Dissenting opinion by Judge ad hoc Kreca

Document Number
109-19990602-ORD-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
109-19990602-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

TABLE OFCONTENTS

Paragraphs

1. COMPOSITI OFTHE COURT INTHISPARTICULC ARSE 1-4
II. HUMANITARICANNCERN INTHISPARTICULC ARSE 5-7

III. JURISD[CTONTHE COURT R~nont MATERIAE 8-10
IV. OTHERRELEVANITSSUES 11-14 1. In the context of the conceptual difference between the interna-
tional magistrature and the interna1 judicial system within a State, the
institution of judgeud hoc has two basic functions:

"(u) to equalize the situation when the Bench already includes a
Member of the Court Iiaving the nationality of one of the parties;
and (b) to create a nominal equality between two litigating States
when there is no Member of the Court having the nationality of
either party" (S. Rosenne, The Lu1vund Pructice ($the Internutionul
Court, 1920-1996, Vol. III, pp. 1124-1125).

In this particular case room is open for posing the question as to
whether either of these two basic functions of the institution of judgeud
hoc has been fulfilled at all.
It is possible to draw the line between two things.
The first is associated with equalization of the Parties in the parton-
cerning the relations between the Applicant and the respondent States
which have a national judge on the Bench. In concreto,of special interest
is the specific position of the respondent States. They appear in a dual
capacity in these proceedings:

primo, they appear individually in the proceedings considering that
each one of them is in dispute with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia:
and,
secondo, they are at the same time member States of NATO under
whose institutional umbrella they have undertaken the armed attack on
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Within the framework of NATO,

these respondent States are acting in corpore, as integral parts of an
organizational whole. The corpus of willsof NATO member States, when
the undertaking of military operations is in question, is constituted into a
collective will which is, formally, the will of NATO.

2. The question may be raised whether the respondent States can

qualify as parties in the same interest.
Inits Order of 20July 1931in the caseconcerning the Cusroms RGginze
betiveen Gerrnanyund Au.rrriu, the Permanent Court of International Jus-
tice established that:
"al1governments which, in the proceedings before the Court, come
to the same conclusion, must be held to be in the same interest for

the purposes of the present case" (P. C.I.J., Seri~.s AIB. No. 41,
p. 88).
The question of qualification of the "same interest", in the practice of
the Court, has almost uniformly been based on a formal criterion, the
criterion of "the same conclusion" to which the parties have come in the
proceedings before the Court. In the present case, the question of "the same conclusion" as the rele-
vant criterion for the existence of "the same interest" of the respondent
States is, in my opinion, unquestionable. The same conclusion was, in a
way, inevitable in the present case in view of the identical Application
which the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has submitted against ten

NATO member States, and was formally consecrated by the outcome of
the proceedings before the Court held on 10, 11 and 12 May 1999, in
which al1the respondent States came to the identical conclusion resting
on the foundation of practically identical argumentation which differed
only in the fashion and style of presentation.
Hence, the inevitable conclusion follows, it appears to me, that al1the
respondent States are in concreto parties in the same interest.
3. What are the implications of this fact for the composition of the
Court in the present case? Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute says:
"If the Court includes upon the Bench ajudge ofthe nationality of one of
the parties, any other party may choosë a person to sit as judge."

The Statute, accordingly, refers to the right of "any other party",
namely, a party other than the party which has a judge of its nationality,
in the singular. But, it would be erroneous to draw the conclusion from
theabove-that "any other party", other than the party which has a judge
of its nationality, cannot, under certain circumstances, choose several
judges ad hoc. Such an interpretation would clearly be in sharp contra-
diction with ratio legisof the institution of judge ad hoc, which, in this
particular case, consists of the function "to equalize the situation when
theBench already includes a Member of the Court having the nationality
of one of the parties" (S. Rosenne, The Laiv and Pructice of the Internu-

tional Court, 1920-1996, Vol. III, pp. 1124-1125).The singular used in
Article 31, paragraph 2, of theStatute with reference to the institution of
judges ud hoc is, consequently, but individualization of the general, inher-
ent right to equalization in the composition of the Bench in the relations
between litigating parties, one of which has a judge of its nationality on
the Bench, while the other has not. The practical meaning of thisprinciple
applied in casum ii~ouldimply the right of the Applicunt to choose as
many judges ad hoc to sit on the Bench us is necessury to equalize the
position of the Applicunt und thut of those respondent States ivhich huve
judges of their nationality on the Bench and ivhichshare the sume interest.
In concreto, the inherent right to equulizution in the composition of the

Bench, as an expression oj'jîundamental rule oj'equulity of parties, means
that the Federul Republic of Yugoslavia should huve the right to choose
jîve judges ad hoc, since evenjîve out often respondent States (the United
Stutes ofArnerica, the United Kingdom, France, Germuny and the Neth-
erlun~ls)huvr tlzrir nationul judges sitting on the Bench.
Regarding the notion of equalization which concerns the relation
between the party entitled to choose its judge ad hoc and the parties
which have their national judges on the Bench, the fact is that the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, as can be seen from the Order, did not raise any
objections to the circumstance that as many as five respondent States525 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (DISSO. P.KRECA)

have judges of their nationality on the Bench. However, this circum-
stance surely cannot be looked upon as something making the question
irrelevant, or, even as the tacit consent of the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia to such an outright departure from the letter and spirit of

Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute.
TheCourt has, namely, the obligation to take account ex ojficio of the
question of such a fundamental importance, which directly derives from,
and vice versa, may directly and substantially affect, the equality of the
parties. The Court is the guardian of legality for the parties to the case,
for which presumptio juris et de jure alone is valid - to know the law
(jura novit curiu). As pointed out by Judges Bedjaoui, Guillaume and
Ranjeva in their joint declaration in the Lockerhie case: "that is for the

Court - not the parties - to take the necessary decision" (Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreul Corrventioriurising
from the Aerial Incident ut Lockerhir (Lihyun Arah Jarnahiriyu v. United
Kingdom), 1.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 36, para. 11).

A contrurio, the Court would risk, in a matter which is ratio legis
proper of the Court's existence, bringing itself into the position of a pas-
sive observer, who only takes cognizance of the arguments of the parties
and, then, proceeds to the passing of a decision.

4. The other function is associated with equalization in the part which
is concerned with the relations between the Applicant and those respon-
dent States which have no national judges on the Bench.
The respondent States having no judge of their nationality on the
Bench have chosen, in the usual procedure, their judges ud lioc (Belgium,
Canada, Italy and Spain). Only Portugal has not designated itsjudge ad
Iioc. The Applicant successivelyraised objections to the appointment of
the respondent States' judges ad hoc invoking Article 31,paragraph 5, of

the Statute of the Court. The responses of the Court with respect to this
question invariably contained the standard phrase "that the Court . . .
found that the choice of a judge ud lioc by the Respondent isjustified in
the present phase of the case".
Needless to say, the above formulation is laconic and does not offer
sufficient ground for the analysis of the Court's legal reasoning. The only
element which is subject to the possibility of teleological interpretation
is the qualification that the choice of a judge ad hoc is "justified in the
present phase of the case". A contrurio, it is, consequently, possible that

such an appointment of a judge ad hoc would "not be justified" in some
other phases of the case. The qualification referred to above could be
interpreted as the Court's reserve with respect to the choice of judges ud
Iioc by the respondent States, a reserve which could be justifiable on
account of the impossibility for the Court to perceive the nature of their
interest - whether it is the "same" or "separate" - before the parties set
out their positions on the case.
The meanings of equalization as a rutio legisinstitution of judges ad

hoc, in the case concerning the Applicant and respondent States whichare parties in the same interest, and which do not have ajudge ad hoc of
their nationality on the Bench, have been dealt with in the practice of the

Court, in a clear and unambiguous manner.

In theSouth West AfLica case (1961) it was established that, if neither
of the parties in thesame interest has ajudge of its nationality among the
Members of the Court, those parties, acting in concert, will be entitled to
appoint a single judge ad hoc (South Wesr Africu, I.C.J. Reports 1961,
P 3).
If, on theotherhand,among the Members of the Court there is ajudge
having the nationality of even one of those parties, then no judge ad hoc
will be appointed (Territorial Jurisdiction of the International Comrnis-
sion of tlze River Oder, P.C.I.J., Series C, No. 17-11, p. 8; Customs
Régime betweenGerrnunyand Austria, 1931, P. C.1.J., Series AIB, No. 41,
p. 88).
Thisperfectly coherent jurisprudence of the Court upplied to this par-
ticulur case means that rlone of' the respondent Stutes itwre entitled to

appoint ajudge ad hoc.
Consequently, it may be said that in the present case neither of the two
basic functions of the institution of judge ad hoc has been applied in the
composition of the Court in a satisfactory way. In my opinion, it is a
question of the utmost specificweight in view of the fact that, obviously,
its meaning is not restricted to the procedure, but that it may have a far-
reaching concrete meaning.

5. Humanitarian concern, as a basis for the indication of provisional
measures, has assumed primary importance in the more recent practice of
the Court.
Humanitarian concern has been applied on two parallel tracks in the
Court's practice :

(a) In respect of the individuul

In this regard the cases concerning LuCrund (Germany v. United
States of America) and the Vienilu Convention on Consular Relations
(Paraguay v. United Stutes of An~erica) are characteristic.
In both cases the Court evinced the highest degree of sensibilityfor the

humanitarian aspect of the matter, which probably found its full expres-
sion in the part of the Application submitted by Germany on 2 March
1999 :
"The importance and sanctity of an individual human lifeare well
established in international law. As recognized by Article 6 of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, every human
being has the inherent right to life and this right shall be protected527 LEGALlTY OF USE OF FORCE (DISS. OP. KRE~A)

by law." (LuGrand (Germuny v. United Stutes of Arnericu), Provi-
.rionulMeusures, Order of3 Marclz 1999, 1. C.J. Reports 1999, p. 12,
para. 8).

The following day, the Court already unanimously indicated provisional
measures because it found that in question was "a matter of the greatest
urgency" (ihicl.,p. 15,para. 26), which makes it incumbent upon the Court

to activate the mechanism of provisional measures in accordance with Ar-
ticle 41 of theStatute of the Court and Article 75, paragraph 1, of the
Rules of Court in order: "to ensure that Walter LaGrand is not executed
pending the final decision in these proceedings" (ibid, p. 16,para. 29).
Almost identical provisional measures were indicated by the Court in
the dispute between Paraguay and the United States of America which

had arisen on the basis of the Application submitted by Paraguay on
3 April 1998. On the same day, Paraguay also submitted an "urgent
request for the indication of provisional measures in order to protect its
rights" (Vienna Convention on Consulur Relations (Paraguay v. United
States of Anzericu). Order of'9 April 1998. 1. C.J. Reports 1998, p. 251,
para. 6). As early as 9 April 1998 the Court unanimously indicated pro-
visional measures so as to: "ensure that Angel Francisco Breard is not

executed pending the final decision in these proceedings" (ibid p . 258,
para. 41).
It is evident that humanitarian concern represented an aspect which
brought about unanimity in the Court's deliberations. This is clearly
shown not only by the letter and spirit of both Orders in the above-
mentioned cases, but also by the respective declarations and the separate

opinion appended to those Orders. In the process, humanitarian consid-
erations seem to have been sufficiently forceful to put aside obstacles
standing in the way of the indication of provisional measures. In this
respect, the reasoning of the Court's senior judge, Judge Oda, and that of
its President, Judge Schwebel, are indicative.
In paragraph 7 of his declaration appended to the Order of 3 March
1999 in the case concerning LaCrund (Germuny v. United States of

Arnericu), Judge Oda convincingly put forward a series of reasons of a
conceptual nature which explained why he "formed the view that, given
the fundamental nature of provisional measures, those measures should
not have been indicated upon Germany's request". But, Judge Oda goes
on to "reiterate and emphasize" that he "voted in favour of the Order
solely for humanitarian reasons" (I.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 20).

President Schwebel, in his separate opinion, has not explicitly stated
humanitarian considerations as the reason that guided him in voting for
the Order; however, it is reasonable to assume that those were the only
considerations which prevailed in this particular case in view of his "pro-
found reservations about the procedures followed both by the Applicant
and the Court" (LaGrand (Gertnuny v. United Stutcs of'Alnerica), Pro-
llisionrrlMea.surrs. Orclerqf3 Murch 1999, 1. C.J. Rc1port.s1999, p. 22). As far as the Applicant is concerned:

"Germany could have brought its Application years ago, months
ago, weeks ago or days ago. Had it done so, the Court could have
proceeded as it has proceeded since 1922 and held hearings on the
request for provisional measures. But Germany waited until the eve
of execution and then brought its Application and request for pro-
visional measures, at the same time arguing that no time remained to
hear the United States and that the Court should act proprio motu."
(1.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 22.)

The Court, for its part, indicated provisional measures, as President
Schwebel put it, "on the basis only of Germany's Application".

(b) In respect of a group of individuuls or the population as (1consti-
tutive element of the Statr

The protection of the citizens emerged as an issue in the case concern-
ing Military and Puramilitary Activities in and aguinst Nicaragua (Nicu-
ragua v. United States of America) :

"In its submission, Nicaragua emphasized the death and harm
that the alleged acts had caused to Nicaraguans and asked the Court
to support, by provisional measures, 'the rights of Nicaraguan citi-
zens to life, liberty and security'." (R. Higgins, "Interim Measures
for the Protection of Human Rights", in Politics, Values and Func-
tions, International LUIVin the 2lst Centuvy, 1997,Charney, Anton,

O'Connell, eds., p. 96.)

In the Frontier Dispute (Burkinu FasolRepublic of Mali) case, the
Court found the source for provisional measures in:

"incidents . .. which not merely are likely to extend or aggravate
the dispute but comprise a resort to force which is irreconcilable
with the principle of the peaceful settlement of international dis-
putes" (FrontierDispute, Provisionul Measurcs, Oru'erof IO Januavy
1986. 1.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 9, para. 19).

Humanitarian concern in this particular case was motivated by the risk
of irreparable damage :

"the facts that have given rise to the requests of both Parties for the
indication of provisional measures expose the persons and property
in the disputed area, as well as the interests of both States within
that area, to serious risk of irreparable damage" (ihid, p. 10,
para. 21).

It can be said that in the cases referred to above, in particular those inwhich individuals were directly affected, the Court formed a high stand-
ard of humanitarian concern in the proceedings for the indication of
interim measures, a standard which commanded sufficient inherent
strength to brush aside also some relevant, both procedural and material,
rules governing the institution of provisional measures. Thus, humanitar-
ian considerations, independently from the norms of international law
regulating human rights and liberties, have, in a way, gained autonomous
legal significance; they have transcended the moral and philanthropie
sphere, and entered the sphere of law.

6. In the case at hand, it seems that "humanitarian concern" has lost
the acquired autonomous legal position. This fact needs to be stressed in
view of the special circumstances of this case.
Unlike the cases referred to previously, "humanitarian concern" has as
its object thefate of an entire nation, in the literal sense. Such a conclu-

sion may be inferred from at least two elements:
primo, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and its national and eth-
nie groups have been subjected for more than two months now to con-
tinued attacks of a very strong, highly organized air armada of the most
powerful States of the world. The aim of the attack is horrifying, judging
by the words of the Commander-in-Chief, General Wesley Clark, and he

ought to be believed :

"We're going to systematically and progressively attack, disrupt,
degrade, devastate, and ultimately, unless President Milosevit com-
plies with the demands of the international community, we'regoing
to completely destroy his forces and their facilities and support."

(BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/english/static.NATOgallery/air
default.stm/l4 May 1999.)

"Support" is interpreted, in broad terms, extensively; to the point
which raises the question of the true object of the air attacks. In an

article entitled "Belgrade People Must Suffer" Michael Gordon quotes
the words of General Short that he "hopes the distress of the public will,
must undermine support for the authorities in Belgrade" (Intcrnutionul
Heruld Trihune. 16May 1999,p. 6) and he continued:

"1 think no power to your refrigerator, no gas to your stove, you

can't get to work because bridge isdown -the bridge on which you
held your rock concerts and you al1 stood with targets on your
heads. That needs to disappear at three o'clock in the morning."
(Ibid )
That these are not empty words is testifiedto by destroyed bridges, power
plants without which there is no electricity. water supply and productionof foodstuffs essential for life; destroyed roads and residential blocks and

family homes; hospitals without electricity and water and, above all,
human beings who are exposed to bombing raids and who, as is rightly
stressed in the Application in the LuGrand (Germany v. United States of
Americu) case, have the "inherent right to life" (International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights, Art. 6), whose importance and sanctity are
well established in international law. In the inferno of violence, they are
but "collateral damage".

-secundo, the arsenal used inthe attacks on Yugoslavia contains also
weapons whose effects have no limitations either in space or in time. In
the oral proceedings before the Court, the Agent of the United States
explicitly stressed that depleted uranium is in standard use of the United
States Army (CR 99/24, p. 21).

The assessment of the effects of depleted uranium should be left to
science. The report by Marvin Resnikoff of Radioactive Management
Associates on NMI elaborated upon these effects:
"Once inhaled, fine uranium particles can lodge in the lung alveo-
lar and reside there for the remainder of one's life. The dose due to
uranium inhalation is cumulative. A percentage of inhaled particu-

lates may be coughed up, then swallowed and ingested. Smoking is
an additional factor that needs to be taken into account. Since
smoking destroys the cilia, particles caught in a smoker's bronchial
passages cannot be expelled. Gofman estimates that smoking
increases the radiation risk by a factor of 10. Uranium emits an
ai~ha article. similar to a helium nucleus. with two electrons
rimoved. ~hou~h this type of radiation is nit very penetrating, it
causes tremendous tissue damage when internalized. When inhaled,
uranium increases the probability of lung cancer. When ingested,
uranium concentrates in the bone. Within the bone, it increases the
probability of bone cancer, or, in the bone marrow, leukemia. Ura-
nium also resides in soft tissue, including the gonads, increasing the
probability of genetic health effects, including birth defects and

spontaneous abortions. The relationship between uranium ingested
and the resultant radiation doses to the bone marrow and specific
organs .. .are listed in numerous references.

The health effects are also age-specific. For the same dose, chil-
dren have a greater likelihood than adults of developing cancer."
(Uranium Battlejelds Home & Abroud: Depleted Urunium Use by
the U.S. Depurtment of Dejense, Rural Alliance for Military
Accountability et al.,March 1993,pp. 47-48.)

A scientific analysis of the concrete effects of armed operations againstYugoslavia has been presented by Umweltbundesamt (UBA). The essen-
tials of the expertise are as follows':

"The longer the war in Yugoslavia lasts, the greater the risk of
long-term damage to the environment. Such damage threatens to
extend beyond national frontiers, and it may no longer be possible

fully to make it good. The Federal Environmental Agency [Umwelt-
bundesamt (UBA)] comes to this conclusion in an intenial paper
examining the ecological consequences of the war in Yugoslavia,
prepared for the meeting of European Environment Ministers at the

beginning of May in Weimar. Catastrophes 'like Sevesoand Sandoz'
are, in the opinion of the Agency, 'a perfectly probable damage sce-
nario'.

'
"Je Iinger der Krieg in Jugoslawien dauert, desto grosser wird die Gefahr von lang-
fristigen Schadigungen der Umwelt. Diese drohen sich über die Landesgrenzen
hinaus auszubreiten und konnen moglicherweisenicht mehr vollstandig beseitigt wer-
den. Zu dieser Einschitzung kommt das Umweltbundesamt (UBA) in einem internen
Papier, das sich mit den okologischen Auswirkungen des Krieges in Jugoslawien
befasst und für die Vorbereitung des Treffens europaischer Umweltminister Anfang
Mai in Weimar erstellt wurde. Katastrophen 'wie Seveso und Sandoz' sind nach
Ansicht des Amtes 'ein durchaus wahrscheinliches Schadensszenario'.

Umweltgifte, die nach Zerstorungen von Industrieanlagen austreten, konnten sich
weiter ausbreiten. 'BeiSicherstellung sofortigen Handelns, das unter Kriegsbedingun-
gen aber unmoglich ist,bleibt die Wirkung dieser Umweltschidigungen lokal begrenzt.
Langere Verzoeerungen führen zu einem übertritt der Schadstoffe in die Schutzgüter
~oden, ~rundr und-oberflachenwasser. erhohen das Gefihrdungspotential fü; den
Menschen und den Sanierungsaufwand betrichtlich.'
Diese Folgen müssen nicht auf Jugoslawien beschrankt sein. Schadstoffe aus
Grossbranden konnten grenzüberschreitend verteilt werden. Weiter heisst es in dem
Papier: 'Die Einleitung der Gefahrstoffe in Oberfliichenwasser kann zur wejtra~imi-
gen Schadigung der 0kosysteme führen. Die Deposition von Gefahrstoffen in Boden
kann ie nach Eirrenschaft der Stoffe und Boden zu langanhaltenden Versuchungen-
iiiiwciigcliciidcii 'lurzurig~ciii~clir iiili~n~.'~i~cn
Die G:làhr cincr 'iici'grcii'cii~c'ritor~iiig\rc\cntliclicr Rc\taiidtcilc \on Trink-
wasserversorgungssyste~enn sei für mittlere und grosse Stadte sowie Ballungsgebiete
am grossten. Schon geringe Mengen von Substanzen der petrochemischen Industrie
konnten 'grosse Grundwasservorrate unbrauchbar machen'.
Wie gefahrlich die freigesetzten Stoffe insgesamt sind, Iasst sich nach Ansicht der
UBA-Experten nur schwer abschatzen, 'weildurch die Zerstorung ganzer Industrie-
komplexe Mischkontaminationcn verschiedenster Schadstoffe gebildet werden', die
noch wenig erforscht seien. Noch komplizierter sei die Beurteilung von Umwelt-
schaden durch Brande und Explosionen. 'Hier treten bezogen auf Schadstoffinventar
und Ausbreitung weit weniger kalkulierbare, zum Teil grossflichige Umweltschadi-
gungen ein.'
Die Verbrennungsprodukte seien 'zumTeil hoch toxisch und kanzerogen'. Je nach
kommen, 'dieeine vollstandige Beseitigungnahezu unmoglich macht'lung...eser Stoffe'
Die Wechselwirkungen der Produkte mit den eingesetzten Waffen dürften 'vollig
unbekannt' sein." (TAZ, Dii, Tugcszriiun~. Berlin. 20 May 1999.) Environmental toxins released by the destruction of industrial
plant could spread further. 'If immediate action is taken, which is,
however, impossible under war conditions, the effect of this environ-
mental damage will remain restricted to local level. Longer delays
will result in toxic substances passing into the soil, groundwater and
surface water, and substantially increase the potential danger to
man, and the cost of cleansing operations.'

These consequences are not necessarily limited to Yugoslavia.

Harmful substances deriving from major conflagrations can be dif-
fused beyond frontiers. The paper continues: 'Passage of harmful
substances into surface water can lead to extensive damage to eco-
systems. The deposition of hazardous substances in the soil can,
depending on the nature of those substances and of the soil, result in
long-term contamination, imposing far-reaching limitations upon
utilization.'

The danger of 'extensive destruction of essential components of
drinking-water supply networks' is biggest with regard to middle-
sized and large cities and conurbations. Even small amounts of sub-
stances from the petrochemical industry can render 'extensive
groundwater reserves unusable'.

According to the Federal Environmental Agencyexperts, the over-
al1risk posed by the substances released is difficultto assess, 'because
the destruction of entire industrial complexes results in mixed con-
tamination by a wide variety of harmful substances' - an area in
which there has as yet been little research. Even more problematic,
in the experts' view, is the assessment of environmental damage
caused by fires and explosions. 'Here, in terms of identification of
the harmful substances involved and the possibility of their diffu-
sion, environmental damage is far harder to predict, but will on
occasion be extensive.'

The substances produced by the fires are described as 'in part
highly toxic and carcinogenic'. Depending on climatic conditions,
'widespread diffusion of these substances' could occur, 'whichwould
render full cleansing almost impossible'.

The effects of the interaction of those substances with the
weapons employed were said to be 'completely unknown'." (TAZ,
Die Tageszeitung, Berlin, 20 May 1999.)

Therefore, it is my profound conviction, that the Court is,irzcotzcreto,
confronted with an uncontestable case of "extreme urgency" and "irrepa-
rable harm", which perfectly coincides, and significantly transcends thesubstance of humanitarian standards which the Court has accepted in
previous cases.

7. 1 must admit that 1find entirely inexplicable the Court's reluctance
to enter intoserious consideration of indicating provisional measures in a

situation such as this crying out with the need to make an attempt,
regardless of possible practical effects, to at least alleviate, if noti-
nate, an undeniable humanitarian catastrophe. 1 do not have in mind
provisional measures in concrete terms as proposed by the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, but provisional measures in general: be they
provisional measures proprio motu, different from those proposed by the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia or, simply, an appeal by the President
of the Court, as was issued on so many occasions in the past, in less
difficult situations, on the basis of the spirit of Article 74, paragraph 4,
of the Rules of Court.

One, unwillingly,acquires the impression that for the Court in thispar-
ticular case the indication of any provisional measures whatever has been

terra prohibitu. Exempli causa, the Court, in paragraph 18of the Order,
says that it:
"deems it necessary to emphasize that al1parties appearing before it
must act in conformity with their obligations under the United
Nations Charter and other rules of international law including
humanitarian law",

or, in paragraph 37 of the Order, that the Parties: "should take care not
to aggravate or extend the dispute", and it is obvious that both the above
pronouncements of the Court have been designed within the model of
general, independent provisional measures.

III. JURISDICTIO ONF THE COURT RATIONEMATERIAE

8. 1 am of the opinion that in the matter in hand the Court's position
is strongly open to criticism.
The Court finds :
"whereas the threat or use of force against a State cannot in itself

constitute an act of genocide within the meaning of ArticleII of the
Genocide Convention; and whereas, in the opinion of the Court, it
does not appear at the present stage of the proceedings that the
bombings which form the subject of the Yugoslav Application
'indeedentai1the element of intent, towards a groupas such, required
by the provision quoted above' (Legulity of tlze Tlzreut or Use of
Nuclear Weapons, Adilisory Opinion, 1.C.J.Reports 1996 (I), p. 240,
para. 26)" (Order, para. 27).

The intent is, without doubt, the subjective element ofthe being of thecrime of genocide as, indeed, of any other crime. But, this question is not
and cannot, by its nature, be the object of decision-making in the inci-
dental proceedings of the indication of provisional measures.

In this respect, a reliableroof should be sought in the dispute which,
by its salient features, is essentially identical to the dispute under consid-
eration - the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Pre-
vention und Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
In its Order on the indication of provisional measures of 8 April 1993,
in support of the assertion of the Respondent that, inter alia, "it does not

support or abet in any way the commission of crimes cited in the Appli-
cation . . and that the claims presented in the Application are without
foundation" (Applicution of the Convention on the Prevention und Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide. ProvisionalMeasures, Order of 8 April
1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 21, para. 42), the Court stated:

"Whereas the Court, in the context of the present proceedings on
a request for provisional measures, has in accordance with Article 41
of the Statute to consider the circumstances drawn to its attention as
requiring the indication of provisional measures, but cannot make
definitive findings of fact or of imputability, and the right of each
Party to dispute the facts alleged against it, to challenge the attribu-
tion to it of responsibility for those facts, and to submit arguments
in respect of the merits, must remain unaffected by the Court's deci-
sion" (ibid., p. 22, para. 44)

and
"Whereas the Court is not called upon, for the purpose of its

decision on the present request for the indication of provisional
measures, now to establish the existence of breaches of the Geno-
cide Convention" (ibid., para. 46).
The rationale of provisional measures is, consequently, limited to the
preservation of the respective rights of the partiespendente lite which are

the object of the dispute, rights which may subsequently be adjudged by
the Court. As the Court stated in the Land and Maritime Boundary
between Cameroon und Nigeria case:
"Whereas the Court, in the context of the proceedings concerning
the indication of provisional measures, cannot make definitive find-
ings of fact or of imputability, and the right of each Party to dispute
the facts alleged against it, to challenge the attribution to it of

responsibility for those facts, and to submit arguments, if appropri-
ate, in respect of the merits, must remain unaffected by the Court's
decision" (Lund und Muritime Bounday brtiiwen Cameroon and
Nigeria, Provisionul Measures, Order of 15 Murch 1996, 1.C.J.
Reports 1996 (1). p. 23, para. 43).535 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (DISS .P. KRECA)

9. Fundamental questions arise regarding the position of the Court on
this particular matter.
The relationship between the use of armed force and genocide can be
looked upon in two ways:

(LI) is the use of force peu sc an act of genocide or not? and,
(h) is the use of force conducive to genocide and, if the answer is in the
affirmative, what is it then, in the legal sense?
It is incontrovertible that the use of force per set dejnitione does not
constitute an act of genocide. It is amatter that needs no particular prov-
ing. However, it could not be inferred from this that the use of force is un-
related and cannot have any relationship with the commissionof the crime

of genocide. Such a conclusion would becontrary to elementary logic.
Article II of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide defines the acts of genocide as
"any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in
whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as
such :

(a) Killing members of the group;
(h) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the
group ;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of lifecalculated
to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."

Any of these acts can be committed also by the use of force. The use of
force is, consequently, one of the possible means of committing acts of
genocide. And, it should be pointed out, one of the most efficient means,
due to the immanent characteristics of armed force.

Extensive useof armed force, in particular if it is used against objects
and means constituting conditions of normal life, can be conducive to
"inflicting on the group conditions of life" bringing about "its physical
destruction".

Of course, itcan be argued that such acts are in the function of degrad-
ing the military capacity of the Federal Republicof Yugoslavia. But such
an explanation can hardly be regarded as a serious argument. For, the
spiral ofsuch a line of thinking may easily come to a point when, having
in mind that military power is after al1comprised of people, even mass
killing of civiliansan be claimed to constitute some sort of a precaution-
ary measure that should prevent the maintenance or, in case of mobiliza-
tion, the increase of military power of the State.

Of course, to be able to speak about genocide it is necessary that there
is an intent, namely, of "deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of
life" bringing about "its physical destruction in whole or in part". In the incidental proceedings the Court cannot and should not concern
itself with the definitive qualification of the intent to impose upon the
group conditions in which the survival of the group is threatened. Having
in mind the purpose of provisional measures, it can be said that at this
stage of the proceedings it is sufficient to establish that, in the conditions
of intensive bombing, there is an objective risk of bringing about condi-
tions in which the survival of the group is threatened.
TheCourt took just such a position in the Order of 8April 1993on the
indication of provisional measures in the Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide case.

Paragraph 44 of that Order stated

"Whereas the Court, in the context of the present proceedings on
a request for provisional measures, has in accordance with Article 41
of the Statute to consider the circumstances drawn to its attention as
requiring the indication of provisional measures, but cannot make
definitive findings of fact or of imputability, and the right of each
Party to dispute the facts alleged against it, to challenge the attribu-
tion to it of responsibility for those facts, and to submit arguments
in respect of the merits, must remain unaffected by the Court's deci-
sion" (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 22).

The question of "intent" is a highly complicated one. Although the
intent is a subjective matter, a psychological category, in contemporary
criminal legislation it is established also on the basis of objective circum-
stances. Inferences of intent to commit an act are widely incorporated in
legal systems. E'cemplicuusa, permissive inferences as opposed to a man-
datory presumption in thejurisprudence of the United States of America
may be drawn even in a criminal case.

In any event, there appears to be a clear dispute between the Parties

regarding "intent" as the constitutive element of the crime of genocide.

The Applicant asserts that "intent" can be presumed and, on the other
hand, the Respondent maintains that "intent", as an element of the crime
of genocide, should be clearly established as dolus speciulis. Such a con-
frontation of viewsof the Parties concerned leads to a dispute related to
"the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention", includ-
ing disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for
any of the other acts enumerated in Article III of the Convention.

10. At the same time, one should have in mind that whether "in cer-
tain cases, particularly that by the infliction of inhuman conditions of
life, the crime may be perpetrated by omission" (Stanislas Plawski, Etude
ciesprincipes fonùumentuu'c du droit internutional pénal, 1972, p. 115.
Cited in United Nations doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/415 of 4 July 1978). "Experience provides that a state of war or a military operations
régimegives authorities a convenient pretext not to provide a popu-
lation or a group with what they need to subsist - food, medicines,
clothing, housing . . It will be argued that this is inflicting on the
group conditions of lifecalculated to bring about its physical destruc-
tion in whole or in part." (J. Y. Dautricourt, "La prévention du
génocide et ses fondements juridiques", Etudes internationales de
psychosociologie criminelle, Nos. 14-15. 1969, pp. 22-23. Cited in
United Nations doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/415 of 4 July 1978,p. 27.)

Of the utmost importance is the fact that, in the incidental proceedings,
the Court cannot and should not concern itself with the definitive quali-
fication of theintent to impose upon the group conditions in which the
survival of the group is threatened. Having in mind the purpose of pro-
visional measures, it can be said that at this stage of the proceedings it is
sufficient to establish that, in the conditions of intensive bombing, there
is an objective risk of bring about conditions in which the survival of the
group is threatened.

IV. OTHER RELEVANIT SSUES

11. In paragraph 15 of the Order the Court states:
"Whereas the Court is deeply concerned with the human tragedy,

the loss of life, and theenormous suffering in Kosovo which form
the background of the present dispute, and with the continuing loss
of life andhuman suffering in al1parts of Yugoslavia."

The phrasing of the statement seems to me unacceptable for a number
of reasons. First, the formulation introduces dual humanitarian concern.

The Court is, it is stated, "deeply concerned", while at the same lime the
Court states "the loss of life". So, it turnsout that in the case of1parts
of Yugoslavia" the Court technically states "the loss of life" as a fact
which does not cause "deep concern". Furthermore, the wording of the
formulation may also be construed as meaning that Kosovo is not a part
of Yugoslavia. Namely, after emphasizing the situation in Kosovo and
Metohija, the Court uses the phrase "in al1parts of Yugoslavia". Having
in mind the factual and legal state of affairs, the appropriate wording
would be "in al1otherparts of Yugoslavia". Also, particular reference to
"Kosovo" and "al1 parts of Yugoslavia", in the present circumstances,
has not only no legal, but has no factual basis either. Yugoslavia, as a
whole, is the object of attack. Human suffering and loss of life are, un-
fortunately, a fact, generally applicable to the country as a whole; so, the
Court, even if it had at its disposa1 the accurate data on the number ofvictims and the scale of suffering of the people of Yugoslavia, it would
still have no moral right to discriminate between them. Further, the
qualification that "human tragedy and the enormous suffering in Kosovo
.. .form the background of the present dispute" not only is political, by
its nature, but has, or may have, an overtone ofjustification of the armed
attack on Yugoslavia. Suffice it to recall the fact that the respondent
State refers to its armed action as humanitarian intervention.

It is upto the Court to establish, at a later stage of the proceedings, the
real legal state of affairs, namely, the relevant facts. At the present stage,
the question of the underlying reasons for the armed attack on the Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia is the object of political allegations. While
the Respondent argues that what is involved is a humanitarian interven-
tion provoked by the "human tragedy and the enormous suffering", the
Applicant finds that sedes ~nut~riae the underlying reasons are to be
soight elsewhere - in the support to the terrorist organization in
Kosovo and in the political aim of secession of Kosovo and Metohija
from Yugoslavia.
Consequently, we are dealing here with opposed political qualifications
in which the Court should not, and, in my view, must not, enter except in
the regular court proceedings.
12. The formulation of paragraph 38 of the Order leaves the impres-

sion that the Court iselegantly attempting to drop the bal1in the Security
Council's court. Essentially, it is superfluous because, as it stands now, it
only paraphrases a basic fact that "the Security Council has special
responsibilities under Chapter VI1of the Charter". It can be interpreted,
it is true, also as an appeal to the United Nations organ, specifically
entrusted with the dutyand designed to take measures in case of threat to
the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression; but, in that case the
Court would need to stress also another basic fact - that a legal dispute
should be referred to the International Court of Justice on the basis of
Article 36, paragraph 3, of the United Nations Charter.

13. The Court, by using the term "Kosovo" instead of the official
name of "Kosovo and Metohija", continued to follow the practice of the

political organs of the United Nations, which, by the way, was also
strictly followed by the respondent States.
Itis hard to find a justifiable reason for such a practice. Except of
course ifweassume political opportuneness and involved practical, politi-
cal interests to be a justified reason for this practice. This is eloquently
shown also by the practice of the designation of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia. After the succession of the former Yugoslav federal units,
the organs of the United Nations, and the respondent States themselves,have used the term Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro). However, since
22 November 1995,the Security Council uses in its resolutions 1021and
1022 the term "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" instead of the former
"Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)" without any
express decision and in a legally unchanged situation in relation to the

one in which it, like other organs of the United Nations, employed the
term "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)". The
fact that this change in the practice of the Security Council appeared on
the day following the initialling of the Peace Agreement in Dayton gives
a strong basis for the conclusion that the concrete practice is not based
on objective, legal criteria but rather on political criteria.

By using the word "Kosovo" instead of the name "Kosovo and Meto-
hija", the Court, in fact, is doing two things:

(a) it gives into the colloquial use of the names of territorial units of an
independent State; and
(h) it ignores the officia1name of Serbia's southern province, a name
embodied both in the constitutional and legal acts of Serbia and
of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Furthermore, it runs
contrary to the established practice inappropriate internationalorga-
nizations. E'cempli cuusu, the officia1designation of the southern

Serbian province "Kosovo and Metohija" has been used in the
Agreement concluded by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and
the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (Inter-
nutional Legul Matrriul.~, 1999, Vol. 38, p.24).
Even if such a practice- which, in my opinion, is completely inappro-

priate not only in terms of the law but also in terms of proper usage -
could be understood when resorted to by entities placing interest and
expediency above the law, it is inexplicable in the case of ajudicial organ.

14. A certain confusion is alsocreated by the term "humanitarian law"
referred to in paragraphs 18 and 36 of the Order. The reasons for the
confusion are dual: on the one hand, the Court has not shown great con-
sistency in using this term. In the Genocide case the Court qualified the
Genocide Convention as a part of humanitarian law, although it is obvi-
ous that, by its nature, the Genocide Convention falls within the field of
international criminal law (seedissenting opinion of Judge Kreca, in the
case concerning Applic.ution of' tl~~Corzvcntiorior1 the Prei~entiorzund

Punishnzcnt of' the C~~IIIC cg' Gctz~cidc>P, rc>linlinaryObjections, I.C.J.
Roport.~1996 (II). pp. 774-775, para. 108).
On the other hand. it seems that in this Order the term "humanitarian
law" has been used with a different meaning, more appropriate to the
generally accepted terminology. The relevant passage in the Order should
be mentioned precisely because of the wording of its paragraphs 18and
36. The singling out of humanitarian law from the rules of internationallaw which the Parties are bound to respect may imply low-key and timid
overtones of vindication or at least of diminishment of the legal implica-
tions of the armed attack on the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Humanitarian law, in its legal, original meaning implies the rules ojus
in bello. If, by stressing the need to respect the rules of humanitarian law,
which 1do not doubt, the Court was guided by humanitarian considera-
tions, then it should have stressed e-cpressis verbisalso the fundamental
importance of the rule contained in Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Char-
ter, which constitutes a dividing line between non-legal, primitive inter-
national society and an organized, de jure, international community.

(Signed) Milenko KRECA.

Bilingual Content

TABLE OFCONTENTS

Paragraphs

1. COMPOSITI OFTHE COURT INTHISPARTICULC ARSE 1-4
II. HUMANITARICANNCERN INTHISPARTICULC ARSE 5-7

III. JURISD[CTONTHE COURT R~nont MATERIAE 8-10
IV. OTHERRELEVANITSSUES 11-14 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. KRECA

/Truduction]

TABLE DES MATIERES

1.LA COMPOSITION DE LACOUR EN L'ESPÈCE

II. LEPROBLEME HUMANITAIRE EN L'ESPÈCE
III.COMPÉTENCE DE LACOUR RATIOVE MATERIAE

IV. AUTRE SUESTIONS PERTINENTES 1. In the context of the conceptual difference between the interna-
tional magistrature and the interna1 judicial system within a State, the
institution of judgeud hoc has two basic functions:

"(u) to equalize the situation when the Bench already includes a
Member of the Court Iiaving the nationality of one of the parties;
and (b) to create a nominal equality between two litigating States
when there is no Member of the Court having the nationality of
either party" (S. Rosenne, The Lu1vund Pructice ($the Internutionul
Court, 1920-1996, Vol. III, pp. 1124-1125).

In this particular case room is open for posing the question as to
whether either of these two basic functions of the institution of judgeud
hoc has been fulfilled at all.
It is possible to draw the line between two things.
The first is associated with equalization of the Parties in the parton-
cerning the relations between the Applicant and the respondent States
which have a national judge on the Bench. In concreto,of special interest
is the specific position of the respondent States. They appear in a dual
capacity in these proceedings:

primo, they appear individually in the proceedings considering that
each one of them is in dispute with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia:
and,
secondo, they are at the same time member States of NATO under
whose institutional umbrella they have undertaken the armed attack on
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Within the framework of NATO,

these respondent States are acting in corpore, as integral parts of an
organizational whole. The corpus of willsof NATO member States, when
the undertaking of military operations is in question, is constituted into a
collective will which is, formally, the will of NATO.

2. The question may be raised whether the respondent States can

qualify as parties in the same interest.
Inits Order of 20July 1931in the caseconcerning the Cusroms RGginze
betiveen Gerrnanyund Au.rrriu, the Permanent Court of International Jus-
tice established that:
"al1governments which, in the proceedings before the Court, come
to the same conclusion, must be held to be in the same interest for

the purposes of the present case" (P. C.I.J., Seri~.s AIB. No. 41,
p. 88).
The question of qualification of the "same interest", in the practice of
the Court, has almost uniformly been based on a formal criterion, the
criterion of "the same conclusion" to which the parties have come in the
proceedings before the Court. 1. Compte tenu de la différencede principe entre la magistrature inter-
nationale et le système judiciaire interne de chaque Etat, l'institution du
juge ud hoc a fondamentalement un double rôle:

«u) rétablirl'égalitéquand la Cour comprend d'ores et déjàsur le
siège unjuge ayant la nationalitéde l'unedesparties; eth) créerune
égalitésymbolique entre deux Etats en litige quand aucun membre
de la Cour n'a lanationalité de l'une des parties» (S. Rosenne, The
Loir und Pructice of' tlir Iiztertzutionul Court, 1920-1996vol. III,
p. 1124-1125).

En l'espèce,on peut se demander si l'institution du jugead hoc a bien
exercé l'unequelconque de ces deux fonctions élémentaires.

Il est possible de distinguer deux éléments.
Le premier est lié ce rétablissementde l'égalitéentre les parties en ce
qui concerne les relations entre le demandeur et les Etats défendeursqui
ont un juge national sur le siège. In concreto, il faut s'intéresseà cet
égard à la position particulière des Etats défendeurs. Ces derniers, en

effet, comparaissent à un double titre:
primo, ils comparaissent individuellement puisque chacun d'eux esten
litige avec la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie;

secundo, ce sont en même temps desEtats membres de l'OTAN dans le

cadre institutionnel de laquelle ilsont engagé uneattaque arméecontrela
Républiquefédérale de Yougoslavie. Dans ce cadre de l'OTAN, les Etats
défendeursagissent in corpore,en tant que parties intégrantesd'une orga-
nisation constituant un tout. L'ensemble, le corpus, des volontés des
Etats membres de l'OTAN, quand il s'agit de mener des opérations mili-
taires, constitue une volonté collective qui est officiellement celle de
l'OTAN.

2. On peut se demander par ailleurs si les Etats défendeurs peuvent
êtreconsidéréscomme faisant cause commune.
Dans l'ordonnance rendue le 20 juillet 1931dans l'affaire du Rkgime
douanier entre I'Allemugne et l'Autriche, la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale a énoncéle principe suivant:

«tous les gouvernements qui, devant la Cour, arrivent à la même
conclusion, doivent êtreconsidéréscomme faisant cause commune
aux fins de la présenteprocédure)) (C.P.J.I. sc;ric.AIB no 41p. 89).

Dans sa pratique, la Cour a quasiment toujours établi qu'il y avait

«cause commune)) en se fondant sur un critèreformel, celui de la «même
conclusion» à laquelle aboutissent les parties comparaissant devant
elle. In the present case, the question of "the same conclusion" as the rele-
vant criterion for the existence of "the same interest" of the respondent
States is, in my opinion, unquestionable. The same conclusion was, in a
way, inevitable in the present case in view of the identical Application
which the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has submitted against ten

NATO member States, and was formally consecrated by the outcome of
the proceedings before the Court held on 10, 11 and 12 May 1999, in
which al1the respondent States came to the identical conclusion resting
on the foundation of practically identical argumentation which differed
only in the fashion and style of presentation.
Hence, the inevitable conclusion follows, it appears to me, that al1the
respondent States are in concreto parties in the same interest.
3. What are the implications of this fact for the composition of the
Court in the present case? Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute says:
"If the Court includes upon the Bench ajudge ofthe nationality of one of
the parties, any other party may choosë a person to sit as judge."

The Statute, accordingly, refers to the right of "any other party",
namely, a party other than the party which has a judge of its nationality,
in the singular. But, it would be erroneous to draw the conclusion from
theabove-that "any other party", other than the party which has a judge
of its nationality, cannot, under certain circumstances, choose several
judges ad hoc. Such an interpretation would clearly be in sharp contra-
diction with ratio legisof the institution of judge ad hoc, which, in this
particular case, consists of the function "to equalize the situation when
theBench already includes a Member of the Court having the nationality
of one of the parties" (S. Rosenne, The Laiv and Pructice of the Internu-

tional Court, 1920-1996, Vol. III, pp. 1124-1125).The singular used in
Article 31, paragraph 2, of theStatute with reference to the institution of
judges ud hoc is, consequently, but individualization of the general, inher-
ent right to equalization in the composition of the Bench in the relations
between litigating parties, one of which has a judge of its nationality on
the Bench, while the other has not. The practical meaning of thisprinciple
applied in casum ii~ouldimply the right of the Applicunt to choose as
many judges ad hoc to sit on the Bench us is necessury to equalize the
position of the Applicunt und thut of those respondent States ivhich huve
judges of their nationality on the Bench and ivhichshare the sume interest.
In concreto, the inherent right to equulizution in the composition of the

Bench, as an expression oj'jîundamental rule oj'equulity of parties, means
that the Federul Republic of Yugoslavia should huve the right to choose
jîve judges ad hoc, since evenjîve out often respondent States (the United
Stutes ofArnerica, the United Kingdom, France, Germuny and the Neth-
erlun~ls)huvr tlzrir nationul judges sitting on the Bench.
Regarding the notion of equalization which concerns the relation
between the party entitled to choose its judge ad hoc and the parties
which have their national judges on the Bench, the fact is that the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, as can be seen from the Order, did not raise any
objections to the circumstance that as many as five respondent States LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 524

En l'espèce, il est indubitable que la formulation d'une conclusion
identique est le critère pertinent permettant d'établirque les Etats défen-
deurs font «cause commune)). Il étaiten quelque sorte inévitablede for-
muler la même conclusionen l'espècepuisque la Républiquefédéralede
Yougoslavie a présentéune requête identique l'encontrede dix Etats
membres de l'OTAN et l'on en a eu la preuve officiellea l'issuede la pro-
cédure qui s'est dérouléedevant la Cour les 10, 11 et 12 mai 1999, les

Etats défendeurs aboutissant tous à une conclusion identique reposant
sur une argumentation pratiquement identique dont les seules variations
concernent la forme et le mode de présentation.
D'où la conclusion inévitable àmon sens que les Etats défendeurs font
tous in concreto cause commune.
3. Quelles incidencesfaut-il en tirer pour la composition de la Cour en
l'espèce?L'article31,paragraphe 2, du Statut, dispose: «Si la Cour compte
sur le siege un juge de la nationalitéd'une des parties, toute autre partie
peut désigner unepersonne de son choix pour siégeren qualitéde juge.))
Le Statut. donc. définit ainsile droit de «toute autre ~artie)). c'est-
a-dire une partie autre que celle qui compte un juge de sa nationalitésur
le siège.et il parle de cette autre partie au singulier. Maisserait erroné

d'en déduireque ((touteautre partie» que celle qui compte un juge de sa
nationalité sur le siège nepeut pas, dans certains cas, désigner plusieurs
juges ad hoc. Retenir cette interprétation serait manifestement contrairA
la ratio legisde l'institution du juge ad hoc, lequel en l'espècea pour
objet «de rétablirI'égalitéquand la Cour comprend d'ores et déjàsur le
siege un juge ayant la nationalité de l'une des parties)) (S. Rosenne,The
Laci.und Practice of the International Court, 1920-1996, vol. III, p. 1124-
1125).L'usage du singulier a l'article 31, paragraphe 2, du Statut,quand
il est question de l'institution du jugead hoc, permet donc simplement
d'individualiser ce droit général, intrinsèque,au rétablissementde l'éga-

litéentre les parties en litige en ce qui concerne la composition de la
Cour, quand l'une des parties compte un juge de sa nationalité sur le
siègetandis que l'autre n'en a pas. Concrètement, applique ù lu prisente
instance, ce principe signifie implicitement que le demandeur u le droit de
dksignrr autant dejuges ad hoc qu'il lefaut pour rbtublir I'igalitéentre le
demundeur et les Etuts défendeursqui compterlt unjuge de leur.nationalité
sur le siège et quifont cause commune. Concreternent, ce droit,fondumen-
ta1 au rétablissen?entde l'égalité dans lac.omposition de la Cour, qui
répond à lu réglefondamentale de l'égalit~;des parties, signifie que la
Ripublique j2dérale de Yougosluvie doit uvoir le doit de désigner cinq
juges ad hoc, puisque, sur les dix Etuts défendeurs, il y cn a cinq (les

Etats-Unis d'Amérique. le Royaunze-Uni, lu France, l'Allemugnr et les
Pays-Bas) qui comptent unjuge nutionul sur le siège.
S'agissant de ce rétablissementde l'égalitéentre la partie autorisée 1
désignerun juge ad hoc.de son choix, d'une part, et, de l'autre, les parties
qui comptent un juge national sur le siège,le fait est que la République
fédéralede Yougoslavie, comme on peut le constater dans l'ordonnance,
n'a soulevéaucune objection au cas de figure qui se présentaitet qui était525 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (DISSO. P.KRECA)

have judges of their nationality on the Bench. However, this circum-
stance surely cannot be looked upon as something making the question
irrelevant, or, even as the tacit consent of the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia to such an outright departure from the letter and spirit of

Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute.
TheCourt has, namely, the obligation to take account ex ojficio of the
question of such a fundamental importance, which directly derives from,
and vice versa, may directly and substantially affect, the equality of the
parties. The Court is the guardian of legality for the parties to the case,
for which presumptio juris et de jure alone is valid - to know the law
(jura novit curiu). As pointed out by Judges Bedjaoui, Guillaume and
Ranjeva in their joint declaration in the Lockerhie case: "that is for the

Court - not the parties - to take the necessary decision" (Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreul Corrventioriurising
from the Aerial Incident ut Lockerhir (Lihyun Arah Jarnahiriyu v. United
Kingdom), 1.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 36, para. 11).

A contrurio, the Court would risk, in a matter which is ratio legis
proper of the Court's existence, bringing itself into the position of a pas-
sive observer, who only takes cognizance of the arguments of the parties
and, then, proceeds to the passing of a decision.

4. The other function is associated with equalization in the part which
is concerned with the relations between the Applicant and those respon-
dent States which have no national judges on the Bench.
The respondent States having no judge of their nationality on the
Bench have chosen, in the usual procedure, their judges ud lioc (Belgium,
Canada, Italy and Spain). Only Portugal has not designated itsjudge ad
Iioc. The Applicant successivelyraised objections to the appointment of
the respondent States' judges ad hoc invoking Article 31,paragraph 5, of

the Statute of the Court. The responses of the Court with respect to this
question invariably contained the standard phrase "that the Court . . .
found that the choice of a judge ud lioc by the Respondent isjustified in
the present phase of the case".
Needless to say, the above formulation is laconic and does not offer
sufficient ground for the analysis of the Court's legal reasoning. The only
element which is subject to the possibility of teleological interpretation
is the qualification that the choice of a judge ad hoc is "justified in the
present phase of the case". A contrurio, it is, consequently, possible that

such an appointment of a judge ad hoc would "not be justified" in some
other phases of the case. The qualification referred to above could be
interpreted as the Court's reserve with respect to the choice of judges ud
Iioc by the respondent States, a reserve which could be justifiable on
account of the impossibility for the Court to perceive the nature of their
interest - whether it is the "same" or "separate" - before the parties set
out their positions on the case.
The meanings of equalization as a rutio legisinstitution of judges ad

hoc, in the case concerning the Applicant and respondent States which LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 525

que cinq Etats défendeurs, pas moins, comptaient un juge de leur natio-

nalité sur le siège. Mais il n'est certainement pas possible de considérer
que ce cas de figure ôte toute pertinence à la question, mêmesi la Répu-
blique fédéralede Yougoslavie a tacitement admis une telle dérogation
flagrante ë la lettre et a l'esprit de l'article 31, paragraphe2,du Statut.
La Cour a, quant a elle, l'obligation de prendre en considération, ès
qualité,cette question qui est à ce point cruciale, qui découle directement

de l'égalitédes parties et,i l'inverse, qui risque en outre de porter direc-
tement et sensiblement atteinte à l'égalitédes parties. La Cour est le gar-
dien de la légalitépour les parties, et, à cette fin, seule est valable la
presumptio juris et de jure - ilfaut savoir le droit (juru novit curia).
Comme l'ont dit trois membres de la Cour, MM. Bedjaoui, Guillaume et
Ranjeva, dans la déclaration commune qu'ils ont faite dans I'affaire Loc-

kerbie: ((il appartienti la Cour et non aux parties de prendre la décision
requise)) question.^ d'intcrprétution et d'~~pplicutionde lu conilention de
Montréalde 1971 résultuntde l'incident aérien deLockerhie (Jumahiriju
urabe libyenne c. Royaume- Uni), C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 36, par. 1 1).
A contrario, la Cour risquerait, alors que la question relève véritable-
ment de sa raison d'être,de se cantonner dans l'attitude de l'observateur

passif, qui se contente de prendre connaissance des thèses des parties,
puis se prononce.
4. Le second élémentà étudier est celui du rétablissement de I'égalité
dans les relations entre le demandeur et les Etats défendeurs qui ne
comptent pas de juge national sur le siège.
Les Etats défendeurs ne comptant pas de juge national sur le siègeont,

suivant la procédure habituelle, désignéun juge ud hoc de leur choix (Bel-
gique, Canada, Espagne et Italie). Seul le Portugal n'a pas désignéde juge
ad hoc. Le demandeur a successivement soulevé des objections a la dési-
gnation de ces juges ad hoc des Etats demandeurs en invoquant le para-
graphe 5 de l'article 31 du Statut de la Cour. Chaque fois, la Cour a
répondu par la formule habituelle: «La Cour, ... est parvenue à la

conclusion que la désignation d'un juge ad hoc par [le défendeur] se jus-
tifiait dans la vrésentevhase de l'affaire)).
Certes, la formule est laconique, trop peu détailléepour permettre
d'analyser le raisonnement juridique suivi par la Cour. Le seul élément
qui se prêteà une interprétation téléologiqueest le membre de phrase ser-
vant ë qualifier la désignation d'un juge ad hoc, laquelle serait «justifi[ée]

dans la présente phase de l'affaire)).A contrario, il est donc possible que
cette désignation de juges ad hoc ne soit «pas justifiée))dans certaines
autres phases de I'affaire. Cette qualification peut s'interpréter comme
une réserve,de la part de la Cour, quant à la désignation de juges ad hoc
par les Etats défendeurs, réservequi s'expliquerait par l'impossibilité où
se trouverait la Cour de voir, avant qu'elles définissent leurposition, quel

est l'intérètdes parties- font-elles ou non cause commune?

Le sens à donner au rétablissement de l'égalitéentre les parties,
puisque c'est laraison d'êtrede l'institution du juge ud hoc dans le cas deare parties in the same interest, and which do not have ajudge ad hoc of
their nationality on the Bench, have been dealt with in the practice of the

Court, in a clear and unambiguous manner.

In theSouth West AfLica case (1961) it was established that, if neither
of the parties in thesame interest has ajudge of its nationality among the
Members of the Court, those parties, acting in concert, will be entitled to
appoint a single judge ad hoc (South Wesr Africu, I.C.J. Reports 1961,
P 3).
If, on theotherhand,among the Members of the Court there is ajudge
having the nationality of even one of those parties, then no judge ad hoc
will be appointed (Territorial Jurisdiction of the International Comrnis-
sion of tlze River Oder, P.C.I.J., Series C, No. 17-11, p. 8; Customs
Régime betweenGerrnunyand Austria, 1931, P. C.1.J., Series AIB, No. 41,
p. 88).
Thisperfectly coherent jurisprudence of the Court upplied to this par-
ticulur case means that rlone of' the respondent Stutes itwre entitled to

appoint ajudge ad hoc.
Consequently, it may be said that in the present case neither of the two
basic functions of the institution of judge ad hoc has been applied in the
composition of the Court in a satisfactory way. In my opinion, it is a
question of the utmost specificweight in view of the fact that, obviously,
its meaning is not restricted to the procedure, but that it may have a far-
reaching concrete meaning.

5. Humanitarian concern, as a basis for the indication of provisional
measures, has assumed primary importance in the more recent practice of
the Court.
Humanitarian concern has been applied on two parallel tracks in the
Court's practice :

(a) In respect of the individuul

In this regard the cases concerning LuCrund (Germany v. United
States of America) and the Vienilu Convention on Consular Relations
(Paraguay v. United Stutes of An~erica) are characteristic.
In both cases the Court evinced the highest degree of sensibilityfor the

humanitarian aspect of the matter, which probably found its full expres-
sion in the part of the Application submitted by Germany on 2 March
1999 :
"The importance and sanctity of an individual human lifeare well
established in international law. As recognized by Article 6 of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, every human
being has the inherent right to life and this right shall be protectedfigure où le demandeur et les Etats défendeursqui font cause commune
ne comptent pas dejuge ud hoc de leur nationalitésur le siège,a étédéfini
dans la pratique de la Cour de façon très claire, sans la moindre ambi-
guïté.

Dans l'affaire du Sud-Ouest ufricain (1961), il a été décidéue, au cas
ou ni l'une ni l'autre des Parties faisant cause commune ne compterait de
juge de sa nationalité sur le siège,lesdites Parties auraient la facultéde
désignerd'un commun accord un seul juge ad hoc (Suhouest africain,
C.I.J. Recueil 1961, p. 3).
Si, en revanche, la Cour compte parmi ses membres un juge ayant la
nationalité d'une des parties, ne serait-ce que de I'une d'elles,il ne sera
pas désignéde juge ad lioc (Juridiction territoriule de la Commis-
sion internationale de l'Oder. C. P.J.I. sbrie C n" 17 (II), p. 8 ; Régime
douanier entre l'Allemagne et l'Autriche, 1931, C. P.J.I.skrie AIB no 41,

p. 88).
Si l'on applique ù la présente instancecette jurisprudence parfaiternent
colzbrrnte de la Cour, uucun des Etats défendeursn'étaithabilitéà dési-
gner unjuge ad hoc.
On peut donc dire qu'en l'espèce,ni I'uneni l'autre des deux fonctions
élémentairesde l'institution du juge ad hoc n'a étéremplie de façon satis-
faisante du point de vue de la composition de la Cour. A mon sens, la
question revêtun intérêttout particulier parce que, manifestement, son
importance ne se limite pas à la procédure et pourrait avoir une portée
concrète de trèsgrande ampleur.

II. LE PROBLÈME HUMANITAIRE EN L'ESPÈCE

5. Les problèmes humanitaires en tant que motif d'indication de me-
sures conservatoires revêtentune importance primordiale dans la pra-
tique la plus récentede la Cour.
En la matière, la Cour suit deux voies parallèles:

a) L'intérgtparticulier de lu personne

A cet égard,l'affaire LuCrund (Allemugne c. Etuts-Unis d'Ambriquej
et l'affaire relativea lConvention de Vienne sur les relations consulaires
(Puruguuy c. Etuts- Unis d'AmPriquej sont caractéristiques.
Dans les deux affaires, la Cour s'est montréeextrêmementsensible à

l'aspect humanitaire de la question à examiner, ce qu'exprime probable-
ment au mieux la requêteprésentéepar l'Allemagne le 2 mars 1999:

((L'importance et le caractère sacré dela vie humaine sont des
principes bien établis du droit international. Comme le reconnaît
l'article du pacte international relatif aux droits civils et politiques,

le droità la vie est inhérent à la personne humaine et ce droit doit527 LEGALlTY OF USE OF FORCE (DISS. OP. KRE~A)

by law." (LuGrand (Germuny v. United Stutes of Arnericu), Provi-
.rionulMeusures, Order of3 Marclz 1999, 1. C.J. Reports 1999, p. 12,
para. 8).

The following day, the Court already unanimously indicated provisional
measures because it found that in question was "a matter of the greatest
urgency" (ihicl.,p. 15,para. 26), which makes it incumbent upon the Court

to activate the mechanism of provisional measures in accordance with Ar-
ticle 41 of theStatute of the Court and Article 75, paragraph 1, of the
Rules of Court in order: "to ensure that Walter LaGrand is not executed
pending the final decision in these proceedings" (ibid, p. 16,para. 29).
Almost identical provisional measures were indicated by the Court in
the dispute between Paraguay and the United States of America which

had arisen on the basis of the Application submitted by Paraguay on
3 April 1998. On the same day, Paraguay also submitted an "urgent
request for the indication of provisional measures in order to protect its
rights" (Vienna Convention on Consulur Relations (Paraguay v. United
States of Anzericu). Order of'9 April 1998. 1. C.J. Reports 1998, p. 251,
para. 6). As early as 9 April 1998 the Court unanimously indicated pro-
visional measures so as to: "ensure that Angel Francisco Breard is not

executed pending the final decision in these proceedings" (ibid p . 258,
para. 41).
It is evident that humanitarian concern represented an aspect which
brought about unanimity in the Court's deliberations. This is clearly
shown not only by the letter and spirit of both Orders in the above-
mentioned cases, but also by the respective declarations and the separate

opinion appended to those Orders. In the process, humanitarian consid-
erations seem to have been sufficiently forceful to put aside obstacles
standing in the way of the indication of provisional measures. In this
respect, the reasoning of the Court's senior judge, Judge Oda, and that of
its President, Judge Schwebel, are indicative.
In paragraph 7 of his declaration appended to the Order of 3 March
1999 in the case concerning LaCrund (Germuny v. United States of

Arnericu), Judge Oda convincingly put forward a series of reasons of a
conceptual nature which explained why he "formed the view that, given
the fundamental nature of provisional measures, those measures should
not have been indicated upon Germany's request". But, Judge Oda goes
on to "reiterate and emphasize" that he "voted in favour of the Order
solely for humanitarian reasons" (I.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 20).

President Schwebel, in his separate opinion, has not explicitly stated
humanitarian considerations as the reason that guided him in voting for
the Order; however, it is reasonable to assume that those were the only
considerations which prevailed in this particular case in view of his "pro-
found reservations about the procedures followed both by the Applicant
and the Court" (LaGrand (Gertnuny v. United Stutcs of'Alnerica), Pro-
llisionrrlMea.surrs. Orclerqf3 Murch 1999, 1. C.J. Rc1port.s1999, p. 22). LICÉITE DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS. KRE~A) 527

êtreprotégépar la loi. » (LuCrund (Allen~agnec. Etuts- Unis d'Arné-
rique). rncsures conservutoires, ordonnuncc du 3 murs 1999. C. I.J.
Recueil 1999, p. 12, par. 8.)

Dès le lendemain, à l'unanimité, la Cour a indiqué des mesures conser-
vatoires parce que les circonstances exigeaient su'elle les «indique» de
toute urgence (ibid, p. 15. par. 26). de sorte qu'il lui incombait de mettre

en train le mécanismevoulu conformément à l'article 41 de son Statut et
de l'article 75, paragraphe 1, de son Règlement, «pour que M. Walter
LaGrand ne soit pas exécutétant que la décision définitiveen la présente
instance n'aura pas étérendue)) (ibid, p. 16, par. 29).
La Cour a indiqué des mesures conservatoires quasiment identiques
dans le différendopposant le Paraguay et les Etats-Unis d'Amérique à la

suite de la requêteprésentéepar le Paraguay le 3 avril 1998. Le même
jour, le Paraguay a également présenté«une demande urgente en indica-
tion de mesures conservatoires à l'effet de protéger ses droits)) (Conven-
tion de Vienne sur lcjs rc~1ution.v~~on.sului~e(s~uruguu~ c. Etuts- Unis
d'Amérique), ordonnunce du 9 avril 1998, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 251,
par. 6). Et dès le 9 avril 1998,à I'unanimité, la Cour a indiqué des me-
sures conservatoires «pour que M. Angel Francisco Breard ne soit pas

exécutétant que la décision définitive enla présente instance n'aura pas
étérendue)) (ibid, p. 258, par. 41).
Il est évidentque c'est à cause de l'aspect humanitaire du problème que
I'unanimité a étéréaliséeau sein de la Cour. On en voit clairement la
meuve non seulement dans la lettre et l'eswritdes deux ordonnances ren-
dues dans ces deux affaires, mais aussi dans les déclarations ainsi que

dans l'opinion individuelle qui leur ont étéjointes. En l'occurrence, les
considérations humanitaires ont été,semble-t-il, assez fortes pour lever
les obstacles qui s'opposaient à l'indication de mesures conservatoires. Le
raisonnement-du doyen de la Cour, M. Oda, et celui de son président,
M. Schwebel, sont significatifs.
Au paragraphe 7 de la déclaration qu'iljoint AI'ordonnance du 3 mars
1999 dans l'affaire LaCrund (Allemugne c. Etats-Unis d'Atnérique),

M. Oda énonce de facon convaincante une sériede motifs d'ordre théo-
rique qui l'«ont conduit à penser qu'il n'y avait pas lieu d'indiquer les
mesures conservatoires demandées par l'Allemagne, eu égardau caractère
fondamental de telles mesures)). Mais, M. Oda tient à <<rappel[er]avec
force [que s'il a] voté en faveur de l'ordonnance, c'est uniquement pour
des motifs humanitaires)) (C. I.J.Recueil 1999, p. 20).

Dans son opinion individuelle, le président de la Cour, M. Schwebel,
n'a pas expressément déclaréqu'il s'était inspirde considérations huma-
nitaires pour voter en faveur de I'ordonnance, mais il est raisonnable de
penser que ce sont les seules considérations qui ont prévalu en l'espèce,
puisqu'il avait «de profondes réservesquant A la manière de procéder
tant de la Partie requérante que de la Cour)) (LtrCrrwtl (Alletl~ugr~e
L..Etrrts-Unis r/'Atn&riyue),tne.silrcsc.on.servrrto.rsr./ont~r.ru 3 rnurs

1999, C.1J. Rccu~il 1999. p. 22). As far as the Applicant is concerned:

"Germany could have brought its Application years ago, months
ago, weeks ago or days ago. Had it done so, the Court could have
proceeded as it has proceeded since 1922 and held hearings on the
request for provisional measures. But Germany waited until the eve
of execution and then brought its Application and request for pro-
visional measures, at the same time arguing that no time remained to
hear the United States and that the Court should act proprio motu."
(1.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 22.)

The Court, for its part, indicated provisional measures, as President
Schwebel put it, "on the basis only of Germany's Application".

(b) In respect of a group of individuuls or the population as (1consti-
tutive element of the Statr

The protection of the citizens emerged as an issue in the case concern-
ing Military and Puramilitary Activities in and aguinst Nicaragua (Nicu-
ragua v. United States of America) :

"In its submission, Nicaragua emphasized the death and harm
that the alleged acts had caused to Nicaraguans and asked the Court
to support, by provisional measures, 'the rights of Nicaraguan citi-
zens to life, liberty and security'." (R. Higgins, "Interim Measures
for the Protection of Human Rights", in Politics, Values and Func-
tions, International LUIVin the 2lst Centuvy, 1997,Charney, Anton,

O'Connell, eds., p. 96.)

In the Frontier Dispute (Burkinu FasolRepublic of Mali) case, the
Court found the source for provisional measures in:

"incidents . .. which not merely are likely to extend or aggravate
the dispute but comprise a resort to force which is irreconcilable
with the principle of the peaceful settlement of international dis-
putes" (FrontierDispute, Provisionul Measurcs, Oru'erof IO Januavy
1986. 1.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 9, para. 19).

Humanitarian concern in this particular case was motivated by the risk
of irreparable damage :

"the facts that have given rise to the requests of both Parties for the
indication of provisional measures expose the persons and property
in the disputed area, as well as the interests of both States within
that area, to serious risk of irreparable damage" (ihid, p. 10,
para. 21).

It can be said that in the cases referred to above, in particular those in LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLO DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRE~A) 528

Et, en ce qui concerne le demandeur, M. Schwebel a dit ceci:

((L'Allemagneaurait pu présentersa requête des années, des mois,
des semaines, voire quelquesjours plus tôt. L'eût-ellefait, la Cour eut
pu procédercomme elle lefait depuis 1922et tenir des audiences sur la
demande en indication de mesures conservatoires. Mais l'Allemagne
a attendu la veille de l'exécutionpour présenter sarequêteet sa de-
mande en indication de mesures conservatoires, en faisant valoir
par la mêmeoccasion que la Cour n'avait plus le temps d'entendre
les Etats-Unis et devrait agir d'office.)) (C.I.Retueil 1999, p. 22.)

De son côté, la Cour a indiqué des mesures conservatoires en
s'appuyant, comme le dit M. Schwebel, présidentde la Cour, «exclusive-
ment)) sur la requêtede l'Allemagne.

b) L'intérêctollectif d'un groupe ou d'une populution en tnnt qu'élément
constitutif de I'Etat

La protection de la population nationale est devenue question litigieuse
dans l'affaire relative auxActivités militaires et paramilitaires au Nica-
ragua et u l'encontre de celui-ci (Nicurugua c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique):

((Dans sa conclusion, le Nicaragua a insistésur les morts, sur les
dommages que les actes alléguésont causés chezles Nicaraguayens
et a demandé à la Cour de soutenir, au moyen de mesures conser-
vatoires,«les droits descitoyens nicaraguayens à la vieà la libertéet
à la sécurité)).(R. Higgins, «Interim Measures for the Protection
of Human Rights)), dans Charney, Anton, O'Connel1 (dir. pub].),
Politics, Values and Function.~,It~ternational Luiv in the 21st Cen-
tury. 1997,p. 96.)

Dans l'affaire du DiJjZrrnd fiontulier (Burkina FasolRtpubliyue du
Mali), la Cour, pour indiquer des mesures conservatoires, s'est fondée
sur des:

((incidentsqui, non seulement sont susceptibles d'étendreou d'aggra-
ver le différend, maiscomportent un recours à la force inconciliable
avec le principe du règlement pacifique des différends internatio-
naux)) (Dqftrend frontalier, mesures con.servatoires. ordonnance du
IOjanvier 1986, C.I.J.Recueil 1986, p. 9, par. 19).

En l'espèce,la préoccupation humanitaire étaitmotivéepar le risque de
préjudiceirréparable :

«les faits qui sonà l'origine desdemandes des deux Parties en indi-
cation de mesures conservatoires exposent les personnes et les biens
se trouvant dans la zone litigieuse, ainsi que les intérêts des deux
Etats dans cette zone, à un risque sérieuxde préjudiceirréparable))
(ihid p,.10, par. 21).

On peut dire que, dans lesaffairesévoquéesci-dessus, en particulier celleswhich individuals were directly affected, the Court formed a high stand-
ard of humanitarian concern in the proceedings for the indication of
interim measures, a standard which commanded sufficient inherent
strength to brush aside also some relevant, both procedural and material,
rules governing the institution of provisional measures. Thus, humanitar-
ian considerations, independently from the norms of international law
regulating human rights and liberties, have, in a way, gained autonomous
legal significance; they have transcended the moral and philanthropie
sphere, and entered the sphere of law.

6. In the case at hand, it seems that "humanitarian concern" has lost
the acquired autonomous legal position. This fact needs to be stressed in
view of the special circumstances of this case.
Unlike the cases referred to previously, "humanitarian concern" has as
its object thefate of an entire nation, in the literal sense. Such a conclu-

sion may be inferred from at least two elements:
primo, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and its national and eth-
nie groups have been subjected for more than two months now to con-
tinued attacks of a very strong, highly organized air armada of the most
powerful States of the world. The aim of the attack is horrifying, judging
by the words of the Commander-in-Chief, General Wesley Clark, and he

ought to be believed :

"We're going to systematically and progressively attack, disrupt,
degrade, devastate, and ultimately, unless President Milosevit com-
plies with the demands of the international community, we'regoing
to completely destroy his forces and their facilities and support."

(BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/english/static.NATOgallery/air
default.stm/l4 May 1999.)

"Support" is interpreted, in broad terms, extensively; to the point
which raises the question of the true object of the air attacks. In an

article entitled "Belgrade People Must Suffer" Michael Gordon quotes
the words of General Short that he "hopes the distress of the public will,
must undermine support for the authorities in Belgrade" (Intcrnutionul
Heruld Trihune. 16May 1999,p. 6) and he continued:

"1 think no power to your refrigerator, no gas to your stove, you

can't get to work because bridge isdown -the bridge on which you
held your rock concerts and you al1 stood with targets on your
heads. That needs to disappear at three o'clock in the morning."
(Ibid )
That these are not empty words is testifiedto by destroyed bridges, power
plants without which there is no electricity. water supply and productiondans lesquelles des individus étaient directement concernés,la Cour s'est
appuyéesur une norme humanitaire supérieuredans le cadre de la pro-
cédureen indication de mesures conservatoires, une norme qui avait suf-
fisamment de force intrinsèque pour que l'on déroge à certaines règles
pertinentes, règlesde procédureet règlesde fond, qui régissentl'institu-
tion des mesures conservatoires. En somme, les considérations humani-
taires, indépendamment des normes du droit international qui règlentles
droits de l'homme etses libertés,ont en quelque sorte acquis un rôlejuri-
dique autonome; ces considérations ont désormais franchiles limites du
domaine moral et philanthropique pour entrer dans le domaine du droit.
6. En l'espèce,il semble pourtant que la préoccupation ((humanitaire))

ait perdu l'autonomie acquise sur le plan juridique. Vu les circonstances
particulières de l'instance,il convient de s'arrêtersur ce fait.
A la différence des affaires évoquées précédemmentl,e ((problème
humanitaire)) porte ici, littéralement. sur le sort de toute une nation.
Nous aboutissons à cette conclusion à partir de deux élémentsau moins:

En premier lieu, la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie et ses groupes
nationaux et ethniques sont soumis depuis plus de deux mois à présent
aux attaques constantes d'une armada aérienne très forte, extrêmement
organisée,appartenant aux Etats les plus puissants du monde. La finalité
de cette attaque a dequoi horrifier, sil'on enjuge par les paroles du com-
mandant en chef, le généralWesley Clark, et il n'y a pas lieu dedouterde
ce qu'il dit:

((Systématiquement et progressivement, nous allons attaquer,
ébranler, dégrader, dévaster, et finalement, sauf si le président
Milosevic se plie aux exigences de la comn~unautéinternationale,
nous allons détruire intégralement ses forces armées et leur ôter
toutes leurs infrastructures et toutes leurs bases de soutien» (BBC
News, http:llneli.s.bbCOuklenglisl~lstuti. ATOgulleryluirdefuults.trnl
14mai 1999).

En l'occurrence,leterme ((soutien ))revêtun senstrèslarge, au point que
l'on peut se demander quel est vraiment l'objet des attaques aériennes.
Dans un article intitulé «La population de Belgrade doit souffrir)),
Michael Gordon cite le généralShort qui dit ((espérerque la détressede

la population va saper, qu'elle doit saper, le soutien dont bénéficient les
autoritésde Belgrade » (International Hcruld Tribune, 16mai 1999,p. 6)
et il poursuit:

«Il n'y aura plus d'électricitépour votre frigo, plus de gaz pour
votre cuisinière, vous ne pourrez plus aller au travail parce que le
pont est démoli - ce pont sur lequel vous avez organisé vos concerts
rock et sur lequel vous vous êtes masses avec des cibles sur la tête.
Tout cela disparaît à 3 heures du matin.» (Ibid)

11ne s'agissait pas là de paroles en l'air, comme en témoignentles ponts
démolis,la disparition de centrales électriques,de l'adduction d'eau, desof foodstuffs essential for life; destroyed roads and residential blocks and

family homes; hospitals without electricity and water and, above all,
human beings who are exposed to bombing raids and who, as is rightly
stressed in the Application in the LuGrand (Germany v. United States of
Americu) case, have the "inherent right to life" (International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights, Art. 6), whose importance and sanctity are
well established in international law. In the inferno of violence, they are
but "collateral damage".

-secundo, the arsenal used inthe attacks on Yugoslavia contains also
weapons whose effects have no limitations either in space or in time. In
the oral proceedings before the Court, the Agent of the United States
explicitly stressed that depleted uranium is in standard use of the United
States Army (CR 99/24, p. 21).

The assessment of the effects of depleted uranium should be left to
science. The report by Marvin Resnikoff of Radioactive Management
Associates on NMI elaborated upon these effects:
"Once inhaled, fine uranium particles can lodge in the lung alveo-
lar and reside there for the remainder of one's life. The dose due to
uranium inhalation is cumulative. A percentage of inhaled particu-

lates may be coughed up, then swallowed and ingested. Smoking is
an additional factor that needs to be taken into account. Since
smoking destroys the cilia, particles caught in a smoker's bronchial
passages cannot be expelled. Gofman estimates that smoking
increases the radiation risk by a factor of 10. Uranium emits an
ai~ha article. similar to a helium nucleus. with two electrons
rimoved. ~hou~h this type of radiation is nit very penetrating, it
causes tremendous tissue damage when internalized. When inhaled,
uranium increases the probability of lung cancer. When ingested,
uranium concentrates in the bone. Within the bone, it increases the
probability of bone cancer, or, in the bone marrow, leukemia. Ura-
nium also resides in soft tissue, including the gonads, increasing the
probability of genetic health effects, including birth defects and

spontaneous abortions. The relationship between uranium ingested
and the resultant radiation doses to the bone marrow and specific
organs .. .are listed in numerous references.

The health effects are also age-specific. For the same dose, chil-
dren have a greater likelihood than adults of developing cancer."
(Uranium Battlejelds Home & Abroud: Depleted Urunium Use by
the U.S. Depurtment of Dejense, Rural Alliance for Military
Accountability et al.,March 1993,pp. 47-48.)

A scientific analysis of the concrete effects of armed operations against LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS. KRECA) 530

productions alimentaires indispensables à la vie; comme en témoigne la
destruction de routes, d'immeubles résidentiels,de maisons d'habitation
unifamiliales; comme en témoignent les hôpitaux privés d'électricité et
d'eau et, par-dessus tout, ces êtreshumains qui sont exposésaux bom-
bardements et qui, comme le disait si bien la requêtedans l'affaire

LaCrund (Allemagne r. Etats-Unis d'Amérique), ont un ((droit à la vie
inhérent à la personne humaine)) (pacte international relatif aux droits
civilset politiques, art., dont l'importance et le caractère sacrésont des
principes bien établisdu droit international. Dans l'enfer de la violence,
ce ne sont plus là que des ((dommagescollatéraux)).
En second lieu, l'arsenal qui sert aux attaques lancéescontre la You-
goslavie contient certaines armes dont les effets sont quasi illimitésdans
l'espace et dans le temps. Au cours de la procédure orale, l'agent des
Etats-Unis a nettement préciséque l'uranium appauvri est régulièrement
utilisépar l'arméedes Etats-Unis (CR99124, p. 17).
Il convient de laisser les scientifiques évaluer les effets de l'uranium
appauvri. Le rapport de Marvin Resnikoff, qui travaille pour Radio-
active Management Associates (NMI) dit quels sont ces effets:

«Une fois inhalées,de fines particules d'uranium peuvent se loger
dans lesalvéolesdu poumon et y rester jusqu'à la fin de votre vie. La
dose inhalée est cumulative. Une certaine fraction des particules
inhalées peut êtreexpectorée puis avaléeet ingérée.Si l'intéressé
fume, il faut prendre cet élémenten considération. Comme fumer
détruitles franges ciliaires, les particules capturéesdans les passages
bronchiques du fumeur ne peuvent pas êtreexpulsées. Gofman

estime que, chez les fumeurs, le risque dû a l'irradiation est ainsi
multipliépar dix. L'uranium émetune particule alpha, analogue a
un noyau d'héliumamputéde deux électrons.Les rayonnements de
ce type ne pénètrent pas trésprofondément, mais, une fois à I'inté-
rieur du corps, ilscausent beaucoup de dommages aux tissus. Quand
il est inhalé, l'uranium accroîtlesprobabilitésde cancer du poumon.
Quand il est ingérél,'uranium se concentre dans les os. A l'intérieur
des os, il augmente les probabilitésde cancer des os, ou bien, dans la
moelle, les probabilitésde leucémie.L'uranium réside aussidans les
tissus mous, y compris les gonades, ce qui accroît les probabilitésde
conséquencesgénétiques,sous forme notamment d'anomalies géné-
tiques et d'avortements spontanés. Le rapport qui existe entre l'ura-

nium ingéréet les doses d'irradiation qui en résultentpour la moelle
osseuse et certains organes...figurent dans beaucoup d'étudescitées
en référence.
Les effets de l'uranium sur la santé sont également fonction de
l'âge. Pour une même dose, l'enfantcourt de plus grands risques
de cancer que l'adulte.» (Uranium Buttlejelds Home & Abroad:
Depleted Uranium Use by the U.S. Department of'Defense, Rural
Alliance for Military Accountability, et al.mars 1993,p. 47-48.)

L'Officefédéralallemand de l'environnement (Umweltbundesamt) a pré-Yugoslavia has been presented by Umweltbundesamt (UBA). The essen-
tials of the expertise are as follows':

"The longer the war in Yugoslavia lasts, the greater the risk of
long-term damage to the environment. Such damage threatens to
extend beyond national frontiers, and it may no longer be possible

fully to make it good. The Federal Environmental Agency [Umwelt-
bundesamt (UBA)] comes to this conclusion in an intenial paper
examining the ecological consequences of the war in Yugoslavia,
prepared for the meeting of European Environment Ministers at the

beginning of May in Weimar. Catastrophes 'like Sevesoand Sandoz'
are, in the opinion of the Agency, 'a perfectly probable damage sce-
nario'.

'
"Je Iinger der Krieg in Jugoslawien dauert, desto grosser wird die Gefahr von lang-
fristigen Schadigungen der Umwelt. Diese drohen sich über die Landesgrenzen
hinaus auszubreiten und konnen moglicherweisenicht mehr vollstandig beseitigt wer-
den. Zu dieser Einschitzung kommt das Umweltbundesamt (UBA) in einem internen
Papier, das sich mit den okologischen Auswirkungen des Krieges in Jugoslawien
befasst und für die Vorbereitung des Treffens europaischer Umweltminister Anfang
Mai in Weimar erstellt wurde. Katastrophen 'wie Seveso und Sandoz' sind nach
Ansicht des Amtes 'ein durchaus wahrscheinliches Schadensszenario'.

Umweltgifte, die nach Zerstorungen von Industrieanlagen austreten, konnten sich
weiter ausbreiten. 'BeiSicherstellung sofortigen Handelns, das unter Kriegsbedingun-
gen aber unmoglich ist,bleibt die Wirkung dieser Umweltschidigungen lokal begrenzt.
Langere Verzoeerungen führen zu einem übertritt der Schadstoffe in die Schutzgüter
~oden, ~rundr und-oberflachenwasser. erhohen das Gefihrdungspotential fü; den
Menschen und den Sanierungsaufwand betrichtlich.'
Diese Folgen müssen nicht auf Jugoslawien beschrankt sein. Schadstoffe aus
Grossbranden konnten grenzüberschreitend verteilt werden. Weiter heisst es in dem
Papier: 'Die Einleitung der Gefahrstoffe in Oberfliichenwasser kann zur wejtra~imi-
gen Schadigung der 0kosysteme führen. Die Deposition von Gefahrstoffen in Boden
kann ie nach Eirrenschaft der Stoffe und Boden zu langanhaltenden Versuchungen-
iiiiwciigcliciidcii 'lurzurig~ciii~clir iiili~n~.'~i~cn
Die G:làhr cincr 'iici'grcii'cii~c'ritor~iiig\rc\cntliclicr Rc\taiidtcilc \on Trink-
wasserversorgungssyste~enn sei für mittlere und grosse Stadte sowie Ballungsgebiete
am grossten. Schon geringe Mengen von Substanzen der petrochemischen Industrie
konnten 'grosse Grundwasservorrate unbrauchbar machen'.
Wie gefahrlich die freigesetzten Stoffe insgesamt sind, Iasst sich nach Ansicht der
UBA-Experten nur schwer abschatzen, 'weildurch die Zerstorung ganzer Industrie-
komplexe Mischkontaminationcn verschiedenster Schadstoffe gebildet werden', die
noch wenig erforscht seien. Noch komplizierter sei die Beurteilung von Umwelt-
schaden durch Brande und Explosionen. 'Hier treten bezogen auf Schadstoffinventar
und Ausbreitung weit weniger kalkulierbare, zum Teil grossflichige Umweltschadi-
gungen ein.'
Die Verbrennungsprodukte seien 'zumTeil hoch toxisch und kanzerogen'. Je nach
kommen, 'dieeine vollstandige Beseitigungnahezu unmoglich macht'lung...eser Stoffe'
Die Wechselwirkungen der Produkte mit den eingesetzten Waffen dürften 'vollig
unbekannt' sein." (TAZ, Dii, Tugcszriiun~. Berlin. 20 May 1999.)sentéune analyse scientifiquedes effetsconcrets imputables aux opérations
arméescontre la Yougoslavie.Ce rapport d'expert dit essentiellemenc teci ':

«Plus la guerre en Yougoslaviedure et plus le risque de dommages
a long terme a l'environnements'aggrave. Cesdommages menacent de

s'étendreau-delà des frontièresde la Yougoslavie et peut-êtreest-il
déjàtrop tard pour qu'on puisseleséradiquer.C'est à cette conclusion
queparvient l'Officefédéraa lllemanddel'environnement (Unlil~elthun-
desatnt) dans un document interne examinant les conséquencespour
l'environnementde la guerre en Yougoslavie, établi envue de la réu-

nion des ministres européens del'environnementdébutmai à Weimar.
Des catastrophes du type de cellesde Seveso etde Sandoz constituent,
selon l'Office, «un scénario éminemmenp trobable)).

' «Je langer der Krieg in Jugoslawien dauert, desto grosser wird die Gefahr von lang-
fristigen Schiidigungen der Umwelt. Diese drohen sich über die Landesgrenzen
hinaus auszubreiten und konnen moelicherweise nicht mehr vollstiindip beseitiet wer-
den. Zu dieser Einschatzung kommtdas Umweltbundesamt (UBA) ineinem internen
Papier. das sich mit den okologischen Auswirkunlren des Krieges in Jueoslawien
befasst und für die ~orbereitungdes Treffens eurofaischer ~mweltminist& Anfang
Mai in Weimar erstellt wurde. Katastrophen 'wie Seveso und Sandoz' sind nach
Ansicht des Amtes 'ein durchaus wahrscheinliches Schadensszenario'.

Umweltgifte, die nach Zerstorungen von Industrieanlagen austreten, konnten sich
weiter ausbreiten. 'BeiSicherstellung sofortigen Handelns. das unter Kriegsbedingun-
gen aber unmoplich ist. bleibt die Wirkung dieser Umweltschiidipuneen lokal
cbegrenzt.~iinge; Verzogerungen führen zu eynem übertritt der ~chadstcke in die
Schutzlrüter Boden. Grund- und Oberflachenwasser. erhohen das Gefihrdun-.voten-
tial für-den Menschen und den Sanierungsaufwand betrachtlich.'
Diese Folgen müssen nicht auf Jugoslawien beschriinkt sein. Schadstoffe aus
Grossbriinden konnten grenzüberschreitend verteilt werden. Weiter heisst es indem
Papier: 'Die Einleitung der Gefahrstoffe in Oberflachenwasser kann zur weitriiumi-
gen Schiidigungder Okosysteme führen. Die Deposition von Gefahrstoffen in Boden
kann je nach Eigenschaft der Stoffe und Boden zu langanhaltenden Versuchungen
mit weitgehenden Nutzungseinschrankungen führen.'
Die Gefahr einer 'tiefgreifenden Zerstorung wesentlicher Bestandteile von Trink-
wasserversorgungssystemen' sei für mittlere und grosse Stiidte sowie Ballungsgebiete
am grossten. Schon geringe Mengen von Substanzen der petrochemischen Industrie
konnten 'grosse Grundwasservorrate unbrauchbar machen'.
UBA-Experten nur schwer abschiitzen, 'weildurch die Zerstorung ganzer Industrie-t der
komplexe Mischkontarninationen verschiedenster Schadstoffe gebildet werden', die
noch wenig erforscht seien. Noch komplizierter sei die Beurteilung von Urnwelt-
schaden durch Briinde und Explosionen. 'Hier treten bezogen auf Schadstoff-
inventar und Ausbreitung weit weniger kalkulierbare. zum Teil grossfliichige
Umweltschiidigungen ein.'
Die Verbrennungsprodukte seien 'zum Teil hoch toxisch und kanzerogen'. Je
nach klimatischen Bedingungen konne es 'zu einer grossflachigen Verteilung dieser
Stoffe' kommen, 'die einevollstiindige Beseitigung nahezu unmoglich macht...
Die Wechselwirkungen der Produkte mit den eingesetzten Waffen dürften 'vollig
unbekannt' sein.» (TAZ, Diu Trrgrs:eitun~, Berlin. 20 mai 1999.) Environmental toxins released by the destruction of industrial
plant could spread further. 'If immediate action is taken, which is,
however, impossible under war conditions, the effect of this environ-
mental damage will remain restricted to local level. Longer delays
will result in toxic substances passing into the soil, groundwater and
surface water, and substantially increase the potential danger to
man, and the cost of cleansing operations.'

These consequences are not necessarily limited to Yugoslavia.

Harmful substances deriving from major conflagrations can be dif-
fused beyond frontiers. The paper continues: 'Passage of harmful
substances into surface water can lead to extensive damage to eco-
systems. The deposition of hazardous substances in the soil can,
depending on the nature of those substances and of the soil, result in
long-term contamination, imposing far-reaching limitations upon
utilization.'

The danger of 'extensive destruction of essential components of
drinking-water supply networks' is biggest with regard to middle-
sized and large cities and conurbations. Even small amounts of sub-
stances from the petrochemical industry can render 'extensive
groundwater reserves unusable'.

According to the Federal Environmental Agencyexperts, the over-
al1risk posed by the substances released is difficultto assess, 'because
the destruction of entire industrial complexes results in mixed con-
tamination by a wide variety of harmful substances' - an area in
which there has as yet been little research. Even more problematic,
in the experts' view, is the assessment of environmental damage
caused by fires and explosions. 'Here, in terms of identification of
the harmful substances involved and the possibility of their diffu-
sion, environmental damage is far harder to predict, but will on
occasion be extensive.'

The substances produced by the fires are described as 'in part
highly toxic and carcinogenic'. Depending on climatic conditions,
'widespread diffusion of these substances' could occur, 'whichwould
render full cleansing almost impossible'.

The effects of the interaction of those substances with the
weapons employed were said to be 'completely unknown'." (TAZ,
Die Tageszeitung, Berlin, 20 May 1999.)

Therefore, it is my profound conviction, that the Court is,irzcotzcreto,
confronted with an uncontestable case of "extreme urgency" and "irrepa-
rable harm", which perfectly coincides, and significantly transcends the Les substances toxiques pour I'environnement libérées àla suite de
la destruction d'installations industrielles pourraient se propager
une plus grande distance. L'adoption de mesures immédiates -
impossible toutefois en temps de guerre - permettrait de contenir
localement ces atteintesà I'environnement. Plus le temps s'écoulera
et plus cessubstances se répandrontdans le sol, leseaux souterraines
et les eaux de surface, d'où une augmentation considérabledes ris-
ques pour l'homme et du coût des opérations de nettoyage.
Ces conséquences nesont pas nécessairement limitées à la You-
goslavie. ~e; substances toxiques dégagées à la suite d'incendies

majeurs peuvent se répandre au-delà des frontières. Et l'auteur
du document d'ajouter: «La migration de substances dangereuses
dans les eaux de surface peut causer de graves dommages aux éco-
systèmes. Le dépôt de substances dangereuses dans le sol peut en-
traîner, selon la nature des substances et des sols, une contamina-
tion à long terme, faisant radicalement obstacle à l'utilisation des
sols))
Le risque d'une ((destructionà grande échelledes élémentsessen-
tiels du réseaud'approvisionnement en eau potable)) est plus lourd

pour les villesmoyennes, les grandes villeset les zones de concentra-
tion urbaine. De faibles quantitésde substances émanant d'installa-
tions pétrochimiques suffisent à rendre inutilisables d'importantes
réservesd'eaux souterraines ».
Selon les experts de l'Officefédéralde l'environnement, il est très
difficile d'apprécier dans son ensemble le risque que représentent
les substances libéréesdans l'environnement, «car la destruction
de complexes industriels entiers entraîne une pollution provoquée
par un véritable cocktail de substances toxiques)), sur laquelle les
recherches n'ont guère porté jusqu'a présent. L'évaluation des

dommages causés à I'environnement par les incendies et les explo-
sions est encore plus délicate, estimentles experts.l est beaucoup
plus difficile en pareil cas, du fait des problèmes liésà l'identifi-
cation des substances toxiques et au risque de les voir se répandre,
de prédirelesdommages à l'environnement, qui seront parfois consi-
dérables.»
Certaines des substances libéréesdans l'atmosphère à la suite des
incendies sont qualifiéesde«très toxiques et cancérigènes)).En fonc-
tion des conditions climatiques ambiantes, «ces substances pour-

raient diffuser très largement)), de sorteu'«une décontamination
complète serait quasi impossible)).
Quant à l'interaction de cesproduits avec lesarmes utilisées,on en
((ignoreraittotalement» les effet».(TAZ, Die Tugeszeitung, Berlin,
numérodu 20 mai 1999.)

Je suis par conséquent profondémentconvaincu que la Cour se trouve
concrètement face à une affaire imposant incontestablement d'agir «de
toute urgence)) et où l'on court le risque d'un ((préjudiceirréparable)),substance of humanitarian standards which the Court has accepted in
previous cases.

7. 1 must admit that 1find entirely inexplicable the Court's reluctance
to enter intoserious consideration of indicating provisional measures in a

situation such as this crying out with the need to make an attempt,
regardless of possible practical effects, to at least alleviate, if noti-
nate, an undeniable humanitarian catastrophe. 1 do not have in mind
provisional measures in concrete terms as proposed by the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, but provisional measures in general: be they
provisional measures proprio motu, different from those proposed by the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia or, simply, an appeal by the President
of the Court, as was issued on so many occasions in the past, in less
difficult situations, on the basis of the spirit of Article 74, paragraph 4,
of the Rules of Court.

One, unwillingly,acquires the impression that for the Court in thispar-
ticular case the indication of any provisional measures whatever has been

terra prohibitu. Exempli causa, the Court, in paragraph 18of the Order,
says that it:
"deems it necessary to emphasize that al1parties appearing before it
must act in conformity with their obligations under the United
Nations Charter and other rules of international law including
humanitarian law",

or, in paragraph 37 of the Order, that the Parties: "should take care not
to aggravate or extend the dispute", and it is obvious that both the above
pronouncements of the Court have been designed within the model of
general, independent provisional measures.

III. JURISDICTIO ONF THE COURT RATIONEMATERIAE

8. 1 am of the opinion that in the matter in hand the Court's position
is strongly open to criticism.
The Court finds :
"whereas the threat or use of force against a State cannot in itself

constitute an act of genocide within the meaning of ArticleII of the
Genocide Convention; and whereas, in the opinion of the Court, it
does not appear at the present stage of the proceedings that the
bombings which form the subject of the Yugoslav Application
'indeedentai1the element of intent, towards a groupas such, required
by the provision quoted above' (Legulity of tlze Tlzreut or Use of
Nuclear Weapons, Adilisory Opinion, 1.C.J.Reports 1996 (I), p. 240,
para. 26)" (Order, para. 27).

The intent is, without doubt, the subjective element ofthe being of theaffaire qui répond parfaitement, quant au fond, aux normes humanitaires
que la Cour a retenues dans certains précédents;à cet égard,la présente
instance se situe même à un niveau nettement supérieur.
7. Pour être franc,je dois dire que je trouve totalement inexplicable

que la Cour veuille s'abstenir d'étudiersérieusementla possibilitéd'indi-
quer des mesures conservatoires alors que la situation impose de façon
aussi criante de tenterà tout le moins, indépendamment des effets pra-
tiques éventuelsde la tentative, d'atténuer, sinon de supprimer, un dan-
ger incontestable de catastrophe humanitaire. Je n'envisage pas ici des
mesures conservatoires qui prendraient concrètement la forme proposée
par la Républiquefédérale de Yougoslavie,j'envisage des mesuresconser-
vatoires en général:la Cour peut proposer d'office d'autres mesures
conservatoires que celles qui sont proposéespar la République fédérale
de Yougoslavie, ou elle peut se contenter d'un appel lancépar le pré-
sident, comme ellel'a fait si souvent déjà,dans des situations moins diffi-

ciles, en s'inspirant de l'article 74, paragraphe 4, de son Règlement.
Sans le vouloir, on a ici l'impression que, pour la Cour en l'espèce,
l'indication de mesuresconservatoires, sousquelque forme que ce soit, lui
a sembléinterdite. Par exemple, au paragraphe 19 de l'ordonnance, la
Cour:

((estime nécessairede souligner que toutes les parties qui se pré-
sentent devant elle doivent agir conformémentà leurs obligations en
vertu de la Charte des Nations Unies et des autres règles du
droit international, y compris du droit humanitaire)),

ou bien elle dit, au paragraphe 49, que les Parties: ((doivent veilàene
pas aggraver ni étendre le différend)), et il est manifeste que, dans les
deux cas, la Cour s'est inspiréed'un type de mesures conservatoires de
caractère généraelt indépendant.

111.COMPÉTENC DE LA COUR RATIONE MATERlAE

8. Je suis d'avis qu'en l'espècela position adoptée par la Cour prête
fortement à critiques.
La Cour considère:

«que le recours ou la menace du recoursà l'emploide la force contre
un Etat ne sauraient en soi constituer un acte de génocideau sens de
l'article II de la convention sur le génocide;et que, de l'avis de la
Cour, il n'apparaît pas au présentstadede la procédureque lesbom-
bardements qui constituent l'objet de la requête yougoslave «corn-

porte[nt] effectivement l'élémendt'intentionnalité, dirigécontre un
groupe comme tel, que requiert la disposition sus-citée))Lici.ifë (le
lu menace ou de I'enlploi d'u~mcsnucléuire.s,uvis consultutifC.I.J.
Recueil 1996 (1), p. 240, par. 26)))(ordonnance, par. 27).

L'intentionnalitéest incontestablement l'élémenstubjectif qui est cons-crime of genocide as, indeed, of any other crime. But, this question is not
and cannot, by its nature, be the object of decision-making in the inci-
dental proceedings of the indication of provisional measures.

In this respect, a reliableroof should be sought in the dispute which,
by its salient features, is essentially identical to the dispute under consid-
eration - the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Pre-
vention und Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
In its Order on the indication of provisional measures of 8 April 1993,
in support of the assertion of the Respondent that, inter alia, "it does not

support or abet in any way the commission of crimes cited in the Appli-
cation . . and that the claims presented in the Application are without
foundation" (Applicution of the Convention on the Prevention und Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide. ProvisionalMeasures, Order of 8 April
1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 21, para. 42), the Court stated:

"Whereas the Court, in the context of the present proceedings on
a request for provisional measures, has in accordance with Article 41
of the Statute to consider the circumstances drawn to its attention as
requiring the indication of provisional measures, but cannot make
definitive findings of fact or of imputability, and the right of each
Party to dispute the facts alleged against it, to challenge the attribu-
tion to it of responsibility for those facts, and to submit arguments
in respect of the merits, must remain unaffected by the Court's deci-
sion" (ibid., p. 22, para. 44)

and
"Whereas the Court is not called upon, for the purpose of its

decision on the present request for the indication of provisional
measures, now to establish the existence of breaches of the Geno-
cide Convention" (ibid., para. 46).
The rationale of provisional measures is, consequently, limited to the
preservation of the respective rights of the partiespendente lite which are

the object of the dispute, rights which may subsequently be adjudged by
the Court. As the Court stated in the Land and Maritime Boundary
between Cameroon und Nigeria case:
"Whereas the Court, in the context of the proceedings concerning
the indication of provisional measures, cannot make definitive find-
ings of fact or of imputability, and the right of each Party to dispute
the facts alleged against it, to challenge the attribution to it of

responsibility for those facts, and to submit arguments, if appropri-
ate, in respect of the merits, must remain unaffected by the Court's
decision" (Lund und Muritime Bounday brtiiwen Cameroon and
Nigeria, Provisionul Measures, Order of 15 Murch 1996, 1.C.J.
Reports 1996 (1). p. 23, para. 43).titutif du crime de génocidecomme du reste de n'importe quel autre
crime. Mais cette question n'est pas l'objet de la prise de décisiondans la
procédure incidente de I'indication de mesures conservatoires et, par sa
nature même.elle ne peut pas l'être.
Il fautàcet égardchercher une preuve fiable dans le différendqui, par
ses principaux traits, est pour l'essentiel identique au différend examiné
ici:il s'agit de l'affaire relatià l'Application de la convention pour lu
prévention et lu répressiondu crime de ggénocide.

Dans l'ordonnance qu'elle a rendue le 8 avril 1993 sur I'indication de
mesures conservatoires, souscrivant à l'affirmation du défendeurqui dit
notamment «n'apport[er] aucun appui ni nlencourag[er], d'une façon ou
d'une autre, la perpétration des crimes mentionnésdans la requête ...[et]
que les griefs exposésdans la requêtesont dénuésde fondement)) (Appli-
cation de lu convention vour la vrévention et la révression du crime de
génocide, mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du K avril 1993, C.I.J.
Recueil 1993, p. 21, par. 42), la Cour a considéréque:

«dans le contexte de la présente procédureconcernant l'indication
de mesures conservatoires, [elle]doit, conformément à l'article 41 du
Statut, examiner si les circonstances portées à son attention exigent
l'indication de mesures conservatoires, mais n'est pas habilitée à
conclure définitivementsur les faits ou leur imputabilité et que sa
décisiondoit laisser intact le droit de chacune des Parties de contes-

ter les faits alléguécontre elle, ainsi que la responsabilitéqui lui est
imputéequant à ces faits et de faire valoir ses moyens sur le fond))
(ibid p. 22, par. 44).

et que:
(([elle]n'est pas appeléeà ce stade à établirl'existencede violations
de la convention sur le génocide)) (ibid.par. 46).

La raison d'être des mesures conservatoires estpar conséquentlimitée
à la préservation desdroits des parties pendente lite qui sont l'objet du

différend,droits qui peuvent ultérieurement fairel'objet de la décisionde
la Cour. Comme celle-ci le dit de nouveau dans l'affaire de la Frontière
terrestre etmaritirne entre le Cameroun et le Nigériu:
((Considérantque la Cour, dans le cadre de la présente procédure

concernant I'indication de mesures conservatoires, n'est pas habilitée
à conclure définitivementsur les faits ou leur imputabilité et que sa
décisiondoit laisser intact le droit de chacune des Parties de contes-
ter les faits alléguécontre elle, ainsi que la responsabilitéqui lui est
imputée quant à ces faits, et de faire valoir, le cas échéant,ses
moyens sur le fond.))(Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Came-
roun et le Nigéria. mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 15 murs
1996, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 23, par. 43.)535 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (DISS .P. KRECA)

9. Fundamental questions arise regarding the position of the Court on
this particular matter.
The relationship between the use of armed force and genocide can be
looked upon in two ways:

(LI) is the use of force peu sc an act of genocide or not? and,
(h) is the use of force conducive to genocide and, if the answer is in the
affirmative, what is it then, in the legal sense?
It is incontrovertible that the use of force per set dejnitione does not
constitute an act of genocide. It is amatter that needs no particular prov-
ing. However, it could not be inferred from this that the use of force is un-
related and cannot have any relationship with the commissionof the crime

of genocide. Such a conclusion would becontrary to elementary logic.
Article II of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide defines the acts of genocide as
"any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in
whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as
such :

(a) Killing members of the group;
(h) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the
group ;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of lifecalculated
to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."

Any of these acts can be committed also by the use of force. The use of
force is, consequently, one of the possible means of committing acts of
genocide. And, it should be pointed out, one of the most efficient means,
due to the immanent characteristics of armed force.

Extensive useof armed force, in particular if it is used against objects
and means constituting conditions of normal life, can be conducive to
"inflicting on the group conditions of life" bringing about "its physical
destruction".

Of course, itcan be argued that such acts are in the function of degrad-
ing the military capacity of the Federal Republicof Yugoslavia. But such
an explanation can hardly be regarded as a serious argument. For, the
spiral ofsuch a line of thinking may easily come to a point when, having
in mind that military power is after al1comprised of people, even mass
killing of civiliansan be claimed to constitute some sort of a precaution-
ary measure that should prevent the maintenance or, in case of mobiliza-
tion, the increase of military power of the State.

Of course, to be able to speak about genocide it is necessary that there
is an intent, namely, of "deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of
life" bringing about "its physical destruction in whole or in part". LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 535

9. Sur ce point en particulier, il se pose des questions fondamentales

au sujet de la position de la Cour.
On peut considérer de deux facons le lien entre le recours à la force
arméeet le génocide:

a) est-ce que I'emploi de la force est un acte de génocideper sr ou non?
b) l'emploi de la force favorise-t-il le génocide et, dans l'affirmative,
qu'est-ce alors au sens juridique?

Indéniablement,l'emploide la force, en soi et par définition,ne constitue
pas un acte de génocide. Nulbesoin d'en faire la preuve. Toutefois, il n'est
pas possible d'en déduireque l'emploi de la force est sans rapport avec la
commission du crime de génocideet qu'il n'est pas possible d'établirun tel
rapport. Pareille conclusion serait contraire à la logique la plus élémentaire.
L'articleII de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocidedéfinitles actes de génocidecomme

«l'un quelconque des actes ci-après, commis dans l'intention de
détruire. en tout ou en partie, un groupe national, ethnique, racial
ou religieux, comme tel :

a) meurtre de membres du groupe;
6) atteinte grave à l'intégritéphysique ou mentale de membres du
groupe ;
c) soumission intentionnelle du groupe ë desconditions d'existence
devant entraîner sa destruction physique totale ou partielle;

d) mesures visant i entraver les naissances au sein du groupe;
e) transfert forcé d'enfants du groupe à un autre groupe)).
N'importe lequel des actes ci-dessus peut être commis également au

moyen de la force. L'emploi de la force est par conséquent l'un des
moyens possibles de commettre des actes de génocide.Et, il convient de le
signaler, c'est l'un des moyens les plus efficaces, étant donné les carac-
t&es propres de la force armée.
L'emploi étendu de la force armée, en particulier s'il visedes objets et
des infrastructures constituant les conditions de la vie normale, peut

aboutir à ((soumettre le groupe à des conditions d'existence)) entraînant
bel et bien «sa destruction physique)).
On peut bien entendu objecter que les actes en question ont pour rôle
d'affaiblir la puissance militaire de la République fédéralede Yougosla-
vie. Mais pareille explication peut difficilement représenter un argument
valable. Le raisonnement, en effet, va rapidement emprunter un cercle
vicieux: la puissance militaire étantaprès tout composée d'hommes, il est

possible d'aller jusqu'ë prétendre que le meurtre collectif d'une foule de
civils tient en quelque sorte lieu de mesure de précaution de nature à
empêcher d'entretenir la puissance militaire de I'Etat, voire de I'augmen-
teren cas de mobilisation.
Certes, pour pouvoir parler de génocide,il faut une intention, c'est-à-dire
qu'il faut vouloir ((soumettre intentionnellement le groupe à des conditions
d'existence))entraînant ((sa destruction physique totale ou partielle)). In the incidental proceedings the Court cannot and should not concern
itself with the definitive qualification of the intent to impose upon the
group conditions in which the survival of the group is threatened. Having
in mind the purpose of provisional measures, it can be said that at this
stage of the proceedings it is sufficient to establish that, in the conditions
of intensive bombing, there is an objective risk of bringing about condi-
tions in which the survival of the group is threatened.
TheCourt took just such a position in the Order of 8April 1993on the
indication of provisional measures in the Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide case.

Paragraph 44 of that Order stated

"Whereas the Court, in the context of the present proceedings on
a request for provisional measures, has in accordance with Article 41
of the Statute to consider the circumstances drawn to its attention as
requiring the indication of provisional measures, but cannot make
definitive findings of fact or of imputability, and the right of each
Party to dispute the facts alleged against it, to challenge the attribu-
tion to it of responsibility for those facts, and to submit arguments
in respect of the merits, must remain unaffected by the Court's deci-
sion" (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 22).

The question of "intent" is a highly complicated one. Although the
intent is a subjective matter, a psychological category, in contemporary
criminal legislation it is established also on the basis of objective circum-
stances. Inferences of intent to commit an act are widely incorporated in
legal systems. E'cemplicuusa, permissive inferences as opposed to a man-
datory presumption in thejurisprudence of the United States of America
may be drawn even in a criminal case.

In any event, there appears to be a clear dispute between the Parties

regarding "intent" as the constitutive element of the crime of genocide.

The Applicant asserts that "intent" can be presumed and, on the other
hand, the Respondent maintains that "intent", as an element of the crime
of genocide, should be clearly established as dolus speciulis. Such a con-
frontation of viewsof the Parties concerned leads to a dispute related to
"the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention", includ-
ing disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for
any of the other acts enumerated in Article III of the Convention.

10. At the same time, one should have in mind that whether "in cer-
tain cases, particularly that by the infliction of inhuman conditions of
life, the crime may be perpetrated by omission" (Stanislas Plawski, Etude
ciesprincipes fonùumentuu'c du droit internutional pénal, 1972, p. 115.
Cited in United Nations doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/415 of 4 July 1978). LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.DISS. KRECA) 536

Lors de procédures incidentes, la Cour ne peut pas - et ne doit
d'ailleurs pas- chercher à établirde façon définitive qu'elle esten pré-

sence d'une volontéde soumettre le groupe à des conditions d'existence
de nature a menacer sa survie. Eu égard à l'objet des mesures conserva-
toires, on peut dire qu'a ce stade de la procédure,il suffit d'établirque, le
groupe étant soumis àdes bombardements intensifs, on court objective-
ment le risque de voir cette situation aboutirà menacer sa survie.
La Cour a précisémentadoptécette position dans l'ordonnance qu'elle
a rendue le 8avril 1993au sujet de I'indication de mesures conservatoires
dans l'affaire relative l'Application de lu convention pour la prévention
et la répressiondu crime de génocide.

Le paragraphe 44 de cette ordonnance se lit comme suit:
((Considérantque la Cour, dans le contexte de la présenteprocé-
dure concernant I'indication de mesures conservatoires, doit, confor-
mément al'article 41 du Statut, examiner si lescirconstances portées

à son attention exigent I'indication de mesures conservatoires, mais
n'est pas habilitée à conclure définitivement sur les faits ou leur
imputabilitéet que sa décisiondoit laisser intact le droit de chacune
des Parties de contester les faits allégucontre elle, ainsi que la res-
ponsabilitéqui lui est imputéequant àces faits et de faire valoir ses
moyens sur le fond. >)(C.I.J.Recueil 1993, p. 22.)

La question de l'<<intentionnalité»est extrêmementcomplexe. L'inten-
tion appartient au domaine subjectif, c'est une catégorie psychologique,
mais, dans la législationpénalecontemporaine, l'intention est également
établie apartir de circonstances objectives. L'intention présuméede com-
mettre l'acte fait très communément partie du systèmejuridique. Par
exemple, aux Etats-Unis d'Amérique, la jurisprudence autorise la pré-
somption plausible par opposition à la présomption concluante, même en

matsre pénale.
De toute façon, les Parties s'opposent très clairement, semble-t-il, au
sujet de l'«intentionnalité» en tant qu'élémentconstitutif du crime de
génocide.
Le demandeur affirme que l'«intention »peut êtreprésuméetandis que
le défendeursoutient qu'en tant qu'élément constitutifdu crime de géno-
cide,l'«intention» doit êtreclairement établiesous forme de do1spécial.
Cette opposition de vues entre les Parties constitue un différend relatif
l'interprétation, l'application ou l'exécutionde la ...convention [sur le

génocide] »,les différendsde ce type comprenant aussi les différendsrela-
tifsà la responsabilité d'un Etat en matière de génocideou de l'un quel-
conque des autres actes énumérés à l'article III de ladite convention.
10. En mêmetemps, il ne faut pas oublier que, «dans certains cas, sur-
tout dans le génocidepar la soumission à des conditions inhumaines de
vie, le crime peut êtreperpétrépar omission» (Stanislas Plawski, Etude
des principes fondamentaux du droit international pénal, 1972, p. 115.
Citédans Nations Unies, doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/416 datédu 4 juillet 1978,
p. 28). "Experience provides that a state of war or a military operations
régimegives authorities a convenient pretext not to provide a popu-
lation or a group with what they need to subsist - food, medicines,
clothing, housing . . It will be argued that this is inflicting on the
group conditions of lifecalculated to bring about its physical destruc-
tion in whole or in part." (J. Y. Dautricourt, "La prévention du
génocide et ses fondements juridiques", Etudes internationales de
psychosociologie criminelle, Nos. 14-15. 1969, pp. 22-23. Cited in
United Nations doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/415 of 4 July 1978,p. 27.)

Of the utmost importance is the fact that, in the incidental proceedings,
the Court cannot and should not concern itself with the definitive quali-
fication of theintent to impose upon the group conditions in which the
survival of the group is threatened. Having in mind the purpose of pro-
visional measures, it can be said that at this stage of the proceedings it is
sufficient to establish that, in the conditions of intensive bombing, there
is an objective risk of bring about conditions in which the survival of the
group is threatened.

IV. OTHER RELEVANIT SSUES

11. In paragraph 15 of the Order the Court states:
"Whereas the Court is deeply concerned with the human tragedy,

the loss of life, and theenormous suffering in Kosovo which form
the background of the present dispute, and with the continuing loss
of life andhuman suffering in al1parts of Yugoslavia."

The phrasing of the statement seems to me unacceptable for a number
of reasons. First, the formulation introduces dual humanitarian concern.

The Court is, it is stated, "deeply concerned", while at the same lime the
Court states "the loss of life". So, it turnsout that in the case of1parts
of Yugoslavia" the Court technically states "the loss of life" as a fact
which does not cause "deep concern". Furthermore, the wording of the
formulation may also be construed as meaning that Kosovo is not a part
of Yugoslavia. Namely, after emphasizing the situation in Kosovo and
Metohija, the Court uses the phrase "in al1parts of Yugoslavia". Having
in mind the factual and legal state of affairs, the appropriate wording
would be "in al1otherparts of Yugoslavia". Also, particular reference to
"Kosovo" and "al1 parts of Yugoslavia", in the present circumstances,
has not only no legal, but has no factual basis either. Yugoslavia, as a
whole, is the object of attack. Human suffering and loss of life are, un-
fortunately, a fact, generally applicable to the country as a whole; so, the
Court, even if it had at its disposa1 the accurate data on the number of En effet,

(([ll'expérienceprouve que l'étatde guerre ou le régimed'occupation
de guerre sont un prétextefacile pour les autorités responsables pour
ne pas fournir à une population ou à un groupe ce qui leur est néces-
saire pour subsister: vivres, médicaments, vêtements,habitations ...

On nous dira que c'est la soumission du groupe à des conditions
d'existence susceptibles d'entraîner sa destruction physique totale ou
partielle.» (J. Y. Dautricourt, ((La prévention du génocide et ses
fondements juridiques)), Etudes intcrnutionu1r.s de psycl~osociolo-
gie criminelle, nos 14-15, 1969, p. 22-23. Cité dans Nations Unies.

doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/416 datédu 4 juillet 1978, p. 28.)
Il est donc d'une importance primordiale de savoir que, lors de procé-

dures incidentes, la Cour ne peut pas - et ne doit d'ailleurs pas- cher-
cher à établirde façon définitiveune volontéde soumettre le groupe à des
conditions d'existence de nature à menacer sa survie. Eu égard à l'objet
des mesures conservatoires, on peut dire qu'à ce stade de la procédure, il
suffit d'établir que, le groupe étant soumis à des bombardements inten-

sifs, on court objectivement le risque de voir cette situation aboutir à
menacer sa survie.

IV. AUTRES QUESTIONS PERTINENTES

I1. Au paragraphe 15 de son ordonnance, la Cour dit :

Considérant que la Cour est profondément préoccupéepar le
drame humain, les pertes en vies humaines et les terribles souffrances
que connaît le Kosovo et qui constituent la toile de fond du présent
différend, ainsi que par les victimes et les souffrances humaines que

l'on déplore de façon continue dans l'ensemble de la Yougoslavie. ))
Le libelléde cette déclaration me paraît inacceptable pour plusieurs

raisons. La première est que cet énoncéfait part d'une préoccupation
humanitaire double. La Cour dit être ((profondément préoccupée)) et
évoque en même temps«les pertes en vies humaines)) et ((les victimes)).
De sorte qu'en ce qui concerne ((l'ensemble de la Yougoslavie)), la Cour
évoque techniquement «les victimes)) comme un fait qui ne cause pas de

((préoccupation profonde». En outre, l'énoncépermet également de
l'interprétercomme signifiant que le Kosovo ne fait pas partie de la You-
goslavie. C'est-à-dire qu'après avoir mis en relief la situation au Kosovo-
Metohija, la Cour utilise l'expression «dans l'ensemble de la Yougosla-
vie)). Compte tenu de la situation de fait et de la situation de droit, il

aurait fallu dire((dans le reste de la Yougoslavie)). De surcroît, faire allu-
sion au «Kosovo» et à ((l'ensemble de la Yougoslavie)) non seulement
n'a aucun fondement juridique dans la situation actuelle, mais ne repose
pas sur les faits non plus. C'est l'ensemble de la Yougoslavie qui est atta-
qué.Les souffrances et les pertes en vies humaines sont malheureusementvictims and the scale of suffering of the people of Yugoslavia, it would
still have no moral right to discriminate between them. Further, the
qualification that "human tragedy and the enormous suffering in Kosovo
.. .form the background of the present dispute" not only is political, by
its nature, but has, or may have, an overtone ofjustification of the armed
attack on Yugoslavia. Suffice it to recall the fact that the respondent
State refers to its armed action as humanitarian intervention.

It is upto the Court to establish, at a later stage of the proceedings, the
real legal state of affairs, namely, the relevant facts. At the present stage,
the question of the underlying reasons for the armed attack on the Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia is the object of political allegations. While
the Respondent argues that what is involved is a humanitarian interven-
tion provoked by the "human tragedy and the enormous suffering", the
Applicant finds that sedes ~nut~riae the underlying reasons are to be
soight elsewhere - in the support to the terrorist organization in
Kosovo and in the political aim of secession of Kosovo and Metohija
from Yugoslavia.
Consequently, we are dealing here with opposed political qualifications
in which the Court should not, and, in my view, must not, enter except in
the regular court proceedings.
12. The formulation of paragraph 38 of the Order leaves the impres-

sion that the Court iselegantly attempting to drop the bal1in the Security
Council's court. Essentially, it is superfluous because, as it stands now, it
only paraphrases a basic fact that "the Security Council has special
responsibilities under Chapter VI1of the Charter". It can be interpreted,
it is true, also as an appeal to the United Nations organ, specifically
entrusted with the dutyand designed to take measures in case of threat to
the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression; but, in that case the
Court would need to stress also another basic fact - that a legal dispute
should be referred to the International Court of Justice on the basis of
Article 36, paragraph 3, of the United Nations Charter.

13. The Court, by using the term "Kosovo" instead of the official
name of "Kosovo and Metohija", continued to follow the practice of the

political organs of the United Nations, which, by the way, was also
strictly followed by the respondent States.
Itis hard to find a justifiable reason for such a practice. Except of
course ifweassume political opportuneness and involved practical, politi-
cal interests to be a justified reason for this practice. This is eloquently
shown also by the practice of the designation of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia. After the succession of the former Yugoslav federal units,
the organs of the United Nations, and the respondent States themselves,un fait s'appliquant en généralau pays tout entier; dans ces conditions,
mêmesi elle avait eu à sa disposition des chiffres précisconcernant le
nombre des victimes et l'ampleur des souffrances de la population de la
Yougoslavie, la Cour n'aurait de toute façon pas eu le droit moral d'éta-
blir la moindre discrimination à cet égard. De plus, dire que «le drame

humain ...et les terribles souffrances que connaît le Kosovo et qui cons-
tituent la toile de fond duré sentdifférend))non seulement est une indi-
cation de caractère politique mais représente, ou pourrait représenter,
une sorte dejustification de l'attaque arméemenéecontre la Yougoslavie.
Il suffit de rappeler a ce propos que I'Etat défendeurqualifie son action
arméed'intervention humanitaire.
Il appartient à la Cour d'établirà un stade ultérieurde la procédure
quelle est véritablement la situation en droit, c'est-à-dire quels sont les
faits pertinents. Au stade actuel, la question des raisons profondes de
l'attaque arméedirigéecontre la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie fait
l'objet d'allégations politiques. Le défendeur soutient qu'il s'agit d'une
intervention humanitaire provoquéepar «le drame humain et lesterribles
souffrances)), tandis que le demandeur estime que sedes materiue les rai-

sons profondes sont à chercher ailleurs - dans le soutien apporté à
l'organisation terroristà l'Œuvreau Kosovo et dans la volonté politique
de sécessionqui anime le Kosovo-Metohija.
Nous avons donc affaire ici à des qualifications politiques opposées
dans lesquelles la Cour ne devrait pas entrer, cela lui est mêmeinterdit
mon avis, si ce n'est dans le cadre d'une procédurejudiciaire normale.
12. L'énoncédu paragraphe 38 de l'ordonnance donne l'impression
que la Cour cherche assez élégamment à renvoyer la balle dans lejardin
du Conseil de sécurité.Pour l'essentiel, c'estinutile, parce que, sous sa
forme actuelle, cet énoncén'est qu'une simple paraphrase d'une donnée
élémentaire quiest que «le Conseil de sécuritéest investi de responsa-
bilités spéciales envertu du chapitre VI1 de la Charte)). Il est possible,
certes, de l'interpréter aussicomme un appel lancéil'organe desNations
Unies qui est très précisémentchargéde prendre des mesures en cas de

menace contre la paix, de rupture de la paix ou d'acte d'agression et qui
a d'ailleurs été conçuà cet effet; mais, en l'occurrence, la Cour devrait
rappeler aussi une autre donnéeélémentaire:en vertu de l'article 36,para-
graphe 3, de la Charte des Nations Unies, un différendjuridique doit être
soumis à la Cour internationale de Justice.
13. En utilisant l'appellation c<Kosovo»au lieu de l'appellation offi-
cielle de«Kosovo-Metohija)), la Cour a continué de suivre la pratique
des organes politiques des Nations Unies, pratique dont, d'ailleurs, les
Etats défendeurs nese départissent jamais.
Il est difficile de justifier pareille pratique, sauf, bien entendu, si nous
admettons que l'opportunité politique, les intérêts politiques et concrets
sont A cet égard desarguments valables. C'est ce que montre également
de façon éloquente la pratique suivie pour désignerla Républiquefédé-
rale de Yougoslavie. A la suite de la sécessionde certaines parties de

l'ancienne Fédérationyougoslave, les organes des Nations Unies et leshave used the term Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro). However, since
22 November 1995,the Security Council uses in its resolutions 1021and
1022 the term "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" instead of the former
"Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)" without any
express decision and in a legally unchanged situation in relation to the

one in which it, like other organs of the United Nations, employed the
term "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)". The
fact that this change in the practice of the Security Council appeared on
the day following the initialling of the Peace Agreement in Dayton gives
a strong basis for the conclusion that the concrete practice is not based
on objective, legal criteria but rather on political criteria.

By using the word "Kosovo" instead of the name "Kosovo and Meto-
hija", the Court, in fact, is doing two things:

(a) it gives into the colloquial use of the names of territorial units of an
independent State; and
(h) it ignores the officia1name of Serbia's southern province, a name
embodied both in the constitutional and legal acts of Serbia and
of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Furthermore, it runs
contrary to the established practice inappropriate internationalorga-
nizations. E'cempli cuusu, the officia1designation of the southern

Serbian province "Kosovo and Metohija" has been used in the
Agreement concluded by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and
the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (Inter-
nutional Legul Matrriul.~, 1999, Vol. 38, p.24).
Even if such a practice- which, in my opinion, is completely inappro-

priate not only in terms of the law but also in terms of proper usage -
could be understood when resorted to by entities placing interest and
expediency above the law, it is inexplicable in the case of ajudicial organ.

14. A certain confusion is alsocreated by the term "humanitarian law"
referred to in paragraphs 18 and 36 of the Order. The reasons for the
confusion are dual: on the one hand, the Court has not shown great con-
sistency in using this term. In the Genocide case the Court qualified the
Genocide Convention as a part of humanitarian law, although it is obvi-
ous that, by its nature, the Genocide Convention falls within the field of
international criminal law (seedissenting opinion of Judge Kreca, in the
case concerning Applic.ution of' tl~~Corzvcntiorior1 the Prei~entiorzund

Punishnzcnt of' the C~~IIIC cg' Gctz~cidc>P, rc>linlinaryObjections, I.C.J.
Roport.~1996 (II). pp. 774-775, para. 108).
On the other hand. it seems that in this Order the term "humanitarian
law" has been used with a different meaning, more appropriate to the
generally accepted terminology. The relevant passage in the Order should
be mentioned precisely because of the wording of its paragraphs 18and
36. The singling out of humanitarian law from the rules of internationalEtats défendeurs eux-mêmes ontutilisé laformule <<Yougoslavie(Serbie
et Monténégro))).Mais, depuis le 22 novembre 1995, le Conseil de sécu-
rité utilise, dans ses résolutions 1021 et 1022, la formule ((République
fédéralede Yougoslavie)) au lieu de l'ancienne formule ((République
fédérativede Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténégro))),sans qu'il y ait eu de

décision expresse à cet égard et dans une situation de droit inchangéepar
rapport a celle dans laquelle le Conseil, comme d'autres organes des
Nations Unies, se servait de la formule ((République fédérativede You-
goslavie (Serbie et Monténégro))).Le fait que ce changement de pratique
du Conseil de sécuritédate du lendemain du jour où a étéparaphé
l'accord de paix de Dayton autorise a soutenir avec assez de fermetéque

cette pratique concrète ne s'inspire pas de critères juridiques objectifs
mais plutôt de critères politiques.
En utilisant le terme <<Kosovo»au lieu du nom «Kosovo-Metohija )),
la Cour, en fait, fdit deux choses à la fois:

a) elle adopte l'appellation courante et populaire servant à désignerles
unitésterritoriales d'un Etat indépendant;
h) elle laisse de côté l'appellation officielle de la province méridionale
de Serbie, appellation consacrée par les actes constitutionnels et juri-
diques tant de la Serbie que de la République fédéralede Yougosla-

vie. En outre, la Cour agit ainsi contrairementiIla pratique établiepar
les organisations internationales compétentes. Par exemple, la dési-
gnation officielle de la province méridionale de Serbie ((Kosovo-
Metohija)) est celle qui figure dans l'accord conclu par la République
fédéralede Yougoslavie et l'organisation pour la sécuritéet la coopéra-
tion en Europe (Internufional Legul Materiuls, 1999, vol. 38. p. 24).

Mêmesi pareille pratique, laquelle, à mon sens, est totalement incor-
recte, non seulement sur le plan du droit mais aussi du point de vue du
bon usage, pouvait se défendre quand elle émane d'entités qui situent

l'intérêett la commodité au-dessus de la loi, elle est inexplicable quand
elle émaned'un organe judiciaire.
14. L'expression ((droit humanitaire)) que la Cour utilise aux para-
graphes 18 et 36 de son ordonnance prêteégalement iIconfusion, pour
une double raison: d'un côté,la Cour ne manifeste pas une parfaite cohé-
rence dans l'emploi de cette formule. Dans l'affaire de 1'Applie.rrtionde

Iri cwni~cntionsur Ir gL:noc.ide,la Cour a dit que ladite convention faisait
partie du droit humanitaire, alors qu'il est manifeste qu'en raison de sa
nature même, ladite convention relèvedu droit pénalinternational (voir
l'opinion dissidente de M. KreCa dans l'affaire relativeA l'Application de
lu c.onrrntion pour lu pr-Cvc~ntionc)tlu rCprc.s.sioildu criille de ggi.iloc.id~>,
c.~c.c.ption.psrPlinzinrrire.~,C.I.J. Rec,ucil1(II), p.774-775, par. 108).
D'un autre côté,il me semble quedans la présenteordonnance, la for-

mule ((droit humanitaire)) est employéeen un sens différent plus proche
du sens généralement acceptéaujourd'hui. Et ilconvient de faire précisé-
ment état de l'extrait pertinent de l'ordonnance en raison mêmedu libellé
des paragraphes 18et 36. En isolant le droit humanitaire parmi les règleslaw which the Parties are bound to respect may imply low-key and timid
overtones of vindication or at least of diminishment of the legal implica-
tions of the armed attack on the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Humanitarian law, in its legal, original meaning implies the rules ojus
in bello. If, by stressing the need to respect the rules of humanitarian law,
which 1do not doubt, the Court was guided by humanitarian considera-
tions, then it should have stressed e-cpressis verbisalso the fundamental
importance of the rule contained in Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Char-
ter, which constitutes a dividing line between non-legal, primitive inter-
national society and an organized, de jure, international community.

(Signed) Milenko KRECA.de droit international que les parties sont tenues de respecter, il est pos-
sible que la Cour veuille, discrètement, voire timidement, justifier impli-
citement l'attaque arméedirigéecontre la République fédéralede You-
goslavie ou tout au moins en atténuer les conséquencessur le plan du
droit.
Dans son premier sens juridique, le droit humanitaire correspond
implicitement aux règlesdu jus inbrllo. Si la Cour s'inspirait, comme
je n'en doute nullement, de considérations humanitaires quand elle a
souligné la nécessitéde respecter les règles du droit humanitaire, elle
aurait dû souligner expressément aussi l'importance fondamentale que
revêt la régléenoncée à l'article 2, paragraphe 4, de la Charte, laquelle

trace la ligne de démarcation entre une sociétéinternationale primitive,
où le droit fait défaut, et une communauté internationale organisée où
règnele droit.

(Signé) Milenko KRECA.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion by Judge ad hoc Kreca

Links