of them is so obscure and complicated that it

could not be dealt with at this stage; and nor was that suggested by
Y ugoslavia.

28. As the Court stated in the Norii~egiunLouns case: "since two
unilateral declarations are involved [reciprocal] jurisdiction is conferred
upon the Court only to the extent to which the Declarations coincide in

conferring it" (Judgrnent, I.C.J. Reports 1957. p. 23). And the Court
clearly stated inFishcriesJurisdiction (Spuin v. Cunudu) that:

"Conditions or reservations thus do not by their terms derogate
from a wider acceptance already given. Rather, they operate to
define the parameters of the State's acceptance of the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court." (I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 453, para. 44.)

Each of these dicta appears in the judgments 011jurisdiction, these not
having been provisional measures cases. But a State seeking the introduc-
tion of provisional measures must show that jurisdiction prima facie
exists, notwithstanding conditions, reservations and the operation of reci-

procity between declarations.

29. The restraint upon the liberty of action of a State that necessarily
follows from the indication of ~rovisional measures will not be counte-
nanced unless, prima facie, there isjurisdiction. But an absence of prima
facie jurisdiction at this stage and for this purpose does not necessarily

mean that jurisdiction may not, in the event. later be established. How-
ever, if in considering whether there is jurisdiction prima facie for pur-
poses of Article 41 of the Statute, it is clear beyond doubt that no juris-
diction exists in a particular case, good administration of justice requires
that the case be immediately struck off the List in limine.

30. Finally. it should not be thought that the Court, because it has had
to address the question of its prima faciejurisdiction in the case brought
by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. is indifferent to the great suffer-

ing in Kosovo and Yugoslavia. Indeed, the preambular paragraphs to its
Order show otherwise. Nor does it seek to avoid making its contribution
toan elucidation of the heavily contested issues of law. But the Court can
take on its responsibilities within the United Nations system and use itsjudicial authority and creativity only when it hasjurisdiction. In this case,
the Court's jurisdiction has yet to be established even prima facie.

(Signed) Rosalyn HIGGINS.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE HIGGlNS

Limitations ratione temporis to declcirtrtion.~rnude un&r Artith 36. pura-
gruph 2, of'tl~c.Stutute - "Di.rputes" - "Situutions or Facts" - Rcciprocity
- "Conlinuing" rilents or vio1ution.sqf'laii- Primufac~i<ju~ristliction fbr pur-
poses of'Artic.le 41 dthe Stature - Mutters tu hc decideclut provisionul rneus-
Luesphase und muttcrs tu he reseri,ed,fOrmore tliorough later consirleration -
Two cilternative consequcrzcesof'an uhsencc of'prirircfrucir juri.sdic,tio- Judi-
cial trutl~orit~and cretrtii~idepcndcnt on jurisdiction.

1. Where one State has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court under
Article 36, paragraph 2,of the Statute with a limitation rrrtione ternpori.~
and the other State has accepted the jurisdiction without such a limita-
tion,

"nevertheless,as a consequenceof the condition of reciprocity stipulated
in paragraph 2 of Article 36 of the Statute of the Court, it is recognized

that this limitation holds good as between the Parties'"(Phospl~citesin
Morocto. Juclgtwent, 1938, P.C.I.J., Sc~riesAIB, No. 74, p. 22).

2. The declaration accepting the Court's compulsory jurisdiction made
by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 25 April 1999 states in part
that :

"1 hereby declare that the Government of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia recognizes, in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 2,
of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, as compulsory
ipso ,/ucto and without special agreement, in relation to any other

State accepting the same obligation, that is on condition of recipro-
city, the jurisdiction of the said Court in al1disputes arising or which
may arise after the signature of the present Declaration, with regard
to the situations or facts subsequent to this signature, except in cases
where the parties have agreed or shall agree to have recourse to

another procedure or to another method of pacifie settlement . . ."

This follows, with a small variation, the well-known so-called "Belgian
declaration" of 1925 by which any retrospective jurisdiction of the Court
ratione trrnporis was precluded both as to disputes and as to situations
and facts.

3. The declaration made by Spain contains no such limitation,
but it applies inter se to identify the scope ratione temporis of the OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE Mm'HIGGINS

Limitations ratione temporis des dkclarations ,faites au titre (le l'article 36,
paragraplze 2, du Stutut - «Diflerends)) -- (Situutiun.~ou,faits» - Récipro-
citk - Evénements ((continus)) ou violations (lu droit - Compétence prima
facie a~lx,fitzsde I'rirticlr41 du Statu- Questions ù trancher lors de la phase
des mesures con~ervutoires et questions Ù réseri3erÙ un e.uamen ultkrieur plus
upprofondi - Deu.u(.onséquencessousJbrmr c/'alternatii~edu clkjaut tic.cornpé-
ren(,rprima facie - L'~iutorité(lemémcque /rcrkati~~itjurlicitrirey cintribu-
rliires deItrc~onipétenc,e.

1. Quand un Etat a acceptéla juridiction de la Cour en vertu de I'ar-

ticle 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut, sous réserved'une limitation ratione
ternporis et que l'autre Etat a accepté la juridiction de la Cour sans
joindre de limitation de cet ordre,

«il est [néanmoins]reconnu que, par l'effet de la condition de réci-
procité,inscrite au paragraphe 2 de l'article 36,du Statut de la Cour,
cette limitation fait droit entre les Parties)) (Phosphute.~ du Muroc,
rrrrêt1938, C.P.J.I. série AIB no 74, p. 22).

2. Dans la déclaration par laquelle elle accepte la juridiction obliga-
toire de la Cour, la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie dit notamment,
le 25 avril 1999 :

«Je déclare par la présente que le Gouvernement de la Répu-
blique fédéralede Yougoslavie, conformément au paragraphe 2
de l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice, recon-

naît comme obligatoire de plein droit et sans convention spéciale,
à l'égardde tout autre Etat acceptant la mêmeobligation, c'est-
à-dire sous condition de réciprocité.la juridiction de la Cour pour
tous les différends, surgissant ou pouvant surgir après la signature
de la présente déclaration, qui ont trait a des situations ou à des

faits postérieurs à ladite signature, à l'exception des affaires pour
lesquelles les parties ont convenu ou conviendront d'avoir recours
a une autre procédure ou à une autre méthode de règlement paci-
fique..))

A une légèrevariatioii près,ce texte suit un précédent bienconnu, le texte
de ce qu'on appelle «la déclaration belge» de 1925, qui exclut ratione
temporis toute compétence rétroactive dela Cour, tant pour les diffé-
rends que pour les situations et les faits.

3. La déclaration d'acceptation del'Espagne ne contient pas de limita-
tion de ce type, mais celle-cis'applique entre les Parties pour déterminerCourt's jurisdiction, for the reason set out in paragraph 1 of this
opinion.
4. It may, of course, be the case that, while the dispute has clearly
arisen subsequent to the critical date for jurisdiction, the situations or
facts giving rise to the dispute appear to have occurred before that date.

That was exactly the situation in the Phosphates in Morocco case, where
the Permanent Court addressed the possibility that acts "accomplished
after the crucial date", when "taken in conjunction with earlier acts to
which they are closely linked, constitute as a whole a single, continuing
and progressive illegal act which was not fully accomplished until after
the crucial date" (P11o.vphate.s in Morocco, Judgment, 1938, P. C.I.J..

Seriijs AIB, No. 74, p. 23). Equally, there exists the possibility that acts
carried out prior to the crucial date "nevertheless gave rise to a perma-
nent situation inconsistent with international law which has continued to
exist after thesaid date" (ihirl.). This latter eventuality is indeed reflected
in the International Law Commission's Draft Article 25 on State Respon-
sibility (Yeuvhook of'the Irzter~zurionulLuir Colnnzission, Vol. II,Part II,
p. 80).

5. It is not the Court alone which has had to formulate jurisprudence
on the concept of "continuing events": so has the European Court of
Human Rights (see Yagciand Sargin v. Turkej~.European Huniun Riglzfs
Reports, 1995, p. 505); and so also has the Human Rights Committee
(see Guyi)et ul. v. Frunce, No. 19611985,3 April 1989,35th Session); and

Sitnint~kv. The Czcch Repuhlic (No. 51611992,3 1July 1995,54th Session).

6. The Court gave its own answers to this issue in Plzosphutes in
Morocco. It explained that the problem of whether there were "continu-
ing events" that gave rise to a cause of action after the crucial date must

be examined in the particular context of each case. But two factors
always have to be borne in mind: the first is that

"it is necessary always to bear in mind the will of the State which
only accepted the compulsory jurisdiction within specified limits,
and consequently only intended to submit to that jurisdiction dis-
putes having actually arisen from situations or F~ts subsequent to
its acceptance" (Pliosphutrs in Morocco, Juclgrncnt, 1938. P.C.I.J.,
Scrirs AIB, No. 74, p. 24).

And second, it was necessary to see if the facts were merely a necessary
and logical consequence of earlier ones which were barred from scrutiny
by the temporal reservation. On the particular facts of the Pho~pI~ute.~

case, the Court found that the cited facts and situations could not be
viewed as "a final step and crowning point" of the earlier events (ihicl.,
p. 26) nor did they "alter the situation which had already been estab-la portée ratione temporis de lajuridiction de la Cour. pour la raison que
j'expose au paragraphe 1 ci-dessus.
4. Il peut évidemment arriver que, mêmesi le différend a manifeste-

ment surgi postérieurement à la date critique pour l'attribution de la
compétence, les situations ou les faits qui sont à l'origine du différend
paraissent êtreantérieurs à cette date. Ce fut là exactement la situation
dans I'affaire des Phosphates du Maroc où la Cour permanente a analysé
la possibilité que des actes «accomplis après la date critique)), lorsqu'ils
sont «mis en rapport avec des faits antérieurs auxquels ils sont intime-

ment unis ...constjt~ient dans leur ensemble un seul fait illicite continu et
progressif, qui n'est arrivé à sa perfection qu'après la date critique))
(Phosphutes iiu Maroc,, arret, 1938, C.P.J.I. sérieAIB no 74, p. 23). De
même,il est possible que certains faits, bien que réalisésà une époque
antérieure à la date critique «donne[nt] naissance à une situation perma-
nente contraire au droit international ... qui s'est prolongée au-delà de

cette date)) (ihid.). D'ailleurs, la Commission du droit international tient
compte de cette dernière éventualitédans son projet d'article 25 sur la
responsabilité des Etats (Annuaire de lu Commission du droit internutio-
nul, vol. II,deuxième partie, p. 101).
5. La Cour n'est pas seule à avoir dû constituer une jurisprudence sur
la notion d'«événementcontinu)) ou de «fait ayant un caractère de conti-

nuité)): la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme a dû en faire autant
(voir I'affaire Yagci et Sargin c. Turquie, Recueil de juri.sprudenc~d~ [lu
Cour europkrnne des droits de l'homme, 1995, p. 505); et le Comité des
droits de l'homme a également dû en faire autant (voir Guye et al.
c. France, communication no 19611985, 3 avril 1989,trente-cinquième ses-
sion); et Sinzinek c. 10République tchèque(communication no 51611992,

3l juillet 1995, cinquante-quatrième session).
6. La Cour a donnéses propres réponses àcette question dans l'affaire
des Phosphures du hfuroc. Elle a expliqué qu'il faut examiner dans le
cadre particulier de chaque affaire le problème de savoir s'il existe des
((événementscontinus))qui sont à l'origine de l'action intentée postérieu-
rement à la date critique. Mais il y a deux élémentsà ne jamais oublier.

Le premier est que:
«il faut toutefois garder toujours présente à l'esprit la volonté de

I'Etat qui, n'ayant accepté la juridiction obligatoire que dans cer-
taines limites, n'a entendu y soumettre que les seuls différends qui
sont réellement nésde situations ou de faits postérieurs à son ac-
ceptation)) (Phorphutes du Muroc., urrer, 1938, C.P.J.I. série AIB
no 74, p. 24).

Et le second élémentest qu'il faut voir si les faits sont simplement une
conséquencenécessaireet logique de faits antérieursque la réserved'ordre
temporel a empêché d'examiner. S'agissant des faits particuliers de
l'affaire des Pho.sphutes du Muroc, la Cour a estiméque les faits et les

situations invoquées ne pouvaient pas ètre considéréscomme ttle terme
final etle couronnement)) des événementsantérieurs (ihid., p. 26) et qu'ilslished" (P.C.I.J., SeriesAIB, No. 74,p. 27). Nor could they be separated

from those that had arisen before the crucial date.

7. That this particular jurisdictional problem, as any other, requires
close attention to be givento the intention of the State issuing its declara-
tion with limitations or reservations was stated by the Permanent Court
in the Phosphutes in Morocco case and recently affirmed by this Court in
case of Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of' the
Court, Ji~dgment (I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 454, para. 49). 1tis striking that
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia did not advance arguments before
the Court suggestingeither continuing events or a continuing dispute (the

latter not having been an issue in Pho.splzatesin Morocco). It squarely
based itself on a dispute it perceived as arising, and situations and facts
that it perceived as occurring, after the crucial date of 25 April. It did not
wish any dispute there may have been between itself and Spain prior to
25 April to be subject to the Court's jurisdiction, nor any situations and
facts relating to such dispute; which element may be thought to have
been covered by Article 1 (hl of Spain's owndeclaration. That was the
intention of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and it was clear. But
within that intent there was also a hope - the hope that there could be
identified a dispute that arose only afrrr 25 April. Certainly there were
events, occurring after 25 April, that were the subject of the Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia's complaint (though these were not specifiedby
date or in any detail). But the Court has not been able to see a dispute
arising only after 25 April. The claim that aerial bombing by NATO, and
NATO States, was illegal,was made in the Security Council on 24 March
and 26 March. and rebutted there. The conditions specified in the Mai,-
rommatis case (Mavrommutis Palestine C~nces~sions,Judgment No. 2,
1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2) for the existence of a dispute were thus
met at that time.

8. No doubt the continuation of the bombing and the targets hit after
25 April has aggravated and intensified the dispute. But every aerial bom-
bardment subsequent to 25 April does not constitute a new dispute. In
short, there are situations and facts occurring subsequent to the crucial
date, but there is not at the present time a dispute urisingsubsequent to
that date. In effectively realizing the intention (which the Court must
respect) of its declaration, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not
able also to realize its hope. Its declaration accordingly fails to invest the
Court with jurisdiction. LICÉITE DE L.'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. HIGGINS) 800

ne «modifi[aient] aucunement l'étatde choses créé à cet égard))par les
événementsantérieurs (C.P. J.I.skrieAIB n" 74, p. 27). Il n'était pasnon
plus possible de séparer les faits et les situations invoquésde ceux qui

étaientantérieurs à la date critique.
7. La Cour permanente a donc déclarédans l'affaire des Phosphutes du
Muroc que ce problème particulier de compétence impose, comme
n'importe quel autre problème dans ce domaine, de considéreravec soin
l'intention de1'Etatqui assortit sa déclaration d'acceptation de la juridic-
tion de la Cour de certaines limitations ou réserves etla Cour actuelle l'a
récetninentaffirmé aussidans l'affaire de la Compétence en matière de
pr^c.horiesfEspugnc r. Cunudu) , compétence de lu Cour, urrLît, (C.1J.
Rcctreil1998. p. 454, par. 49). Il est étonnantque la Yougoslavie n'ait pas
plaidédevant la Cour soit lecaractèrecontinu de certains événements, soit

le caractère continu du différend (cedernier point n'ayant pas fait pro-
blèmedans l'affaire des Phosphutes du Muror). La Yougoslavie s'est fer-
mement appuyée sur un différend perçucomme ayant surgi et sur des
situations et des faits perçus comme s'étantproduits après la date critique
du 25 avril. La Yougoslavie ne voulait pas que tout différendqui aurait
pu exister entre elle-mêmeet l'Espagne antérieurementau 25 avril relève
de la compétencede la Cour, non plus que certaines situations et certains
faits en rapport avec ce différend, éléments susceptibleds'être couverts
par l'alinéa b) de l'article 1 de la déclaration de l'Espagne. C'était là
l'intention de la Yougoslavie et cette intention était claire. Mais cette
intention renfermait aussi Linespoir - l'espoir qu'il serait possibled'éta-

blir l'existenced'un différendqui n'aurait surgi que postBrieurement au
25 avril. Certes, il s'est produit postérieurement au 25 avril des événe-
ments qui font bien l'objet de la plainte de la Yougoslavie (encore que ces
événements n'aient pas étédéfinispar leur date ni par des détails). Maisla
Cour n'a pas étéen mesure de constater la présenced'un différendqui
n'aurait surgi que postérieurementau 25 avril. La plainte suivant laquelle
les bombardements aériensde l'OTAN et des Etats membres de l'OTAN
étaientillicitesa étéformuléeau Conseil de sécuritéles 24 et 26 mars et a
étérécusée au Conseil. Lesconditions àréunirpour qu'existe un différend
telles qu'elles ont étédéfiniesdans l'affaire Muvrornmatis (Conces.sion.s
1924, C.P.J.Z. ,sérieA no2) ont
Mui~romtnutisen Pule.stine. urrêtno 2,
donc étéréunies a ce moment-lë.
8. Incontestablement, la poursuite des bombardements et les frappes
atteignant leurs objectifs postérieurement au 25 avril ont aggravé et
intensifiéle différend. Mais chacun des bombardements aériens posté-
rieurs au 25 avril ne constitue pas un différendnouveau. En résumé,il y
a des situations et des faits qui se produisent postérieurement à la date
critique, mais il n'existe pas actuellement de différend en truin de surgir
postérieurement à cette date. Tout en concrétisant bien l'intention mise
daris sa déclaration d'acceptation (intention que la Cour se doit de res-
pecter), la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie n'a pas étéen mesure de
concrétiseren outre l'espoir qu'elle y mettait aussi. En conséquence, sa

déclaration ne donne pas compétence ë la Cour. 9. Of course, in thePhosphates in Morocco case the Court was address-
ing temporal limits at the phase of preliminary objections. But because
the Court must be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, at least prima facie,

before consideringwhether the conditions of Article 41 of the Statute are
met for the indication of interim measures of protection, the question
must be dealt with here at this stage, albeit on a provisional basis.

10. Complex issues arise for the Court in satisfying itself that it has a
jurisdiction at least sufficienttoconsider indicating provisional measures
under Article 41 of the Statute.

II. Minimal guidance is provided in the Statute and in the Rules of
Court as to legal requirements relating to the indication of provisional
measures. Article 41 of the Statute merely provides that the Court "shall

have the power to indicate, if it considers that circumstances so require,
any provisional measures which ought to be taken to preserve the respec-
tive rights of either party". This shows both the function of interim meas-
ures and the fact that the Court has a discretion as to their indication -
but nothing else. The Rules of Procedure in their successiveversions have
provided little guidance on the application of Article 41 of the Statute,
with those of 1936and 1978reflecting the most significant developments
in the practice (for details, see Guyomar, Cornnientaire du Reglement de
lu Cour International de Justice, 2nd ed.). lt has been through the case
law of the Court that the many different legal elements relating to pro-
visional measures have evolved (no interim judgment to be given: case

concerning the Facfory at C/~orztiit.,P.C.1.J., Series A, No. 12; nexus
between rights to be protected and the measures sought: Legal Statzts of
the South-Eastern Territory of Greenland, P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 48;
Polish Agrarian Rejorm and Germun Minority, P.C. I.J.. Series AIB,
No. 58; meaning of the protection of the rights of the parties; the ques-
tion of extension and aggravation of the dispute: Electricity Company of
Soja and Bulgaria, P. C. IJ., Series AIE, No. 79.

12. It is equally through its case law that the Court has had to address
the jurisdictional problems that arise when a request for the indication of

provisional measures is made before the Court has definitively estab-
lished its jurisdiction in a case.
13. In the Anglo-lrarzian Oil Co. case, the Court stated that, because
"it cannot be accepted a priori" that the claim "falls completely outside
the scope of international jurisdiction" the Court could entertain the
request for interim measures of protection (Interim Protection, Order uf
5 July 1951, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 93). At the same time, the Court
noted that the indication of such measures "in no way prejudges the
question of the jurisdiction of the Court to deal with the merits of the
case and leaves unaffected the right of the Respondent to submit argu-
ments against such jurisdiction" (ihid.).
14. This latter statement of the consequences for subsequent phases of LICEITE DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. HIGGINS) 801

9. Certes, dans l'affaire des Phosphates du Maroc, la Cour examinait
les limitations d'ordre temporel de la déclaration d'acceptation au stade
des exceptions préliminaires. Mais la Cour devant s'assurer qu'elle est

compétente, tout au moins prima j'acie, avant d'examiner si les conditions
prescrites à l'article 41 du Statut pour l'indication de mesures conserva-
toires sont bien réunies,ilfaut en l'espècetraiter la question àce stade-ci,
à titre provisoire toutefois.
10. Des questions complexes se posent à la Cour quand elle veut
s'assurer qu'elle est compétente, ne serait-ce qu'assez compétente pour
envisager d'indiquer des mesures conservatoires conformément à I'ar-

ticle41 du Statut.
11. Le Statut et le Règlement de la Cour ne donnent qu'un minimum
d'indications quant aux conditions d'ordre juridique qui président à la
prescription de mesures conservatoires. L'article 41 du Statut stipule sim-
plement que la Cour a le pouvoir d'indiquer, si elle estime que les cir-
constances l'exigent, quelles mesures conservatoires du droit de chacun
doivent êtreprises à titre provisoire)). Cela dit quel est le rôle des mesures

conservatoires et cela dit aussi que la Cour jouit d'une certaine latitude
quant à l'indication de telles mesures -- mais cela ne dit rien d'autre. Le
Règlement, dans ses versions successives, ne fournit pas beaucoup d'élé-
ments utiles sur l'application de l'article 41 du Statut, les versions de 1936
et de 1978montrant à cet égard les points les plus importants de l'évolu-
tion de la pratique (pour avoir des détails, voir Guyomar, Commentaire

du Règlemen1de la Cour internutionalc de Justice. 2' éd.).C'est à travers
la jurisprudence de la Cour que les nombreux élémentsdifférentsd'ordre
juridique concernant les mesures conservatoires ont évolué (ilne faut pas
rendre d'arrêtprovisoire: affaire de 1'U.yinede Chorzuiv, C.P. J.1. série A
12"12; le lien entre les droits à protéger et les mesures demandées: Statut
juridique du territoire du sud-est du Gro@nlund,C.P.J.I. sérieAIB no 48;
Rkfi~rme ugraire polonaise et minorité ullemande. C. P.J.I. série AIB

no 58; signification de la protection des droits de chacun; question de
l'extension et de l'aggravation du différend: Compugnie d'kle(.tric~itkde
Sofia et de Bulgarie, C.P.J.I. sérieAIB no 79).
12. C'est égalementpar sa pratique que la Cour a dû examiner les pro-
blèniesdejuridiction qui se posent quand elle est saisie d'une demande en
indication de mesures conservatoires avant d'avoir établi définitivement
qu'elle est compétente pour connaître de l'affaire.

13. Dans l'affaire de I'Anglo-Iranian Oil Co.. la Cour a dit que, parce
qu'<<onne saurait admettre a priori)) qu'une demande ((échappecomplè-
temznt à la juridiction internationale)). la Cour pouvait examiner la
demande en indication de mesures conservatoires (rnesures conserva-
toire.~,ordonnuncc du 5juillet 1951, C./. J. Reczleil 19.51,p.93).En même
temps, la Cour a considéréque l'indication de telles mesures «ne préjuge
en rien la compétence de la Cour pour connaître du fond de l'affaire et

laisse intact le droit du défendeur de faire valoir ses moyens à l'effet de la
contester » (ihid ).
14. Cette dernière déclaration de principe relative aux conséquencesan Order for interim measures has remained essentially unchanged over
the years. However, the jurisdictional pre-requisites for the issuance of

interim measures of protection have undergone important developments
in thejurisprudence. Indeed, thedebate had already been heavily engaged
within the Anglo-lruniun Oil Co. case itself. In their dissenting opinions,
Judges Winiarski and Badawi Pasha viewed the Court as finding that it
was competent to indicate interim measures of protection "if prima facie
the total lack of jurisdiction of the Court is not patent, that is . .. there
is a possibility, however remote, that the Court may be competent"
(I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 97). But observing that interim measures of pro-
tection were in international law even more exceptional than in municipal
law, as they were "a scarcely tolerable interference in the affairs of a sov-
ereign State", they ought not to be indicated unless the Court's jurisdic-

tion was "reasonably probable".

15. In Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdorn v. Ireland), the Court
refined the formula. stating that when considering a request for the indi-
cation of provisional measures, it had no need "finally to satisfy itself
that it has jurisdiction on the merits of the case, yet it ought not to act
under Article 41 of the Statute if the absence ofjurisdiction on the merits
is manifest" (Interim Profection, Order uf 17 August 1972,1.C.J. Reports
1972, p. 15).
16. In the Nuclear Tests case (1973), France insisted that the Court

was "manifestly not competent in the case". The Court, departing in part
from the formula it had used the year before in the Fisheries Jurisdiction
case, stated that it "need not .. .finally satisfy itself that it has jurisdic-
tion on the merits of the case", but that it ought not to indicate provi-
sional measures "unless the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear,
prima facie, to afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court might
be founded" (Nucleur Tests (Austrulia v. Fruncej, Interim Protection,
Order 91'22 June 1973, 1.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 101).In none of the next
three provisional measures cases (Trial of' Pakistutzi Pri.soner of War,
Order O/ 13 July 1973, 1.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 328; Aegean Seu Conti-
nental Shelf: Order qf 11 Septernber 1976, I.C. J. report.^ 1976, p. 3;

United States Diplomufic and Consulur Stuff in Trlzrun, Order of
17 Deceunber 1979, I.C.J. Reports 1979, p. 7) was the question of juris-
diction the main basis for the order.

17. In Militury und Paramilitury Activities in und against Nicarugua,
Provisiorzal me usure.^ (Order of 10 May 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984,
p. 179)the Court came back to the issue, repeating the exact formula of
the Nuclrar Tests case. That formula is now firmly established (Arbitral
A~t.urdof31 July 1989, Provisional Mrusurrs, Order of2 March 1990.
I.C.J. Reports 1990, pp. 68-69; Pussage through the Great Belt (Finland LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. HIGGINS) 802

d'une ordonnance wrescrivant des mesures conservatoires wour la suite
de la procédure est restée pratiquement inchangée avec le temps. En
revanche, les préalablesd'ordre juridictionnel autorisant à prescrire des
mesures conservatoires ont beaucoup évoluédans lajurisprudence de la
Cour. Au reste, le débat s'étaitd'ores et déjà activement engagé avec
I'affaire de I'Anglo-lruniun Oil Co. elle-même.Dans leur opinion dissi-
dente commune, lesjuges Winiarski et Badawi Pasha constatent que la
Cour estime pouvoir indiquer des mesures conservatoires «si primu
jucie l'incompétence totale n'est pas évidente, donc s'il existe une pos-

sibilité,si faible soit-elle, de compétence pour la Cour)) (C.I.J. Recueil
1951. p. 97). Mais les mêmesauteurs font observer qu'en droit interna-
tional, ces mesures ont un caractère exceptionnel A un plus haut degré
encore qu'en droit interne car elles représentent «une ingérencea peine
tolérable dans les affaires d'un Etat souverain)), de sorte qu'il ne faut
pas indiquer de telles mesures sauf si la compétence de la Cour est
((raisonnablement probable)).
15. Dans I'affairede la Compétenceen matière de pêcheries(Royuume-
Uni c. Islande), la Cour a affinéla formule, déclarant que, lorsqu'elle

est saisie d'une demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, elle n'a
pas besoin «de s'assurer de manière concluante de sa compétencequant
au fond de I'affaire, mais ... ne doit cependant pas appliquer l'article 41
du Statut lorsque son incompétence au fond est manifeste)) (rnesurc.r.
conservatoires, ordonnance du 17 août 1972, C.I. J. Recueil 1972, p. 15).
16. Dans l'affaire des Es.~aisnuclérrires (1973,, la France a dit avec
fermeté que la Cour était manifestement ((incompétente en l'espèce».
S'écartant légèrementde la formule qu'elle avait employée l'année pré-
cédentedans I'affaire de la Compétence 131matière de pêcheries, la Cour

a dit alors qu'elle «n'a pas besoin ...de s'assurer de façon concluante de
sa compétencequant au fond de l'affaire)),mais qu'elle ne doit pas indi-
quer de telles mesures «si les dispositions invoquéespar le demandeur ne
se présentent pas comme constituant, prima filcie, une base sur laquelle
la compétence dela Cour pourrait être fondée)) (Es.sui.snucléaires (Aus-
tralie c. Frunre). mesures ron.servutoires, orn'onnunc,edu 22 juin 1973.
C.1.J. Recueil 1973. p. 101). Dans aucune des trois affaires de mesures
conservatoires qui ont suivi (Procè.~de prisonniers de guerre puki.~tunuis,
ordonnuncr slu 13juillet 1973, C.1. J.Recueil 1973, p. 328 ;Pluteuu conti-

nental de lu mer Egée, ordonnance du 11 septembre 1976, C.I.J. Recueil
1976, p. 3 ;Personnel diplomatique et co~zsuluirrdes Etats- Unis riTi.hé-
rrrn,ordonnunce du 15 décembre1979, C. 1. J. Recueil 1979, p. 7), la ques-
tion de la compétence n'a constituéle principal fondement de I'ordon-
nance.
17. Dans I'affaire des Activités tni1ituire.set parutnilitaires uu Nicara-
gua et contre celui-ci, mesures conservatoire.^, (ordonnunce du IO mui
1984, C.I.J. Recueil 19614, p. 179) la Cour est revenue sur la question,
reprenant exactement la formule qu'elle avait employéedans l'affaire des
Essais nucléaires. Cette formule est désormais solidement établie (Sen-

tenc2rurhitrrrledu 31 juillet 1989, me.sure.sconservatoires, ortlonnunce du803 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. HIGGINS)

v. Denmark), Provisional me usure.^,Order of29 July 1991, 1.C.J. Reports
1991. p. 17; Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of the Critne of Genocide, Provisional Measures, Order of8 April
1993, 1.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 11, and Order of'13 Septemher 1993, ibid.,

pp. 16-17; Lund und Maritime Bouncklry betiveetz Cameroon and Nigeriu,
Provisional Measures, Order of15 Murch 1996, 1.C.J. Reports 1996 (I),
p. 12; Vienna Convention on Consular Re1ution.s ( Paraguay v. United
States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of'9 April 1998, 1.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 255, para. 23: and LaCrand, Provisional me usure.^,
Order of 3 March 1999, 1C. J.Reports 1999, p. 13, para. 13).

18. Thus a party seeking the indication of provisional measures must
show a prima facie basis upon which the Court's jurisdiction in the case
might be founded. That being said, several questions (which have a par-
ticular relevance in the present case) remain. What is sufficient to show
the required "prima facie" basis for jurisdiction? And what jurisdictional
matters will the Court look at, as necessary for this purpose, at the pro-

visional measures stage, and what will it reserve for any further hearings
on jurisdiction?

19. It is the practice of the Court that weighty and complex arguments
relating to its jurisdiction will not usually be addressed at the provisional
measures phase but rather will be regarded as appropriate for resolution

only at the preliminary objections phase. The Co-Agent of the Swiss
Government in the Interhundc>lcase suggested that the Court would not
wish, at the interim measures phase, to adjudicate"upon so complex and
delicate a question as the validity of the American reservation" (lnter-
handel, Interiln Protection, Order 01 '4 Octoher 1957, 1.C.J. Reports
1957, p. 111). The Court, there being able to base its refusa1 to indicate

provisional measures on other grounds, gave no answer to this question.
In the Nucleur Te.rtscase of 1973,Australia advanced detailed arguments
alleging the continued validity and applicability of the General Act of
1928as a separate basis forjurisdiction. Without distinguishing the Gen-
eral Act from Article 36 of the Statute, the Court satisfied itself with say-
ing that "the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear, prima facie, to
afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded"

(Nuclecrr Tests (Awtrulia v. France), Int~rinz Protcc>tion. Oru'er of'
22 Junr 1973, I. C.J. Reports 1973, p. 102).

20. In the Militury and Puramilitury Activities in and uguinst Nicura-
guu case (1984), the Court was faced, at the provisional measures stage,
with very complicated arguments relating both to the legal effect of the
United States declaration of 6 April 1984 and to the apparent failure of

Nicaragua to have deposited an instrument of ratification of the protocol
to bring its adherence to the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna- LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND. HIGCINS) 803

2 mars 1990, C.I.J. Recueil 1990, p. 68-69; Passage par le Crund-Belt
(Finlande c. Daneinarkj, rnesuresconservatoires,ordonnancedu 29juillet
1991, C.I.J Recueil 1991. p. 17;Application de la r,oniwztionpour lapré-
vention et lu répression ducrime de génocide,me.rures conservutoires,
ordonnance du8 avril 1993, C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 11,et ordonnance du

13 septerrzhre1993, ihid., p. 16-17;Frontigre terresfre et maritime entre le
Cumclrounet le Nigéritz,rnesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 15 murs
1996, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (1) p. 12; Convention de Vienne sur les relu-
fions con.su[aires(Par~iguuyc. Etats-Unis d'Antér.iqur).nqesure.sconser-
votoives,ordonnance du 9 ailri11998, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 255,par. 23;
et LuCrund, mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du3 mars 1999, C.I.J.
Recueil 1999, p. 13,par. 13).
18. Donc, quand l'une des parties présente unedemande en indication
de mesures conservatoires, elle doit montrer qu'il existeprimu facie une
base sur laquelle la compétence dela Cour pourrait êtrefondée. Celadit,
il se pose encore plusieurs questions (qui intéressenttout particulièrement
la présenteespèce). Qu'est-cequi suffità montrer l'existencede la base de
compétence prima fucie dont on a besoin? Et quelles questions juridic-
tionnelles la Cour va-t-elle examiner au stade des mesures conservatoires
parce qu'elles sont indispensables pour fonder la compétence primajacie,
et quelles questions d'ordre juridictionnel va-t-elle réserver,lecaséchéant,

à un examen ultérieursur la compétence?
19. Dans sa pratique, la Cour n'examine habituellement pas au stade
des rnesures conservatoires les fortes raisons et les thèses complexesqui
lui sont présentéesau sujet de sa compétence,elle attend plutôt pour sta-
tuer à cet égardla phase des exceptions préliminaires.Dans I'afhire de
l'Irztcrl7mîde1l,e coagent du Gouvernement suisse a émisl'idéeque, au
stade des mesures conservatoires, la Cour ne voudrait pas se prononcer
«sur une question aussi complexe et délicateque la validitéde la réserve
américaine)) (Interhandel, mesures conservatoires, ordonnancedu 24 oc-
tobre 1957, Cf, J Reci~eil1957, p. 111).La Cour, qui pouvait en l'espèce
faire appel d'autres motifs pour refuser d'indiquer des mesures conser-
vatoires, n'a pas répondu à cette question. Dans l'affaire des E.r.vuis
r~ucléuiresde 1973, l'Australie a présenté uneargumentation détaillée,
alléguant que l'Acte généralde 1928étaitencore en vigueur et applicable,
constituant ainsi un fondement de compétence indépendant. Sans faire de

distinction entrel'Acte généralet l'article 36 du Statut, la Cour a conclu
que «les dispositions invoquéespar ledemandeur seprésent[ai]entcomme
constituant, primu fac.ie, une base sur laquelle la compétence de la Cour
pourrait êtrefondée)) (Essais nucléaires(Austrulie c. France), /nesures
co~zservutoir~~osr,don~~ancedu 22 juin 1973, C.1.J. Recueil 1973, p. 102).
20. Dans l'affaire desActivités militaireset paramilitaires au Nicura-
gua et contre celui-ci (1984), la Cour s'est trouvée,au stade des mesures
conservatoires, face à des thèses extrêmement complexesportant sur
l'effetjuridique de la déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction obliga-
toire de la Cour faite le avril 1984par les Etats-Unis, d'une part, et, de
l'autre, sur le fait qu'apparemment le Nicaragua n'avait pasdéposé d'ins-tional Justice into effect. The Court briefly recounted the legal problems
associated with each of these provisions and stated that it:

"will not now make anv final determination of the auestion of the
present validity or invalidity of the declaration of '24 September
1929,and the question whether or not Nicaragua accordingly was or
was not, for thepurpose of Article 36,paragraph 2, of the Statute of
the Court a 'State accepting the same obligation' as the United
States of America at the date of filingof the Application, so as to be
able to rely on the United States declaration of 26 August 1946,nor
of the question whether, as a result of the declaration of 6 April
1984, the present Application is excluded from the scope of the
acceptance by the United States of the compulsory jurisdiction of
the Court .. ." (Order ofIO Muy 1984, I.C. J. Reports 1984, p. 180).

The Court satisfied itself with saying that "the two declarations do
nevertheless appear to afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the
Court might be founded" (ihid.).
21. In the present case the Court has also not made any final determi-
nation upon the question of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's status
or otherwise as a Member of the United Nations and thus as a party to
the Statute having the right to make a declaration under Article 36, para-

graph 2, thereof. This is clearly a matter of the greatest complexity and
importance and was, understandably, not the subject of comprehensive
and systematic submissions in the recent oral hearings on provisional
measures.
22. Of course, just as with the question of Nicaragua's ratification of
its adherence to the Statute of the Permanent Court in the Military and
Parumilitary Activitie.~in and against Nicaragua case, it might be thought
that the status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a necessary
"préalable" to everything else. But when dealing with provisional meas-
ures the Court is faced with unavoidable tensions between the demands
of logic and the inability to determine with finality when operating under
urgency in response to a request for provisional measures. The opera-
tional principle is that matters of deep complexity will if possible be left
to one side in determining the prima facie jurisdiction of the Court for
purposes of Article 41.

23. In the Nuclem Tests cases and in the Militury und Paratnilitary
Activitiescase, the Court equally held over certain arguments relating to
declarations under the Statute. By contrast, the Court in this case has
addressed, for purposes of provisional measures, both the terms of the
declarations of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Spain and the
interaction of the declarations of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and
Spain. LICÉ:ITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. HIGGINS) 804

trument de ratification du protocole pour rendre effective son adhésion
au Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale. La Cour a
rapidement fait le point des problèmes d'ordre juridique liés à chacune de

ces dispositions et elle a considéré qu'elle:
«n'entend[ait] pas se prononcer définitivement pour l'instant sur la

question de savoir si la déclaration du 24 septembre 1929 est valable
ou non et si en conséquencele Nicaragua est ou n'est pas, aux fins de
l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour, un ~Etat acceptant
la mêmeobligation)) que les Etats-Unis d'Amérique à la date du
dépôtde la requête,de manière à pouvoir se prévaloir de la déclara-
tion américaine du 26 août 1946, ni sur celle de savoir si, du fait de

la déclaration du 6 avril 1984, la présenterequêten'entre plus dans le
cadre de l'acceptation par les Etats-Unis de lajuridiction obligatoire
de la Cour...)) (ordo~~nrincc (ILI10 nlui 1Y84. C.Z.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 180).

La Cour s'est contentée de dire: «les deux déclarations paraissent cons-
tituer néanmoins une base sur laquelle la compétence de la Cour pourrait
êtrefondée » ('ibid).
21. Dans la présente espèce, la Cour ne s'est pas non plus prononcée
définitivementsur la question de savoir si la République fédéralede You-

goslavie étaittoujours ou non Membre des Nations Unies et, dans I'affir-
mative, partie àce titre au Statut ayant le droit de faire une déclaration en
vertu de I'article 36,paragraphe 2, dudit Statut. Il s'agit la d'une question
extrêmementcomplexe et importante et il est compréhensible qu'elle n'ait
pas fait l'objet d'exposésapprofondis et systématiques lors de la procé-
dure orale récenteportant sur I'indication de mesures conservatoires.

22. Bien sûr. tout comme ilen fut pour la question de la ratification
par le Nicaragua de son adhésion au Statut de la Cour permanente dans
l'affaire des Activitk.~tnilituircs et parurnilituire.~uu Nicaruguu ri contre
celui-ci, on peut penser qu'en I'espéce,le statut de la République fédérale
de Yougoslavie constituait un préalable indispensable à tout le reste.
Mais, quand elle se penche sur une demande en indication de mesures

conservatoires, la Cour est aux prises avec d'inévitables tensions entre les
exigences de la logique et l'impossibilitéou elle se trouve de se prononcer
à titre définitifquand elle est en proie à l'urgence. Pour pouvoir agir, le
principe qu'elle adopte est que les questions d'une grande complexité
seront, s'il est possible. laisséesde côtéquand elle établit si elle a prirnu
,fucie compétence aux fins de l'article 41 de son Statut.

23. Dans les affaires des Essais nuc.lkuireset dans celle des Activitks
milituire.~ct purut~~i/ituirr.vl,a Cour a, chaque fois, laisséde même en sus-
pens certaines thèsesconcernant les déclarations faites en vertu du Statut.
Par opposition, dans la présenteespèce. la Cour. aux fins de l'indication
de mesures conservatoires, a examiné le texte mêmedes déclarations de la

République fédéralede Yougoslavie et de l'Espagne ainsi que l'inter-
action de ces deux déclarations de la Républiq~iefédéralede Yougoslavie
et de l'Espagne. 24. The prima facie test of jurisdiction does not make it sufficient
merely to note the very existence of two declarations at this stage. This is
not to be deduced from the statement of the Court in the Cumeroon
v. Nigeria provisional measures case that "the declarations made by the

Parties in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 2,of the Statute con-
stitute a prima facie basis upon which its jurisdiction in the present
case might be founded" (1. C.J. Reports 1996 (Il, p. 21, para. 31). The
Nigerian request for a reconsideration of the rule in the Rights of'
Pu,s.sugecase, as it bore on the interpretation of its own declaration,
clearly fell into that category of complex and weighty objections to juris-

diction that had to be deferred for proper consideration until the prelimi-
nary objections phase. In that particular light (and because the Rights
oj' Pussuge principle was well established in the Court's case law), the
declarations would in the meantime be treated as establishingprima facie
jurisdiction.

25. The same guiding principles apply to treaties said to provide a
basis for the Court's jurisdiction. Thus the several complicated argu-
ments that had been advanced in connection with Article IX of the Geno-
cide Convention were not addressed in the provisional measures phase of
the Genocidr case of 1993; and it was against that background that the

Court said that Article IX of the Convention appeared to "afford a basis
on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded" (Application of'
the Convention on thc Prevention und Punishment ig'the Crime uf'Geno-
cide, Provisional me usure.^, Order of 8 April 1993, I. C.J. Reports 1993.
p. 16;and 0rtlc.r of 13 Septemher 1993, 1.C. J. Reports 1993, p. 342).

26. But it should not be thought that mere invocation of a jurisdic-
tional clause, with nothing more, suffices to establish a prima facie basis
of the Court's jurisdiction. It cannot be otherwise, because the jurisdic-
tion of the Court - even if one might regret this state of affairs as we
approach the twenty-first century -- is based on consent. And consent to

jurisdiction cannot be established, even prima facie, when it is clear from
the terms of the declarations themselves that the necessary consent is not
prima facie present, or simply is not present, .simpliciter. As Sir Hersch
Lauterpacht put it in his separate opinion in the Interhundel case, the test
of jurisdiction of the Court prima facie is met if, in the relevant instru-
ments, there are "no reservations obviously excluding its jurisdiction"

(1.C.J. Reports 1957, pp. 118- 119).Reservations relevant for this purpose
areboth those in a State's own declaration and those that it may rely on
reciprocally.

27. Yugoslavia made no submission at al1to the Court on either the
Optional Clausedeclaration of Spain or on its interplay with itsown reser-

vation. It did not explain why the provisions of Article 1 (e) of the dec- LICÉITE DE I.'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. HIGGINS) 805

24. Le critère de la compétence primu fucie ne permet pas de se
contenter de prendre acte de l'existence de deux déclarations à ce stade.

Ce n'est pas ce qu'il faut déduire de l'extrait de l'ordonnance que la Cour
rend au stade des mesures conservatoires dans l'affaire Cameroun c. Nigk-
riu, quand elle dit que «les déclarations faites par les Parties conformé-
ment au paragraphe 2 de l'article 36 de son Statut constitue pri~nu,fircir
une base sur laquelle sa compétence pourrait être fondée en l'espèce))
(C. 1.J. Recueil 1996 ('l), p. 21, par. 31). Le Nigéria souhaitait voir la

Cour revenir sur la règlede l'affaire du Droit de pus.ïuge, parce que cela
avait une incidence sur l'interprétation à donner à sa propre déclaration,
mais cette demande relevait manifestement de cette catégorie d'excep-
tions à la compétence fort complexes et lourdes de conséquences dont il
fallait différertout examen véritable jusqu'au stade des exceptions préli-
minaires. Adoptant cette optique particulière, (et aussi parce que le prin-

cipe de l'affaire du Droit de pussuge était solidement ancrédans sajuris-
prudence), la Cour a décidéde traiter entre-temps les déclarations en
question comme lui donnant compétenceprimu ,fucie.
25. Les mcmes principes directeurs s'appliquent aux traitéscensésfon-
der la juridiction de la Cour. C'est pourquoi plusieurs thèses complexes
présentéesau sujet de l'article IX de la convention sur le génocide n'ont

pas été examinées au stade des mesures conservatoires lors des affaires de
1993relatives à I'Applicalion c/e/u coni~erztior.ïur le gt;nocide; et c'est sur
cette toile de fond que la Cour a dit alors que l'articleIX de la convention
semblait ((constituer une base sur laquelle la compétence de la Cour-
pourrait êtrefondéen (Application (le lu convrntion pour 10 prc5ventionct
lu rk11rc~s.vio(nu crime (1. génocid~~m , c.sure.sconserv(ltoire.v,ordunnuncr

du 8 u~~ril1993,C.1. J. Rc.r8uci1l 993,p. 16,et orclonnuncrdu 13 septctnhre
1993, ihid, p. 342).
26. Mais il ne faudrait pas penser pour autant qu'il suffit d'invoquer
une clause juridictionnelle, sans plus, pour constituer en faveur de la
Cour une base de compétence primu ,fuc.ie.Il ne peut en être autrement
parce que la compétence de la Cour - quand bien mêmeon regretterait

cet étatde choses à la veille du XXI' siècle - repose sur le consentement.
Et le consentement à la compétence ne peut pas être établi,fût-ce primu
fucic, quand ilressort clairement du texte mêmede la déclaration d'accep-
tation de la juridiction que ce consentement indispensable n'existe pas
pritnu,fuc.ie, ou plus simplement encore, n'existe pas. Comme l'a dit sir
Hersch Lauterpacht dans son opinion individuelle à l'issue de l'affaire de

l'Intcrhun(lcl, les critères de la compétence prinzu ,fucir de la Cour sont
remplis quand iln'existe dans les ii-istruments pertinents ((aucune réserve
excluant manifestement cette compétence)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 119).
Les réservespertinentes à cette fin sont à la fois celles qui figurent dans
la propre déclaration d'un Etat et celles sur lesquelles ledit Etat peut
compter par voie de réciprocité.

27. La Yougoslavie n'a formulé à l'intention de la Cour aucune conclu-
sion sur la déclaration faite par l'Espagne au titre de la clause facultative
ni sur le fait que cette déclaration pourrait intervenir dans l'applicationlaration of Spain did not exclude the jurisdiction of the Court on
the particular facts of this case. But the Court cannot fail to consider
these matters, and none of them is so obscure and complicated that it

could not be dealt with at this stage; and nor was that suggested by
Y ugoslavia.

28. As the Court stated in the Norii~egiunLouns case: "since two
unilateral declarations are involved [reciprocal] jurisdiction is conferred
upon the Court only to the extent to which the Declarations coincide in

conferring it" (Judgrnent, I.C.J. Reports 1957. p. 23). And the Court
clearly stated inFishcriesJurisdiction (Spuin v. Cunudu) that:

"Conditions or reservations thus do not by their terms derogate
from a wider acceptance already given. Rather, they operate to
define the parameters of the State's acceptance of the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court." (I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 453, para. 44.)

Each of these dicta appears in the judgments 011jurisdiction, these not
having been provisional measures cases. But a State seeking the introduc-
tion of provisional measures must show that jurisdiction prima facie
exists, notwithstanding conditions, reservations and the operation of reci-

procity between declarations.

29. The restraint upon the liberty of action of a State that necessarily
follows from the indication of ~rovisional measures will not be counte-
nanced unless, prima facie, there isjurisdiction. But an absence of prima
facie jurisdiction at this stage and for this purpose does not necessarily

mean that jurisdiction may not, in the event. later be established. How-
ever, if in considering whether there is jurisdiction prima facie for pur-
poses of Article 41 of the Statute, it is clear beyond doubt that no juris-
diction exists in a particular case, good administration of justice requires
that the case be immediately struck off the List in limine.

30. Finally. it should not be thought that the Court, because it has had
to address the question of its prima faciejurisdiction in the case brought
by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. is indifferent to the great suffer-

ing in Kosovo and Yugoslavia. Indeed, the preambular paragraphs to its
Order show otherwise. Nor does it seek to avoid making its contribution
toan elucidation of the heavily contested issues of law. But the Court can
take on its responsibilities within the United Nations system and use itsde sa propre réserve. Elle n'a expliqué pourquoi les dispositions de
l'alinéa e) de l'article 1 de la déclaration de l'Espagne n'excluaient pas
que la Cour soit compétente pour connaître des faits particuliers de
l'espèce.Mais la Cour ne peut pas s'abstenir de considérerces questions
et aucune d'ellesn'est ilce point obscure et complexe qu'ellene puisse pas
êtreexaminée a ce stade; la Yougoslavie n'a pas non plus laisséentendre

que tel étaitle cas.
28. Comme la Cour l'a dit dans l'affaire de Certains emprunts norvé-
gien.~,quand «il s'agit de deux déclarations unilatérales, ...compétence
lui est conférée[par voie de réciprocité] seulemendtans la mesure où elles
coïncident pour la lui conférer?? (arrêr,C.I.J.Recueil 1957, p. 23). Dans
I'affairede laCompc'tcnceen muri$rr de pêchcv-irs(E.upagnr c. Curîudu),
la Cour a déclarénettement:

<<lesconditions ou réserves,de par leur libellé,n'ont donc pas pour
effet de déroger à une acceptation de caractère plus large déjàdon-
née.Elles servent plutôt à déterminer l'étenduede l'acceptation par
1'Etatde lajuridiction obligatoire de la Cour. »(C.I.J. Recueil 1998,
p. 453, par. 44.)

Chacunde ces prononcés,de la part de la Cour, figure dans des décisions
relativesà la compétence, car il ne s'agissait pas d'affaires relatives à
l'indication de mesures conservatoires. Mais ilfaut que 1'Etatquidemande
iila Cour d'adopter des mesures conservatoires montre qu'elle est primu
,fuciecompétente,indépendammentdes conditionsou des réservesaccom-
pagnant les déclarations et du jeu de la réciprocitéd'une déclaration à
l'autre.
29. Les restrictions à la libertéd'action d'un Etat qui accompagnent
obligatoirement l'indication de mesures conservatoires ne seront pas
toléréesà moins qu'il n'y ait compétence prima fucie. Mais l'absence

de compétence prima ,fucie a ce stade et à cette fin ne veut pas néces-
sairement dire qu'il ne sera pas possible, le cas échéant, d'étabrltérieu-
rement que la Cour est compétente. Toutefois, si, quand on examine
si la Cour est compétente prima ,fucieaux fins de l'article 41 du Statut,
il apparaît clairement, sans l'ombre d'un doute, qu'elle n'est pas
compétente pour connaître d'une affaire donnée, la bonne admini-
stration de la justice impose de rayer immédiatement l'affaire du rôle in
limine.

30. Un dernier mot: il ne faudrait pas non plus penser que, parce

qu'elle a dû examiner la question de sa compétence primu facie dans
I'affaire introduite par la République fédéralede Yougoslavie, la Cour
reste indifférenteaux soufSrancesenduréespar le Kosovo et par la You-
goslavie. Du reste. le préambule deson ordonnance montre que tel n'est
pas le cas. Elle ne cherche pas non plusàéviterde participer à la solution
des problèmes de droit qui se posent et qui donnent lieu à d'intensesjudicial authority and creativity only when it hasjurisdiction. In this case,
the Court's jurisdiction has yet to be established even prima facie.

(Signed) Rosalyn HIGGINS. LICÉITE DE I.'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. HIGGINS) 807

débats. Mais la Cour ne peut assumer ses responsabilités dans le cadre du
système des Nations Unies et faire appel à son autorité et à sa créativité
judiciaires que lorsqu'elle est compétente. Dans la présente affaire, la
compétence de la Cour est encore a établir, fût-ce primu fucie.

(SignP) Rosalyn HIGGINS.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Higgins

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