Separate opinion by Judge Higgins

Document Number
111-19990602-ORD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
111-19990602-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE HIGGINS

Limitations ratione temporis to declarations made under Article 36. para-
graph 2, of the Statute - "Disputes" - "Situations or Facts" - Reciprocity
- "Continuing" events or violations of laii~- Prima facie jurisdiction,for pur-
poses of Article 41 of the Stutuie - Matters to he decided ut provisional rnea-
sures phase andmatters tu be reservedfor more thorough luter considerution -
Tivo alternative consequencesof an absence of'primuJucie jurisdiction - Judi-
cial authority and creativity dependent onjurisdiction.

1. Where one State has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court under
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute with a limitation ratione temporis
and the other State has accepted the jurisdiction without such a limita-
tion,

"nevertheless, as a consequence of the condition of reciprocity stipu-
lated in paragraph 2 of Article 36 of the Statute of the Court, it is

recognized that this limitation holds good as between the Parties"
(Phosphates in Morocco, Judgrnent, 1938, P. C. 1.J., Series AIB,
No. 74, p. 22).

2. The declaration accepting the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction made
by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 25 April 1999 States in part
that :

"1 hereby declare that the Government of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia recognizes, in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 2,
of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, as compulsory
ipso facto and without special agreement, in relation to any other

State accepting the same obligation, that is on condition of recipro-
city, thejurisdiction of the said Court in al1disputes arising or which
may arise after the signatureof the present Declaration, with regard
to the situations or facts subsequent to this signature, except in cases
where the parties have agreed or shall agree to have recourse to
another procedure or to another method of pacific settlement . . ."

This follows, with a small variation, the well-known so-called "Belgian
declaration" of 1925by which any retrospectivejurisdiction of the Court

rutione temporis was precluded both as to disputes and as to situations
and facts.
3. The declaration made by Portugal contains no such limitation, but
it applies inter se to identify the scope ratione temporis of the Court'sjurisdiction, for the reason set out in paragraph 1of this opinion. This is
so even though the Portuguese declaration lacks the customary invoca-
tion of the condition of reciprocity. This isbecause that condition appears
as an element within Article 36, paragraph 2, itself.

4. It may, of course, be the case that, while the dispute has clearly
arisen subsequent to the critical date for jurisdiction, the situations or
facts giving rise to the dispute appear to have occurred before that date.
That was exactly the situation in the Phosphates in Morocco case, where
the Permanent Court addressed the possibility that acts "accomplished
after the crucial date", when "taken in conjunction with earlier acts to

which they are closely linked, constitute as a whole a single, continuing
and progressive illegal act which was not fully accomplished until after
the crucial date" (Phosphates in Morocco, Judgment, 1938, P.C. 1J.,
Series AIB, No. 74,p. 23). Equally, there exists the possibility that acts
carried out prior to the crucial date "nevertheless gave rise to a perma-
nent situation inconsistent with international law which has continued to
exist after thesaid date" (ibid.). This latter eventuality is indeed reflected
in the International Law Commission's Draft Article 25 on State Respon-
sibility (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, Vol. II, Part II,
p. 80).

5. It is not the Court alone which has had to formulate jurisprudence
on the concept of "continuing events": so has the European Court of
Human Rights (see Yugciand Surgin v. Turkey, European Humun Rights

Reports, 1995, p. 505); and so also has the Human Rights Committee
(see Guye et al. v. France, No. 19611985,3 April 1989,35th Session); and
Siminek v. The Czrch Republic (No. 51611 992,3 1July 1995,54th Session).

6. The Court gave its own answers to this issue in Phosphates in
Morocco. It explained that the problem of whether there were "continu-
ing events" that gave rise to a cause of action after the crucial date must
be examined in the particular context of each case. But two factors
always have to be borne in mind: the first is that

"it is necessary always to bear in mind the will of the State which
only accepted the compulsory jurisdiction within specified limits,
and consequently only intended to submit to that jurisdiction dis-
putes having actually arisen from situations or facts subsequent to
its acceptance" (Phosphates in Morocco, Judgment, 1938, P. C.1.J.,
Series AIB, No. 74, p. 24).

And second, it was necessary to see if the facts were merely a necessary
and logical consequence of earlier ones which were barred from scrutiny
by the temporal reservation. On the particular facts of the Phosphatescase, the Court found that the cited facts and situations could not be
viewedas "a final step and crowning point" of the earlier events (P.C. IJ.,
Series AIB, No. 74, p. 26) nor did they "alter the situation which had
already been established" (ibid.,p. 27). Nor could they be separated from
those that had arisen before the crucial date.

7. That this particular jurisdictional problem, as any other, requires

close attention to be given to the intention of the State issuing its declara-
tion with limitations or reservations was stated by the Permanent Court
in the Phosphates in Morocco case and recently affirmed by this Court in
the case of Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the
Court, Judgment (I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 454, para. 49). It is striking that
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia did not advance arguments before
the Court suggesting either continuing events or a continuing dispute (the
latter not having been an issue in Phosphates in Morocco). It squarely
based itself on a dispute it perceived as arising, and situations and facts
that it perceived as occurring, after the crucial date of25April. It did not
wish any dispute there may have been between itself and Portugal prior

to 25 April to be subject to the Court's jurisdiction, nor any situations
and facts relating to such dispute. That was the intention of the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia and it was clear. But within that intent there was
also a hope - thehope that there could be identified a dispute that arose
only after 25 April. Certainly there were events, occurring after 25 April,
that were the subject of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's complaint
(though these were not specified by date or in any detail). But the Court
has not been able to see a dispute arising only after 25 April. The claim
that aerial bombing by NATO, and NATO States, was illegal, was made
in the Security Council on 24 March and 26 March, and rebutted there.
The conditions specified in the Muvrommatis case (Muvrommatis Pales-
tine Concessions, Judgrnent No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A. No. 2) for

the existence of a dispute were thus met at that time.

8. No doubt the continuation of the bombing and the targets hit after
25 April has aggravated and intensified the dispute. But every aerial bom-

bardment subsequent to 25 April does not constitute a new dispute. In
short, there are situations and facts occurring subsequent to the crucial
date, but there is not at the present time a dispute arising subsequent to
that date. In effectively realizing the intention (which the Court must
respect) of its declaration, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was not696 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP.HIGGINS)

able also to realize its hope. Its declaration accordingly fails to invest the
Court with jurisdiction.

9. Of course, in thePhosphatesinMoroccocase the Court was address-
ing temporal limits at the phase of preliminary objections. But because
the Court must be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, at least prima facie,
before considering whether the conditions of Article 41 of the Statute are
met for the indication of interim measures of protection, the question
must be dealt with here at this stage, albeit on a provisional basis.

10. Complex issues arise for the Court in satisfying itself that it has a
jurisdiction at least sufficient to consider indicating provisional measures
under Article 41 of the Statute.

11. Minimal guidance is provided in the Statute and in the Rules of
Court as to legal requirements relating to the indication of provisional
measures. Article 41 of the Statute merely provides that the Court "shall
have the power to indicate, if it considers that circumstances so require,
any provisional measures which ought to be taken to preserve the respec-
tive rights of either party". This shows both the function of interim mea-
sures and the fact that the Court has a discretion as to their indication-
but nothing else.The Rules of Procedure in their successiveversions have
provided little guidance on the application of Article 41 of the Statute,
with those of 1936and 1978reflecting the most significant developments

in the practice (for details, see Guyomar, Commentairedu Règlement de
la Cour Internationalede Justice, 2nd ed.). It has been through the case
law of the Court that the many different legal elements relating to pro-
visional measures have evolved (no interim-judgment to be given: case
concerning the Factory ut Chorzow, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 12; nexus
between rights to be protected and the measures sought: Legal Status of
the South-Eastern Territory of Greenland,P.C. I.J., Series AIB, No. 48;
Polish Agrarian Reform and German Minority, P.C.I.J., Series AIB,
No. 58; meaning of the protection of the rights of the parties; the ques-
tion of extension and aggravation of the dispute: Electricity Companyof
Sofia and Bulgaria,P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 79.

12. It is equally through its case law that the Court has had to address

the jurisdictional problems that arise when a request for the indication of
provisional measures is made before the Court has definitively estab-
lished its jurisdiction in a case.
13. In the Anglo-IranianOil Co. case, the Court stated that, because
"it cannot be accepted a priori" that the claim "falls completely outside
the scope of international jurisdiction" the Court could entertain the
request for interim measures of protection (Interim Protection, Order of
5 July 1951, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 93). At the same time, the Courtnoted that the indication of such measures "in no way prejudges the
question of the jurisdiction of the Court to deal with the merits of the
case and leaves unaffected the right of the Respondent to submit argu-
ments against such jurisdiction" (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 93).
14. This latter statement of the consequences for subsequent phases of
an Order for interim measures has remained essentially unchanged over
the years. However, the jurisdictional prerequisites for the issuance of
interim measures of protection have undergone important developments
in thejurisprudence. Indeed, the debate had already been heavilyengaged
within the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case itself. In their dissenting opinions,
Judges Winiarski and Badawi Pasha viewed the Court as finding that it
was competent to indicate interim measures of protection "if prima facie
the total lack of jurisdiction of the Court is not patent, that is . ..there

is a possibility, however remote, that the Court may be competent" (ibid.,
p. 97). But observing that interim measures of protection were in inter-
national law even more exceptional than in municipal law, as they were
"a scarcely tolerable interference in the affairs of a sovereign State", they
ought not to be indicated unless the Court's jurisdiction was "reasonably
probable".

15. In Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), the Court
refined the formula, stating that when considering a request for the indi-
cation of provisional measures, it had no need "finally to satisfy itself
that it has jurisdiction on the merits of the case, yet it ought not to act
under Article 41 of the Statute if the absence ofjurisdiction on the merits
is manifest" (Interim Protection, Order of 17 August 1972, I.C.J. Reports
1972, p. 15).
16. In the Nuclear Tests case (1973), France insisted that the Court
was "manifestly not competent in the case". The Court, departing in part
from the formula it had used the year before in the Fisheries Jurisdiction
case, stated that it "need not . ..finally satisfy itself that it has jurisdic-

tion on the merits of the case", but that it ought not to indicate provi-
sional measures "unless the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear,
prima facie, to afford a basis on which thejurisdiction of the Court might
be founded" (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Interim Protection,
Order of 22 June 1973, 1.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 101).In none of the next
three provisional measures cases (Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of War,
Order of 13 July 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 328; Aegean Sea Conti-
nental ShelJ: Order of 11 September 1976, I.C.J. Reports 1976, p. 3;
United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran, Order of
17 December 1979, I.C.J. Reports 1979, p. 7) was the question of juris-
diction the main basis for the order.

17. In Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua,
Provisional Measures (Order of 10 May 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984,
p. 179)the Court came back to the issue, repeating the exact formula of698 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP.HIGGINS)

the Nuclear Tests case. That formula is now firmly established (Arbitral
Award of 31 July 1989, Provisional Measures, Order of 2 March 1990,
1.C.J. Reports 1990, pp. 68-69; Passage through the Great Belt (Finland
v. Denmark), Provisional Measures, Orderof 29 July 1991,1.C.J. Reports
1991, p. 17;Application of the Convention on the Prevention andPunish-
ment of the Crime of Genocide, Provisional Measures, Order of 8 April
1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 11, and Order of 13 September 1993, ibid.,
pp. 16-17; Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroonand Nigeria,
Provisional Measures, Order of15 March 1996, 1.C.J. Reports 1996 (I),
p. 12; Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Paraguay v. United
States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 9 April 1998, 1.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 255, para. 23; and LaGrand, Provisional Measures,
Order of 3 March 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 13, para. 13).

18. Thus a party seeking the indication of provisional measures must
show a prima facie basis upon which the Court's jurisdiction in the case
might be founded. That being said, several questions (which have a par-
ticular relevance in the present case) remain. What is sufficient to show
the required "prima facie" basis for jurisdiction? And what jurisdictional
matters will the Court look at, as necessary for this purpose, at the pro-
visional measures stage, and what will it reserve for any further hearings
on jurisdiction?

19. Itis the practice of the Courtthat weighty and complex arguments
relating to itsjurisdiction will not usually be addressed at the provisional
measures phase but rather will be regarded as appropriate for resolution
only at the preliminary objections phase. The Co-Agent of the Swiss
Government in the Interhandel case suggested that the Court would not
wish, at the interim measures phase, to adjudicate "upon so complex and

delicate a question as the validity of the American reservation" (Inter-
handel, Interim Protection, Order of 24 October 1957, I.C.J. Reports
1957, p. 111). The Court, there being able to base its refusal to indicate
provisional measures on other grounds, gave no answer to this question.
In the Nuclear Tests case of 1973,Australia advanced detailed arguments
alleging the continued validity and applicability of the General Act of
1928as a separate basis for jurisdiction. Without distinguishing the Gen-
eral Act from Article 36 of the Statute, the Court satisfied itself with say-
ing that "the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear, prima facie, to
afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded"
(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Interim Protection, Order of
22 June 1973, 1.C. J. Reports 1973, p. 102).

20. In the Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicara-
gua case (1984), the Court was faced, at the provisional measures stage,
with very complicated arguments relating both to the legal effect of theUnited States declaration of 6 April 1984and to the apparent failure of
Nicaragua to have deposited an instrument of ratification of the protocol
to bring its adherence to the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice into effect. The Court briefly recounted the legal problems
associated with each of these provisions and stated that it:

"will not now make any final determination of the question of the
present validity or invalidity of the declaration of 24 September
1929,and the question whether or not Nicaragua accordingly was or
was not, for the purpose of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of
the Court a 'State accepting the same obligation' as the United
States of America at the date of filing of the Application, so asto be
able to rely on the United States declaration of 26 August 1946,nor
of the question whether, as a result of the declaration of 6 April
1984, the present Application is excluded from the scope of the
acceptance by the United States of the compulsory jurisdiction of
the Court ..." (Order of IOMay 1984, 1.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 180).

The Court satisfied itself with saying that "the two declarations do
nevertheless appear to afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the
Court might be founded" (ihid.).
21. In the present case the Court has also not made any final determi-
nation upon the question of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's status
or otherwise as a Member of the United Nations and thus as a party to
the Statute having the right to make a declaration under Article 36, para-
graph 2, thereof. This is clearly a matter of the greatest complexity and
importance and was, understandably, not the subject of comprehensive
and systematic submissions in the recent oral hearings on provisional
measures.

22. Of course, just as with the question of Nicaragua's ratification of
its adherence to the Statute of the Permanent Court in the Military and
Paramilitary Activities inund against Nicaragua case, it might be thought
that the status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a necessary
"préalable" to everything else. But when dealing with provisional mea-
sures the Court is faced with unavoidable tensions between the demands
of logic and the inability to determine with finality when operating under
urgency in response to a request for provisional measures. The opera-
tional principle is that matters of deep complexity will if possible be left
to one side in determining the prima faciejurisdiction of the Court for
purposes of Article 41.

23. In the Nuclear Tests cases and in the Military and Paramilitary
Activities case, the Court equally held over certain arguments relating to
declarations under the Statute. By contrast, the Court in this case has
addressed, for purposes of provisional measures, both the terms of the
declarations of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Portugal and theinteraction of the declarations of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and
Portugal.

24. The prima facie test of jurisdiction does not make it sufficient
merely to note the very existence of two declarations at this stage. This is
not to be deduced from the statement of the Court in the Cameroon
v. Nigeria provisional measures case that "the declarations made by the
Parties in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute consti-
tute a prima facie basis upon which its jurisdiction in the present case
might be founded" (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 21, para. 31). The
Nigerian request for a reconsideration of the rule in the Rights of
Passage case, as it bore on the interpretation of its own declaration,
clearly fell into that category of complex and weighty objections to juris-

diction that had to be deferred for proper consideration until the pre-
liminary objections phase. In that particular light (and because the
Rights of Passage principle was well established in the Court's case law),
the declarations would in the meantime be treated as establishing prima
faciejurisdiction.

25. The same guiding principles apply to treaties said to provide a
basis for the Court's jurisdiction. Thus the several complicated argu-
ments that had been advanced in connection with Article IX of the Geno-
cide Convention were not addressed in the provisional measures phase of
the Genocide case of 1993; and it was against that background that the
Court said that Article IX of the Convention appeared to "afford a basis
on which thejurisdiction of the Court might be founded" (Application of
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Geno-
cide, Provisional Measures, Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993,
p. 16; and Order of 13 September 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 342).

26. But it should not be thought that mere invocation of a jurisdic-
tional clause, with nothing more, sufficesto establish a prima facie basis
of the Court's jurisdiction. It cannot be otherwise, because the jurisdic-
tion of the Court - even if one might regret this state of affairs as we
approach the twenty-first century -1s based on consent. And consent to
jurisdiction cannot be established, even prima facie, when it isclear from
the terms of the declarations themselves that the necessary consent is not
prima facie present, or simply is not present, simpliciter. As Sir Hersch
Lauterpacht put it in his separate opinion in the Interhandel case, the test
of jurisdiction of the Court prima facie is met if, in the relevant instru-
ments, there are "no reservations obviously excluding its jurisdiction"
(I.C.J. Reports 1957,pp. 118-119).Reservations relevant for this purpose
are both those in a State's own declaration and those that it may rely on
reciprocally.701 LEGALI~ OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. HIGGINS)

27. Yugoslavia made no submission at al1to the Court on either the
optional clause declaration of Portugal or on its interplay with its own
reservation. It did not tell the Court why, when read with Article 62,para-
graph 2, itself, Portugal's reservation and that of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia did not together exclude prima facie jurisdiction. Nor did
Portugal rely reciprocally on Yugoslavia's declaration, no doubt deeming
that to be inconsistent with the position it took alleging the declaration to
be invalid. But the Court cannot fail to consider these matters, and none
of them is so obscure and complicated that it could not be dealt with at

this stage; and nor was that suggested by Yugoslavia.

28. As the Court stated in the Norwegian Louns case: "since two
unilateral declarations are involved [reciprocal]jurisdiction is conferred
upon the Court only to the extent to which the Declarations coincide in
conferring it" (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 23). And the Court
clearly stated in Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spuin v. Cunulia) that:

"Conditions or reservations thus do not by their terms derogate
from a wider acceptance already given. Rather, they operate to
define the parameters of the State's acceptance of the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court." (1.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 453, para. 44.)

Each of these dicta appears in the judgments on jurisdiction, these not
having been provisional measures cases. But a State seeking the introduc-
tion of provisional measures must show that jurisdiction prima facie
exists, notwithstanding conditions, reservations and the operation of reci-
procity between declarations.

29. The restraint upon the liberty of action of a State that necessarily
follows from the indication of provisional measures will not be counte-
nanced unless, prima facie, there isjurisdiction. But an absence of prima
facie jurisdiction at this stage and for this purpose does not necessarily
mean that jurisdiction may not, in the event, later be established. How-

ever, if in considering whether there is jurisdiction prima facie for pur-
poses of Article 41 of the Statute, it is clear beyond doubt that no juris-
diction exists in a particular case, good administration ofjustice requires
that the case be immediately struck off the List in liminr.

30. Finally, it should not be thought that the Court, because it has had
to address the question of its prima faciejurisdiction in the case broughtby the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, is indifferent to the great suffer-
ing in Kosovo and Yugoslavia. Indeed, the preambular paragraphs to its
Order show otherwise. Nor does it seek to avoid making its contribution
to an elucidation of the heavilycontested issues of law. But the Courtcan
take on its responsibilities within the United Nations system and use its
judicial authority and creativity only when it hasjurisdiction. In this case,
the Court's jurisdiction has yet to be established even prima facie.

(SignedR )osalyn HIGGINS.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE HIGGINS

Limitations ratione temporis to declarations made under Article 36. para-
graph 2, of the Statute - "Disputes" - "Situations or Facts" - Reciprocity
- "Continuing" events or violations of laii~- Prima facie jurisdiction,for pur-
poses of Article 41 of the Stutuie - Matters to he decided ut provisional rnea-
sures phase andmatters tu be reservedfor more thorough luter considerution -
Tivo alternative consequencesof an absence of'primuJucie jurisdiction - Judi-
cial authority and creativity dependent onjurisdiction.

1. Where one State has accepted the jurisdiction of the Court under
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute with a limitation ratione temporis
and the other State has accepted the jurisdiction without such a limita-
tion,

"nevertheless, as a consequence of the condition of reciprocity stipu-
lated in paragraph 2 of Article 36 of the Statute of the Court, it is

recognized that this limitation holds good as between the Parties"
(Phosphates in Morocco, Judgrnent, 1938, P. C. 1.J., Series AIB,
No. 74, p. 22).

2. The declaration accepting the Court's compulsoryjurisdiction made
by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia on 25 April 1999 States in part
that :

"1 hereby declare that the Government of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia recognizes, in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 2,
of the Statute of the International Court of Justice, as compulsory
ipso facto and without special agreement, in relation to any other

State accepting the same obligation, that is on condition of recipro-
city, thejurisdiction of the said Court in al1disputes arising or which
may arise after the signatureof the present Declaration, with regard
to the situations or facts subsequent to this signature, except in cases
where the parties have agreed or shall agree to have recourse to
another procedure or to another method of pacific settlement . . ."

This follows, with a small variation, the well-known so-called "Belgian
declaration" of 1925by which any retrospectivejurisdiction of the Court

rutione temporis was precluded both as to disputes and as to situations
and facts.
3. The declaration made by Portugal contains no such limitation, but
it applies inter se to identify the scope ratione temporis of the Court's OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE MMEHIGGINS

[Traduction]

Limitations ratione temporis des déclarationsfaites au titre de l'article 36,
paragraphe 2. du Statzit - ((Diffërends))- ((Situations oufaits» - Récipro-
cité - Eilénernents«î-ontinus)) ou iliolations du droit - Compétence prima
facie au'tfins de l'article41 du Statut- Questions à trancher lors de laphase
des mesures con.servatoireset questions à rkserver à un examen ultérieurplus
apprqfondi -- Deux conséquences soufsorme d'alternative du défautde compé-
tence prima facie - L'autorité de mêmeque la créativitcj!udiciaires sonttrihu-
taires de la compétenctz.

1. Quand un Etat a acceptéla juridiction de la Cour en vertu de I'ar-
ticle 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut, sous réserved'une limitation ratione
tewiporis et que l'autre Etat a accepté la juridiction de la Cour sans
joindre de limitation de cet ordre,

«il est [néanmoins]reconnu que, par l'effet de la condition de réci-
procité, inscrite ;auparagraphe 2 de l'article 36, du Statut de la Cour,

cette limitation fait droit entre les Parties)) (Phosphates du Maroc,
urrêt, 1938, C.P.J. I. sérieAIB no 74, p. 22).

2. Dans la déclaration par laquelle elle accepte la juridiction obliga-
toire de la Cour, la liépublique fédéralede Yougoslavie dit notamment,
le 25 avril 1999 :

«Je déclarepar la présenteque le Gouvernement de la République
fédérale deYougoslavie, conformément au paragraphe 2 de l'article
36 du Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice, reconnaît comme

obligatoire de plein droit et sans convention spéciale, à l'égardde
tout autre Etat acceptantla mêmeobligation, c'est-à-dire sous condi-
tion de réciproclté,la juridiction de la Cour pour tous les différends,
surgissant ou pouvant surgir après la signature de la présentedécla-
ration, qui ont trait à des situationsou àdes faits postérieurs à ladite

signature, a I'er~ceptiondes affaires pour lesquelles les parties ont
convenu ou conviendront d'avoir recours à une autre procédureou à
une autre méthodede règlement pacifique ..»

A une légèrevariation près,ce texte suit un précédent bienconnu, le texte
de ce qu'on appelle «la déclaration belge)) de 1925, qui exclut rutione
ternporis toute compétence rétroactive dela Cour, tant pour les diffé-
rends que pour les situations et les faits.
3. La déclaration d'acceptation du Portugal ne contient pas de limita-

tion de ce type, mais;celle-cis'applique entre les parties pour déterminerjurisdiction, for the reason set out in paragraph 1of this opinion. This is
so even though the Portuguese declaration lacks the customary invoca-
tion of the condition of reciprocity. This isbecause that condition appears
as an element within Article 36, paragraph 2, itself.

4. It may, of course, be the case that, while the dispute has clearly
arisen subsequent to the critical date for jurisdiction, the situations or
facts giving rise to the dispute appear to have occurred before that date.
That was exactly the situation in the Phosphates in Morocco case, where
the Permanent Court addressed the possibility that acts "accomplished
after the crucial date", when "taken in conjunction with earlier acts to

which they are closely linked, constitute as a whole a single, continuing
and progressive illegal act which was not fully accomplished until after
the crucial date" (Phosphates in Morocco, Judgment, 1938, P.C. 1J.,
Series AIB, No. 74,p. 23). Equally, there exists the possibility that acts
carried out prior to the crucial date "nevertheless gave rise to a perma-
nent situation inconsistent with international law which has continued to
exist after thesaid date" (ibid.). This latter eventuality is indeed reflected
in the International Law Commission's Draft Article 25 on State Respon-
sibility (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, Vol. II, Part II,
p. 80).

5. It is not the Court alone which has had to formulate jurisprudence
on the concept of "continuing events": so has the European Court of
Human Rights (see Yugciand Surgin v. Turkey, European Humun Rights

Reports, 1995, p. 505); and so also has the Human Rights Committee
(see Guye et al. v. France, No. 19611985,3 April 1989,35th Session); and
Siminek v. The Czrch Republic (No. 51611 992,3 1July 1995,54th Session).

6. The Court gave its own answers to this issue in Phosphates in
Morocco. It explained that the problem of whether there were "continu-
ing events" that gave rise to a cause of action after the crucial date must
be examined in the particular context of each case. But two factors
always have to be borne in mind: the first is that

"it is necessary always to bear in mind the will of the State which
only accepted the compulsory jurisdiction within specified limits,
and consequently only intended to submit to that jurisdiction dis-
putes having actually arisen from situations or facts subsequent to
its acceptance" (Phosphates in Morocco, Judgment, 1938, P. C.1.J.,
Series AIB, No. 74, p. 24).

And second, it was necessary to see if the facts were merely a necessary
and logical consequence of earlier ones which were barred from scrutiny
by the temporal reservation. On the particular facts of the Phosphates LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND.HIGGINS) 694

la portée ratione temporisde lajuridiction de la Cour, pour la raison que
j'expose au paragraphe 1 ci-dessus. Pourtant le Portugal, dans cette
déclaration, contraireiment à l'habitude, n'invoque pas la condition de
réciprocité. Maisladite condition semble faire partie intégrante de I'ar-
ticle 36, paragraphe 2:lui-même.
4. Il peut évidemment arriver que, mêmesi le différenda manifeste-
ment surgi postérieui-ement à la date critique pour l'attribution de la

compétence, les situations ou les faits qui sont à l'origine du différend
paraissent êtreantérieurs à cette date. Ce fut là exactement la situation
dans I'affaire desPho.sphatesdu Maroc où la Cour permanente a analysé
la possibilitéque des actes «accomplis après la date critique)), lorsqu'ils
sont «mis en rapport avec des faits antérieurs auxquels ils sont intime-
ment unis ..constituent dans leur ensemble un seul fait illicitecontinu et
progressif, qui n'est arrivé à sa perfection qu'après la date critique))
(Phosphates du Maroc, arrêt, 1938, C.P.J. I. sérieAIB n" 74, p. 23). De
même,il est possible que certains faits, bien que réalisés à une époque
antérieure à la date critique «donne[nt] naissanceà une situation perma-
nente contraire au droit international ..qui s'est prolongée au-delà de

cette date))(ihid.).D'ailleurs, la Commission du droit international tient
compte de cette dernière éventualitédans son projet d'article 25 sur la
responsabilité desEtats (Annuaire de la Commission du droit internatio-
nal, vol. II, deuxièmepartie, p. 101).
5. La Cour n'est pas seule à avoir dû constituer une jurisprudence sur
la notion d'«événementcontinu)) ou de «fait ayant un caractère deconti-
nuité)):la Cour euro.péennedes droits de l'homme a dû en faire autant
(voir l'affaireYagci et Sargin c. Turquie, Recueil de jurisprudence de la
Cour européennedes droits de l'homme, 1995, p. 505); et le Comité des
droits de l'homme a également dû en faire autant (voir Guye et al.
c. France, communica.tion no19611985,3 avril 1989,trente-cinquièmeses-

sion); et Siminek c. lu République tchèque (communication no 51611992,
3 l juillet 1995,cinquante-quatrième session).
6. La Cour a donnéses propres réponses à cette question dans l'affaire
des Phosphates du hlaroc. Elle a expliqué qu'ilfaut examiner dans le
cadre particulier de chaque affaire le problème de savoir s'il existe des
((événements continu!;))qui sontà l'origine de l'action intentée postérieu-
rement à la date critique. Mais iy a deux éléments à ne jamais oublier.
Le premier est que:

«il faut toute foi:^garder toujours présente à l'esprit la volonté de
I'Etat qui, n'ayant accepté la juridiction obligatoire que dans cer-
taines limites, n'a entendu y soumettre que les seuls différends qui
sont réellementnésde situations ou de faits postérieurs à son ac-
ceptation » (Pho.sphates du Maroc, arrêt, 1938, C. P.J.I. série AIB
n" 74, p. 24).

Et le second élément est qu'ilfaut voir si les faits sont simplement une
conséquence nécessaireet logique de faitsantérieursque la réserved'ordre
temporel a empêché d'examiner. S'agissantdes faits particuliers decase, the Court found that the cited facts and situations could not be
viewedas "a final step and crowning point" of the earlier events (P.C. IJ.,
Series AIB, No. 74, p. 26) nor did they "alter the situation which had
already been established" (ibid.,p. 27). Nor could they be separated from
those that had arisen before the crucial date.

7. That this particular jurisdictional problem, as any other, requires

close attention to be given to the intention of the State issuing its declara-
tion with limitations or reservations was stated by the Permanent Court
in the Phosphates in Morocco case and recently affirmed by this Court in
the case of Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the
Court, Judgment (I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 454, para. 49). It is striking that
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia did not advance arguments before
the Court suggesting either continuing events or a continuing dispute (the
latter not having been an issue in Phosphates in Morocco). It squarely
based itself on a dispute it perceived as arising, and situations and facts
that it perceived as occurring, after the crucial date of25April. It did not
wish any dispute there may have been between itself and Portugal prior

to 25 April to be subject to the Court's jurisdiction, nor any situations
and facts relating to such dispute. That was the intention of the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia and it was clear. But within that intent there was
also a hope - thehope that there could be identified a dispute that arose
only after 25 April. Certainly there were events, occurring after 25 April,
that were the subject of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's complaint
(though these were not specified by date or in any detail). But the Court
has not been able to see a dispute arising only after 25 April. The claim
that aerial bombing by NATO, and NATO States, was illegal, was made
in the Security Council on 24 March and 26 March, and rebutted there.
The conditions specified in the Muvrommatis case (Muvrommatis Pales-
tine Concessions, Judgrnent No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A. No. 2) for

the existence of a dispute were thus met at that time.

8. No doubt the continuation of the bombing and the targets hit after
25 April has aggravated and intensified the dispute. But every aerial bom-

bardment subsequent to 25 April does not constitute a new dispute. In
short, there are situations and facts occurring subsequent to the crucial
date, but there is not at the present time a dispute arising subsequent to
that date. In effectively realizing the intention (which the Court must
respect) of its declaration, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was notI'affaire des Phosphates du Maroc, la Cour a estiméque les faits et les
situations invoquées ne pouvaient pas êtreconsidéréscomme «le terme
final et le couronnement » des événementsantérieurs (C.P.J.I. sérieAIB
no 74, p. 26) et qu'ils ne «modifi[aient] aucunement l'étatde choses crééà
cet égard» par les événementsantérieurs (ibid., p. 27). Il n'étaitpas non
plus possible de séparer les faits et les situations invoquésde ceux qui
étaient antérieursà la date critique.
7. La Cour permanente a donc déclarédans l'affaire des Phosphates
du Muroc que ce problème particulier de compétence impose, comme
n'importe quel autre problèmedans ce domaine, de considéreravec soin

l'intention de1'Etatqui assortit sa déclaration d'acceptation de lajuridic-
tion de la Cour de certaines limitations ou réserveset la Cour actuellel'a
récemment affirméaussi dans I'affaire de la Compétence en matière de
pêcheries(Espagne c. Cunada), compétence de la Cour, arrêt(C.I.J.
Recueil 1998, p. 454, par. 49). Il est étonnant que la Républiquefédérale
de Yougoslavie n'ait pas plaidédevant la Cour soit le caractère continu
de certains événements, soitle caractère continu du différend (cedernier
point n'ayant pas fait problème dans I'affairedes Phosphates du Maroc).
La République fédéralede Yougoslavie s'est fermement appuyée sur un
différend perçu comime ayant surgi et sur des situations et des faits
perçus comme s'étant produits après la date critique du 25 avril. La
Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie ne voulait pas que tout différendqui
aurait pu exister entre elle-mêmeet le Portugal antérieurement au 25 avril

relèvede la compétericede la Cour, non plus que certaines situations et
certains faits en rapport avec ce différend. C'était là l'intention de la
République fédéralede Yougoslavie et cette intention étaitclaire. Mais
cette intention renfermait aussi un espoir - l'espoir qu'ilserait possible
d'établirl'existenced',undifférendqui n'aurait surgi que postérieurement
au 25 avril. Certes, il s'est produit postérieurement au 25 avril des événe-
ments qui font bien l'objet de la plainte de la République fédéralede
Yougoslavie (encore que ces événements n'aientpas étédéfinispar leur
date ni par des détai1:s). ais la Cour n'a pas étéen mesure de constater
la présence d'un différend qui n'aurait surgi que postérieurement au
25avril. Laplainte suiivantlaquelle lesbombardements aériensdel'OTAN
et des Etats membres de l'OTAN étaient illicites a été formuléeau
Conseil de sécurité 11:s24 et 26 mars et a étérécuséeau Conseil. Les
conditions à réunir -pour qu'existe un différend telles qu'ellesont été

définies dans l'affaire Muvrommatis (Concessions Mavrommatis en
Palestine. arret no2, 1924, C.P.J. 1.sérieA no2) ont donc étéréunies à
ce moment-là.
8. Incontestableme:nt, la poursuite des bombardements et les frappes
atteignant leurs obje:ctifs postérieurement au 25 avril ont aggravé et
intensifiéle différend. Mais chacun des bombardements aériens posté-
rieurs au 25 avril ne constitue pas un différendnouveau. En résumé,il y
a des situations et des faits qui se produisent postérieurement à la date
critique, mais il n'existe pas actuellement de différenden train de surgir
postérieurement à cette date. Tout en concrétisant bien l'intention mise696 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP.HIGGINS)

able also to realize its hope. Its declaration accordingly fails to invest the
Court with jurisdiction.

9. Of course, in thePhosphatesinMoroccocase the Court was address-
ing temporal limits at the phase of preliminary objections. But because
the Court must be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, at least prima facie,
before considering whether the conditions of Article 41 of the Statute are
met for the indication of interim measures of protection, the question
must be dealt with here at this stage, albeit on a provisional basis.

10. Complex issues arise for the Court in satisfying itself that it has a
jurisdiction at least sufficient to consider indicating provisional measures
under Article 41 of the Statute.

11. Minimal guidance is provided in the Statute and in the Rules of
Court as to legal requirements relating to the indication of provisional
measures. Article 41 of the Statute merely provides that the Court "shall
have the power to indicate, if it considers that circumstances so require,
any provisional measures which ought to be taken to preserve the respec-
tive rights of either party". This shows both the function of interim mea-
sures and the fact that the Court has a discretion as to their indication-
but nothing else.The Rules of Procedure in their successiveversions have
provided little guidance on the application of Article 41 of the Statute,
with those of 1936and 1978reflecting the most significant developments

in the practice (for details, see Guyomar, Commentairedu Règlement de
la Cour Internationalede Justice, 2nd ed.). It has been through the case
law of the Court that the many different legal elements relating to pro-
visional measures have evolved (no interim-judgment to be given: case
concerning the Factory ut Chorzow, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 12; nexus
between rights to be protected and the measures sought: Legal Status of
the South-Eastern Territory of Greenland,P.C. I.J., Series AIB, No. 48;
Polish Agrarian Reform and German Minority, P.C.I.J., Series AIB,
No. 58; meaning of the protection of the rights of the parties; the ques-
tion of extension and aggravation of the dispute: Electricity Companyof
Sofia and Bulgaria,P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 79.

12. It is equally through its case law that the Court has had to address

the jurisdictional problems that arise when a request for the indication of
provisional measures is made before the Court has definitively estab-
lished its jurisdiction in a case.
13. In the Anglo-IranianOil Co. case, the Court stated that, because
"it cannot be accepted a priori" that the claim "falls completely outside
the scope of international jurisdiction" the Court could entertain the
request for interim measures of protection (Interim Protection, Order of
5 July 1951, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 93). At the same time, the Court LICEITÉDE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. HIGGINS) 696

dans sa déclaration d'acceptation (intention que la Cour se doit de res-
pecter), la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie n'a pas étéen mesure de
concrétiseren outre l'espoir qu'elley mettait aussi. En conséquence, sa
déclarationne donne pas compétencea la Cour.
9. Certes, dans l'affaire desPhosphates du Maroc, la Cour examinait
les limitations d'ordre:temporel de la déclaration d'acceptation au stade

des exceptions préliminaires. Mais laCour devant s'assurer qu'elle est
compétente,tout au moinsprimafacie, avant d'examiner si lesconditions
prescritesà l'article 41 du Statut pour I'indication de mesures conserva-
toires sont bien réunies,il faut en l'espècetraiter la question a ce stade-ci,
à titre provisoire toutefois.
10. Des questions complexes se posent a la Cour quand elle veut
s'assurer qu'elle estcompétente, ne serait-ce qu'assez compétente pour
envisager d'indiquer des mesures conservatoires conformément à I'article
41 du Statut.
11. Le Statut et le Règlement de la Cour ne donnent au'un mini-
mum d'indications quant aux conditions d'ordre juridique qui prési-

dent a la prescriptiori de mesures conservatoires. L'article 41 du Statut
stipule simplement que la Cour «a le pouvoir d'indiquer, si elle estime
que les circonstances l'exigent, quelles mesures conservatoires du droit
de chacun doivent êtreprises a titre provisoire)). Cela dit quel est le rôle
des mesures conservatoires et cela dit aussi que la Cour jouit d'une cer-
taine latitude quant A I'indication de telles mesures- mais cela ne dit
rien d'autre. Le Règlement, dans ses versions successives,ne fournit pas
beaucoup d'éléments utiles sur l'application de l'article1 du Statut, les
versions de 1936 et de 1978 montrant a cet égard les points les plus
importants de l'évoliitionde la pratique (pour avoir des détails, voir
Guyomar, Commentaire du Règlement de la Cour internationale de Jus-
tice,2"éd.).C'est à travers lajurisprudence de la Cour que les nombreux

éléments différents d'ordre juridique concernant les mesures conserva-
toires ont évolué(il ne faut pas rendre d'arrêt provisoire: affaire de
l'Usine de Chorzbw, (CP.J.I. sérieA no 12; le lien entre les droits a pro-
tégeret les mesures demandées:Statut juridique du territoire du sud-est
du Groënland, C.P.J.I. sérieAIB no 48; Réforme agraire polonaise et
minorité allemunde, tZP.J.I. sérieAIB no 58; signification de la protec-
tion des droits de chacun; question de l'extension et de l'aggravation
du différend : Compagnie d'électricité deSojîa et de Bulgarie, C. P.J.I.
sérieAIB no 79).
12. C'est égalementpar sa pratique que la Cour a dû examiner les pro-
blèmesdejuridiction qui se posent quand elleest saisied'une demande en
indication de mesures conservatoires avant d'avoir établidéfinitivement

qu'elle estcompétentepour connaître de I'affaire.
13. Dans l'affaire de 1'Anglo-IrunianOil Co., la Cour a dit que, parce
qu'«on ne saurait admettre a priori)) qu'une demande ((échappecomplè-
tement a la juridiction internationale)), la Cour pouvait examiner la
demande en indication de mesures conservatoires (mesures conserva-
toires, ordonnance du 5juillet1951. C.I.J. Recueil1951, p. 93). En mêmenoted that the indication of such measures "in no way prejudges the
question of the jurisdiction of the Court to deal with the merits of the
case and leaves unaffected the right of the Respondent to submit argu-
ments against such jurisdiction" (I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 93).
14. This latter statement of the consequences for subsequent phases of
an Order for interim measures has remained essentially unchanged over
the years. However, the jurisdictional prerequisites for the issuance of
interim measures of protection have undergone important developments
in thejurisprudence. Indeed, the debate had already been heavilyengaged
within the Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. case itself. In their dissenting opinions,
Judges Winiarski and Badawi Pasha viewed the Court as finding that it
was competent to indicate interim measures of protection "if prima facie
the total lack of jurisdiction of the Court is not patent, that is . ..there

is a possibility, however remote, that the Court may be competent" (ibid.,
p. 97). But observing that interim measures of protection were in inter-
national law even more exceptional than in municipal law, as they were
"a scarcely tolerable interference in the affairs of a sovereign State", they
ought not to be indicated unless the Court's jurisdiction was "reasonably
probable".

15. In Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), the Court
refined the formula, stating that when considering a request for the indi-
cation of provisional measures, it had no need "finally to satisfy itself
that it has jurisdiction on the merits of the case, yet it ought not to act
under Article 41 of the Statute if the absence ofjurisdiction on the merits
is manifest" (Interim Protection, Order of 17 August 1972, I.C.J. Reports
1972, p. 15).
16. In the Nuclear Tests case (1973), France insisted that the Court
was "manifestly not competent in the case". The Court, departing in part
from the formula it had used the year before in the Fisheries Jurisdiction
case, stated that it "need not . ..finally satisfy itself that it has jurisdic-

tion on the merits of the case", but that it ought not to indicate provi-
sional measures "unless the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear,
prima facie, to afford a basis on which thejurisdiction of the Court might
be founded" (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Interim Protection,
Order of 22 June 1973, 1.C.J. Reports 1973, p. 101).In none of the next
three provisional measures cases (Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of War,
Order of 13 July 1973, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 328; Aegean Sea Conti-
nental ShelJ: Order of 11 September 1976, I.C.J. Reports 1976, p. 3;
United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran, Order of
17 December 1979, I.C.J. Reports 1979, p. 7) was the question of juris-
diction the main basis for the order.

17. In Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua,
Provisional Measures (Order of 10 May 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984,
p. 179)the Court came back to the issue, repeating the exact formula of LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND.HIGGINS) 697

temps, la Cour a considéréque l'indication de telles mesures «ne préjuge
en rien la compétence:de la Cour pour connaître du fond de I'affaire et
laisse intact le droit du défendeurde faire valoir sesmoyens à l'effetde la
contester)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p. 93).
14. Cette dernière déclaration de principe relative aux conséquences
d'une ordonnance prescrivant des mesures conservatoires pour la suite
de la procédure est restéepratiquement inchangée avecle temps. En re-
vanche, les préalableisd'ordre juridictionnel autorisant à prescrire des
mesures conservatoire:ont beaucoup évoluédans lajurisprudence de la
Cour. Au reste, le débats'était d'oreset déjàactivement engagé avec I'af-
faire de I'Anglo-Iraniiln Oil Co. elle-même.Dans leur opinion dissidente
commune, les juges Winiarski et Badawi Pasha constatent que la Cour
estime pouvoir indiquer des mesures conservatoires «si prima facie I'in-
compétence totale n'est pas évidente,donc s'il existe une possibilité, si

faible soit-elle, de compétence pour la Cour)) (ibid., p. 97). Mais les
mêmesauteurs font observer qu'en droit international, ces mesures ont
un caractère exceptionnel à un plus haut degréencore qu'en droit interne
car elles représentent «une ingérence à peine tolérabledans les affaires
d'un Etat souverain)), de sorte qu'il ne faut pas indiquer de telles mesures
sauf si la compétencede la Cour est ((raisonnablement probable)).
15. Dans I'affaire delaCompétenceen matièredepêcheries(Royaume-
Uni c. Islande), la Cour a affinéla formule, déclarant que, lorsqu'elle
est saisied'une demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, elle n'a
pas besoin «de s'assurer de manière concluante de sa compétencequant
au fond de I'affaire,mais ..ne doit cependant pas appliquer l'article 41
du Statut lorsque son incompétence au fond est manifeste)) (mesures
conservatoires, ordon~~ance du 17 août 1972, C.I.J. Recueil 1972, p. 15).
16. Dans I'affairedes Essais nucléaires(1973),la France a dit avec fer-
metéque la Cour étaiitmanifestement ((incompétenteen l'espèce)).S'écar-
tant légèrementde la formule qu'elle avait employée l'année précédente
dans I'affaire de la Compétenceen matière de pêcheries,la Cour a dit

alors qu'elle «n'a paisbesoin ...de s'assurer de façon concluante de sa
compétencequant au fond de l'affaire)), mais qu'elle nedoit pas indiquer
de telles mesures «si les dispositions invoquées par le demandeur ne se
présentent pascomme constituant, prima facie, une base sur laquelle la
compétencede la Cour pourrait êtrefondée)) (Essais nucléaires(Australie
c. France), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 22 juin 1973, C.I.J.
Recueil 1973, p. 101).Dans aucune des trois affaires de mesures conser-
vatoires qui ont suivi(Procèsdeprisonniers de guerrepakistanais. ordon-
nance du 13juillet 1973, C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 328; Pluteau continental
de la mer Egée,ordonnance du 11 septembre 1976, C.I.J. Recueil 1976,
p. 3; Personnel diplomatique et consulaire des Etats-Unis ciTéhéran,
ordonnance du 15 décembre 1979,C.I.J. Recueil 1979, p. 7), la question
de la compétencen'a constitué le principal fondement de l'ordonnance.
17. Dans I'affaire(desActivitésmilitaires et paramilitaires au Nicara-
gua et contre celui-ci, mesures conservatoires (ordonnance du 10 mai
1984, C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 179) la Cour est revenue sur la question,698 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (SEP.OP.HIGGINS)

the Nuclear Tests case. That formula is now firmly established (Arbitral
Award of 31 July 1989, Provisional Measures, Order of 2 March 1990,
1.C.J. Reports 1990, pp. 68-69; Passage through the Great Belt (Finland
v. Denmark), Provisional Measures, Orderof 29 July 1991,1.C.J. Reports
1991, p. 17;Application of the Convention on the Prevention andPunish-
ment of the Crime of Genocide, Provisional Measures, Order of 8 April
1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 11, and Order of 13 September 1993, ibid.,
pp. 16-17; Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroonand Nigeria,
Provisional Measures, Order of15 March 1996, 1.C.J. Reports 1996 (I),
p. 12; Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Paraguay v. United
States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 9 April 1998, 1.C.J.
Reports 1998, p. 255, para. 23; and LaGrand, Provisional Measures,
Order of 3 March 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 13, para. 13).

18. Thus a party seeking the indication of provisional measures must
show a prima facie basis upon which the Court's jurisdiction in the case
might be founded. That being said, several questions (which have a par-
ticular relevance in the present case) remain. What is sufficient to show
the required "prima facie" basis for jurisdiction? And what jurisdictional
matters will the Court look at, as necessary for this purpose, at the pro-
visional measures stage, and what will it reserve for any further hearings
on jurisdiction?

19. Itis the practice of the Courtthat weighty and complex arguments
relating to itsjurisdiction will not usually be addressed at the provisional
measures phase but rather will be regarded as appropriate for resolution
only at the preliminary objections phase. The Co-Agent of the Swiss
Government in the Interhandel case suggested that the Court would not
wish, at the interim measures phase, to adjudicate "upon so complex and

delicate a question as the validity of the American reservation" (Inter-
handel, Interim Protection, Order of 24 October 1957, I.C.J. Reports
1957, p. 111). The Court, there being able to base its refusal to indicate
provisional measures on other grounds, gave no answer to this question.
In the Nuclear Tests case of 1973,Australia advanced detailed arguments
alleging the continued validity and applicability of the General Act of
1928as a separate basis for jurisdiction. Without distinguishing the Gen-
eral Act from Article 36 of the Statute, the Court satisfied itself with say-
ing that "the provisions invoked by the Applicant appear, prima facie, to
afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the Court might be founded"
(Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Interim Protection, Order of
22 June 1973, 1.C. J. Reports 1973, p. 102).

20. In the Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicara-
gua case (1984), the Court was faced, at the provisional measures stage,
with very complicated arguments relating both to the legal effect of thereprenant exactement la formule qu'elle avait employéedans l'affaire des
Essais nucléaires.Cette formule est désormais solidement établie (Sen-
tence arbitrale du 31"juillet1989, mesures conservatoires, ordorznancedu
2 mars 1990, C.I.J. Recueil 1990, p. 68-69; Passage par le Grand-Belt,
(Finlande c. Danemark), mesures conservatoires,ordonnance du29juillet
1991, C.1.J Recueil 1!191,p. 17;Application de la conventionpour lapré-
vention et lu répressiondu crime de génocide,mesures conservatoires,
ordonnance du 8 avril 1993, C.I. J. Recueil 1993, p. 1 1,et ordonnance du

13septembre 1993, ibid., p. 16-17;Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le
Cameroun et le Nigéria, mesures conservatoires,ordonnance du 15 mars
1996, C.I.J. Recueil 1'996(11, p. 12 ;Convention de Vienne sur les rela-
tions consuluires (P~~~aguay c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique), mesures conser-
vatoires, ordonnance du 9 avril 1998, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 255, par. ;3
et LaGrand, mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 3 mars 1999, C.I.J.
Recueil 1999, p. 13, par. 13).
18. Donc, quand l'une desparties présente unedemande en indication
de mesures conservatoires, elle doit montrer qu'il existe prima facie une
base sur laquelle la compétencede la Cour pourrait êtrefondée. Celadit,
il se pose encore plusieurs questions (qui intéressenttout particulièrement
la présente espèce).Qu'est-cequi suffit àmontrer l'existencede la base de
compétence prima facie dont on a besoin? Et quelles questions juridic-
tionnelles la Cour va-t-elle examiner au stade des mesures conservatoires

parce qu'ellessont indispensables pour fonder la compétence prima facie,
et quelles questionsd'ordre juridictionnel va-t-elleréserver, lecas échéant,
a un examen ultérieur sur la compétence?
19. Dans sa pratique, la Cour n'examine habituellement pas au stade
des mesures conservatoires les fortes raisons et les thèses complexes qui
lui sont présentéesau sujet de sa compétence,elle attend plutôt pour sta-
tuer à cet égard la phase des exceptions préliminaires. Dans l'affaire de
l'lnterhandel, le coagent du Gouvernement suisse a émisl'idéeque, au
stade des mesures conservatoires, la Cour ne voudrait pas se prononcer
«sur une question aussi complexe et délicateque la validitéde la réserve
américaine)) (Interhandel, mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 24 oc-
tobre 1957, C.I.J Recueil 1957, p. 111).La Cour, qui pouvait en l'espèce
faire appel à d'autres motifs pour refuser d'indiquer des mesures conser-
vatoires, n'a pas répondu à cette question. Dans l'affaire des Essais

nucléaires de 1973, l'Australie a présenté uneargumentation détaillée,
alléguantque l'Acte généralde 1928était encoreen vigueur et applicable,
constituant ainsi un fiondementde compétenceindépendant. Sansfaire de
distinction entrel'Acte uénéralet l'article 36 du Statut. la Cour a conclu
que ((lesdispositions invoquéespar ledemandeur sepr&ent[ai]ent comme
constituant, prima facie, une base sur laquelle la compétencede la Cour
pourrait être fondée),)(Essais nucléaires(Australie c. France), mesures
conservatoires, ordonnance du 22 juin 1973, C.1.J. Recueil 1973, p. 102).
20. Dans l'affaire des Activitésmilitaires et paramilitaires au Nicura-
gua et contre celui-ci (1984), la Cour s'est trouvée,au stade des mesures
conservatoires, face à des thèses extrêmement complexesportant surUnited States declaration of 6 April 1984and to the apparent failure of
Nicaragua to have deposited an instrument of ratification of the protocol
to bring its adherence to the Statute of the Permanent Court of Interna-
tional Justice into effect. The Court briefly recounted the legal problems
associated with each of these provisions and stated that it:

"will not now make any final determination of the question of the
present validity or invalidity of the declaration of 24 September
1929,and the question whether or not Nicaragua accordingly was or
was not, for the purpose of Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute of
the Court a 'State accepting the same obligation' as the United
States of America at the date of filing of the Application, so asto be
able to rely on the United States declaration of 26 August 1946,nor
of the question whether, as a result of the declaration of 6 April
1984, the present Application is excluded from the scope of the
acceptance by the United States of the compulsory jurisdiction of
the Court ..." (Order of IOMay 1984, 1.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 180).

The Court satisfied itself with saying that "the two declarations do
nevertheless appear to afford a basis on which the jurisdiction of the
Court might be founded" (ihid.).
21. In the present case the Court has also not made any final determi-
nation upon the question of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's status
or otherwise as a Member of the United Nations and thus as a party to
the Statute having the right to make a declaration under Article 36, para-
graph 2, thereof. This is clearly a matter of the greatest complexity and
importance and was, understandably, not the subject of comprehensive
and systematic submissions in the recent oral hearings on provisional
measures.

22. Of course, just as with the question of Nicaragua's ratification of
its adherence to the Statute of the Permanent Court in the Military and
Paramilitary Activities inund against Nicaragua case, it might be thought
that the status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a necessary
"préalable" to everything else. But when dealing with provisional mea-
sures the Court is faced with unavoidable tensions between the demands
of logic and the inability to determine with finality when operating under
urgency in response to a request for provisional measures. The opera-
tional principle is that matters of deep complexity will if possible be left
to one side in determining the prima faciejurisdiction of the Court for
purposes of Article 41.

23. In the Nuclear Tests cases and in the Military and Paramilitary
Activities case, the Court equally held over certain arguments relating to
declarations under the Statute. By contrast, the Court in this case has
addressed, for purposes of provisional measures, both the terms of the
declarations of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Portugal and the LICÉITÉ DE IL'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND.HIGGINS) 699

l'effetjuridique de la déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction obliga-
toire de la Cour faite le 6 avril 1984par les Etats-Unis, d'une part, et, de
l'autre, sur le fait qu'apparemment le Nicaragua n'avait pas déposéd'ins-
trument de ratification du protocole pour rendre effective son adhésion
au Statut de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale. La Cour a
rapidement fait le point des problèmesd'ordre juridique liésa chacune de
ces dispositions et elle a considéré qu'elle:

«n7entend[ait] pas se prononcer définitivementpour l'instant sur la
question de savoir si la déclarationdu 24 septembre 1929est valable
ou non et sien conséquencele Nicaragua est ou n'est pas, aux finsde
l'article 36, paragraphe 2, du Statut de la Cour, un ((Etat acceptant
la mêmeobligation)) que les Etats-Unis d'Amérique ala date du
dépôtde la requête, demanière a pouvoir se prévaloir dela déclara-
tion américainedu 26 août 1946,ni sur celle de savoir si, du fait de
la déclarationdu 6 avril 1984,la présenterequêten'entre plusdans le
cadre de l'acceptation par les Etats-Unis de la juridiction obligatoire
de la Cour ..» (ordonnance du 10 mai 1984, C.I.J. Recueil 1984,
p. 180).

La Cour s'est contentée dedire: «les deux déclarations paraissent cons-
tituer néanmoins une base sur laquelle la compétence dela Cour pourrait
être fondée)) (ibid.).
21. Dans la préseniteespèce, la Cour ne s'est pas non plus prononcée
définitivementsur la q,uestionde savoir si la Républiquefédéralede You-
goslavie étaittoujours ou non Membre des Nations Unies et, dans I'affir-
mative, partie a ce titre au Statut ayant le droit de faire une déclarationen
vertu de l'article 36,paragraphe 2, dudit Statut. Il s'agit là d'une question
extrêmement complexeet importante et il est compréhensible qu'elle n'ait
pas fait l'objet d'exposésapprofondis et systématiqueslors de la procé-

dure orale récenteportant sur I'indication de mesures conservatoires.
22. Bien sûr, tout comme il en fut pour la question de la ratification
par le Nicaragua de slonadhésionau Statut de la Cour permanente dans
l'affaire des Activités militaireset paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui-ci,on peut penser qu'en l'espèce,le statut de la Républiquefédérale
de Yougoslavie constituait un préalable indispensable a tout le reste.
Mais, quand elle se penche sur une demande en indication de mesures
conservatoires, la Cour est aux prises avec d'inévitablestensions entre les
exigencesde la logique et l'impossibilitéou elle setrouve de se prononcer
a titre définitifquand elle est en proie à l'urgence. Pour pouvoir agir, le
principe qu'elle adopte est que les questions d'une grande complexité
seront, s'il est possible, laisséesde côtéquand elle établitsi elle a prima
facie compétenceaux fins de l'article 41 de son Statut.
23. Dans les affaires des Essais nucléaireset dans celle des Activités
militaires et paramilitaires,la Cour a, chaque fois, laisséde mêmeen sus-
pens certaines thèsesconcernant lesdéclarationsfaites en vertu du Statut.
Par opposition, dans la présenteespèce, laCour, aux fins de I'indication
de mesures conservatoires, a examinéle texte même desdéclarations delainteraction of the declarations of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and
Portugal.

24. The prima facie test of jurisdiction does not make it sufficient
merely to note the very existence of two declarations at this stage. This is
not to be deduced from the statement of the Court in the Cameroon
v. Nigeria provisional measures case that "the declarations made by the
Parties in accordance with Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute consti-
tute a prima facie basis upon which its jurisdiction in the present case
might be founded" (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 21, para. 31). The
Nigerian request for a reconsideration of the rule in the Rights of
Passage case, as it bore on the interpretation of its own declaration,
clearly fell into that category of complex and weighty objections to juris-

diction that had to be deferred for proper consideration until the pre-
liminary objections phase. In that particular light (and because the
Rights of Passage principle was well established in the Court's case law),
the declarations would in the meantime be treated as establishing prima
faciejurisdiction.

25. The same guiding principles apply to treaties said to provide a
basis for the Court's jurisdiction. Thus the several complicated argu-
ments that had been advanced in connection with Article IX of the Geno-
cide Convention were not addressed in the provisional measures phase of
the Genocide case of 1993; and it was against that background that the
Court said that Article IX of the Convention appeared to "afford a basis
on which thejurisdiction of the Court might be founded" (Application of
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Geno-
cide, Provisional Measures, Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993,
p. 16; and Order of 13 September 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 342).

26. But it should not be thought that mere invocation of a jurisdic-
tional clause, with nothing more, sufficesto establish a prima facie basis
of the Court's jurisdiction. It cannot be otherwise, because the jurisdic-
tion of the Court - even if one might regret this state of affairs as we
approach the twenty-first century -1s based on consent. And consent to
jurisdiction cannot be established, even prima facie, when it isclear from
the terms of the declarations themselves that the necessary consent is not
prima facie present, or simply is not present, simpliciter. As Sir Hersch
Lauterpacht put it in his separate opinion in the Interhandel case, the test
of jurisdiction of the Court prima facie is met if, in the relevant instru-
ments, there are "no reservations obviously excluding its jurisdiction"
(I.C.J. Reports 1957,pp. 118-119).Reservations relevant for this purpose
are both those in a State's own declaration and those that it may rely on
reciprocally. LICEITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.IND.HIGGINS) 700

Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie et du Portugal ainsi que l'interaction
de ces deux déclarations de la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie et du
Portugal.
24. Le critère de la compétence prima facie ne permet pas de se
contenter de prendre acte de l'existence de deux déclarations à ce stade.

Ce n'est pas ce qu'il faut déduire del'extrait de l'ordonnance que la Cour
rend au stade des mesures conservatoires dans I'affaireCameroun c. Nigé-
ria, quand elle dit que ((les déclarations faites par les Parties conformé-
ment au paragraphe :!de l'article 36 de son Statut constitue prima facie
une base sur laquelle sa compétence pourrait être fondéeen l'espèce))
(C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 21, par. 31). Le Nigéria souhaitait voir la
Cour revenir sur la règlede I'affaire du Droit de pussage, parce que cela
avait une incidence sur l'interprétationà donner à sa propre déclaration,
mais cette demande irelevait manifestement de cette catégorie d'excep-
tions à la compétencefort complexes et lourdes de conséquencesdont il
fallait différertout examen véritable jusqu'au stade des exceptions préli-
minaires. Adoptant cette optique particulière, (et aussi parce que le prin-

cipe de I'affaire duDroit de passage étaitsolidement ancrédans sa juris-
prudence), la Cour a décidéde traiter entre-temps les déclarations en
question comme lui donnant compétence prima facie.
25. Les mêmespriricipesdirecteurs s'appliquent aux traitéscensésfon-
der la juridiction de la Cour. C'est pourquoi plusieurs thèses complexes
présentéesau sujet de I'article IX de la convention sur le génociden'ont
pas étéexaminéesau :stadedes mesures conservatoires lors des affaires de
1993relatives à l'Application de la convention sur le génocide;et c'est sur
cette toile de fond que la Cour a dit alorsque l'article de la convention
semblait ((constituer une base sur laquelle la compétence de la Cour
pourrait être fondée)) (Application de la convention pour la préventionet

la répressiondu crime de génocide,mesures conservatoires, ordonnance
du 8 avril 1993, C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 16, et ordonnance du 13 sep-
tembre 1993. ihid., p. 342).
26. Mais il ne faudrait pas penser pour autant qu'il suffitd'invoquer
une clause juridictioiinelle, sans plus, pour constituer en faveur de la
Cour une base de compétence prima facie. 11ne peut en être autrement
parce que la compétence dela Cour - quand bien mêmeon regretterait
cet étatde choses à la veilledu XXI" siècle- repose sur leconsentement.
Et le consentement à la compétencene peut pas être établi,fût-ce prima
facie,quand il ressort clairement du texte mêmede la déclarationd'accep-
tation de la juridiction que ce consentement indispensable n'existe pas
prima Jucie, ou plus simplement encore, n'existe pas. Comme l'a dit sir

Hersch Lauterpacht dans son opinion individuelle à l'issuede l'affaire de
l'lnterhundel, les critkres de la compétenceprima facie de la Cour sont
remplis quand il n'existe dans les instruments pertinents «aucune réserve
excluant manifestement cette compétence)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 119).
Les réservespertinentes à cette fin sont Bla fois celles qui figurent dans
la propre déclaratiori d'un Etat et celles sur lesquelles ledit Etat peut
compter par voie de réciprocité701 LEGALI~ OF USE OF FORCE (SEP. OP. HIGGINS)

27. Yugoslavia made no submission at al1to the Court on either the
optional clause declaration of Portugal or on its interplay with its own
reservation. It did not tell the Court why, when read with Article 62,para-
graph 2, itself, Portugal's reservation and that of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia did not together exclude prima facie jurisdiction. Nor did
Portugal rely reciprocally on Yugoslavia's declaration, no doubt deeming
that to be inconsistent with the position it took alleging the declaration to
be invalid. But the Court cannot fail to consider these matters, and none
of them is so obscure and complicated that it could not be dealt with at

this stage; and nor was that suggested by Yugoslavia.

28. As the Court stated in the Norwegian Louns case: "since two
unilateral declarations are involved [reciprocal]jurisdiction is conferred
upon the Court only to the extent to which the Declarations coincide in
conferring it" (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1957, p. 23). And the Court
clearly stated in Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spuin v. Cunulia) that:

"Conditions or reservations thus do not by their terms derogate
from a wider acceptance already given. Rather, they operate to
define the parameters of the State's acceptance of the compulsory
jurisdiction of the Court." (1.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 453, para. 44.)

Each of these dicta appears in the judgments on jurisdiction, these not
having been provisional measures cases. But a State seeking the introduc-
tion of provisional measures must show that jurisdiction prima facie
exists, notwithstanding conditions, reservations and the operation of reci-
procity between declarations.

29. The restraint upon the liberty of action of a State that necessarily
follows from the indication of provisional measures will not be counte-
nanced unless, prima facie, there isjurisdiction. But an absence of prima
facie jurisdiction at this stage and for this purpose does not necessarily
mean that jurisdiction may not, in the event, later be established. How-

ever, if in considering whether there is jurisdiction prima facie for pur-
poses of Article 41 of the Statute, it is clear beyond doubt that no juris-
diction exists in a particular case, good administration ofjustice requires
that the case be immediately struck off the List in liminr.

30. Finally, it should not be thought that the Court, because it has had
to address the question of its prima faciejurisdiction in the case brought LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. IND. HIGGINS) 701

27. La Yougoslavie n'a formulé àl'intention de la Cour aucune conclu-
sion sur la déclaration faite par le Portugal au titre de la clause faculta-
tive ni sur le fait querettedéclaration pourrait intervenir dans I'applica-
tion de sa propre réserve.La Yougoslavie n'a pas dit à la Cour quelles
incidences il fallaitirer de la condition de réciprocitéfigurant dans la
déclaration du Portugal, quand on l'associe au texte très clair de la
réserveformuléepar la République fédéralede Yougoslavie elle-même.
De son côté,le Portugal n'a pas tablépar voie de réciprocitésur la décla-
ration yougoslave, estimant sans doute que celle-cin'était pascompatible

avec la position qu'il adopte, qui est que la déclaration yougoslave n'est
pas valable. Mais la Cour ne peut pas s'abstenir de considérerces ques-
tions et aucune d'elles n'est à ce point obscure et complexe qu'elle ne
puisse pas êtreexaminée à ce stade; la Yougoslavie n'a pas non plus
laisséentendre que tel étaitle cas.
28. Comme la Cour l'a dit dans l'affaire de Certains emprunts norvé-
giens, quand «il s'agit de deux déclarations unilatérales, ..compétence
lui est conférée[par voie de réciprocité] seulementdans la mesure où elles
coïncident pour la luiconférer))(arrét,C.I.J. Recueil 1957, p. 23). Dans
l'affaire de laompétenceen matière de pêcheries(Espagne c. Canada),
la Cour a déclarénettement:

«les conditions ou réserves,de par leur libellé,n'ont donc pas pour
effet de déroger;iune acceptation de caractère plus large déjàdon-
née. Ellesservenl.plutôt à déterminer l'étenduede l'acceptation par
I'Etat de la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour. »(C.I.J. Recu1998,
p. 453, par. 44.)

Chacun de ces prononcés, dela part de la Cour, figure dans des décisions
relativesà la compétence,car il ne s'agissait pas d'affaires relaàil'indi-
cation de mesures conservatoires. Mais il faut queI'Etat qui demande a la
Cour d'adopter des m~esuresconservatoires montre qu'elle est prima facie
compétente, indépendamment desconditions ou des réservesaccompa-
gnant lesdéclarationset dujeu de la réciprocité d'une déclaration l'autre.
29. Les restriction:;à la libertéd'action d'un Etat qui accompagnent
obligatoirement l'indication de mesures conservatoires ne seront pas tolé-
rées àmoins qu'il n'y ait compétenceprima facie. Mais l'absence de com-
pétence prima facie a ce stade et à cette fin ne veut pas nécessairement
dire qu'il nesera pas possible, le cas échéant, d'établir ultérieuremqtue

la CIourest compéterite.Toutefois, si, quand on examine si la Cour est
compétente prima futie aux fins de l'article 41 du Statut, il apparaît clai-
rement, sans l'ombre d'un doute, qu'elle n'est pas compétente pour
connaître d'une affaire donnée, la bonne administration de la justice
impose de rayer immédiatement l'affaire du rôle in limine.

30. Un dernier mot: il ne faudrait pas non plus penser que, parce
qu'elle a dû examiner la question de sa compétence primu furie dansby the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, is indifferent to the great suffer-
ing in Kosovo and Yugoslavia. Indeed, the preambular paragraphs to its
Order show otherwise. Nor does it seek to avoid making its contribution
to an elucidation of the heavilycontested issues of law. But the Courtcan
take on its responsibilities within the United Nations system and use its
judicial authority and creativity only when it hasjurisdiction. In this case,
the Court's jurisdiction has yet to be established even prima facie.

(SignedR )osalyn HIGGINS.l'affaire introduite par la République fédéralede Yougoslavie, la Cour

reste indifférente aux souffrances endurées par le Kosovo et par la You-
goslavie. Du reste, le préambule de son ordonnance montre que tel n'est
pas le cas. Elle ne cherche pas non plus à éviterde participer à la solution
des problèmes de droit qui se posent et qui donnent lieu à d'intenses
débats. Mais la Cour ne peut assumer ses responsabilités dans le cadre du
système des Nations IJnies et faire appel a son autorité et à sa créativité
judiciaires que lorsq~i'elle est compétente. Dans la présente affaire, la

compétence de la Cour est encore à établir, fût-ce prima facie.

(Signk) Rosalyn HIGGINS.

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Separate opinion by Judge Higgins

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