Dissenting opinion by Judge ad hoc Kreca

Document Number
106-19990602-ORD-01-09-EN
Parent Document Number
106-19990602-ORD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Puragraphs

1-4
II. HUMANITARI AONCER INTHISPARTICULA CRSE 5-7

III. JURISDICTIOISLUES 8-14
Jurisdiction of the Court ratione personae 8-10
Jurisdiction of the Court ratione materiae 11-13
Jurisdiction of the Court ratione temporis 14

IV. OTHERRELEVAN ITSUES 15-18 1. In the context of the conceptual difference between the interna-
tional magistrature and the interna1 judicial system within a State, the
institution of judge ad hoc has two basic functions:

"(a) to equalize the situation when the Bench already includes a
Member of the Court having the nationality of one of the parties;
and (b) to create a nominal equality between two litigating States
when there is no Member of the Court having the nationality of
either party" (S. Rosenne, The Law and Practice ofthe Internationul
Court, 1920-1996, Vol. III, pp. 1124-1125).

In this particular case room is open for posing the question as to
whether either of these two basic functions of the institution of judge ad
hoc has been fulfilled at all.
It is possible to draw the line between two things.
The first is associated with equalization of the Parties in the partcon-
cerning the relations between the Applicant and the respondent States
which have a national judge on the Bench. In concreto, of special interest
is the specific position of the respondent States. They appear in a dual
capacity in these proceedings :

primo, they appear individually in the proceedings considering that
each one of them is in dispute with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia:
and,
secondo, they are at the same time member States of NATO under
whose institutional umbrella they have undertaken the armed attack on
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Within the framework of NATO,
these respondent States are acting in corpore, as integral parts of an
organizational whole. The corpus of willsof NATO member States, when

the undertaking of military operations is in question, is constituted into a
collective will which is, formally, the will of NATO.

2. The question may be raised whether the respondent States can
qualify as parties in the same interest.
In itsrder of 20 July 193 1in the case concerning the Custo~nsRégime

between Germany and Austria, the Permanent Court of International Jus-
tice established that:
"al1 governments which, in the proceedings before the Court, come
to the same conclusion, must be held to be in the same interest for
the purposes of the present case" (P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 41,
p. 88).

The question of qualification of the "same interest", in the practice of
the Court, has almost uniformly been based on a forma1 criterion, the
criterion of "the same conclusion" to which the parties have come in the
proceedings before the Court. In the present case, the question of "the same conclusion" as the rele-
vant criterion for the existence of "the same interest" of the respondent
Statesis, in my opinion, unquestionable. The same conclusion was, in a
way, inevitable in the present case in view of the identical Application
which the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has submitted against ten
NATO member States, and was formally consecrated by the outcome of
the proceedings before the Court held on 10, 11 and 12 May 1999, in
which al1the respondent States came to the identical conclusion resting
on the foundation of practically identical argumentation which differed
oniy in the fashion and style of presentation.

Hence, the inevitable conclusion follows, it appears to me, that al1the
respondent States are in concreto parties in the same interest.
3. What are the implications of this fact for the composition of the
Court in the present case? Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute says:
"If the Court includes upon the Bench ajudge ofthe nationality of one of
the parties, any other party may choose a person to sit as judge."
The Statute, accordingly, refers to the right of "any other party",
namely, a party other than the party which has ajudge of its nationality,
in the singular. But, it would be erroneous to draw the conclusion from
theabove that "any other party", other than the party which has ajudge
of its nationality, cannot, under certain circumstances, choose several
judges ad hoc. Such an interpretation would clearly be in sharp contra-
diction with ratio legis of the institution of judge ad hoc, which, in this
particular case, consists of the function "to equalize the situation when
theBench already includes a Member of the Court having the nationality
of one of the parties"(S. Rosenne, The Law and Pructice of the Interna-
tional Court, 1920-1996, Vol. III, pp. 1124-1125).The singular used in

Article31,paragraph 2, of the Statute with reference to the institution of
judges ad hoc is, consequently, but individualization of the general, inher-
ent right to equalization in the composition of the Bench in the relations
between litigating parties, one of which has a judge of its nationality on
theBench, while the other has not. Thepractical meuning of thisprinciple
applied in casum would implji the right of the Applicant to choose us
many judges ad hoc to sit on the Bench us is necessary to equalize the
position of the Applicunt and that of those respondent States which have
judges of their nationality on theBench und ~vhichshare the same interest.
In concreto, the inherent right tu equalization in the composition of the
Bench, as un e-cpressionoffundamental rule of equulity of parties, meuns
that the Federul Republic of Yugosluviu should lzuve the right to choose
jive judges ad hoc, since evenfive out of ten vespondentSfates (the United
States of America, the United Kingdom, Frunce, Germany and the Neth-
erlands) have their nutionaljudges sitting on the Benrk.
Regarding the notion of equalization which concerns the relation
between the party entitled to choose its judge ad hoc and the parties
which have their national judges on the Bench, the fact is that the Federal
Republicof Yugoslavia, as can be seen from the Order, did not raise any

objections to the circumstance that as many as five respondent Stateshave judges of their nationality on the Bench. However, this circum-
stance surely cannot be looked upon as something making the question
irrelevant, or, even as the tacit consent of the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia to such an outright departure from the letter and spirit of
Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute.
TheCourt has, namely, the obligation to take account ex officio of the

question of such a fundamental importance, which directly derives from,
and vice versa, may directly and substantially affect, the equality of the
parties. The Court is the guardian of legality for the parties to the case,
for which presumptio juris et de jure alone is valid - to know the law
(jura novit curia). As pointed out by Judges Bedjaoui, Guillaume and
Ranjeva in their joint declaration in the Lockerbie case: "that is for the
Court - not the parties - to take the necessary decision" (Questionsof
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising
jirom the AeriaEIncident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United
Kingdom), I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 36, para. 11).

A contrario, the Court would risk, in a matter which is ratio legis
proper of the Court's existence, bringing itself into the position of a pas-
sive observer, who only takes cognizance of the arguments of the parties

and, then, proceeds to the passing of a decision.
4. The other function is associated with equalization in the part which
is concerned with the relations between the Applicant and those respon-
dent States which have no national judges on the Bench.
The respondent States having no judge of their nationality on the
Bench have chosen, in the usual procedure, their judges ad hoc (Belgium,
Canada, Italy and Spain). Only Portugal has not designated its judge ad
hoc. The Applicant successively raised objections to the appointment of
the respondent States' judges ad hoc invoking Article 31, paragraph 5, of
the Statute of the Court. The responses of the Court with respect to this
question invariably contained the standard phrase "that the Court . . .
found that the choice of a judge ad hoc by the Respondent jsjustified in
the present phase of the case".
Needless to say, the above formulation is laconic and does not offer

sufficient ground for the analysis of the Court's legal reasoning. The only
element which is subject to the possibility of teleological interpretation
is the qualification that the choice of a judge ad hoc is "justified in the
present phase of the case". A contrario,it is, consequently, possible that
such an appointment of a judge ad hoc would "not bejustified" in some
other phases of the case. The qualification referred to above could be
interpreted as the Court's reserve with respect to the choice of judges ad
hoc by the respondent States, a reserve which could be justifiable on
account of the impossibility for the Court to perceive the nature of their
interest - whether it is the "same" or "separate" - before the parties set
out their positions on the case.
The meanings of equalization as a ratio legis institution of judges ad
hoc, in the case concerning the Applicant and respondent States whichare parties in the same interest, and which do not have a judge ad hoc of
their nationality on theench, have been dealt with in the practice of the
Court, in a clear and unambiguous manner.

In the South West Africa case (1961) it was established that, if neither
of the parties in theame interest has a judge of its nationality amongthe
Members of the Court, those parties, acting in concert, will be entitled to
appoint a single judge ad hoc (South West Africa, I.C.J. Reports 1961,
P 3).
If, on the other hand, amongthe Members of the Court there is ajudge
having the nationality of even one ofthose parties, then no judge ad hoc
will be appointed (Territorial Jurisdiction of the International Commis-
sion of the River Oder, P.C.I.J., Series C, No. 17-11, p. 8; Customs

Régime betiveen Germany and Austria, 193/, P.C. 1.J., Series AIB,
No. 41, p. 88).
This perfectly coherent jurisprudence ofthe Court applied to this par-
ticular case means that none of the respondent States ivere entitled to
appoint ajudge ad hoc.
Consequently, it may be said that in the present case neither of the two
basic functions of the institution of judged hoc has been applied in the
composition of the Court in a satisfactory way. In my opinion, it is a
question of the utmost specificweight in viewof the fact that, obviously,
its meaning is not restricted to the procedure, but that it may have ar-
reaching concrete meaning.

II. HUMANITARIA CONNCERN IN THISPARTICULA CRASE

5. Humanitarian concern, as a basis for the indication of provisional
measures, has assumed primary importance in the more recent practice of
the Court.
Humanitarian concern has been applied on two parallel tracks in the
Court's practice:

(a) In respect of the individual
In this regard the cases concerning LaGrand (Germany v. United
States of America) and the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations
(Paraguay v. United States of America) are characteristic.

In both cases the Court evinced the highest degree of sensibility for the
humanitarian aspect of the matter, which probably found its full expres-
sion in the part of the Application submitted by Germany on 2 March
1999 :
"The importance and sanctity of an individual human life are well
established in international law. As recognized by Article 6 of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, every human
being has the inherent right to life and this right shall be protected332 LEGALITYOF USE OF FORCE (DISS .P. KRECA)

by law." (LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America), Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 3 March 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 12,
para. 8).

The following day, the Court already unanimously indicated provisional
measures because it found that in question was "a matter of the greatest
urgency" (ibid.,p. 15,para. 26),whichmakes it incumbent upon the Court
to activate the mechanism of provisional measures in accordance with

Article 41 of the Statute of the Court and Article 75, paragraph 1,of the
Rules of Court in order: "to ensure that Walter LaGrand is not executed
pending the final decision in these proceedings" (ibid., p. 16,para. 29).
Almost identical provisional measures were indicated by the Court in
the dispute between Paraguay and the United States of America which
had arisen on the basis of the Application submitted by Paraguay on
3 April 1998. On the same day, Paraguay also submitted an "urgent
request for the indication of provisional measures in order to protect its
rights" (Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Paraguay v. United
States of America), Order of 9 April 1998, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 251,
para. 6). As early as 9 April 1998the Court unanimously indicated pro-
visional measures so as to: "ensure that Angel Francisco Breard is not
executed pending the final decision in these proceedings" (ibid., p. 258,
para. 41).

It is evident that humanitarian concern represented an aspect which
brought about unanimity in the Court's deliberations. This is clearly
shown not only by the letter and spirit of both Orders in the above-
mentioned cases, but also by the respective declarations and the separate
opinion appended to those Orders. In the process, humanitarian consid-
erations seem to have been sufficiently forceful to put aside obstacles
standing in the way of the indication of provisional measures. In this
respect, the reasoning of the Court's seniorjudge, Judge Oda, andthat of
its President, Judge Schwebel, are indicative.
In paragraph 7 of his declaration appended to the Order of 3 March
1999 in the case concerning LaGrand (Germany v. United States of
America), Judge Oda convincingly put forward a series of reasons of a
conceptual nature which explained why he "formed the view that, given

the fundamental nature of provisional measures, those measures should
not have been indicated upon Germany's request". But, Judge Oda goes
on to "reiterate and emphasize" that he "voted in favour of the Order
solely for humanitarian reasons" (1.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 20).
President Schwebel, in his separate opinion, has not explicitly stated
humanitarian considerations as the reason that guided him in voting for
the Order; however, it is reasonable to assume that those were the only
considerations which prevailed in this particular case in view of his
"profound reservations about the procedures followed both by the
Applicant and the Court" (LaGrand (Germany v. United States of
America), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 March 1999, I.C.J. Reports
1999, p. 22). As far as the Applicant is concerned:
"Germany could have brought its Application years ago, months

ago, weeks ago or days ago. Had it done so, the Court could have
proceeded as it has proceeded since 1922and held hearings on the
request for provisional measures. But Germany waited until the eve
of execution and then brought its Application and request for pro-
visional measures, at the same time arguing that no time remained to
hear the United States and that the Court should act proprio motu."
(1.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 22.)
The Court, for its part, indicated provisional measures, as President
Schwebel put it, "on the basis only of Germany's Application".

(b) In respect of rrgroup of individuals or the population as a consti-
tutiveelement of the State

The protection of the citizens emerged as an issue in the case concern-
ing Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nica-
ragua v. United States of America) :

"In its submission, Nicaragua emphasized the death and harm
that the alleged acts had caused to Nicaraguans and asked the Court
to support, by provisional measures, 'the rights of Nicaraguan citi-
zens to life, liberty and security'." (R. Higgins, "Interim Measures
for the Protection of Human Rights", in Politics, Valuesand Func-
tions, International Law in the 21st Century, 1997,Charney, Anton,
O'Connell, eds., p. 96.)

In the Frontier Dispute (Burkina FasolRepublic of Mali) case, the
Court found the source for provisional measures in:

"incidents ... which not merely are likely to extend or aggravatethe
dispute but comprise a resort to force which is irreconcilable with

the principle of the peaceful settlement of international disputes"
(Frontier Dispute, Provisional Measures, Order of 10 January 1986,
1.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 9, para. 19).
Humanitarian concern in this particular case was motivated by the risk
of irreparable damage :

"the facts that have given rise to the requests of both Parties for the
indication of provisional measures expose the persons and property
in the disputed area, as well as the interests of both States within
that area, to serious risk of irreparable damage" (ibid., p. 10,
para. 21).

It can be said that in the cases referred to above, in particular those in
which individuals were directly affected, the Court formed a high stand-ard of humanitarian concern in the proceedings for the indication of
interim measures, a standard which commanded sufficient inherent
strength to brush aside also some relevant, both procedural and material,
rules governing the institution of provisional measures. Thus, humanitar-
ian considerations, independently from the norms of international law
regulating human rights and liberties, have, in a way, gained autonomous
legal significance; they have transcended the moral and philanthropic
sphere, and entered the sphere of law.

6. In the case at hand, it seems that "humanitarian concern" has lost

the acquired autonomous legal position. This fact needs to be stressed in
view of the special circumstances of this case.
Unlike the cases referred to previously, "humanitarian concern" has as
its object thefate of an entire nation, in the literal sense. Such a conclu-
sion may be inferred from at least two elements:

-primo, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and its national and eth-
nie groups have been subjected for more than two months now to con-
tinued attacks of a very strong, highly organized air armada of the most
powerful States of the world. The aim of the attack is horrifying,judging
by the words of the Commander-in-Chief, General WesleyClark, and he
ought to be believed:

"We're going to systematically and progressively attack, disrupt,
degrade, devastate, and ultimately, unless President MiloseviCcom-
plies with the demands of the international community, we're going
to completely destroy his forces and their facilities and support."
(BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/english/static.NATOgallery/air
default.stm/l4 May 1999.)

"Support" is interpreted, in broad terms, extensively; to the point
which raises the question of the true object of the air attacks. In an
article entitled "Belgrade People Must Suffer" Michael Gordon quotes
the words of General Short that he "hopes the distress of the public will,
must undermine support for the authorities in Belgrade" (International
Heruld Tribune, 16 May 1999,p. 6) and he continued:

"1 think no power to your refrigerator, no gas to your stove, you
can't get to work because bridge is down - the bridge on which you
held your rock concerts and you al1 stood with targets on your
heads. That needs to disappear at three o'clock in the morning."
(Ibid.)

That these are not emptywords is testified to by destroyed bridges, power
plants without which there is no electricity, water supply and productionof foodstuffs essential for life; destroyed roads and residential blocks and
family homes; hospitals without electricity and water and, above all,
human beings who are exposed to bombing raids and who, as is rightly
stressed in the Application in the LaGrand (Germany v.United States of
America) case, have the "inherent right to life" (International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights, Art. 6), whose importance and sanctity are
well established in international law. In the inferno of violence, they are
but "collateral damage".

- secundo, the arsenal used in the attacks on Yugoslavia contains also
weapons whose effects have no limitations either in space or in time. In
the oral proceedings before the Court, the Agent of the United States
explicitly stressed that depleted uranium is in standard use of the United
States Army (CR 99/24, p. 21).
The assessment of the effects of depleted uranium should be left to sci-
ence. The report by Marvin Resnikoff of Radioactive Management Asso-
ciates on NMI elaborated upon these effects:

"Once inhaled, fine uranium particles can lodge in the lung alveo-
lar and reside there for the remainder of one's life. The dose due to
uranium inhalation is cumulative. A percentage of inhaled particu-
lates may be coughed up, then swallowed and ingested. Smoking is
an additional factor that needs to be taken into account. Since
smoking destroys the cilia, particles caught in a smoker's branchial
passages cannot be expelled. Gofman estimates that smoking
increases the radiation risk by a factor of 10. Uranium emits an
alpha particle, similar to a helium nucleus, with two electrons
removed. Though this type of radiation is not very penetrating, it
causes tremendous tissue damage when internalized. When inhaled,
uranium increases the probability of lung cancer. When ingested,
uranium concentrates in the bone. Within the bone, it increases the

probability of bone cancer, or, in the bone marrow, leukemia. Ura-
nium also resides in soft tissue, including the gonads, increasing the
probability of genetic health effects, including birth defects and
spontaneous abortions. The relationship between uranium ingested
and the resultant radiation doses to the bone marrow and specific
organs . . are listed in numerous references.

The health effects are also age-specific. For the same dose, chil-
dren have a greater likelihood than adults of developing cancer."
(Uranium BattleJields Home & Abroad: Depleted Uranium Use by
the U.S. Department of Defense, Rural Alliance for Military
Accountability et al.,March 1993,pp. 47-48.)

A scientific analysis of the concrete effects of armed operations against336 LEGALlTY OF USE OF FORCE (DISSO . P.KRECA)

Yugoslavia has been presented by Umweltbundesamt (UBA). The essen-

tials of the expertise are as follows' :

(Translation by the Registry]

"The longer the war in Yugoslavia lasts, the greater the risk of
long-term damage to the environment. Such damage threatens to

extend beyond national frontiers, and it may no longer be possible
fully to make it good. The Federal Environmental Agency [Umwelt-
bundesamt (UBA)] comes to this conclusion in an interna1 paper
examining the ecological consequences of the war in Yugoslavia,
prepared for the meeting of European Environment Ministers at the

beginning of May in Weimar. Catastrophes 'like Sevesoand Sandoz'
are, in the opinion of the Agency, 'a perfectly probable damage
scenario'.

"Je langer der Krieg in Jugoslawien dauert, desto grosser wird die Gefahr von
langfristigen Schadigungen der Umwelt. Diese drohen sich über die Landesgrenzen
hinaus auszubreiten und konnen moglicherweisenicht mehr vollstandig beseitigt wer-
den. Zu dieser Einschatzung kommt das Umweltbundesamt (UBA) in einem internen
Papier, dassich mit den okologischen Auswirkungen des Krieges in Jugoslawien
befasst und für die Vorbereitung des Treffens europaischer Umweltministerfang
Mai in Weimar erstellt wurde. Katastrophen 'wie Sevesound Sandoz' sind nach
Ansicht des Amtes 'ein durchaus wahrscheinliches Schadensszenario'.
.....................................
Umweltgifte, die nach Zerstorungen von Industrieanlagen austreten, konnten sich
weiterausbreiten. 'BeiSicherstellungsofortigen Handelns, das unter Kriegsbedingun-
gen aber unmoglich ist. bleibt die Wirkung dieser Umweltschadigungen lokal
begrenzt. Langere Verzogerungen führen zu einem übertritt der Schadstoffe in die
Schutzgüter Boden,Grund- und Oberflachenwasser,erhohen das Gefahrdungspoten-
tial für den Menschen und den Sanierungsaufwand betrachtlich.'
Diese Folgen müssen nicht auf Jugoslawien beschrankt sein. Schadstoffe aus
Grossbranden konnten grenzüberschreitend verteilt werden. Weiterheisst esin dem
Papier: 'Die Einleitung der Gefahrstoffe in Oberflachenwasser kann zuritraumi-
gen Schadigung der Okosysteme führen. Die Deposition von Gefahrstoffen in Boden
kann jenach Eigenschaft der Stoffe und Boden zu langanhaltenden Versuchungen
mit weitgehenden Nutzungseinschrankungen führen.'
Die Gefahr einer 'tiefgreifenden Zerstorung wesentlicher Bestandteilevonink-
wasserversorgungssystemen'sei für mittlere und grosse Stadte sowie Ballungsgebiete
am grossten. Schon geringe Mengen vonSubstanzen der petrochemischen Industrie
konnten 'grosseGrundwasseworrate unbrauchbar machen'.
Wie gefahrlich die freigesetzten Stoffe insgesamt sind, Iasst sich nach Ansicht der
UBA-Experten nur schwer abschatzen, 'weildurch die Zerstorung ganzer Industrie-
komplexe Mischkontaminationen verschiedenster Schadstoffe gebildet werden', die
noch wenig erforscht seien. Noch komplizierter sei die Beurteilung von Umwelt-
schaden durch Brande und Explosionen. 'Hier tretenbezogen auf Schadstoffinventar
und Ausbreitung weit weniger kalkulierbare. zumTeil grossflachige Umweltschadi-
gungen ein.'
Die Verbrennungsprodukte seien 'zum Teil hoch toxisch und kanzerogen'. Jenach
klimatischen Bedingungen konne es 'zueiner grossflachigen Verteilung dieser Stoffe'
kommen, 'die einevollstandige Beseitigungnahezu unmoglich macht' ...
Die Wechselwirkungen der Produkte mit den eingesetzten Waffen dürften 'vollig
unbekannt' sein." (TAZ, DieTagcsieitung, Berlin, 20 May 1999.)337 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (DISS O.P. KRECA)

Environmental toxins released by the destruction of industrial
plant could spread further. 'If immediate action is taken, which is,
however, impossible under war conditions, the effect of this environ-
mental damage will remain restricted to local level. Longer delays
will result in toxic substances passing into the soil, groundwater and
surface water, and substantially increase the potential danger to
man, and the cost of cleansing operations.'

These consequences are not necessarily limited to Yugoslavia.

Harmful substances deriving from major conflagrations can be dif-
fused beyond frontiers. The paper continues: 'Passage of harmful
substances into surface water can lead to extensive damage to eco-
systems. The deposition of hazardous substances in the soil can,
depending on the nature of those substances and of the soil, result in
long-term contamination, imposing far-reaching limitations upon
utilization.'

The danger of 'extensive destruction of essential components of
drinking-water supply networks' is biggest with regard to middle-
sized and large cities and conurbations. Even small amounts of sub-
stances from the petrochemical industry can render 'extensive

groundwater reserves unusable'.

According to the Federal Environmental Agencyexperts, the over-
al1risk posed by the substances released is difficultto assess, 'because
the destruction of entire industrial complexes results in mixed con-
tamination by a wide variety of harmful substances' - an area in
which there has as yet been little research. Even more problernatic,
in the experts' view, is the assessment of environmental damage
caused by fires and explosions. 'Here, in terms of identification of
the harmful substances involved and the possibility of their diffu-
sion, environmental damage is far harder to predict, but will on
occasion be extensive.'

The substances produced by the fires are described as 'in part
highly toxic and carcinogenic'. Depending on climatic conditions,
'widespread diffusionof these substances' could occur, 'which would
render full cleansing almost impossible'.

The effects of the interaction of those substances with the
weapons employed were said to be 'completely unknown'." (TAZ,
Dic Tcrgrszritutzg,Berlin, 20 May 1999.)

Therefore, it is my profound conviction, that the Court is, in concreto,
confronted with an uncontestable case of "extreme urgency" and "irrepa-

rable harm", which perfectly coincides, and significantly transcends thesubstance of humanitarian standards which the Court has accepted in
previous cases.

7. 1 must admit that 1 find entirely inexplicable the Court's reluctance
to enter intoserious consideration of indicating provisional measures in a
situation such as this crying out with the need to make an attempt,
regardless of possible practical effects, to at least alleviate, if notmi-
nate, an undeniable humanitarian catastrophe. 1do not have in mind
provisional measures in concrete terms as proposed by the Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia, but provisional measures in general: be they
provisional measures proprio motu, different from those proposed by the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia or, simply, an appeal by the President
of the Court, as was issued on so many occasions in the past, in less
difficult situations, on the basis of the spirit of Article 74, paragraph 4,
of the Rules of Court.

One, unwillingly, acquires the impression that for the Court in this par-
ticular case the indication of any provisional measures whatever has been
terra prohibita. Exempli causa, the Court, in paragraph 18of the Order,
says that it:

"deems it necessary to emphasize that al1parties appearing before it
must act in conformity with their obligations under the United
Nations Charter and other rules of international law including
humanitarian law",
or, in paragraph 45 of the Order, that the Parties: "should take care not

to aggravate or extend the dispute", and it is obvious that both the above
pronouncements of the Court have been designed within the mode1 of
general, independent provisional measures.

III. JURISDICTIONIA SLUES

Jurisdiction of the Court Ratione Personae
8. The membership of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the United
Nations is in the present case one of the crucial issueswithin theurisdic-
tion of the Court rationepersonae.

The respondent State, when referring to the United Nations resolu-
tion 777 (1992) of 19September 1992and to the United Nations General
Assembly resolution 4711of 22 September 1992,also contends that "the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia cannot be considered, as it claims, to be
the continuator State of the former Socialist Federative Republic of
Yugoslavia", and that, not having duly acceded to the Organization, it is
not a Member thereof, is not a party to the Statute of the Court and can-
not appear before the Court. It is worth noting that the respondent State did not invoke this argu-
ment with respect to the Genocide Convention as another basis of juris-
diction invoked by the Applicant, although the connection between the
legal identity and continuity of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia with
the status of the Contracting Party of the Genocide Convention is obvi-
ous (see para. 12,below). One can guess the reasons for the State to take
such a position.
Sedes materiue the question of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's
membership in the United Nations can be reduced to a couple of
qualifications:

8.1. General Assembly resolution 4711 ,vas adopted for pragmatic,

political purposes

The adoption of that resolution cannot, in my opinion, be divorced
from the main political Stream taking place in international institutions
during the armed conflict in the former Yugoslavia. It appears that as a
political body the General Assembly of the United Nations, as well as the
Security Council which recommended that the Assembly adopt resolu-
tion 4711,perceived such a resolution as one of political means to achieve
the desirable solution to the relevant issues in thecrisis unfolding in the
former Yugoslavia.
Such a conclusion relies on the fact that in adopting resolution 4711,
the General Assembly basically followed the opinions of the so-called
Badinter Commission engaged as an advisory body in the work of the
Conference on Yugoslavia with the aim of finding a peaceful solution to
the relevant issues. In its Opinions No. 1 and No. 8, the Commission
elaborates the point on territorial changes in the former Yugoslavia
which has, in its opinion, resulted in the emergence of six equal, inde-
pendent State entities corresponding in territory to the Republics as the
constituent parts of the Yugoslav Federation. In its Opinion No. 9 the

Commission proceeds from the point of finalization of the "process of
break up of SFRY" and elaborates on the effects of the alleged break up
from the standpoint of succession ofStates. In that context, it, inter ulia,
established
"the need to terminate SFRY's membership status in international
organizations in keeping with their statutes and that not a singlesuc-
cessor state may claim for itself the rights enjoyed until then by the
former SFRY as its member state" (The Peace Conference on Yugo-

slavia, Arbitration Commission, Opinion No. 9,para. 4).

Introducing draft resolution 47lL.1, Sir David Hannay (United King-
dom) said, inter dia,

"the fact that the Council is ready to consider the matter again within the next three months is significant. The tragic situation in the
former Yugoslavia is a matter of the highest concern to al1members
of the international community. The International Conference on
the Former Yugoslavia, which opened in London on 26 August and
which now meets in Geneva, brings together the efforts of the
United Nations and the European Community. We must do every-
thing in ourpoiuer to encouragetheparties, wirhthe assistanceof the
Conference Co-Chairman, to settle their differences at the negotiat-
ing table, no?on the battlefield. That the Councilhas decided to con-
sider the matter again before the end of the year ~ill, we trust, be
helpful incentive to al1theparties concerned,as an effective means of
supporting the Co-Chairman of the Conference on Yugoslavia in
their heavy task."(United Nations doc. Al47IPv.7, p. 161 ;emphasis
added).

8.2. From a legalaspect, resolution 4711 is inconsistent and contra-
dictory

The operative part of resolution 4711reads as follows:
"The GeneralAssembly,

1. Considers the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and
Montenegro) cannot automatically continue the membership of
the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the United
Nations; and, therefore, decides that the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia should apply for membership in the United Nations and shall
not participate in the work of the General Assembly."

The main elements of the solution in General Assembly resolution 4711
are the following:
The opinion that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia cannot automati-
cally continue the membership of the SFRY in the United Nations. The
stand of the main political bodies of the United Nations (the Security

Council and the General Assembly) was formulated in terms of an "opin-
ion"; namely, such a conclusion clearly stems from the fact that the rele-
vant part of General Assembly resolution 4711 begins with the words
"considers". It is significant to note that the General Assembly'sopinion
does not conform fully with the meaning of the Opinions Nos. 1,8 and 9
of the so-called Badinter Arbitration Commission. Namely, in its Opin-
ions 1 and 8 the Commission elaborates the point on the break up of
SFRY which has, in its opinion, resulted in the emergence of six equal,
independent State entities corresponding in territory to the Republics as
the constituent parts of the Yugoslav Federation. Resolution 4711 pro-
ceeds from a more moderate starting point. It apparently does not termi-
nate the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's membership in the Organi-zation. It simply establishes that "the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
cannot automatically continue the membership . ..in the United Nations
Organization" (emphasis added). A contrario, this means that the Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia's membership in the Organization can be
continued but not automatically. True, the resolution does not elaborate
how that can be achieved but, if we interpret it systematically and
together with Security Council resolutions 757 and 777, we will come to
the conclusion that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's membership in

the Organization can be continued in case such a request is "generally
accepted". That the legal meaning of the resolution does not imply the
termination of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's membership in the
Organization is also clear from the letter of the Under-Secretary-General
and Legal Counsel of the United Nations addressed on 29 September
1992to the Permanent Representatives to the United Nations of Bosnia
and Herzegovina and Croatia in which he stated, inrer aliu,

"the resolution does not terminate nor suspends Yugoslavia's mem-
bership in the Organization. Consequently, the seat and the name-
plate remain as before . . .Yugoslav mission at United Nations
Headquarters and officesmay continue to function and may receive
and circulate documents. At Headquarters, the Secretariat will con-
tinue to fly the flag of the old Yugoslavia."

8.3. A ban on participution in the Organization's work

That the relevant part of the resolution refers to a ban is borne out by
the use of the imperative wording ("shall not participate"). This ban is,
ratione materiae, limited along two different lines:

(a) it refers to the direct participation in the General Assembly. Indirect
participation in the work of the General Assembly is not excluded.
Elements of indirect participation are implied given that the Mission
of the Federal Re~ublic of Yugos"avia to the United Nations con-
tinues to operate and, in particular, "may receive and circulate
documents". It follows from the Under-Secretary-General's inter-
pretation that the term "General Assembly" has been used in the
resolution in its generic sense, considering that it also includes the
auxiliary bodies of the General Assembly and conferences and meet-
ings convened by the Assembly ;
the ban does not apply to participation in the deliberations of other
bodies in the United Nations Organization. 8.4. The decision that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia should
applyfor membership

This part of resolution 4711 is legally ambiguous and contradictory
both in form and in substance.
From the forma1point of view, the "decision" that the Federal Repub-
lic of Yugoslavia should apply for membership in the Organization pro-
ceeds from the irrefutable assumption that the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia wishes to have the statusof a member even if it may not con-
tinue the membership in the Organization. Such an assumption is illogi-

cal, although it may prove correct in fact. Membership in the Organiza-
tion is voluntary and therefore no State is under obligation to seek
admission. The relevant wording in the resolution has not been correctly
drafted from a legal and technical point of view for it has a connotation
of such an irrefutableassumption. A correct wording would have to state
a reservation which would make such a decision conditional upon Yugo-
slavia'sexplicitly expressed ivishto become a member in case it is irrevo-
cably disallowed from continuing its membership in the Organization.

From the actual point of view, it is unclear why the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia should submit an application for membership if "the reso-
lution does not terminate . . Yugoslavia's membership in the Organiza-
tion". An application for admission to membership is, ex definitione,
made if a non-member State wishes to join the Organization. What could
in terms of concrete relations be the outcome of a procedure initiated by
Yugoslavia by way of application for membership? If the outcome of the
procedure were admission to membership, such a decision by the General
Assembly would be superfluous from the point of view of logic, given
that resolution 4711has not terminated Yugoslavia's membership in the

Organization. Presumably, the authors of resolution 4711have another
outcome in mind. Maybe to confirm orto strengthen Yugoslavia's mem-
bership in the Organization by such a procedure. This could be guessed
from the wording in the resolution which says that "the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia cannot automatically continue the membership". This
term or phrase literally means that the idea behind the procedure would
be to re-assert or strengthen the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's mem-
bership in the Organization but, confirmation of membership could
hardly have any legal meaning in this particular case - for a State is
either a member or not. It appears that the meaning of such an act could
be only non-legal; namely, political. Finally, the resolution advises the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to apply for admission to membership.
The logical question arises: why would a State whose membership in the
Organization has, in that very same Organization's view, not been termi-
nated, submit a request for the establishment of something that is in the
nature of an indisputable fact? Finally, due regard should be paid to the concluding paragraph of
resolution 4711which says that the General Assembly takes note "of the
Security Council's intention to review the matter before the end of the
main part of the 47th Session of the General Assembly". A statement like
this is unnecessary if it was the intention of theuthors of the resolution
to bring, by its adoption, to an end the debate on the continuity of the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's membership in the Organization. It
seems to suggest that the idea behind resolution 4711was to maintain the
Pace of updating the Organization's political approach to the Yugoslav
crisis in the framework of which even the question of the Federal Repub-
lic of Yugoslavia's membership in the Organization carries, in the latter's
opinion, a certain specific weight. The question of the Federal Republic

of Yugoslavia's membership in the United Nations Organization is a for-
mal one and was opened by Security Council resolution 757 of 30 May
1992, which in its operative part has set into motion the mechanism of
measures stipulated in Chapter VI1of the United Nations Charter relying
on the assessment that "the situation in Bosnia-Herzegovina and in other
parts of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia poses a
threat to peace and security".

It is not difficult to agree with Professor Higgins (as shen was) that,
judged from the legal point of view, the consequence arising out of reso-
lution 4711"is abnormal to absurdity" (Rosalyn Higgins, "The United
Nations and the Former Yugoslavia", International Affairh Vol. 69,
p. 479).

8.5 The practice of the Organization rrlating to the issues raisedby
the content of resolution 4711

A couple of relevant facts regarding the practice of the Organization
concerning membership of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia raise the
question of whether the Organization acted contrafactum proprium if:

(a) resolution 4711 was adopted at the 47th Session of the General
Assembly. The delegation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
took an active part as a full member in the proceedings of the 46th
Session, and the Credentials Committee unanimously recommended
approval of the credentials of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(United Nations doc. Al461563,dated 11October 1991).In the light
of the fact that Croatia and Slovenia had seceded from Yugoslavia
on the eve of that Session, the Organization's attitude to the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia's participation in the 46th Session means
that the Organization accepted the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
as a territorially diminished predecessor State according to "criteria laid down in the wake in the partitioning of India in 1947
and consistently applied ever since - criteria that by and large
have served the United Nations and the international community
well over the past decades" (Yehuda Z. Blum, "UN Membership
of the 'New'Yugoslavia: Continuity or Break?", American Jour-
nal of International Law (1992), Vol. 86, p. 833);

(b) the delegation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia also took part
in the47th Session of the General Assembly which adopted the reso-
lution contesting the right of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to
continue automatically membership in the Organization. Not one
delegation made any objection to the delegation of Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia taking the seat of SFRY in the General Assembly. It
follows from that that the delegations had "at least tacitly accepted
the right of the 'Belgradeauthorities' to request Yugoslavia'sseat -
the seat of one of the founding members of the United Nations"
(ibid., p. 830);

(c) during al1 the time since the General Assembly passed resolution

4711,the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has continued to pay its
financial contributions to the Organization (see Annexes to CR 991
25). Yugoslavia is mentioned as a Member State in the document
entitled "Status of contributions to the United Nations regular
budget as at 30 November 1998" published by the United Nations
Secretariat in its document STIADMISER.BI533 of 8 December
1998. In the letter addressed to Vladislav JovanoviE, Chargé
d'Affaires of the Permanent Mission of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia to the United Nations, the competent authorities of the
Organization cited Article 19 of the United Nations Charter and
accompanied the citation with the formulation:

"in order for your Government not to fa11under the provisions of
Article 19 of the Charter during any meetings of the General
Assembly to be held in 1998, it would be necessary that a mini-

mum payment of $11,776,400 be received by the Organization to
bring such arrears to an amount below that specified under the
terms of Article 19" (ibid.);

(d) in the practice of the United Nations Secretary-General as the
depositary of multilateral treaties, Yugoslavia figures as a party to
the multilateral treaties deposited with the Secretary-General as an
original party. The date when the SFRY expressed its consent to be
bound is mentioned as a day on which Yugoslavia is bound by that
specificinstrument. Exampli causainthe "multilateral treaties depos-
ited with the Secretary-General" for 1992,and in the list of "partici-
pants" of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Yugoslavia is included and 29 August 1950 is
mentioned as the date of the acceptance of the obligation - the date
on which SFRY ratified that Convention. Such a mode1is applied,
mutatis mutandis, to other multilateral conventions deposited with
the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

On the basis of existing practice, the "Summary of practice of the
Secretary-General as depositary of multilateral treaties" concludes:

"[tlhe independence of the new successor State, which then exercises
its sovereignty on its territory, is of course without effect as concerns
the treaty rights and obligations of the predecessor State as concerns
its own (remaining) territory. Thus, after the separation of parts of
the territory of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (which
became independent States), the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(as the Russian Federation) continued to exist as a predecessor
State, and al1its treaty rights and obligations continued in force in
respect of its territory. The same applies to the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), which remains as the pre-
decessor State upon separation of parts of the territory of the former
Yugoslavia. General Assembly resolution 4711of 22 September 1992,
to the effect that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia could not auto-
matically continue the membership of the former Yugoslavia in the
United Nations ...was adopted within the framework of the United
Nations and the context of the Charter of the United Nations, and

not as an indication that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was
not to be considered a predecessor State." (STILEG.8, p. 89,
para. 297.)
On 9 April 1996,on the basis of protest raised by a few Members of the
United Nations, the Legal Counsel of the United Nations issued under

"Errata" (doc. LLA41TRl220) which, inter alia, deleted the qualification
of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a predecessor State contained
in paragraph 297 of the "Summary". In my view, such a deletion is
devoid of any legal relevance since a "Summary" by itself does not have
the value of an autonomous document, a document which determines or
constitutes something. It is just the condensed expression, the external
lapidary assertion of a fact which exists outside it and independently
from it. In that sense, the Introduction to the "Summary of the practice
of the Secretary-General as the depositary of multilateral treaties" says,
inter alia, that "the purpose of the present summary is to highlight the
main features of the pracrice,folloit,edby the Secretary-General in this
field" (p. 1, emphasis added) but not to constitute the practice itself. 9. As regards the membership of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
of the United Nations, the Court takes the position that

"Whereas, in view of its finding in paragraph 29 above, the Court

need not consider this question for the purpose of deciding whether
or not it can indicate provisional measures in the present case"
(Order, para. 32).
The Court retained the position of an ingenious but, for the purposes of
the present proceedings, unproductive elegantiaejuris processualis. The
Court's jurisdiction rutionepersonae is directly dependent on the answer
to the question whether the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia can be con-

sidered to be a member State of the United Nations, both vis-à-vis the
optional clause and vis-à-vis the Genocide Convention.
It would of course be unreasonable to expect the Court to decide on
whether or not the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is a Member of the
United Nations. Such an expectation would not be in accord with the
nature of the judicial function and would mean entering the province of
the main political organs of the world Organization - the Security
Council and the General Assembly.
But it is my profound conviction that the Court should have answered
the question whether the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia can or cannot,
in the light of the content of General Assembly resolution 4711and of the
practice of the world Organization, be considered to be a Member of the
United Nations and especially party to the Statute of the Court; namely,
the text of resolution 4711makes no mention of the status of the Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia as a party to the Statute of the International
Court of Justice. That is the import of resolution 4711rutione materiue.
And nothing beyond that. In that respect the position of the Court is
identical to the position of other organs of the United Nations. A con-
trario there would, exempli causa, be no need for a General Assembly
recommendation by resolution 471229concerning the participation of the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the work of the Economic and Social
Council. In other words, resolution 4711makes no mention, explicitly or
tacitly, of the International Court of Justice; theame is true of the other
documents adopted on the basis of the above-mentioned resolution. It
follows from this that General Assembly resolution 4711has produced no
effect on the status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a party to
the Statute and this is confirmed, inter alia, by al1issues of the Yearbook
of the International Court of Justice since 1992.

1am equally convinced that, both the content of the resolution, which
represents contrudictio in adiecto, and the particular practice of the world
Organization after its adoption over a period of nearly seven years,
offered ample arguments for it to pronounce itself on this matter. 10. The position of the Court with respect to the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia membership of the United Nations can be said to have
remained within the framework of the position taken in the Order on the
indication of provisional measures in the Genocidecase of 8 April 1993.

Paragraph 18of that Order states

"Whereas, while the solution adopted is not free from legal diffi-
culties, the question whether or not Yugoslavia is a Member of the
United Nations and as such a party to the Statute of the Court is
one which the Court does not need to determine definitively at the
present stage of the proceedings" (Application of the Convention on
the Prevention und Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 8 April 1993, 1.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 14).

The objection may be raised that the wording of paragraph 18is of a
technical nature, that it is not a relevant answer to the question ofFed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia membership of the United Nations; how-
ever, it is incontestable that it has served its practical purpose because, it
seems,

"the Court was determined to establish its jurisdiction in this case
[Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide] whilst at the same time avoiding some of the
more delicate, and indeed profound, concerns about the position of
the respondent State vis-à-vis the Charter and Statute" (M. C. R.
Craven, "The Genocide Case, the Law of Treaties and State Succes-
sion", British Year Book of Internutional Law, 1997, p. 137).
The Court tacitly persisted in maintaining this position also in the
further requests for the indication of provisional measures (Application

of the Con~lentionon the Prevention und Punishment of the Crime of
Cenocide, Order of 13 Septenzber 1993), as well as in the Judgment on
preliminary objections of 11July 1996.
Even if such a position can be considered to be understandable in the
second proceedings for the indication of provisional measures, it never-
theless gives rise to some complicated questions in the proceedings con-
ducted in the wake of the preliminary objections raised by Yugoslavia.
In these proceedings, the Court was confronted, inter uliu, also with
the question as to whether Yugoslavia is a party to the Genocide Con-
vention. It is hardly necessary to mention that the status of a Contracting
Partv to the Genocide Convention was condztio sine aua non for the
Court to proclaim its jurisdiction in the case concerning Applicution of
the Conventionon the Prevention und Punishment of the Crime of Geno-
cide.
The Court found that it has jurisdiction ratione personue, supporting
this position, in my opinion, with a shaky, unconvincing explanation (see
dissenting opinion of Judge Kreka, I.C.J. Rc.ports 1996, pp. 755-760,paras. 91-95). For the purposes of this case, of particular interest is the
position of the Court "that it has not been contested that Yugoslavia was
party to the Genocide Convention" (Application of the Conventionon the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crirneof Geizocide,Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (JI), p. 610, para. 17).The absence
of contest was the decisive argument for the Court to state that "Yugo-
slavia was bound by the provisions of the Convention on the date of the
filing of the Application in the present case" (ibid.).

TheCourt has, deliberately, 1presume, failed to state who did not con-
test that Yugoslavia is a party to the Genocide Convention. If it had in

mind the Applicant (Bosnia and Herzegovina), it is hardly necessary to
note that the State which is initiating proceedings before the Court would
not deny the existence of the title ofjurisdiction; and, in the case in ques-
tion, the Genocide Convention was the only possible ground of the
Court's jurisdiction. If, however, the Court had third States in mind, then
things do not stand as described by the Court, stating that "it has not
been contested". By refusing to recognize the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia and its automatic continuation of membership of the United
Nations, the member States of the world Organization contested eo ipso
that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is automatically a party to
multilateral treaties concluded under the aegis of the United Nations
and, consequently, also a party to the Genocide Convention. The Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia can be considered to be a party to the Genocide
Convention only on the grounds of legal identity and continuity with the
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia because, otherwise, it consti-

tutes a new State, and it did not express its consent to be bound by the
Genocide Convention in the manner prescribed by Article XI of the Con-
vention, nor did it send to the Secretary-General of the United Nations
the notification of succession. A tertium quid is simply non-existent, in
particular from the standpoint of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the
Genocidecase, in which the Court did not declare its position on the so-
called automatic succession in relation to certain multilateral treaties
(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment ofthe
Crime of Genocide, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, J.C. J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 612, para. 23).

Al1in all, the Court in the present Order remained consistent with its
"avoidance" position, persisting in its statement that it "need not con-

sider this question for the purpose of deciding whether or not it can indi-
cate provisional measures in the present case".
Such is the Court's restraint with respect to this highly relevant issue
and its reluctance to make its position known may wellcreate the impres-
sion quite differently from that expressed by Craven in regard to the
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocidecase - that "the Court was determined to establish itsjurisdiction [over the] case whilst at the same time avoiding some of more
delicate, and indeed profound, concerns about the position" of Yugosla-
via vis-à-vis the Charter and the Statute and its inevitable legal conse-
quences upon proceedings pending before the Court.

Jurisdiction of the Court Ratione Materiae

11. 1am of the opinion that in the matter in hand the Court's position
is strongly open to criticism.
The Court finds :
"whereas the threat or use of force against a State cannot in itself

constitute an act of genocide within the meaning of Article II of the
Genocide Convention; and whereas, in the opinion of the Court, it
does not appear at the present stage of the proceedings that the
bombings which form the subject of the Yugoslav Application
'indeed entail the element of intent, towards a group as such, required
by the provision quoted above' (Legulity of the Threat or Use of
Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I),
p. 240, para. 26)" (Order, para. 39).

The intent is, without doubt, the subjective element of the being of the
crime of genocide as, indeed, of any other crime. But, this question is not
and cannot, by its nature, be the object of decision-making in the inci-
dental proceedings of the indication of provisional measures.

In this respect, a reliableproof should be sought in the dispute which,
by its salient features, is essentially identical to the dispute under consid-
eration - the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Pre-
vention and Punishment of the Crime of Cenocide.
In its Order on the indication of provisional measures of 8 April 1993,
in support of the assertion of the Respondent that, inter alia, "it does not
support or abet in any way the commission of crimes cited in the Appli-

cation . . and that the claims presented in the Application are without
foundation" (Application of the Convention on the Prevention und Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide, ProvisionalMeasures, Orderof 8 April
1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 21, para. 42), the Court stated:

"Whereas the Court, in the context of the present proceedings on

a request for provisional measures, has in accordance with Article 41
of the Statute to consider the circumstancesdrawn to its attention as
requiring the indication of provisional measures, but cannot make
definitive findings of fact or of imputability, and the right of each
Party to dispute the facts alleged against it, to challenge the attribu-
tion to it of responsibility for those facts, and to submit arguments
in respect of the merits, must remain unaffected by the Court's deci-
sion" (ibid., p. 22, para. 44)350 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (DISSO . P.KRECA)

and
"Whereas the Court is not called upon, for the purpose of its deci-
sion on the present request for the indication of provisional meas-

ures, now to establish the existence of breaches of the Genocide
Convention" (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 22, para. 46).
The rationale of provisional measures is, consequently, limited to the
preservation of the respective rights of the partiesendente lite which are
the object of the dispute, rights which may subsequently be adjudged by
the Court. As the Court stated in the Land and Maritime Boundary
between Cameroon and Nigeria case :

"Whereas the Court, in the context of the proceedings concerning
the indication of provisional measures, cannot make definitive find-
ings of fact or of imputability, and the right of each Party to dispute
the facts alleged against it, to challenge the attribution to it of
responsibility forthose facts, and to submit arguments, if appropri-
ate, in respect of the merits, must remain unaffected by the Court's
decision" (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and
Nigeria, Provisional Measures, Order of 15 March 1996, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (I), p. 23, para. 43).

12. Fundamental questions arise regarding the position of the Court
on this particular matter.
The relationship between the use of armed force and genocide can be
looked upon in two ways:

(a) is the use of force per se an act of genocide or not? and,
(6) is the use of force conducive to genocide and, if the answer is in the
affirmative, what is it then, in the legal sense?
It is incontrovertible that the use of force per se et dejinitione does
not constitute an act of genocide. It is a matter that needs no particular
proving. However, it could not be inferred from this that the use of
force is unrelated and cannot have any relationship with the commission

of the crime of genocide. Such a conclusion would be contrary to ele-
mentary logic.
ArticleII of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide defines the acts of genocide as
"any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in
whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as
such :

(a) Killing members of the group;
(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the
group ;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of lifecalculated
to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d) Imposingmeasures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."Any of these acts can be committed also by the use of force. The use of
force is, consequently, one of the possible means of committing acts of
genocide. And, it should be pointed out, one of the most efficient means,
due to the immanent characteristics of armed force.

Extensive use of armed force, in particular if it is used against objects
and means constituting conditions of normal life, can be conducive to
"inflicting on the group conditions of life" bringing about "its physical
destruction".
Of course, itcan be argued that such acts are in the function of degrad-
ing the military capacity of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. But such
an explanation can hardly be regarded as a serious argument. For, the
spiral of such a line of thinking may easily come to a point when, having
in mind that military power is after al1comprised of people, even mass

killing of civiliansan be claimed to constitute some sort of a precaution-
ary measure that should prevent the maintenance or, in case of mobiliza-
tion, the increase of military power of the State.

Of course, to be able to speak about genocide it is necessary that there
is an intent, namely, of "deliberately inflictingon the group conditions of
life" bringing about "its physical destruction in whole or in part".
In the incidental proceedings the Court cannot and should not concern
itself with the definitive qualification of the intent to impose upon the
group conditions in which the survival of the group is threatened. Having
in mind the purpose of provisional measures, it can be said that at this
stage of the proceedings it is sufficient to establish that, in the conditions
of intensive bombing, there is an objective risk of bringing about condi-
tions in which the survival of the group is threatened.
The Court took just such a position in the Order of 8April 1993on the
indication of provisional measures in the Application of the Convention
on tlzePrevention and Punislzn~ent of thc Crinîe of Genocidecase.

Paragraph 44 of that Order stated:
"Whereas the Court, in the context of the present proceedings on
a request for provisional measures, has in accordance with Article 41
of the Statute to consider the circumstances drawn to its attention as
requiring the indication of provisional measures, but cannot make
definitive findings of fact or of imputability, and the right of each
Party to dispute the facts alleged against it, to challenge the attribu-
tion to it of responsibility forthose facts, and to submit arguments
in respect of the merits, must remain unaffected by the Court's deci-

sion" (1.C.J. Rrports 1993, p. 22).
The question of "intent" is a highly complicated one. Although the
intent is a subjective matter, a psychological category, in contemporary
criminal legislation itis established also on the basis of objective circum-
stances. Inferences of intent to commit an act are widely incorporated inlegal systems. Exempli causa,permissive inferences as opposed to a man-
datory presumption in thejurisprudence of the United States of America
may be drawn even in a criminal case.

In any event, there appears to be a clear dispute between the Parties
regarding "intent" as the constitutive element of the crime of genocide.

The Applicant asserts that "intent" can be presumed and, on the other
hand, the Respondent maintains that "intent", as an element of the crime
of genocide, should be clearly established as dolus specialis. Such a con-
frontation of views of the Parties concerned leads to a dispute related to
"the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention", includ-
ing disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for
any of the other acts enumerated in Article III of the Convention.

13. At the same time, one should have in mind that whether "in cer-
tain cases, particularly that by the infliction of inhuman conditions of
life, the crime may be perpetrated by omission" (Stanislas Plawski, Etude
des principesfondamentaux du droit international pénal, 1972, p. 115.
Cited in United Nations doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/415 of 4 July 1978).
Since,

"Experience provides that a state of war or a military operations
régimegivesauthorities a convenient pretext not to provide a popu-
lation or a group with what they need to subsist - food, medicines,
clothing, housing . . .It will be argued that this is inflicting on the
group conditions of lifecalculated to bring about its physical destruc-
tion in whole or in part." (J. Y. Dautricourt, "La prévention du
génocide et sesfondements juridiques", Etudes internationales de
psychosociologie criminelle, Nos. 14-15, 1969, pp. 22-23. Cited in
United Nations doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/415 of 4 July 1978,p. 27.)

Of the utmost importance is the fact that, in the incidental proceedings,
the Court cannot and should not concern itself with the definitive quali-
fication of the intent to impose upon the group conditions in which the
survival of the group is threatened. Having in mind the purpose of pro-
visional measures, it can be said that at this stage of the proceedings it is
sufficient to establish that, in the conditions of intensive bombing, there
is an objective risk of bring about conditions in which the survival of the
group is threatened.

Jurisdiction of the Court Ratione Temporis
14. The ratione temporis element of jurisdiction is considered by the

Court to be the linchpin of its position regarding the absence ofjurisdic-
tion in this particular case. In its Order the Court States, inter alia: "Whereas it is an established fact that the bombings in question
began on 24 March 1999 and have been conducted continuously
over a period extending beyond 25 April 1999; and whereas the

Court has no doubt, in the light, inter aliu, of the discussions at the
Security Council meetings of 24 and 26 March 1999 (SlPV.3988and
3989), that a 'legal dispute' (East Timor (Portugal v. Australia),
I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 100, para. 22) 'arose' between Yugoslavia
and the Respondent, as it did also with the other NATO member
States, well before 25 April 1999 concerning the legality of those
bombings as such, taken as a whole;
Whereas the fact that the bombings have continued after 25 April

1999 and that the dispute concerning them has persisted since that
date is not such as to alter the date on which the dispute arose;
whereas each individual air attack could not have given rise to a
separate subsequent dispute; and whereas, at this stage of the pro-
ceedings, Yugoslavia has not established that new disputes, distinct
from the initial one, have arisen between the Parties since 25 April
1999 in respect of subsequent situations or facts attributable to
Canada" (Order, paras. 27 and 28).

It appears that such a stance of the Court is highly questionable for two
basic reasons :

- firstly, for reasons of a general nature to do with jurisprudence of the
Court in this particular matter, on the one hand, and with the nature
of the proceedings for the indication of provisional measures, on the
other; and,
- secondly, for reasons of a specific nature deriving from the circum-
stances of the case in hand.

14.1. As far as the jurisdiction of the Court is concerned, it seems
incontestable that a liberal attitude towards the temporal element of the
Court's jurisdiction in the indication of provisional measures has become
apparent.The ground of such an attitude is the fact stressed by the Court
almost regularly, so that:

"it cannot be accepted a priori that a claim based on such a com-
plaint falls completely outside the scope of international jurisdiction;
.............................

the[se]considerations ... sufficeto empower the Court to entertain
the Request for interim measures of protection;

the indication of such measures in no way prejudges the question of
the jurisdiction of the Court to deal with the merits of the case and
leaves unaffected the right of the Respondent to submit arguments
against such jurisdiction" (Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., Order of 5 July
1951, IC.J. Reports 1951, p. 93),and
"on a request for provisional measures the Court need not, before
indicating them, finally satisfy itself that it has jurisdiction on the
merits of the case . .. it ought not to act under Article 41 of the

Statute if the absence ofjurisdiction on the merits is manifest" (Fish-
eries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Interim Protection,
Order of 17 August 1972, 1.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 15,para. 15 ;and,
Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Germany v. Icelaizd),
Interim Protection, Order of 17 August 1972, I.C.J. Reports 1972,
p. 33, para. 16).

It is hardly necessary to note that the formulation "need not ... finally
satisfy itself that it has jurisdiction on the merits of the case" relates to

jurisdiction in toto and that, consequently, it includes also jurisdiction
ratione temporis. The application of the above general attitude of the
Court towards jurisdiction ratione temporis may be illustrated by two
characteristic cases :

(a) In the disputes concerning Lockerbie, the Court established, inter
alia that:

"in the course of the oral proceedings the United Statescontended
that the requested provisional measures should not be indicated
because Libya had not presented a prima facie case that the pro-
visions of the Montreal Convention provide a possible basis for
jurisdiction inasmuch as the six-month period prescribed by Ar-
ticle 14,paragraph 1,of the Convention had not yet expired when
Libya's Application was filed; and that Libya had not established
that the United States had refused to arbitrate" (Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention
arisingfrom the Aerial Incident ut Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jama-
hiriya v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order
of 14 April 1992, 1.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 122,para. 25),

and that,
"in the context of the [proceedings in the Lockerbie case] on a

request for provisional measures, [the Court] has, in accordance
with Article 41 of the Statute, to consider the circumstances drawn
to its attention as requiring the indication of such measures, but
cannot make definitive findings either of fact or of law on the
issues relating to the merits, and the right of the Parties to contest
such issues at the stage of the merits must remain unaffected by
the Court's decision" (ibid., p. 126, para. 41).
(b) The question of jurisdiction of the Court ratione temporis in the
proceedings for the indication of provisional measures also arose in the case concerning the Application of the Conventionon the Preven-
tion and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. In its Order on the
request for the indication of provisional measures of 8 April 1993,
the Court stated, inter uliu:

"Whereas the Court observes that the Secretary-General has
treated Bosnia-Herzegovina, not as acceding, but as succeeding to
the Genocide Convention, and if this be so the question of the
application of Articles XI and XII1 of the Convention would not
arise; whereas however the Court notes that even if Bosnia-Herze-
govina were to be treated as having acceded to the Genocide Con-
vention, with the result that the Application might be said to be
premature when filed, 'this circumstance would now be covered'
by the fact that the 90-day period elapsed between the filingof the
Application and the oral proceedings on the request (cf. Mav-

rommutis Palestine Concessions,Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 34); whereas the Court, in deciding whether to
indicate provisional measures, is concerned not so much with the
past as with the present and with the future; whereas, accordingly
even if itsjurisdiction suffersfrom the temporal limitation asserted
by Yugoslavia - which it does not now have to decide - this is
not necessarily a bar to the exercise of its powers under Article 41
of the Statute" (Application of tlze Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Provisional Meusures,
Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 16,para. 25).

As far as the nature of the proceedings for the indication of provisional
measures isconcerned, they are surely not designed for the purpose of the
final and definitive establishment of the jurisdiction of the Court. That is
why in the practice of the Court "prima facie jurisdiction" is almost
uniformly referred to when the indication of provisional measures is
involved. Although the explicit definition of "prima faciejurisdiction" is
of course hard to find in the Court's jurisprudence, its constitutive ele-
ments are relatively easy to determine. The determinant "prima facie"

itself implies that what is involved is not a definitely established jurisdic-
tion, but ajurisdiction deriving or supposed to be normally deriving from
a relevant legal fact which is defined in concreto as the "title of jurisdic-
tion". 1sreference to the "title of jurisdiction" sufficientper se for prima
facie jurisdiction to be constituted? It is obvious that the answer to this
question must be in the negative.

But, it could be said that the "title ofjurisdiction" is sufficientper se to
constitute prima faciejurisdiction except in case "the absence of jurisdic-
tion on the merits is manifest" (Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom
v. Iceland), Interim Protection, Order of1 7 August 1972, I. C.J. Reports1972, p. 15, para. 15; Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Ger-
muny v. Iceland), Interim Protection, Order of 17 August 1972, I.C.J.
Reports 1972, p. 33, para. 16).
In other words, in question is the case when absence of jurisdiction is
obvious and manifest stricto sensu, i.e., when States try to use the Court
in situations when there is no ground for jurisdiction whatsoever.
Well-established jurisprudence of the Court clearly shows that the
absence of temporal element of jurisdiction of the Court, even if mani-
fest, does not excludejurisdiction of the Court if the temporal defect can
be easily remedied.
In its Judgment on preliminary objections raised by Yugoslavia in the
case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 11 July 1996,the Court stated
inter aliu:

"It is the case that the jurisdiction of the Court must normally be

assessed on the date of the filing of the act instituting proceedings.
However, the Court, like its predecessor, the Permanent Court of
International Justice, has always had recourse to the principle accord-
ing to which it should not penalize a defect in a procedural act which
the applicant could easily remedy. Hence, in the case concerning the
Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions,the Permanent Court said:

'Even if the grounds on which the institution of proceedings
was based were defective for the reason stated, this would not be
an adequate reason for the dismissal of the applicant's suit. The
Court, whose jurisdiction is international, is not bound to attach
to matters of form the same degree of importance which they
might possess in municipal law. Even, therefore, if the application
were premature because the Treaty of Lausanne had not yet been
ratified, this circumstance would now be covered by the subse-
quent deposit of the necessary ratifications.' (P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 2, p. 34.)

The same principle liesat the root of the following dictum of the Per-
manent Court of International Justice in the case concerning Certain
German Interests in Polish UpperSilesia :
'Even if, under Article 23, the existence of a definite dispute
were necessary, this condition could at any time be fulfilled by
means of unilateral action on the part of the applicant Party. And

the Court cannot allow itself to be hampered by a mere defect of
form, the removal of which depends solely on the Party con-
cerned.' (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6,p. 14.)
The present Court applied this principle in the case concerning the
Northern Cameroons (1.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 28), as wellas Military
and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) when it stated: 'It would make no
sense to require Nicaragua now to institute fresh proceedings based
on the Treaty, which it would be fullyentitled to do.' (I.C.J. Reports
1984, pp. 428-429, para. 83.)

In the present case, even if it were established that the Parties,
each of which was bound by the Convention when the Application
was filed, had only been bound as between themselves with effect
from 14 December 1995, the Court could not set aside its jurisdic-
tion on this basis, inasmuch as Bosnia and Herzegovina might at any
time filea new application, identical to the present one, which would
be unassailable in this respect." (Application of the Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Cenocide, Prelimi-

nary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 613-614,
para. 26.)
The definitive and final establishment of the temporal element of juris-
diction in the proceedings for the indication of provisional measures is

resisted, in addition to the nature of the proceedings as such, also by the
nature of ratione temporis jurisdiction of the Court. Namely,
"jurisdiction ratione temporis does not exist as an independent con-
cept of the law governing international adjudication, and more spe-

cificallyof the law governing the jurisdiction and competence of the
Court. It is a dependent concept, giving rise to a particular problem
of determining the nature and effect of that dependency on the per-
sonal or the material jurisdiction of the Court, as the case may be."
(Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court,
1920-1996, Vol. II, p. 583.)

14.2.1sit possible to argue that in the case in hand the reserve ratione
temporis in the Yugoslav declaration of acceptance of compulsory juris-
diction of the Court is of such a nature that one could say that the
"absence ofjurisdiction on the merits" - is manifest?
There is no doubt that there exists a fundamental difference between
the Parties concerning the qualification of the nature of the armed attack
on the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The Respondent finds that two
months of bombing and other acts aimed against the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia represent "a continued situation", an inextricable organic
unity of a variety of acts, while Yugoslavia maintains that in question
is a

"breach of an international obligation . . .composed of a series of
actions or omissions in respect of separate cases, [that] occurs at the
moment when that action or omission of the series is accomplished
which establishes the existence of the composite act" (The Interna-
tional Law Commission's Draft Articles on State Responsibility,
Part 1, Articles 1-35, Art. 25 (2), p. 272).In this respect, the Application has invoked Article 25 (2) of the Draft
Articles on State Responsibility, prepared by the International Law
Commission, which stipulates, inter alia, that:
"the time of commission of the breach extends over the entire period
from the first of the actions or omissions constituting the composite
act not in conformity with the international obligation and so long
as such actions or omissions are repeated" (op. cit., p. 272).

This fundamental difference in the outlook on the armed attack on the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, represents, legallyspeaking, "a disagree-
ment over a point of law . . .a conflict of legal views or of interests
between two persons" as defined in the Mavrommatis Palestine Conces-
sions (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11).

Consequently, in question is a dispute between the Parties, which is
not, per se, a matter of jurisdiction, in particular not a matter of prima

faciejurisdiction; however, the Court's decision on this dispute may have
an effect on itsjurisdiction ratione temporis.
The Court, faced by a dispute of this kind, theoretically had two
options at its disposal:
(a) to resolve it lege artis. This possibility is, from the aspect of the
Court's well-settled jurisprudence, only theoretical. Because we are
dealing here with a matter which, as a rule, is not solved in the pro-
ceedings for the indication of provisional measures but in the pro-
cedure dealing with the merits of the case;

(6) to establish, as it has become customary for the Court, that there is
a disagreement over a point of law, but that it
"cannot make definitive findings either of fact or of law on the
issues relating to the merits, and the right of the Parties toontest
such issues at the stage of the merits must remain unaffected by
the Court's decision" (Questions of lnterpretation and Application
of the 1971 Montreal Convention urisingfrom the Aerial Incident
ut Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of
America), Provisional Measures, Order of 14 April 1992, I.C.J.
Reports 1992, p. 126, para. 41).

However, the Court has chosen a third, and, in my opinion, the least
acceptable solution. The Court did not enter into the resolution of the
case in hand; moreover, it has not even determined its basic features, nor
established that the dispute, by its nature, is not appropriate for being
dealt with in the proceedings the main purpose of which is to preserve the
rights of either Party, rights to be confronted at the merits stage of the
case. But, it has simply accepted one of the conflicting legal views and
thus made an interesting turnaround - by entering the sphere of interim
judgment, without a formal judgment. IV. OTHER RELEVANT ISSUES

15. In paragraph 15 of the Order the Court states:
"Whereas the Court is deeply concerned with the human tragedy,
the loss of life, and theenormous suffering in Kosovo which form

the background of the present dispute, and with the continuing loss
of life and human suffering in al1parts of Yugoslavia."

The phrasing of the statement seems to me unacceptable for a number
of reasons. First, the formulation introduces dual humanitarian concern.
The Court is, it is stated, "deeply concerned", while at the same time the
Court states "the loss of life". So, it turns out that in the case ofparts
of Yugoslavia" the Court technically states "the loss of life" as a fact

which does not cause "deep concern". Furthermore, the wording of the
formulation may also be construed as meaning that Kosovo is not a part
of Yugoslavia. Namely, after emphasizing the situation in Kosovo and
Metohija, the Court uses the phrase "in al1parts of Yugoslavia". Having
in mind the factual and legal state of affairs, the appropriate wording
would be "in al1other parts of Yugoslavia". Also, particular reference to
"Kosovo" and "al1 parts of Yugoslavia", in the present circumstances,
has not only no legal, but has no factual basis either. Yugoslavia, as a
whole, is the object of attack. Human suffering and loss of life are, un-
fortunately, a fact, generally applicable to the country as a whole; so, the
Court, even if it had at itsdisposal the accurate data on the number of
victims and the scale of suffering of the people of Yugoslavia, it would
still have no moral right to discriminate between them. Further, the
qualification that"human tragedy and the enormous suffering in Kosovo
. . form the background of the present dispute" not only is political, by
its nature, but has, or may have, an overtone ofjustification of the armed
attack on Yugoslavia. Suffice it to recall the fact that the respondent

State refers to its armed action as humanitarian intervention.

It is up to the Court to establish, at a later stage of the proceedings, the
real legal state of affairs, namely, the relevant facts. At the present stage,
the question of the underlying reasons for the armed attack on the Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia is the object of political allegations. While
the Respondent argues that what is involved is a humanitarian interven-
tion provoked by the "human tragedy and the enormous suffering", the
Applicant finds that sedes muteriue the underlying reasons are to be
sought elsewhere - in the support to the terrorist organization in Kos-
ovo and in the political aim of secession of Kosovo and Metohija from
Yugoslavia.
Consequently, we are dealing here with opposed political qualificationsin which the Court should not, and, in my view, must not, enter except in
the regular court proceedings.
16. The formulation of paragraph 46 of the Order leaves the impres-
sion that the Court iselegantly attempting to drop the bal1in the Security
Council's court. Essentially, it is superfluousbecause, as it stands now, it
only paraphrases a basic fact that "the Security Council has special
responsibilitiesunder Chapter VI1of the Charter". It can be interpreted,
it is true, also as an appeal to the United Nations organ, specifically
entrusted with the duty and designed to take measures in case of threat to
the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression; but, in that case the
Court would need to stress also another basic fact - that a legal dispute
should be referred to the International Court of Justice on the basis of
Article 36, paragraph 3, of the United Nations Charter.

17. The Court, by using the term "Kosovo" instead of the officia1
name of "Kosovo and Metohija", continued to follow the practice of the

political organs of the United Nations, which, by the way, was also
strictly followed by the respondent States.
Itis hard to find a justifiable reason for such a practice. Except of
course if weassume political opportunenessand involved practical, politi-
cal interests to be a justified reason for this practice. This is eloquently
shown also by the practice of the designation of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia. After the succession of the former Yugoslav federal units,
the organs of the United Nations, and the respondent States themselves,
have used the term Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro). However, since
22 November 1995,the Security Council uses in its resolutions 1021and
1022 the term "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" instead of the former
"Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)" without any
express decision and in a legally unchanged situation in relation to the
one in which it, like other organs of the United Nations, employed the
term "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)". The
fact that this change in the practice of the Security Council appeared on
the day following the initialling of the Peace Agreement in Dayton gives

a strong basis for the conclusion that the concrete practice is not based
on objective, legal criteria but rather on political criteria.

By using the word "Kosovo" instead of the name "Kosovo and Meto-
hija", the Court, in fact, is doing two things:

(a) it gives in to the colloquial use of the names of territorial units of an
independent State; and
(6) it ignores the official name of Serbia's southern province, a name
embodied both in the constitutional and legal acts of Serbia and of
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Furthermore, it runs contrary
to the established practice in appropriate international organi- zations. Exempli causa, the official designation of the southern Ser-
bian province "Kosovo and Metohija" has been used in the Agree-
ment concluded by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the
Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (Interna-
tional Legal Muterials, 1999,Vol. 38, p. 24).

Even if such a practice- which, in my opinion, is completely inappro-
priate not only in terms of the law but also in terms of proper usage -
could be understood when resorted to by entities placing interest and
expediency above the law, it is inexplicable inthe case of a judicial organ.

18. A certain confusion is also created by the term "humanitarian law"
referred to in paragraphs 18 and 44 of the Order. The reasons for the
confusion are dual :on the onehand, the Court has not shown great con-
sistency in using this term. In the Genocide case the Court qualified the
Genocide Convention as a part of humanitarian law, although it is obvi-
ous that, by its nature, the Genocide Convention falls within the field of
international criminal law (see dissenting opinion of Judge Kreka in the
case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Preliminary Objrctions, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), pp. 774-775, para. 108).
On the other hand, it seems that in this Order the term "humanitarian
law" has been used with a different meaning, more appropriate to the
generally accepted terminology. The relevant passage in the Order should
be mentioned precisely because of the wording of its paragraphs 18 and
44. The singling out of humanitarian law from the rules of international
law which the Parties are bound to respect may imply low-key and timid
overtones of vindication or at least of diminishment of the legal implica-
tions of the armed attack on the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Humanitarian law, in its legal, original meaning implies the rules ofjus
in bello. If, by stressing the need to respect the rules of humanitarian law,

which 1do not doubt, the Court was guided by humanitarian considera-
tions, then it should have stressed expressis verbis also the fundamental
importance of the rule contained in Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Char-
ter, which constitutes a dividing line between non-legal, primitive inter-
national society and an organized, dejure, international community.

(Signed) Milenko KRECA.

Bilingual Content

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Puragraphs

1-4
II. HUMANITARI AONCER INTHISPARTICULA CRSE 5-7

III. JURISDICTIOISLUES 8-14
Jurisdiction of the Court ratione personae 8-10
Jurisdiction of the Court ratione materiae 11-13
Jurisdiction of the Court ratione temporis 14

IV. OTHERRELEVAN ITSUES 15-18 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. KRECA

[Traduction]

TABLE DES MATIERES

Purugruphes

1-4
II. LEPROBLÈME HUMANITAIRE EN L'ESPECE 5-7

III. LESQUESTIONS DE COMPETENCE 8-14
Compétencede la Cour rationepersonae 8-10
Compétencede la Cour rutione materiae 11-13
Compétencede la Cour ratione temporis 14

IV. AUTRE QSUESTIONS PERTINENTES 15-18 1. In the context of the conceptual difference between the interna-
tional magistrature and the interna1 judicial system within a State, the
institution of judge ad hoc has two basic functions:

"(a) to equalize the situation when the Bench already includes a
Member of the Court having the nationality of one of the parties;
and (b) to create a nominal equality between two litigating States
when there is no Member of the Court having the nationality of
either party" (S. Rosenne, The Law and Practice ofthe Internationul
Court, 1920-1996, Vol. III, pp. 1124-1125).

In this particular case room is open for posing the question as to
whether either of these two basic functions of the institution of judge ad
hoc has been fulfilled at all.
It is possible to draw the line between two things.
The first is associated with equalization of the Parties in the partcon-
cerning the relations between the Applicant and the respondent States
which have a national judge on the Bench. In concreto, of special interest
is the specific position of the respondent States. They appear in a dual
capacity in these proceedings :

primo, they appear individually in the proceedings considering that
each one of them is in dispute with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia:
and,
secondo, they are at the same time member States of NATO under
whose institutional umbrella they have undertaken the armed attack on
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Within the framework of NATO,
these respondent States are acting in corpore, as integral parts of an
organizational whole. The corpus of willsof NATO member States, when

the undertaking of military operations is in question, is constituted into a
collective will which is, formally, the will of NATO.

2. The question may be raised whether the respondent States can
qualify as parties in the same interest.
In itsrder of 20 July 193 1in the case concerning the Custo~nsRégime

between Germany and Austria, the Permanent Court of International Jus-
tice established that:
"al1 governments which, in the proceedings before the Court, come
to the same conclusion, must be held to be in the same interest for
the purposes of the present case" (P.C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 41,
p. 88).

The question of qualification of the "same interest", in the practice of
the Court, has almost uniformly been based on a forma1 criterion, the
criterion of "the same conclusion" to which the parties have come in the
proceedings before the Court. 1. Compte tenu de la différencede principe entre la magistrature inter-
nationale et le systèmejudiciaire interne de chaque Etat, l'institution du
juge ad hoc a fondamentalement un double rôle:

«a) rétablirl'égalitéquand la Cour comprend d'ores et déjàsur le
siègeun juge ayant la nationalité del'unedes parties; et b) créer une
égalitésymbolique entre deux Etats en litige quand aucun membre
de la Cour n'a la nationalité del'une desparties)) (S. Rosenne, The
Luiv und Practice of the International Court, 1920-1996, vol. III,
p. 1124-1125).

En l'espèce,on peut se demander si l'institution du jugead hoc a bien
exercé l'unequelconque de ces deux fonctions élémentaires.

11est possible de distinguer deux éléments.
Le premier est liéa ce rétablissementde l'égalitentre les parties en ce
qui concerne les relations entre le demandeur et les Etats défendeurs qui
ont un juge national sur le siège.In concreto, il faut s'intéresserà cet
égard a la position particulière des Etats défendeurs. Ces derniers, en
effet, comparaissent a un double titre:

primo, ils comparaissent individuellement puisque chacun d'eux est en
litige avec la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie;

secundo, ce sont en même temps desEtats membres de I'OTAN dans le
cadre institutionnel de laquelle ils ont engagéune attaque arméecontrela
Républiquefédérale de Yougoslavie. Dans ce cadre de l'OTAN, les Etats
défendeursagissent in corpore,en tant que parties intégrantes d'uneorga-
nisation constituant un tout. L'ensemble, le corpus, des volontés des
Etats membres de l'OTAN, quand il s'agit de mener des opérationsmili-
taires, constitue une volonté collective qui est officiellement celle de
I'OTAN.

2. On peut se demander par ailleurs si les Etats défendeurspeuvent
êtreconsidéréscomme faisant cause commune.
Dans l'ordonnance rendue le 20juillet 1931dans l'affaire du Régime
douanier entre l'Allemagne et l'Autriche, la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale a énoncéle principe suivant:

«tous les gouvernements qui, devant la Cour, arrivent a la même
conclusion, doivent êtreconsidéréscomme faisant cause commune
aux fins de la présenteprocédure)) (C.P.J.I. sérieAIB no41, p. 89).

Dans sa pratique, la Cour a quasiment toujours établi qu'il y avait
((cause commune)) en se fondant sur un critère formel, celui de la
«même conclusion» à laquelle aboutissent les parties comparaissant
devant elle. In the present case, the question of "the same conclusion" as the rele-
vant criterion for the existence of "the same interest" of the respondent
Statesis, in my opinion, unquestionable. The same conclusion was, in a
way, inevitable in the present case in view of the identical Application
which the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has submitted against ten
NATO member States, and was formally consecrated by the outcome of
the proceedings before the Court held on 10, 11 and 12 May 1999, in
which al1the respondent States came to the identical conclusion resting
on the foundation of practically identical argumentation which differed
oniy in the fashion and style of presentation.

Hence, the inevitable conclusion follows, it appears to me, that al1the
respondent States are in concreto parties in the same interest.
3. What are the implications of this fact for the composition of the
Court in the present case? Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute says:
"If the Court includes upon the Bench ajudge ofthe nationality of one of
the parties, any other party may choose a person to sit as judge."
The Statute, accordingly, refers to the right of "any other party",
namely, a party other than the party which has ajudge of its nationality,
in the singular. But, it would be erroneous to draw the conclusion from
theabove that "any other party", other than the party which has ajudge
of its nationality, cannot, under certain circumstances, choose several
judges ad hoc. Such an interpretation would clearly be in sharp contra-
diction with ratio legis of the institution of judge ad hoc, which, in this
particular case, consists of the function "to equalize the situation when
theBench already includes a Member of the Court having the nationality
of one of the parties"(S. Rosenne, The Law and Pructice of the Interna-
tional Court, 1920-1996, Vol. III, pp. 1124-1125).The singular used in

Article31,paragraph 2, of the Statute with reference to the institution of
judges ad hoc is, consequently, but individualization of the general, inher-
ent right to equalization in the composition of the Bench in the relations
between litigating parties, one of which has a judge of its nationality on
theBench, while the other has not. Thepractical meuning of thisprinciple
applied in casum would implji the right of the Applicant to choose us
many judges ad hoc to sit on the Bench us is necessary to equalize the
position of the Applicunt and that of those respondent States which have
judges of their nationality on theBench und ~vhichshare the same interest.
In concreto, the inherent right tu equalization in the composition of the
Bench, as un e-cpressionoffundamental rule of equulity of parties, meuns
that the Federul Republic of Yugosluviu should lzuve the right to choose
jive judges ad hoc, since evenfive out of ten vespondentSfates (the United
States of America, the United Kingdom, Frunce, Germany and the Neth-
erlands) have their nutionaljudges sitting on the Benrk.
Regarding the notion of equalization which concerns the relation
between the party entitled to choose its judge ad hoc and the parties
which have their national judges on the Bench, the fact is that the Federal
Republicof Yugoslavia, as can be seen from the Order, did not raise any

objections to the circumstance that as many as five respondent States LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.DISS.KRECA) 329

En l'espèce,il est indubitable que la formulation d'une conclusion
identique est le critère pertinent permettant d'établir queles Etats défen-
deurs font «cause commune)). II étaiten quelque sorte inévitablede for-
muler la même conclusionen l'espècepuisque la République fédéralede
Yougoslavie a présenté unerequête identique à l'encontre de dix Etats
membres de l'OTANet l'on ena eu la preuve officiellea l'issuede la pro-

cédure qui s'est déroulée devantla Cour les 10, 11 et 12 mai 1999, les
Etats défendeurs aboutissant tous à une conclusion identique reposant
sur une argumentation pratiquement identique dont les seules variations
concernent la forme et le mode de présentation.
D'ou la conclusion inévitable a mon sens que les Etats défendeursfont
tous in concreto cause commune.
3. Quelles incidencesfaut-il en tirer pour la composition de la Cour en
l'espèce? L'article31,paragraphe 2, du Statut, dispose:Si la Cour compte
sur le siege un juge de la nationalitéd'une des parties, toute autre partie
peut désignerune personne de son choix pour siégeren qualitéde juge.))
Le Statut, donc, définit ainsile droit de ((toute autre partie)), c'est-
à-dire une partie autre que celle qui compte un juge de sa nationalité sur
le siege, et il parle de cette autre partie au singulier. Mais il serait erroné
d'en déduireque ((toute autre partie)) que celle qui compte un juge de sa

nationalité sur le siègene peut pas, dans certains cas, désigner plusieurs
juges ad hoc. Retenir cette interprétation serait manifestement contrairà
la ratio legis de l'institution du juge ad hoc, lequel en l'espècea pour
objet «de rétablirl'égalitéquand la Cour comprend d'ores et déjàsur le
siègeun juge ayant la nationalité de l'une desparties)) (S. Rosenne, The
Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-1996,vol. III, p. 1124-
1125).L'usage du singulier à l'article 31, paragraphe 2, du Statut, quand
il est question de l'institution du juge ad hoc, permet donc simplement
d'individualiser ce droit général,intrinsèque, au rétablissement de l'éga-
litéentre les parties en litige en ce qui concerne la composition de la
Cour, quand l'une des parties compte un juge de sa nationalité sur le
siègetandis que l'autre n'en a pas. Concrètement, appliqué à laprésente
instance, ce principe signifieimplicitement que le demandeur a le droit de
désignerautant dejuges ad hoc qu'illefaut pour rétablir l'égalité entree

demandeur et les Etats défendeursqui comptent unjuge de leurnationalité
sur lesiPgeet quifont cause commune. Concrètement, ce droitfondamen-
tal au rétablissement de l'égalitédans la coinposition de la Cour, qui
répond à la règlefondamentale de l'égalitédes parties, signijie que la
République fédérale de Yougoslavie doit avoir le droit de désignercinq
juges ad hoc, puisque, sur les dix Etats défendeurs,il y en a cinq (les
Etats-Unis d'Amérique,le Royaume-Uni, la France, l'Allemagne et les
Pays-Bas) qui comptent unjuge national sur le siège.
S'agissant de ce rétablissement de l'égalitéentre la partie autorisée a
désignerun juge ad hoc de son choix, d'une part, et, de l'autre, les parties
qui comptent un juge national sur le siège, lefait est que la République
fédéralede Yougoslavie, comme on peut le constater dans l'ordonnance,
n'a soulevéaucune objection au cas de figure qui se présentaitet qui étaithave judges of their nationality on the Bench. However, this circum-
stance surely cannot be looked upon as something making the question
irrelevant, or, even as the tacit consent of the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia to such an outright departure from the letter and spirit of
Article 31, paragraph 2, of the Statute.
TheCourt has, namely, the obligation to take account ex officio of the

question of such a fundamental importance, which directly derives from,
and vice versa, may directly and substantially affect, the equality of the
parties. The Court is the guardian of legality for the parties to the case,
for which presumptio juris et de jure alone is valid - to know the law
(jura novit curia). As pointed out by Judges Bedjaoui, Guillaume and
Ranjeva in their joint declaration in the Lockerbie case: "that is for the
Court - not the parties - to take the necessary decision" (Questionsof
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising
jirom the AeriaEIncident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United
Kingdom), I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 36, para. 11).

A contrario, the Court would risk, in a matter which is ratio legis
proper of the Court's existence, bringing itself into the position of a pas-
sive observer, who only takes cognizance of the arguments of the parties

and, then, proceeds to the passing of a decision.
4. The other function is associated with equalization in the part which
is concerned with the relations between the Applicant and those respon-
dent States which have no national judges on the Bench.
The respondent States having no judge of their nationality on the
Bench have chosen, in the usual procedure, their judges ad hoc (Belgium,
Canada, Italy and Spain). Only Portugal has not designated its judge ad
hoc. The Applicant successively raised objections to the appointment of
the respondent States' judges ad hoc invoking Article 31, paragraph 5, of
the Statute of the Court. The responses of the Court with respect to this
question invariably contained the standard phrase "that the Court . . .
found that the choice of a judge ad hoc by the Respondent jsjustified in
the present phase of the case".
Needless to say, the above formulation is laconic and does not offer

sufficient ground for the analysis of the Court's legal reasoning. The only
element which is subject to the possibility of teleological interpretation
is the qualification that the choice of a judge ad hoc is "justified in the
present phase of the case". A contrario,it is, consequently, possible that
such an appointment of a judge ad hoc would "not bejustified" in some
other phases of the case. The qualification referred to above could be
interpreted as the Court's reserve with respect to the choice of judges ad
hoc by the respondent States, a reserve which could be justifiable on
account of the impossibility for the Court to perceive the nature of their
interest - whether it is the "same" or "separate" - before the parties set
out their positions on the case.
The meanings of equalization as a ratio legis institution of judges ad
hoc, in the case concerning the Applicant and respondent States which LICÉITÉDE L'EMPLOIDE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 330

que cinq Etats défendeurs,pas moins, comptaient un juge de leur natio-
nalitésur le siège.Mais il n'est certainement pas possible de considérer
que ce cas de figure ôte toute pertinence a la question, même sila Répu-
blique fédéralede Yougoslavie a tacitement admis une telle dérogation
flagrante à la lettre et a l'esprit de l'article 31, paragraphe 2, du Statut.
La Cour a, quant à elle, l'obligation de prendre en considération, ès

qualité, cette question qui est ce point cruciale, qui découledirectement
de I'égalité desparties et, l'inverse, qui risque en outre de porter direc-
tement et sensiblement atteinte à l'égalité desarties. La Cour est le gar-
dien de la légalitépour les parties, et, à cette fin, seule est valable la
presumptio juris et de jure - il faut savoir le droit (jura novit curia).
Comme l'ont dit trois membres de la Cour, MM. Bedjaoui, Guillaume et
Ranjeva, dans la déclarationcommune qu'ils ont faite dans l'affaire Loc-
kerbie: «il appartientà la Cour et non aux parties de prendre la décision
requise)) (Questions d'interprétation etd'applicationde la convention de
Montréal de 1971 résultantde l'incidentaérien deLockerbie (Jamahiriya
arabe libyenne c. Royaume-Uni), C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 36, par. 11).

A contrario, la Cour risquerait, alors que la question relèvevéritable-
ment de sa raison d'être,de se cantonner dans l'attitude de l'observateur
passif, qui se contente de prendre connaissance des thèses des parties,
DU~S se Drononce.
4. ~e'second élément à étudierest celui du rétablissementde l'égalité
dans les relations entre le demandeur et les Etats défendeurs qui ne
comptent pas de juge national sur le siége.
Les Etats défendeursne comptant pas de juge national sur le siègeont,
suivant la procédurehabituelle, désigné un juge ad hocde leur choix (Bel-
gique, Canada, Espagne et Italie). Seul le Portugal n'a pas désigndejuge
ad hoc. Le demandeur a successivement soulevé desobjections à la dési-

gnation de cesjuges ad hoc des Etats demandeurs en invoquant le para-
graphe 5 de l'article 31 du Statut de la Cour. Chaque fois, la Cour a
répondu par la formule habituelle: (<La Cour, ...est parvenue à la
conclusion que la désignationd'un juge ad hoc par [le défendeur] sejus-
tifiait dans la présentephase de l'affaire)).
Certes, la formule est laconique, trop peu détailléepour permettre
d'analyser le raisonnement juridique suivi par la Cour. Le seul élément
qui se prêteà une interprétation téléologique eslte membre de phrase ser-
vant a qualifier la désignationd'un juge ad hoc, laquelle serait «justifi[ée]
dans la présente phase de l'affaire)).A contrario, il est donc possible que
cette désignation de juges ad hoc ne soit «pas justifiée))dans certaines

autres phases de I'affaire. Cette qualification peut s'interpréter comme
une réserve,de la part de la Cour, quant à la désignationdejuges ad hoc
par les Etats défendeurs,réservequi s'expliquerait par l'impossibilitéou
se trouverait la Cour de voir, avant qu'elles définissentleur position, quel
est l'intérêt depsarties- font-elles ou non cause commune?

Le sens a donner au rétablissement de l'égalitéentre les parties,
puisque c'est la raisond'êtrede l'institution du juge ad hoc dans le cas deare parties in the same interest, and which do not have a judge ad hoc of
their nationality on theench, have been dealt with in the practice of the
Court, in a clear and unambiguous manner.

In the South West Africa case (1961) it was established that, if neither
of the parties in theame interest has a judge of its nationality amongthe
Members of the Court, those parties, acting in concert, will be entitled to
appoint a single judge ad hoc (South West Africa, I.C.J. Reports 1961,
P 3).
If, on the other hand, amongthe Members of the Court there is ajudge
having the nationality of even one ofthose parties, then no judge ad hoc
will be appointed (Territorial Jurisdiction of the International Commis-
sion of the River Oder, P.C.I.J., Series C, No. 17-11, p. 8; Customs

Régime betiveen Germany and Austria, 193/, P.C. 1.J., Series AIB,
No. 41, p. 88).
This perfectly coherent jurisprudence ofthe Court applied to this par-
ticular case means that none of the respondent States ivere entitled to
appoint ajudge ad hoc.
Consequently, it may be said that in the present case neither of the two
basic functions of the institution of judged hoc has been applied in the
composition of the Court in a satisfactory way. In my opinion, it is a
question of the utmost specificweight in viewof the fact that, obviously,
its meaning is not restricted to the procedure, but that it may have ar-
reaching concrete meaning.

II. HUMANITARIA CONNCERN IN THISPARTICULA CRASE

5. Humanitarian concern, as a basis for the indication of provisional
measures, has assumed primary importance in the more recent practice of
the Court.
Humanitarian concern has been applied on two parallel tracks in the
Court's practice:

(a) In respect of the individual
In this regard the cases concerning LaGrand (Germany v. United
States of America) and the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations
(Paraguay v. United States of America) are characteristic.

In both cases the Court evinced the highest degree of sensibility for the
humanitarian aspect of the matter, which probably found its full expres-
sion in the part of the Application submitted by Germany on 2 March
1999 :
"The importance and sanctity of an individual human life are well
established in international law. As recognized by Article 6 of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, every human
being has the inherent right to life and this right shall be protected LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 331

figure où le demandeur et les Etats défendeursqui font cause commune
ne comptent pas dejuge ad hoc de leur nationalitésur le siège,a étédéfini
dans la pratique de la Cour de façon très claire, sans la moindre ambi-
guïté.
Dans I'affaire duSud-Ouest africain (1961), il a été décidéue, au cas
ou ni l'une ni l'autre des Parties faisant cause commune ne compterait de
juge de sa nationalité sur le siège,lesdites Parties auraient la facultéde

désignerd'un commun accord un seul juge ad hoc (Sud-Ouest africain,
C.I.J. Recueil 1961, p. 3).
Si, en revanche, la Cour compte parmi ses membres un juge ayant la
nationalité d'une des parties, ne serait-ce que de l'une d'elles,il ne sera
pas désignéde juge ad hoc (Juridiction territoriale de la Commission
internationale de l'Oder, C.P.J.I. série C no 17 (II), p. 8; Régime
douanier entre l'Allemagne et l'Autriche,1931, C.P.J.I. sérieAIB no41,
p. 88).
Si l'on appliquà laprésenteinstance cettejurisprudence parfaitement
cohgrente de la Cour, aucun des Etats défendeursn'étaithabilitéa dési-
gner unjuge ad hoc.
On peut donc dire qu'en l'espèce,ni l'une nil'autre des deux fonctions
élémentairesde l'institutiondu juge ad hoc n'a été rempliede façon satis-
faisante du point de vue de la composition de la Cour. A mon sens, la

question revêt unintérêttout particulier parce que, manifestement, son
importance ne se limite pas à la procédure et pourrait avoir une portée
concrète de très grande ampleur.

II. LE PROBLÈME HUMANITAIRE EN L'ESPÈCE

5. Les problèmes humanitaires en tant que motif d'indication de me-
sures conservatoires revêtent uneimportance primordiale dans la pra-
tique la plus récentede la Cour.
En la matière, laCour suit deux voies parallèles:

a) L'intérêptarticulier dela personne

A cet égard,I'affaire LaGrand (Allemagne c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique)
et I'affaire relatiàela Convention de Viennesur les relations consulaires
(Puraguay c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique)sont caractéristiques.
Dans les deux affaires, la Cour s'est montrée extrêmementsensible à

l'aspect humanitaire de la question àexaminer, ce qu'exprime probable-
ment au mieux la requêteprésentéepar l'Allemagne le 2 mars 1999:

((L'importance et le caractère sacréde la vie humaine sont des
principes bien établis du droit international. Comme le reconnaît
l'article du pacte international relatif aux droits civilset politiques,
le droità la vie est inhérenà la personne humaine et ce droit doit332 LEGALITYOF USE OF FORCE (DISS .P. KRECA)

by law." (LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America), Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 3 March 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 12,
para. 8).

The following day, the Court already unanimously indicated provisional
measures because it found that in question was "a matter of the greatest
urgency" (ibid.,p. 15,para. 26),whichmakes it incumbent upon the Court
to activate the mechanism of provisional measures in accordance with

Article 41 of the Statute of the Court and Article 75, paragraph 1,of the
Rules of Court in order: "to ensure that Walter LaGrand is not executed
pending the final decision in these proceedings" (ibid., p. 16,para. 29).
Almost identical provisional measures were indicated by the Court in
the dispute between Paraguay and the United States of America which
had arisen on the basis of the Application submitted by Paraguay on
3 April 1998. On the same day, Paraguay also submitted an "urgent
request for the indication of provisional measures in order to protect its
rights" (Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Paraguay v. United
States of America), Order of 9 April 1998, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 251,
para. 6). As early as 9 April 1998the Court unanimously indicated pro-
visional measures so as to: "ensure that Angel Francisco Breard is not
executed pending the final decision in these proceedings" (ibid., p. 258,
para. 41).

It is evident that humanitarian concern represented an aspect which
brought about unanimity in the Court's deliberations. This is clearly
shown not only by the letter and spirit of both Orders in the above-
mentioned cases, but also by the respective declarations and the separate
opinion appended to those Orders. In the process, humanitarian consid-
erations seem to have been sufficiently forceful to put aside obstacles
standing in the way of the indication of provisional measures. In this
respect, the reasoning of the Court's seniorjudge, Judge Oda, andthat of
its President, Judge Schwebel, are indicative.
In paragraph 7 of his declaration appended to the Order of 3 March
1999 in the case concerning LaGrand (Germany v. United States of
America), Judge Oda convincingly put forward a series of reasons of a
conceptual nature which explained why he "formed the view that, given

the fundamental nature of provisional measures, those measures should
not have been indicated upon Germany's request". But, Judge Oda goes
on to "reiterate and emphasize" that he "voted in favour of the Order
solely for humanitarian reasons" (1.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 20).
President Schwebel, in his separate opinion, has not explicitly stated
humanitarian considerations as the reason that guided him in voting for
the Order; however, it is reasonable to assume that those were the only
considerations which prevailed in this particular case in view of his
"profound reservations about the procedures followed both by the
Applicant and the Court" (LaGrand (Germany v. United States of
America), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 March 1999, I.C.J. Reports
1999, p. 22). être protégépar la loi))(LaCrund (Allemagne c. Etats-Unis d'Amé-
rique), mesures conservatoires, ordonnancedu 3 mars 1999, C.I.J.
Recueil 1999, p. 12,par. 8.)

Dèsle lendemain, à l'unanimité,la Cour a indiquédes mesures conser-

vatoires parce que les circonstances exigeaient qu'elle les «indique» de
toute urgence (ibid., p. 15,par. 26), de sorte qu'il lui incombait de mettre
en train le mécanisme vouluconformément àl'article41 de son Statut et
de l'article 75, paragraphe 1, de son Règlement, «pour que M. Walter
LaGrand ne soit pas exécuté tant que la décision définitiven la présente
instance n'aura pas étérendue)) (ibid., p. 16,par. 29).
La Cour a indiquédes mesures conservatoires quasiment identiques
dans le différendopposant le Paraguay et les Etats-Unis d'Amériquea la
suite de la requêteprésentéepar le Paraguay le 3 avril 1998. Le même
jour, le Paraguay a égalementprésenté«une demande urgente en indica-
tion de mesures conservatoires à l'effetde protégerses droits)) (Conven-
tion de Vienne sur les relations consulaires (Paraguay c. Etats-Unis
d'Amérique), ordonnance du 9 avril 1998, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 251,
par. 6). Et dèsle 9 avril 1998,à l'unanimité,la Cour a indiquédes me-

sures conservatoires «pour que M. Ange1 Francisco Breard ne soit pas
exécutétant que la décision définitive en la présentinstance n'aura pas
étérendue)) (ibid., p. 258, par. 41).
Il est évidentque c'estàcause de l'aspecthumanitaire du problèmeque
I'unanimitéa étéréaliséeau sein de la Cour. On en voit clairement la
preuve non seulement dans la lettre et l'esprit des deuxordonnances ren-
dues dans ces deux affaires, mais aussi dans les déclarations ainsi que
dans l'opinion individuelle qui leur ont étéjointes. En l'occurrence, les
considérations humanitaires ont été,semble-t-il, assez fortes pour lever
les obstacles qui s'opposaienà l'indication de mesures conservatoires. Le
raisonnement du doyen de la Cour, M. Oda, et celui de son président,
M. Schwebel, sont significatifs.
Au paragraphe 7 de la déclarationqu'iljoint à I'ordonnance du 3 mars

1999 dans l'affaire LaGrand (Allemagne c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique),
M. Oda énonce de façon convaincante une sériede motifs d'ordre théo-
rique qui l'«ont conduit à penser qu'il n'y avait pas lieu d'indiquer les
mesures conservatoires demandées par l'Allemagne, euégardau carac-
tère fondamental de telles mesures)). Mais, M. Oda tient à «rappel[er]
avec force [que s'il a] votéen faveur de l'ordonnance, c'est uniquement
pour des motifs humanitaires)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1999, p. 20).
Dans son opinion individuelle, le présidentde la Cour, M. Schwebel,
n'a pas expressémentdéclaréqu'il s'étaitinspiréde considérationshuma-
nitaires pour voter en faveur de I'ordonnance, mais il est raisonnable de
penser que ce sont les seules considérations quiont prévaluen l'espèce,
puisqu'il avait «de profondes réservesquant à la manière de procéder
tant de la Partie requérante que de la Cour)) (LaGrand (Allemagne
c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique),mesures conservatoires,ordonnance du 3 mars

1999, C. I.J. Recueil 1999, p. 22). As far as the Applicant is concerned:
"Germany could have brought its Application years ago, months

ago, weeks ago or days ago. Had it done so, the Court could have
proceeded as it has proceeded since 1922and held hearings on the
request for provisional measures. But Germany waited until the eve
of execution and then brought its Application and request for pro-
visional measures, at the same time arguing that no time remained to
hear the United States and that the Court should act proprio motu."
(1.C.J. Reports 1999, p. 22.)
The Court, for its part, indicated provisional measures, as President
Schwebel put it, "on the basis only of Germany's Application".

(b) In respect of rrgroup of individuals or the population as a consti-
tutiveelement of the State

The protection of the citizens emerged as an issue in the case concern-
ing Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nica-
ragua v. United States of America) :

"In its submission, Nicaragua emphasized the death and harm
that the alleged acts had caused to Nicaraguans and asked the Court
to support, by provisional measures, 'the rights of Nicaraguan citi-
zens to life, liberty and security'." (R. Higgins, "Interim Measures
for the Protection of Human Rights", in Politics, Valuesand Func-
tions, International Law in the 21st Century, 1997,Charney, Anton,
O'Connell, eds., p. 96.)

In the Frontier Dispute (Burkina FasolRepublic of Mali) case, the
Court found the source for provisional measures in:

"incidents ... which not merely are likely to extend or aggravatethe
dispute but comprise a resort to force which is irreconcilable with

the principle of the peaceful settlement of international disputes"
(Frontier Dispute, Provisional Measures, Order of 10 January 1986,
1.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 9, para. 19).
Humanitarian concern in this particular case was motivated by the risk
of irreparable damage :

"the facts that have given rise to the requests of both Parties for the
indication of provisional measures expose the persons and property
in the disputed area, as well as the interests of both States within
that area, to serious risk of irreparable damage" (ibid., p. 10,
para. 21).

It can be said that in the cases referred to above, in particular those in
which individuals were directly affected, the Court formed a high stand- Et, en ce qui concerne le demandeur, M. Schwebel a dit ceci:

((L'Allemagneaurait pu présenter sa requête des années, desmois,
des semaines, voire quelquesjours plus tôt. L'eût-ellefait, la Cour eut
pu procédercomme elle lefait depuis 1922ettenir des audiencessur la
demande en indication de mesures conservatoires. Mais l'Allemagne
a attendu la veille de l'exécutionpour présenter sa requête et sa de-
mande en indication de mesures conservatoires, en faisant valoir
par la même occasionque la Cour n'avait plus le temps d'entendre
les Etats-Unis et devrait agir d'office. (C.1.J. Recueil 1999, p. 22.)

De son côté, la Cour a indiqué des mesures conservatoires en
s'appuyant, comme le dit M. Schwebel, présidentde la Cour, «exclusive-
ment» sur la requête del'Allemagne.

b) L'intérêtcollectif d'un groupe ou d'une population en tant qu'élément
constitutif deI'Etat

La protection de la population nationale estdevenue question litigieuse
dans l'affaire relative auxActivités militaires et paramilitaires au Nica-
ragua et Ù l'encontre de celui-ci (Nicarugua c. Etuts- Unis d'Amérique):

«Dans sa conclusion, le Nicaragua a insistésur les morts, sur les
dommages que les actes alléguésont causés chezles Nicaraguayens
et a demandé à la Cour de soutenir, au moyen de mesures conser-
vatoires,«les droits descitoyens nicaraguayens à la vieiila libertéet
à la sécurité».)>(R. Higgins, ~Interim Measures for the Protection
of Human Rightsu, dans Charney, Anton, O'Connel1 (dir. publ.),
Politics, Values und Functions, International La~t,in the 21st Cen-

tury, 1997, p. 96.)
Dans l'affaire du Différendfrontalier (Burkina FasolRbpublique du
Mali), la Cour, pour indiquer des mesures conservatoires, s'est fondée
sur des:

((incidentsqui,non seulement sont susceptibles d'étendre oud'aggra-
ver le différend, maiscomportent un recours à la force inconciliable
avec le principe du règlement pacifique des différends internatio-
naux» (Diffirend frontalier, mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du
IOjanvier 1986, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 9, par. 19).

En l'espèce,la préoccupation humanitaire était motivéepar le risque de
préjudiceirréparable :

«les faits qui sontàl'origine des demandes des deux Parties en indi-
cation de mesures conservatoires exposent les personnes et les biens
se trouvant dans la zone litigieuse, ainsi que les intérêts des deux
Etats dans cette zone, à un risque sérieuxde préjudiceirréparable))
(ihiclp. 10, par. 21).

On peut direque, dans lesaffaires évoquéesci-dessus, en particulier celles
dans lesquelles des individus étaient directement concernés. laCour s'estard of humanitarian concern in the proceedings for the indication of
interim measures, a standard which commanded sufficient inherent
strength to brush aside also some relevant, both procedural and material,
rules governing the institution of provisional measures. Thus, humanitar-
ian considerations, independently from the norms of international law
regulating human rights and liberties, have, in a way, gained autonomous
legal significance; they have transcended the moral and philanthropic
sphere, and entered the sphere of law.

6. In the case at hand, it seems that "humanitarian concern" has lost

the acquired autonomous legal position. This fact needs to be stressed in
view of the special circumstances of this case.
Unlike the cases referred to previously, "humanitarian concern" has as
its object thefate of an entire nation, in the literal sense. Such a conclu-
sion may be inferred from at least two elements:

-primo, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and its national and eth-
nie groups have been subjected for more than two months now to con-
tinued attacks of a very strong, highly organized air armada of the most
powerful States of the world. The aim of the attack is horrifying,judging
by the words of the Commander-in-Chief, General WesleyClark, and he
ought to be believed:

"We're going to systematically and progressively attack, disrupt,
degrade, devastate, and ultimately, unless President MiloseviCcom-
plies with the demands of the international community, we're going
to completely destroy his forces and their facilities and support."
(BBC News, http://news.bbc.co.uk/english/static.NATOgallery/air
default.stm/l4 May 1999.)

"Support" is interpreted, in broad terms, extensively; to the point
which raises the question of the true object of the air attacks. In an
article entitled "Belgrade People Must Suffer" Michael Gordon quotes
the words of General Short that he "hopes the distress of the public will,
must undermine support for the authorities in Belgrade" (International
Heruld Tribune, 16 May 1999,p. 6) and he continued:

"1 think no power to your refrigerator, no gas to your stove, you
can't get to work because bridge is down - the bridge on which you
held your rock concerts and you al1 stood with targets on your
heads. That needs to disappear at three o'clock in the morning."
(Ibid.)

That these are not emptywords is testified to by destroyed bridges, power
plants without which there is no electricity, water supply and productionappuyéesur une norme humanitaire supérieuredans le cadre de la pro-
cédureen indication de mesures conservatoires, une norme qui avait suf-
fisamment de force intrinsèque pour que I'on déroge à certaines règles
pertinentes, règlesde procédureet règlesde fond, qui régissentI'institu-
tion des mesures conservatoires. En somme, les considérations humani-
taires, indépendamment des normes du droit international qui règlentles
droits de l'homme et ses libertés,ont en quelque sorte acquis un rôlejuri-
dique autonome; ces considérations ont désormais franchi les limites

du domaine moral et philanthropique pour entrer dans le domaine du
droit.
6. En l'espèce,il semblepourtant que la préoccupation((humanitaire))
ait perdu l'autonomie acquise sur le plan juridique. Vu les circonstances
particulières de l'instance, il convient de s'arrêtersur ce fait.
A la différence desaffaires évoquées précédemmenlte , ((problème
humanitaire)) porte ici, littéralement, sur le sort de toute une nation.
Nous aboutissons àcette conclusion à partir de deux éléments au moins:

En premier lieu, la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie et ses groupes
nationaux et ethniques sont soumis depuis plus de deux mois à présent
aux attaques constantes d'une armada aériennetres forte, extrêmement
organisée,appartenant aux Etats les plus puissants du monde. La finalité
de cette attaque a de quoi horrifier, si I'onenjuge par lesparoles du com-
mandant en chef, legénéraW l esleyClark, et il n'ya pas lieu de douter de
ce qu'il dit:

((Systématiquement et progressivement, nous allons attaquer,
ébranler, dégrader, dévaster,et finalement, sauf si le président
Milosevic se plie aux exigences de la communauté internationale,
nous allons détruire intégralementses forces armées et leurôter
toutes leurs infrastructures et toutes leurs bases de soutien)) (BBC
News, http:llne~v.bc.COu.klenglishlstati. ATOgallerylairdefaults.tml
14mai 1999).

En l'occurrence,leterme ((soutien))revêtun sens tres large,au point que
I'on peut se demander quel est vraiment l'objet desattaques aériennes.
Dans un article intitulé «La population de Belgrade doit souffrir»,
Michael Gordon cite le généralShort qui dit ((espérerque la détressede
la population va saper, qu'elle doit saper, le soutien dont bénéficienltes
autoritésde Belgrade))(International Herald Tribune, 16mai 1999,p. 6)
et il poursuit:

«II n'y aura plus d'électricitépour votre frigo, plus de gaz pour
votre cuisinière,vous ne pourrez plus aller au travail parce que le
pont est démoli - cepont sur lequel vous avez organisévos concerts
rock et sur lequel vous vous êtes massés avec des ciblessur la tête.
Tout cela disparaît à 3 heures du matin. » (Ibid.)

Ilne s'agissait pas là de paroles en l'air, comme en témoignentles ponts
démolis, ladisparition de centrales électriques,de l'adduction d'eau, desof foodstuffs essential for life; destroyed roads and residential blocks and
family homes; hospitals without electricity and water and, above all,
human beings who are exposed to bombing raids and who, as is rightly
stressed in the Application in the LaGrand (Germany v.United States of
America) case, have the "inherent right to life" (International Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights, Art. 6), whose importance and sanctity are
well established in international law. In the inferno of violence, they are
but "collateral damage".

- secundo, the arsenal used in the attacks on Yugoslavia contains also
weapons whose effects have no limitations either in space or in time. In
the oral proceedings before the Court, the Agent of the United States
explicitly stressed that depleted uranium is in standard use of the United
States Army (CR 99/24, p. 21).
The assessment of the effects of depleted uranium should be left to sci-
ence. The report by Marvin Resnikoff of Radioactive Management Asso-
ciates on NMI elaborated upon these effects:

"Once inhaled, fine uranium particles can lodge in the lung alveo-
lar and reside there for the remainder of one's life. The dose due to
uranium inhalation is cumulative. A percentage of inhaled particu-
lates may be coughed up, then swallowed and ingested. Smoking is
an additional factor that needs to be taken into account. Since
smoking destroys the cilia, particles caught in a smoker's branchial
passages cannot be expelled. Gofman estimates that smoking
increases the radiation risk by a factor of 10. Uranium emits an
alpha particle, similar to a helium nucleus, with two electrons
removed. Though this type of radiation is not very penetrating, it
causes tremendous tissue damage when internalized. When inhaled,
uranium increases the probability of lung cancer. When ingested,
uranium concentrates in the bone. Within the bone, it increases the

probability of bone cancer, or, in the bone marrow, leukemia. Ura-
nium also resides in soft tissue, including the gonads, increasing the
probability of genetic health effects, including birth defects and
spontaneous abortions. The relationship between uranium ingested
and the resultant radiation doses to the bone marrow and specific
organs . . are listed in numerous references.

The health effects are also age-specific. For the same dose, chil-
dren have a greater likelihood than adults of developing cancer."
(Uranium BattleJields Home & Abroad: Depleted Uranium Use by
the U.S. Department of Defense, Rural Alliance for Military
Accountability et al.,March 1993,pp. 47-48.)

A scientific analysis of the concrete effects of armed operations againstproductions alimentaires indispensables à la vie; comme en témoignela
destruction de routes, d'immeubles résidentiels,de maisons d'habitation
unifamiliales; comme en témoignent les hôpitaux privés d'électricité et
d'eau et, par-dessus tout, ces êtres humains quisont exposésaux bom-
bardements et qui, comme le disait si bien la requêtedans l'affaire
LaGrand (Allemagne c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique),ont un «droit à la vie
inhérent à la personne humaine)) (pacte international relatif aux droits
civilset politiques, art., dont l'importance et le caractère sacrésont des
principes bien établisdu droit international. Dans l'enfer de la violence,

ce ne sont plus là que des ((dommagescollatéraux».
En second lieu, l'arsenal qui sert aux attaques lancéescontre la You-
goslavie contient certaines armes dont les effets sont quasi illimitésdans
l'espace et dans le temps. Au cours de la procédure orale, l'agent des
Etats-Unis a nettement préciséque l'uranium appauvri est réguliérement
utilisépar l'arméedes Etats-Unis (CR 99/24, p. 17).
Il convient de laisser les scientifiques évaluerles effets de l'uranium
appauvri. Le rapport de Marvin Resnikoff, qui travaille pour Radio-
active Management Associates (NMI) dit quels sont ces effets:

«Une fois inhalées,de fines particules d'uranium peuvent se loger
dans les alvéolesdu poumon et y rester jusqu'à la fin de votre vie. La
dose inhalée est cumulative. Une certaine fraction des particules
inhalées peut êtreexpectorée puis avaléeet ingérée.Si l'intéressé
fume, il faut prendre cet élémenten considération. Comme fumer
détruitles franges ciliaires, les particules capturéesdans les passages
bronchiques du fumeur ne peuvent pas être expulsées. Gofman
estime que, chez les fumeurs, le risque dû a l'irradiation est ainsi
multipliépar dix. L'uranium émet uneparticule alpha, analogue à
un noyau d'héliumamputéde deux électrons.Les rayonnements de
ce type ne pénètrent pas très profondément, mais, une fois à l'inté-
rieur du corps, ilscausent beaucoup de dommages aux tissus. Quand
il est inhalé,l'uranium accroît les probabilités de cancer du poumon.

Quand il est ingéré,l'uranium se concentre dans les os. A l'intérieur
des os,il augmente les probabilitésde cancer des os, ou bien, dans la
moelle, les probabilités de leucémie.L'uranium réside aussidans les
tissus mous, y compris les gonades, ce qui accroît les probabilités de
conséquences génétiquess,ous forme notamment d'anomalies géné-
tiques et d'avortements spontanés. Le rapport qui existe entreI'ura-
nium ingéré etles doses d'irradiation qui en résultentpour la moelle
osseuse et certains organes..figurent dans beaucoup d'étudescitées
en référence.
Les effets de I'uranium sur la santé sont également fonction de
l'âge.Pour une même dose, l'enfantcourt de plusgrands risquesdecan-
cer que l'adulte.)) (Uranium Battlefields Home & Abroud: Depleted
Uranium Useby the U.S. Department of Defense, Rural Alliance for
Military Accountability, et al., mars 1993,p. 47-48.)

L'Office fédéralallemand de l'environnement (Umweltbundesamt) a336 LEGALlTY OF USE OF FORCE (DISSO . P.KRECA)

Yugoslavia has been presented by Umweltbundesamt (UBA). The essen-

tials of the expertise are as follows' :

(Translation by the Registry]

"The longer the war in Yugoslavia lasts, the greater the risk of
long-term damage to the environment. Such damage threatens to

extend beyond national frontiers, and it may no longer be possible
fully to make it good. The Federal Environmental Agency [Umwelt-
bundesamt (UBA)] comes to this conclusion in an interna1 paper
examining the ecological consequences of the war in Yugoslavia,
prepared for the meeting of European Environment Ministers at the

beginning of May in Weimar. Catastrophes 'like Sevesoand Sandoz'
are, in the opinion of the Agency, 'a perfectly probable damage
scenario'.

"Je langer der Krieg in Jugoslawien dauert, desto grosser wird die Gefahr von
langfristigen Schadigungen der Umwelt. Diese drohen sich über die Landesgrenzen
hinaus auszubreiten und konnen moglicherweisenicht mehr vollstandig beseitigt wer-
den. Zu dieser Einschatzung kommt das Umweltbundesamt (UBA) in einem internen
Papier, dassich mit den okologischen Auswirkungen des Krieges in Jugoslawien
befasst und für die Vorbereitung des Treffens europaischer Umweltministerfang
Mai in Weimar erstellt wurde. Katastrophen 'wie Sevesound Sandoz' sind nach
Ansicht des Amtes 'ein durchaus wahrscheinliches Schadensszenario'.
.....................................
Umweltgifte, die nach Zerstorungen von Industrieanlagen austreten, konnten sich
weiterausbreiten. 'BeiSicherstellungsofortigen Handelns, das unter Kriegsbedingun-
gen aber unmoglich ist. bleibt die Wirkung dieser Umweltschadigungen lokal
begrenzt. Langere Verzogerungen führen zu einem übertritt der Schadstoffe in die
Schutzgüter Boden,Grund- und Oberflachenwasser,erhohen das Gefahrdungspoten-
tial für den Menschen und den Sanierungsaufwand betrachtlich.'
Diese Folgen müssen nicht auf Jugoslawien beschrankt sein. Schadstoffe aus
Grossbranden konnten grenzüberschreitend verteilt werden. Weiterheisst esin dem
Papier: 'Die Einleitung der Gefahrstoffe in Oberflachenwasser kann zuritraumi-
gen Schadigung der Okosysteme führen. Die Deposition von Gefahrstoffen in Boden
kann jenach Eigenschaft der Stoffe und Boden zu langanhaltenden Versuchungen
mit weitgehenden Nutzungseinschrankungen führen.'
Die Gefahr einer 'tiefgreifenden Zerstorung wesentlicher Bestandteilevonink-
wasserversorgungssystemen'sei für mittlere und grosse Stadte sowie Ballungsgebiete
am grossten. Schon geringe Mengen vonSubstanzen der petrochemischen Industrie
konnten 'grosseGrundwasseworrate unbrauchbar machen'.
Wie gefahrlich die freigesetzten Stoffe insgesamt sind, Iasst sich nach Ansicht der
UBA-Experten nur schwer abschatzen, 'weildurch die Zerstorung ganzer Industrie-
komplexe Mischkontaminationen verschiedenster Schadstoffe gebildet werden', die
noch wenig erforscht seien. Noch komplizierter sei die Beurteilung von Umwelt-
schaden durch Brande und Explosionen. 'Hier tretenbezogen auf Schadstoffinventar
und Ausbreitung weit weniger kalkulierbare. zumTeil grossflachige Umweltschadi-
gungen ein.'
Die Verbrennungsprodukte seien 'zum Teil hoch toxisch und kanzerogen'. Jenach
klimatischen Bedingungen konne es 'zueiner grossflachigen Verteilung dieser Stoffe'
kommen, 'die einevollstandige Beseitigungnahezu unmoglich macht' ...
Die Wechselwirkungen der Produkte mit den eingesetzten Waffen dürften 'vollig
unbekannt' sein." (TAZ, DieTagcsieitung, Berlin, 20 May 1999.)présentéune analyse scientifique des effets concrets imputables aux opé-
rations arméescontre la Yougoslavie. Ce rapport d'expert dit essentielle-
ment ceci ':

(Traduction du Greffe]
«Plus la guerre en Yougoslavie dure et plus le risque de dommages

à long terme a l'environnements'aggrave. Cesdommages menacentde
s'étendre au-delàdes frontières de la Yougoslavie et peut-êtreest-il
déjàtrop tard pour qu'on puisseleséradiquer.C'est a cette conclusion
que parvient I'Officefédéral allemand deI'environnement(Umweltbun-
desamt) dans un document interne examinant les conséquencespour

I'environnementde la guerre en Yougoslavie, établien vue de la réu-
nion des ministres européensde l'environnementdébutmai à Weimar.
Des catastrophes du type de cellesde Seveso et deSandoz constituent,
selon l'office, «un scénario éminemmenp trobable ))

' «Je langer der Krieg in Jugoslawien dauert. desto grosser wird die Gefahr von
langfristigen Schadigungen der Umwelt. Diese drohen sich über die Landesgrenzen
hinaus auszubreiten und konnen moglicherweisenicht mehr vollstandig beseitigt wer-
den. Zu dieser Einschatzung kommt das Umweltbundesamt (UBA) in einem internen
Papier, das sich mit den okologischen Auswirkungen des Krieges in Jugoslawien
befasst und für die Vorbereitung des Treffens europaischer Umweltministernfang
Mai in Weimar erstellt wurde. Katastrophen 'wie Seveso und Sandoz' sind nach
Ansicht des Amtes 'eindurchaus wahrscheinliches Schadensszenario'.
.....................................
Umweltgifte, die nach Zerstorungen von Industrieanlagen austreten. konnten sich
weiter ausbreiten. 'BeiSicherstellungsofortigen Handelns, das unter Kriegsbedingun-
gen aber unmoglich ist, bleibt die Wirkung dieser Umweltschadigungen lokal
begrenzt. Langere Verzogerungen führen zu einem übertritt der Schadstoffe in die
Schutzgüter Boden, Grund- und Oberflachenwasser,erhohen das Gefahrdungspoten-
tial für den Menschen und den Sanierungsaufwand betrachtlich.'
Diese Folgen müssen nicht auf Jugoslawien beschrankt sein. Schadstoffe aus
Grossbriinden konnten grenzüberschreitend verteilt werden. Weiterheisst es in dem
Papier: 'Die Einleitungder Gefahrstoffe in Oberflachenwasser kann zur weitraumi-
kann je nach Eigenschaft der Stoffe und Boden zu langanhaltenden Versuchungenen
mit weitgehenden Nutzungseinschrankungen führen.'
Die Gefahr einer 'tiefgreifendenZerstorung wesentlicher BestandteilevonTrink-
wasserversorgungssystemen' sei für mittlere und grosse Stadte sowie Ballungsgebiete
am grossten. Schon geringe Mengen von Substanzen der petrochemischen Industrie
konnten 'grosseGrundwasservorrate unbrauchbar machen'.
Wie gefahrlich die freigesetztenStoffe insgesamt sind, lasst sich nach Ansicht der
UBA-Experten nur schwer abschatzen, 'weildurch die Zerstorung ganzer Industrie-
komplexe Mischkontaminationen verschiedenster Schadstoffe gebildet werden', die
noch wenig erforscht seien. Noch komplizierter sei die Beurteilung von Umwelt-
schaden durch Brande und Explosionen. 'Hier tretenbezogen auf Schadstoffinventar
und Ausbreitung weit weniger kalkulierbare, zum Teil grossflachige Umweltschadi-
gungen ein.'
Die Verbrennungsprodukte seien 'zumTeii hoch toxisch und kanzerogen'. Je nach
klimatischen Bedingungen konne es 'zueiner grossflachigen Verteilung dieser Stoffe'
kommen, 'die einevollstandige Beseitigungnahezu unmoglich macht' ...
Die Wechselwirkungen der Produkte mit den eingesetzten Waffen dürften 'vollig
unbekannt' sein.))(TAZ, DiuTageszeitun Berlin, 20 mai 1999.)337 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (DISS O.P. KRECA)

Environmental toxins released by the destruction of industrial
plant could spread further. 'If immediate action is taken, which is,
however, impossible under war conditions, the effect of this environ-
mental damage will remain restricted to local level. Longer delays
will result in toxic substances passing into the soil, groundwater and
surface water, and substantially increase the potential danger to
man, and the cost of cleansing operations.'

These consequences are not necessarily limited to Yugoslavia.

Harmful substances deriving from major conflagrations can be dif-
fused beyond frontiers. The paper continues: 'Passage of harmful
substances into surface water can lead to extensive damage to eco-
systems. The deposition of hazardous substances in the soil can,
depending on the nature of those substances and of the soil, result in
long-term contamination, imposing far-reaching limitations upon
utilization.'

The danger of 'extensive destruction of essential components of
drinking-water supply networks' is biggest with regard to middle-
sized and large cities and conurbations. Even small amounts of sub-
stances from the petrochemical industry can render 'extensive

groundwater reserves unusable'.

According to the Federal Environmental Agencyexperts, the over-
al1risk posed by the substances released is difficultto assess, 'because
the destruction of entire industrial complexes results in mixed con-
tamination by a wide variety of harmful substances' - an area in
which there has as yet been little research. Even more problernatic,
in the experts' view, is the assessment of environmental damage
caused by fires and explosions. 'Here, in terms of identification of
the harmful substances involved and the possibility of their diffu-
sion, environmental damage is far harder to predict, but will on
occasion be extensive.'

The substances produced by the fires are described as 'in part
highly toxic and carcinogenic'. Depending on climatic conditions,
'widespread diffusionof these substances' could occur, 'which would
render full cleansing almost impossible'.

The effects of the interaction of those substances with the
weapons employed were said to be 'completely unknown'." (TAZ,
Dic Tcrgrszritutzg,Berlin, 20 May 1999.)

Therefore, it is my profound conviction, that the Court is, in concreto,
confronted with an uncontestable case of "extreme urgency" and "irrepa-

rable harm", which perfectly coincides, and significantly transcends the LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOIDE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 337

Les substances toxiques pour I'environnement libérée àsla suite de
la destruction d'installations industrielles pourraient se propager
une plus grande distance. L'adoption de mesures immédiates -

impossible toutefois en temps de guerre - permettrait de contenir
localement ces atteintesà I'environnement. Plus le temps s'écoulera
et plus cessubstances se répandrontdans le sol, leseaux souterraines
et les eaux de surface, d'où une augmentation considérable des
risques pour l'homme et du coût des opérations de nettoyage.
Ces conséquencesne sont pas nécessairement limitées à la You-
goslavie. Les substances toxiques dégagées à la suite d'incendies
majeurs peuvent se répandre au-delà des frontières. Et l'auteur
du document d'ajouter: «La migration de substances dangereuses
dans les eaux de surface peut causer de graves dommages aux éco-

systèmes. Le dépôt de substances dangereuses dans le sol peut en-
traîner, selon la nature des substances et des sols, une contamina-
tion à long terme, faisant radicalement obstacle à l'utilisation des
sols.)
Le risque d'une ((destruction a grande échelledes éléments essen-
tiels du réseaud'approvisionnement en eau potable)) est plus lourd
pour les villesmoyennes, les grandes villeset les zones de concentra-
tion urbaine. De faibles quantités de substances émanant d'installa-
tions pétrochimiques suffisent à rendre inutilisables d'importantes
réservesd'eaux souterraines ».

Selon les experts de l'Officefédéralde I'environnement, il est très
difficile d'apprécier dans son ensemble le risque que représentent
les substances libéréesdans I'environnement, «car la destruction de
complexes industriels entiers entraîne une pollution provoquée par
un véritable cocktail de substances toxiques)), sur laquelle les
recherches n'ont guèreportéjusqu'à présent. L'évaluationdes dom-
mages causés à I'environnement par les incendies et les explosions
est encore plus délicate, estiment les experts.Il est beaucoup plus
difficile en pareil cas, du fait des problèmes liésà l'identification
des substances toxiques et au risque de les voir se répandre,de pré-

dire les dommages à I'environnement, qui seront parfois considé-
rables.
Certaines des substances libéréesdans l'atmosphère a la suite des
incendies sont qualifiéesde «très toxiques et cancérigènes)).En fonc-
tion des conditions climatiques ambiantes, ((ces substances pour-
raient diffusertrès largement)), de sorte qu'«une décontamination
complète serait quasi impossible)).
Quant a l'interaction de ces produits avec lesarmes utilisées,on en
((ignoreraittotalement» les effets.»(TAZ, Die Tageszeitung, Berlin,
numérodu 20 mai 1999.)

Je suis par conséquent profondémentconvaincu que la Cour se trouve
concrètement face a une affaire imposant incontestablement d'agir «de
toute urgence)) et où l'on court le risque d'un ((préjudiceirréparable)),substance of humanitarian standards which the Court has accepted in
previous cases.

7. 1 must admit that 1 find entirely inexplicable the Court's reluctance
to enter intoserious consideration of indicating provisional measures in a
situation such as this crying out with the need to make an attempt,
regardless of possible practical effects, to at least alleviate, if notmi-
nate, an undeniable humanitarian catastrophe. 1do not have in mind
provisional measures in concrete terms as proposed by the Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia, but provisional measures in general: be they
provisional measures proprio motu, different from those proposed by the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia or, simply, an appeal by the President
of the Court, as was issued on so many occasions in the past, in less
difficult situations, on the basis of the spirit of Article 74, paragraph 4,
of the Rules of Court.

One, unwillingly, acquires the impression that for the Court in this par-
ticular case the indication of any provisional measures whatever has been
terra prohibita. Exempli causa, the Court, in paragraph 18of the Order,
says that it:

"deems it necessary to emphasize that al1parties appearing before it
must act in conformity with their obligations under the United
Nations Charter and other rules of international law including
humanitarian law",
or, in paragraph 45 of the Order, that the Parties: "should take care not

to aggravate or extend the dispute", and it is obvious that both the above
pronouncements of the Court have been designed within the mode1 of
general, independent provisional measures.

III. JURISDICTIONIA SLUES

Jurisdiction of the Court Ratione Personae
8. The membership of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the United
Nations is in the present case one of the crucial issueswithin theurisdic-
tion of the Court rationepersonae.

The respondent State, when referring to the United Nations resolu-
tion 777 (1992) of 19September 1992and to the United Nations General
Assembly resolution 4711of 22 September 1992,also contends that "the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia cannot be considered, as it claims, to be
the continuator State of the former Socialist Federative Republic of
Yugoslavia", and that, not having duly acceded to the Organization, it is
not a Member thereof, is not a party to the Statute of the Court and can-
not appear before the Court.affaire qui répond parfaitement, quant au fond, aux normes humanitaires
que la Cour a retenues dans certains précédents; à cet égard,la présente
instance se situe même à un niveau nettement supérieur.
7. Pour êtrefranc, je dois dire que je trouve totalement inexplicable
que la Cour veuille s'abstenir d'étudiersérieusementla possibilitéd'indi-
quer des mesures conservatoires alors que la situation impose de façon
aussi criante de tenterà tout le moins, indépendamment des effets pra-
tiques éventuelsde la tentative, d'atténuer, sinon de supprimer, un dan-
ger incontestable de catastrophe humanitaire. Je n'envisage pas ici des
mesures conservatoires qui prendraient concrètement la forme proposée
par la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie,j'envisage des mesuresconser-
vatoires en général:la Cour peut proposer d'office d'autres mesures

conservatoires que celles qui sont proposéespar la République fédérale
de Yougoslavie, ou elle peut se contenter d'un appel lancé par le pré-
sident, comme elle l'a faitsi souventéjà,dans des situations moins diffi-
ciles, en s'inspirant de l'article 74, paragraphe 4, de son Règlement,
Sans le vouloir, on a ici l'impression que, pour la Cour en l'espèce,
l'indication de mesures conservatoires, sous quelque forme que ce soit, lui
a sembléinterdite. Par exemple, au paragraphe 18 de l'ordonnance, la
Cour :

((estime nécessairede souligner que toutes les parties qui se pré-
sentent devant elle doivent agir conformément à leurs obligations
en vertu de la Charte des Nations Unies et des autres règles du
droit international, y compris du droit humanitaire)),
ou bien elle dit, au paragraphe 45, que les Parties: ((doivent veilàene
pas aggraver ni étendre le différend)),et il est manifeste que, dans les
deux cas, la Cour s'est inspiréed'un type de mesures conservatoires de
caractère généralet indépendant.

III. LESQUESTIONS DE COMPÉTENCE

Lu compétencede la Cour ratione personae

8. La qualité d'Etat Membre des Nations Unies de la République
fédéralede Yougoslavie est, dans la présente instance, l'une des ques-
tions cruciales qui se posent pour la compétence de la Cour rutione per-
sonue.
L'Etat défendeur, invoquant la résolution 777 (1992) [du Conseil de
sécurité] endate du 19 septembre 1992 ainsi que la résolution 4711de
l'Assemblée générale deN sations Unies en date du 22 septembre 1992,

soutient que la République fédéralede Yougoslavie ne peut pas être
considérée,contrairement à ce qu'elle prétend, comme 1'Etat successeur
de l'ancienne République fédérativesocialiste de Yougoslavie et que,
n'ayant pas dûment adhéré à l'organisation, elle n'en est pas Etat
Membre, n'est pas partie au Statut de la Cour et ne peut pas compa-
raître devant celle-ci. It is worth noting that the respondent State did not invoke this argu-
ment with respect to the Genocide Convention as another basis of juris-
diction invoked by the Applicant, although the connection between the
legal identity and continuity of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia with
the status of the Contracting Party of the Genocide Convention is obvi-
ous (see para. 12,below). One can guess the reasons for the State to take
such a position.
Sedes materiue the question of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's
membership in the United Nations can be reduced to a couple of
qualifications:

8.1. General Assembly resolution 4711 ,vas adopted for pragmatic,

political purposes

The adoption of that resolution cannot, in my opinion, be divorced
from the main political Stream taking place in international institutions
during the armed conflict in the former Yugoslavia. It appears that as a
political body the General Assembly of the United Nations, as well as the
Security Council which recommended that the Assembly adopt resolu-
tion 4711,perceived such a resolution as one of political means to achieve
the desirable solution to the relevant issues in thecrisis unfolding in the
former Yugoslavia.
Such a conclusion relies on the fact that in adopting resolution 4711,
the General Assembly basically followed the opinions of the so-called
Badinter Commission engaged as an advisory body in the work of the
Conference on Yugoslavia with the aim of finding a peaceful solution to
the relevant issues. In its Opinions No. 1 and No. 8, the Commission
elaborates the point on territorial changes in the former Yugoslavia
which has, in its opinion, resulted in the emergence of six equal, inde-
pendent State entities corresponding in territory to the Republics as the
constituent parts of the Yugoslav Federation. In its Opinion No. 9 the

Commission proceeds from the point of finalization of the "process of
break up of SFRY" and elaborates on the effects of the alleged break up
from the standpoint of succession ofStates. In that context, it, inter ulia,
established
"the need to terminate SFRY's membership status in international
organizations in keeping with their statutes and that not a singlesuc-
cessor state may claim for itself the rights enjoyed until then by the
former SFRY as its member state" (The Peace Conference on Yugo-

slavia, Arbitration Commission, Opinion No. 9,para. 4).

Introducing draft resolution 47lL.1, Sir David Hannay (United King-
dom) said, inter dia,

"the fact that the Council is ready to consider the matter again II y a lieu de noter que 1'Etatdéfendeur n'apas invoquéle mêmeargu-
ment au sujet de la convention sur le génocidequi est pour le demandeur
une autre base de compétence,alors qu'il y a manifestement un lien entre
l'identité etla continuité, sur le plan juridique, de la République fédérale
de Yougoslavie, d'une part, et, de l'autre, son statut de partie contrac-
tante à la convention sur le génocide(voir paragraphe 12 ci-après). On
peut deviner les raisons qui expliquent cette attitude detatdemandeur.
Sedes muteriae, la question de la qualitéd'Etat Membre de l'Organisa-
tion des Nations Unies dont jouit ou non la Républiquefédérale de You-
goslavie peut se ramener à deux éléments.

8.1. La résolution 4711 de l'Assembléegénérale uétéudoptée à des
$ns pragmatiques et politiques

11est impossible à mon avis de dissocier l'adoption de cette résolution
du grand courant politique qui animait les organisations internationales
lors du conflit arméqui a éclatédans l'ex-Yougoslavie. Entant qu'organe
politique, l'Assembléegénérale des Nations Unies, de mêmeque leConseil
de sécuritéqui a recommandéque l'Assembléeadopte la résolution4711,
a, semble-t-il, conçu cette résolutioncomme un moyen politique de par-

venir à résoudrela crise sous ses différents aspects.

J'en donnerai pour preuve qu'en adoptant la résolution 4711,I'Assem-
bléegénéralea essentiellement suivi les avisde ce qu'on a appeléla com-
mission Badinter, laquelle a servi d'organe consultatif pendant les tra-
vaux de la conférencesur la Yougoslavie et étaitchargéede trouver une
solution pacifique aux différents problèmes.Dans ses avis no 1 et n" 8,
la commission développe la question des transformations territoriales
dans l'ex-Yougoslavie, lesquellesaboutissent à l'apparition de six entités
étatiques égaleset indépendantes correspondant du point de vue terri-
torial aux républiques qui étaient desélémentsconstitutifs de la Fédé-
ration yougoslave. Dans son avis no 9, la commission part de cette désin-
tégration définitive de l'ancienne République fédérativesocialiste de
Yougoslavie et dit en détail quelseffets il faut en attendre du point de
vue de la succession d'Etats. Elle dit notamment à ce sujet que:

«il faut mettre fin à la qualité d'Etat membre de la République
fédérativesocialiste de Yougoslavie dans les organisations interna-
tionales, conformément au statut de ces dernières, et qu'aucun Etat
successeur ne pourra se prévaloir desdroits qu'exerçait jusqu'alors
l'ex-République fédérativseocialiste de Yougoslavie en cette qualité

d'Etat membre)) (conférencede la paix sur la Yougoslavie, commis-
sion arbitrale, avis no, par. 4).
En préseiltantle projet de résolution47lL.1, sir David Hannay (repré-
sentant du Royaume-Uni) a notamment trouvé

((significatifle fait que le Conseil aitvoir la question a nouveau within the next three months is significant. The tragic situation in the
former Yugoslavia is a matter of the highest concern to al1members
of the international community. The International Conference on
the Former Yugoslavia, which opened in London on 26 August and
which now meets in Geneva, brings together the efforts of the
United Nations and the European Community. We must do every-
thing in ourpoiuer to encouragetheparties, wirhthe assistanceof the
Conference Co-Chairman, to settle their differences at the negotiat-
ing table, no?on the battlefield. That the Councilhas decided to con-
sider the matter again before the end of the year ~ill, we trust, be
helpful incentive to al1theparties concerned,as an effective means of
supporting the Co-Chairman of the Conference on Yugoslavia in
their heavy task."(United Nations doc. Al47IPv.7, p. 161 ;emphasis
added).

8.2. From a legalaspect, resolution 4711 is inconsistent and contra-
dictory

The operative part of resolution 4711reads as follows:
"The GeneralAssembly,

1. Considers the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and
Montenegro) cannot automatically continue the membership of
the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the United
Nations; and, therefore, decides that the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia should apply for membership in the United Nations and shall
not participate in the work of the General Assembly."

The main elements of the solution in General Assembly resolution 4711
are the following:
The opinion that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia cannot automati-
cally continue the membership of the SFRY in the United Nations. The
stand of the main political bodies of the United Nations (the Security

Council and the General Assembly) was formulated in terms of an "opin-
ion"; namely, such a conclusion clearly stems from the fact that the rele-
vant part of General Assembly resolution 4711 begins with the words
"considers". It is significant to note that the General Assembly'sopinion
does not conform fully with the meaning of the Opinions Nos. 1,8 and 9
of the so-called Badinter Arbitration Commission. Namely, in its Opin-
ions 1 and 8 the Commission elaborates the point on the break up of
SFRY which has, in its opinion, resulted in the emergence of six equal,
independent State entities corresponding in territory to the Republics as
the constituent parts of the Yugoslav Federation. Resolution 4711 pro-
ceeds from a more moderate starting point. It apparently does not termi-
nate the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's membership in the Organi- LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 340

dans les trois moisà venir. La situation tragique dans I7ex-Yougo-
slavie est une source de profonde inquiétudepour tous les membres
de la communauté internationale. La conférenceinternationale sur
l'ancienne Yougoslavie qui s'est ouverteà Londres le 26 août et qui

se réunit actuellement à Genève conjugue les efforts de l'ONU et
ceux de la Communauté européenne. Nous ne devons rien négliger
pour encourager lesparties, avec l'aidedes coprésidentsde la confé-
rence,à régler leursdiffërends à la table de négociation, etnon pas
sur le champ de bataille. Lefait que le Conseil a décidé dréexami-
ner la question avant lain de l'année sera, nousen sommes certains,
un moyen d'encourager toutes les parties intéresséeset d'appuyer
efjcacement les coprésidentsde la conférencesur la Yougoslavie
duns leur tâche d$$cile.» (Nations Unies, doc. A147lPV.7,p. 142-
143; les italiques sont de moi.)

8.2. Du point de vue juridique, lu résolution 4711 est illogique et
contradictoire

Le dispositif de la résolution4711se lit comme suit:

«L'Assembléegénérale,
1. Considéreque la République fédérative de Yougoslavie (Serbie
et Monténégro)ne peut pas assumer automatiquement la qualité de
Membre de l'organisation des Nations Unies àla place de l'ancienne
République fédérativesocialiste de Yougoslavie et, par conséquent,
décideque la République fédérative de Yougoslavie (Serbie et Mon-
ténégro)devrait présenter une demande d'admission à I'Organisa-
tion et qu'elle ne participera pas aux travaux de l'Assembléegéné-

rale.)
Lesprincipaux élémentsde la solution préconiséepar la résolution4711
de l'Assemblée généralse ont les suivants:

Il est d'abord énoncéun avis, qui est que la République fédéralede
Yougoslavie ne peut pas assumer automatiquement la qualitéde Membre
de l'organisation des Nations Unies à la place de la Républiquefédéra-
tive socialiste de Yougoslavie. La position des principaux organes poli-
tiques des Nations Unies (leConseil de sécuritet l'Assembléegénérale) est
définiesous la forme d'un «avis»; c'estla conclusion qui s'impose quand

on constate que l'extrait pertinent de la résolution4711commence par le
mot «considère». Mais il convient de relever que cet avis de l'Assemblée
généralene correspond pas parfaitement à ce qu'il faut déduiredes avis
no", 8 et 9 de la commission arbitrale dite commission Badinter. Dans
ses avisnos 1et 8, la commission tire les conclusions de la désintégration
de la République fédérativesocialiste de Yougoslavie qui aboutit, pour
elle.à produire six entitésétatiques indépendanteset égalesdont le terri-
toire est celui des républiquesqui étaientauparavant des éléments cons-
titutifs de la Fédérationyougoslave. La résolution4711prend un départzation. It simply establishes that "the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
cannot automatically continue the membership . ..in the United Nations
Organization" (emphasis added). A contrario, this means that the Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia's membership in the Organization can be
continued but not automatically. True, the resolution does not elaborate
how that can be achieved but, if we interpret it systematically and
together with Security Council resolutions 757 and 777, we will come to
the conclusion that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's membership in

the Organization can be continued in case such a request is "generally
accepted". That the legal meaning of the resolution does not imply the
termination of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's membership in the
Organization is also clear from the letter of the Under-Secretary-General
and Legal Counsel of the United Nations addressed on 29 September
1992to the Permanent Representatives to the United Nations of Bosnia
and Herzegovina and Croatia in which he stated, inrer aliu,

"the resolution does not terminate nor suspends Yugoslavia's mem-
bership in the Organization. Consequently, the seat and the name-
plate remain as before . . .Yugoslav mission at United Nations
Headquarters and officesmay continue to function and may receive
and circulate documents. At Headquarters, the Secretariat will con-
tinue to fly the flag of the old Yugoslavia."

8.3. A ban on participution in the Organization's work

That the relevant part of the resolution refers to a ban is borne out by
the use of the imperative wording ("shall not participate"). This ban is,
ratione materiae, limited along two different lines:

(a) it refers to the direct participation in the General Assembly. Indirect
participation in the work of the General Assembly is not excluded.
Elements of indirect participation are implied given that the Mission
of the Federal Re~ublic of Yugos"avia to the United Nations con-
tinues to operate and, in particular, "may receive and circulate
documents". It follows from the Under-Secretary-General's inter-
pretation that the term "General Assembly" has been used in the
resolution in its generic sense, considering that it also includes the
auxiliary bodies of the General Assembly and conferences and meet-
ings convened by the Assembly ;
the ban does not apply to participation in the deliberations of other
bodies in the United Nations Organization. LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 341

plus modéré; apparemment,elle ne met pas fin à la qualitéde Membre de
l'organisation des Nations Unies de la République fédéralede Yougo-
slavie. Elle dit simplement quela Républiquefédérativede Yougoslavie

ne peut pas assumer automatiquement lu qualité de Membre de
l'organisation...»(lesitaliques sont de moi). A contruvio,cela signifieque
la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie peut encore assumer la qualitéde
Membre de l'organisation, mais non pas automatiquement. Certes, la
résolutionn'expose pas en détail comment cela peut êtreréalisé, mais,si
nous l'interprétons systématiquement,en lui associant les résolutions57
et 777 du Conseil de sécurité,nous aboutissons à la conclusion que la
République fédéralede Yougoslavie peut encore assumer la qualité de
Membre de l'organisation à condition que la demande présentéea cette
fin soit ((généralement acceptée)). Quela résolution ne met donc pas
implicitement fin, sur le plan juridique,a qualitéde Membre de I'Orga-
nisation de la République fédéralede Yougoslavie apparaît aussi claire-

ment dans la lettre que le Secrétairegénéraladjoint et conseillerjuridique
des Nations Unies a adresséele 29 septembre 1992aux représentantsper-
manents de la Bosnie-Herzégovine etde la Croatie auprès des Nations
Unies, lettre dans laquelle il déclarait notamment ceci:
«la résolution ne met pas fin à l'appartenance de la Yougoslavie
a l'organisation et ne la suspend pas. En conséquence,le siègeet la

plaque portant le nom de la Yougoslavie subsistent...La mission de
la Yougoslavie auprès du Siègede l'organisation des Nations Unies
ainsi que les bureaux occupéspar celle-ci peuvent poursuivre leurs
activités,ils peuvent recevoir et distribuer des documents. Au Siège,
le Secrétariat continuera de hisser le drapeau de l'ancienne Yougo-
slavie.

8.3. La participalion aux travaux de l'Organisationest interdite

Il est clair que l'extrait pertinent de la résolution corresponda une

interdiction, car la forme verbale utilisée estune forme impérative(«ne
participera pas))). Mais cette interdiction est limitéeratione materiuà,
deux points de vue:
a) l'interdiction vise la participation directe aux travaux de l'Assemblée
générale, mais n'exclutpas une participation indirecte. Cette partici-
pation indirecte est évoquéeimplicitement par le fait que la mission

de la Républiquefédérativede Yougoslavie auprès des Nations Unies
peut continuer ses activités et enparticulier,eut recevoir et distri-
buer des documents)). Le Secrétaire généraa ldjoint a donc utilisé
dans la résolution l'expression ((Assembléegénérale))au sens géné-
rique, qui s'étendaux organes auxiliaires de l'Assemblée générale
ainsi qu'aux conférenceset réunionsorganiséespar l'Assemblée;

b) l'interdiction ne vise pas la participation aux débats d'autres organes
de l'organisation des Nations Unies. 8.4. The decision that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia should
applyfor membership

This part of resolution 4711 is legally ambiguous and contradictory
both in form and in substance.
From the forma1point of view, the "decision" that the Federal Repub-
lic of Yugoslavia should apply for membership in the Organization pro-
ceeds from the irrefutable assumption that the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia wishes to have the statusof a member even if it may not con-
tinue the membership in the Organization. Such an assumption is illogi-

cal, although it may prove correct in fact. Membership in the Organiza-
tion is voluntary and therefore no State is under obligation to seek
admission. The relevant wording in the resolution has not been correctly
drafted from a legal and technical point of view for it has a connotation
of such an irrefutableassumption. A correct wording would have to state
a reservation which would make such a decision conditional upon Yugo-
slavia'sexplicitly expressed ivishto become a member in case it is irrevo-
cably disallowed from continuing its membership in the Organization.

From the actual point of view, it is unclear why the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia should submit an application for membership if "the reso-
lution does not terminate . . Yugoslavia's membership in the Organiza-
tion". An application for admission to membership is, ex definitione,
made if a non-member State wishes to join the Organization. What could
in terms of concrete relations be the outcome of a procedure initiated by
Yugoslavia by way of application for membership? If the outcome of the
procedure were admission to membership, such a decision by the General
Assembly would be superfluous from the point of view of logic, given
that resolution 4711has not terminated Yugoslavia's membership in the

Organization. Presumably, the authors of resolution 4711have another
outcome in mind. Maybe to confirm orto strengthen Yugoslavia's mem-
bership in the Organization by such a procedure. This could be guessed
from the wording in the resolution which says that "the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia cannot automatically continue the membership". This
term or phrase literally means that the idea behind the procedure would
be to re-assert or strengthen the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's mem-
bership in the Organization but, confirmation of membership could
hardly have any legal meaning in this particular case - for a State is
either a member or not. It appears that the meaning of such an act could
be only non-legal; namely, political. Finally, the resolution advises the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to apply for admission to membership.
The logical question arises: why would a State whose membership in the
Organization has, in that very same Organization's view, not been termi-
nated, submit a request for the establishment of something that is in the
nature of an indisputable fact? LICÉITÉDE L'EMPLOIDE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 342

8.4. Il est décidéque la République fédéralede Yougoslavie devrait
présenter unedemande d'admission à l'Organisation

Cette partie de la résolution4711est ambiguë du point de vuejuridique
et contradictoire dans la forme comme au fond.
Du simple point de vue formel, «décider» que la Républiquefédérale

de Yougoslavie doit présenterune demande d'admission à l'organisation
procède d'une hypothèse irréfutable,qui est que la République fédérale
tient a avoir la qualité de Membre de I'Organisation mêmesi elle n'est
peut-êtrepas autorisée à rester Membre de l'organisation. Cette hypo-
thèse est illogique, mêmesi elle se vérifiedans les faits. C'est volontaire-
ment que ses Membres adhèrent à I'Organisation, et par conséquent
aucun Etat n'est tenu de demander son admission. A cet égard, par
conséquent, le libelléde la résolution n'est pas correct du point de vue
juridique ni du point de vue technique, parce qu'il évoque cette hypothèse
qui serait irréfutable. eut étéplus juste d'énoncerune réservequi aurait
subordonné la décision à la volontéexpresse de la Yougoslavie faisant
savoir qu'elle voulait devenir Membre de I'Organisation au cas où cette
qualité luiaurait étéretiréede façon irrévocable.
D'un point de vue concret, on ne voit pas bien pourquoi la République
fédéralede Yougoslavie devrait présenter une demande d'admission si

«la résolutionne met pas finà l'appartenancede la Yougoslavie à l'Orga-
nisation..»Unedemande d'admission, par définition, est présentéq euand
un Etat non membre veut entrer à l'organisation. Sur le plan des rela-
tions concrètes, quelle serait l'issuede la procédure qu'engagerait la You-
goslavie en présentant une demande d'admission? Si la procédure doit
aboutir a conférerla qualitéde Membre, il serait en bonne logique super-
flu que l'Assemblée généralp erenne cette décision, puisque la résolu-
tion 4711n'a pas mis fin, pour la Yougoslavie, à sa qualité de Membre
de I'Organisation. On peut présumerque les auteurs de la résolution4711
envisageaient donc une autre issue. Ils voulaient peut-êtreconfirmer ou
renforcer au moyen de cette procédure la qualité de Membre de l'Orga-
nisation qu'avait la Yougoslavie. C'estce que laissedeviner l'énoncde la
résolution quand celle-ci dit:((la République fédérativede Yougoslavie
...ne peut pas assumer automatiquement la qualitéde Membre de I'Orga-

nisation ...àla place...)) Cette formule signifielittéralement que la pro-
cédure viserait à réaffirmer ou renforcer, pour la République fédérale
de Yougoslavie, sa qualitéde Membre de l'organisation, mais la confir-
mation de la qualité de Membre n'aurait guèrede sens juridique dans ce
cas de figure particulier, car un Etat est Membre ou il ne l'est pas. La
signification de l'acte en question ne peut êtreque non juridique; c'est-
à-dire qu'elle serait politique. En dernier lieu, la résolution conseille
Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie de présenterune demande d'admis-
sion à l'Organisation et il faut alors, logiquement, se poser la question
suivante: pourquoi un Etat à l'égardduquel l'organisation elle-même
n'estime pas avoir mis fin à sa qualité de Membre présenterait-il une
demande dont l'objet lui est déjàincontestablement acquis? Finally, due regard should be paid to the concluding paragraph of
resolution 4711which says that the General Assembly takes note "of the
Security Council's intention to review the matter before the end of the
main part of the 47th Session of the General Assembly". A statement like
this is unnecessary if it was the intention of theuthors of the resolution
to bring, by its adoption, to an end the debate on the continuity of the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's membership in the Organization. It
seems to suggest that the idea behind resolution 4711was to maintain the
Pace of updating the Organization's political approach to the Yugoslav
crisis in the framework of which even the question of the Federal Repub-
lic of Yugoslavia's membership in the Organization carries, in the latter's
opinion, a certain specific weight. The question of the Federal Republic

of Yugoslavia's membership in the United Nations Organization is a for-
mal one and was opened by Security Council resolution 757 of 30 May
1992, which in its operative part has set into motion the mechanism of
measures stipulated in Chapter VI1of the United Nations Charter relying
on the assessment that "the situation in Bosnia-Herzegovina and in other
parts of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia poses a
threat to peace and security".

It is not difficult to agree with Professor Higgins (as shen was) that,
judged from the legal point of view, the consequence arising out of reso-
lution 4711"is abnormal to absurdity" (Rosalyn Higgins, "The United
Nations and the Former Yugoslavia", International Affairh Vol. 69,
p. 479).

8.5 The practice of the Organization rrlating to the issues raisedby
the content of resolution 4711

A couple of relevant facts regarding the practice of the Organization
concerning membership of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia raise the
question of whether the Organization acted contrafactum proprium if:

(a) resolution 4711 was adopted at the 47th Session of the General
Assembly. The delegation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
took an active part as a full member in the proceedings of the 46th
Session, and the Credentials Committee unanimously recommended
approval of the credentials of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(United Nations doc. Al461563,dated 11October 1991).In the light
of the fact that Croatia and Slovenia had seceded from Yugoslavia
on the eve of that Session, the Organization's attitude to the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia's participation in the 46th Session means
that the Organization accepted the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
as a territorially diminished predecessor State according to LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS. KRECA) 343

En dernier lieu, il faut tenir dûment compte aussi du dernier para-
graphe de la résolution 4711, aux termes duquel l'Assembléegénérale
prend acte «de l'intention du Conseil de sécuritéde reconsidérerla ques-
tion avant la fin de la partie principale de la quarante-septième session de
l'Assembléegénérale))U . ne telle déclarationest inutile si les auteurs de

résolution avaient l'intentionde mettre fin, au moyen de son adoption, au
débat sur la continuité de la qualité d'Etat Membre des Nations Unies
de la République fédérativede Yougoslavie. Cette déclaration donne,
semble-t-il,à entendre que la résolution4711a en fait pour objet, au sein
de l'organisation, de préserverla dynamique du débatpolitique qui per-
met de faire régulièrementle point de la crise yougoslave et, dans le cadre
de ce débat,cette question de la qualitéde Membre de l'organisation de la
République fédéralede Yougoslavie va elle-même jusqu'à acquérir, aux
yeux de l'organisation, un certain poids. Cette question a un caractère
formel et elle se pose officiellement depuis l'adoption par le Conseil de
sécuritéde sa résolution 757 du 30 mai 1992,qui met en branle dans son
dispositif le mécanismede mesures prévuesau chapitre VI1de la Charte
des Nations Unies après avoir constaté que ((la situation en Bosnie-Her-
zégovineet dans d'autres parties de l'ex-République fédérativs eocialiste
de Yougoslavie constitue une menace pour la paix et la sécurité...))

11n'est donc pas difficile d'adhérerau jugement de MmeHiggins qui
était encore professeur quand elle disait que, du point de vue juridique,
cette résolution4711produit un effet ((anormal au point d'êtreabsurde))
(Rosalyn Higgins, «The United Nations and the Former Yugoslavia)),
Iiiternutionul Affairs, vol. 69, p. 479).

8.5. La pratique de l'Organisation en ce qui concerne les questions
que soulèvelu teneur de la résolution4711

Un petit nombre de faits pertinents intéressant la pratique suivie par
l'organisation au sujet de la qualité d7Etat Membre de la République
fédéralede Yougoslavie soulèvent la question de savoir si celle-ci a agi
contrafacturn propriurn du moment que:

u) la résolution 4711 a été adoptée à la quarante-septième session de
l'Assembléegénérale.La délégationde la République fédéralede
Yougoslavie a participé activement, en qualité d'Etat Membre a part
entière,aux travaux de la quarante-sixième session, et la commission
de vérification despouvoirs a recommandé à l'unanimitéd'approuver
lespouvoirs de la République fédérald ee Yougoslavie (Nations Unies,
doc. Al461563en date du 11octobre 1991).Comme la Croatie et la
Slovénieont fait sécessionet ont quitté la Fédération a la veille de
ladite session, l'attitude adoptée par l'organisationà l'égardde la
participation de la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie aux travaux
de la quarante-sixième session signifieque l'organisation acceptait la
République fédéralede Yougoslavie comme un Etat prédécesseur
amputéd'une partie de son territoire, conformément a des "criteria laid down in the wake in the partitioning of India in 1947
and consistently applied ever since - criteria that by and large
have served the United Nations and the international community
well over the past decades" (Yehuda Z. Blum, "UN Membership
of the 'New'Yugoslavia: Continuity or Break?", American Jour-
nal of International Law (1992), Vol. 86, p. 833);

(b) the delegation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia also took part
in the47th Session of the General Assembly which adopted the reso-
lution contesting the right of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to
continue automatically membership in the Organization. Not one
delegation made any objection to the delegation of Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia taking the seat of SFRY in the General Assembly. It
follows from that that the delegations had "at least tacitly accepted
the right of the 'Belgradeauthorities' to request Yugoslavia'sseat -
the seat of one of the founding members of the United Nations"
(ibid., p. 830);

(c) during al1 the time since the General Assembly passed resolution

4711,the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has continued to pay its
financial contributions to the Organization (see Annexes to CR 991
25). Yugoslavia is mentioned as a Member State in the document
entitled "Status of contributions to the United Nations regular
budget as at 30 November 1998" published by the United Nations
Secretariat in its document STIADMISER.BI533 of 8 December
1998. In the letter addressed to Vladislav JovanoviE, Chargé
d'Affaires of the Permanent Mission of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia to the United Nations, the competent authorities of the
Organization cited Article 19 of the United Nations Charter and
accompanied the citation with the formulation:

"in order for your Government not to fa11under the provisions of
Article 19 of the Charter during any meetings of the General
Assembly to be held in 1998, it would be necessary that a mini-

mum payment of $11,776,400 be received by the Organization to
bring such arrears to an amount below that specified under the
terms of Article 19" (ibid.);

(d) in the practice of the United Nations Secretary-General as the
depositary of multilateral treaties, Yugoslavia figures as a party to
the multilateral treaties deposited with the Secretary-General as an
original party. The date when the SFRY expressed its consent to be
bound is mentioned as a day on which Yugoslavia is bound by that
specificinstrument. Exampli causainthe "multilateral treaties depos-
ited with the Secretary-General" for 1992,and in the list of "partici-
pants" of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the LICÉITE DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 344

((critèresdéfinià la suite de la partition de l'Inde en 1947et régu-
lièrement appliqués depuis - des critères qui, dans l'ensemble,
ont étéfort utiles aux Nations Unies età la communauté interna-
tionale au cours des dernières décennies))(Yehuda Z. Blum, «UN
Membership of the «New » Yugoslavia :Continuity or Break?)),
American Journal of Internutional Law (1992), vol. 86, p. 833);

b) la délégationde la République fédéralede Yougoslavie a également
pris part aux travaux de la quarante-septième session de l'Assemblée
généralequi a adopté la résolutioncontestant à la République fédé-
rale de Yougoslavie le droit d'assumer automatiquement la qualité de
Membrede l'organisation à la place de l'ancienne Républiquefédéra-
tive socialiste de Yougoslavie. Pas une seule délégation n'aémisd'ob-
jection au fait que la Républiquefédérativede Yougoslavie occupe, a
l'Assemblée générallee, siègede la Républiquefédérativesocialiste de
Yougoslavie. 11faut en déduireque les délégationsont ((tacitement
du moins acceptéque les ((autoritésde Belgrade)) aient le droit de
demander à occuper le siègede la Yougoslavie - le siègede l'un des
Membres originaires des Nations Unies)) (ibid., p. 830);

c) pendant tout le temps qui s'est écoulé depuisl'adoption de la résolu-
tion 4711 par l'Assembléegénérale,la République fédéralede You-
goslavie a continué de payer sa contribution financièreà l'organisa-
tion (voir les annexes auCR99125). La Yougoslavie est citéeparmi
les Etats Membres dans le document intitulé «Etat des contributions
verséesau 30 novembre 1998))publiépar le Secrétariat desNations
Unies dans le document portant la cote STlADMlSER.Bl533 datédu
8 décembre 1998. Dans la lettre adressée à Vladislav Jovanovik,
chargéd'affaires de la mission permanente de la République fédérale
de Yougoslavie auprès des Nations Unies, les autorités compétentes
de l'organisation citaient l'article 19de la Charte des Nations Unies
et accompagnaient la citation de la formule ci-après:

«pour que votre gouvernement ne tombe pas sous le coup des dis-
positions de l'article 19de la Charte pendant l'une quelconque des
réunions de l'Assembléegénéralequi se tiendront en 1998,il fau-
drait verserà l'organisation un montant minimum de 11776400
dollars des Etats-Unis pour ramener les arriérés enquestion à un
montant inférieurau montant prévu à l'article »9(ibid.) ;

d) dans la pratique suivie par le Secrétairegénéral desNations Unies en
qualité de dépositaire des traités multilatéraux,la Yougoslavie est
citéecomme Etat Membre originaire partie aux traités multilatéraux

déposés auprèsdu SecrétairegénéralL . a dateà laquelle la République
fédérativesocialistede Yougoslavie a expriméson consentement a être
liéeest indiquée commela date à laquelle la Yougoslavie est effecti-
vement liéepar l'instrument considéré.Par exemple, si l'on considère
l'état des«traitésmultilatérauxdéposésauprèsdu Secrétairegénéral)) Crime of Genocide, Yugoslavia is included and 29 August 1950 is
mentioned as the date of the acceptance of the obligation - the date
on which SFRY ratified that Convention. Such a mode1is applied,
mutatis mutandis, to other multilateral conventions deposited with
the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

On the basis of existing practice, the "Summary of practice of the
Secretary-General as depositary of multilateral treaties" concludes:

"[tlhe independence of the new successor State, which then exercises
its sovereignty on its territory, is of course without effect as concerns
the treaty rights and obligations of the predecessor State as concerns
its own (remaining) territory. Thus, after the separation of parts of
the territory of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (which
became independent States), the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(as the Russian Federation) continued to exist as a predecessor
State, and al1its treaty rights and obligations continued in force in
respect of its territory. The same applies to the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), which remains as the pre-
decessor State upon separation of parts of the territory of the former
Yugoslavia. General Assembly resolution 4711of 22 September 1992,
to the effect that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia could not auto-
matically continue the membership of the former Yugoslavia in the
United Nations ...was adopted within the framework of the United
Nations and the context of the Charter of the United Nations, and

not as an indication that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was
not to be considered a predecessor State." (STILEG.8, p. 89,
para. 297.)
On 9 April 1996,on the basis of protest raised by a few Members of the
United Nations, the Legal Counsel of the United Nations issued under

"Errata" (doc. LLA41TRl220) which, inter alia, deleted the qualification
of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a predecessor State contained
in paragraph 297 of the "Summary". In my view, such a deletion is
devoid of any legal relevance since a "Summary" by itself does not have
the value of an autonomous document, a document which determines or
constitutes something. It is just the condensed expression, the external
lapidary assertion of a fact which exists outside it and independently
from it. In that sense, the Introduction to the "Summary of the practice
of the Secretary-General as the depositary of multilateral treaties" says,
inter alia, that "the purpose of the present summary is to highlight the
main features of the pracrice,folloit,edby the Secretary-General in this
field" (p. 1, emphasis added) but not to constitute the practice itself. LICÉITE DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.DISS. KRECA) 345

pour 1992, il y figure la liste des ((partiesà)la Convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide, la Yougoslavie
figure sur cette liste et le 29 août 1950 est la date qui est indiquée
comme étant celle de l'acceptation de l'obligation correspondante,
c'est-à-dire la date a laquelle la République fédérative socialiste de
Yougoslavie a ratifiéla convention. Ce modéles'applique, tnututis
mutundis, aux autres conventions multilatérales déposéesauprès du
Secrétairegénéral desNations Unies.

Compte tenu de la pratique existante, on trouve dans le ((précisde la
pratique du Secrétaire générae ln tant que dépositaire de traités multi-
latéraux))la conclusion ci-après :

«[l']indépendancedu nouvel Etat successeur, qui exerce désormaisla
souveraineté sur son territoire, est naturellement sans effet sur les
droits et obligations d'origine conventionnelle de'Etatprédécesseur
se rapportant a ce qui lui reste de son territoire. Ainsi, aprèsla sépa-
ration de parties du territoire de'Union des républiquessocialistes
soviétiques(qui ont acquis le statut d'Etats indépendants), la Fédé-
ration de Russie a conservétous les droits et obligations d'origine
conventionnelle de 1'Etat prédécesseur.Il en va de mêmepour la

République fédérativede Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténégro),qui
reste1'Etat prédécesseuraprès la sécessionde certaines parties du
territoire de l'ancienne Yougoslavie. La résolution4711de I'Assem-
bléegénérale endate du 22 septembre 1992,aux termes de laquelle la
Républiquefédérativede Yougoslavie ne peut pas assumer automa-
tiquement la qualitéde Membre de l'organisation des Nations Unies
à la place de l'ancienne Yougoslavie, a étéadoptéedans le cadre des
Nations Unies et celui de la Charte des Nations Unies. et non Das
pour signaler que la Républiquefédérativede ~ougoslavie ne de&
pas êtreconsidéréecomme un Etat prédécesseur.)) (STILEG.8, p. 89,
par. 297.)

Le 9 avril 1996, a la suite de protestations émanant d'un petit nombre
d'Etats Membres des Nations Unies, le conseiller juridique des Nations
Unies a publiédes «errata» (doc. LLA41TRl220) consistant notamment
à supprimer, au paragraphe 297 dudit {(précis))l,e qualificatif d'Etat suc-
cesseur accordé à la République fédéralede Yougoslavie. A mon sens,
cette suppression ne revêtaucun intérêt juridique puisqu'un ((précis))n'a
pas en soi la valeur d'un document autonome, d'un document qui établit
ou constituequelque chose. 11s'agit simplement de l'expression ramassée,

de l'affirmation lapidaire par un observateur extérieurd'un fait qui existe
eridehors du résuméet tout à fait indépendamment de lui. En ce sens, il
est dit, dans l'introduction au(précis))de la pratique du Secrétairegéné-
ral en tant que dépositairede traitésultilatéraux)~que «le présentdocu-
ment a pour objet d'exposer dans ses grandes lignes la pratique suivie en
la matière par le Secrétairegénéral))(p. I;les italiques sont de moi) mais
il n'a pas pour objet de constituer la pratique elle-même. 9. As regards the membership of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
of the United Nations, the Court takes the position that

"Whereas, in view of its finding in paragraph 29 above, the Court

need not consider this question for the purpose of deciding whether
or not it can indicate provisional measures in the present case"
(Order, para. 32).
The Court retained the position of an ingenious but, for the purposes of
the present proceedings, unproductive elegantiaejuris processualis. The
Court's jurisdiction rutionepersonae is directly dependent on the answer
to the question whether the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia can be con-

sidered to be a member State of the United Nations, both vis-à-vis the
optional clause and vis-à-vis the Genocide Convention.
It would of course be unreasonable to expect the Court to decide on
whether or not the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is a Member of the
United Nations. Such an expectation would not be in accord with the
nature of the judicial function and would mean entering the province of
the main political organs of the world Organization - the Security
Council and the General Assembly.
But it is my profound conviction that the Court should have answered
the question whether the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia can or cannot,
in the light of the content of General Assembly resolution 4711and of the
practice of the world Organization, be considered to be a Member of the
United Nations and especially party to the Statute of the Court; namely,
the text of resolution 4711makes no mention of the status of the Federal

Republic of Yugoslavia as a party to the Statute of the International
Court of Justice. That is the import of resolution 4711rutione materiue.
And nothing beyond that. In that respect the position of the Court is
identical to the position of other organs of the United Nations. A con-
trario there would, exempli causa, be no need for a General Assembly
recommendation by resolution 471229concerning the participation of the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the work of the Economic and Social
Council. In other words, resolution 4711makes no mention, explicitly or
tacitly, of the International Court of Justice; theame is true of the other
documents adopted on the basis of the above-mentioned resolution. It
follows from this that General Assembly resolution 4711has produced no
effect on the status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a party to
the Statute and this is confirmed, inter alia, by al1issues of the Yearbook
of the International Court of Justice since 1992.

1am equally convinced that, both the content of the resolution, which
represents contrudictio in adiecto, and the particular practice of the world
Organization after its adoption over a period of nearly seven years,
offered ample arguments for it to pronounce itself on this matter. LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS. KRECA) 346

9. En ce qui concerne la qualité de Membre de l'organisation des
Nations Unies de la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie, la Cour consi-
dère que,

«eu égard à la conclusion à laquelle elle est parvenue au para-
graphe 29 ci-dessus, la Cour n'a pas à examiner cette question à
l'effet de décidersi elle peut ou non indiquer des mesures conserva-
toires dans le cas d'espèce))(ordonnance, par.32).

La Cour adopte donc un stratagèmeingénieux (eleguntiaejuris processua-
lis)mais, aux fins de la présente instance,il est peu fructueux. La compé-
tence de la Courratione personae est directement tributaire de la répoàse
la question de savoir si la République fédérale de Yougoslavie peuê t tre
considérée commeun Etat Membre des Nations Unies, tant à l'égard de la
clause facultative qu'à l'égardde la convention sur le génocide.
Il serait évidemmentdéraisonnable decompter que la Cour statue sur
la question proprement dite de l'appartenance de la Républiquefédérale

de Yougoslavie àl'organisation. Pareille attente ne serait guèreconforme
à la nature de la fonction judiciaire et reviendrait par aiàls'immiscer
dans le domaine propre des principaux organes politiques de l'organisa-
tion mondiale, le Conseil de sécurité et l'Assemblée générale.
Mais je suis profondément convaincu que la Cour aurait dû répondre à
la question de savoir si la République fédéralede Yougoslavie peut ou
non, eu égard à la teneur de la résolution4711de l'Assemblée générale et
à la pratique de l'organisation mondiale, êtreconsidéréecomme un Etat
Membre des Nations Unies et tout particulièrement comme étantpartie
au Statut de la Cour; car le texte de la résolution4711ne fait pas mention
de la qualité departie au Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice dont
peut se prévaloir la République fédéralede Yougoslavie. C'est là que

résidel'importance de la résolution4711 rutione materiae.Et il n'y a rien
d'autre que cela. A cet égard,la situation de la Cour est exactement celle
des autres organes des Nations Unies. Dans le cas contraire, il serait par
exemple inutile que l'Assemblée généralfeormule une recommandation,
comme elle le fait dans sa résolution471229,concernant la participation
de la République fédéralede Yougoslavie aux travaux du Conseil éco-
nomique et social. Autrement dit, la résolution4711ne fait aucune men-
tion ni expresse ni tacite de la Cour internationale de Justice; il en va de
mêmepour les autres documents adoptés sur la base de ladite résolution.
Il faut en déduireque cette résolution 4711de l'Assemblée générale n'a
produit aucun effetsur la qualité de partie au Statut dont peut se préva-

loir la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie et c'estbien ce que confirment
notamment tous les numérosde l'Annuairede la Cour internationale de
Justice publiésdepuis 1992.
Je suis égalementconvaincu que tant la teneur de la résolution,celle-ci
représentant une contradictio in udiectoque la pratique particulière sui-
vie pendant prèsde sept anspar l'organisation mondiale aprèsson adop-
tion apportent beaucoup d'élémentsqui autorisent la Cour à se pronon-
cer sur cette question. 10. The position of the Court with respect to the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia membership of the United Nations can be said to have
remained within the framework of the position taken in the Order on the
indication of provisional measures in the Genocidecase of 8 April 1993.

Paragraph 18of that Order states

"Whereas, while the solution adopted is not free from legal diffi-
culties, the question whether or not Yugoslavia is a Member of the
United Nations and as such a party to the Statute of the Court is
one which the Court does not need to determine definitively at the
present stage of the proceedings" (Application of the Convention on
the Prevention und Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 8 April 1993, 1.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 14).

The objection may be raised that the wording of paragraph 18is of a
technical nature, that it is not a relevant answer to the question ofFed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia membership of the United Nations; how-
ever, it is incontestable that it has served its practical purpose because, it
seems,

"the Court was determined to establish its jurisdiction in this case
[Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide] whilst at the same time avoiding some of the
more delicate, and indeed profound, concerns about the position of
the respondent State vis-à-vis the Charter and Statute" (M. C. R.
Craven, "The Genocide Case, the Law of Treaties and State Succes-
sion", British Year Book of Internutional Law, 1997, p. 137).
The Court tacitly persisted in maintaining this position also in the
further requests for the indication of provisional measures (Application

of the Con~lentionon the Prevention und Punishment of the Crime of
Cenocide, Order of 13 Septenzber 1993), as well as in the Judgment on
preliminary objections of 11July 1996.
Even if such a position can be considered to be understandable in the
second proceedings for the indication of provisional measures, it never-
theless gives rise to some complicated questions in the proceedings con-
ducted in the wake of the preliminary objections raised by Yugoslavia.
In these proceedings, the Court was confronted, inter uliu, also with
the question as to whether Yugoslavia is a party to the Genocide Con-
vention. It is hardly necessary to mention that the status of a Contracting
Partv to the Genocide Convention was condztio sine aua non for the
Court to proclaim its jurisdiction in the case concerning Applicution of
the Conventionon the Prevention und Punishment of the Crime of Geno-
cide.
The Court found that it has jurisdiction ratione personue, supporting
this position, in my opinion, with a shaky, unconvincing explanation (see
dissenting opinion of Judge Kreka, I.C.J. Rc.ports 1996, pp. 755-760, LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 347

10. Or, en ce qui concerne la qualitéd'Etat Membre de l'organisation
des Nations Unies dont la République fédéralede Yougoslavie peut se
prévaloir,on peut dire que la Cour a conservédans ses grandes lignes la
position qu'elle a adoptée dans son ordonnance du 8 avril 1993 dans

l'affaire de laConvention sur le génocide en statuant sur la demande en
indication de mesures conservatoires.
Au paragraphe 18de ladite ordonnance, la Cour considère que:
«si la solution adoptée ne laisse pas de susciter des difficultésjuri-
diques, la Cour n'a pas à statuer définitivementau stade actuel de la

procédure sur la question de savoir si la Yougoslavie est ou non
membre de l'organisation des Nations Unies et, à ce titre, partie au
Statut de la Cour» (Application de la convention pour la prévention
etlu répressiondu crime de génocide,mesures conservatoires, ordon-
nance du 8 avril 1993, C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 14).

On peut objecter que le libellédu paragraphe 18ci-dessus a un carac-
tère technique, que ce n'est pas une réponse pertinente à la question de
savoir si la République fédéralede Yougoslavie est ou non membre de
l'organisation des Nations Unies; toutefois, il est incontestable que cet
énoncé aeu concri-tement l'effet voulu parce que, semble-t-il,

«la Cour voulait se déclarercompétentedans cette affaire [Applica-
tion de la convention pour lu prhention et la répressiondu crime de
génocide] tout en évitanten mêmetemps de seprononcer sur certains
problèmes délicats,du reste assez graves, concernant la situation de
1'Etat défendeur face à la Charte et au Statut)) (M. C. R. Craven,
((The Genocide Case, the Law of Treaties and State Succession)),
British Yrar Book of'Ir~ternationu1Law, 1997,p. 137).

La Cour a tacitement conservécette mêmeposition lors des nouvelles
demandes en indication de mesures conservatoires ,Ao..ication de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide,
ordonnance du 13 septembre 19931, de mêmeque dans l'arrêt rendule
11juillet 1996sur les exceptions préliminaires.
On peut sans doute estimer que cette position est compréhensible lors
de la seconde procédure en indication de mesures conservatoires, mais

elle soulève des questions fort complexes dans le cadre de la procédure
relative aux exceptions préliminairesémanant de la Yougoslavie.
Dans ladite procédure, la Cour était notamment face, la aussi,à la
question de savoir si la Yougoslavie est partie à la convention sur le
génocide. Il n'est guère besoin de rappeler que la qualité de partie
contractante à ladite convention était la conditionsine qua non permet-
tant à la Cour de se déclarer compétentedans l'affaire relative à l'Appli-
cation de la convention pour lu prévention et lu r6pression du crime de
génocide.
La Cour s'est déclaréecompétente ratione personae en donnant a ce

sujet une explication que je trouve peu solide et peu convaincante (voir
mon opinion dissidente, C.I.J.Recueil 1996 (Il), p. 755-760,par. 91-95).paras. 91-95). For the purposes of this case, of particular interest is the
position of the Court "that it has not been contested that Yugoslavia was
party to the Genocide Convention" (Application of the Conventionon the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crirneof Geizocide,Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (JI), p. 610, para. 17).The absence
of contest was the decisive argument for the Court to state that "Yugo-
slavia was bound by the provisions of the Convention on the date of the
filing of the Application in the present case" (ibid.).

TheCourt has, deliberately, 1presume, failed to state who did not con-
test that Yugoslavia is a party to the Genocide Convention. If it had in

mind the Applicant (Bosnia and Herzegovina), it is hardly necessary to
note that the State which is initiating proceedings before the Court would
not deny the existence of the title ofjurisdiction; and, in the case in ques-
tion, the Genocide Convention was the only possible ground of the
Court's jurisdiction. If, however, the Court had third States in mind, then
things do not stand as described by the Court, stating that "it has not
been contested". By refusing to recognize the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia and its automatic continuation of membership of the United
Nations, the member States of the world Organization contested eo ipso
that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is automatically a party to
multilateral treaties concluded under the aegis of the United Nations
and, consequently, also a party to the Genocide Convention. The Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia can be considered to be a party to the Genocide
Convention only on the grounds of legal identity and continuity with the
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia because, otherwise, it consti-

tutes a new State, and it did not express its consent to be bound by the
Genocide Convention in the manner prescribed by Article XI of the Con-
vention, nor did it send to the Secretary-General of the United Nations
the notification of succession. A tertium quid is simply non-existent, in
particular from the standpoint of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the
Genocidecase, in which the Court did not declare its position on the so-
called automatic succession in relation to certain multilateral treaties
(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment ofthe
Crime of Genocide, Preliminary Objections, Judgment, J.C. J. Reports
1996 (II), p. 612, para. 23).

Al1in all, the Court in the present Order remained consistent with its
"avoidance" position, persisting in its statement that it "need not con-

sider this question for the purpose of deciding whether or not it can indi-
cate provisional measures in the present case".
Such is the Court's restraint with respect to this highly relevant issue
and its reluctance to make its position known may wellcreate the impres-
sion quite differently from that expressed by Craven in regard to the
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocidecase - that "the Court was determined to establish itsAux fins de la présenteinstance, il est intéressant de noter que la Cour
avait observé à cette première occasion «qu'il n'a pas étécontesté quela
Yougoslavie soit partie à la Convention sur le génocide))(Application de
la convention pour la préventionet la répressiondu crime de génocide,
exceptions préliminaires,arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 610, par. 17).
Et l'absence de contestation a représentépour la Cour l'argument décisif
qui lui permettait de dire que «la Yougoslavie étaitliéepar les disposi-
tions de la convention à la date du dépôt de la requêteen la présente
affaire» (ibid).

La Cour s'est abstenue, délibérémenjte présume,de dire qui n'avait
pas contesté que la Yougoslavie soit partie a la convention sur le géno-
cide. Si elle pensait au demandeur (la Bosnie-Herzégovine),il n'est guère
besoin de rappeler que I'Etat introduisant une instance devant la Cour ne
va pas nier l'existencedu titre de compétencevoulu; et, dans I'affaire en
question, la convention sur le génocideétait, pour la Cour, le seul chef de
compétencepossible. Si toutefois la Cour pensait à des Etats tiers, alors
la réaliténe correspond pas à l'absence de contestation dont la Cour
parle. En refusant de reconnaître la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie
et d'admettre qu'elle continuait d'assumer automatiquement la qualité
d'Etat Membre de l'organisation des Nations Unies, les Etats Membres
de ladite organisation mondiale contestaient eo ipso que la République
fédéralede Yougoslavie soit automatiquement partie aux traités mul-
tilatéraux conclus sous l'égide desNations Unies et, soit par consé-

quent aussi partie à la convention sur le génocide. LaRépublique fédé-
rale de Yougoslavie ne peut êtreconsidéréecomme étant partie a la
convention sur le génocideque s'il y a, du point de vuejuridique, identité
et continuité entre elle et la République fédérativesocialiste de Yougo-
slavie, car, s'il en va autrement, la République fédéralede Yougoslavie
constitue un Etat nouveau et elle n'a pas donnéson consentement a être
liéepar la convention sur le génocidede la façon qui est prescrite a I'ar-
ticle XI de ladite convention et elle n'a pas fait tenir au Secrétaire général
des Nations Unies la notification de succession voulue. II n'y a tout sim-
plement pas de tertium quid, notamment du point de vue de l'arrêt rendu
le11juillet 1996dans l'affaire de la Conventionsur legénocide,arrêtdans
lequel la Cour ne s'est pas prononcée sur ce qu'on appelle la succession
automatique dans le cas de certains traitésmultilatéraux (Application de
la convention pour. laprévention et la répressiondu crime de génocide,

exceptions préliminaires,arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 612, par. 23).
Tout bien considéré,dans la présenteordonnance, la Cour est restée
fidèlea sa volonté d'abstention, disantà nouveau qu'elle «n'a pas àexa-
miner cette question à l'effet de décidersi elle peut ou non indiquer des
mesures conservatoires dans le cas d'espèce)).
Ce silence de la Cour alors qu'il serait si utile de répondreà la ques-
tion, cette hésitationà prendre position risquent de donner une impres-
sion trés différentede celle qu'envisage Craven lors de I'affaire relative
l'Application delaconventionpour lapréventionet la répression du crimede
génocide, quand il dit que «la Cour voulait se déclarercompétentetoutjurisdiction [over the] case whilst at the same time avoiding some of more
delicate, and indeed profound, concerns about the position" of Yugosla-
via vis-à-vis the Charter and the Statute and its inevitable legal conse-
quences upon proceedings pending before the Court.

Jurisdiction of the Court Ratione Materiae

11. 1am of the opinion that in the matter in hand the Court's position
is strongly open to criticism.
The Court finds :
"whereas the threat or use of force against a State cannot in itself

constitute an act of genocide within the meaning of Article II of the
Genocide Convention; and whereas, in the opinion of the Court, it
does not appear at the present stage of the proceedings that the
bombings which form the subject of the Yugoslav Application
'indeed entail the element of intent, towards a group as such, required
by the provision quoted above' (Legulity of the Threat or Use of
Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I),
p. 240, para. 26)" (Order, para. 39).

The intent is, without doubt, the subjective element of the being of the
crime of genocide as, indeed, of any other crime. But, this question is not
and cannot, by its nature, be the object of decision-making in the inci-
dental proceedings of the indication of provisional measures.

In this respect, a reliableproof should be sought in the dispute which,
by its salient features, is essentially identical to the dispute under consid-
eration - the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Pre-
vention and Punishment of the Crime of Cenocide.
In its Order on the indication of provisional measures of 8 April 1993,
in support of the assertion of the Respondent that, inter alia, "it does not
support or abet in any way the commission of crimes cited in the Appli-

cation . . and that the claims presented in the Application are without
foundation" (Application of the Convention on the Prevention und Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide, ProvisionalMeasures, Orderof 8 April
1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 21, para. 42), the Court stated:

"Whereas the Court, in the context of the present proceedings on

a request for provisional measures, has in accordance with Article 41
of the Statute to consider the circumstancesdrawn to its attention as
requiring the indication of provisional measures, but cannot make
definitive findings of fact or of imputability, and the right of each
Party to dispute the facts alleged against it, to challenge the attribu-
tion to it of responsibility for those facts, and to submit arguments
in respect of the merits, must remain unaffected by the Court's deci-
sion" (ibid., p. 22, para. 44) LICEITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS. KRECA) 349

en voulant éviter en même temps de se prononcer sur les problèmes déli-
cats, d'ailleurs assez sérieux,qui se posent au sujet de la situation)) de la
Yougoslavie face à la Charte et au Statut, et les inévitables conséquences
juridiques de cette situation sur une affaire portée devant la Cour.

Compétencede la Cour ratione materiae

11. Je suis d'avis qu'en l'espècela position adoptée par la Cour prête
fortement à critiques.
La Cour considère:
«que le recours ou la menace du recours à l'emploide la force contre

un Etat ne sauraient en soi constituer un acte de génocideau sens de
l'article II de la convention sur le génocide;et que, de l'avis de la
Cour, il n'apparaît pas au présentstade de la procédure quelesbom-
bardements qui constituent l'objet de la requêteyougoslave «corn-
porte[nt] effectivement l'élémentd'intentionnalité, dirigécontre un
groupe comme tel, que requiert la disposition sus-citée)) (Licéitéde
la menace ou de l'emploi d'armes nucléaires,avis consultatiJ; C.I.J.
Recueil 1996 (I), p. 240, par. 26)))(ordonnance, par. 39).

L'intentionnalitéest incontestablement l'élément subjectiq fui est cons-
titutif du crime de génocidecomme du reste de n'importe quel autre
crime. Mais cette question n'est pas l'objet de la prise de décisiondans la
procédure incidente de l'indication de mesures conservatoires et, par sa
nature même,elle ne peut pas l'être.
Il fautàcet égard chercherune preuve fiable dans le différendqui, par
ses principaux traits, est pour l'essentiel identique au différend examiné
ici:il s'agit de l'affaire relatiàel'Application de la convention pour lu
préventionet la répressiondu crime de génocide.
Dans l'ordonnance au'elle a rendue le 8 avril 1993sur I'indication de
mesures conservatoires, souscrivant a l'affirmation du défendeurqui dit

notamment «n'apport[er] aucun appui ni n'encourag[er], d'une façon ou
d'une autre, la perpétration des crimes mentionnésdans la requête ...[et]
que les griefs exposésdans la requête sont dénués df eondement)) (Appli-
cation de la convention pour la prévention et lu répressiondu crime de
génocide, mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 8 uvril 1993, C.I.J.
Recueil 1993, p. 21, par. 42), la Cour a considéréque:

«dans le contexte de la présenteprocédure concernant I'indication
de mesures conservatoires, [elle]doit, conformément a l'article 41 du
Statut, examiner si les circonstances portées a son attention exigent
I'indication de mesures conservatoires, mais n'est pas habilitée a
conclure définitivementsur les faits ou leur imputabilité et que sa
décisiondoit laisser intact le droit de chacune des Parties de contes-
ter les faits allégucontre elle, ainsi que la responsabilité qui lui est
imputéequant à ces faits et de faire valoir ses moyens sur le fond»
(ibid, p. 22, par. 44)350 LEGALITY OF USE OF FORCE (DISSO . P.KRECA)

and
"Whereas the Court is not called upon, for the purpose of its deci-
sion on the present request for the indication of provisional meas-

ures, now to establish the existence of breaches of the Genocide
Convention" (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 22, para. 46).
The rationale of provisional measures is, consequently, limited to the
preservation of the respective rights of the partiesendente lite which are
the object of the dispute, rights which may subsequently be adjudged by
the Court. As the Court stated in the Land and Maritime Boundary
between Cameroon and Nigeria case :

"Whereas the Court, in the context of the proceedings concerning
the indication of provisional measures, cannot make definitive find-
ings of fact or of imputability, and the right of each Party to dispute
the facts alleged against it, to challenge the attribution to it of
responsibility forthose facts, and to submit arguments, if appropri-
ate, in respect of the merits, must remain unaffected by the Court's
decision" (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and
Nigeria, Provisional Measures, Order of 15 March 1996, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (I), p. 23, para. 43).

12. Fundamental questions arise regarding the position of the Court
on this particular matter.
The relationship between the use of armed force and genocide can be
looked upon in two ways:

(a) is the use of force per se an act of genocide or not? and,
(6) is the use of force conducive to genocide and, if the answer is in the
affirmative, what is it then, in the legal sense?
It is incontrovertible that the use of force per se et dejinitione does
not constitute an act of genocide. It is a matter that needs no particular
proving. However, it could not be inferred from this that the use of
force is unrelated and cannot have any relationship with the commission

of the crime of genocide. Such a conclusion would be contrary to ele-
mentary logic.
ArticleII of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide defines the acts of genocide as
"any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in
whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as
such :

(a) Killing members of the group;
(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the
group ;
(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of lifecalculated
to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
(d) Imposingmeasures intended to prevent births within the group;
(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group."et que:

(([elle]n'est pas appeléeà ce stade àétablirl'existencede violations
de la convention sur legénocide))(C. 1J. Recueil 1993,p. 22, par. 46).

La raison d'êtredes mesures conservatoires est par conséquentlimitée
à la préservation des droits des parties pendente lite qui sont l'objet du

différend,droits qui peuvent ultérieurementfaire l'objet de la décisionde
la Cour. Comme celle-ci le dit de nouveau dans l'affaire de la Frontière
terrestre et maritime entre le Cumeroun et le Nigéria:
((Considérantque la Cour, dans le cadre de la présenteprocédure
concernant l'indication de mesures conservatoires, n'est pas habilitée
a conclure définitivementsur les faits ou leur imputabilité et que sa
décisiondoit laisser intact le droit de chacune des Parties de contes-

ter les faits allégucontre elle, ainsi que la responsabilitéqui lui est
imputée quant à ces faits, et de faire valoir, le cas échéant,ses
movens sur le fond. » (Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cume-
roun et le Nigéria, mesuresconservatoires, ordonnancedu 15 mars
1996, C.1.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 23, par. 43.)
12. Sur ce point en particulier, il se pose des questions fondamentales

au sujet de la position de la Cour.
On peut considérerde deux façons le lien entre le recours à la force
armée et le génocide:
a) est-ce que l'emploi de la force est un acte de génocideper se ou non?
b) l'emploi de la force favorise-t-il le génocideet, dans l'affirmative,
qu'est-ce alors au sens juridique?

Indéniablement, I'emploi de la force, en soi et par définition, necons-
titue pas un acte de génocide.Nul besoin d'en faire la preuve.Toutefois,
il n'est pas possible d'en déduire quel'emploi de la force est sans rapport
avec la commission du crime de génocideet qu'il n'est pas possible d'éta-
blir un tel rapport. Pareille conclusion serait contraiàela logique la plus
élémentaire.
L'article II de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocide définit lesactes de génocidecomme

((l'un quelconque des actes ci-après, commis dans l'intention de
détruire, en tout ou en partie, un groupe national, ethnique, racial
ou religieux, comme tel :

a) meurtre de membres du groupe;
6) atteinte grave a l'intégrité physiqueou mentale de membres du
groupe ;
C) soumission intentionnelle du groupe à des conditions d'existence
devant entraîner sa destruction physique totale ou partielle;
d) mesures visant à entraver les naissances au sein du groupe;
e) transfert forcé d'enfants du groupe à un autre groupe)).Any of these acts can be committed also by the use of force. The use of
force is, consequently, one of the possible means of committing acts of
genocide. And, it should be pointed out, one of the most efficient means,
due to the immanent characteristics of armed force.

Extensive use of armed force, in particular if it is used against objects
and means constituting conditions of normal life, can be conducive to
"inflicting on the group conditions of life" bringing about "its physical
destruction".
Of course, itcan be argued that such acts are in the function of degrad-
ing the military capacity of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. But such
an explanation can hardly be regarded as a serious argument. For, the
spiral of such a line of thinking may easily come to a point when, having
in mind that military power is after al1comprised of people, even mass

killing of civiliansan be claimed to constitute some sort of a precaution-
ary measure that should prevent the maintenance or, in case of mobiliza-
tion, the increase of military power of the State.

Of course, to be able to speak about genocide it is necessary that there
is an intent, namely, of "deliberately inflictingon the group conditions of
life" bringing about "its physical destruction in whole or in part".
In the incidental proceedings the Court cannot and should not concern
itself with the definitive qualification of the intent to impose upon the
group conditions in which the survival of the group is threatened. Having
in mind the purpose of provisional measures, it can be said that at this
stage of the proceedings it is sufficient to establish that, in the conditions
of intensive bombing, there is an objective risk of bringing about condi-
tions in which the survival of the group is threatened.
The Court took just such a position in the Order of 8April 1993on the
indication of provisional measures in the Application of the Convention
on tlzePrevention and Punislzn~ent of thc Crinîe of Genocidecase.

Paragraph 44 of that Order stated:
"Whereas the Court, in the context of the present proceedings on
a request for provisional measures, has in accordance with Article 41
of the Statute to consider the circumstances drawn to its attention as
requiring the indication of provisional measures, but cannot make
definitive findings of fact or of imputability, and the right of each
Party to dispute the facts alleged against it, to challenge the attribu-
tion to it of responsibility forthose facts, and to submit arguments
in respect of the merits, must remain unaffected by the Court's deci-

sion" (1.C.J. Rrports 1993, p. 22).
The question of "intent" is a highly complicated one. Although the
intent is a subjective matter, a psychological category, in contemporary
criminal legislation itis established also on the basis of objective circum-
stances. Inferences of intent to commit an act are widely incorporated inN'importe lequel des actes ci-dessus peut être commis également au
moyen de la force. L'emploi de la force est par conséquent l'un des
moyens possibles de commettre des actes de génocide.Et, il convient de le
signaler, c'est l'un des moyens les plus efficaces, étant donnéles carac-

tèrespropres de la force armée.
L'emploi étendude la force armée,en particulier s'il visedes objets et
des infrastructures constituant les conditions de la vie normale. Deut, ,
aboutir à ((soumettre le groupe à des conditions d'existence))entraînant
bel et bien «sa destruction ~.-sAaue)).
On peut bien entendu objecter que les actes en question ont pour rôle
d'affaiblir la puissance militaire de la République fédéralede Yougosla-

vie. Mais pareille explication peut difficilement représenter un argument
valable. Le raisonnement, en effet, va rapidement emprunter un cercle
vicieux: la puissance militaire étant aprèstout composée d'hommes,il est
possible d'aller jusqu'à prétendreque le meurtre collectif d'une foule de
civils tient en quelque sorte lieu de mesure de précaution de nature à
empêcherd'entretenir la puissance militaire de I'Etat, voire de l'augmen-
ter en cas de mobilisation.

Certes, pour pouvoir parler de génocide,il faut une intention, c'est-à-dire
qu'il faut vouloir ((soumettre intentionnellement le groupe à des condi-
tions d'existence))entraînant «sa destruction physique totale ou partielle)).
Lors de procédures incidentes, la Cour ne peut pas - et ne doit
d'ailleurs pas - chercher à établir de façon définitive qu'elle est en pré-
sence d'une volonté de soumettre le nrouDe à des conditions d'existence
de nature a menacer sa survie. Eu égard" à l'objet des mesuresconserva-

toires, on peut dire qu'à ce stade de la procédure,il suffit d'établir que,le
groupe étant soumis à des bombardements intensifs, on court objective-
ment le risque de voir cette situation aboutir à menacer sa survie.
La Cour a précisémentadoptécette position dans l'ordonnance qu'elle
a rendue le 8 avril 1993au sujet de I'indication de mesures conservatoires
dans l'affaire relativeà l'Application delu convention pour lu prkvrntion
et lu rkpression du crime de génocide.

Le paragraphe 44 de cette ordonnance se lit comme suit:
((Considérantque la Cour, dans le contexte de la présenteprocé-
dure concernant l'indication de mesures conservatoires, doit, confor-

mément à l'article 41 du Statut, examiner si les circonstances portées
a son attention exigent l'indication de mesures conservatoires, mais
n'est pas habilitée a conclure définitivement sur les faits ou leur
imputabilitéet que sa décisiondoit laisser intact le droit de chacune
des Parties de contester les faits alléguéscontre elle, ainsi que la res-
ponsabilitéqui lui est imputéequant a ces faits et de faire valoir ses
moyens sur le fond. » (C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 22.)

La question de l'«intentionnalité» est extrêmementcomplexe. L'inten-
tion appartient au domaine subjectif, c'est une catégoriepsychologique,
mais, dans la législation pénalecontemporaine, l'intention est également

établie àpartir de circonstances objectives. L'intention présuméede com-legal systems. Exempli causa,permissive inferences as opposed to a man-
datory presumption in thejurisprudence of the United States of America
may be drawn even in a criminal case.

In any event, there appears to be a clear dispute between the Parties
regarding "intent" as the constitutive element of the crime of genocide.

The Applicant asserts that "intent" can be presumed and, on the other
hand, the Respondent maintains that "intent", as an element of the crime
of genocide, should be clearly established as dolus specialis. Such a con-
frontation of views of the Parties concerned leads to a dispute related to
"the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention", includ-
ing disputes relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for
any of the other acts enumerated in Article III of the Convention.

13. At the same time, one should have in mind that whether "in cer-
tain cases, particularly that by the infliction of inhuman conditions of
life, the crime may be perpetrated by omission" (Stanislas Plawski, Etude
des principesfondamentaux du droit international pénal, 1972, p. 115.
Cited in United Nations doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/415 of 4 July 1978).
Since,

"Experience provides that a state of war or a military operations
régimegivesauthorities a convenient pretext not to provide a popu-
lation or a group with what they need to subsist - food, medicines,
clothing, housing . . .It will be argued that this is inflicting on the
group conditions of lifecalculated to bring about its physical destruc-
tion in whole or in part." (J. Y. Dautricourt, "La prévention du
génocide et sesfondements juridiques", Etudes internationales de
psychosociologie criminelle, Nos. 14-15, 1969, pp. 22-23. Cited in
United Nations doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/415 of 4 July 1978,p. 27.)

Of the utmost importance is the fact that, in the incidental proceedings,
the Court cannot and should not concern itself with the definitive quali-
fication of the intent to impose upon the group conditions in which the
survival of the group is threatened. Having in mind the purpose of pro-
visional measures, it can be said that at this stage of the proceedings it is
sufficient to establish that, in the conditions of intensive bombing, there
is an objective risk of bring about conditions in which the survival of the
group is threatened.

Jurisdiction of the Court Ratione Temporis
14. The ratione temporis element of jurisdiction is considered by the

Court to be the linchpin of its position regarding the absence ofjurisdic-
tion in this particular case. In its Order the Court States, inter alia:mettre l'acte fait très communément partie du systèmejuridique. Par
exemple, aux Etats-Unis d'Amérique,la jurisprudence autorise la pré-

somption plausible par opposition àla présomption concluante,même en
matiérepénale.
De toute façon, les Parties s'opposent très clairement, semble-t-il, au
sujet de l'((intentionnalité» en tant qu'élémentconstitutif du crime de
génocide.
Le demandeur affirme que l'«intention »peut êtreprésuméetandis que
le défendeur soutientqu'en tant qu'élémenc tonstitutif du crime de géno-
cide, l'«intention» doit être clairement établie sous formede do1spécial.
Cette opposition de vues entre les Parties constitue un différend relatià
l'interprétation, l'applicationou l'exécutionde la ..convention [sur le
génocide])),les différendsde ce type comprenant aussi les différends rela-
tifsà la responsabilitéd'un Etat en matièrede génocideou de l'un quel-

conque des autres actes énumérés à l'article III de ladite convention.
13. En mêmetemps, il ne faut pas oublier que, «dans certains cas, sur-
tout dans le génocidepar la soumission à des conditions inhumaines de
vie, le crime peut être perpétrépar omission)) (Stanislas Plawski, Etude
desprincipesfondamentaux du droit internationalpénal,1972,p. 115.Cité
dans Nations Unies, doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/416datédu 4juillet 1978,p. 28).
En effet,

«[ll'expérienceprouve que l'état de guerreou le régimed'occupation
de guerre sont un prétexte facilepour les autorités responsablespour
ne pas fournirà une population ou à un groupe ce qui leur est néces-
saire pour subsister: vivres. médicaments. vêtementsh .abitations ...
On nhus dira que c'est la'soumission du groupe à'des conditions
d'existence susceptiblesd'entraîner sa destruction physique totale ou
partielle.))J. Y: Dautricourt, «La prévention du génocide etses
fondements juridiques)), Etudes itzternationales de psychosocio-
logie criminelle,os 14-15, 1969,p. 22-23. Citédans Nations Unies,
doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/416 datédu 4 juillet 1978,p. 28.)

Il est donc d'une importance primordiale de savoir que, lors de procé-
dures incidentes, la Cour ne peut pas - et ne doit d'ailleurs pa- cher-
cher à établirde façon définitiveune volontéde soumettre le groupe à des
conditions d'existence de nature à menacer sa survie. Eu égard à l'objet
des mesures conservatoires, on peut dire qu'à ce stade de la procédure, il

suffit d'établir que,le groupe étant soumis à des bombardements inten-
sifs, on court objectivement le risque de voir cette situation aboutir à
menacer sa survie.

Compétencede la Cour ratione temporis

14. Pour la Cour. l'élémenr tatione temporis de sa compétencedonne
la cléde la position qu'elleadoptedans la présenteinstance, en concluant
qu'ellen'apas compétence.Dans son ordonnance, la Cour déclarenotam-
ment : "Whereas it is an established fact that the bombings in question
began on 24 March 1999 and have been conducted continuously
over a period extending beyond 25 April 1999; and whereas the

Court has no doubt, in the light, inter aliu, of the discussions at the
Security Council meetings of 24 and 26 March 1999 (SlPV.3988and
3989), that a 'legal dispute' (East Timor (Portugal v. Australia),
I.C.J. Reports 1995, p. 100, para. 22) 'arose' between Yugoslavia
and the Respondent, as it did also with the other NATO member
States, well before 25 April 1999 concerning the legality of those
bombings as such, taken as a whole;
Whereas the fact that the bombings have continued after 25 April

1999 and that the dispute concerning them has persisted since that
date is not such as to alter the date on which the dispute arose;
whereas each individual air attack could not have given rise to a
separate subsequent dispute; and whereas, at this stage of the pro-
ceedings, Yugoslavia has not established that new disputes, distinct
from the initial one, have arisen between the Parties since 25 April
1999 in respect of subsequent situations or facts attributable to
Canada" (Order, paras. 27 and 28).

It appears that such a stance of the Court is highly questionable for two
basic reasons :

- firstly, for reasons of a general nature to do with jurisprudence of the
Court in this particular matter, on the one hand, and with the nature
of the proceedings for the indication of provisional measures, on the
other; and,
- secondly, for reasons of a specific nature deriving from the circum-
stances of the case in hand.

14.1. As far as the jurisdiction of the Court is concerned, it seems
incontestable that a liberal attitude towards the temporal element of the
Court's jurisdiction in the indication of provisional measures has become
apparent.The ground of such an attitude is the fact stressed by the Court
almost regularly, so that:

"it cannot be accepted a priori that a claim based on such a com-
plaint falls completely outside the scope of international jurisdiction;
.............................

the[se]considerations ... sufficeto empower the Court to entertain
the Request for interim measures of protection;

the indication of such measures in no way prejudges the question of
the jurisdiction of the Court to deal with the merits of the case and
leaves unaffected the right of the Respondent to submit arguments
against such jurisdiction" (Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., Order of 5 July
1951, IC.J. Reports 1951, p. 93), ((Considérantqu'il est constant que les bombardements en cause
ont commencé le24 mars 1999et se sont poursuivis, de façon conti-
nue, au-delà du 25 avril 1999; et qu'il ne fait pas de doute pour la
Cour, au vu notamment des débats du Conseil de sécurité des24 et

26 mars 1999 (SIPV.3988 et 3989), qu'un ((différend d'ordre ju-
ridique)) (Timor oriental (Portugal c.Australie), C.I.J. Recueil 1995,
p. 100, par. 22) a «surgi» entre la Yougoslavie et 1'Etatdéfendeur,
comme avec les autres Etats membres de l'OTAN, bien avant le
25 avril 1999, au sujet de la licéitéde ces bombardements comme
tels, pris dans leur ensemble;

Considérant que la circonstance que ces bombardements se soient
poursuivis aprèsle 25 avril 1999et que le différendlesconcernant ait
persistédepuis lors n'est pas de nature a modifier la dateà laquelle le
différendavait surgi; que des différendsdistincts n'ont pu naître par
la suiteà l'occasion de chaque attaque aérienne;et qu'à ce stade de
la procédure, la Yougoslavie n'établit pasque des différendsnou-
veaux, distincts du différendinitial, aient surgi entre les Parties après
le 25 avril 1999au sujet de situations ou de faits postérieurs impu-
tables au Canada.)) (ordonnance, par. 27 et 28).

Cette position, de la part de la Cour, me paraît extrêmement contestable
pour deux raisons principales :

- la première explication a un caractère généralintéressantla jurispru-
dence de la Cour en ce qui concerne la question, d'une part, et, de
l'autre, intéressant le caractère de la procédure de I'indication de
mesures conservatoires;
- la seconde explication a un caractère spécifiquequi tient aux circons-

tances de la présente instance.
14.1. S'agissant de sa compétence,il paraît incontestable que la Cour
adopte, quand il est question pour elle d'indiquer des mesures conserva-

toires, une attitude libéralea l'égardde l'élémenttemporel. La Cour est
en l'occurrence motivéepar un fait qu'elle met assez régulièrementen évi-
dence :

«on ne saurait admettre a priori qu'une demande fondéesur un tel
grief échappe complètement à la juridiction internationale;
.............................
[cette]constatation ..est suffisante pour autoriseren droit la Cour à
examiner la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires;

I'indication de telles mesures ne préjuge en rien lacompétence dela
Cour pour connaître au fond de l'affaire et laisse intact le droit du
défendeur de fairevaloir sesmoyens à l'effetde la contester)) (Anglo-
Iranian Oil Co., ordonnance du 5 juillet 1951, C.I.J. Recueil 1951,
p. 93),and
"on a request for provisional measures the Court need not, before
indicating them, finally satisfy itself that it has jurisdiction on the
merits of the case . .. it ought not to act under Article 41 of the

Statute if the absence ofjurisdiction on the merits is manifest" (Fish-
eries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Interim Protection,
Order of 17 August 1972, 1.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 15,para. 15 ;and,
Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Germany v. Icelaizd),
Interim Protection, Order of 17 August 1972, I.C.J. Reports 1972,
p. 33, para. 16).

It is hardly necessary to note that the formulation "need not ... finally
satisfy itself that it has jurisdiction on the merits of the case" relates to

jurisdiction in toto and that, consequently, it includes also jurisdiction
ratione temporis. The application of the above general attitude of the
Court towards jurisdiction ratione temporis may be illustrated by two
characteristic cases :

(a) In the disputes concerning Lockerbie, the Court established, inter
alia that:

"in the course of the oral proceedings the United Statescontended
that the requested provisional measures should not be indicated
because Libya had not presented a prima facie case that the pro-
visions of the Montreal Convention provide a possible basis for
jurisdiction inasmuch as the six-month period prescribed by Ar-
ticle 14,paragraph 1,of the Convention had not yet expired when
Libya's Application was filed; and that Libya had not established
that the United States had refused to arbitrate" (Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention
arisingfrom the Aerial Incident ut Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jama-
hiriya v. United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order
of 14 April 1992, 1.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 122,para. 25),

and that,
"in the context of the [proceedings in the Lockerbie case] on a

request for provisional measures, [the Court] has, in accordance
with Article 41 of the Statute, to consider the circumstances drawn
to its attention as requiring the indication of such measures, but
cannot make definitive findings either of fact or of law on the
issues relating to the merits, and the right of the Parties to contest
such issues at the stage of the merits must remain unaffected by
the Court's decision" (ibid., p. 126, para. 41).
(b) The question of jurisdiction of the Court ratione temporis in the
proceedings for the indication of provisional measures also arose in LICÉITE DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 354

«lorsqu'elle est saisied'une demande en indication de mesures conser-

vatoires, la Cour n'a pas besoin, avant d'indiquer ces mesures, de
s'assurer de manièreconcluante de sa compétencequant au fond de
l'affaire, mais...elle ne doit cependant pas appliquer l'article 41 du
Statut lorsque son incompétence au fond est manifeste)) (Compé-
tence en matière de pêcheries(Royaume-Uni c. Islande), mesures
conservatoires, ordonnance du 17 août 1972, C.I.J. Recueil 1972,
p. 14, par. 15; et Compétenceen matière de pêcheries(République
fédéraled'Allemagne c. Islande), mesures conservatoires, ordon-
nance du 17 août 1972, C.I.J. Recueil 1972, p. 33, par. 16).

II n'est guère besoinde relever que le membre de phrase ((n'a pas
besoin ...de s'assurer de manière concluante de sa compétence quant
au fond de l'affaire)) vise la compétence in toto et que, par conséquent,
il s'étend aussi à la compétence ratione temporis. Je donnerai deux
exemples caractéristiques pour montrer que la Cour adopte commun-
ément l'attitude définie ci-dessusvis-à-vis de la compétence ratione tem-
poris :
LI)Dans lesdifférends relatifs à l'affaire Lockerbie, la Cour a dit notam-
ment ceci :

«lors de la procédure orale les Etats-Unis ont soutenu qu'il n'y
avait pas lieu d'indiquer les mesures conservatoires demandées
parce que la Libye n'avait pasétabli, prima facie, que les disposi-
tions de la convention de Montréal pouvaient constituer une base
de compétencedans la mesure où le délaide six mois prescrit par
le paragraphe 1 de l'article 14 de ladite convention n'était pas
expiré lors du dépôt de la requête dela Libye; et ...la Libye
n'avait pas établi que les Etats-Unis eussent refusél'arbitrage))
(Questions d'interprétation et d'application de la convention de
Montrécrlde 1971 résultant de l'incident aériende Lockerbie
(Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique), mesures

conservatoires, ordonnance du14 avril 1992, C. 1.J. Recueil 1992,
p. 122,par. 25),
et elle dit encore:

«dans le contexte de la [procédurerelative à l'affaire Lockerbie],
qui concerne une demande en indication de mesures conserva-
toires, [la Cour] doit, conformément à l'article 41 du Statut, exa-
miner si lescirconstancesportées à son attention exigentl'indication
de telles mesures, mais n'est pas habilitée à conclure définitive-
ment sur les faits et le droit, et..sa décisiondoit laisser intact le
droit des Parties de contester les faits et de faire valoir leurs moyens
sur le fond)) (ibid., p. 126, par. 41).

b) La question de la compétence ratione temporis de la Cour dans la
procédurerelative a l'indication de mesures conservatoires s'est éga- the case concerning the Application of the Conventionon the Preven-
tion and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. In its Order on the
request for the indication of provisional measures of 8 April 1993,
the Court stated, inter uliu:

"Whereas the Court observes that the Secretary-General has
treated Bosnia-Herzegovina, not as acceding, but as succeeding to
the Genocide Convention, and if this be so the question of the
application of Articles XI and XII1 of the Convention would not
arise; whereas however the Court notes that even if Bosnia-Herze-
govina were to be treated as having acceded to the Genocide Con-
vention, with the result that the Application might be said to be
premature when filed, 'this circumstance would now be covered'
by the fact that the 90-day period elapsed between the filingof the
Application and the oral proceedings on the request (cf. Mav-

rommutis Palestine Concessions,Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 34); whereas the Court, in deciding whether to
indicate provisional measures, is concerned not so much with the
past as with the present and with the future; whereas, accordingly
even if itsjurisdiction suffersfrom the temporal limitation asserted
by Yugoslavia - which it does not now have to decide - this is
not necessarily a bar to the exercise of its powers under Article 41
of the Statute" (Application of tlze Convention on the Prevention
and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Provisional Meusures,
Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 16,para. 25).

As far as the nature of the proceedings for the indication of provisional
measures isconcerned, they are surely not designed for the purpose of the
final and definitive establishment of the jurisdiction of the Court. That is
why in the practice of the Court "prima facie jurisdiction" is almost
uniformly referred to when the indication of provisional measures is
involved. Although the explicit definition of "prima faciejurisdiction" is
of course hard to find in the Court's jurisprudence, its constitutive ele-
ments are relatively easy to determine. The determinant "prima facie"

itself implies that what is involved is not a definitely established jurisdic-
tion, but ajurisdiction deriving or supposed to be normally deriving from
a relevant legal fact which is defined in concreto as the "title of jurisdic-
tion". 1sreference to the "title of jurisdiction" sufficientper se for prima
facie jurisdiction to be constituted? It is obvious that the answer to this
question must be in the negative.

But, it could be said that the "title ofjurisdiction" is sufficientper se to
constitute prima faciejurisdiction except in case "the absence of jurisdic-
tion on the merits is manifest" (Fisheries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom
v. Iceland), Interim Protection, Order of1 7 August 1972, I. C.J. Reports LICÉITE DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 355

lement poséedans l'affaire relative à l'Application de lu convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide. Dans son
ordonnance du 8 avril 1993sur la demande en indication de mesures
conservatoires, la Cour a notamment déclaré:

((Considérant que la Cour constate que le Secrétaire généraal
considéréla Bosnie-Herzégovinecomme ayant non pas adhéré,
mais succédéa la convention sur le génocide, etque, si tel étaitle
cas, la question de l'application des articles XI et XII1 de la
convention ne se poserait pas; considérant toutefois que la Cour
note que, mêmesi la Bosnie-Herzégovinedevait êtreconsidérée
comme ayant adhéré à la convention sur le génocide,ce qui aurait

pour conséquenceque la requêtepourrait être tenuepour préma-
turéeau moment de son dépôt, «ce fait aurait étécouvert)) par
l'écoulementdu laps de temps de quatre-vingt-dixjours qui serait
arrivé à son terme entre le dépôt de la requêteet la procédure
orale sur la demande (voir Concessions Mavrommatis en Pales-
line, arrêtno2, 1924, C.P.J.I. sérieA n"2, p. 34); que la Cour, en
décidant si elle doit ou non indiquer des mesures conservatoires,
se préoccupe moins du passéque du présent etde l'avenir; que,
par conséquent, mêmesi la compétence de la Cour étaitaffectée
par la limite de temps qu'invoque la Yougoslavie - point que la
Cour n'a pas à trancher dans l'immédiat - cela ne constituerait
pas nécessairementun obstacle a l'exercicepar la Cour des pou-

voirs qu'elle tient de l'article 41 de son Statut.pplicution de la
convention pour lu prévention et la répressiondu crime de géno-
cide, mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 8 avril 1993, C.I.J.
Recueil 1993, p. 16, par. 25.)
S'agissant de la nature de la procédurerelative a l'indication de mesures

conservatoires, celle-ci n'est certainement pas conçue pour établir une
fois pour toutes, de façon définitive, lacompétence de la Cour. C'est
pourquoi celle-ci, dans sa pratique, parle quasiment toujours de «com-
pétenceprimu farie)) quand il est question pour elle d'indiquer des me-
sures conservatoires. 11est bien entendu difficilede trouver dans la juris-
prudence de la Cour une définition explicitede la ((compétence prima
facieu, mais ses élémentsconstitutifs n'en sont pas moins relativement
facilesa établir.Le qualificatif ((primafucie)) lui-mêmedit implicitement
qu'il ne s'agit pas d'une compétence établieà titre définitif,il s'agit d'une
compétence découlant,ou censée découlernormalement, d'un fait juri-
dique pertinent qui est défini in concret0 comme le «titre de compé-

tence)). Mais suffit-il d'invoquer le «titre de compétence))per se pour
qu'il y ait compétenceprimu facie? Il ne fait aucun doute qu'il faut ici
répondre par la négative.
On peut néanmoins direque le «titre de compétence))suffitprr se pour
constituer une compétence prima facie sauf «lorsque [l']incompétenceau
fond est manifeste)) (Compétenceen matière de pêcheries(Royaume-Uni
c. Islande), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 17août 1972, C.I.J.1972, p. 15, para. 15; Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Ger-
muny v. Iceland), Interim Protection, Order of 17 August 1972, I.C.J.
Reports 1972, p. 33, para. 16).
In other words, in question is the case when absence of jurisdiction is
obvious and manifest stricto sensu, i.e., when States try to use the Court
in situations when there is no ground for jurisdiction whatsoever.
Well-established jurisprudence of the Court clearly shows that the
absence of temporal element of jurisdiction of the Court, even if mani-
fest, does not excludejurisdiction of the Court if the temporal defect can
be easily remedied.
In its Judgment on preliminary objections raised by Yugoslavia in the
case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 11 July 1996,the Court stated
inter aliu:

"It is the case that the jurisdiction of the Court must normally be

assessed on the date of the filing of the act instituting proceedings.
However, the Court, like its predecessor, the Permanent Court of
International Justice, has always had recourse to the principle accord-
ing to which it should not penalize a defect in a procedural act which
the applicant could easily remedy. Hence, in the case concerning the
Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions,the Permanent Court said:

'Even if the grounds on which the institution of proceedings
was based were defective for the reason stated, this would not be
an adequate reason for the dismissal of the applicant's suit. The
Court, whose jurisdiction is international, is not bound to attach
to matters of form the same degree of importance which they
might possess in municipal law. Even, therefore, if the application
were premature because the Treaty of Lausanne had not yet been
ratified, this circumstance would now be covered by the subse-
quent deposit of the necessary ratifications.' (P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 2, p. 34.)

The same principle liesat the root of the following dictum of the Per-
manent Court of International Justice in the case concerning Certain
German Interests in Polish UpperSilesia :
'Even if, under Article 23, the existence of a definite dispute
were necessary, this condition could at any time be fulfilled by
means of unilateral action on the part of the applicant Party. And

the Court cannot allow itself to be hampered by a mere defect of
form, the removal of which depends solely on the Party con-
cerned.' (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6,p. 14.)
The present Court applied this principle in the case concerning the
Northern Cameroons (1.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 28), as wellas Military
and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua LICÉITÉ DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 356

Recueil 1972, p. 15,par. 15 ;Compétenceen matière depêcheries(Répu-
blique fédéraled'Allemagne c. Islande), mesures conservatoires, ordon-
nance du 17 août 1972, C.I.J. Recueil 1972, p. 33, par. 16).
Autrement dit, le cas de figure envisagé estcelui oùl'incompétenceest
évidentestricto sensu, c'est-à-dire quand les Etats veulent saisir la Cour
alors qu'il n'existerigoureusement aucun chef de compétence.
11est parfaitement établi dans la pratique de la Cour que l'absence de
l'élémenttemporel de sa compétence,mêmesi elleest évidente,ne lui ôte
pas sa compétence dès lors qu'il peut êtreaisément porté remède au

défaut temporel.
Dans son arrêt surles exceptions préliminaires soulevéespar la You-
goslavie dans l'affaire relative l'Application de lu convention pour h
préventionet la répression ducrime de génocideen date du 11juillet 1996,
la Cour a déclarénotamment:

((Certes, la compétence dela Cour doit normalement s'apprécier à
la date du dépôtde l'acte introductif d'instance. Cependant la Cour,
comme sa devancière, laCour permanente de Justice internationale,
a toujours eu recours au principe selon lequel elle ne doit pas sanc-
tionner un défaut qui affecterait un acte de procédure et auquel la
partie requérante pourrait aisément porter remède. Ainsi, dans
l'affaire desoncessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, la Cour perma-
nente s'est expriméede la sorte:

((Mêmesi la base de l'introduction d'instance étaitdéfectueuse
pour la raison mentionnée, ce ne serait pas une raison suffisante
pour débouter le demandeur de sa requête. LaCour, exerçant une
juridiction internationale, n'est pas tenue d'attacher des consi-
dérations de forme la mêmeimportance qu'elles pourraient avoir
dans le droit interne. Dans ces conditions, mêmesi l'introduction
avait étéprématurée,parce que le traité de Lausanne n'étaitpas

encore ratifié,ce fait aurait étécouvert par le dépôtultérieurdes
ratifications requises.(C.P.J.I. sérieA n" 2, p. 34.)

C'est du même principeque procède le dictum suivant de la Cour
permanente de Justice internationale dans l'affaire relativeà Cer-
tains intérêtallemands en Haute-Silésie polonaise:

«Mêmesi la nécessitéd'une contestation formelle ressortait de
l'article 23, cette condition pourrait êtretout moment remplie
par un acte unilatéral de la Partie demanderesse. La Cour ne
pourrait s'arrêter un défaut de formequ'il dépendrait dela seule
Partie intéresséede faire disparaître.)) (C.P.J.I. série A n" 6,

p. 14.)
La présenteCour a fait application de ce principe dans l'affaire du
Cameroun septentrional (C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 28), ainsi que dans
celle des Activités militaires etparamilitaires au Nicaragua et contre v. United States of America) when it stated: 'It would make no
sense to require Nicaragua now to institute fresh proceedings based
on the Treaty, which it would be fullyentitled to do.' (I.C.J. Reports
1984, pp. 428-429, para. 83.)

In the present case, even if it were established that the Parties,
each of which was bound by the Convention when the Application
was filed, had only been bound as between themselves with effect
from 14 December 1995, the Court could not set aside its jurisdic-
tion on this basis, inasmuch as Bosnia and Herzegovina might at any
time filea new application, identical to the present one, which would
be unassailable in this respect." (Application of the Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Cenocide, Prelimi-

nary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), pp. 613-614,
para. 26.)
The definitive and final establishment of the temporal element of juris-
diction in the proceedings for the indication of provisional measures is

resisted, in addition to the nature of the proceedings as such, also by the
nature of ratione temporis jurisdiction of the Court. Namely,
"jurisdiction ratione temporis does not exist as an independent con-
cept of the law governing international adjudication, and more spe-

cificallyof the law governing the jurisdiction and competence of the
Court. It is a dependent concept, giving rise to a particular problem
of determining the nature and effect of that dependency on the per-
sonal or the material jurisdiction of the Court, as the case may be."
(Shabtai Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court,
1920-1996, Vol. II, p. 583.)

14.2.1sit possible to argue that in the case in hand the reserve ratione
temporis in the Yugoslav declaration of acceptance of compulsory juris-
diction of the Court is of such a nature that one could say that the
"absence ofjurisdiction on the merits" - is manifest?
There is no doubt that there exists a fundamental difference between
the Parties concerning the qualification of the nature of the armed attack
on the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The Respondent finds that two
months of bombing and other acts aimed against the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia represent "a continued situation", an inextricable organic
unity of a variety of acts, while Yugoslavia maintains that in question
is a

"breach of an international obligation . . .composed of a series of
actions or omissions in respect of separate cases, [that] occurs at the
moment when that action or omission of the series is accomplished
which establishes the existence of the composite act" (The Interna-
tional Law Commission's Draft Articles on State Responsibility,
Part 1, Articles 1-35, Art. 25 (2), p. 272). celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique) lorsqu'elle a déclaré:
((11n'y aurait aucun sens à obliger maintenant le Nicaragua à enta-
mer une nouvelle procédure sur la base du traité - ce qu'il aurait
pleinement le droit de faire.)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 428-429,
par. 83.)
En l'occurrence, quand bien mêmeil serait établique les Parties,

qui étaient liéeschacune par la convention au moment du dépôt de
la requête,ne l'auraient étéentre elles qu'a compter du 14décembre
1995,la Cour ne saurait écartersa compétence sur cettebase dans la
mesure ou la Bosnie-Herzégovinepourrait à tout moment déposer
une nouvelle requête, identique à la présente,qui serait de ce point
de vue inattaquable. » (Application de lu convention pour la préven-
tion et la répressiondu crime de génocide,exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 613-614, par. 26.)

Ce n'est pas seulement la nature de la procédureen indication de me-
sures conservatoires qui s'oppose à l'établissement définitieft concluant
de l'élémenttemporel de la compétence,c'est aussi la nature mêmede la
compétence ratione temporis de la Cour. En effet,

«la compétence ratione temporis n'existe pas en tant que concept
indépendant du droit régissant les décisions judiciairesinternatio-

nales, et plus particulièrement encore du droit régissant lajuridiction
et la compétencede la Cour. C'est un concept subordonné, donnant
lieu a un problème particulier, consistant à déterminer la nature et
l'effetde cette subordination sur la compétencepersonnelle ou maté-
rielle de la Cour, selon le cas.)) (Shabtai Rosenne, The Law und
Practice of the International Court, 1920-1996, vol. II, p. 583.)

14.2. Est-il possible de soutenir qu'en l'espèce, la réservratione tem-
poris figurant dans la déclaration yougoslave d'acceptation de la juridic-
tion obligatoire de la Cour est de nature à permettre de dire que l'«in-
compétenceau fond est manifeste))?
Il ne fait pas de doute que les Parties s'opposent fondamentalement
au sujet de la qualification de l'attaque arméemenéecontre la Répu-
blique fédéralede Yougoslavie. Pour le défendeur, deux mois de bom-

bardements et d'autres actes dirigéscontre la République fédéralede
Yougoslavie représentent «une situation continue)), une unitéorganique
inextricable composée d'un grand nombre d'actes, tandis que, pour la
Yougoslavie, il s'agit d'une

«violation d'une obligation internationale ..compos[ée]d'une série
d'actions ou omissions relatives a des cas distincts, [qui] se produit
au moment de la réalisation decelle des actions ou omissions de la
sériequi établitl'existencedu fait composé)) (Projet d'articles de la
Commission du droit international sur la responsabilité des Etats,
premit.re partie, article1-35, art. 25, p. 272, par. 2).In this respect, the Application has invoked Article 25 (2) of the Draft
Articles on State Responsibility, prepared by the International Law
Commission, which stipulates, inter alia, that:
"the time of commission of the breach extends over the entire period
from the first of the actions or omissions constituting the composite
act not in conformity with the international obligation and so long
as such actions or omissions are repeated" (op. cit., p. 272).

This fundamental difference in the outlook on the armed attack on the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, represents, legallyspeaking, "a disagree-
ment over a point of law . . .a conflict of legal views or of interests
between two persons" as defined in the Mavrommatis Palestine Conces-
sions (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11).

Consequently, in question is a dispute between the Parties, which is
not, per se, a matter of jurisdiction, in particular not a matter of prima

faciejurisdiction; however, the Court's decision on this dispute may have
an effect on itsjurisdiction ratione temporis.
The Court, faced by a dispute of this kind, theoretically had two
options at its disposal:
(a) to resolve it lege artis. This possibility is, from the aspect of the
Court's well-settled jurisprudence, only theoretical. Because we are
dealing here with a matter which, as a rule, is not solved in the pro-
ceedings for the indication of provisional measures but in the pro-
cedure dealing with the merits of the case;

(6) to establish, as it has become customary for the Court, that there is
a disagreement over a point of law, but that it
"cannot make definitive findings either of fact or of law on the
issues relating to the merits, and the right of the Parties toontest
such issues at the stage of the merits must remain unaffected by
the Court's decision" (Questions of lnterpretation and Application
of the 1971 Montreal Convention urisingfrom the Aerial Incident
ut Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States of
America), Provisional Measures, Order of 14 April 1992, I.C.J.
Reports 1992, p. 126, para. 41).

However, the Court has chosen a third, and, in my opinion, the least
acceptable solution. The Court did not enter into the resolution of the
case in hand; moreover, it has not even determined its basic features, nor
established that the dispute, by its nature, is not appropriate for being
dealt with in the proceedings the main purpose of which is to preserve the
rights of either Party, rights to be confronted at the merits stage of the
case. But, it has simply accepted one of the conflicting legal views and
thus made an interesting turnaround - by entering the sphere of interim
judgment, without a formal judgment. Il est d'ailleurs faitétatdans la requête dece paragraphe 2 de l'article 25
du projet d'articles sur la responsabilitédes Etats établipar la Commis-
sion du droit international, lequel dispose notamment aussi:
«le temps de perpétration de la violation s'étendsur la période en-

tièreà partir de la première desactions ou omissions dont l'ensemble
constitue le fait composé non conforme à l'obligation internatio-
nale et autant que ces actions ou omissions se répètent)) (op. cit.,
p. 272, par. 2).
Cette opposition fondamentale sur la façon de concevoir l'attaque
arméedirigéecontre la République fédéralede Yougoslavie représente,
du point de vue juridique, «un désaccord sur un point de droit ...une

opposition de thèsesjuridiques ou d'intérêts))selon la définitiondonnée
dans l'affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine (arrêtno 2,
1924, C.P.J. I. sérieA no2, p. 11).
11s'agit par conséquentd'un différendentre les Parties qui, en soi, ne
porte pas sur la compétence,en particulier pas sur la compétence prima
facie; toutefois, la décisionque la Cour adoptera sur le différend peut
avoir un effet sur sa compétence ratione temporis.
Face à un différendde ce type, la Cour a en principe le choix entre
deux solutions :

a) trancher le différendlege artis. Cette possibilitéest, du point de vue
de la jurisprudence bien établiede la Cour, exclusivement théorique.
Nous avons en effet affaire ici à une question qui, en règle générale,
se résout non pas lors de la procédure en indication de mesures
conservatoires mais lors de la procédure sur le fond;
6) dire, comme la Cour en a pris l'habitude, qu'il existeun désaccordsur
un point de droit, mais qu'elle

((n'est pas habilitéeà conclure définitivementsur les faits ou le
droit, et que sa décisiondoit laisser intact le droit des Parties de
contester les faits et de faire valoir leurs moyens sur le fond))
(Questions d'interprétationet d'application de la convention de
Montréul de 1971 résultunt de l'incidentaérien de Lockerbie
(Jamahiriya arczbelibyenne c.Etats- Unis d'Amérique), mesures
conservatoires, ordonnance du 14 avril 1992, C.I.J. Recueil 1992,
p. 126,par. 41).

La Cour a toutefois choisi une troisièmesolution qui est, a mon avis, la
moins acceptable. La Cour ne s'est pas penchéesur la solution du diffé-
rend; en outre, elle n'a pas mêmeétabliquels sont ses principaux élé-
ments, et n'a pas établi non plus que le différend enquestion, par sa
nature même, nesaurait être traité lors d'uneprocédure quia essentielle-
ment pour objet de préserverlesdroits de chacune des parties, droits qu'il
faudra confronter au stade de l'examen au fond. La Cour a purement
et simplement accepté l'une des thèsesjuridiques opposées en prenant
ainsi un curieux virage - c'est-à-dire qu'elle estentréedans le domaine
de la décision provisoiresans pour autant se prononcer formellement. IV. OTHER RELEVANT ISSUES

15. In paragraph 15 of the Order the Court states:
"Whereas the Court is deeply concerned with the human tragedy,
the loss of life, and theenormous suffering in Kosovo which form

the background of the present dispute, and with the continuing loss
of life and human suffering in al1parts of Yugoslavia."

The phrasing of the statement seems to me unacceptable for a number
of reasons. First, the formulation introduces dual humanitarian concern.
The Court is, it is stated, "deeply concerned", while at the same time the
Court states "the loss of life". So, it turns out that in the case ofparts
of Yugoslavia" the Court technically states "the loss of life" as a fact

which does not cause "deep concern". Furthermore, the wording of the
formulation may also be construed as meaning that Kosovo is not a part
of Yugoslavia. Namely, after emphasizing the situation in Kosovo and
Metohija, the Court uses the phrase "in al1parts of Yugoslavia". Having
in mind the factual and legal state of affairs, the appropriate wording
would be "in al1other parts of Yugoslavia". Also, particular reference to
"Kosovo" and "al1 parts of Yugoslavia", in the present circumstances,
has not only no legal, but has no factual basis either. Yugoslavia, as a
whole, is the object of attack. Human suffering and loss of life are, un-
fortunately, a fact, generally applicable to the country as a whole; so, the
Court, even if it had at itsdisposal the accurate data on the number of
victims and the scale of suffering of the people of Yugoslavia, it would
still have no moral right to discriminate between them. Further, the
qualification that"human tragedy and the enormous suffering in Kosovo
. . form the background of the present dispute" not only is political, by
its nature, but has, or may have, an overtone ofjustification of the armed
attack on Yugoslavia. Suffice it to recall the fact that the respondent

State refers to its armed action as humanitarian intervention.

It is up to the Court to establish, at a later stage of the proceedings, the
real legal state of affairs, namely, the relevant facts. At the present stage,
the question of the underlying reasons for the armed attack on the Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia is the object of political allegations. While
the Respondent argues that what is involved is a humanitarian interven-
tion provoked by the "human tragedy and the enormous suffering", the
Applicant finds that sedes muteriue the underlying reasons are to be
sought elsewhere - in the support to the terrorist organization in Kos-
ovo and in the political aim of secession of Kosovo and Metohija from
Yugoslavia.
Consequently, we are dealing here with opposed political qualifications IV. AUTRES QUESTIONS PERTINENTES

15. Au paragraphe 15de son ordonnance, la Cour dit:

((Considérant que la Cour est profondément préoccupéepar le
drame humain, les pertes en vieshumaines et lesterribles souffrances
que connaît le Kosovo et qui constituent la toile de fond du présent
différend, ainsique par les victimes et les souffrances humaines que
l'on déplorede façon continue dans I'ensemblede la Yougoslavie. »

Le libelléde cette déclaration me paraît inacceptable pour plusieurs
raisons. La première est que cet énoncéfait part d'une préoccupation
humanitaire double. La Cour dit être ((profondémentpréoccupée)) et
évoqueen même temps ((les pertes en vies humaines)) et «les victimes)).
De sorte qu'en ce qui concerne «l'ensemble de la Yougoslavie)), la Cour
évoque techniquement «les victimes))comme un fait qui ne cause pas de
«préoccupation profonde)). En outre, l'énoncépermet également de
l'interprétercomme signifiant que le Kosovo ne fait pas partie de la You-
goslavie. C'est-à-dire qu'après avoirmis en relief la situation ausovo-
Metohija. la Cour utilise l'expression «dans l'ensemble de la Yougosla-

vie)). Compte tenu de la situation de fait et de la situation de droit,il
aurait fallu dire «dans le reste de la Yougoslavie». De surcroît, faire allu-
sion au «Kosovo» et à «l'ensemble de la Yougoslavie» non seulement
n'a aucun fondement juridique dans la situation actuelle, mais ne repose
pas sur les faits non plus. C'est l'ensemblede la Yougoslavie qui est atta-
qué.Les souffrances et lespertes en vies humaines sont malheureusement
un fait s'appliquant en généralau pays tout entier; dans ces conditions,
mêmesi elle avait eu à sa disposition des chiffres précisconcernant le
nombre des victimes et l'ampleur des souffrances de la population de la
Yougoslavie, la Cour n'aurait de toute façon pas eu le droit moral d'éta-
blir la moindre discrimination à cet égard.De plus, dire que «le drame

humain ...et les terribles souffrances que connaît le Kosovo et qui cons-
tituent la toile de fond du présentdifférend))non seulement est une indi-
cation de caractère politique mais représente, ou pourrait représenter,
une sorte dejustification de l'attaque arméemenéecontre la Yougoslavie.
Il suffit de rappeleà ce propos que 1'Etatdéfendeurqualifie son action
arméed'intervention humanitaire.
11 appartient à la Cour d'établir à un stade ultérieur dela procédure
quelle est véritablement la situation en droit, c'est-à-dire quels sont les
faits pertinents. Au stade actuel, la question des raisons profondes de
l'attaque arméedirigéecontre la Républiquefédéralede Yougoslavie fait
l'objet d'allégations politiques. Le défendeursoutient qu'il s'agit d'une
intervention humanitaire provoquée par «le drame humain et lesterribles

souffrances)), tandis que le demandeur estime que sedes materiae les rai-
sons profondes sont à chercher ailleurs - dans le soutien apporté à
l'organisation terroristà l'Œuvreau Kosovo et dans la volontépolitique
de sécessionqui anime le Kosovo-Metohija.
Nous avons donc affaire ici à des qualifications politiques opposéesin which the Court should not, and, in my view, must not, enter except in
the regular court proceedings.
16. The formulation of paragraph 46 of the Order leaves the impres-
sion that the Court iselegantly attempting to drop the bal1in the Security
Council's court. Essentially, it is superfluousbecause, as it stands now, it
only paraphrases a basic fact that "the Security Council has special
responsibilitiesunder Chapter VI1of the Charter". It can be interpreted,
it is true, also as an appeal to the United Nations organ, specifically
entrusted with the duty and designed to take measures in case of threat to
the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression; but, in that case the
Court would need to stress also another basic fact - that a legal dispute
should be referred to the International Court of Justice on the basis of
Article 36, paragraph 3, of the United Nations Charter.

17. The Court, by using the term "Kosovo" instead of the officia1
name of "Kosovo and Metohija", continued to follow the practice of the

political organs of the United Nations, which, by the way, was also
strictly followed by the respondent States.
Itis hard to find a justifiable reason for such a practice. Except of
course if weassume political opportunenessand involved practical, politi-
cal interests to be a justified reason for this practice. This is eloquently
shown also by the practice of the designation of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia. After the succession of the former Yugoslav federal units,
the organs of the United Nations, and the respondent States themselves,
have used the term Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro). However, since
22 November 1995,the Security Council uses in its resolutions 1021and
1022 the term "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" instead of the former
"Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)" without any
express decision and in a legally unchanged situation in relation to the
one in which it, like other organs of the United Nations, employed the
term "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)". The
fact that this change in the practice of the Security Council appeared on
the day following the initialling of the Peace Agreement in Dayton gives

a strong basis for the conclusion that the concrete practice is not based
on objective, legal criteria but rather on political criteria.

By using the word "Kosovo" instead of the name "Kosovo and Meto-
hija", the Court, in fact, is doing two things:

(a) it gives in to the colloquial use of the names of territorial units of an
independent State; and
(6) it ignores the official name of Serbia's southern province, a name
embodied both in the constitutional and legal acts of Serbia and of
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Furthermore, it runs contrary
to the established practice in appropriate international organi- LICÉITÉDE L'EMPLOIDE LA FORCE (OP. DISS.KRECA) 360

dans lesquelles la Cour ne devrait pas entrer, cela lui est mêmeinterdàt
mon avis, si ce n'est dans le cadre d'une procédurejudiciaire normale.
16. L'énoncédu paragraphe 46 de l'ordonnance donne l'impression
que la Cour cherche assez élégamment à renvoyer la balle dans lejardin
du Conseil de sécurité.Pour l'essentiel, c'est inutile,parce que, sous sa
forme actuelle, cet énoncén'est qu'une simple paraphrase d'une donnée
élémentairequi est que ((le Conseil de sécurité est investide responsa-

bilités spéciales envertu du chapitreVI1de la Charte)). Il est possible,
certes, de l'interpréteraussi comme un appel lancéàl'organe des Nations
Unies qui est très précisémenc thargé de prendre des mesures en cas de
menace contre la paix, de rupture de la paix ou d'acte d'agression etqui
a d'ailleurs étconçu à cet effet; mais, en l'occurrence, la Cour devrait
rappeler aussi une autre donnéeélémentaire:en vertu de l'article 36,para-
graphe 3, de la Charte des Nations Unies, un différendjuridique doit être
soumis àla Cour internationale de Justice.
17. En utilisant l'appellationKosovo)> au lieu de l'appellation offi-
cielle de((Kosovo-Metohija)), la Cour a continué de suivre la pratique
des organes politiques des Nations Unies, pratique dont, d'ailleurs, les

Etats défendeursne se départissentjamais.
Il est difficile de justifier pareille pratique, sauf, bien entendu, si nous
admettons que l'opportunité politique, les intérêtspolitiques et concrets
sont à cet égarddes arguments valables. C'est ce que montre également
de façon éloquente la pratique suivie pour désignerla République fédé-
rale de Yougoslavie. A la suite de la sécessionde certaines parties de
l'ancienne Fédérationyougoslave, les organes des Nations Unies et les
Etats défendeurseux-mêmesont utiliséla formule ((Yougoslavie (Serbie
et Monténégro))).Mais, depuis le 22 novembre 1995,le Conseil de sécu-
rité utilise, dans ses résolutions 1021 et 1022, la formule ((République
fédéralede Yougoslavie» au lieu de l'ancienne formule ((République
fédérative de Yougoslavie(Serbie et Monténégro))),sans qu'il y ait eu de

décision expresseà cet égardet dans une situation de droit inchangéepar
rapport à celle dans laquelle le Conseil, comme d'autres organes des
Nations Unies, se servait de la formule ((Républiquefédérativede You-
goslavie (Serbie et Monténégro)».Le fait que ce changement de pratique
du Conseil de sécuritédate du lendemain du jour ou a étéparaphé
l'accord de paix de Dayton autorise à soutenir avec assez de fermetéque
cette pratique concrète ne s'inspire pas de critères juridiques objectifs
mais plutôt de critères politiques.
En utilisant le terme((Kosovo)) au lieu du nom «Kosovo-Metohija)),
la Cour, en fait, fait deux choseà la fois:

a) elle adopte I'appellation courante et populaire servantà désigner les
unitésterritoriales d'un Etat indépendant;
6) elle laisse de côtéI'appellation officiellede la province méridionalede
Serbie, appellation consacrée par les actes constitutionnels et juri-
diques tant de la Serbie que de la Républiquefédéralede Yougosla-
vie. En outre, la Cour agit ainsi contrairementà la pratique établie zations. Exempli causa, the official designation of the southern Ser-
bian province "Kosovo and Metohija" has been used in the Agree-
ment concluded by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the
Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (Interna-
tional Legal Muterials, 1999,Vol. 38, p. 24).

Even if such a practice- which, in my opinion, is completely inappro-
priate not only in terms of the law but also in terms of proper usage -
could be understood when resorted to by entities placing interest and
expediency above the law, it is inexplicable inthe case of a judicial organ.

18. A certain confusion is also created by the term "humanitarian law"
referred to in paragraphs 18 and 44 of the Order. The reasons for the
confusion are dual :on the onehand, the Court has not shown great con-
sistency in using this term. In the Genocide case the Court qualified the
Genocide Convention as a part of humanitarian law, although it is obvi-
ous that, by its nature, the Genocide Convention falls within the field of
international criminal law (see dissenting opinion of Judge Kreka in the
case concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and

Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Preliminary Objrctions, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), pp. 774-775, para. 108).
On the other hand, it seems that in this Order the term "humanitarian
law" has been used with a different meaning, more appropriate to the
generally accepted terminology. The relevant passage in the Order should
be mentioned precisely because of the wording of its paragraphs 18 and
44. The singling out of humanitarian law from the rules of international
law which the Parties are bound to respect may imply low-key and timid
overtones of vindication or at least of diminishment of the legal implica-
tions of the armed attack on the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

Humanitarian law, in its legal, original meaning implies the rules ofjus
in bello. If, by stressing the need to respect the rules of humanitarian law,

which 1do not doubt, the Court was guided by humanitarian considera-
tions, then it should have stressed expressis verbis also the fundamental
importance of the rule contained in Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Char-
ter, which constitutes a dividing line between non-legal, primitive inter-
national society and an organized, dejure, international community.

(Signed) Milenko KRECA. LICÉITE DE L'EMPLOI DE LA FORCE (OP.DISS.KRECA) 361

par les organisations internationales compétentes. Par exemple, la
désignationofficiellede la province méridionale de Serbie((Kosovo-
Metohija)) est celle qui figure dans l'accord conclu par la République
fédéralede Yougoslavie et l'organisation pour la sécurité etla
coopération en Europe (International Legal Muterials, 1999,vol. 38,
p. 24).

Même si pareillepratique, laquelle, a mon sens, est totalement incor-
recte, non seulement sur le plan du droit mais aussi du point de vue du
bon usage, pouvait se défendre quand elle émane d'entités qui situent
l'intérêett la commodité au-dessus de la loi, elle est inexplicable quand
elle émaned'un organe judiciaire.
18. L'expression ((droit humanitaire)) que la Cour utilise aux para-
graphes 18 et 44 de son ordonnance prêteégalement à confusion, pour
une double raison: d'un côté,la Cour ne manifeste pas une parfaite cohé-
rence dans l'em~loi de cette formule. Dans l'affaire de 1'Aaolication de
la convention sur le génocide,la Cour a dit que ladite convention faisait
partie du droit humanitaire, alors qu'il est manifeste qu'en raison de sa

nature même, laditeconvention relèvedu droit pénalinternational (voir
l'opinion dissidente deM. Kreca dans l'affaire relativea l'Application de
la convention pour lu prévention et la répressiondu crimede génocide,
exceptions préliminaires, C.1.J.Recueil 1996 (II), p. 774-775, par. 108).
D'un autre côté, il me semble que dans la présenteordonnance, la for-
mule ((droit humanitaire)) est employée enun sens différent plusproche
du sens généralementacceptéaujourd'hui. Et il convient de faire précisé-
ment état del'extrait pertinent de l'ordonnance en raison mêmedu libellé
des paragraphes 18et 44. En isolant le droit humanitaire parmi les règles
de droit international que les parties sont tenues de respecter, il est pos-
sible que la Cour veuille, discrètement, voire timidement, justifier impli-
citement l'attaque arméedirigéecontre la République fédéralede You-
goslavie ou tout au moins en atténuer les conséquencessur le plan du
droit.

Dans son premier sens juridique, le droit humanitaire correspond
implicitement aux règles du jus in bello. Si la Cour s'inspirait, comme
je n'en doute nullement, de considérations humanitaires quand elle a
souligné la nécessité de respecter les règles du droit humanitaire, elle
aurait dû souligner expressément aussi l'importance fondamentale que
revèt la règleénoncée à l'article 2, paragraphe 4, de la Charte, laquelle
trace la ligne de démarcation entre une sociétéinternationale primitive,
ou le droit fait défaut, et une communauté internationale organiséeou
régnele droit.

(Signé) Milenko KRECA.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion by Judge ad hoc Kreca

Links