Dissenting opinion by Judge ad hoc Sir Geoffrey Palmer

Document Number
097-19950922-ORD-01-07-EN
Parent Document Number
097-19950922-ORD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SIR GEOFFREY PALMER

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages

382

382
385

A history of consistent opposition 385
Intervenors 388

389
389
Paragraph 63 390
The New Zealand argument
The argument of France 392
Weighing the arguments 393
Resolution of the issue 397
In accordance with the provisions of the Statute 398

THEFACTUAE LNVIRONMENA TARGUMENT 400
The prima facie standard 400
New Zealand's argument on the facts 401
The calculus of environmental risk 403

405

The development of international environmental law 406
International law on radioactive hazards 409
Environmental Impact Assessment 411
Precautionary principle 412
Conclusion 412

THENATURE OF THE JUDICIACLHOICE 413
The Order of the Court 413
Wider issues 416

419 1. The application before the Court appears to be unique. No pre-
cedent has been referred to that resembles it in fact or law. It is not easy
to grapple with a case which is both so novel in legal terms and of such
moment in substantive terms. In the end the result depends upon the
approach to be adopted to the legal interpretation of the Judgment ren-
dered by the Court in the same case in 1974.Absent the usual legal navi-
gation lights which guide this Court in its judicial work, we are thrown
back to the basic elements of legal reasoning that should be applied to
the task. 1 differ from the approach to legal analysis adopted by the
majority of the Court, so 1respectfully dissent from the Judgment of the

Court.

2. On 21 August 1995 the Government of New Zealand filed in the

Registry of this Court two documents:
(a) Request for an Examination ofthe Situation in accordancewithpara-
graph 63 of the Court's 1974Judgment in the Nuclear Tests (New
Zealand v. France) case;

(b) Further Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures.
3. The full text of paragraph 63 of the 1974Judgment is as follows:

"Once the Court has found that a State has entered into a com-
mitment concerning its future conduct it is not the Court's function
to contemplate that it will not comply with it. However, the Court
observes that if the basis of this Judgment were to be affected, the
Applicant could request an examination of the situation in accord-
ance with the provisions of the Statute; the denunciation by France,
by letter dated 2 January 1974, of the General Act for the Pacific
Settlement of International Disputes, which is relied on as a basis

of jurisdiction in the present case, cannot constitute by itself an
obstacle to the presentation of such a request." (1.C.J. Reports
1974, p. 477.)
4. On 9 May 1973the New Zealand Government instituted proceed-
ings against France with the purpose of obtaining a determination that

the conduct by the French Government of nuclear tests in the South
Pacificregion that gave rise to radioactive fallout constituted a violation
of New Zealand's rights under international law and that those rights
would be violated by any further such tests (I.C.J.Pleadings, Nuclear
Tests, Vol. II, p. 3). 5. In 1973the Court's jurisdiction was invoked under two heads:

(a) Articles 36 (1) and 37 of the Statute of the International Court of
Justice and Article 17 of the General Act for the Pacific Settlement
of International Disputes to which New Zealand and France both
had acceded ; and
(b) Article 36 (2) and (5) of the Statute of the Court.

France ceasedatmospherictestingin the South Pacific whilethis case was
before the Court in 1974in circumstances that will beanalysed later in
this opinion.
6. In 1995this Court scheduled a public sitting in order to enable New
Zealand and France to inform it of their viewson an issueframed by the
Court :

"Do the Requests submitted to the Court by the Government of
New Zealand on 21 August 1995 fa11within the provisions of para-
graph 63 of the Judgment of the Court of 20 December 1974in the
case concerning Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France) ?"

It is a procedural issue far removed from the merits of the case. 1sthere
a sufficient link between the case as it was pleaded and decided in 1974
and the effects of the French nuclear tests that are continuing under-
ground in the South Pacificto allow further consideration to be given to
the New Zealand Request? It was described in the oral argument by
France as a prior question to a later preliminary one. New Zealand said
it was to determine whether New Zealand could in the circumstances
exercisethe right reserved to it in 1974to return and pursue its 1973case.
Cases in this Court, because of the peculiar nature of itsjurisdiction, may
go through three phases with distinct proceedings in each - preliminary
objections to jurisdiction, preliminary objections to admissibility and the
merits of the case. But this 1995proceeding was not any of those. It was
of a procedural species not seen before and its novelty may have given

rise to misunderstandings. It led among other things to the Court side-
stepping New Zealand's Further Request for the Indication of Provi-
sional Measures and dealing with the Request itself in a somewhat sum-
mary manner. Both the procedural posture of the caseand the substantive
issues are novel; but novelty is no reason to dismiss the case or not con-
sider it fully.

7. It should be noted that France filedno pleadings in the casein 1974,
was not represented at the oral proceedings and at al1times maintained
the attitude as expressedin a letter of 16May 1973from the Ambassador
of France to the Netherlands which was placed before the Court. That
letter expressed France's view that the Court was manifestly not compe-

tent in the case; that it could not accept the Court's jurisdiction and thataccordingly the French Government did not intend to appoint an agent
and requested the Court to remove the case from the list (I.C.J. Reports
1974, p. 458).

8. A slightly different approach to the present application has been
taken by the Government of France in 1995.The same position taken in
1973was expressed by France in the letter dated 28 August 1995to the
Registrar at the Court by the Ambassador of the French Republic to the
Netherlands in which it is argued that "no basis exists which might
found, even if only prima facie, the jurisdiction of the Court to entertain
the New Zealand Requests". In 1995,however, the French Government
was represented by its Director of Legal Affairs at the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs at the meeting scheduled by the President of the Court on
30 August 1995.As a result of that meeting France filed with the Court
an aide-mémoirecontaining 14pages of closelyreasoned legal argument
as to why New Zealand's application could not be entertained by the
Court. In 1995France was represented by counsel before the Court. It
fully participated in oral hearings on 11and 12 September 1995.

9. In dealing with the present application it is necessary to ascertain
exactlywhat was decided and what was not decidedby the Court in 1974.
The President of France issued a communiqué on 8June 1974and other
officia1statements were made to the effect that atmospheric tests would
cease, giving way to underground testing. The Court in its 1974 decision
decided that the case before the Court had been rendered moot since
New Zealand had secured what it sought. The Court went on to state
that the statements by France that atmospheric tests would cease were
statements upon which other nations were bound to rely. The Court held
the statements "constitute an undertaking possessing legal effect" (I.C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 474, para. 53). Thus the Court reasoned that the 'Yis-
pute having disappeared, the claim advanced by New Zealand no longer
has any object" (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 476, para. 59).

10. In its Request of 14May 1973New Zealand did not restrict itself

to concern with atmospheric nuclear testing. In its submission the rights
to be protected by the Court were:

"(i) the rights of al1members oftheinternational community, includ-
ing New Zealand, that no nuclear tests that give rise to radio-
active fall-out be conducted;
(ii) that the rights ofal1members of the international community,
including New Zealand, to the preservation from unjustified
artificial radio-active contamination of the terrestrial, maritime
and aerial environment and, in particular, of the environment
of theregion in which the tests are conducted and in which New
Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue and the Tokelau Islands are
situated; (iii) the right of New Zealand that no radio-active material enter the
territory of New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue or the Toke-
lau Islands, includingtheir air space and territorial waters, as a
result of nuclear testing;
(iv) the right of New Zealand that no radio-active material, having
entered the territory of New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue
or the Tokelau Islands, including their airspace and territorial
waters, as a result of nuclear testing, cause harm, including

apprehension, anxiety and concern to the people and Govern-
ment of New Zealand, and of the Cook Islands, Niue and the
Tokelau Islands ;
(v) the right of NewZealand to freedom of the high seas, including
freedom ofnavigation and overflightand the freedomto explore
and exploit the resources of the sea and the sea-bed, without
interference or detrimentresultingfrom nuclear testing." (1C..J.
Pleadings, Nuclear Tests, Vol. II, Request for the Indication of
Interim Measures of Protection, p. 49, compare with Applica-
tion, ibid., p. 8.)

II. The elements of the request relevant to the present application are:

- the maritime environment,
- the terrestrial environment,
- unjustified artificial radioactive contamination,
- the effects on the environment of the region,
- freedom to explore and exploit the resources of the sea-bed without
detriment from nuclear testing,
- the dangers to territorial waters.

12. It is against that background that paragraph 63 of the Court's
Judgment falls to be considered. In the written proceedings and oral
hearings before this Court the paragraph has been subjected to a remark-
able range of interpretations and it is a passage with some delphic quali-
ties. It hangs in a tantalizing fashion over the whole case.
13. The paragraph appears alone in the Judgment plainly separated

from the passages which both precede it and follow it. What was its pur-
pose? What is its proper interpretation? These are the questions upon
whichthe resultof the casedepends.But before discussing thoseissues some
context needs to be set out to allow a more ample appreciation of them.

A History of Consistent Opposition

14. This case concerning French nuclear testing in the South Pacific
has a long history. It began in this Court in 1973.Diplomatic correspon-
dence between New Zealand and France revealed serious concern aboutthe subject for a decade earlier (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 464, para. 26).
Before that France had tested nuclear devices in Algeria. Two factors
which favoured a change of venue for testing were the fact that Algeria
secured its independence from France in 1963and there was concern that
the Saharan winds carried radioactive debris into Europe. (See generally
"Note, French Testing and International 'Law", 24 Rutgers Law
Review 144 (1969).) While the Pacific may have been more expansive
in spatial terms, the reception to the tests there, first atmospheric and
later underground, reinforced the old adage of environmental law:
not-in-my-backyard.

15. But it would be wrong to attribute New Zealand7sopposition to
nuclear testing to the French movement of testing to the Pacific. France
conducted 19tests in Algeria between February 1960and February 1966.
At the time the official order to proceed with testing was given in 1958
there was a General Assembly resolution expressly condemning French
testing, not only for the threat that it posed to the then moratorium
but also for "causing anxiety among al1peoples, and more particularly
those of Africa". New Zealand voted for that resolution in the General
Assembly (resolution 1379 (XIV), 20 November 1959).

16. This history of New Zealand opposition to nuclear testing is
meticulously examined in a scholarly article by J. Stephen Kos ("Interim

Relief in theinternational Court of Justice:New Zealand and the Nuclear
Test Cases7',14 Victoria Universityof WellingtonLaw Review 357(1984)).
He finds that New Zealand, unlike Australia, had "had a consistent and
outspoken record to al1 atmospheric testing since 1958" (p. 370). One
of the counsel in the 1973 New Zealand case, who was again counsel
before the Court on this occasion, Sir Kenneth Keith, Q.C., wrote in a
learned article,

"The diplomatic record, assembled in the documentation submit-
ted to the Court, shows a consistent and developing New Zealand
position dating from 1958when it supported a resolution about test-
ing in the Sahara." (K. J. Keith, "The Nuclear Tests Cases after Ten
Years", 14 Victoria Universityof WellingtonLaw Review 350(1984).)

17. In truth, the New Zealand opposition to nuclear tests has three
strands - concern for disarmament and an opposition to the spread of
nuclear weapons and their testing; the effects of nuclear testing on the
environment; and a regional concern.There is in fact a strong element of
consistencyabout New Zealand's attitude to nuclear testing in al1catego-ries and in this history is to be found the explanation for why New Zea-
land's pleadings in the 1974case are substantially wider than Australia's
in the companion case. The New Zealand pleadings as set out earlier in
this opinion manifestly do not restrict themselvesto issuesof atmospheric
nuclear testing. The environmental issues are prominent.

18. It is also significant that the New Zealand officia1reaction to
France's assurances, made while the case was before the Court, that
atmospheric testing would cease and give way to underground testing
was not accepted by New Zealand. France had issued a communiquéon
8 June 1974indicating it would cease atmospheric tests. New Zealand in
a diplomatic note that was also before the 1974Court said it had "fun-
damental opposition to al1nuclear testing" (1.CJ. Reports 1974,p. 470,

para. 37).

19. Then there was the officia1NewZealand Government response to
the Judgment of the Court. The officia1statement of the New Zealand
Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. W. E. Rowling, was made on 21December
1974and put before this Court on 11 September 1995.It concluded as
follows :

"Mr. Rowling concluded by recalling that New Zealand's concern
about nuclear testing had never been confined to the particular case
of the tests conducted by France - or indeed, to the question of
testing in the atmosphere. It would continue to be the New Zealand
Government's aim to bring about the ending of al1forms of nuclear
weapons testing, by any country."

20. Indeed it is a matter of public record that New Zealand had a seri-
ous diplomaticdispute with the United States of America over the ability
of ships from that country to bring nuclear weapons into New Zealand
harbours, a dispute which resulted in a rupturing of the Anzus Alliance
established between the United States, Australia and New Zealand
pursuant to the 1951Anzus Treaty (131 United Nations, Treaty Series
(UNTS) 83). The dispute caused the United States to suspend its treaty
obligation towards New Zealand because New Zealand would not admit
to its ports nuclear armed or powered ships. New Zealand passed a stat-
ute that remains the law enshrining that policy: New Zealand Nuclear
Free Zone, Disarmament and Arms Control Act 1987.

21. From 1983onwards there was a consistent pattern of officia1pub-
licstatements expressedbyNew Zealand to France's underground nuclear

testing in thePacific. The 1995New Zealand Request shows that New
Zealand publicly objected on no fewer than 50 occasions. 22. Further, New Zealand continuously sought information, or evi-
dence, from France in bilateral, regional and multilateral contexts. Those
requests include the following:

3 December 1979: request by NewZealand Minister of Foreign Affairs
during meeting in Paris with French Foreign Minister;

22 April 1980: request to France to allow visit to Mururoa test site by
New Zealand scientists;
9 December 1981 :further request for information;
24 March 1982: New Zealand request for independent verification of
French safety measures;

23 August 1982: New Zealand repeated request for access to site by
New Zealand scientists(Atkinson visitallowedOctober-November 1983);

25 November 1986 :Noumea Convention signedfollowingnegotiations
over some years involving New Zealand and France and other South
Pacific States.
There were no tests between July 1991and September 1995.(Reply to
question by Judge Schwebel.)
23. In responding to the 1995Request before it the Court needed to
examine here the context of this particular dispute closely. In 1973the

burden of the complaint by New Zealand was that it was entitled to be
free from the hazards of increased nuclear radiation due to French
nuclear testingin the South Pacific. Asindicated elsewherein this opinion
the Court found it unnecessary in 1974 to address the central issue
attributing "legal effect" to France's public undertaking to haltatmos-
pheric testing. Unhappily, this disposition of the case manifestly did not
have the effect of solving the dispute between the Parties. The state of
international law on the central issues was not decided. The reality is
that in one form or another French nuclear testing in the South Pacific
has been at the root of a series of international law issues which have
arisen between the two nations since 1974 (United Nations Secretary-
General : Ruling on the Rainbow Warrior affair between France and
New Zealand, reprinted in 26 International Legal Materials (ILM) 1346
(1987), 74 International Law Reports (ILR) 241; Rainbow Warrior

(New Zealand v. France), International Arbitration Award, 30 April
1990(Eduardo Jiménezde Aréchaga, Professor Bredin and Sir Kenneth
Keith), 82 ILR 499).)

Intervenors

24. That there is widespread concern about the environmental issues
raised by the French tests is obvious enough, not only from the highmedia profile the issues enjoyed at the very time of the oral hearings but
also from the fact that a number of countries sought to intervenein these
proceedings under Article 62 of the Statute and have filed the necessary
documents to do so. Those countries are:

Australia,
Samoa,
Solomon Islands,
Marshall Islands,
Federated States of Micronesia.
The Court has taken no action on the Applications made by these
countries; an omission considered by this Judge to be unfortunate. It is a
big step for the smaller ofthese democraticcountries to attempt to come

before this Court combiningas they do the interests of Polynesian, Mela-
nesian and Micronesian peoples and they are entitled to a response. They
were not permitted to be heard in the oral argument and they well may
have been able to add valuable assistance to the Court's consideration.
The issue before the Court was one that deserved to be considered in
its regional context as well as its factual and legal context. As Paul
East, Q.C., the Attorney-General of New Zealand told the Court the
15 countries of the South Pacific Forum regard French nuclear testing
"of grave concern to the countries and peoples of the region" (CR 95/19,
p. 20, para. 13).This regional concern is exemplifiedby the provisions of
the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty concluded at Rarotonga
6 August 1985, entered into force 11 December 1986 (24 ILM 1442
(1985)).

Paragraph63

25. The central legal issuein the case is how to interpret paragraph 63
of the Court's 1974 Judgment, which for ease of reference is repeated
again :

"Once the Court has found that a State has entered into a com-
mitment concerning its future conduct it is not the Court's function
to contemplate that it will not comply with it. However, the Court
observes that if the basis of this Judgment were to be affected, the

Applicant could request an examination of the situation in accord-
ance with the provisions of the Statute; the denunciation by France,
by letter dated 2 January 1974, of the General Act for the Pacific
Settlement of International Disputes, which is relied on as a basis of jurisdiction in the present case, cannot constitute by itself an obstacle
to the presentation of such a request." (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 477.)

The New Zealand Argument

26. The New Zealand interpretation of the paragraph is based on its
1973Application which was not limited to atmospheric testing and was
at its base a dispute about nuclear contamination. The prime concern
was contamination, its source was incidental or secondary (1995 New
Zealand Request, para. 64). New Zealand says its interpretation draws
strength from its prayer that the Court adjudge and declare the conduct
of nuclear tests in the South Pacific constituted a violation of New Zea-
land rights under international law. New Zealand further draws comfort

from the fact that the operative part of the Court'sOrder of 22June 1973
talks of the need to avoid "nuclear tests" and is not restricted to atmos-
pheric tests (1995New Zealand Request, para. 65). New Zealand further
points to the scope of the 1973Application in its concern with the living
resources of the sea.

27. New Zealand then puts its argument in this way:

"It is true that the French declarations had said that, in givingup
atmospheric testing, France would be in a position to pass to the
stageofunderground testing. Thus eventhough the prospect ofunder-
ground testing was in the mind of the Court, it did not specifi-
callyrule that underground testing would end the dispute absolutely.
The crucial point to recall is that no one had any idea at that time
that the underground testing subsequently to be carried out at
Mururoa or at Fangataufa could, or would in due course, lead to
some of the results that it was thought the termination of atmos-
pheric testing would avoid, namely, pollution of the marine environ-
ment by radioactive material. If it had been so contemplated, the
Court could hardly have taken the view that the French renuncia-
tion of atmospheric testing could by itself have brought the 'dispute'

to an end - for evidently it would not have." (Ibid., para. 67.)
28. Thus, New Zealand argues that the scope of the Court's 1974
Judgment must be measured not by reference to atmospheric testing as
such, but rather by reference to the stated objective of the Application,
which was to secure a prohibition of testing likely to produce contami-
nation in the Pacific marine environment by any artificial radioactive
material. It was triggered by the announcement of 13June 1995by the

President of the French Republic announcing a series of tests after
France had previously ceased testing in July 1991.On the basis of scien-tific evidence, the case New Zealand now presents is that underground

nuclear testing at Mururoa and Fangataufa has already led to some
contamination of the marine environmentand there appears a real risk of
its leading to further potentially significant contamination. Thus, con-
cludes the argument on this point by New Zealand, the matching made
by the Court in 1974between atmospheric testing and the width of the
dispute betweenNew Zealand and France is based on a presumption that
is no longer valid. By the time of the oral hearing there had occurred a
total of 135underground nuclear explosions in the South Pacificmaking
up the relevant background against which the provisions in paragraph 63
of the Judgment must be examined. So, New Zealand now seeks a
resumption of the 1973proceedings before this Court because the basis
of the 1974Judgment has been affected by newdevelopments and by the
cumulation of concentrations of hazardous radioactive materials which
will bea danger if they escape.

29. On the critical element upon which the view of the majority turns
the New Zealand Solicitor-General, J. J. McGrath, Q.C., made the fol-
lowing oral submission :
"Had it been the Court's intention to confine resumption of the
caseto a situation where France had reverted to atmospheric testing,
the Court would have said so. It did not. Instead it framed the test

in broad words which raised the question of whether the rationale
underlyingthe Judgment of 1974continued to apply. It is argued by
France that only future atmospheric testing iscovered by the right to
go back to the Court. But that, Members of the Court, is contra-
dicted by the very generality and wide scope of the words 'if the
basis of the Judgment is affected'.Indeed, if you look at the whole of
paragraph 63, it is impossible to treat the French unilateralunder-
taking to cease atmospheric testing as the only event that would
change the basis of the Judgment. The first sentence of the para-
graph says that the Court is not prepared to contemplate a breach of
its undertaking by France. How, then, can it be argued that the
second sentence contemplated solely that possibility?" (CR 95/19,
p. 50, para. 38.)

30. There were in the New Zealand viewtwo assumptionsformingthe
basis of the Judgment in 1974.The first was that France would comply
with its comrnitment to cease atmospheric testing and confine itself to
underground testing. The second assumption was that the cessation of
atmospheric testing met and matched New Zealand's allegations and
concerns regarding nuclear contamination as they stood in 1974. Then
New Zealand went on to develop an extensive argument as to why the

second assumption was no longer valid. Thus, if the wider concerns thatit expressed in its pleading came again into issue in the future it was at
liberty to reopen the case under paragraph 63. The words "basis of the
Judgment" were deliberately left undefined, New Zealand contends. New
Zealand went on to develop lengthy arguments as to what had changed.
In short what had changed were both the facts and the law.

31. Professor Elihu Lauterpacht put the argument for New Zealand in
this way. He suggestedto the Court that if New Zealand had been asked
in 1974the question: What is your concern - to stop atmospheric test-
ing or prevention of nuclear contamination, it would have provided the
following answer :

"It is ridiculous to think that we would be content with the aban-
donment of atmospheric testing if nuclear pollution were to be
allowed to continue by other means. For us it isnot the means or the
medium of testing that matters. It is the consequences. The fact that
the testingis carried out in the atmosphere is only incidental to the
consequences of the testing." (CR 95/19, p. 64, para. 5.)

The Argument of France

32. The arguments adduced by France stoutly resist al1of the New
Zealand claims. One of the counsel for France, Sir Arthur Watts,
described the New Zealand Request as "curious and unprecedented"
(CR 95/21,p. 47). This submission was based on the notion that the case
no longer existed. In fact that there was no provision for such a Request
in either theStatute governingthe Court or its Rules. Thus in essencethe

French argument was that the Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France)
case no longer exists. It came to "an end in 1974, and is dead" (ibid.,
p. 52). Since it was dead it could not rise again.

33. In the aide-mémoiresubmitted to the Court on 6 September 1995
France submits that the Request of New Zealand does not relate to any
case and consequentlyno procedural steps can be taken. France submits
the case was closed by the Judgment of this Court on 20 December 1974.
France reasons that since the Court found that the claim then by New
Zealand no longer had any object, as a result of the statements made by
France, the Court was not called upon to give a decision. This, says
France, was the decision, it is res judicata and the matter is at an end.
The whole case was about atmospheric tests and only atmospheric tests.
The structure of the Court's Judgment demonstrates it. Furthermore, the
Court and New Zealand knew that tests were going to continue under-

ground. The statements made by France and relied upon by the Court
said so. France points to passages in the Judgment saying that the New
Zealand Application should be interpreted as applying only to atmos-
pheric tests. And, France argues, none of the six dissenting Judges dis-puted the fundamental conclusion that the object of the New Zealand
Application related to atmospheric tests. France goes on to quote state-
ments in the New Zealand pleadings that the "core of the legal dispute"
iswhether atmospherictesting involvesthe violation of international law.
(Aide-mémoiresubmitted on behalf of France, para. 16.) Thus, in the
view ofFrance paragraph 63 is to be read against a background that the
whole case was and is restricted to atmospheric tests. France concludes
on the basis of this reasoning that the New Zealand 1995Request is of a
"wholly artificial and unacceptable nature" (ibid.,para. 19)'.

34. Taken as a whole the Judgment of the Court established the fol-
lowing three propositions in the viewof France. First it expresslyconsid-
ered New Zealand's application to relate solely to atmospheric tests and
not other types of tests. Second, the Court found France committed by
various unilateral declarations not to conduct further atmospheric tests.
Third, it held that New Zealand's claim no longer had any object.

35. The French argument went on to contend that thepublic announce-
ment of France in 1974to undertake no further atmospheric tests could
not be dissociated from its similarly announced intention to carry out
underground tests. Furthermore, says France, New Zealand understood
the decision the same way France did. It refrained from complaining
about underground tests in the South Pacific for some years and when

it diddenounce the underground tests New Zealand never advanced the
decision of the International Court of Justice as a basis for doing so.

36. France went on to argue that a further objection to the New Zea-
land Request is the point that there is no provision within the Statute of
the International Court of Justice within which the Request falls. Para-
graph 63 of the Judgment, France emphasizes, said that any application
New Zealand might make pursuant to the paragraph had to be "in
accordance with the provisions of the Statute". The present Request
could not be brought within the terms of the Statute - it was neither an
application for interpretation under Article 60 nor a request for a revi-
sion of judgrnent under Article 61. The conditions under which those
articles apply were absent in this case. Thus, the Request was nothing
and nothing could be done with it.

Weighing the Arguments

37. Weighing these arguments it appears to me that they demonstrate
widelydivergent legal approaches. The French approach is a strict, tech-
nical legal approach. It was described by more than one of the French counselas "rigorous". 1should have thought "unrealistic" may have been
a better characterization of it.ch a strict construction approach avoids
the need for the Court to address the substance of the issues. The
approach allows the Court to avoid encounteringthe highlycontroversial
issues of nuclear testing in the South Pacific by France by reading down
the language of the Court in paragraph 63 of its 1974 Judgment and
restricting its application to the matters that France no longer argues in
favour of, namely atmospheric nuclear testing. The second approach
requires the Court to grapple with the real issues that exist between
France and New Zealand about the obligations under international law
in respect to testing of the character that is currently continuing in the
South Pacific as this case proceeds.

38. The differencebetween the two approaches willresult in important
practical consequences. The first approach produces a decisionthat there
is no casebefore the Court, nothing further to be gone into and the whole
matter will beat an end. If the second approach is adopted it causes the
Court to embark upon a consideration of further jurisdictional matters
and perhaps eventually an examination of the obligations at international
law that exist in the circumstances. It must be stressed, however, that
even if the second approach to the issue as framed by the Court prevails
there is no necessary implication to be drawn from it that France has
acted in contravention of international law. Itis simplythat the issuewill
fa11to be argued and decided before this Court. To decide the present
issue against France will simply allow further stages of the case to con-
tinue before this Court, in particular New Zealand's Further Request for
the Indication of Provisional Measures will then come to be dealt with.

39. In the event, a majority of the Court has decided in 1995that while
the French argument that there is nothing here fails,there is nevertheless
nothing here that the Court isprepared to take up. Since1differfrom the
judgrnent of the Court, 1set out my own reasoning in some detail in the
following paragraphs.
40. Confining the analysis for the moment to what the 1974 Court
actually said in paragraph 63, it must be accepted on any interpretation
that the Court meant that there were circumstances in which New Zea-
land could request an examination of the situation. That is what the
Court said and it must be understood to have meant it. In order to under-
line the jurisdictional significance of this utterance the Court pointed
out that the denunciation by France of the General Act for the Pacific
Settlement of International Disputes which was relied on as a basis for
jurisdiction cannot constitute an obstacle to such a request. Why did it
Saythat? Presumably because having decided there were circumstances in

which New Zealand could request an examination of the situation by the
Court at a later date it did not want that Request then to be met byjuris-
dictional arguments that the provisions by which the Court was allegedly
seised of the dispute in the first place were now spent. For the Court togo to such pains to ensure that the power for New Zealand to return to
the Court should be kept open must indicate that the Court felt that right

was an important safeguard.

41. The reasons for the 1974Court developingits vieware perhaps not
far to seek.The Court must have known New Zealand may fail to accept
the view that there was nothing left to decide after the statements made
by the French Government about a cessation of atmospheric testing.
Indeed, officia1 statements concerning the New Zealand position on
France's assuranceswere before the Court in 1974and these were that it
rejected al1forms of testing, not merely atmospheric. These are clearly set
out in the Judgrnent (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 470, para. 37). The Court
could not foresee what may happen in the future. Out of caution, there-
fore, it left the opportunity open for an examination of the situation in
the future. That was both a comfort for New Zealand and a protection
for the Court in ensuring that its authority in the matter was recognized
and continued.

42. The basis for paragraph 63 may indeed stem from the strong dis-

senting opinion of Judges Onyeama, Dillard, Jiménez deAréchaga and
Sir Humphrey Waldock. Those Judges said:

"In accordance with the above-mentioned basic principles, the
true nature of New Zealand's claim, and of the objectivessought by
the Applicant, ought to have been detennined on the basis of the
clear and natural meaning of the text of its forma1submission.The
interpretation of that submission made by the Court constitutes in
our view not an interpretation but a complete revision of the text,
which ends in eliminatingwhat constitutes the essence of that sub-

mission, namely the request for a declaration of illegality of nuclear
tests in the South PacificOcean givingrise to radio-activefall-out. A
radical alteration of an applicant's submission under the guise of
interpretation has serious consequencesbecause it constitutes a frus-
tration of a party's legitimate expectations that the case which it has
put before the Court will beexamined and decided. In this instance
the serious consequences have an irrevocable character because the
Applicant is now prevented from resubmitting its Application and
seising the Court again by reason of France's denunciation of the
instruments on which it is sought to base the Court's jurisdiction in
the present dispute." (Ibid., p. 499, para. 12.)

43. The interna1 textual evidence to be derived from that passage
matchesup closelywith what was said by the Court in paragraph 63.The
Court in that paragraph included a reference to a denouncedinstrument,
specificallysaving the request for examinationfrom the fate predicted bythe dissenters. In my opinion a possible explanation of paragraph 63 is
that it was adopted by the Court, after having seen the dissent circulated
in draft, in order to blunt power of the central point made by the dis-
senters and to ensure it did not come to pass. In that way the majority
may have attempted to secure more support within the Court for the
Judgment and may in fact have done so.

44. If theabove reasoning is correct, it would suggestthe Court had in
mind in framing paragraph 63 that New Zealand was entitled to make a
Request in terms of its original pleading. And as has been adverted to
earlier those pleadings were framed rather widely. The majority of the
Court was tacitly admitting future difficultiescould arise because of the
line it wastaking; assurancesfrom France may not be enough to satisfy
al1the applicant's objectives.The Court did not therefore decide the sub-
stantive issue before the Court but left open to itself the opportunity to
do so later. New Zealand, as the dissenting Judges observed in 1974,
never filedany discontinuance of its proceedings in light of French assur-
ances. While the case was found to be moot in 1974 its status could
change if the facts that rendered it moot changed.

45. What were the circumstances in which such a Request as contem-
plated by the 1974 Court could be made? The first sentence of para-
graph 63 indicates that it is not the Court's function to contemplate that
a State would not comply with a commitment once the Court bas found

the State has made the commitment. The Court should be taken at its
word; if itis taken at its word the Court's concerns werenot restricted to
non-compliance by France of its undertakings. The concerns were wider
than that. The next sentence is critical: "However, the Court observes
that if the basis of this Judgrnent were to be affected, the Applicant could
request an examination of the situation in accordance with the provisions
of the Statute ..."The operative words are "if the basis of this Judgment
were to be affected". A large number of things could affect the basis of
the Judgment. Not the least of these were future developments which the
Court could not foresee in 1974but which it knew may produce circum-
stances which could require its Judgment to be examined again. If the
basic factors underlyingthe Judgment changed because of France's future
conduct then the issues could be revisited by the Court.

46. There is nothing in the language of paragraph 63 to restrict such
an examination to France's compliance with its undertaking not to
resume atmospheric nuclear testing. France relies upon paragraph 29 of

the Judgment particularly the passage where the Court says that it con-
siders

"for purposes of the Application, the New Zealand claim is to be
interpreted as applying only to atmospheric tests, not to any other form of testing, and as applying only to atmospheric tests so con-
ducted as to give rise to radio-active fall-out on New Zealand terri-
tory" (I.C.J. Reports 1974,p. 466).

It is true that this was the basis upon which the Court framed its Judg-
ment. But it was not a position agreed to by New Zealand and the plain
language of NewZealand's Application was broader. Understood in that
way there is nothing inconsistent between paragraphs 29 and 63. Para-
graph 63 was a recognition by the Court of the realities of the situation
produced by its Judgment. So, if the "basis of this Judgment were to be
affected" the Applicant could request an examination of the situation.

Resolution of the Issue

47. Theresolution ofthe firstissueto be determinedarising out ofpara-

graph 63 turns upon how the 1974Judgment is characterized - what are
its essential elements.
The competing rationes decidendiof the casefrom each country's point
of view might be stated as follows:

France: When New Zealand brought proceedings in the International
Court of Justicein 1973in respect of nuclear tests France was then con-
ducting in the Pacific the Court decided
(1) that the New Zealand Application related solelyto atmospheric test-
ing notwithstanding wider claims made in the New Zealand plead-
ings ;
(2) when France committed itself by unilateral declaration not to con-
duct any further atmosphericnuclear teststhe Court held that under-
taking was legally binding upon France thereby rendering the claim
without object and the Court was not called to give a decision upon

it;
(3) the Court reserved leaveto New Zealand to request the Court in the
future to examinethe situation if the basis of its Judgment were to be
affected,but this right is limited to a breach by France of the under-
taking in Proposition 2 because the Court decided Proposition 1.

New Zealand: When New Zealand brought proceedings in the Inter-
national Court of Justice in 1973 in respect of nuclear tests France was
then conducting in the Pacific the Court decided

(1) that the New Zealand Application related solelyto atmospherictest-
ing notwithstanding wider claims made in the New Zealand plead-
ings ;
(2) when France committed itself by unilateral declaration not to con- duct any further atmosphericnuclear teststhe Court held that under-
taking was legallybinding upon France thereby rendering the claim

by New Zealand without object and the Court is not called upon to
give adecision on it;
(3) the Court reserved leave to New Zealand to request the Court to
examine the situation if the basis of its Judgment were to be affected,
and this proposition is not limited by the other two.

48. Stated in that way it is apparent that the third proposition is the

pivot. It can be accepted that some version of the proposition is an essen-
tial part of the Judgment in both accounts. But is Proposition 3 a
dependent or independent variable? There is nothing in the proposition
developed by the Court itself to suggestthat it is a factor which is limited
by Proposition 1. There is nothing to indicate that Proposition 3 was to
be considered a subordinate and subsidiary part of the Judgment. It
seemsto me that it was of equal standing with the other two elements of
the Judgment. In fact potentially it was more potent than they. It had the
power within it to eviscerate Proposition 1. Should subsequent events
undermine that portion of the Judgment dealt with in Proposition 1that
proposition could no longer stand. Indeed Proposition 3 could be seen as
an important elernent of the ratio decidendi.It is an important qualifica-
tion to paragraph 65 (the dispositzj)where the Court found by nine votes
to six that "the claim of New Zealand no longer has any object and that
the Court is therefore not called upon to givea decision thereon" (I. C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 478).

49. The reason for the pertinence of Proposition 3 is that the Court

did not decide the case that was put in front of it in 1973-1974.It avoided
the issue, using the French announcements as the basis for doing so. In
order to allow itself the freedom to decide the case should subsequent
developments make that appropriate, it fonnulated Proposition 3. It was
thereby deliberately introducing an element which made the Judgment
lessthan final. This was an unusual Judgment of which it might be said
proceedings were not definitelyended. If "the basis of the Judgrnent were
to be affected" it could be reopened if the true subject, object and pur-
pose of New Zealand's Application was brought into issue.

ZnAccordance with the Provisions of the Statute

50. 1turn now to the phrase used by the Court in paragraph 63 that
the Applicant could request an examination of the situation "in accord-
ance with the provisions of the Statute". France argues strongly that
there are no express provisions within the Statute within which the
Request falls. It is neither an application for revision nor a request for
interpretation of the 1974 Judgrnent in terms of the provisions of Ar-ticles 60 and 61 of the Court's Statute. France argued this point in para-

graphs 24 to 26 of its aide-mémoireof 6 September 1995 and its oral
submission. With respect 1 find those arguments well made but they do
not in my opinion dispose of the issue.

51. In my opinion the jurisdictional foundation for the New Zealand
Request rests upon the Judgment itself, particularly paragraph 63. The
Judgment was rendered in accordance with the Statute. Indeed, France
now admits the validity of the Judgment, even though it chose to make
no appearance before this Court in 1973-1974and did not comply with
provisional measures ordered by the Court. The Court solemnly and
clearly left it open in paragraph 63for New Zealand to request an exami-
nation of the situation. The Court in reaching its Judgrnent knew what
the Statute provided. In these circumstancesthe reference to the Statute
must be understood as meaning in accordance with the Statute, the Rules
of the Court and the Judgment of the Court. It was not to be understood

as a referenceto a particular procedure provided for by the Statute. What
the Court meant in my opinion was that if paragraph 63 was activated
the Court would use the procedures it usually uses to deal with it. It was
a cornmitment to procedural due process in relation to any application
for an examination of the situation. To givethe phrase the meaning con-
tended for by France isto render the paragraph devoid of practical effect.
It could not have been intended by the Court to prevent a New Zealand
return to the Court if, for example, France had resumed atmospheric
testing 12years after the Judgment.

52. In making provision in paragraph 63 in the way that it did, the
Court was acting in exerciseof the inherent power it enjoys as the result
of its existence,includingthe Statute of the International Court of Justice
itself and the reference in Article 1to the Court as "the principal judicial
organ of the United Nations" and the power in Article 48to make orders
for the conduct of the case. The Court in my opinion has the power to

regulate its own procedure and to devise a procedure sui generis. It is,
after all, a court.
53. The French argument also reliesupon the long period of time that
has elapsed since the Judgment of the Court coupled with the fact that
New Zealand refrained from protesting against the underground tests
which France carried out on occasions. But against that it should be said
that it is common in domesticjurisdictions for matters to be left open for
the parties to litigation to return to the Court consequent upon later
developments. Such a feature in international law can hardly be regarded
as unacceptable in terms of the sources of international law articulated in
Article 38(1) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. In such
circumstances the forma1 fact of the status of the case on the Court's
forma1list is irrelevant. 54. In my opinion the Court had the power to keep open the possibil-
ity of an examination of the situation in this case and it exercised that
power.The reason the case is not dead is because the 1974Judgment kept
it alive. Given the subsequent development of matters in the South
Pacific it might be regarded as providential that the Court had the fore-

sight to act in the way that it did.

55. Having concluded that the Court is not precluded by the terms of
its 1974Judgrnentfrom entering into an examination of it, 1now come to
a discussion of the arguments of whether it should in the circumstances
exercisein 1995the possibility left open in 1974. Such an analysis neces-
sarily requires some reference to the facts.

The Prima Facie Standard

56. New Zealand submitted that the appropriate standard was for the
Court to apply a prima facie standard as it does in provisional measures
cases and not set an absolute standard. New Zealand contended that it
could meet the more demanding standard on the facts but that it was not
the appropriate test. That was because of the jurisdictional character of
the issue and the fact that New Zealand had requested provisional meas-
ures in relation to the case.

57. The contention of France, by way of contrast, was that New Zea-
land had the burden of proof and the standard was the normal standard
of proof that applies to any State that has the burden of making good its
arguments. France denied there were jurisdictional issues in the sense
argued by NewZealand on the grounds that the issue waswhether or not
the case still existed.
58. 1 have dealt with the issue of the whether the case still existed in
the previous segment of this opinion. Having decided that it does remain
open to make application under paragraph 63 of the Judgment of 1974
1conclude that the test proposed by New Zealand is the appropriate one,
and to be fair to France it does not appear to me that the contrary view

was strongly argued. It appears to me that what New Zealand has to
show is that there is a prima facie case to examine the Judgment. It
sought to do that by two arguments:

(a) ttamination;t facts have changed increasingthe risk of nuclear con-

(b) the state of international law had rapidly developed and progressed
from the point it was at in 1974so clarifying the standards to be
applied to the dispute.Either change,it was submitted, would be sufficientto trigger the process
of examination by the Court under paragraph 63. To these factual and
legal issuesthis opinion will now turn.

New Zealand's Argument on the Facts

59. Corning to the environmental issues raised in the Request by New
Zealand, New Zealand asks the Court in paragraph 113

"to adjudge and declare:

(i) that the conduct of the proposed nuclear tests will constitute a
violation of the rights under international law of New Zealand,
as well as of other States;
further or in the alternative;

(ii) that it is unlawful for France to conduct such nuclear tests
before it has undertaken an Environmental Impact Assessment
according to accepted international standards. Unless such an
assessment establishesthat the tests willnot give rise, directly or
indirectly, to radioactive contamination of the marine environ-
ment the rights under international law of New Zealand, as well
as the rights of other States, will be violated."
60. AsNew Zealand puts the argument the situation developed gradu-
ally, but has now reached the stage where it affects the basis of the 1974
Judgrnent. That isto Sayevidencehas accumulatedconcerningthe number

of underground tests now numbering 135 since the Court's Judgrnent of
1974. Arnong the issuesare the nature of the geomorphology of the atolls
where the tests are conducted, concern that there will be leakages of
radiation in the long run, the facts that there are now some 126nuclear
waste "stockpiles" located within the structure of Mururoa atoll at
depths of between 500 and 1,000 metres, and eight large stockpiles at
Fangataufa. These piles consist of the longer lived isotopes of strontium,
caesium and plutonium. The half-lifeof some types of caesium can be as
high as 3 million years. Plutonium produced by a plutonium weapon can
have a half-life of 24,000years.

61. If this nuclear waste or substantial parts of it was releasedinto the
marine environment the New Zealand contention is the effect upon
marine natural living resources, especially fish and plankton, could be

significant. Radionuclides released into the water are concentrated as
they pass through the food chain to higher organisms.The effectswould
be distributed through the marine ecosystem, affecting highly migratory
speciesincluding tuna. Similar concerns were stated by New Zealand in
the 1973Application. 62. The 1995 New Zealand Request points to increasing and recent
scientific concern about the possible environmental impacts of under-
ground nuclear testing. The article by Professor Pierre Vincent, the
French vulcanologist that appeared in Le Monde on 12July 1995raises
serious environmentalconcerns about the future of the atolls concerned.
He says increased fracturing may open up the system to gradua1migra-
tion of radioactive elementsinto the sea. He states this to be "a very real
risk" (New Zealand Request, Ann. 5). The French scientist goes on to
suggest that the factors that are conducive to the destabilization of vol-
canoes combined with a nuclear explosion could be big enough for large
parts of the atoll to sheer away. This is described as high risk. In such
circumstances there could be a spill-out of dangerous radioactive
materials. New Zealand further referred orally to the viewsof Dr. Colin

Summerhayes, Director of the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences in
the United Kingdom, to the effect that volcanic islands like Mururoa
were inherently unstable and may fail given an appropriate trigger like
an earthquake or very large explosion.

63. New Zealand concludes its Request on this point in the following
way :

"There is, therefore, now reason to fear that the risks of a signifi-
cant release of radioactive material from either or both of the atolls
as a result of or consequent upon renewed testing activity are sub-
stantially higher than was previously believedto have been the case.
These risks include the possibility of a serious collapse or fissuringof
the atolls such as to release significant quantities of the radioactive
material stored therein with potentially serious consequences for the
marine environment." (Para. 25.)

64. The Request then proceeds to evaluate what information is avail-
able about the safety of testing on the atolls and examines the three
limited investigations that have been conducted of Mururoa atoll. No
independent scientific mission has so far visited Fangataufa, the place
where the biggest explosions have occurred. The studies that have been

made of Mururoa show that radioactive material has been released into
the aerial and marine environments during even routine activities associ-
ated with testing programmes. Long-term leakage of radioactive material
into the marine environment appears to be a significant risk in the long
tem. Spectacular effects on the atoll structure from the tests have been
documented in the Cousteau study:

"Undenvater filming down to 230 metres by the Cousteau team
revealed spectacular fissures and collapses of rock in the atoll that could only have been caused by the underground explosions." (1995
New Zealand Request, para. 43.)

These test sites,it is argued by New Zealand, are quite unsuitable for the
purpose for which they have been used and are quite unlike continental
land masses or other oceanic islands that have been used for under-
ground testing. In an atoll the boundary between land and sea is indis-
tinct. "Water passes from the ocean into the atoll, including its central
core, and from the atoll into the ocean."(Ibid p.ra. 51.)

65. There is also analysis in the Request of what New Zealand con-
siders to be inadequate assurances of safety by the French and details of
documented accidents are given. France, it isaid, has repeatedly claimed
that the tests are safe but hasimited or denied accessto test sites.In my
opinion the nature of the argument put forward by New Zealand sug-
gests that if the legal issuespermitted the case to proceed there would be
significantevidenceavailable to support the viewthat real environmental
dangers flow from the testing done and planned by France in the South
Pacific. In arriving at that conclusion 1 am not making any judgment
about what the scientific evidence mayultimately show were it to be put
before this Court and adjudicated upon.

66. France who is in the best position to know of the risks has pro-
vided some evidenceto the Court. France saysit has followed a policy of
openness in making information available.There was little said by France
about the potential risks long term being built up by cumulations of
nuclear waste in the two atolls where testings carried out. These wastes,
France said, were trapped in vitrifiedrock. Furthermore the problems of
shearing off of parts of the atoll and the development of fissures were
attractive "Hollywood scenarios" but nothing more. The French presen-
tation at the oral hearings went to some pains to make assurances about

the safety of the tests. Largeaphic presentations of the geomorphologi-
cal structure of Mururoa weremade. There was reference to a number of
scientificstudies that were before the Court. Counsel for France, Mr. de
Brichambaut, said there was ample monitoring of the situation on a con-
tinuing basis. Precautions had been taken. France had observed its inter-
national legal obligations, hesaid.

The Calculus of Environmental Risk

67. The Court is not in a position to make definitive conclusions on
the scientificevidenceon the basis of theaterial put before it. Listening
to the submissions at the oral hearings did, however, convince me that
there were real issues at large here. The true question related to the
assessment of the level of risk. The two nations appeared to have very
different approaches to that subject. It is, however, an issue which could
be determined were the Court to give it a full hearing. 68. There are a number of factors to be weighed in deciding whether
New Zealand satisfied the prima facie standard outlined above which

would warrant a decision that the basis of the 1974Judgment had altered
and should be examined. These factors are:

- the ultrahazardous nature of nuclear explosions and the dangerous
nature of the waste they produce;
- the length of time that some of the nuclear materials remain hazard-
ous which is measured in tens of thousands of years or longer;

- the fragile nature of the atoll structure and the cumulative effect of a
large number of nuclear explosions upon the structure;

- the fact that atolls cannot be distinguished from the marine environ-
ment and must be thought of as an inherent part of the ocean eco-
system;
- the high number of tests which have been concentrated within a small
area ;
- the proximity of the testing to the marine environment;
- the high quantities of dangerous nuclear wastes now accumulated on
the test sites;

- the risks of radiation entering the food chain through plankton, tuna
and other fish;

- the risks of further fissuresand shearing off of part of the atoll struc-
ture occurring as the result of further testing.

69. It cannot be doubted that France has engaged in activities that
have substantially altered the natural environment of the test sitesin the
Pacific. These actions have been intentional and they have been under
scientific scrutiny, especially by French scientists. But the unintended

repercussions of intentional human action are often the most important.
The nature of the risks inherent in the activity itself would suggestcaution
to be appropriate. Some means of calculating those risks is necessary to
arrive at a determination of whether New Zealand has satisfied the test.
This calculus 1 suggest should contain a number of elements:

- the magnitude of the recognizable risk of harm by nuclear contami-
nation in the circumstances;
- the probability of the risk coming to pass;

- the utility and benefits of the conduct being assessed - viz. nuclear
testing by France;
- the cost of the measures needed to avert the risk.

70. In my opinion what is required under the test the Court should
apply is a risk-benefit analysis. There must be a balancing of the risks of
the activity, the probability of harm, the utility of the activity and the
measures needed to eliminate the risk. This is similar to a calculus of therisk analysis in the law of torts in some common law jurisdictions (see

Prosser and Keeton on the Law of Torts, 5th ed., 1984, pp. 169-173;
Richard A. Epstein, Casesand Materials on Torts, 5th ed., 1990,pp. 150-
168; Blyth v. Birmingham Water Works, 11Exchequer 781, 156English
Reports 1047(1856); United States v. Carroll Towing Co., 159 Federal
Reports 2d 169(2d Cir. 1947)).But it is submitted that it is an appropri-
ate analytical construct with some modifications for measuring the issue
here.

71. The gravity of the radiation harm if it occursis likelyto be serious
for the marine environment. The magnitude of the risk that the harm will
occur must be regarded as significant given the destructive force of
nuclear explosions and the possibility of other disturbances or abnormal
situations occurring in the course of the long life of the dangerous sub-
stances. The costs of averting the risk in this instance are low - they
consist of France providing a fully scientifically verifiableenvironment

impact assessment in accordance with modern environmental practice
which demonstrates that the proposed tests willnot result in nuclear con-
tamination. No doubt France and New Zealand would differ greatly on
the utility of nuclear testing but itan reasonably be said that the extra
tests proposed cannot have great value given the number that have pre-
ceded them. They are of diminishing marginal value, if they have any
value at all. If thealculus of the risk analysis were applied in this way,
then on these facts a prima facie case is made out by New Zealand in my
opinion.

72. The test put fonvard here derives from support from the recent
work of the International Law Commission where it laid down that for
the purposes of draft Articles under its consideration "risk of causing
significant transboundary harm" an expression which refers "to the

combined effect of the probability of occurrence of an accident and the
magnitude of its injurious impact" (Report of the International Law
Commission on the work of its forty-sixth session, 2 May-22 July 1994,
Official Records of the General Assernbly, Forty-ninth Session, Supple-
ment No. 10 (Al49/10),p. 400).
73. The conclusion of this segment of the opinion is as follows:judged
on the prima facie standard a case on the environmental facts has been
made out to examine the Judgment.

74. The second argument advanced by New Zealand as to why the
Court should examinethe 1974Judgment revolved around the changesin
the state of international law relating to the environment in general and

nuclear testing in particular in the period between 1974and the 1995hearings. In order to evaluate that submission it is necessary to briefly
traverse those developments in the broad before becoming specific.

The Development of International Environmental Law

75. When this case began in 1973it was shortly after the international
meeting at Stockholm which produced the Stockholm Declaration of the
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (adopted by the
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm,
16June 1972, 11ILM 1416 (1972)(Stockholm Declaration). It was that
Conference that started the march of the new fieldof international envi-
ronmental law toward international legal maturity. At that time only 25
countries possessed national environmental ministries. The Declaration
advanced the development of the principles of international environmen-
ta1law. It can confidentlybe stated that some of those principles stated in

the Declaration have received such widespread support in State practice
coupled with a sense on the part of States that they are legally binding
that they have by now entered into the framework of customary interna-
tional law. The impact of human activities on the environment in a com-
prehensiveway was brought to the attention of the international commu-
nity, in effectfor the first time by Stockholm.Preambular paragraph 6 of
the Stockholm Declaration said: "A point has been reached in history
when we must shape Ouractions throughout the world with a more pru-
dent care for their environmental consequences." It is important to recall
that explicit reference was made by New Zealand in its 1973 Request
(I.C.J. Pleadings, Nuclear Tests, Vol. II, pp. 55-56,paras. 33, 34 and 35
with explicit reliance being placed on Principles 6, 7, 21and 26).

76. Principle 1 of the Stockholm Declaration established that the
people bear "a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environ-
ment for present and future generations". Principle 2 talks of the need to
safeguard natural resources including air, land and water. Principle 6 laid

down that the discharge of toxic substances must be halted where they
were in such quantities or concentrations "to exceed the capacity of the
environment to render them harmless .. .".Principle 7 requires States to
take al1possible steps to prevent pollution to the seasby substances liable
to create hazards for human health and marine life. Principle 18 asked
for "the identification, avoidance and control of environmental risks
. ..".Principle 21 required States to

"ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not
cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond
the limits of national jurisdiction".Principle 26 dealt with the need to spare the environment and people "the
effects of nuclear weapons and al1other means of mass destruction".

77. In recent years the proliferation of international conventions and
treaties on the globalenvironmenthas been considerable.There are more
than a hundred multilateral environmental instruments in force many of
which have been negotiated since the 1972Stockholm Declaration. The
United Nations Environment Programme register listed 152 in 1991
before the significant outburst of activity at the Rio de Janeiro United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. For
present purposes the important point about the development of interna-
tional environmental law is that its most important floweringand expan-
sion spans the period of this case - it started in earnest about the time
this case began and reached a crescendo at Rio in 1992.

78. Indeed the consensus flowing from Rio is itself significant in the
context of the arguments being advanced in the present case. The Rio
Declaration refined, advanced, sharpened and developed some of the
principles adopted at Stockholm (Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development, adopted by the United Nations Conference on Environ-
ment and Development at Rio de Janeiro, 13 June 1992, 31 ILM 874
(1992)(Rio Declaration)).Many of the principleswererepeated but some
new ones make an appearance:

Principle 15 :
"In order to protect the environment,the precautionary approach
shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities.
Where there are threats of serious or irreversibledamage, lack of full

scientificcertainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-
effectivemeasures to prevent environmental degradation."

Principle 17 :

"Environmental impact assessment,as a national instrument, shall
be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a sig-
nificant adverseimpact on the environmentand are subject to a deci-
sion of a competent national authority."

79. Maurice Strong who was Secretary-General of both the Stockholm
and the Rio Conferences has summed up his view of the need to develop
the mechanisms of international environmental law still further. He said:

"To manage Our common future on this planet, we will need a

new global legal regime based essentiallyon the extension into inter-
national life of theule of law, together with reliable mechanismsfor
accountability and enforcement that provide the basis for the effec- tive functioning of national societies." (Foreword by Maurice F.
Strong to L. D. Guruswamy et al., International Environmental Law

and World Order, 1994,p. vii.)

80. This Court in this very case in 1974made a contribution to the
growing field of international environmental law. The Nuclear Tests
cases have come to be cited as one of a quartet of cases that offer some
protection for the environment through the medium of customary inter-
national law.Others includethe Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v.Alba-
nia) (I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 4) establishingthe principle of every State's
obligation not to allow knowingly its territory to be used for acts con-
trary to the rights of other States. The Trail Smelter (United States v.
Canada) (III Reports of International Arbitral Awards (RIAA) 1905
(1938and 1941))established that no State has the right to use or permit
the use of its territory in sucha way as to cause injury by fumes in the
territory of another State. The Lake Lanoux Arbitration (XII RIAA 281
(1957)) turned on the interpretation of a particular treaty but it may
establish the principle that a State has the duty to give notice when its
actions may impair the environmental enjoyment of another State. To
these should now be added the contribution of this Court if only because
of the environmental degradation with which the case dealt (Certain
Phosphate Lands inNauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary Objections,

Judgment, I. C.J. Reports 1992, p. 240). Significantly,by the Court decid-
ing to hear the case, a result was produced by way of settlement. The
principles established bythese caseshave been included in Principle 21 of
the Stockholm Declaration and Principle 2 of the Rio Declaration.

81. But authoritative decisions in the area of international environ-
ment law are scarce enough. They certainly lag behind the plethora of
conventional law that has sprung into existencein the more than 20years
spanningthe Iife ofthis case. The nature of some of the issuesis helpfully
discussed in the Report of the International Law Commission on the
work of its forty-sixth session, 2 May-22 July 1994, on "International
Liability forInjurious Consequences Arising out of Acts Not Prohibited
by International Law" (Official Records of the GeneralAssembly, Forty-
ninth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/49/10),pp. 367 ff.), a subject with
which the Commission has been grappling since 1978without definitive
result. The Commission is giving priority in its work to prevention of
activities having a risk of causing transboundary harm.

82. Indeed, following Rio and perhaps because of it, this Court on
6 August 1993exercisingits powers under Article 26 of the Statute of theInternational Court of Justice set up a Chamber of seven Judges to deal
with environmental matters. The Court in an I.C.J. communiqué(93120,
19July 1993)announced :

"In view of the developments in the field of environmental law
and protection which have taken place in thelast fewyears, and con-

sidering that it should be prepared to the fullest possible extent to
deal with any environmental case falling within its jurisdiction, the
Court has now deemed it appropriate to establish a seven-member
Chamber for Environmental Matters . .."

83. The forces that led the Court to establish a Chamber for consid-

eration of environmental cases is reflected in the quantity of work being
done by highly qualified publicists of the various nations upon the sub-
ject of international environmental law. Such works include A. Kiss and
D. Shelton, International Environmental Law, 1991; P. Birnie and
A. Boyle,International Law and the Environment, 1992; P. Sands et al.,
Principles of International Environmental Law - Documents in
International EnvironmentalLaw, 2 volumes, 1995;L. Guruswamy et al.,
International Environmental Law and World Order, 1994; J. Carroll
(ed.), International Environmental Diplomacy, 1988; E. B. Weiss, In
Fairness to Future Generations: International Law, Common Patrimony,
and Intergenerational Equity, 1989; E. B. Weiss (ed.), Environmental
Change and International Law, 1992; C. Stone, The Gnat is Older than
Man: Global Environment and Human Agenda, 1993; P. Sand, Lessons
Learned in Global Environmental Governance, 1990; G. Handl (ed.),
Yearbook of International Environmental Law, 1990,and annually. The
periodical literatureis so vast on the subject that it cannot be cited.

84. The obvious and overwhelmingtrend of these developments from
Stockholm to Rio has been to establish a comprehensive set of noms to
protect the global environment. There is a widespread recognition now
that there are risks that threatenurcommon survival.We cannot permit
the onward march of technologyand developmentwithout givingattention
to the environmental limits that must govern these issues. Othenvise the
paradigm of sustainable development embraced by the world at the Rio
Conferencecannot be achieved(World Commission on Environment and
Development, Our Common Future, 1987,p. 5; seealso D. H. Meadows,
D. L. Meadows and J. Randers, Beyond the Limits, 1992).

International Law on Radioactive Hazards

85. It was against the background outlined above that Sir Kenneth
Keith, Q.C., for New Zealand sought to establish four legalpropositions: (i) Statesmust ensure that activities within theirjurisdiction or control
do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas
beyond the limits of their jurisdiction.

(ii) Anyaddition of radioactivematerial to the environment or exposure
of individuals to radiation must bejustified.ch addition or expo-
sure must be for good reason.

(iii) Any disposa1 or introduction of artificially created radioactive
material into the marine environment is heavily circumscribed. It
is in general forbidden.
(iv) Any introduction of radioactive material into the marine environ-

ment as a result of nuclear tests is forbidden. The world cornrnunity
no longer accepts that the testing of nuclear weapons can be used to
justify marine contamination.

The law now sets higher standards in an "increasingly interdependent
world", Sir Kenneth told the Court (CR 95/20,p. 10).

86. New Zealand in support of its propositions relied upon the
Stockholm and Rio Declarations and in particular on the 1986Conven-
tion for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of
the South Pacific Region concluded at Noumea, 25 November 1986,
entered into force 22 August 1990 (26 ILM 38 (1987)). New Zealand
and France both are parties to the Convention. These legal materials
and others cited to the Court established in the view of New Zealand
an increasingly strict attitude to the addition of radioactiveterial to

the general environment and the exposure of individuals to radiation.
In relation to the marine environment it was even more exacting.
Among the materials cited in support of these propositions were:
Article 14 of the Draft Articles considered in the 1994Annual Report
of the International Law Commission mentioned above; the Interna-
tional Atomic Energy Agency, Safety Series No. 77, Principles for
Limiting Releases of Radioactive Effluents into the Environment, 1986;
Agenda 21, Chapter 22, of the Rio Declaration, "Safe and Environmen-
tally Sound Management of Radioactive Wastes", paragraph 5 (para. 100
of the New Zealand Request); Convention on the High Seas con-
cluded at Geneva 29 April 1958, entered into force 30 September 1962
(450 UNTS 82, Art. 25); United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea concluded at Montego Bay, 10 December 1982, entered into force
16November 1994(21 ILM 1261(1982),Part XII, Art. 194);Convention
on BiologicalDiversity, concluded at Rio de Janeiro5June 1992,entered

into force 29 December 1993(31 ILM 818 (1992),Arts. 3 and 14); Stat-
ute of the International Atomic Energy Agency, 26 October 1956
(276 UNTS 3, Art. 34); Convention for the Protection of the Marine
Environment of the North-East Atlantic, concluded at Paris, September
1992(32 ILM 1069(1993),Ann. II, Art. 3 (3) (a) and (b)); Conventionon the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter, concluded at London, 19December 1972 (11ILM 1291(1972)),

Annex 1; Resolution of Consultative Meeting LDC 21 (9) on Dumping
Radioactive Wastes at Sea, 1985.

Environmental Impact Assessment

87. At this point, Mr. D. J. MacKay for New Zealand went on to
develop this segment of the argument by pointing to the application of
the emerginginternational law on environmentalimpact assessment(EIA)
and the precautionary principle in their application to the facts of this

case. In both respects the law had changed dramatically, thus supporting
the view that the basis of the Court's Judgment was affected. It was sub-
mitted that other parties likely to be affected by the risks have a right to
know what the investigations for the EIA are, have a right to propose
additional investigations and a right to verifyfor themselvesthe result of
such investigations. As the law now stands it is a matter of legal duty to
first establish before undertaking an activity that the activitydoes not
involve any unqcceptable risk to the environment. An EIA is simply a
means of establ\hing a process to comply with that international legal
duty. New Zealand pointed to a number of international instruments,
including Article 205 of the United Nations Law of the Sea Convention
that make explicit reference to EIA.

88. Under Article 12that has been adopted by the International Law
Commissionin thecourse ofitsdeliberations,the Commissionhas decided
that before a State carries out activities which involvea risk of causing
significant transboundary harm through their physical consequences

"a State shallensure that an assessment is undertaken of the risk of
such activity. Such an assessment shall include an evaluation of the
possible impact of that activity on persons or property as well as in
the environment of other States."

The Noumea Convention referred to earlieralso contains an explicitobli-
gation in Article 16 to conduct environmental impact assessments

before embarking upon any major project which might affect the marine
environment. A more explicitmeasure appears in Article 12of that Con-
vention producing a duty to prevent, reduce and control pollution in
the Convention area which might result from the testing of nuclear
devices. Pvecautionavy Principle
89. So far as the precautionary principle is concerned New Zealand
submitted that in the circumstancesit required two things. First, that the
assessment must be carried out before and not after the activities are

undertaken. Second, that it is for the State contemplating these activities
to carry out the assessment and to demonstrate that there is no real risk.
It is not for potentially affected States to demonstrate that there will be
a risk.
90. 1have set out these arguments in some detail because they exhibit
the issues that would have been traversed had the case gone to the next
stage. France did not address arguments on these points since it at al1
times regardedthe issuesbefore the Court as threshold issuesthat did not
require it to meet the arguments put above. It would be wrong in these
circumstances to reach substantive conclusions on the application of the
arguments to the facts of the case. It is, however, appropriate to reach a
conclusion on what the principles of law discussed establish from the
point of viewof meeting the test required to examine again the 1974case.

Conclusion
91. What those principles of international law establish in my vieware
the following propositions :

(a) international environmental law has developed rapidly and is tend-
ing to develop in a way that provides comprehensive protection for
the natural environment ;
(b) international law has taken an increasingly restrictive approach to
the regulation of nuclear radiation;
(c) customary international law may have developed a norm of requir-
ing environmental impact assessment where activities may have a
significant effect on the environment;

(d) the norm involved in the precautionary principle has developed
rapidly and may now be a principle of customary international law
relating to the environment;
(e) there are obligations based on Conventions that may be applicable
here requiring environmentalimpact assessmentand the precaution-
ary principle to be observed.
Taken together, in application to the present dispute, the legal develop-
ments are sufficientto meet a prima facietest that the legal circumstances
have altered sufficientlyto favour an examination of the 1974case. Let

me emphasize again, however, this is not to Saywhat principles of law
may apply here in the particular circumstances or indeed what their con-
tent might be. That is for the next stage.

92. It is necessary toSaysomething about the application of principles
of law at the stage they have reached in 1995to a case that was pleadedand first dealt with in the mid 1970s.The harm complained of - nuclear
contamination - is a continuing one. It seems apparent to me that the
applicable law must be determined, in a circumstance like the present
one, at the date the Court is called on to apply it. The converse proposi-
tion cannot stand in my opinion.
93. In my viewit would exert a salutary and needed influenceon inter-
national environmental law for this Court to enter upon full hearings and
a serious consideration of the issuesof this case, whatever ultimate result

was eventually reached. There is a pressing need to develop the law in the
area. Given the possibility left open expresslyin 1974that in appropriate
circumstances the Court could return to these issues,it would be possible
to examine the 1974 decisionin light of massivechanges in the legalprin-
ciples that have been developed in the period between the Court's two
considerations of the issues.In the event, however, because a majority of
the Court has taken another view New Zealand's effort to hold France
accountable under the principles of international environmental law will
fail.

The Ovdevof the Court

94. The formalistic approach adopted by the majority of the Court in
framing its Order makes it necessary to isolate the stepsin its reasoning.
It is reasoning 1 cannot accept. The reasoning the Court advances for
making the Order that it can take no action on New Zealand's request
for an examination has a number of elements:

(a) the broader designs beyond atmospheric testing that New Zealand
might have had when filingits 1973Application cannot be the sub-
ject of the Court's investigations now;

(b) the Court in 1974was entitled to isolate the real issue and limit it to
atmospheric testing and did so;
(c) the language used by the Court in the companion case brought by
Australia means that the Court treated the New Zealand case as
identical with the Australian one;
(d) thus the 1974Court was entitled to treat the matter at an end relying
on France's unilateral declaration;
(e) it wasin the event of a resumption of nucleartests in the atmosphere
that the basis of the Judgment would have been affected;
(f) in consequence of its view in 1995 of the Judgment of 1974it was
not open for the Court to enter into a consideration of underground

testing or the arguments on either side relating to those events and
take them into account; (g) for the same reasons as in (f the Court cannot take into account
the developmentsin international environmental law that have taken
place since the 1974Judgment.

95. The conclusion reached by the majority taking into account al1of
the above is that the 1974Judgrnent has not been affected.
96. The essenceof the approach taken represents a triumph of fonnal-
ism over substance.The law appears as some disembodied construct that
is far removed from the concerns of the real world. The law is frozen in
time, nothing beyond 1974has any relevance or importance in interpret-
ing paragraph 63, except a resumption of atmospheric testing. It is an
approach that depends upon reading down the plain language of para-
graph 63, and sapping it of vitality. 1 find such an approach to legal
reasoning arid and intellectually unsatisfying. When dealing with sub-
stantive issuesofsuch overwhelmingimportance, decisionsnot to address

those issues need to be convincing and carry legal conviction. In this
instance, however, the reasoning is laconic.

97. The whole approach by the Court depends upon drawing a distinc-
tion between atmospheric nuclear testing and underground nuclear test-
ing and refusing to accept that they are linked by the underlyingcommon
factor of nuclear contamination. The distinction is fundamentally
unsound in comrnon-sense terms and that ought to be reflected in legal
terms. It is legal reasoning of a highly mechanical quality. The signifi-
cance of the basic distinction drawn by the Court is not easy to defend
except by an approach well described as the austerity of tabulated legal-
ism (Minister of Home Affairs v. Fisher [1980]Appeal Case, p. 328).
1 cannot defend the distinction relied upon by the Court and therefore
respectfully dissent from it.

98. The Court also relies inits Order on the fact that the Court in the
companion case brought by Australia in 1973employed in the Judgment
in that case a form of words identical to the one used in paragraph 63 of
the New Zealand case. The 1995 Court concludes for that reason the
1974Court regarded the two cases as identical.With respect, the conclu-

sion does not follow. Worse, it does injustice to New Zealand.

99. One learned author has found no fewer than seven important dis-
tinctions between the Australian and New Zealand cases (J. Stephen Kos,
"Interim Reliefin the International Court: New Zealand and the Nuclear
Test Cases", 14 Victoria Universityof WellingtonLaw Review 357(1984)).
The first observation to be made in this respect is that the cases were
not joined in 1973and the reasons for notjoining them are plain enough.
As the New Zealand Attorney-General, Dr. A. M. Finlay, Q.C., told
the Court :

"The Governments of Australia and New Zealand do not have a415 REQUEST FOR AN EXAMINATION (DISS .P. PALMER)

joint approach to the presentation of their respective cases against
the Government of France; nor did they bring these cases for the
purpose of supporting each other. Actions taken in their region that
may violate obligations erga omnes, or cause an identical threat to
the well-beingof the citizensof both their countries, are naturally of

concern to both; but history and geography condition and differen-
tiate their individualperceptions of a common threat." (I.C.J. Plead-
ings, Nuclear Tests, Vol. II, p. 254.)

100. The New Zealand case had a broader objective than Australia;

there were substantial differencesin the submissions and in the remedies
sought. New Zealand's case had a stronger ground in law and in fact
than Australia's. Mr. Kos, in the article cited above, summarizes the
reason for that conclusion :

(a) The equities favoured New Zealand in terms of its past diplomatic
and political record. New Zealand's association with United King-
dom nuclear testing was very limited. New Zealand had a consistent
and outspoken record of opposition to testing since 1958.The ter-
ritory of NewZealand and that for which New Zealand was respon-
siblewas closer to the test site than Australia's. Its case at the merits
stage would have been stronger. New Zealand had legallya stronger
position on the legal issues of the application of Article 17 of the
General Act for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes,
which Australia had allegedly violated. New Zealand, unlike

Australia, had not declared that its considered General Assembly
resolutions were not legally binding. New Zealand had a record in
the General Assembly of support for the Partial Test Ban Treaty.

(6) New Zealand asserted different rights that it claimed were owed
erga omnes in equal measure to al1 States - indicating freedom
from "unjustified artificial radioactive contamination of the terres-

trial, maritime and aerial environment". New Zealand pleaded wide
considerations of freedom from harm.

(c) New Zealand asked for different remediesfrom Australia. New Zea-
land sought only a declaration that French conduct constituted a
violation of New Zealand's rights in international law - it included
conduct past and future.

(d) New Zealand alleged different injury from that argued by Australia.

(e) New Zealand took a different approach to the conduct of its legal
argument.(fl Each country took different approaches to the French reservation to
compulsory jurisdiction of 20 May 1966.

(g) Australian concessions on the reliance on the General Act were not
shared by New Zealand.
101. The Order of the Court also reliesupon the argument that France
conducted 134 underground nuclear tests without New Zealand ever
having claimed that the basis of the Judgment had been affected. New
Zealand's recordof consistent opposition to French testing in that regard
is set out at paragraphs 14-23of this opinion. Further, it is submitted

that the argument made by New Zealand that the situation developed
gradually ispersuasive in this respect. It is the cumulative effect ofevents
that is determinative. Paragraph 63 itself is not limited as to time. It
comes into effect only when matters which affect the basis of the Judg-
ment have crystallized.

102. For the above reasons it is suggestedthat the decisionto treat the
New Zealand and Australian cases as identical in legal terms is unsound.
It was unsound in 1974and it does not follow that the Court intended
then to limit paragraph 63 of its Judgment to circumstances that would
be identical to Australia's despite the use ofsirnilarlanguage. The context
is important.

Wider Issues

103. The nature of thejudicial choicebetween the opposing legalposi-
tions in this case is stark partlycause of the way the case was argued
and partly because of the unprecedented nature of the proceeding. The
answer reached depends as much upon implicitjudgments concerning the

proper scope ofthejudicial role asupon the detailed reasoningby whichthe
result isreached. Law isa hurnan contrivance designedto advance human
purposes. Public international law has traditionally been concerned with
the relations between States and States were often regarded in the past as
its only subjects.But things change and there are signsthat the doctrine of
State sovereigntyupon whichso much of the edificeof publicinternational
law rests is eroding. The opportunity offered in a case like the present
one is to take a wider perspective. It should be remembered that as long
ago as 1958Dr. C. W. Jenks wrote in The ConzrnonLaw of Mankind:

"International law can no longer be adequately or reasonably
defined or described as the law governing the mutual relations of
States, even if such a basic definition is accompanied by qualifica-
tions or exceptions designed to allow for modern developments; it
represents thecomrnon law of mankind in an early stage of devel-
opment, of which the law governing the relations between States is
one, but only one, major division." (P. 58.) 104. One of the signal weaknesses of international law is the fact that
thejurisdiction of this Court rests atbottom on the consent of the States.
Only about one-third of nations accept the compulsory jurisdiction of
this Court under Article 36 (2) of the Statute of the International Court
of Justice. In general, the most powerful nations are not among the
strongest adherents of compulsoryjurisdiction for the Court. The Court
is reminded of this fact in the letter dated 28 August 1995addressed to
the Registrar of the Court by the Ambassador of the French Republic to
the Netherlands in which the following paragraph appears:

"The jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice rests on the
consent of States. In the absence of the prior consent of France, the
requests of New Zealand both as regards the principal request and
as regards the indication of provisional measures are thus manifestly
inadmissible."

Yet as Professor E. Lauterpacht remarks "some cracks in the edificeare
developing" (Aspects of the Administration of International Justice, 1991,
p. 23).
105. Arguments about consent and the logic of the situation in which
the Court finds itselfhave in my opinion caused the Court to be cautious
in the past, sometimes unnecessarily. The decision of the majority in this
case in 1995 follows the cautious approach. Against that approach it
needs to be borne in mind that notwithstanding the fundamental differ-
ences between international law and municipal law international law is
widelyobeyed on the whole. So concern that the basis of the systemmay
be consensual is not a reason for failing to decide principles of interna-
tional law when they are presented and properly fa11to be decided. As

Professor Louis Henkin wrote in How Nations Behave - Law and
ForeignPolicy (2nd ed., 1979,p. 47): "It is probably the case that almost
al1nations observe almost al1principles of international law and almost
al1of their obligations almost al1of the time."

106. But it must be accepted at once that the Court cannot go off on
frolics of its own. It mustaintain its credibility in the eyes ofStates who
do not on the whole relishthe prospect of third party adjudication which
they cannot control. The Court has an obligation in my opinion to
maintain itself in the tension between principle and practicality. In this it
occupies a role not unfamiliar to domestic tribunals imbued with wide
constitutional powers, such as the Supreme Court of the United States.
(Seegenerally Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, 1962.)
Yet courts like that one choose their cases, this Court cannot. States set
the Court's agenda, not the Court. And this Court does not have avail-

able to it the filtering devices available to the Supreme Court of the
United States.

107. The Court has a responsibility to declare, develop and uphold
international law. But it must be mindful of the lirnits of law. In disputesthat involvelargepolitical elements it willneed to be particularly vigilant

to avoid over-reaching itself, while at thesame time facing up to the fact
that disputes between States almost always involve a high political ele-
ment. It needs to be borne in mind, however, that the fact that the testing
of nuclear weapons gives rise to big political disputes does not mean that
aspects of the dispute cannot be dealt with by the international legal
process.
108. In such circumstancesas the present resort to techniques for not
deciding cases by other means may be found; to scrutinizejurisdictional
arguments and technical arguments with a favourable eye in order to
avoid making pronouncements in an area where it is suspected nations
may not observe the terms of judgrnents of the Court or acceptance of
the Court's position will be imperilled. These are hard judgrnents to
make. But the consequences of never taking them on such matters as the
present one willbe to retard progress in the development of international
law.
109. For this Judge, the range ofjudicial choice for this Court is well
summed up by Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice in The Law and Procedureof the
International Courtof Justice:

"There are broadly two main possible approaches to the task of a
judge, whether in the international field or elsewhere. There is the
approach which conceivesit to be the primary, if not the sole duty of
the judge to decide the case in hand, with the minimum of verbiage
necessary for this purpose, and to confine himself to that. The other
approach conceives it to be the proper function of the judge, while
duly deciding the case in hand, with the necessary supporting
reasoning, and whilenot unduly straying outside the four corners of
the case, to utilize those aspects of it which have a wider interest or
connotation, in order to make general pronouncements of law and
principle that may enrich and develop the law.

If it be asked which of these two attitudes is the better, the answer
may well be'both', or at any rate that each is defensible;but clearly
much depends on the circumstances. The sort of bare order or find-
ing that may suit many of the purposes of the magistrate or county
court judge willby no means do for the Court of Appeal, the House
of Lords or the Judicial Cornmittee of the Privy Council, and their
equivalents in other countries. International tribunals at any rate
have usually regarded it as an important part of their function, not
only to decide, but, in deciding,to expound generally the law having
a bearing on the matters decided." (Pp. 647-648.)

110. My own approach falls clearly in the category that it is necessary
for the International Court of Justice to develop the law and expound it.
The Court should deal with al1the legal issues and given the nature of
international law and the absence of a legislature, clarification and
advancement of the law is peculiarly within this Court's responsibility. 111. The nature of the dis~ute between France and New Zealand has
been apparent for the wholkperiod spanned by this case in this Court,
except between 1991and 1995when France observed a moratorium on
testing. The dispute is palpably about nuclear testing in the Pacificin al1
its forms. The officia1citation for this case was and remains Nuclear
Tests (New Zealand v. France) case. Despite that fact, the Court in its
1995 judgment has chosen to draw a fundamental distinction between
atmospheric testing and underground testing.

112. It might have been thought by some that the present application
was an appropriate occasion upon which to push out the boat from the
shore a little towards the incoming tide of international environmental

jùrisprudence. The Court failed to decide the issue in 1974 and it has
failedagain in 1995.
113. The 1974Judgment created widespread controversy in the inter-
national legal literature, some learned commentators regarding it as
imaginative and innovative, others called it a landmark of political
caution, weak in law and logic. A third group thought the decision a
lost opportunity for dealing with international environmental law.
(D. P. Verma, "The Nuclear Tests Cases: An Inquiry into the Judicial
Response of the International Court of Justice", 8 South African Year-
book of International Law 20 (1982); Edward McWhinney, The World
Court and the Contemporary International Law-Making Process, 1979;
R. St. J. Macdonald and Barbara Hough, "The Nuclear Tests Case
Revisited", 20 German Yearbook of International Law 337 (1977);
Jerome B. Elkind, "Footnote to the Nuclear Tests Cases: Abuse of Right

- A Blind Alleyfor Environmentalists", 9 Vanderbilt Journal of Trans-
national Law 57 (1976); Thomas M. Franck, "Word Made Law: The
Decision of the I.C.J. in the Nuclear Test Cases", 69American Journal of
International Law 612 (1975).)A similar range of reaction to the Court's
treatment of the present phase of the case is predictable.

114. In its essencethis case has to be understood as an environmental
case. New technology has given humankind massive ability to alter the
natural environment. The consequences of these activities need to be
carefully analysed and examined unless we are to imperil those who come
after us. It is a concern well known to international law (see generally
E. B.Weiss,In Fairness to Future Generations, 1989).AsProfessor Edith
Brown Weisspoints out:

"We, as a species, hold the natural and cultural environment of
Ourplanet in common, both with other members of the present gen-
eration and with other generations, past and future. At any given time, each generation is both a custodian or trustee of the planet for

future generations and a beneficiary of its fruits. This imposes obli-
gations upon us to care for the planet and givesus certain rights to
use it." (P. 17.)

Further, the special problems created for the law by nuclear energy and
tests flow from the ultrahazardous nature of nuclear energy and nuclear
explosions (A.Boyle, "Nuclear Energy and International Law: An Envi-
ronmental Perspective", 60 British Year Book of International Law 257
(1989); G. Handl, "Transboundary Nuclear Accidents: The Post-
Chernobyl Multilateral Legislative Agenda", 15Ecology Law Quarterly
203 (1988))
115. The issues generated for the environment by nuclear testing and
nuclear accidents demonstrate that States have been unwilling to act as
good stewards for or guardians of the environment. The experience
suggests that environmental rights ought to be established at the inter-
national level and be enforceablethere.
116. If in 1995 this Court had been prepared to enter into the next
phase of the case, the dispute may at last have been put to rest. For far

too longthis issuehas given rise to substantial, evenpainful difficultiesin
the relations between France and New Zealand. The two functions of this
Court as 1understand it are to act as an institution to settle disputesand
to clarify and develop the law. Regrettably the dispute has not been put
to rest and the law has not been developed.
117. In this case the Court had an opportunity to make a contribution
to one of the most critical environmental issues of Our time. It has
rejected the opportunity for technical legal reasons which could in my
opinion have been decided the other way, fully consonant with proper
legal reasoning. Itis true that much of thejurisdiction of this Court rests
upon the consent of States. It is true that France has withdrawn the
consent that allowed the 1974case to be heard. That is not an adequate
reason to refrain from re-opening the case, a possibility that the Judg-
ment in 1974expressly contemplated. The case is=e the Court had the
power to decide then; it has the power to decide it now. But the Court
refuses to decide it.

118. The position of an ad hocjudge on this Court is an unusual one
and the nature of the obligations imposed on such a judge have been a

source of consideration for me. The Statute provides, in Article 31 (6),
that such judges "shall take part in the decision on terrns of complete
equality with their colleagues". In this case1feel the institution served a
useful purpose of bringing to the Court a perspective of one who livesin
the region of the world with which the application deals. But 1have not
felt that my position on the Court is a representative one. Its utility was
in providing another perspective and some more detailedfamiliarity with
the background. With respect, 1 adopt the formulation of an ad hoc
judge's office put forward by Judge ad hoc Lauterpacht in Applicationof the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, ProvisionalMeasures, Order of 13 September 1993:

"He has, 1 believe, the special obligation to endeavour to ensure
that, so far as is reasonable, everyrelevant argument in favour of the
party that has appointed him has been fully appreciated in the
course of collegial consideration and, ultimately, is reflected -
though not necessarily accepted - in any separate or dissenting
opinion that he may write." (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 409, para. 6.)

119. Finally, let me add that 1have had the opportunity of readingthe
elegant and persuasive dissenting opinion of my colleague Judge Weera-
mantry. 1 agree with it.

(Signed) Sir Geoffrey PALMER.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE SIR GEOFFREY PALMER

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages

382

382
385

A history of consistent opposition 385
Intervenors 388

389
389
Paragraph 63 390
The New Zealand argument
The argument of France 392
Weighing the arguments 393
Resolution of the issue 397
In accordance with the provisions of the Statute 398

THEFACTUAE LNVIRONMENA TARGUMENT 400
The prima facie standard 400
New Zealand's argument on the facts 401
The calculus of environmental risk 403

405

The development of international environmental law 406
International law on radioactive hazards 409
Environmental Impact Assessment 411
Precautionary principle 412
Conclusion 412

THENATURE OF THE JUDICIACLHOICE 413
The Order of the Court 413
Wider issues 416

419 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE SIR GEOFFREY PALMER

[Traduction]

Pages

382

Une opposition constante depuis des années
Les intervenants

LES PRINCIPAUX PROBLÈMESD'ORDRE JURIDIQUE

Le paragraphe 63
La thèsede la Nouvelle-Zélande
La thèse dela France
Le poids des thèsesen présence
La solution de la question
Conformémentaux dispositions du Statut

LES MOYENS DE FAIT RELATIFS À L'ENVIRONNEMENT 400

La norme prima facie 400
L'argumentation de la Nouvelle-Zélandequant aux faits 40 1
Le calcul du risque écologique 403

Le développementdu droit international de l'environnement 406
Le droit international et les dangers de la radioactivité 409
L'évaluation de l'impactur l'environnement 411
Le principe de précaution 412
Conclusion 412

L'ordonnance de la Cour
Les questions plus générales 1. The application before the Court appears to be unique. No pre-
cedent has been referred to that resembles it in fact or law. It is not easy
to grapple with a case which is both so novel in legal terms and of such
moment in substantive terms. In the end the result depends upon the
approach to be adopted to the legal interpretation of the Judgment ren-
dered by the Court in the same case in 1974.Absent the usual legal navi-
gation lights which guide this Court in its judicial work, we are thrown
back to the basic elements of legal reasoning that should be applied to
the task. 1 differ from the approach to legal analysis adopted by the
majority of the Court, so 1respectfully dissent from the Judgment of the

Court.

2. On 21 August 1995 the Government of New Zealand filed in the

Registry of this Court two documents:
(a) Request for an Examination ofthe Situation in accordancewithpara-
graph 63 of the Court's 1974Judgment in the Nuclear Tests (New
Zealand v. France) case;

(b) Further Request for the Indication of Provisional Measures.
3. The full text of paragraph 63 of the 1974Judgment is as follows:

"Once the Court has found that a State has entered into a com-
mitment concerning its future conduct it is not the Court's function
to contemplate that it will not comply with it. However, the Court
observes that if the basis of this Judgment were to be affected, the
Applicant could request an examination of the situation in accord-
ance with the provisions of the Statute; the denunciation by France,
by letter dated 2 January 1974, of the General Act for the Pacific
Settlement of International Disputes, which is relied on as a basis

of jurisdiction in the present case, cannot constitute by itself an
obstacle to the presentation of such a request." (1.C.J. Reports
1974, p. 477.)
4. On 9 May 1973the New Zealand Government instituted proceed-
ings against France with the purpose of obtaining a determination that

the conduct by the French Government of nuclear tests in the South
Pacificregion that gave rise to radioactive fallout constituted a violation
of New Zealand's rights under international law and that those rights
would be violated by any further such tests (I.C.J.Pleadings, Nuclear
Tests, Vol. II, p. 3). 1. La demande dont est saisie la Cour semble unique en son genre.
Aucun précédentcomparable sur le plan du droit ou sur celui des faits
n'a été évoqué. Il n'est pas faciled'aborder une affaire qui està la fois si
nouvelle du point de vue juridique et d'une telle importance quant au
fond. En fin de compte, l'issue decelle-cidépendde l'interprétation juri-
dique qui doit être donnéede l'arrêtrendu par la Cour dans cette même
affaire en 1974.En l'absence des repèresjuridiques habituels qui guident

la Cour dans sa fonction judiciaire, nous sommes renvoyésaux éléments
fondamentaux du raisonnement juridique qui devraient s'appliquer en
l'espèce.Mon analysejuridique différantde celleadoptéepar la majorité
de la Cour, je me permets d'exposer mon opinion dissidente concernant
l'ordonnance de la Cour.

2. Le 21août 1995,le Gouvernement de la Nouvelle-Zélandea déposé
deux documents au Greffe de la Cour:

a) une demande d'examen dela situation au titre du paragraphe 63 de
l'arrêt rendu par laCour en 1974dans l'affaire des Essais nucléaires
(Nouvelle-Zélandec. France) ;
b) une nouvelle demande en indication de mesures conservatoires.

3. Le texte intégral du paragraphe 63 de l'arrêt de1974se lit comme
suit:

((Dèslors que la Cour a constatéqu'un Etat a pris un engagement
quant à son comportement futur, il n'entre pas dans sa fonction
d'envisager que cet Etat ne le respecte pas. La Cour fait observer
que, si lefondement du présent arrêtétaitremis en cause, le requé-
rant pourrait demander un examen de la situation conformément
aux dispositionsdu Statut; la dénonciationpar la France, dans une
lettre du2janvier 1974,del'Actegénérap lour le règlementpacifique
des différendsinternationaux, qui est invoquécomme l'un des fon-
dements de la compétencede la Cour en l'espèce, nesaurait en soi
faire obstacleàla présentationd'une telle demande. ))(C.I.J. Recueil
1974, p. 477.)

4. Le 9 mai 1973le Gouvernement néo-zélandaisa introduit contre la
France une instance dont l'objet était une décision dela Cour aux termes
de laquelle les essais nucléairesprovoquant des retombées radioactives
effectuéspar le Gouvernement français dans la régiondu Pacifique Sud

constituaient une violation des droits de la Nouvelle-Zélandeau regard
du droit international et que ces droits seraient enfreints par tout nouvel
essai (C.Z.J. Mémoires,Essais nucléaires,vol. II, p. 3). 5. In 1973the Court's jurisdiction was invoked under two heads:

(a) Articles 36 (1) and 37 of the Statute of the International Court of
Justice and Article 17 of the General Act for the Pacific Settlement
of International Disputes to which New Zealand and France both
had acceded ; and
(b) Article 36 (2) and (5) of the Statute of the Court.

France ceasedatmospherictestingin the South Pacific whilethis case was
before the Court in 1974in circumstances that will beanalysed later in
this opinion.
6. In 1995this Court scheduled a public sitting in order to enable New
Zealand and France to inform it of their viewson an issueframed by the
Court :

"Do the Requests submitted to the Court by the Government of
New Zealand on 21 August 1995 fa11within the provisions of para-
graph 63 of the Judgment of the Court of 20 December 1974in the
case concerning Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France) ?"

It is a procedural issue far removed from the merits of the case. 1sthere
a sufficient link between the case as it was pleaded and decided in 1974
and the effects of the French nuclear tests that are continuing under-
ground in the South Pacificto allow further consideration to be given to
the New Zealand Request? It was described in the oral argument by
France as a prior question to a later preliminary one. New Zealand said
it was to determine whether New Zealand could in the circumstances
exercisethe right reserved to it in 1974to return and pursue its 1973case.
Cases in this Court, because of the peculiar nature of itsjurisdiction, may
go through three phases with distinct proceedings in each - preliminary
objections to jurisdiction, preliminary objections to admissibility and the
merits of the case. But this 1995proceeding was not any of those. It was
of a procedural species not seen before and its novelty may have given

rise to misunderstandings. It led among other things to the Court side-
stepping New Zealand's Further Request for the Indication of Provi-
sional Measures and dealing with the Request itself in a somewhat sum-
mary manner. Both the procedural posture of the caseand the substantive
issues are novel; but novelty is no reason to dismiss the case or not con-
sider it fully.

7. It should be noted that France filedno pleadings in the casein 1974,
was not represented at the oral proceedings and at al1times maintained
the attitude as expressedin a letter of 16May 1973from the Ambassador
of France to the Netherlands which was placed before the Court. That
letter expressed France's view that the Court was manifestly not compe-

tent in the case; that it could not accept the Court's jurisdiction and that 5. En 1973la compétencedela Cour étaitinvoquée surune double base:
a) le paragraphe 1 de l'article 36 et l'article 37 du Statut de la Cour
internationale de Justiceet l'article 17de l'Actegénérlour le règle-
ment pacifique des différendsinternationaux auquel la Nouvelle-

Zélande et la France avaient toutes deux adhéré;
b) les paragraphes 2 et 5 de l'article 36 du Statut de la Cour.
La France a cesséses essais atmosphériques dans le Pacifique Sud en
1974alors que la Cour étaitsaisie de l'affaire et ce dans des conditions
qui seront analyséesplus loin dans la présente opinion.
6. En 1995,la Cour a organisédes séancespubliques pour permettre à

la Nouvelle-Zélandeet àla France de lui faire connaître leurs vues sur la
question suivante poséepar la Cour:
«Les demandes présentées à la Cour par le Gouvernement néo-
zélandaisle 21 août 1995entrent-ellesdans les prévisionsdu para-
graphe 63 de l'arrêtde la Cour du 20 décembre1974en l'affaire des
Essais nucléaires(Nouvelle-Zélandec. France) ?))

Il s'agitlà d'une question de procédure très éloignédeu fond de l'affaire.
Existe-t-il entre l'affaire telle qu'ellea été plet tranchéeen 1974et
les effets des essais nucléairesfrançais qui se poursuivent sous terre dans
la régiondu Pacifique Sud un lien suffisant pour que l'examen de la
demande de la Nouvelle-Zélandepuisse se poursuivre plus avant? Dans
les plaidoiries de la France, cette question a étéqualifiée dequestion
préalableà toute exception préliminaire éventuelle. La Nouvelle-Zélande

a déclaré qu'il s'agissait eéterminersi la Nouvelle-Zélandepouvait en
l'espèce exercer ldroit qui lui avait réservé en 1974de revenir devant
la Cour et de reprendre l'instance de 1973.Etant donnéle caractère par-
ticulier de la compétence dela Cour, les affaires dont elle est saisie peu-
vent passer par trois phases, dont chacune fait l'objet d'une procédure
distincte: exceptionspréliminaires la compétencede la Cour, exceptions
préliminaires à la recevabilité dela requête etexamen quant au fond.
Mais la procédurede 1995en l'espèce nerelevait d'aucune de cescatégo-
ries.Il s'agissait d'une catégoriede procédure inédite etsa nouveauté
mêmea pu donner lieu à des malentendus. Elle a, entre autres, amenéla
Cour à éluderla nouvelle demande en indication de mesures conserva-
toires présentéepar la Nouvelle-Zélandeet à examiner de façon quelque
peu sommaire la demande principale elle-mêmeL . 'affaire présentecertes
un caractère inéditen ce qui concerne tant la procédureque le fond, mais

la nouveauténe saurait justifier que la Cour écarteune affaire ou qu'elle
l'examineincomplètement.
7. Il convient de noter que la France n'a présentéaucune piècede pro-
céduredans l'affaire de1974,qu'ellen'étaitpas représentéleors de la pro-
cédureorale et qu'ellea constammentmaintenu l'attitudeexposéedans une
lettre de l'ambassadeurde France aux Pays-Basdatée du16mai 1973dont
la Cour étaitsaisie.Dans cettelettre, la France exposait que, selon elle,la
Cour n'avait manifestementpas compétence enl'espèce,que le Gouver-accordingly the French Government did not intend to appoint an agent
and requested the Court to remove the case from the list (I.C.J. Reports
1974, p. 458).

8. A slightly different approach to the present application has been
taken by the Government of France in 1995.The same position taken in
1973was expressed by France in the letter dated 28 August 1995to the
Registrar at the Court by the Ambassador of the French Republic to the
Netherlands in which it is argued that "no basis exists which might
found, even if only prima facie, the jurisdiction of the Court to entertain
the New Zealand Requests". In 1995,however, the French Government
was represented by its Director of Legal Affairs at the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs at the meeting scheduled by the President of the Court on
30 August 1995.As a result of that meeting France filed with the Court
an aide-mémoirecontaining 14pages of closelyreasoned legal argument
as to why New Zealand's application could not be entertained by the
Court. In 1995France was represented by counsel before the Court. It
fully participated in oral hearings on 11and 12 September 1995.

9. In dealing with the present application it is necessary to ascertain
exactlywhat was decided and what was not decidedby the Court in 1974.
The President of France issued a communiqué on 8June 1974and other
officia1statements were made to the effect that atmospheric tests would
cease, giving way to underground testing. The Court in its 1974 decision
decided that the case before the Court had been rendered moot since
New Zealand had secured what it sought. The Court went on to state
that the statements by France that atmospheric tests would cease were
statements upon which other nations were bound to rely. The Court held
the statements "constitute an undertaking possessing legal effect" (I.C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 474, para. 53). Thus the Court reasoned that the 'Yis-
pute having disappeared, the claim advanced by New Zealand no longer
has any object" (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 476, para. 59).

10. In its Request of 14May 1973New Zealand did not restrict itself

to concern with atmospheric nuclear testing. In its submission the rights
to be protected by the Court were:

"(i) the rights of al1members oftheinternational community, includ-
ing New Zealand, that no nuclear tests that give rise to radio-
active fall-out be conducted;
(ii) that the rights ofal1members of the international community,
including New Zealand, to the preservation from unjustified
artificial radio-active contamination of the terrestrial, maritime
and aerial environment and, in particular, of the environment
of theregion in which the tests are conducted and in which New
Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue and the Tokelau Islands are
situated; DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP. DISSP. ALMER) 384

nement français ne pouvait accepter sajuridiction, et qu'en conséquence
il n'avait pas l'intention de désignerun agent et demandait à la Cour
d'ordonner que l'affaire soit rayéedu rôle (C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 458).
8. Le Gouvernement français a adopté en 1995 une attitude légère-
ment différenteà l'égardde la demande néo-zélandaiseD . ans la lettre en
date du 28 août 1995adresséeau Greffier de la Cour par l'ambassadeur
de la République française aux Pays-Bas, la France a pris la mêmeposi-
tion qu'en 1973en soutenant que, selon elle,il n'existeaucune base qui
pourrait fonder, ne fût-ce queprimafacie, la compétence dela Cour pour
connaître des demandes néo-zélandaises)).Cependant,en 1995,le Gou-
vernement français était représentpar le directeur des affairesjuridiques
au ministère desaffaires étrangèresà la réunionorganiséepar le Prési-

dent de la Cour le30 août 1995.A la suite de cette réunion, la France a
déposé à la Cour un aide-mémoirecomportant quatorze pages de raison-
nementjuridique serrétendant à démontrer pourquoi la Cour ne pouvait
connaître de la demande de la Nouvelle-Zélande.En 1995,la France a été
représentéepar des conseils devant la Cour. Elle a pleinement participé
aux audiences des 11et 12septembre 1995.
9. Pour traiter la demande néo-zélandaise,il faut déterminerexacte-
ment ce qui a été décidpéar la Cour en 1974et ce qui ne l'a pas été.ar
un communiqué du président dela République française en date du
8 juin 1974et par d'autres déclarationsofficielles,la France a annoncé
que les essais atmosphériquesprendraient fin et qu'ils seraient remplacés
par des essais souterrains. Dans son arrêtde 1974,la Cour a décidéque
l'affairedont elleétaitsaisieétaitdevenue sansobjet puisque la Nouvelle-
Zélande avait obtenu ce qu'elle souhaitait. La Cour a ajouté que les

déclarationsde la France selon lesquellesles essais atmosphériquespren-
draient fin étaient des déclarations sur l'effectivité desquellesd'autres
Etats devaient compter, et elle a estiméque ces déclarations ~consti-
tu[aient]un engagement comportant des effetsjuridiques)) (C1J. Recueil
1974, p. 474, par. 53). La Cour a donc conclu que «le différendayant
disparu, la demande présentéepar la Nouvelle-Zélandene comport[ait]
plus d'objet)(ibid.,p. 476,par. 59).
10. Dans sa demande du 14mai 1973,la Nouvelle-Zélandene sepréoc-
cupait pas uniquement des essais nucléairesatmosphériques.Elleindiquait
dans sa conclusion que les droits que la Cour devait protégerétaient:

«i) le droit de tous les membres de la communauté internationale.
y compris la Nouvelle-Zélande, à ce qu'aucune expérience
nucléaireprovoquant des retombées radioactivesn'ait lieu;

ii) le droit de tous les membres de la communauté internationale,
y compris la Nouvelle-Zélande, à ce que le milieu terrestre,
maritime et aérien soitprotégé contre une contamination injus-
tifiéerésultant d'une radioactivitéartificielleet notammente
qu'il en soit ainsi de la régionoù les essais ont lieu et où sont
situéesla Nouvelle-Zélande, les îles Cook, les îles Nioué et
Tokélaou ; (iii) the right of New Zealand that no radio-active material enter the
territory of New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue or the Toke-
lau Islands, includingtheir air space and territorial waters, as a
result of nuclear testing;
(iv) the right of New Zealand that no radio-active material, having
entered the territory of New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue
or the Tokelau Islands, including their airspace and territorial
waters, as a result of nuclear testing, cause harm, including

apprehension, anxiety and concern to the people and Govern-
ment of New Zealand, and of the Cook Islands, Niue and the
Tokelau Islands ;
(v) the right of NewZealand to freedom of the high seas, including
freedom ofnavigation and overflightand the freedomto explore
and exploit the resources of the sea and the sea-bed, without
interference or detrimentresultingfrom nuclear testing." (1C..J.
Pleadings, Nuclear Tests, Vol. II, Request for the Indication of
Interim Measures of Protection, p. 49, compare with Applica-
tion, ibid., p. 8.)

II. The elements of the request relevant to the present application are:

- the maritime environment,
- the terrestrial environment,
- unjustified artificial radioactive contamination,
- the effects on the environment of the region,
- freedom to explore and exploit the resources of the sea-bed without
detriment from nuclear testing,
- the dangers to territorial waters.

12. It is against that background that paragraph 63 of the Court's
Judgment falls to be considered. In the written proceedings and oral
hearings before this Court the paragraph has been subjected to a remark-
able range of interpretations and it is a passage with some delphic quali-
ties. It hangs in a tantalizing fashion over the whole case.
13. The paragraph appears alone in the Judgment plainly separated

from the passages which both precede it and follow it. What was its pur-
pose? What is its proper interpretation? These are the questions upon
whichthe resultof the casedepends.But before discussing thoseissues some
context needs to be set out to allow a more ample appreciation of them.

A History of Consistent Opposition

14. This case concerning French nuclear testing in the South Pacific
has a long history. It began in this Court in 1973.Diplomatic correspon-
dence between New Zealand and France revealed serious concern about iii) le droit de la Nouvelle-Zélande à ce qu'aucun déchetradioactif
ne pénètresur son territoire, y compris son espace aérien etses
eaux territoriales, ou ceux des îles Cook, des îles Nioué et

Tokélaou, à la suite d'essaisnucléaires;
iv) le droit de la Nouvelle-Zélande à ce qu'aucun déchetradioactif
ayant pénétré sur son territoirey , compris son espace aérien et
ses eaux territoriales ou ceux des îles Cook, des îles Nioué et
Tokélaou, à la suited'expérimentationsnucléaires,ne cause un
préjudice, notamment des appréhensions, de l'anxiété etde
l'inquiétude, auxhabitants et aux Gouvernements de la Nou-
velle-Zélande, des îlesCook, des îles Niouéet Tokélaou;

v) le droit de la Nouvelle-Zélande à la libertéde la haute mer, y
compris la liberté de navigation et de survol, et la liberté
d'explorer et d'exploiterles ressources de la mer et du fond des
mers, sans subir de gêneou de préjudice enraison des essais
nucléaires » (C.I.J. Mémoires, Essais nucléaires, vol. II,
demande en indication de mesures conservatoires,p. 49, com-
parer avec la requête,ibid., p. 8).

11. Les éléments decette demande pertinents quant à la demande
actuelle sont les suivants:

- le milieu maritime,
- le milieu terrestre,
- une contamination injustifiéerésultant d'une radioactiveartificielle,
- les effets sur l'environnement dela région,
- la libertéd'explorer etd'exploiterlesressources desfonds marins sans
subir de préjudice enraison des essais nucléaires,
- les dangers pour les eaux territoriales.

12. C'est dans ce contexte qu'il convient d'envisagerle paragraphe 63
de l'arrêtde la Cour. Dans le cadre de la procédureécriteet au cours des
audiences devant la Cour, ce paragraphe a fait l'objet d'un nombre éton-
nant d'interprétations et il n'est pas dénuéd'ambiguïtés. Il plane de
manière obsédante sur toutel'affaire.

13. Ce paragraphe figure de façon isoléedans l'arrêt, nettement séparé
des passages qui le précèdentet de ceux qui le suivent. A quelle fin a-t-il
étéinséré?Quelle en est la juste interprétation? Telles sont les questions
dont dépend l'issuedel'affaire. Mais avant de lesaborder ilconvient d'en
rappeler le contexte pour pouvoir les soumettre à une plus ample analyse.

Une opposition constante depuis des années

14. La présenteaffaireconcernant lesessaisnucléairesfrançais dans le

Pacifique Sud a une longue histoire qui a commencédevant la Cour en
1973. La correspondance diplomatique échangéeentre la Nouvelle-the subject for a decade earlier (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 464, para. 26).
Before that France had tested nuclear devices in Algeria. Two factors
which favoured a change of venue for testing were the fact that Algeria
secured its independence from France in 1963and there was concern that
the Saharan winds carried radioactive debris into Europe. (See generally
"Note, French Testing and International 'Law", 24 Rutgers Law
Review 144 (1969).) While the Pacific may have been more expansive
in spatial terms, the reception to the tests there, first atmospheric and
later underground, reinforced the old adage of environmental law:
not-in-my-backyard.

15. But it would be wrong to attribute New Zealand7sopposition to
nuclear testing to the French movement of testing to the Pacific. France
conducted 19tests in Algeria between February 1960and February 1966.
At the time the official order to proceed with testing was given in 1958
there was a General Assembly resolution expressly condemning French
testing, not only for the threat that it posed to the then moratorium
but also for "causing anxiety among al1peoples, and more particularly
those of Africa". New Zealand voted for that resolution in the General
Assembly (resolution 1379 (XIV), 20 November 1959).

16. This history of New Zealand opposition to nuclear testing is
meticulously examined in a scholarly article by J. Stephen Kos ("Interim

Relief in theinternational Court of Justice:New Zealand and the Nuclear
Test Cases7',14 Victoria Universityof WellingtonLaw Review 357(1984)).
He finds that New Zealand, unlike Australia, had "had a consistent and
outspoken record to al1 atmospheric testing since 1958" (p. 370). One
of the counsel in the 1973 New Zealand case, who was again counsel
before the Court on this occasion, Sir Kenneth Keith, Q.C., wrote in a
learned article,

"The diplomatic record, assembled in the documentation submit-
ted to the Court, shows a consistent and developing New Zealand
position dating from 1958when it supported a resolution about test-
ing in the Sahara." (K. J. Keith, "The Nuclear Tests Cases after Ten
Years", 14 Victoria Universityof WellingtonLaw Review 350(1984).)

17. In truth, the New Zealand opposition to nuclear tests has three
strands - concern for disarmament and an opposition to the spread of
nuclear weapons and their testing; the effects of nuclear testing on the
environment; and a regional concern.There is in fact a strong element of
consistencyabout New Zealand's attitude to nuclear testing in al1catego- DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP.DISSP. ALMER) 386

Zélandeet la France pendant les dix années précédentes révélait déjà
une grave préoccupation à ce sujet de la part de la Nouvelle-Zélande
(C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 464, par. 26). Auparavant, la France avait pro-
cédé à des essais d'engins nucléairesen Algérie. Lechangement de site
pour les essais a été favorisépar deux facteurs, l'un étant le fait que
l'Algérie est devenuindépendantede la France en 1963et l'autre tenant
à la crainte de voir les vents sahariens apporter des résidusradioactifs
en Europe (voir, en général, ((Note, French Testing and International
Law», Rutgers Law Review, 1969,vol. 24, p. 144).Il est vrai que la zone
du Pacifique offrait peut-être unespace plusvaste, mais la façon dont les
essais d'abord atmosphériques, puis souterrains, y ont étéaccueillis a

confirméle vieil adage du droit en matière d'environnement: pas devant
ma porte.
15.Il serait cependant erroné d'attribuer l'opposition de la Nouvelle-
Zélande auxessais nucléairesau fait que la France a transféréses essais
dans le Pacifique. La France a effectué dix-neuf essais nucléairesen
Algérieentre février1960et février1966.Lorsque la décisionofficiellea
étéprise de procéder auxessais en 1958,l'Assembléegénéralea adopté
une résolution qui condamnait expressémentles essais français non seu-
lement en raison de la menace qu'ils faisaient planer sur le moratoire
alors en vigueur mais aussi à cause de ((l'anxiétécauséechez tous les
peuples, et plusparticulièrementchezlespeuplesd'Afrique».La Nouvelle-
Zélande a voté pour cette résolution à l'Assembléegénérale (résolu-
tion 1379 (XIV) du 20 novembre 1959).

16. L'histoire de l'opposition de la Nouvelle-Zélandeaux essais nu-
cléairesest méticuleusement examinéedans un article de doctrine de
J. Stephen Kos (((Interim Relief in the International Court of Justice:
New Zealand and the Nuclear Test Cases», Victoria University of
Wellington Law Review, 1984, vol. 14, p. 357). L'auteur constate que,
contrairement à l'Australie, la Nouvelle-Zélande a ((toujours eu une
attitude cohérenteet nette à l'égardde tous les essais atmosphériques
depuis 1958)) (p. 370). Sir Kenneth Keith, Q.C., qui a été l'undes
conseils de la Nouvelle-Zélande dans l'affaire de 1973 et qui l'a de
nouveau étéen cette occasion devant la Cour, a écrit dans un articlede
doctrine que:

«Les actes diplomatiques réunisdans la documentation soumise à
la Cour indiquent que la Nouvelle-Zélandea adopté une position
cohérente et de plus en plus nette depuis 1958, année où elle a
appuyéune résolutionconcernant lesessaisau Sahara. » (K. J. Keith,
«The Nuclear Tests Cases after Ten Years», Victoria Universityof
WellingtonLaw Review, 1984, vol. 14,p. 350.)

17. En vérité, l'opposition dlea Nouvelle-Zélandeauxessaisnucléaires
procède d'une triple préoccupation: le souci du désarmement et l'op-
position à la prolifération des armes nucléaireset de leurs essais; la
crainte des répercussions desessais nucléairessur l'environnement, et la
défensedes intérêts de larégion.On constate en fait une grande cohé-ries and in this history is to be found the explanation for why New Zea-
land's pleadings in the 1974case are substantially wider than Australia's
in the companion case. The New Zealand pleadings as set out earlier in
this opinion manifestly do not restrict themselvesto issuesof atmospheric
nuclear testing. The environmental issues are prominent.

18. It is also significant that the New Zealand officia1reaction to
France's assurances, made while the case was before the Court, that
atmospheric testing would cease and give way to underground testing
was not accepted by New Zealand. France had issued a communiquéon
8 June 1974indicating it would cease atmospheric tests. New Zealand in
a diplomatic note that was also before the 1974Court said it had "fun-
damental opposition to al1nuclear testing" (1.CJ. Reports 1974,p. 470,

para. 37).

19. Then there was the officia1NewZealand Government response to
the Judgment of the Court. The officia1statement of the New Zealand
Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. W. E. Rowling, was made on 21December
1974and put before this Court on 11 September 1995.It concluded as
follows :

"Mr. Rowling concluded by recalling that New Zealand's concern
about nuclear testing had never been confined to the particular case
of the tests conducted by France - or indeed, to the question of
testing in the atmosphere. It would continue to be the New Zealand
Government's aim to bring about the ending of al1forms of nuclear
weapons testing, by any country."

20. Indeed it is a matter of public record that New Zealand had a seri-
ous diplomaticdispute with the United States of America over the ability
of ships from that country to bring nuclear weapons into New Zealand
harbours, a dispute which resulted in a rupturing of the Anzus Alliance
established between the United States, Australia and New Zealand
pursuant to the 1951Anzus Treaty (131 United Nations, Treaty Series
(UNTS) 83). The dispute caused the United States to suspend its treaty
obligation towards New Zealand because New Zealand would not admit
to its ports nuclear armed or powered ships. New Zealand passed a stat-
ute that remains the law enshrining that policy: New Zealand Nuclear
Free Zone, Disarmament and Arms Control Act 1987.

21. From 1983onwards there was a consistent pattern of officia1pub-
licstatements expressedbyNew Zealand to France's underground nuclear

testing in thePacific. The 1995New Zealand Request shows that New
Zealand publicly objected on no fewer than 50 occasions.rence dans l'attitude néo-zélandaisà l'égarddes essaisnucléaires detous
types, ce qui permet de comprendre pourquoi lesécrituresde la Nouvelle-
Zélande dans l'affaire de1974avaient une portéesensiblementplus large
que celle de l'Australie dans l'affaire parallèle. Comme on l'a déjàindi-
qué,il est manifeste que, dans ses piècesécrites,la Nouvelle-Zélandene
visait pas uniquement le problème des essais nucléairesdans l'atmo-
sphère.Les questions écologiquesjouaient un rôle essentiel.
18.Il est égalementsignificatifque la Nouvelle-Zélandeait réagioffi-
ciellement par un refus aux promesses faites par la France, alors que

l'affaire était pendante devant la Cour, de mettre fin aux essais dans
l'atmosphère et de les remplacer par des essais souterrains. La France
avait en effet publiéle8juin 1974un communiqué indiquant son inten-
tion de mettre fin aux essais atmosphériques. Dans une note diploma-
tique dont la Cour disposait également en 1974, la Nouvelle-Zélande
déclarait son ((opposition fondamentale ...à toute expérimentation
nucléaire))(C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 470, par. 37).
19.Il faut noter ensuite la réactionofficielledu Gouvernement néo-
zélandais à l'arrêtde la Cour. M. W. E. Rowling, premier ministre de
Nouvelle-Zélande,a fait le 21 décembre1974une déclaration officielle
dont le texte a étéproduit devant la Cour le 11 septembre 1995,qui se
terminait comme suit :

«M. Rowling a conclu en rappelant que les inquiétudes de la
Nouvelle-Zélande à propos des essais nucléairesne se sont jamais
limitéesau cas particulier des essais effectuéspar la France, ni
d'ailleurs aux essais dans l'atmosphère. Le Gouvernement néo-
zélandaisgardepour objectif de mettre un terme à toutes les formes
d'essaisd'armes nucléaires,par quelque pays que ce soit.»

20. Il est d'ailleurs notoire que la Nouvelle-Zélande a eu un grave
différenddiplomatique aveclesEtats-Unis d'Amériqueau sujet dela pos-
sibilitépour les navires américains d'entrer, chargés d'armesnucléaires,
dans les ports néo-zélandais,différend qui a entraîné la rupture du
pacte Anzus qui unissait les Etats-Unis, l'Australie et la Nouvelle-
Zélande en application du traité Anzus de 1951 (Nations Unies,
Recueil des traités,vol. 131,p. 83). A la suite de ce différend,les Etats-

Unis ont suspenduleurs obligations conventionnelles enversla Nouvelle-
Zélande carce pays refusait de laisser entrer dans ses ports des navires
à propulsion nucléaire ou munis d'armes nucléaires. La Nouvelle-
Zélande a adopté une loi, intitulée New Zealand Nuclear Free Zone,
Disarmament and Arms Control Act 1987, qui consacre toujours cette
politique.
21. Depuis 1983,La Nouvelle-Zélandea systématiquementréagipar
des déclarationsofficiellesaux essais nucléairessouterrains effectuéspar
la France dans le Pacifique. La demande présentéepar la Nouvelle-
Zélandeen 1995indique que ce pays a fait connaître publiquement son
opposition aux essais en cinquante occasions au moins. 22. Further, New Zealand continuously sought information, or evi-
dence, from France in bilateral, regional and multilateral contexts. Those
requests include the following:

3 December 1979: request by NewZealand Minister of Foreign Affairs
during meeting in Paris with French Foreign Minister;

22 April 1980: request to France to allow visit to Mururoa test site by
New Zealand scientists;
9 December 1981 :further request for information;
24 March 1982: New Zealand request for independent verification of
French safety measures;

23 August 1982: New Zealand repeated request for access to site by
New Zealand scientists(Atkinson visitallowedOctober-November 1983);

25 November 1986 :Noumea Convention signedfollowingnegotiations
over some years involving New Zealand and France and other South
Pacific States.
There were no tests between July 1991and September 1995.(Reply to
question by Judge Schwebel.)
23. In responding to the 1995Request before it the Court needed to
examine here the context of this particular dispute closely. In 1973the

burden of the complaint by New Zealand was that it was entitled to be
free from the hazards of increased nuclear radiation due to French
nuclear testingin the South Pacific. Asindicated elsewherein this opinion
the Court found it unnecessary in 1974 to address the central issue
attributing "legal effect" to France's public undertaking to haltatmos-
pheric testing. Unhappily, this disposition of the case manifestly did not
have the effect of solving the dispute between the Parties. The state of
international law on the central issues was not decided. The reality is
that in one form or another French nuclear testing in the South Pacific
has been at the root of a series of international law issues which have
arisen between the two nations since 1974 (United Nations Secretary-
General : Ruling on the Rainbow Warrior affair between France and
New Zealand, reprinted in 26 International Legal Materials (ILM) 1346
(1987), 74 International Law Reports (ILR) 241; Rainbow Warrior

(New Zealand v. France), International Arbitration Award, 30 April
1990(Eduardo Jiménezde Aréchaga, Professor Bredin and Sir Kenneth
Keith), 82 ILR 499).)

Intervenors

24. That there is widespread concern about the environmental issues
raised by the French tests is obvious enough, not only from the high DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP.DISSP. ALMER) 388

22. En outre, la Nouvelle-Zélanden'a cesséde demander à la France
des informations ou des éléments d'appréciation dans un cadre bilatéral,
régional ou multilatéral. On peut notamment citer les démarchessui-
vantes :

3 décembre1979: demande du ministre des affaires étrangèresde
Nouvelle-Zélande lors de sa rencontre avec le ministre français des
affaires étrangères Paris;
22 avril 1980: demande adressée àla France pour qu'elleautorise une
visite de scientifiquesnéo-zélandaissurle site d'essaisde Mururoa;
9 décembre1981 :nouvelle demande d'informations;
24 mars 1982: demande présentéepar la Nouvelle-Zélandetendant à
ce qu'il soit procédà une vérification,par des experts indépendants,des

mesures de sécurité prisespar la France;
23 août 1982: demande réitéréd ee la Nouvelle-Zélandetendant à obte-
nir l'accèsau site pour des scientifiquesnéo-zélandais(mission Atkinson
autoriséeen octobre-novembre 1983);
25 novembre 1986: signature de la convention de Nouméa après plu-
sieurs annéesde négociations entre la Nouvelle-Zélande,la France et
d'autres Etats du Pacifique Sud.

Aucun essai n'a eu lieu entre juillet 1991et septembre 1995 (réponse
la question poséepar M. Schwebel).
23. Pour répondre à la demande dont elle étaitsaisie en 1995,la Cour
devait examiner de prèsle contexte de ce différendparticulier. En 1973,
la Nouvelle-Zélandeavait principalementfait valoir qu'elleavait le droit
de ne pas êtreexposéeaux risques d'une augmentation des radiations
nucléairesdue aux essais français dans le Pacifique Sud. Comme il est
indiquépar ailleurs dans la présente opinion, la Cour, ayant attribué
«un effetjuridique)) à l'engagement public pris par la France de mettre
fin aux essais atmosphériques, n'a pasjugénécessaireen 1974de traiter

cette question centrale. Malheureusement, cette décision rendue en
l'espècen'a manifestement pas eu pour effet de régler ledifférendentre
lesParties. L'état dudroit international sur lesquestionscentralesn'a pas
étéclarifié.En réalité,les essais nucléaires detout type effectuéspar la
France dans le Pacifique Sud ont été à l'origine de toute une série de
différendsjuridiques internationaux qui ont opposélesdeux Etats depuis
1974(règlementopéré par le Secrétairegénéral des NationsUnies suiteà
l'incident du Rainbow Warrior entre la France et la Nouvelle-Zélande,
reproduit dans la Revue générale de droit internationalpublic (RGDIP),
1987,p. 1054; Rainbow Warrior (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), sentence
arbitrale, 30 avril 1990 (Eduardo Jiménezde Aréchaga, M. Bredin et

sirKenneth Keith), RGDIP, 1990,p. 838).

Les intervenants

24. Pour mesurer l'inquiétude générale manifestement ressentieau
sujet des problèmes écologiquesliésaux essais français, il suffit dep-media profile the issues enjoyed at the very time of the oral hearings but
also from the fact that a number of countries sought to intervenein these
proceedings under Article 62 of the Statute and have filed the necessary
documents to do so. Those countries are:

Australia,
Samoa,
Solomon Islands,
Marshall Islands,
Federated States of Micronesia.
The Court has taken no action on the Applications made by these
countries; an omission considered by this Judge to be unfortunate. It is a
big step for the smaller ofthese democraticcountries to attempt to come

before this Court combiningas they do the interests of Polynesian, Mela-
nesian and Micronesian peoples and they are entitled to a response. They
were not permitted to be heard in the oral argument and they well may
have been able to add valuable assistance to the Court's consideration.
The issue before the Court was one that deserved to be considered in
its regional context as well as its factual and legal context. As Paul
East, Q.C., the Attorney-General of New Zealand told the Court the
15 countries of the South Pacific Forum regard French nuclear testing
"of grave concern to the countries and peoples of the region" (CR 95/19,
p. 20, para. 13).This regional concern is exemplifiedby the provisions of
the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty concluded at Rarotonga
6 August 1985, entered into force 11 December 1986 (24 ILM 1442
(1985)).

Paragraph63

25. The central legal issuein the case is how to interpret paragraph 63
of the Court's 1974 Judgment, which for ease of reference is repeated
again :

"Once the Court has found that a State has entered into a com-
mitment concerning its future conduct it is not the Court's function
to contemplate that it will not comply with it. However, the Court
observes that if the basis of this Judgment were to be affected, the

Applicant could request an examination of the situation in accord-
ance with the provisions of the Statute; the denunciation by France,
by letter dated 2 January 1974, of the General Act for the Pacific
Settlement of International Disputes, which is relied on as a basis ofpeler non seulement l'importance que les médiasont accordée à ces pro-
blèmesau moment mêmedes audiences, mais aussi le fait qu'un certain
nombre de pays ont soumis à la Cour des requêtesàfin d'intervention en
vertu de l'article 62 du Statut et ont déposéles documents nécessaires
cet effet. Ces pays sont:
l'Australie,

le Samoa,
lesIles Salomon,
les Iles Marshall,
les Etats fédérés de Micronésie.
La Cour n'a pas donné suite à ces demandes à fin d'intervention; en
ma qualité dejuge, je considère cette omission comme regrettable. Les
plus petits de ces pays démocratiques, qui conjuguent les intérêtsdes

peuples polynésien, mélanésieent micronésien,avaient accompli un geste
important en demandant à comparaître devant la Cour et ils avaient
droità une réponse.Il ne leur a pas étépermis d'être entendus lorsde la
procédure orale alors qu'ils auraient sansdoute pu apporter certains élé-
ments utiles propres à faciliter l'examen de la Cour. Le différenddont
étaitsaisie la Cour méritait d'êtreenvisagédans son contexte régional
aussi bien que dans son contexte factuel et juridique. Comme l'a déclaré
devant la Cour M. Paul East, Q.C., l'Attorney-General de Nouvelle-
Zélande,les quinze pays du Forum du Pacifique Sud voient dans les
essais nucléairesfrançais une source de «grave préoccupation pour les
pays et les peuples de laégion»(CR 95/19,p. 20, par. 13).Cette préoc-
cupation despays de la régiontrouve son expression dans lesdispositions
du traité sur la zonedénucléarisédeu Pacifique Sud conclu àRarotonga
le 6 août 1985et entréen vigueur le 11décembre1986(Agence interna-

tionale de l'énergieatomique,INFCIRCl33 1, février1986).

Le paragraphe 63

25. Le problèmejuridique central qui se pose en l'espèce estcelui de
l'interprétation donner au paragraphe 63 de l'arrêt rendupar la Cour
en 1974,paragraphe dont, pour des raisons de commodité,je rappelle de
nouveau le libellé:
«Dèslors que la Cour a constaté qu'unEtat a pris un engagement
quant à son comportement futur, il n'entre pas dans sa fonction

d'envisager que cet Etat ne le respecte pas. La Cour fait observer
que, si lefondement du présent arrêtétaitremis en cause, le requé-
rant pourrait demander un examen de la situation conformément
aux dispositionsdu Statut; la dénonciationpar la France, dans une
lettre du 2janvier1974,de l'Actegénérap lour le règlement pacifique
des différendsinternationaux, qui est invoquécomme l'un des fon- jurisdiction in the present case, cannot constitute by itself an obstacle
to the presentation of such a request." (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 477.)

The New Zealand Argument

26. The New Zealand interpretation of the paragraph is based on its
1973Application which was not limited to atmospheric testing and was
at its base a dispute about nuclear contamination. The prime concern
was contamination, its source was incidental or secondary (1995 New
Zealand Request, para. 64). New Zealand says its interpretation draws
strength from its prayer that the Court adjudge and declare the conduct
of nuclear tests in the South Pacific constituted a violation of New Zea-
land rights under international law. New Zealand further draws comfort

from the fact that the operative part of the Court'sOrder of 22June 1973
talks of the need to avoid "nuclear tests" and is not restricted to atmos-
pheric tests (1995New Zealand Request, para. 65). New Zealand further
points to the scope of the 1973Application in its concern with the living
resources of the sea.

27. New Zealand then puts its argument in this way:

"It is true that the French declarations had said that, in givingup
atmospheric testing, France would be in a position to pass to the
stageofunderground testing. Thus eventhough the prospect ofunder-
ground testing was in the mind of the Court, it did not specifi-
callyrule that underground testing would end the dispute absolutely.
The crucial point to recall is that no one had any idea at that time
that the underground testing subsequently to be carried out at
Mururoa or at Fangataufa could, or would in due course, lead to
some of the results that it was thought the termination of atmos-
pheric testing would avoid, namely, pollution of the marine environ-
ment by radioactive material. If it had been so contemplated, the
Court could hardly have taken the view that the French renuncia-
tion of atmospheric testing could by itself have brought the 'dispute'

to an end - for evidently it would not have." (Ibid., para. 67.)
28. Thus, New Zealand argues that the scope of the Court's 1974
Judgment must be measured not by reference to atmospheric testing as
such, but rather by reference to the stated objective of the Application,
which was to secure a prohibition of testing likely to produce contami-
nation in the Pacific marine environment by any artificial radioactive
material. It was triggered by the announcement of 13June 1995by the

President of the French Republic announcing a series of tests after
France had previously ceased testing in July 1991.On the basis of scien- dements de la compétencede la Cour en l'espèce,ne saurait en soi
faire obstaclà la présentation d'unetelle demande.»(C.I.J. Recueil
1974, p. 477.)

La thèse dela Nouvelle-Zélande
26. L'interprétation que la Nouvelle-Zélande donne de ce para-

graphe s'appuie sur sa requêtede 1973qui ne visait pas uniquement les
essais atmosphériques et qui concernait fondamentalement un différend
sur la contamination radioactive. La préoccupation première était la
contamination, la source de celle-ci étant d'importance accessoire ou
secondaire (demande de la Nouvelle-Zélande, 1995, par. 64). Selon la
Nouvelle-Zélande, son interprétation se trouve corroborée par le fait
qu'elle priait la Cour de dire et juger que les essais nucléaireseffectués
dans la régiondu Pacifique Sud constituaient une violation des droits de
la Nouvelle-Zélande au regard du droit international. La Nouvelle-
Zélandeexcipeen outre du fait que, dans le dispositif de l'ordonnance du
22juin 1973,la Cour mentionnait la nécessité de ne pas procéder à des

((essaisnucléaires))et qu'elle nevisait donc pas uniquement les essais
atmosphériques (demande de la Nouvelle-Zélande, 1995, par. 65). Elle
fait de plus remarquer que le champ de la requête de1973s'étendait aux
effets des essais sur les ressources vivantes de la mer.
27. La Nouvelle-Zélande développe ensuiteson argumentation de la
façon suivante :

((11est vrai que dans ses déclarations la France avait dit qu'en
renonçant aux essais atmosphériqueselle serait en mesure de passer
au stade des essais souterrains. Ainsi, mêmesi la Cour songeaitàla
perspective d'essais souterrains, elle n'a pas dit expressément que
des essais souterrains mettraient fin une fois pour toutes au diffé-
rend. Le point crucialà rappeler est que nul n'imaginaità l'époque
que les essais souterrains qui devaientêtre ultérieurementeffectués
Mururoa ou à Fangataufa pourraient aboutir, ou aboutiraient à la
longue, àcertains des résultatsdont on pensait qu'ils seraient évités
grâce àl'arrêtdes essais atmosphériques, à savoir la contamination

radioactive du milieu marin. Sinon, la Cour aurait pu difficilement
dire que la renonciation par la France aux essais atmosphériques
pouvait en soi avoir mis fin au((différend)- car, évidemment,tel
n'aurait pas étéle cas.» (Ibid., par. 67.)
28. Ainsi la Nouvelle-Zélandesoutient que la portéede l'arrêt rendu

par la Cour en 1974doit êtreappréciée non pas par référence aux essais
atmosphériquesen tant que tels, mais plutôt par rapport àl'objet déclaré
de la requête,à savoir l'interdiction des essais susceptibles de provoquer
une contamination du milieu marin de l'océan Pacifiquepar quelque
radioactivitéartificielle que ce soit. La Nouvelle-Zélandea été incitée
agir lorsque le président de la République françaisea annoncéle 13juin
1995 que la France allait procéder à une série d'essaisaprès y avoirtific evidence, the case New Zealand now presents is that underground

nuclear testing at Mururoa and Fangataufa has already led to some
contamination of the marine environmentand there appears a real risk of
its leading to further potentially significant contamination. Thus, con-
cludes the argument on this point by New Zealand, the matching made
by the Court in 1974between atmospheric testing and the width of the
dispute betweenNew Zealand and France is based on a presumption that
is no longer valid. By the time of the oral hearing there had occurred a
total of 135underground nuclear explosions in the South Pacificmaking
up the relevant background against which the provisions in paragraph 63
of the Judgment must be examined. So, New Zealand now seeks a
resumption of the 1973proceedings before this Court because the basis
of the 1974Judgment has been affected by newdevelopments and by the
cumulation of concentrations of hazardous radioactive materials which
will bea danger if they escape.

29. On the critical element upon which the view of the majority turns
the New Zealand Solicitor-General, J. J. McGrath, Q.C., made the fol-
lowing oral submission :
"Had it been the Court's intention to confine resumption of the
caseto a situation where France had reverted to atmospheric testing,
the Court would have said so. It did not. Instead it framed the test

in broad words which raised the question of whether the rationale
underlyingthe Judgment of 1974continued to apply. It is argued by
France that only future atmospheric testing iscovered by the right to
go back to the Court. But that, Members of the Court, is contra-
dicted by the very generality and wide scope of the words 'if the
basis of the Judgment is affected'.Indeed, if you look at the whole of
paragraph 63, it is impossible to treat the French unilateralunder-
taking to cease atmospheric testing as the only event that would
change the basis of the Judgment. The first sentence of the para-
graph says that the Court is not prepared to contemplate a breach of
its undertaking by France. How, then, can it be argued that the
second sentence contemplated solely that possibility?" (CR 95/19,
p. 50, para. 38.)

30. There were in the New Zealand viewtwo assumptionsformingthe
basis of the Judgment in 1974.The first was that France would comply
with its comrnitment to cease atmospheric testing and confine itself to
underground testing. The second assumption was that the cessation of
atmospheric testing met and matched New Zealand's allegations and
concerns regarding nuclear contamination as they stood in 1974. Then
New Zealand went on to develop an extensive argument as to why the

second assumption was no longer valid. Thus, if the wider concerns thatmis fin en juillet 1991. L'argument que la Nouvelle-Zélande défend
aujourd'hui est que, selon des éléments de preuves scientifiquesl,es essais
nucléairessouterrains àMururoa et à Fangataufa ont déjàprovoqué une
certaine contamination du milieu marin et que, semble-t-il, ils risquent
réellement dedonner lieu à une nouvelle contamination potentiellement
importante. La Nouvelle-Zélandeconclut son argumentation sur cepoint
en soutenant que la correspondanceétabliepar la Cour en 1974entre les
essaisatmosphériquesetle champ du différendentre la Nouvelle-Zélande
et la France reposait sur un postulat qui n'est plus valable. A la date de
la procédure orale, il avait étéeffectuéau total cent trente-cinq explo-
sionsnucléairessouterrainesdans lePacifiqueSudet c'estdans cecontexte

qu'il convient d'examinerles dispositions du paragraphe 63 de l'arrêt.
Ainsi la Nouvelle-Zélandedemande maintenant la reprise de l'instance
introduite devant la Cour en 1973au motif que le fondement de l'arrêtde
1974a été remis en cause par des faits nouveaux et par l'accumulation de
grandes quantités de matières radioactivesdangereuses qui constitueront
une grave menace si elles sont libérées.
29. Au sujet de l'élémenc trucial autour duquel s'articule le point de
vue de la majorité,M. J. J. McGrath, Q.C., Solicitov-Genevalde Nou-
velle-Zélande,a présentéla conclusion orale suivante:

«Si l'intention de la Cour avait étéde limiter une reprise de l'ins-
tance au cas où la France aurait repris des essais atmosphériques,
elle l'aurait indiqué.Elle ne l'a pas fait. Au contraire, la Cour a
définile critèreen des termes générauxqui obligent à rechercher si
les considérationssous-jacentesà l'arrêtde 1974 continuent d'être
applicables. La France soutient que le droit de revenir devant la
Cour concerne seulement une reprise des essais atmosphériques.
Cette affirmation, Madame et Messieurs de la Cour, est contredite
par la généralitémêmeet la portée étenduedu membre de phrase
«si le fondement de l'arrêt étairtemis en cause». A la vérité,si l'on
envisage le paragraphe 63 dans son ensemble, il est impossible de
considérer que l'engagementunilatéral de la France de mettre fin

aux essais atmosphériquesest le seul événement susceptiblede re-
mettre en cause le fondement de l'arrêt. Lapremière phrase du
paragraphe 63 dit expressémentque la Cour n'envisagepas une vio-
lation par la France de son engagement. Comment peut-on alors
prétendre que la deuxièmephrase n'envisageait que cette possibi-
lité?»(CR 95119,p. 50, par. 38.)

30. Selon la Nouvelle-Zélande, deuxpostulats constituaient le fonde-
ment de l'arrêtde 1974.L'un était que la France respecterait son enga-
gement de mettre fin aux essais atmosphériquespour selimiter désormais
à des essais souterrains. Le deuxièmepostulat était que l'arrêtdes essais
atmosphériques répondaitet correspondait aux allégationset aux préoc-
cupations de la Nouvelle-Zélandeau sujet de la contamination nucléaire
telles qu'elles existaient en 1974. La Nouvelle-Zélandea développé une
longue argumentation afin de démontrer pourquoi le deuxièmepostulatit expressed in its pleading came again into issue in the future it was at
liberty to reopen the case under paragraph 63. The words "basis of the
Judgment" were deliberately left undefined, New Zealand contends. New
Zealand went on to develop lengthy arguments as to what had changed.
In short what had changed were both the facts and the law.

31. Professor Elihu Lauterpacht put the argument for New Zealand in
this way. He suggestedto the Court that if New Zealand had been asked
in 1974the question: What is your concern - to stop atmospheric test-
ing or prevention of nuclear contamination, it would have provided the
following answer :

"It is ridiculous to think that we would be content with the aban-
donment of atmospheric testing if nuclear pollution were to be
allowed to continue by other means. For us it isnot the means or the
medium of testing that matters. It is the consequences. The fact that
the testingis carried out in the atmosphere is only incidental to the
consequences of the testing." (CR 95/19, p. 64, para. 5.)

The Argument of France

32. The arguments adduced by France stoutly resist al1of the New
Zealand claims. One of the counsel for France, Sir Arthur Watts,
described the New Zealand Request as "curious and unprecedented"
(CR 95/21,p. 47). This submission was based on the notion that the case
no longer existed. In fact that there was no provision for such a Request
in either theStatute governingthe Court or its Rules. Thus in essencethe

French argument was that the Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France)
case no longer exists. It came to "an end in 1974, and is dead" (ibid.,
p. 52). Since it was dead it could not rise again.

33. In the aide-mémoiresubmitted to the Court on 6 September 1995
France submits that the Request of New Zealand does not relate to any
case and consequentlyno procedural steps can be taken. France submits
the case was closed by the Judgment of this Court on 20 December 1974.
France reasons that since the Court found that the claim then by New
Zealand no longer had any object, as a result of the statements made by
France, the Court was not called upon to give a decision. This, says
France, was the decision, it is res judicata and the matter is at an end.
The whole case was about atmospheric tests and only atmospheric tests.
The structure of the Court's Judgment demonstrates it. Furthermore, the
Court and New Zealand knew that tests were going to continue under-

ground. The statements made by France and relied upon by the Court
said so. France points to passages in the Judgment saying that the New
Zealand Application should be interpreted as applying only to atmos-
pheric tests. And, France argues, none of the six dissenting Judges dis-n'était plus valable. Ainsi, si la préoccupation de caractère général
expriméedans ses écrituresredevenait d'actualité à l'avenir, il étaitloi-
sible à la Nouvelle-Zélande dereprendre l'affaire sur la base du para-
graphe 63. La Nouvelle-Zélandea soutenu que la Cour s'était délibéré-
ment abstenue de définirles mots ((fondement de l'arrêt)).Ensuite, elle a
amplement exposéce qui avait changé. Enrésuméc ,e qui a changé,c'est
d'une part la situation de fait et d'autre part le droit.
31. M. Elihu Lauterpacht a présentécomme suit les arguments de la
Nouvelle-Zélande. Il a dià la Cour que si on avait demandéen 1974 àla
Nouvelle-Zélandece qui l'inquiétaitle plus, des essais en atmosphère ou

de la contamination nucléaire,elle aurait donné la réponse suivante:

((11est ridicule de penser que nous nous contenterions de l'aban-
don des essais en atmosphère en laissant la pollution nucléairese
propager par d'autres voies. Ce nesont ni lesmoyens expérimentaux
ni le milieu dans lequel on procède qui nous importent. Ce sont
les conséquences des essais.Le fait que ces essais soient effectués
dans l'atmosphèreest accessoirepar rapport à leurs conséquences.»

(CR 95/19,p. 64, par. 5.)

La thèsede la France
32. Les arguments présentéspar la France s'opposent fermement à
tous ceux avancés par la Nouvelle-Zélande. L'un des conseils de la

France, sir Arthur Watts, a déclaréque la demande de la Nouvelle-
Zélande avait un caractère ((étonnantet inouï» (CR 95/21, p. 47). Cette
thèse procède de l'idéqeue l'affaire n'existe pluset qu'en fait la possibilité
d'une telle demande n'est prévue nidans le Statut de la Cour ni dans son
Règlement. Ainsi, pour l'essentiel, l'argument de la France était que
l'affaire desEssais nucléaires(Nouvelle-Zélande c. France) n'existait
plus. Ellea ((prisfinen 1974,et elleest close))(ibid.,p. 52).Etant éteinte,
elle ne peut revivre.
33. Dans l'aide-mémoireprésenté à la Cour le 6 septembre 1995, la
France soutient que la demande de la Nouvelle-Zélandene porte sur
aucune affaire et que, en conséquence,aucun acte de procédurene peut
êtreeffectué.Elle prétend que l'affairea étéclose par l'arrêtde la Cour
du 20 décembre 1974. Elle fait valoir que, la Cour ayant dit que la
demande de la Nouvelle-Zélandeétait désormaissans objetpar suite des

déclarations faitespar la France, il n'y avait dèslors pas lieuà statuer.
Selon la France, ce prononcéjudiciaire auquel s'attache l'autoritéde la
chose jugéea définitivementmis fin à l'instance. Toute l'affaire portait
sur les essais dans l'atmosphère et uniquement ceux-ci. La structure de
l'arrêtde la Cour le démontre.En outre, la Cour et la Nouvelle-Zélande
savaientque les essaisallaient sepoursuivre sousterre. Cela était indiqué
dans les déclarationsfaitespar la France et prises en compte par la Cour.
La France cite des passages de l'arrêt oùil est dit que la requêtenéo-
zélandaisedevait s'interprétercomme uniquement applicable aux essaisputed the fundamental conclusion that the object of the New Zealand
Application related to atmospheric tests. France goes on to quote state-
ments in the New Zealand pleadings that the "core of the legal dispute"
iswhether atmospherictesting involvesthe violation of international law.
(Aide-mémoiresubmitted on behalf of France, para. 16.) Thus, in the
view ofFrance paragraph 63 is to be read against a background that the
whole case was and is restricted to atmospheric tests. France concludes
on the basis of this reasoning that the New Zealand 1995Request is of a
"wholly artificial and unacceptable nature" (ibid.,para. 19)'.

34. Taken as a whole the Judgment of the Court established the fol-
lowing three propositions in the viewof France. First it expresslyconsid-
ered New Zealand's application to relate solely to atmospheric tests and
not other types of tests. Second, the Court found France committed by
various unilateral declarations not to conduct further atmospheric tests.
Third, it held that New Zealand's claim no longer had any object.

35. The French argument went on to contend that thepublic announce-
ment of France in 1974to undertake no further atmospheric tests could
not be dissociated from its similarly announced intention to carry out
underground tests. Furthermore, says France, New Zealand understood
the decision the same way France did. It refrained from complaining
about underground tests in the South Pacific for some years and when

it diddenounce the underground tests New Zealand never advanced the
decision of the International Court of Justice as a basis for doing so.

36. France went on to argue that a further objection to the New Zea-
land Request is the point that there is no provision within the Statute of
the International Court of Justice within which the Request falls. Para-
graph 63 of the Judgment, France emphasizes, said that any application
New Zealand might make pursuant to the paragraph had to be "in
accordance with the provisions of the Statute". The present Request
could not be brought within the terms of the Statute - it was neither an
application for interpretation under Article 60 nor a request for a revi-
sion of judgrnent under Article 61. The conditions under which those
articles apply were absent in this case. Thus, the Request was nothing
and nothing could be done with it.

Weighing the Arguments

37. Weighing these arguments it appears to me that they demonstrate
widelydivergent legal approaches. The French approach is a strict, tech-
nical legal approach. It was described by more than one of the Frenchatmosphériques.Et ellesoulignequ'aucun desjuges dissidentsn'acontesté
la conclusion fondamentale selon laquelle l'objet de la requête néo-
zélandaiseportait sur les essais atmosphériques.La France cite ensuite
un passage du mémoirede la Nouvelle-Zélandeoù il est précisé que,«au
cŒurdu différendjuridique)), il y a un désaccord surle point de savoir si
les essaisatmosphériquesemportentviolationdu droit international (aide-
mémoireprésentéau nom de la France, par. 16). Ainsi, de l'avis de la
France, le paragraphe 63 doit êtreanalysédans le contexte généralde
l'arrêt, savoir que l'ensemble de l'affairene concernait et ne concerne
que les essais atmosphériques. Sur la base de cette argumentation, la
France conclut que la demande présentéepar la Nouvelle-Zélandeen

1995a un caractère ((totalementartificielet inacceptable))(ibid., par. 19).
34. Pris dans son ensemble, l'arrêtde la Cour établissait selon la
France les troispoints suivants.Premièrement,la Cour considéraitexpres-
sémentque la requêtede la Nouvelle-Zélandeconcernait uniquement les
essais atmosphériques et non pas d'autres types d'essais. Deuxièmement,
la Cour estimait que la France s'étaitengagéepar diverses déclarations
unilatéralesà ne plus mener d'essais dans l'atmosphère. Troisièmement,
elleconcluait que la demande de la Nouvelle-Zélandeétaitdevenue sans
objet.
35. L'argumentation de la France a consisté ensuite à affirmer que
l'engagement de ne plus procéder à des essais atmosphériques annoncé
publiquement par la France en 1974étaitindissociable de l'annonce faite
égalementpar la France de son intention de procéder à des essais souter-
rains. En outre, déclare la France, la Nouvelle-Zélandea compris cette

décision dela mêmefaçon que la France. Elle s'estabstenue de protester
contre les essais souterrains dans le Pacifique Sud pendant plusieurs
annéeset, lorsqu'elle a dénoncéces essais, elle n'a jamais invoquéà cet
effet la décision dela Cour internationale de Justice.
36. La France a ensuite opposé àla demande de la Nouvelle-Zélandeun
autre argument, à savoir que cette demande ne relevait d'aucune disposi-
tion du Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice. Le paragraphe 63,
a-t-elle souligné,prévoyaitque toute demande que la Nouvelle-Zélande
pourrait formuler en vertu dudit paragraphe devrait être faite ((confor-
mémentaux dispositions du Statut B. Or, la demande néo-zélandaisene
pouvait être rattachéeà aucune disposition du Statut. Elle n'étaitni une
demande en interprétation au sens de l'article 60 ni une demande de
revision au sens de l'article 61. Les conditions requises pour que ces

articles s'appliquent n'étaient pas remplies en l'espèce. Ainsi,l'affaire
viséepar la demande de la Nouvelle-Zélande n'enétait pasune et on ne
pouvait y donner suite.

Lepoids des thèsesenprésence

37. Lorsque l'on évalueces deux thèses, on constate, me semble-t-il,
qu'elles traduisent des conceptionsjuridiques largement divergentes. La
démarche adoptéepar la France traduit une conceptionjuridique stricte counselas "rigorous". 1should have thought "unrealistic" may have been
a better characterization of it.ch a strict construction approach avoids
the need for the Court to address the substance of the issues. The
approach allows the Court to avoid encounteringthe highlycontroversial
issues of nuclear testing in the South Pacific by France by reading down
the language of the Court in paragraph 63 of its 1974 Judgment and
restricting its application to the matters that France no longer argues in
favour of, namely atmospheric nuclear testing. The second approach
requires the Court to grapple with the real issues that exist between
France and New Zealand about the obligations under international law
in respect to testing of the character that is currently continuing in the
South Pacific as this case proceeds.

38. The differencebetween the two approaches willresult in important
practical consequences. The first approach produces a decisionthat there
is no casebefore the Court, nothing further to be gone into and the whole
matter will beat an end. If the second approach is adopted it causes the
Court to embark upon a consideration of further jurisdictional matters
and perhaps eventually an examination of the obligations at international
law that exist in the circumstances. It must be stressed, however, that
even if the second approach to the issue as framed by the Court prevails
there is no necessary implication to be drawn from it that France has
acted in contravention of international law. Itis simplythat the issuewill
fa11to be argued and decided before this Court. To decide the present
issue against France will simply allow further stages of the case to con-
tinue before this Court, in particular New Zealand's Further Request for
the Indication of Provisional Measures will then come to be dealt with.

39. In the event, a majority of the Court has decided in 1995that while
the French argument that there is nothing here fails,there is nevertheless
nothing here that the Court isprepared to take up. Since1differfrom the
judgrnent of the Court, 1set out my own reasoning in some detail in the
following paragraphs.
40. Confining the analysis for the moment to what the 1974 Court
actually said in paragraph 63, it must be accepted on any interpretation
that the Court meant that there were circumstances in which New Zea-
land could request an examination of the situation. That is what the
Court said and it must be understood to have meant it. In order to under-
line the jurisdictional significance of this utterance the Court pointed
out that the denunciation by France of the General Act for the Pacific
Settlement of International Disputes which was relied on as a basis for
jurisdiction cannot constitute an obstacle to such a request. Why did it
Saythat? Presumably because having decided there were circumstances in

which New Zealand could request an examination of the situation by the
Court at a later date it did not want that Request then to be met byjuris-
dictional arguments that the provisions by which the Court was allegedly
seised of the dispute in the first place were now spent. For the Court toet formaliste. Plusieurs conseils français l'ont qualifiéede ((rigoureuse».
Je pense que le qualificatif «irréaliste» aurait été plus approprié. Cette
approche stricte évità la Cour d'avoir à traiter du fond des problèmes.
Elle lui permet de ne pas aborder la question extrêmementcontroversée
des essais nucléaireseffectuéspar la France dans le Pacifique Sud en
donnant une lecture restrictive des termes employéspar la Cour au para-
graphe 63 de son arrêtde 1974et en en limitant l'applicationàun aspect
qui n'a plus la faveur de la France, à savoir les essais nucléairesdans
l'atmosphère. La deuxièmedémarche requiert que la Cour s'attache au
différendréelexistant entre la France et la Nouvelle-Zélandequant aux

obligations qu'impose le droit international à l'égardd'essais tels que
ceux qui se poursuivent actuellement dans le Pacifique Sud pendant
l'instance même.
38. La différenceentre les deux démarchesa des conséquencespra-
tiques importantes. La première démarcheaboutit à une décisionaux
termes de laquelle il n'existeaucune instance devant la Cour, aucun nou-
vel acte de procédurene peut êtreeffectuéet l'ensemblede l'affaire est
close.L'adoption de la deuxièmedémarcheamènela Cour à entreprendre
l'examen de nouvellesquestions de compétenceet peut-êtrepar la suite à
examiner les obligations de droit international qui existent en l'espèce.Il
convient toutefois de souligner que, mêmesi la deuxièmeconceptionpré-
valait par rapportà la question formuléepar la Cour, il ne s'ensuivrait
pas nécessairementque la France ait agi en violation du droit internatio-

nal. Cela signifierait simplement que l'affaire devrait êtreexaminéeet
tranchéepar la Cour. Un rejet de la thèse dela France au stade liminaire
permettrait simplement la poursuite de l'affaire devant la Cour, en par-
ticulier l'examende la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires
présentéepar la Nouvelle-Zélande.
39. En l'occurrence,la majoritéde la Cour a décidéen1995,sans pour
autant retenir l'argument de la France selon lequel il n'y avait pas
d'affaire, qu'iln'y avait pour elle nullement matière à examen. Etant
donnéque j'ai un point de vue différent decelui de la Cour, j'exposerai
avec quelque détail mon raisonnement dans les paragraphes suivants.
40. Si l'on se borne pour l'instant analyser ce que la Cour a effecti-
vement dit au paragraphe 63en 1974,force est d'admettre, quelleque soit
l'interprétation retenue, que pour la Cour il y avait des circonstances

dans lesquellesla Nouvelle-Zélandepouvait demander un examen de la
situation. C'est ce que la Cour a dit et il faut considérer que c'est ce
qu'elle voulait dire. Afin de souligner la portée juridictionnelle de cette
affirmation, la Cour a soulignéque la dénonciation par la France de
l'Acte généralpour le règlement pacifique des différendsinternationaux
qui était invoquécomme l'un des fondements de la compétence dela
Cour en l'espèce nepouvait en soi faire obstacleà la présentation d'une
telle demande. Pourquoi la Cour a-t-elle dit cela? Sans doute parce que,
ayant décidéqu'il y avait des circonstancesdans lesquelles la Nouvelle-
Zélande pouvait demander un examen de la situation par la Cour à une
date ultérieure,elle ne voulait pas que l'on opposeà une telle demandego to such pains to ensure that the power for New Zealand to return to
the Court should be kept open must indicate that the Court felt that right

was an important safeguard.

41. The reasons for the 1974Court developingits vieware perhaps not
far to seek.The Court must have known New Zealand may fail to accept
the view that there was nothing left to decide after the statements made
by the French Government about a cessation of atmospheric testing.
Indeed, officia1 statements concerning the New Zealand position on
France's assuranceswere before the Court in 1974and these were that it
rejected al1forms of testing, not merely atmospheric. These are clearly set
out in the Judgrnent (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 470, para. 37). The Court
could not foresee what may happen in the future. Out of caution, there-
fore, it left the opportunity open for an examination of the situation in
the future. That was both a comfort for New Zealand and a protection
for the Court in ensuring that its authority in the matter was recognized
and continued.

42. The basis for paragraph 63 may indeed stem from the strong dis-

senting opinion of Judges Onyeama, Dillard, Jiménez deAréchaga and
Sir Humphrey Waldock. Those Judges said:

"In accordance with the above-mentioned basic principles, the
true nature of New Zealand's claim, and of the objectivessought by
the Applicant, ought to have been detennined on the basis of the
clear and natural meaning of the text of its forma1submission.The
interpretation of that submission made by the Court constitutes in
our view not an interpretation but a complete revision of the text,
which ends in eliminatingwhat constitutes the essence of that sub-

mission, namely the request for a declaration of illegality of nuclear
tests in the South PacificOcean givingrise to radio-activefall-out. A
radical alteration of an applicant's submission under the guise of
interpretation has serious consequencesbecause it constitutes a frus-
tration of a party's legitimate expectations that the case which it has
put before the Court will beexamined and decided. In this instance
the serious consequences have an irrevocable character because the
Applicant is now prevented from resubmitting its Application and
seising the Court again by reason of France's denunciation of the
instruments on which it is sought to base the Court's jurisdiction in
the present dispute." (Ibid., p. 499, para. 12.)

43. The interna1 textual evidence to be derived from that passage
matchesup closelywith what was said by the Court in paragraph 63.The
Court in that paragraph included a reference to a denouncedinstrument,
specificallysaving the request for examinationfrom the fate predicted byune exception d'ordre juridictionnel en faisant valoir que les dispositions
sur la base desquelles la Cour avait étésaisie de l'affaire initiale étaient
devenues caduques. Le fait que la Cour se soit donnétant de mal pour
préserverle droit de la Nouvelle-Zélande de revenirdevant elle montre
incontestablement qu'elleconsidéraitce droit comme une garantie impor-
tante.
41. Peut-êtrene faut-il pas chercher très loinlesraisons pour lesquelles
la Cour a adoptécette position. La Cour devait savoir que la Nouvelle-
Zélande risquait de ne pas accepter l'idée qu'iln'y avait plus matière à
statuer après les déclarations du Gouvernement français concernant la
cessation des essaisatmosphériques.D'ailleurs,lesdéclarationsofficielles
concernant la position de la Nouvelle-Zélande à l'égard des promesses

faites par la France étaienten possession de la Cour en 1974et cesdécla-
rations exprimaient le refus de toute forme d'essais,et pas seulement des
essais atmosphériques. Cela est exposé clairement dans l'arrêt (C.I.J.
Recueil 1974, p. 470, par. 37). La Cour ne pouvait pas prévoirce qui se
passerait àl'avenir. C'estpourquoi, par prudence, elle a laisséouverte la
possibilitéd'un examen futur de la situation. Cela visait à la foisà ras-
surer la Nouvelle-Zélandeet à garantir la reconnaissance et la continua-
tion de l'autoritéde la Cour en la matière.
42. Il sepeut d'ailleurs que le fondement du paragraphe 63 trouve son
origine dans l'opinion fortement dissidente de MM. Onyeama, Dillard,
Jiménez deAréchaga et desir Humphrey Waldock. Cesjuges ont déclaré
ce qui suit:

((Conformément aux principes de base susmentionnés,il aurait
fallu rechercher la véritablenature de la demande néo-zélandaiseet
des objectifs viséspar le requéranten se fondant sur le sens clair et
naturel du texte de sa conclusion formelle. Dans l'interprétation
qu'elleen a donnée, la Cour,selon nous, n'a pas vraiment interprété
mais reviséletexte, et éliminpour finir cequi constitue l'essentielde
cette conclusion,c'est-à-dire la demande tendant à ce que les essais
nucléairesatmosphériques dans l'océan PacifiqueSud provoquant

des retombéesradioactives soient déclarésillicites. Il est grave de
modifier radicalement la conclusion d'un laideur. sous couleur
d'interprétation, caron frustre ainsi son attente légitimeque l'affaire
dont il a saisi la Cour sera examinéeet résolue. En l'occurrenceles
conséquencessont non seulementgravesmais irrévocables,ledeman-
deur ne pouvant plus représentersa requête etsaisir à nouveau la
Cour puisque la France a dénoncé lesinstruments sur lesquelsil pré-
tendait fonder la compétence dela Cour en l'espèce.»(C.I.J. Recueil
1974, p. 499, par. 12.)

43. Lorsqu'on analyse la teneur de ce passage, on constate une corres-
pondance étroiteavecce que dit la Cour au paragraphe 63. Dans cepara-
graphe, la Cour a viséla dénonciation d'un instrument eta expressément
protégéune éventuelledemande d'examen contre le sort que lui prédi-the dissenters. In my opinion a possible explanation of paragraph 63 is
that it was adopted by the Court, after having seen the dissent circulated
in draft, in order to blunt power of the central point made by the dis-
senters and to ensure it did not come to pass. In that way the majority
may have attempted to secure more support within the Court for the
Judgment and may in fact have done so.

44. If theabove reasoning is correct, it would suggestthe Court had in
mind in framing paragraph 63 that New Zealand was entitled to make a
Request in terms of its original pleading. And as has been adverted to
earlier those pleadings were framed rather widely. The majority of the
Court was tacitly admitting future difficultiescould arise because of the
line it wastaking; assurancesfrom France may not be enough to satisfy
al1the applicant's objectives.The Court did not therefore decide the sub-
stantive issue before the Court but left open to itself the opportunity to
do so later. New Zealand, as the dissenting Judges observed in 1974,
never filedany discontinuance of its proceedings in light of French assur-
ances. While the case was found to be moot in 1974 its status could
change if the facts that rendered it moot changed.

45. What were the circumstances in which such a Request as contem-
plated by the 1974 Court could be made? The first sentence of para-
graph 63 indicates that it is not the Court's function to contemplate that
a State would not comply with a commitment once the Court bas found

the State has made the commitment. The Court should be taken at its
word; if itis taken at its word the Court's concerns werenot restricted to
non-compliance by France of its undertakings. The concerns were wider
than that. The next sentence is critical: "However, the Court observes
that if the basis of this Judgrnent were to be affected, the Applicant could
request an examination of the situation in accordance with the provisions
of the Statute ..."The operative words are "if the basis of this Judgment
were to be affected". A large number of things could affect the basis of
the Judgment. Not the least of these were future developments which the
Court could not foresee in 1974but which it knew may produce circum-
stances which could require its Judgment to be examined again. If the
basic factors underlyingthe Judgment changed because of France's future
conduct then the issues could be revisited by the Court.

46. There is nothing in the language of paragraph 63 to restrict such
an examination to France's compliance with its undertaking not to
resume atmospheric nuclear testing. France relies upon paragraph 29 of

the Judgment particularly the passage where the Court says that it con-
siders

"for purposes of the Application, the New Zealand claim is to be
interpreted as applying only to atmospheric tests, not to any othersaient lesjuges dissidents. Selon moi, le paragraphe 63 trouve peut-être
son explication dans le fait que la Cour l'a adopté après avoir pris
connaissance du projet d'opinion dissidente, afin d'atténuerla force de
l'argument essentieldesjuges dissidentset d'éviter qu'ilne soit retenu. De
la sorte, la majoritéa peut-êtreessayéd'obtenir un plus large soutien en
faveur de l'arrêtau sein de la Cour et elley a peut-êtreréussi.
44. Si ce raisonnement est correct, on peut semble-t-ilen déduire que
lorsqu'ellea rédigé le paragraphe 63la Cour considérait que la Nouvelle-
Zélandeaurait le droit de présenter une demandedans les termes de ses
écritures initiales. Commeon l'a vu plus haut, ces écritures étaient rédi-
géesde façon assezlarge. La majorité dela Cour admettait tacitement que
la position qu'elleadoptait pourrait donner lieu l'avenirà des difficultés;

les assurances donnéespar la France pourraient se révélerinsuffisantes
pour répondre à tous les objectifs du requérant. Par conséquent, laCour
n'a passtatuésur les questions de fond dont elleétaitsaisiemais elles'est
réservé lapossibilité dele faire plus tard. Comme l'ont fait remarquer les
juges dissidents en 1974,la Nouvelle-Zélandene s'estjamais désistée de
l'instanceà la suite des assurances donnéespar la France. L'affaire était
jugéesans objet en 1974,mais la situationpourrait changer siles faits qui
l'avaient rendue sans objet étaienteux-mêmes modifiés.
45. Quellesétaientles circonstances dans lesquellesune telle demande
d'examenenvisagéepar la Cour en 1974 êtreprésentée?Selon la
premièrephrase du paragraphe 63, dès lorsque la Cour a constaté qu'un
Etat a pris un engagement, il n'entre pas dans sa fonction d'envisagerque
cet Etat ne le respecte pas. Sil'on prend, comme il sedroit, au pied de la

lettre cette affirmation de la Cour, on constate que les préoccupations de
celle-ci nese limitaient pas au non-respect éventuelpar la France de ses
engagements mais qu'elles avaient une portéeplus large. La phrase qui
suit est déterminante: «La Cour fait observer que, si le fondement du
présentarrêtétait remisen cause, le requérant pourrait demander un exa-
men de la situation conformément aux dispositions du Statut...)) Les
mots essentiels sont ici«si le fondement du présentarrêtétait remisen
cause)). Bien des choses pouvaient remettre en cause le fondement de
l'arrêtet en particulier les événementsfuturs que la Cour ne pouvait pas
prévoiren 1974,mais dont elle savait qu'ilspourraient créer des circons-
tances rendant nécessaireun réexamen de sonarrêt.Si les donnéesfon-
damentales aui constituaient le fondement de l'arrêt devaient changer en
raison du comportement futur de la France, la Cour pourrait réexaminer
la question.

46. Il n'y a rien dans le texte du paragraphe 63 qui limite un tel réexa-
men à la question du respect par la France de son engagement de ne pas
reprendre les essais nucléairesdans l'atmosphère.La France s'appuie sur
le paragraphe 29 de l'arrêt,en particulier le passage dans lequel la Cour
déclare qu'elle considère

((qu'aux fins de la requête la demande de la Nouvelle-Zélande doit
s'interpréter comme uniquement applicableaux essais atmosphé- form of testing, and as applying only to atmospheric tests so con-
ducted as to give rise to radio-active fall-out on New Zealand terri-
tory" (I.C.J. Reports 1974,p. 466).

It is true that this was the basis upon which the Court framed its Judg-
ment. But it was not a position agreed to by New Zealand and the plain
language of NewZealand's Application was broader. Understood in that
way there is nothing inconsistent between paragraphs 29 and 63. Para-
graph 63 was a recognition by the Court of the realities of the situation
produced by its Judgment. So, if the "basis of this Judgment were to be
affected" the Applicant could request an examination of the situation.

Resolution of the Issue

47. Theresolution ofthe firstissueto be determinedarising out ofpara-

graph 63 turns upon how the 1974Judgment is characterized - what are
its essential elements.
The competing rationes decidendiof the casefrom each country's point
of view might be stated as follows:

France: When New Zealand brought proceedings in the International
Court of Justicein 1973in respect of nuclear tests France was then con-
ducting in the Pacific the Court decided
(1) that the New Zealand Application related solelyto atmospheric test-
ing notwithstanding wider claims made in the New Zealand plead-
ings ;
(2) when France committed itself by unilateral declaration not to con-
duct any further atmosphericnuclear teststhe Court held that under-
taking was legally binding upon France thereby rendering the claim
without object and the Court was not called to give a decision upon

it;
(3) the Court reserved leaveto New Zealand to request the Court in the
future to examinethe situation if the basis of its Judgment were to be
affected,but this right is limited to a breach by France of the under-
taking in Proposition 2 because the Court decided Proposition 1.

New Zealand: When New Zealand brought proceedings in the Inter-
national Court of Justice in 1973 in respect of nuclear tests France was
then conducting in the Pacific the Court decided

(1) that the New Zealand Application related solelyto atmospherictest-
ing notwithstanding wider claims made in the New Zealand plead-
ings ;
(2) when France committed itself by unilateral declaration not to con- DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP.DISS.PALMER) 397

riques, et non à des essais d'un autre type, et comme uniquement

applicableà des essaisen atmosphère réalisés de façon à provoquer
des retombées radioactives sur le territoire néo-zélandais))(C.I.J.
Recueil 1974, p. 466).

Il est vrai que c'est là la base sur laquelle la Cour a formulé sonarrêt.
Mais ce point de vue n'était pas partagépar la Nouvelle-Zélandeet les
termes de sa requête avaient incontestablementune portée pluslarge. Si
l'on voit leschoses de cette façon, il n'y a aucune incompatibilitéentre le
paragraphe 29 et le paragraphe 63. Par ce dernier, la Cour reconnaissait
la réalité dela situation créépar son arrêt.Ainsi, si le ((fondementdu
présentarrêtétaitremis en cause)), le requérant pourrait demander un
examen de la situation.

La solution de la question

47. Pour résoudre lapremièrequestion que soulèvele paragraphe 63,
il faut partir des caractéristiquesde l'arrêtde 1974et déterminerquels en

sont les éléments essentiels.
La ratio decidendide l'affaire telle que la perçoivent respectivement la
France et la Nouvelle-Zélandepourrait s'énoncer commesuit:

Pour laFrance: Lorsque la Nouvelle-Zélandea introduit une instance
devant la Cour internationale de Justice en 1973 au sujet des essais
nucléaires quela France effectuait alors dans le Pacifique, la Cour:
1) a décidé que la requêtede la Nouvelle-Zélande visaituniquement les
essais dans l'atmosphère nonobstant la portée plus large des griefs
exposésdans les écrituresde la Nouvelle-Zélande;
2) a considéré,lorsque la Frances'est engagéepar une déclarationuni-
latéraleà ne plus effectuer d'essais nucléairesdans l'atmosphère, que
cet engagement étaitjuridiquement obligatoire pour la France et que,

partant, il rendait la demande néo-zélandaisesans objet et qu'il n'y
avait pas lieuà statuer;
3) a réservé le droit pour la Nouvelle-Zélande delui présenterà l'avenir
une demande d'examen dela situation si lefondement de l'arrêt était
remis en cause, ce droit ne pouvant toutefois êtreexercéqu'en cas de
violation par la France de l'engagementvisédans la deuxièmeconclu-
sion ci-dessus, eu égardà la premièreconclusion de la Cour.

Pour la Nouvelle-Zélande: Lorsque la Nouvelle-Zélandea introduit
une instance devant la Cour internationale de Justice en 1973au sujet
des essais nucléairesque la France effectuait alors dans le Pacifique, la
Cour :

1) a décidé quela requêtede la Nouvelle-Zélande visaituniquement les
essais dans l'atmosphère nonobstant la portée plus large des griefs
exposésdans les écrituresde la Nouvelle-Zélande;
2) a considéré,lorsque la Frances'estengagéepar une déclarationuni- duct any further atmosphericnuclear teststhe Court held that under-
taking was legallybinding upon France thereby rendering the claim

by New Zealand without object and the Court is not called upon to
give adecision on it;
(3) the Court reserved leave to New Zealand to request the Court to
examine the situation if the basis of its Judgment were to be affected,
and this proposition is not limited by the other two.

48. Stated in that way it is apparent that the third proposition is the

pivot. It can be accepted that some version of the proposition is an essen-
tial part of the Judgment in both accounts. But is Proposition 3 a
dependent or independent variable? There is nothing in the proposition
developed by the Court itself to suggestthat it is a factor which is limited
by Proposition 1. There is nothing to indicate that Proposition 3 was to
be considered a subordinate and subsidiary part of the Judgment. It
seemsto me that it was of equal standing with the other two elements of
the Judgment. In fact potentially it was more potent than they. It had the
power within it to eviscerate Proposition 1. Should subsequent events
undermine that portion of the Judgment dealt with in Proposition 1that
proposition could no longer stand. Indeed Proposition 3 could be seen as
an important elernent of the ratio decidendi.It is an important qualifica-
tion to paragraph 65 (the dispositzj)where the Court found by nine votes
to six that "the claim of New Zealand no longer has any object and that
the Court is therefore not called upon to givea decision thereon" (I. C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 478).

49. The reason for the pertinence of Proposition 3 is that the Court

did not decide the case that was put in front of it in 1973-1974.It avoided
the issue, using the French announcements as the basis for doing so. In
order to allow itself the freedom to decide the case should subsequent
developments make that appropriate, it fonnulated Proposition 3. It was
thereby deliberately introducing an element which made the Judgment
lessthan final. This was an unusual Judgment of which it might be said
proceedings were not definitelyended. If "the basis of the Judgrnent were
to be affected" it could be reopened if the true subject, object and pur-
pose of New Zealand's Application was brought into issue.

ZnAccordance with the Provisions of the Statute

50. 1turn now to the phrase used by the Court in paragraph 63 that
the Applicant could request an examination of the situation "in accord-
ance with the provisions of the Statute". France argues strongly that
there are no express provisions within the Statute within which the
Request falls. It is neither an application for revision nor a request for
interpretation of the 1974 Judgrnent in terms of the provisions of Ar- latéraleà ne plus effectuer d'essais dans l'atmosphère, que cet enga-
gement était juridiquement obligatoire pour la France, et que, par-
tant, il rendait la demande néo-zélandaisesans objet et qu'il n'y avait
pas lieu à statuer;

3) a réservéle droit pour la Nouvelle-Zélande de lui présenter une
demande d'examen de la situation si le fondement de l'arrêt était
remis en cause, cette conclusion n'étant paslimitéepar les deux pre-
mières.
48. En énonçantainsi le problème, il est manifeste qu'il repose entiè-

rement sur la troisième conclusion, laquelle constitue, dans l'une ou
l'autre thèse, unecomposante essentiellede l'arrêtpour les deux Parties.
Mais cette troisièmeconclusion est-elleune variable dépendante ou auto-
nome? Il n'y a rien dans le libelléemployépar la Cour elle-mêmequi
donne à penser que sa portée soitlimitéepar la premièreconclusion. Il
n'y a rien non plus qui indique que la troisièmeconclusion doive être
considérée comme unepartie subordonnée et subsidiairede l'arrêt. Il me
semble qu'elle estmise sur le mêmepied que les deux autres conclusions
de l'arrêt.En fait, elle a mêmepotentiellement plus de force puisqu'elle
peut vider de sa substancela premièreconclusion. Sides événementsulté-
rieurs devaient remettre en cause la partie de l'arrêt correspondant la
premièreconclusion, celle-ciperdrait toute validité. En fait, la troisième
conclusion pourrait êtreconsidérée commeun élémentimportant de la

ratio decidendi. Ellerestreint singulièrementla portée du paragraphe 65
(le dispositif)dans lequel la Cour a dit par neuf voix contre sixque la
demande de la Nouvelle-Zélandeest désormais sans objet et qu'il n'y a
dèslors pas lieu à statuer)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 478).
49. La pertinence de la troisième conclusiontientà ce que la Cour n'a
pas tranché l'affaire dont elle étaitsaisie en 1973-1974. Ellea éludéla
question en s'appuyant pour ce faire sur l'annonce faite par la France.
Afin de se réserverla facultéde statuer sur l'affaire si des faits ultérieurs
le justifiaient, elle a formulé latroisièmeconclusion. Elle a ainsi délibé-
rémentintroduit un élémend t'atténuationdu caractèredéfinitifde l'arrêt.
La Cour a prononcéun arrêtinhabituel en ce qu'il n'apas, pourrait-on
dire, définitivement closla procédure. Si «le fondement de l'arrêt était
remis en cause)),l'instance pourrait être rouverteau cas où l'objet véri-
table du différend, l'objetet le but de la requêtenéo-zélandaiseétaient

mis en jeu.

Conformémentaux dispositions du Statut

50. Je dois maintenant examiner le membre de phrase insérépar la
Cour au paragraphe 63, selon lequel le requérantpourrait demander un
examen de la situation ((conformémentaux dispositions du Statut)). La
France soutient résolumentqu'il n'existe dans le Statut aucune disposi-

tion expresse à laquelle la demande de la Nouvelle-Zélande peut être
rattachée car celle-ci n'est ni une demande en interprétation ni uneticles 60 and 61 of the Court's Statute. France argued this point in para-

graphs 24 to 26 of its aide-mémoireof 6 September 1995 and its oral
submission. With respect 1 find those arguments well made but they do
not in my opinion dispose of the issue.

51. In my opinion the jurisdictional foundation for the New Zealand
Request rests upon the Judgment itself, particularly paragraph 63. The
Judgment was rendered in accordance with the Statute. Indeed, France
now admits the validity of the Judgment, even though it chose to make
no appearance before this Court in 1973-1974and did not comply with
provisional measures ordered by the Court. The Court solemnly and
clearly left it open in paragraph 63for New Zealand to request an exami-
nation of the situation. The Court in reaching its Judgrnent knew what
the Statute provided. In these circumstancesthe reference to the Statute
must be understood as meaning in accordance with the Statute, the Rules
of the Court and the Judgment of the Court. It was not to be understood

as a referenceto a particular procedure provided for by the Statute. What
the Court meant in my opinion was that if paragraph 63 was activated
the Court would use the procedures it usually uses to deal with it. It was
a cornmitment to procedural due process in relation to any application
for an examination of the situation. To givethe phrase the meaning con-
tended for by France isto render the paragraph devoid of practical effect.
It could not have been intended by the Court to prevent a New Zealand
return to the Court if, for example, France had resumed atmospheric
testing 12years after the Judgment.

52. In making provision in paragraph 63 in the way that it did, the
Court was acting in exerciseof the inherent power it enjoys as the result
of its existence,includingthe Statute of the International Court of Justice
itself and the reference in Article 1to the Court as "the principal judicial
organ of the United Nations" and the power in Article 48to make orders
for the conduct of the case. The Court in my opinion has the power to

regulate its own procedure and to devise a procedure sui generis. It is,
after all, a court.
53. The French argument also reliesupon the long period of time that
has elapsed since the Judgment of the Court coupled with the fact that
New Zealand refrained from protesting against the underground tests
which France carried out on occasions. But against that it should be said
that it is common in domesticjurisdictions for matters to be left open for
the parties to litigation to return to the Court consequent upon later
developments. Such a feature in international law can hardly be regarded
as unacceptable in terms of the sources of international law articulated in
Article 38(1) of the Statute of the International Court of Justice. In such
circumstances the forma1 fact of the status of the case on the Court's
forma1list is irrelevant.demande en revision de l'arrêt de1974conformément aux dispositions
des articles 60 et 61, respectivement, du Statut de la Cour. La France a
fait valoir ces arguments aux paragraphes 24 à 26 de son aide-mémoire
du 6 septembre 1995et dans ses plaidoiries. Je me permets respectueuse-

ment d'observer qu'ilsont une certaine valeur mais qu'ils ne règlentpas
la question.
51. A mon avis, le fondement juridictionnel de la demande présentée
par la Nouvelle-Zélande est l'arrêtlui-même, enparticulier le para-
graphe 63. L'arrêta été rendu conformémentau Statut. D'ailleurs, la
France en admet aujourd'hui la validité,mêmesi elle a choisi de ne pas
se présenter devant la Cour en 1973-1974et si elle n'a pas respectéles
mesures conservatoires indiquéespar la Cour. La Cour a solennellement
et clairement ouvert au paragraphe 63 la possibilitépour la Nouvelle-
Zélandede demander un examen de la situation. En rendant son arrêt,la
Cour connaissait les dispositionsdu Statut. Dans ces conditions, la réfé-
rence au Statut doit êtrecomprise comme signifiant en conformitéavecle
Statut, le Règlement dela Cour et l'arrêtde la Cour. Il ne s'agissaitpas
de viser telle ou telle procédureprévuedans le Statut. Ce que la Cour a
voulu dire à mon avis c'estque, si leparagraphe 63 devait entrer en jeu,
elleexaminerait la demande en suivant la procédure normalement appli-

cable à toute demande. Il s'agissait de l'engagement de suivreune procé-
dure régulière à l'égardde toute demande d'examen de la situation.
Donner à ce membre de whrasele sens auL wrLtendlui donner la France
reviendrait àpriver le paragraphe de tout effet pratique. Ce ne pouvait
être l'intentionde la Cour d'empêcherla Nouvelle-Zélande de revenir
devant elle si, par exemple, la ran cveait repris des essais atmosphé-
riques douze ans après l'arrêt.
52. En libellantainsi le paragraphe 63,la Cour a agi dans l'exercicedu
pouvoir inhérent qui procèdede son existence mêmed , e son propre Sta-
tut et de l'article de celui-ci qui qualifie la Cour d'«organe judiciaire
principal de l'Organisation [des Nations Unies])) ainsi que du pouvoir
que lui confère l'article48 du Statut de rendre des ordonnances pour la
direction du procès.La Cour a, selon moi, le pouvoir de fixer sa propre
procédure etde concevoir une procédure suigeneris.C'estaprèstout une
cour souveraine.
53. L'argumentation française s'appuie aussi sur le nombre d'années
qui sesontécouléed sepuisl'arrêtela Cour, associéau fait quelaNouvelle-
Zélandes'est abstenue de protester contre les essais souterrains que la

France a effectuésà plusieurs reprises. Maià l'encontre de cet argument,
je dois dire qu'il estcourant dans l'ordre juridique interne de laisser aux
~artiesà un différendla ~ossibilitéde revenir devant le tribunal en cas de
Changement de circonstances. Il ne serait pas inconcevable d'admettre
cette possibilitéen droit international, compte tenu des sources du droit
international énuméréea su paragraphe 1 de l'article 38 du Statut de la
Cour internationale de Justice. Dans ces conditions, le fait purement for-
mel que l'affaire soit inscriteou non au rôle officielde la Cour est sans
pertinence. 54. In my opinion the Court had the power to keep open the possibil-
ity of an examination of the situation in this case and it exercised that
power.The reason the case is not dead is because the 1974Judgment kept
it alive. Given the subsequent development of matters in the South
Pacific it might be regarded as providential that the Court had the fore-

sight to act in the way that it did.

55. Having concluded that the Court is not precluded by the terms of
its 1974Judgrnentfrom entering into an examination of it, 1now come to
a discussion of the arguments of whether it should in the circumstances
exercisein 1995the possibility left open in 1974. Such an analysis neces-
sarily requires some reference to the facts.

The Prima Facie Standard

56. New Zealand submitted that the appropriate standard was for the
Court to apply a prima facie standard as it does in provisional measures
cases and not set an absolute standard. New Zealand contended that it
could meet the more demanding standard on the facts but that it was not
the appropriate test. That was because of the jurisdictional character of
the issue and the fact that New Zealand had requested provisional meas-
ures in relation to the case.

57. The contention of France, by way of contrast, was that New Zea-
land had the burden of proof and the standard was the normal standard
of proof that applies to any State that has the burden of making good its
arguments. France denied there were jurisdictional issues in the sense
argued by NewZealand on the grounds that the issue waswhether or not
the case still existed.
58. 1 have dealt with the issue of the whether the case still existed in
the previous segment of this opinion. Having decided that it does remain
open to make application under paragraph 63 of the Judgment of 1974
1conclude that the test proposed by New Zealand is the appropriate one,
and to be fair to France it does not appear to me that the contrary view

was strongly argued. It appears to me that what New Zealand has to
show is that there is a prima facie case to examine the Judgment. It
sought to do that by two arguments:

(a) ttamination;t facts have changed increasingthe risk of nuclear con-

(b) the state of international law had rapidly developed and progressed
from the point it was at in 1974so clarifying the standards to be
applied to the dispute. 54. A mon avis, la Cour avait le pouvoir de maintenir ouverte la pos-
sibilitéd'un examen de la situation en l'espèceet elle a exercéce pouvoir.
L'affaire n'est pas close car l'arrêtde 1974la laisse subsister. Eu égard
aux événements survenus ultérieurement dans le Pacifique Sud, on peut
considérercomme providentiel que la Cour ait eu la clairvoyance d'agir
comme elle l'a fait.

LES MOYENS DE FAIT RELATIFS À L'ENVIRONNEMENT

55. Ayant ainsi conclu que la Cour n'est pas empêchéd ee reprendre
l'affaire par les termes de son arrêtde 1974,j'examinerai maintenant les
arguments portant sur la question de savoir si elle doit, compte tenu des
circonstances, exercer en 1995 la possibilitéqu'elle a réservéeen 1974.
Une telle analyse passe nécessairementpar un examen des faits.

La norme prima facie
56. La Nouvelle-Zélande a soutenu que la Cour doit appliquer en
l'espèce unenorme prima facie comme elle le fait dans le cas d'une

demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, et qu'elle ne doit pas
fixer une norme absolue. La Nouvelle-Zélandea affirméqu'elle pouvait
satisfaireà la norme plus exigeante quant aux faits, mais que ce n'était
pas la norme pertinente. Cela tenait d'une part au caractèrejuridictionnel
de la question et d'autre part au fait que la Nouvelle-Zélande avait
déposé unedemande en indication de mesures conservatoires dans le
cadre de l'affaire.
57. A l'inverse,la France a prétendu quec'était à la Nouvelle-Zélande
qu'incombait la charge de la preuve et que la norme pertinente était celle
normalement applicable à tout Etat tenu de démontrerle bien-fondé de
sesmoyens. La France a nié l'existenced'une questionjuridictionnelleau
sens alléguépar la Nouvelle-Zélande, enfaisant valoir que la question à
trancher étaitcelle de savoir si l'affaire existait encore.
58. J'ai traité dans lasection précédentela question de savoir s'il exis-

tait encore une affaire. Puisque, selon moi, l'affaire reste ouverte et
qu'elle permet de formuler une demande en vertu du paragraphe 63 de
l'arrêtde 1974,je conclus que le critère proposépar la Nouvelle-Zélande
est adéquat; et,pour rendre justicea la France, je dois dire qu'ellene m'a
pas paru soutenir le contraire avec beaucoup d'énergie. Il me semble
donc que la Nouvelle-Zélande doit démontrer qu'elle est prima facie
fondée à obtenir l'examen de l'arrêt.Elle a fait valoirà cette fin deux
arguments :

a) les faits pertinents ont changé, aggravantle risque de contamination
nucléaire;
b) le droit international a connu depuis 1974un développementet une
progression rapides, ce qui a permis de préciserles normes appli-
cables au fond du différend.Either change,it was submitted, would be sufficientto trigger the process
of examination by the Court under paragraph 63. To these factual and
legal issuesthis opinion will now turn.

New Zealand's Argument on the Facts

59. Corning to the environmental issues raised in the Request by New
Zealand, New Zealand asks the Court in paragraph 113

"to adjudge and declare:

(i) that the conduct of the proposed nuclear tests will constitute a
violation of the rights under international law of New Zealand,
as well as of other States;
further or in the alternative;

(ii) that it is unlawful for France to conduct such nuclear tests
before it has undertaken an Environmental Impact Assessment
according to accepted international standards. Unless such an
assessment establishesthat the tests willnot give rise, directly or
indirectly, to radioactive contamination of the marine environ-
ment the rights under international law of New Zealand, as well
as the rights of other States, will be violated."
60. AsNew Zealand puts the argument the situation developed gradu-
ally, but has now reached the stage where it affects the basis of the 1974
Judgrnent. That isto Sayevidencehas accumulatedconcerningthe number

of underground tests now numbering 135 since the Court's Judgrnent of
1974. Arnong the issuesare the nature of the geomorphology of the atolls
where the tests are conducted, concern that there will be leakages of
radiation in the long run, the facts that there are now some 126nuclear
waste "stockpiles" located within the structure of Mururoa atoll at
depths of between 500 and 1,000 metres, and eight large stockpiles at
Fangataufa. These piles consist of the longer lived isotopes of strontium,
caesium and plutonium. The half-lifeof some types of caesium can be as
high as 3 million years. Plutonium produced by a plutonium weapon can
have a half-life of 24,000years.

61. If this nuclear waste or substantial parts of it was releasedinto the
marine environment the New Zealand contention is the effect upon
marine natural living resources, especially fish and plankton, could be

significant. Radionuclides released into the water are concentrated as
they pass through the food chain to higher organisms.The effectswould
be distributed through the marine ecosystem, affecting highly migratory
speciesincluding tuna. Similar concerns were stated by New Zealand in
the 1973Application. DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP.DISS.PALMER) 40 1

L'un ou l'autre de ces deux changements, d'après la Nouvelle-Zélande,
devrait suffirà déclencherla procédured'examenpar la Cour au titre du
paragraphe 63. J'aborderai maintenant ces questions d'ordre factuel et
juridique.

L'argumentation de la Nouvelle-Zélande quantaux faits

59. En ce qui concerne les problèmesd'environnement soulevésdans
la demande de la Nouvelle-Zélande,cette dernièreprie la Cour, au para-
graphe 113,de
((dire et jug:r

i) que la réalisation des essais nucléaires envisagésconstituera une
violation des droits de la Nouvelle-Zélande, ainsi que d'autres
Etats, au regard du droit international;
en outre et subsidiairement:

ii) que la France n'a pas le droit d'effectuer detels essais nucléaires
avant d'avoir procédé àune évaluation de l'impact surl'environne-
ment conformément à des normes internationales reconnues. Les
droits de la Nouvelle-Zélande,ainsi que d'autres Etats, au regard
du droit international seront enfreints si cette évaluation ne dé-
montre pas que les essais ne provoqueront, directement ou indi-
rectement, aucune contamination radioactive du milieu marin. »

60. D'après l'argumentation de la Nouvelle-Zélande,la situation a
évolué progressivemenm t ais elleen est aujourd'huiàun stade où le fon-
dement de l'arrêtde 1974est remisen cause. C'est-à-direque, depuis que
l'arrêta étérendu en 1974,il y a eu accumulation de donnéesconcernant
le total des essais souterrains qui se monte désormais cent trente-cinq.
Les problèmes ont trait notamment à la nature géomorphologiquedes
atolls où lesessaissont effectués,la crainte quaàtdes fuites radioactives
à long terme, le fait qu'il y a maintenant quelque cent vingt-six ((sitesde
stockage)) de déchets nucléairesà l'intérieurde la structure de l'atoll de
Mururoa à des profondeurs comprises entre 500 et 1000mètres,et huit
grands dépôtsde déchets à Fangataufa. Les déchets stockés sont des iso-
topes de strontium et de césiumde période radioactive longue ainsi que
des isotopes de plutonium. La demi-vie de certains types de césiumpeut

atteindre trois millions d'années.Le plutonium produit par une arme
nucléairepeut avoir une demi-vie de vingt-quatre mille ans.
61. Si la totalité ou la majeure partie de ces déchets nucléairesétait
libéréedans le milieu marin, la Nouvelle-Zélandesoutient que l'effetsur
les ressources naturelles vivantes de la mer, en particulier le poisson et le
plancton, pourrait êtreimportant. Les radioélémentslibérésdans l'eau
se concentrent au fur et à mesure qu'ils cheminent vers les organismes
supérieurs dans la chaîne alimentaire. Les effets se répartiraient dans
l'écosystèmm e arin en touchant les grandsmigrateurs,notamment les tho-
nidés.La requêtede la Nouvelle-Zélande en1973faisait étatde craintes
analogues. 62. The 1995 New Zealand Request points to increasing and recent
scientific concern about the possible environmental impacts of under-
ground nuclear testing. The article by Professor Pierre Vincent, the
French vulcanologist that appeared in Le Monde on 12July 1995raises
serious environmentalconcerns about the future of the atolls concerned.
He says increased fracturing may open up the system to gradua1migra-
tion of radioactive elementsinto the sea. He states this to be "a very real
risk" (New Zealand Request, Ann. 5). The French scientist goes on to
suggest that the factors that are conducive to the destabilization of vol-
canoes combined with a nuclear explosion could be big enough for large
parts of the atoll to sheer away. This is described as high risk. In such
circumstances there could be a spill-out of dangerous radioactive
materials. New Zealand further referred orally to the viewsof Dr. Colin

Summerhayes, Director of the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences in
the United Kingdom, to the effect that volcanic islands like Mururoa
were inherently unstable and may fail given an appropriate trigger like
an earthquake or very large explosion.

63. New Zealand concludes its Request on this point in the following
way :

"There is, therefore, now reason to fear that the risks of a signifi-
cant release of radioactive material from either or both of the atolls
as a result of or consequent upon renewed testing activity are sub-
stantially higher than was previously believedto have been the case.
These risks include the possibility of a serious collapse or fissuringof
the atolls such as to release significant quantities of the radioactive
material stored therein with potentially serious consequences for the
marine environment." (Para. 25.)

64. The Request then proceeds to evaluate what information is avail-
able about the safety of testing on the atolls and examines the three
limited investigations that have been conducted of Mururoa atoll. No
independent scientific mission has so far visited Fangataufa, the place
where the biggest explosions have occurred. The studies that have been

made of Mururoa show that radioactive material has been released into
the aerial and marine environments during even routine activities associ-
ated with testing programmes. Long-term leakage of radioactive material
into the marine environment appears to be a significant risk in the long
tem. Spectacular effects on the atoll structure from the tests have been
documented in the Cousteau study:

"Undenvater filming down to 230 metres by the Cousteau team
revealed spectacular fissures and collapses of rock in the atoll that DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP. DISS.PALMER) 402

62. La demande présentéepar la Nouvelle-Zélande en 1995 signale
les inquiétudes de plus en plusvives exprimées récemmentpar certains
scientifiquesà propos des répercussions possibles desessais nucléaires
souterrains sur l'environnement. Dans un article publiédans Le Monde
du 12juillet 1995,le vulcanologue français Pierre Vincent exprime de
graves préoccupations écologiques quant à l'avenir des atolls considérés.
M. Vincent pense que les progrès de la fracturation pourraient ouvrir
le système,permettant une migration progressive des élémentsradio-
actifs dans l'océan. Selon lui, «c'estun risque bien réel»(demande de
la Nouvelle-Zélande, annexe5). Ce scientifique français ajoute que les

facteurs qui favorisent la déstabilisationd'un volcan, conjugués à une
explosion nucléaire,pourraient entraîner une onde de choc suffisante
pour détacher d'énormes blocs de l'atollI.l y a là, selon lui, une situation
à haut risque. Dans ces conditions, il pourrait se produire un déverse-
ment de matériaux radioactifs dangereux.La Nouvelle-Zélandea men-
tionné aussi oralement l'opinion deM. Colin Summerhayes, directeur de
l'Institut des sciencesocéanographiquesdu Royaume-Uni, qui estimeque
les îles volcaniques comme Mururoa sont intrinsèquement instables et
risquent de s'effondrer sousl'effetd'un choc suffisammentviolent comme
un séismeou une explosion de trèsforte puissance.
63. La Nouvelle-Zélande conclut sa demande surce point de la façon
suivante :

«On a donc aujourd'hui des raisons de craindre que les risques de
dégagementd'une quantitéimportante de matières radioactivesen
provenance de l'un ou l'autre atoll, oudes deux, du fait de la reprise
des essais,soientnettement plus élevésu'onne lecroyait auparavant.
Au rang de cesrisques figureceluid'un affaissementou d'une fissura-
tion grave des atolls qui serait susceptibled'entraîner la libération de

quantités importantesdesmatièresradioactivesquiy sont stockées,ce
qui pourrait avoir des conséquences gravespour l'environnement
marin.» (Par. 25.)
64. La Nouvelle-Zélandeentreprend ensuite dans sa demande d'éva-

luer les informations disponibles sur la sécurité des essadans les atolls
et passe en revue les trois enquêtes restreintesqui ont étémenéessur
l'atoll deMururoa. Jusqu'à présent,aucune mission scientifiqueindépen-
dante ne s'est rendue à Fangataufa, où ont eu lieu les tirs les plus puis-
sants. Les étudesqui ont été faites Mururoa indiquent que des matières
radioactives ont étérejetéesdans les milieux atmosphérique et marin,
mêmeau cours d'opérationsde routine liéesaux programmes d'essais.La
fuite,à longue échéance, de matières radioactives dans le milieu marin
sembleconstituer un risque non négligeablepour l'avenir.Les effets spec-
taculaires des essais sur la structure de l'atoll sont décritsdans l'étudedu
commandant Cousteau :

«Les films tournéspar l'équipeCousteau jusqu'à 230 mètres de
profondeur en milieusous-marin ont révélé l'existencd e,ns lastnic- could only have been caused by the underground explosions." (1995
New Zealand Request, para. 43.)

These test sites,it is argued by New Zealand, are quite unsuitable for the
purpose for which they have been used and are quite unlike continental
land masses or other oceanic islands that have been used for under-
ground testing. In an atoll the boundary between land and sea is indis-
tinct. "Water passes from the ocean into the atoll, including its central
core, and from the atoll into the ocean."(Ibid p.ra. 51.)

65. There is also analysis in the Request of what New Zealand con-
siders to be inadequate assurances of safety by the French and details of
documented accidents are given. France, it isaid, has repeatedly claimed
that the tests are safe but hasimited or denied accessto test sites.In my
opinion the nature of the argument put forward by New Zealand sug-
gests that if the legal issuespermitted the case to proceed there would be
significantevidenceavailable to support the viewthat real environmental
dangers flow from the testing done and planned by France in the South
Pacific. In arriving at that conclusion 1 am not making any judgment
about what the scientific evidence mayultimately show were it to be put
before this Court and adjudicated upon.

66. France who is in the best position to know of the risks has pro-
vided some evidenceto the Court. France saysit has followed a policy of
openness in making information available.There was little said by France
about the potential risks long term being built up by cumulations of
nuclear waste in the two atolls where testings carried out. These wastes,
France said, were trapped in vitrifiedrock. Furthermore the problems of
shearing off of parts of the atoll and the development of fissures were
attractive "Hollywood scenarios" but nothing more. The French presen-
tation at the oral hearings went to some pains to make assurances about

the safety of the tests. Largeaphic presentations of the geomorphologi-
cal structure of Mururoa weremade. There was reference to a number of
scientificstudies that were before the Court. Counsel for France, Mr. de
Brichambaut, said there was ample monitoring of the situation on a con-
tinuing basis. Precautions had been taken. France had observed its inter-
national legal obligations, hesaid.

The Calculus of Environmental Risk

67. The Court is not in a position to make definitive conclusions on
the scientificevidenceon the basis of theaterial put before it. Listening
to the submissions at the oral hearings did, however, convince me that
there were real issues at large here. The true question related to the
assessment of the level of risk. The two nations appeared to have very
different approaches to that subject. It is, however, an issue which could
be determined were the Court to give it a full hearing. ture de l'atoll, de fissures et d'éboulisrocheux spectaculaires qui
n'ont pu êtrecausésque par les explosions souterraines.(Demande
de la Nouvelle-Zélande,1995,par. 43.)
Les sites de ces essais, selon la Nouvelle-Zélande,ne se prêtent absolu-

ment pas à ce genre d'expérienceset sont très différentsde masses ter-
restres continentales ou d'autres îles océaniques utilisées pourdes essais
souterrains. Dans un atoll, il n'y a pas de démarcationpréciseentre terre
et mer: ((L'eaupasse de l'océandans l'atoll, y compris la partie centrale
de celui-ci, etde l'atolll'océan.»(Zbid.,par. 51.)
65. Dans sa demande, la Nouvelle-Zélande analyse aussi les assu-
rances donnéespar la France quant à la sûreté,qu'elle jugeinsuffisantes,
et donne des détails sur les accidents avérés.La France ne cesserait
d'affirmer que les essais sont sûrs, tout en limitant ou interdisant l'accès
aux sites. A mon avis, la nature des moyens avancéspar la Nouvelle-
Zélande porte à croire que si, juridiquement, l'affaire pouvait se pour-
suivre,il y aurait des élémentsdpoids établissant quelesessaiseffectués
ou prévuspar la France dans le Pacifique Sudcomportent de réelsdangers
pour l'environnement. En formulant cette conclusion, je ne porte aucun

jugement surcequepourraient démontreren définitivelesdonnéesscienti-
fiques si elles étaient produites devant la Cour pour que celle-ci sepro-
nonce.
66. La France, qui est la mieux placéepour connaître les risques, a
fourni à la Cour certains élémentsd'appréciation. La France déclare
qu'elle a suivi une politique d'ouverture et de transparence. Mais la
France n'a pas dit grand-chose des risques potentiels long terme d'une
accumulation de déchets nucléaires dans les deux atolls où les essais sont
effectués.Ces déchets,d'aprèsla France, sont «piégés»dans de la roche
vitrifiée.Quantà l'hypothèse d'un détachemend t e blocs de l'atoll et d'un
agrandissement des fissures,il s'agirait tout au plus, sous des apparences
séduisantes, de ((catastrophes dignes d'Hollywood». Mais dans ses
exposésoraux la France a eu quelque peine à prouver la sûretédes essais.
Elle a présentéde grands panneaux illustrant la structuregéomorpholo-

gique de Mururoa. Elle s'est référé e un certain nombre de travaux
scientifiquesprésentésà la Cour. L'un des conseils de la France, M. de
Brichambaut, a affirmé qu'ilexistait un suivi rigoureux de la situation.
Des précautions avaientété prises. LaFrance, a-t-il assuré, avait observé
ses obligations de droit international.

Le calcul du risquéecologique

67. La Cour n'est pas à mêmede se faire une opinion scientifiquedéfi-
nitive d'aprèsles piècesqui lui ont été soumises. n écoutantles exposés
en séancepublique, j'ai toutefois étéconvaincu que les problèmesétaient
bien réels.La vraie questiontouche àl'évaluation du risque. Chacunedes
deux nations en cause semble aborder cette question de façon très diffé-
rente. Le problèmepourrait toutefois être tranchési la Cour entendait la
totalitédes faits. 68. There are a number of factors to be weighed in deciding whether
New Zealand satisfied the prima facie standard outlined above which

would warrant a decision that the basis of the 1974Judgment had altered
and should be examined. These factors are:

- the ultrahazardous nature of nuclear explosions and the dangerous
nature of the waste they produce;
- the length of time that some of the nuclear materials remain hazard-
ous which is measured in tens of thousands of years or longer;

- the fragile nature of the atoll structure and the cumulative effect of a
large number of nuclear explosions upon the structure;

- the fact that atolls cannot be distinguished from the marine environ-
ment and must be thought of as an inherent part of the ocean eco-
system;
- the high number of tests which have been concentrated within a small
area ;
- the proximity of the testing to the marine environment;
- the high quantities of dangerous nuclear wastes now accumulated on
the test sites;

- the risks of radiation entering the food chain through plankton, tuna
and other fish;

- the risks of further fissuresand shearing off of part of the atoll struc-
ture occurring as the result of further testing.

69. It cannot be doubted that France has engaged in activities that
have substantially altered the natural environment of the test sitesin the
Pacific. These actions have been intentional and they have been under
scientific scrutiny, especially by French scientists. But the unintended

repercussions of intentional human action are often the most important.
The nature of the risks inherent in the activity itself would suggestcaution
to be appropriate. Some means of calculating those risks is necessary to
arrive at a determination of whether New Zealand has satisfied the test.
This calculus 1 suggest should contain a number of elements:

- the magnitude of the recognizable risk of harm by nuclear contami-
nation in the circumstances;
- the probability of the risk coming to pass;

- the utility and benefits of the conduct being assessed - viz. nuclear
testing by France;
- the cost of the measures needed to avert the risk.

70. In my opinion what is required under the test the Court should
apply is a risk-benefit analysis. There must be a balancing of the risks of
the activity, the probability of harm, the utility of the activity and the
measures needed to eliminate the risk. This is similar to a calculus of the DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP.DISS.PALMER) 404

68. 11faut prendre en compte plusieurs facteurs pour déterminersi la
Nouvelle-Zélandea satisfait à la norme prima facie définieci-dessus,jus-

tifiant ainsi la conclusion que le fondement de l'arrêtde 1974a été remis
en cause et devrait êtreréexaminéC . es facteurs sont les suivants:

- le caractère extrêmement dangereuxdes explosions nucléaireset la
dangerositédes déchets qu'ellesproduisent;
- la durée pendant laquelle certains des matériaux nucléairesrestent
dangereux, qui se chiffre en dizaines de milliers d'années ou davan-

tage;
- la fragilité de la structure de l'atoll et l'effet cumulé d'ungrand
nombre d'explosions nucléairessur cette structure;
- le fait que les atolls ne peuvent pas êtreisolésdu milieu marin et doi-
vent êtreconsidérés commepartie intégrante de l'écosystèmeocéa-
nique ;
- le nombre élevé d'essaisqui ont été effectué àsl'intérieur d'une zone

restreinte ;
- la proximitédes essais et du milieu marin;
- lesgrandesquantitésde déchetsnucléaires dangereuxdésormaisaccu-
muléssur les sites des essais;
- les risques d'une pénétrationdes matièresradioactivesdans la chaîne

alimentaire par l'intermédiairedu plancton, des thonidésou d'autres
poissons ;
- les risques de nouvelles fissurations et de détachementde blocs de la
structure de l'atoll qu'entraîneront de nouveaux essais.

69. Il ne fait aucun doute que la France s'estlivrée à des activitésqui
ont profondément modifiéle milieu naturel des sites des essais dans le
Pacifique. Ces opérations ont étédélibéréee st elles se sont déroulées

sous le contrôle de scientifiques,notamment français. Mais les répercus-
sions involontaires d'une action humaine délibéréseont souvent les plus
importantes. La nature des risques inhérents à l'activitéelle-même com-
manderait la prudence. Il faut trouver des moyens de calculer cesrisques
afin de déterminersi la Nouvelle-Zélandea satisfait à la norme. Il me
semble que ce calcul devrait prendre en compte un certain nombre d'élé-

ments :

- l'ampleur du risque decontamination nucléaire discernableenl'occur-
rence,
- la probabilité quele risque se réalise,
- l'utilitéet les avantages du comportement en cause, c'est-à-dire les
essais nucléairesfrançais,
- le coût des mesures de prévention du risque.

70. Selon moi, le critère que la Cour devrait appliquer requiert une

analyse comparéedes risques et avantages. Il faut mettre en balance les
risques de l'activité considérélea, probabilitédes dommages, l'utilité de
l'activitéet lesmesures nécessairespour supprimer le risque. Cela s'appa-risk analysis in the law of torts in some common law jurisdictions (see

Prosser and Keeton on the Law of Torts, 5th ed., 1984, pp. 169-173;
Richard A. Epstein, Casesand Materials on Torts, 5th ed., 1990,pp. 150-
168; Blyth v. Birmingham Water Works, 11Exchequer 781, 156English
Reports 1047(1856); United States v. Carroll Towing Co., 159 Federal
Reports 2d 169(2d Cir. 1947)).But it is submitted that it is an appropri-
ate analytical construct with some modifications for measuring the issue
here.

71. The gravity of the radiation harm if it occursis likelyto be serious
for the marine environment. The magnitude of the risk that the harm will
occur must be regarded as significant given the destructive force of
nuclear explosions and the possibility of other disturbances or abnormal
situations occurring in the course of the long life of the dangerous sub-
stances. The costs of averting the risk in this instance are low - they
consist of France providing a fully scientifically verifiableenvironment

impact assessment in accordance with modern environmental practice
which demonstrates that the proposed tests willnot result in nuclear con-
tamination. No doubt France and New Zealand would differ greatly on
the utility of nuclear testing but itan reasonably be said that the extra
tests proposed cannot have great value given the number that have pre-
ceded them. They are of diminishing marginal value, if they have any
value at all. If thealculus of the risk analysis were applied in this way,
then on these facts a prima facie case is made out by New Zealand in my
opinion.

72. The test put fonvard here derives from support from the recent
work of the International Law Commission where it laid down that for
the purposes of draft Articles under its consideration "risk of causing
significant transboundary harm" an expression which refers "to the

combined effect of the probability of occurrence of an accident and the
magnitude of its injurious impact" (Report of the International Law
Commission on the work of its forty-sixth session, 2 May-22 July 1994,
Official Records of the General Assernbly, Forty-ninth Session, Supple-
ment No. 10 (Al49/10),p. 400).
73. The conclusion of this segment of the opinion is as follows:judged
on the prima facie standard a case on the environmental facts has been
made out to examine the Judgment.

74. The second argument advanced by New Zealand as to why the
Court should examinethe 1974Judgment revolved around the changesin
the state of international law relating to the environment in general and

nuclear testing in particular in the period between 1974and the 1995rente au calcul d'analyse de risquequi est effectuédans le cadre du droit
de la responsabilitéciviledélictuellede certainssystèmesde common law
(voir Prosser and Keeton on the Law of Torts, 5"éd.,1984,p. 169-173;
Richard A. Epstein, Cases and Materials on Torts, 5"éd.,1990, p. 150-
168; Blyth v. Birmingham Water Works, Exchequer, vol. 11, p. 781,

English Reports, vol. 156, p. 1047 (1856); United States v. Carroll
Towing Co., Federal Reports 2d, vol. 159,p. 169(2"cir. 1947)).Mais je
pense que, moyennant quelques modifications, c'est un outil analytique
pratique pour mesurer ce qui nous intéresseici.
71. La contamination radioactive, si elle se produit, aurait sans doute
des conséquences gravespour le milieu marin. Le risque que cette conta-
mination ait lieu doit êtreconsidéré comme non négligeable,étantdonné
la force destructive des explosions nucléaires et la possibilité de divers
incidents ou situations anormales au cours de la longue durée devie des
substances dangereuses. Le coût de la préventiondu risque, en l'occur-
rence, est faible- il s'agit simplementpour la France de fournir une
évaluation de l'impactsur l'environnement totalement vérifiablesur le
plan scientifique, et conforme aux pratiques contemporaines en matière

d'environnement, prouvant que les essaisenvisagésneprovoqueront pas
de contamination nucléaire. Surla question de l'utilité des essaisnu-
cléaires, laFrance et la Nouvelle-Zélandeauraient évidemment des avis
très différents, maisil est permis de penser que les essais supplémentaires
proposés ne peuvent présenter un intérêt considérabvlu e,tous ceux qui
les ont précédés L.eur valeur marginale va décroissant, supposer qu'elle
ne soit pas nulle. Si l'on fait de cette manière le calcul de l'analyse de
risque, je pense, au vu de ces faits, que la Nouvelle-Zélande satisfaita
norme prima facie.
72. Le critèreproposéicis'inspire destravaux récentsde la Commission
du droit international, qui a indiquéqu'auxfins desprojets d'articlesqui lui
étaientsoumis l'expression((risque de causer un dommage transfrontière
significatif))renvoie l'«effet combiné dela probabilité qu'un accidentse

produise et de l'ampleurde l'impactpréjudiciableainsicausé))(rapport de
la Commission du droit international sur les travaux de sa quarante-
sixièmesession, 2 mai-22 juillet 1994,Documents officiels de l'Assemblée
générale, quarante-neuvième session, supplémentno10 (A/49/10),p. 434).

73. Je conclurai donc la présente section endisant que, suivant la
norme prima facie, les données écologiques justifientun réexamen de
l'arrêt.

74. Le deuxième argument avancépar la Nouvelle-Zélandeen faveur
d'un réexamen del'arrêt rendupar la Cour en 1974s'articuleautour des

transformations que le droit international relatifà l'environnement en
général etaux essais nucléairesen particulier a connues entre 1974et leshearings. In order to evaluate that submission it is necessary to briefly
traverse those developments in the broad before becoming specific.

The Development of International Environmental Law

75. When this case began in 1973it was shortly after the international
meeting at Stockholm which produced the Stockholm Declaration of the
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (adopted by the
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment at Stockholm,
16June 1972, 11ILM 1416 (1972)(Stockholm Declaration). It was that
Conference that started the march of the new fieldof international envi-
ronmental law toward international legal maturity. At that time only 25
countries possessed national environmental ministries. The Declaration
advanced the development of the principles of international environmen-
ta1law. It can confidentlybe stated that some of those principles stated in

the Declaration have received such widespread support in State practice
coupled with a sense on the part of States that they are legally binding
that they have by now entered into the framework of customary interna-
tional law. The impact of human activities on the environment in a com-
prehensiveway was brought to the attention of the international commu-
nity, in effectfor the first time by Stockholm.Preambular paragraph 6 of
the Stockholm Declaration said: "A point has been reached in history
when we must shape Ouractions throughout the world with a more pru-
dent care for their environmental consequences." It is important to recall
that explicit reference was made by New Zealand in its 1973 Request
(I.C.J. Pleadings, Nuclear Tests, Vol. II, pp. 55-56,paras. 33, 34 and 35
with explicit reliance being placed on Principles 6, 7, 21and 26).

76. Principle 1 of the Stockholm Declaration established that the
people bear "a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environ-
ment for present and future generations". Principle 2 talks of the need to
safeguard natural resources including air, land and water. Principle 6 laid

down that the discharge of toxic substances must be halted where they
were in such quantities or concentrations "to exceed the capacity of the
environment to render them harmless .. .".Principle 7 requires States to
take al1possible steps to prevent pollution to the seasby substances liable
to create hazards for human health and marine life. Principle 18 asked
for "the identification, avoidance and control of environmental risks
. ..".Principle 21 required States to

"ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not
cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas beyond
the limits of national jurisdiction".audiences de 1995. Pour apprécier cet argument, il faut brièvement
rappeler cette évolution dans ses grandes lignes, avant d'entrer dans les
détails.

Le développement dudroi: international de l'environnement

75. Cette affaire a commencéen i 73, peu de temps après une réunion

internationale tenue à Stockholm qui s'estconclue par la déclarationde
Stockholm (adoptée par la conférence desNations Unies sur I'environ-
nement, àStockholm, le 16juin 1972,RGDIP, 1973,p. 350).Cette confé-
rence a marqué les premiers progrès vers la maturité juridique de ce
nouveau domaine queconstitue le droit international de l'environnement.
A l'époque,vingt-cinq pays seulement avaient un ministèrede l'environ-
nement. La déclarationa favoriséle développementdes principes du droit
international de l'environnement.On peut dire aujourd'hui aveccertitude
que, pour certains des principes énoncésdans la déclaration,le large sou-
tien qu'ils ont reçu dans la pratique des Etats, associéau sentiment de la
part de ceux-ci qu'ils ont un caractère juridiquement contraignant, fait
qu'ils s'inscriventdésormais dans le cadre du droit international coutu-
mier. Pour la premièrefois à l'occasion dela conférence deStockholm,

en effet, la communauté internationale a étéappelée à envisager l'impact
des activités de l'homme sur l'environnement, dans une perspective
d'ensemble. On lit à l'alinéa6 du préambulede la déclaration: ((Nous
sommes à un moment de l'histoire où nous devons orienter nos actions
dans le monde entier en songeant davantage à leurs répercussionssur
l'environnement. » Il importe de rappeler que la demande en indication
de mesures conservatoires présentéepar la Nouvelle-Zélande en 1973
visait expressémentla déclaration (C.I.J. Mémoires, Essais nucléaires,
volume II, pages 55 et 56, paragraphes 33, 34 et 35 qui visent expressé-
ment les principes 6,7, 21 et 26 de la déclarationde Stockholm).
76. Le principe 1 de la déclarationde Stockholm établit que l'homme
«a le devoir solennel de protéger et d'améliorerl'environnement pour les
générationsprésenteset futures)). Le principe 2 évoquela nécessité de
préserverles ressources naturelles, y compris l'air, la terre et l'eau. Le

principe 6 dispose qu'ilfaut interrompre lesrejets de matièrestoxiques en
des quantités ou sousdes concentrations telles que ((l'environnementne
puisse plus en neutraliser les effets)). Le principe 7 impose aux Etats de
prendre toutes lesmesures possiblespour empêcherla pollution des mers
par des substancesqui risquent de mettre en danger la santéde l'homme
et la vie des organismes marins. Le principe 18 commande de ((déceler,
éviterou limiter les dangers qui menacent l'environnement ..» Le prin-
cipe 21 fixe aux Etats

«le devoir de s'assurer queles activitésexercéesdans les limites de
leur juridiction ou sous leur contrôle ne causent pas de dommage à
l'environnement dans d'autres Etats ou dans des régionsne relevant
d'aucune juridiction nationale)).Principle 26 dealt with the need to spare the environment and people "the
effects of nuclear weapons and al1other means of mass destruction".

77. In recent years the proliferation of international conventions and
treaties on the globalenvironmenthas been considerable.There are more
than a hundred multilateral environmental instruments in force many of
which have been negotiated since the 1972Stockholm Declaration. The
United Nations Environment Programme register listed 152 in 1991
before the significant outburst of activity at the Rio de Janeiro United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development in 1992. For
present purposes the important point about the development of interna-
tional environmental law is that its most important floweringand expan-
sion spans the period of this case - it started in earnest about the time
this case began and reached a crescendo at Rio in 1992.

78. Indeed the consensus flowing from Rio is itself significant in the
context of the arguments being advanced in the present case. The Rio
Declaration refined, advanced, sharpened and developed some of the
principles adopted at Stockholm (Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development, adopted by the United Nations Conference on Environ-
ment and Development at Rio de Janeiro, 13 June 1992, 31 ILM 874
(1992)(Rio Declaration)).Many of the principleswererepeated but some
new ones make an appearance:

Principle 15 :
"In order to protect the environment,the precautionary approach
shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities.
Where there are threats of serious or irreversibledamage, lack of full

scientificcertainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-
effectivemeasures to prevent environmental degradation."

Principle 17 :

"Environmental impact assessment,as a national instrument, shall
be undertaken for proposed activities that are likely to have a sig-
nificant adverseimpact on the environmentand are subject to a deci-
sion of a competent national authority."

79. Maurice Strong who was Secretary-General of both the Stockholm
and the Rio Conferences has summed up his view of the need to develop
the mechanisms of international environmental law still further. He said:

"To manage Our common future on this planet, we will need a

new global legal regime based essentiallyon the extension into inter-
national life of theule of law, together with reliable mechanismsfor
accountability and enforcement that provide the basis for the effec-Le principe 26, enfin, énoncela nécessité d'épargner à l'homme et à son
environnement «les effets des armes nucléaireset de tous autres moyens
de destruction massive)).
77. Il y a eu cesdernièresannées unemultiplication des conventionset
traités internationaux sur l'environnement mondial. Il existe plus d'une
centaine d'instruments multilatéraux en vigueur relatifs à l'environne-
ment, dont un bon nombre ont éténégociésdepuis la déclaration de
Stockholm de 1972.Le Programme des Nations Unies pour l'environne-
ment avait enregistré centcinquante-deux instruments de ce genre en
1991,avant le notable regain d'activitéqu'a marqué laconférence deRio
sur l'environnement et le développement organisée par les Nations Unies

en 1992.Pour ce qui nous intéresseici, ilfaut surtout retenir que le déve-
loppementdu droit international de l'environnement a connu une période
d'expansion particulièrement intense pendant les annéescouvertes par
cetteaffaire,puisqu'ila vraiment pris son essor àl'époqueou l'instance a
étéintroduite et qu'il a connu son apogée à Rio en 1992.
78. De fait, le consensus issu de Rio est en lui-mêmesignificatif,s'agis-
sant des arguments avancésdans la présente affaire. La déclaration de
Rio a affiné,élaboré,précisé et développécertains des principes adoptés
à Stockholm (déclaration de Rio sur l'environnement et le développe-
ment, adoptée par la conférence desNations Unies sur l'environnement
et le développement à Rio de Janeiro, le 13juin 1992(AiCONF.151126,

vol. 1)).Nombre des principes étaient reprismais d'autres, nouveaux, ont
fait leur apparition:
Principe 15 :

«Pour protéger l'environnement,des mesures de précaution doi-
vent être largement appliquéespar les Etats selon leurs capacités.
En cas de risque de dommages graves ou irréversibles, l'absence de
certitude scientifique absolue ne doit pas servir de prétexte pour
remettre à plus tard l'adoption de mesures effectivesvisant à préve-
nir la dégradation de l'environnement. ))

Principe 17 :

«Une étude d'impactsur l'environnement, en tant qu'instrument
national, doit être entreprise dansle cas des activitésenvisagéesqui
risquent d'avoir des effets nocifs importants sur l'environnement et
dépendent dela décisiond'une autorité nationale compétente. ))
79. Maurice Strong, qui a étéle secrétaire général dle a conférence de

Stockholmpuis de la conférence deRio, a résumé sonpoint de vue quant
à la nécessitéde développer encoreles mécanismesdu droit international
de l'environnement en cestermes :
«Pour gérernotre avenir commun sur cetteplanète, il nous faudra
un nouveau régimejuridique universel fondé essentiellement sur

l'extension dela primautédu droit dans lesrelations internationales,
ainsi que des mécanismessûrs de contrôle et d'exécutionqui condi- tive functioning of national societies." (Foreword by Maurice F.
Strong to L. D. Guruswamy et al., International Environmental Law

and World Order, 1994,p. vii.)

80. This Court in this very case in 1974made a contribution to the
growing field of international environmental law. The Nuclear Tests
cases have come to be cited as one of a quartet of cases that offer some
protection for the environment through the medium of customary inter-
national law.Others includethe Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v.Alba-
nia) (I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 4) establishingthe principle of every State's
obligation not to allow knowingly its territory to be used for acts con-
trary to the rights of other States. The Trail Smelter (United States v.
Canada) (III Reports of International Arbitral Awards (RIAA) 1905
(1938and 1941))established that no State has the right to use or permit
the use of its territory in sucha way as to cause injury by fumes in the
territory of another State. The Lake Lanoux Arbitration (XII RIAA 281
(1957)) turned on the interpretation of a particular treaty but it may
establish the principle that a State has the duty to give notice when its
actions may impair the environmental enjoyment of another State. To
these should now be added the contribution of this Court if only because
of the environmental degradation with which the case dealt (Certain
Phosphate Lands inNauru (Nauru v. Australia), Preliminary Objections,

Judgment, I. C.J. Reports 1992, p. 240). Significantly,by the Court decid-
ing to hear the case, a result was produced by way of settlement. The
principles established bythese caseshave been included in Principle 21 of
the Stockholm Declaration and Principle 2 of the Rio Declaration.

81. But authoritative decisions in the area of international environ-
ment law are scarce enough. They certainly lag behind the plethora of
conventional law that has sprung into existencein the more than 20years
spanningthe Iife ofthis case. The nature of some of the issuesis helpfully
discussed in the Report of the International Law Commission on the
work of its forty-sixth session, 2 May-22 July 1994, on "International
Liability forInjurious Consequences Arising out of Acts Not Prohibited
by International Law" (Official Records of the GeneralAssembly, Forty-
ninth Session, Supplement No. 10 (A/49/10),pp. 367 ff.), a subject with
which the Commission has been grappling since 1978without definitive
result. The Commission is giving priority in its work to prevention of
activities having a risk of causing transboundary harm.

82. Indeed, following Rio and perhaps because of it, this Court on
6 August 1993exercisingits powers under Article 26 of the Statute of the DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP.DISSP. ALMER) 408

tionnent le fonctionnement efficacedes sociéténsationales.»(Avant-
propos de Maurice F. Strong à l'ouvrage deL. D. Guruswamy et al.,
International EnvironmentalLaw and World Order, 1994,p. vii.)

80. En 1974, àl'occasionde cette affaireprécisémentl,a Cour a apporté
sa contribution au domaine en développementdu droit international de
l'environnement. On cite couramment les affaires des Essais nucléaires,
ainsique trois autres affaires,commedes exemplesde protection de l'envi-

ronnement fondéesur le droit international coutumier. Dans cette série
figure aussi l'affaire duDétroit de Corfou(Royaume-Uni c. Albanie)
(C.I.J. Recueil 1949,p. 4),à l'occasionde laquelle a étéaffirméel'obliga-
tion pour tout Etat de ne pas laisser,en connaissancede cause, utiliserson
territoire aux fins d'actes qui contreviennent aux droits d'autres Etats.
L'affaire de laFonderie deTrail (Etats-Unis c. Canada) - 1938et 1941
(Recueil des sentences arbitrales,vol. III, p. 1905- a établi qu'aucun
Etat n'a le droit d'utiliser ou de laisser utiliser son territoire de telle sorte
que celui-ci soit la source de fuméescausant des dommages sur le terri-
toire d'un autre Etat. Dans l'affaire de l'utilisation des eaux du lac
Lanoux - 1957 (Recueil des sentences arbitrales,vol. XII, p. 281) -

l'arbitrage portait sur l'interprétation d'un traitéprécis,mais on peut en
tirer le principe qu'un Etat est tenu, si ses actes risquent d'avoir des
conséquencesdommageablessur l'environnementnaturel d'un autreEtat,
d'enavertir ce dernier.A cette liste, on peut désormaisajouter l'affaire de
Certaines terres à phosphates à Nauru (Nauru c. Australie) (exceptions
préliminaires,arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1992,p. 240),qui représenteune autre
contribution de la Cour, ne serait-ce qu'en raison des problèmes de
dégradation de l'environnementsur lesquels elle portait. 11est révélateur
que la décision dela Cour de connaître de cette affaire ait conduit les
parties à conclure un règlementamiable. Les principes établis à l'occa-
sion de ces affaires sont repris dans le principe 21 de la déclaration de
Stockholm et le principe 2 de la déclaration de Rio.

81. Mais dans le domaine du droit international de l'environnement
les décisionsfaisant autoritésont assezrares. On est certainementloin de
la pléthore du droit conventionnelque l'on a vu écloredurant lesvingt et
quelques annéesqui se sont écoulées depuis l'introduction de la présente
affaire. On trouvera une analyse utile de certaines des questions dans le
rapport de la Commission du droit international sur les travaux de sa
quarante-sixièmesession (2 mai-22 juillet 1994),à propos de la ((Respon-
sabilité internationale pour les conséquences préjudiciablesdécoulant
d'activitésqui ne sont pas interdites par le droit international))Docu-
ments officielsdel'Assembléegénéraleq ,uarante-neuvièmesession, supplé-
ment no 10 (A/49/10),p. 397 et suiv.), sujet que la Commission examine
depuis 1978, sans résultat définitif.Dans ses travaux, la Commission

accorde la priorité à la prévention des activitésqui risquent de causer
un dommage transfrontière.
82. De fait, après la conférence deRio, et peut-être cause de celle-ci,
la Cour internationale de Justice a, en vertu des pouvoirs que lui confèreInternational Court of Justice set up a Chamber of seven Judges to deal
with environmental matters. The Court in an I.C.J. communiqué(93120,
19July 1993)announced :

"In view of the developments in the field of environmental law
and protection which have taken place in thelast fewyears, and con-

sidering that it should be prepared to the fullest possible extent to
deal with any environmental case falling within its jurisdiction, the
Court has now deemed it appropriate to establish a seven-member
Chamber for Environmental Matters . .."

83. The forces that led the Court to establish a Chamber for consid-

eration of environmental cases is reflected in the quantity of work being
done by highly qualified publicists of the various nations upon the sub-
ject of international environmental law. Such works include A. Kiss and
D. Shelton, International Environmental Law, 1991; P. Birnie and
A. Boyle,International Law and the Environment, 1992; P. Sands et al.,
Principles of International Environmental Law - Documents in
International EnvironmentalLaw, 2 volumes, 1995;L. Guruswamy et al.,
International Environmental Law and World Order, 1994; J. Carroll
(ed.), International Environmental Diplomacy, 1988; E. B. Weiss, In
Fairness to Future Generations: International Law, Common Patrimony,
and Intergenerational Equity, 1989; E. B. Weiss (ed.), Environmental
Change and International Law, 1992; C. Stone, The Gnat is Older than
Man: Global Environment and Human Agenda, 1993; P. Sand, Lessons
Learned in Global Environmental Governance, 1990; G. Handl (ed.),
Yearbook of International Environmental Law, 1990,and annually. The
periodical literatureis so vast on the subject that it cannot be cited.

84. The obvious and overwhelmingtrend of these developments from
Stockholm to Rio has been to establish a comprehensive set of noms to
protect the global environment. There is a widespread recognition now
that there are risks that threatenurcommon survival.We cannot permit
the onward march of technologyand developmentwithout givingattention
to the environmental limits that must govern these issues. Othenvise the
paradigm of sustainable development embraced by the world at the Rio
Conferencecannot be achieved(World Commission on Environment and
Development, Our Common Future, 1987,p. 5; seealso D. H. Meadows,
D. L. Meadows and J. Randers, Beyond the Limits, 1992).

International Law on Radioactive Hazards

85. It was against the background outlined above that Sir Kenneth
Keith, Q.C., for New Zealand sought to establish four legalpropositions: DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP.DISSP . ALMER) 409

l'article 26 de son Statut, constituéleaoût 1993une chambre pour les
questions d'environnement, composéede sept juges. Dans un commu-
niquén" 93/20du 19juillet 1993,la Cour internationale de Justice a fait
savoir que:

((Compte tenu des faits qui se sont produits au cours de ces der-
nières annéesdans le domaine du droit et de la protection de l'envi-
ronnement, et considérant qu'elle devraitêtreprêtedans toute la
mesure du possible à traiter de toute affaire d'environnement rele-
vant de sa juridiction, la Cour juge maintenant opportun d'établir
une chambre pour lesquestions d'environnement, composée des sept
membres.. »

83. Les forces qui ont conduit la Cour à constituer cette chambre se
reflètent aussidansla quantitéde travaux effectuéspar d'éminents publi-
cistes de divers pays sur le sujet du droit international de l'environne-
ment. On peut notamment citer A. Kiss et D. Shelton, International Envi-
ronmental Law, 1991 ;P. Birnie et A. Boyle, International Law and the
Environment, 1992; P. Sands et al., Principles of International Environ-

mental Law - Documents in International Environmental Law, 2 vo-
lumes, 1995;L. Guruswamy et al., International Environmental Law and
World Order, 1994; J. Carroll (dir. publ.), International Environmental
Diplomacy, 1988; E. B. Weiss, In Fairness to Future Generations:Inter-
national Law, Common Patrimony, and Intergenerational Equity, 1989;
E. B. Weiss (dir. publ.), Environmental Change and International Law,
1992;C. Stone, The Gnat is Older than Man: GlobalEnvironmental and
Human Agenda, 1993; P. Sand, Lessons Learned in Global Environmen-
ta1Governance, 1990; G. Handl (dir. publ.), Yearbook of International
Environmental Law (publié chaque année depuis 1990). Les articles
publiéssur le sujet dans des revues juridiques sont trop nombreux pour
êtrecités.

84. De cette évolution de Stockholm à Rio se dégage une tendance
manifeste et irrésistiblela constitution d'un vaste ensemble de normes
destinées à protéger l'environnement mondial.On s'accorde générale-
ment à reconnaître aujourd'hui que certains risques menacent la survie
de l'espècehumaine. On ne peut pas laisser libre couràl'évolution tech-
nologique et au développementsans envisager les limites que l'écologie
doit leur imposer. Sinon la notion de développementdurable, acceptée
par le monde entier à la conférence deRio, restera une vue de l'esprit
(rapport de la Commission mondiale de l'environnement et du dévelop-
pement: ((Notre avenir à tous» (A/42/427), p. 5, 1987; voir aussi
D. H. Meadows, D. L. Meadows et J. Randers, Beyond theLimits, 1992).

Le droit international et les dangers de laradioactivité

85. C'estdans lecontexte queje viensd'évoquer quesir Kenneth Keith,
Q.C., a, au nom de la Nouvelle-Zélande,tenté de démontrerquatre pro-
positionsjuridiques: (i) Statesmust ensure that activities within theirjurisdiction or control
do not cause damage to the environment of other States or of areas
beyond the limits of their jurisdiction.

(ii) Anyaddition of radioactivematerial to the environment or exposure
of individuals to radiation must bejustified.ch addition or expo-
sure must be for good reason.

(iii) Any disposa1 or introduction of artificially created radioactive
material into the marine environment is heavily circumscribed. It
is in general forbidden.
(iv) Any introduction of radioactive material into the marine environ-

ment as a result of nuclear tests is forbidden. The world cornrnunity
no longer accepts that the testing of nuclear weapons can be used to
justify marine contamination.

The law now sets higher standards in an "increasingly interdependent
world", Sir Kenneth told the Court (CR 95/20,p. 10).

86. New Zealand in support of its propositions relied upon the
Stockholm and Rio Declarations and in particular on the 1986Conven-
tion for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of
the South Pacific Region concluded at Noumea, 25 November 1986,
entered into force 22 August 1990 (26 ILM 38 (1987)). New Zealand
and France both are parties to the Convention. These legal materials
and others cited to the Court established in the view of New Zealand
an increasingly strict attitude to the addition of radioactiveterial to

the general environment and the exposure of individuals to radiation.
In relation to the marine environment it was even more exacting.
Among the materials cited in support of these propositions were:
Article 14 of the Draft Articles considered in the 1994Annual Report
of the International Law Commission mentioned above; the Interna-
tional Atomic Energy Agency, Safety Series No. 77, Principles for
Limiting Releases of Radioactive Effluents into the Environment, 1986;
Agenda 21, Chapter 22, of the Rio Declaration, "Safe and Environmen-
tally Sound Management of Radioactive Wastes", paragraph 5 (para. 100
of the New Zealand Request); Convention on the High Seas con-
cluded at Geneva 29 April 1958, entered into force 30 September 1962
(450 UNTS 82, Art. 25); United Nations Convention on the Law of the
Sea concluded at Montego Bay, 10 December 1982, entered into force
16November 1994(21 ILM 1261(1982),Part XII, Art. 194);Convention
on BiologicalDiversity, concluded at Rio de Janeiro5June 1992,entered

into force 29 December 1993(31 ILM 818 (1992),Arts. 3 and 14); Stat-
ute of the International Atomic Energy Agency, 26 October 1956
(276 UNTS 3, Art. 34); Convention for the Protection of the Marine
Environment of the North-East Atlantic, concluded at Paris, September
1992(32 ILM 1069(1993),Ann. II, Art. 3 (3) (a) and (b)); Convention DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP. DISS. PALMER) 410

i) Les Etats doivent faire en sorte que les activitésexercéesdans les
limites de leur juridiction ou sous leur contrôle ne causent pas de
dommage à l'environnement dans d'autres Etats ou dans des régions
ne relevant d'aucune juridiction nationale.
ii) L'apport de toute matière radioactivedans l'environnement ou l'ex-
position d'êtreshumains aux rayonnements doivent êtrejustifiés. Il
faut de bonnes raisons pour procéder à cet apport et à cette expo-
sition.
iii) Le déversementou l'immersion de matières radioactives artificielles

dans le milieu marin sont très rigoureusement limités. Ilssont en
général interdits.
iv) Il est interdit de faire pénétrer, enprocédanà des essais nucléaires,
des matières radioactivesdans le milieu marin;la communauté mon-
diale n'accepte plus que les essais d'armes nucléaires servent de jus-
tification cette contamination.

Sir Kenneth Keith a ajouté quele droit fixedésormais des normes plus
exigeantes dans un ((monde de plus en plus interdépendant)) (CR 95/20,
p. 10).
86. Pour étayer ces propositions, la Nouvelle-Zélandea invoqué la
déclaration de Stockholmet cellede Rio, et plus particulièrement aussi la
convention de 1986 sur la protection des ressources naturelles et de
l'environnement de la régiondu Pacifique Sud, conclue à Nouméa le

25 novembre 1986et entréeen vigueur le 22 août 1990 (Internationales
Umweltrecht Multilaterale Vertrage, 98697). La Nouvelle-Zélandeet la
France sont toutes deux parties àcette convention. Ces instruments juri-
diques et d'autres citésdevant la Cour témoignent, selon la Nouvelle-
Zélande, d'une sévérité croissante à l'égard desapports de matières
radioactives dans l'environnement ou de l'exposition d'êtres humainasux
rayonnements. En ce qui concerne le milieu marin, les règlessont encore
plus strictes. A l'appui de ses quatre propositions, sirnneth Keith a
notamment cité l'article14des projets d'articlesexaminésdans le rapport
annuel de 1994de la Commission du droit international, déjàmentionné;
lesPrincipesde limitation des rejets d'effluents radioactifs dansl'environ-
nement, publiéspar l'Agenceinternationale de l'énergieatomique dans la
collection Sécurité,o 77, 1986;le programme Action 21, chapitre 22, de
la déclaration de Rio, ((Gestion sûre et écologiquedes déchetsradio-

actifs)), paragraphe 5 (paragraphe 100 de la demande de la Nouvelle-
Zélande); la convention surla haute mer, faiteà Genèvele 29 avril 1958,
entréeen vigueur le 30 septembre 1962(Nations Unies, Recueil des trai-
tés,vol. 450, p. 82, art. 25); la convention des Nations Unies sur le droit
de la mer, conclueà Montego Bay le 10décembre1982,entréeen vigueur
le 16novembre 1994(publication des Nations Unies, Le droit de la mer,
New York, 1984,partie XII, art. 194);la convention sur la diversitébio-
logique, conclue à Rio de Janeiro le 5 juin 1992, entréeen vigueur le
29 décembre1993 (RGDIP, 1992,p. 952, art. 3, 14);le statut de l'Agence
internationale de l'énergieatomique, 26 octobre 1956 (Nations Unies,on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter, concluded at London, 19December 1972 (11ILM 1291(1972)),

Annex 1; Resolution of Consultative Meeting LDC 21 (9) on Dumping
Radioactive Wastes at Sea, 1985.

Environmental Impact Assessment

87. At this point, Mr. D. J. MacKay for New Zealand went on to
develop this segment of the argument by pointing to the application of
the emerginginternational law on environmentalimpact assessment(EIA)
and the precautionary principle in their application to the facts of this

case. In both respects the law had changed dramatically, thus supporting
the view that the basis of the Court's Judgment was affected. It was sub-
mitted that other parties likely to be affected by the risks have a right to
know what the investigations for the EIA are, have a right to propose
additional investigations and a right to verifyfor themselvesthe result of
such investigations. As the law now stands it is a matter of legal duty to
first establish before undertaking an activity that the activitydoes not
involve any unqcceptable risk to the environment. An EIA is simply a
means of establ\hing a process to comply with that international legal
duty. New Zealand pointed to a number of international instruments,
including Article 205 of the United Nations Law of the Sea Convention
that make explicit reference to EIA.

88. Under Article 12that has been adopted by the International Law
Commissionin thecourse ofitsdeliberations,the Commissionhas decided
that before a State carries out activities which involvea risk of causing
significant transboundary harm through their physical consequences

"a State shallensure that an assessment is undertaken of the risk of
such activity. Such an assessment shall include an evaluation of the
possible impact of that activity on persons or property as well as in
the environment of other States."

The Noumea Convention referred to earlieralso contains an explicitobli-
gation in Article 16 to conduct environmental impact assessments

before embarking upon any major project which might affect the marine
environment. A more explicitmeasure appears in Article 12of that Con-
vention producing a duty to prevent, reduce and control pollution in
the Convention area which might result from the testing of nuclear
devices.Recueil des traités,vol. 276, p. 3); la convention sur la protection du
milieumarin de l'AtlantiqueNord-Est, conclue à Paris en septembre 1992
(annexe II, art. 3, par. 3, b), RGDZP, 1992,p. 981); la convention de
1972sur la prévention de la pollutiondesmers résultant del'immersionde
déchets, conclue àLondres le 19décembre1972(Nations Unies, Recueil
des traités,vol. 1046,p. 129),annexe 1; la résolutionLDC 21 (9) de la
réunion consultativesur l'immersion des déchetsen mer, 1985.

Evaluation de l'impactsur lénvironnement

87. Prenant lui aussi la parole au nom de la Nouvelle-Zélande,
M. D. J. MacKay a ensuite développé cette partie de l'argumentation en
évoquantl'application aux faits d'espècedes normes du droit internatio-
nal en voie de formation concernant l'évaluation de l'impactsur l'envi-
ronnement (EIE) et le principe de précaution.A ce double égard,le droit
a considérablement évoluéc,e qui conforte l'idéeque le fondement de
l'arrêt de laCour a été remis en cause.La Nouvelle-Zélande asoutenu
que les tiers susceptibles d'être affectésnt le droit de savoir en quoi
consistent les étudeseffectuéesaux fins de l'évaluation, etsont fondés

proposer des études supplémentaires età vérifierpar eux-mêmesles
conclusions de l'évaluation.En l'état actueldu droit, c'estun devoirjuri-
dique pour quiconque entend entreprendre une activité d'établirau préa-
lable que celle-cine comporte pas de risque inacceptable pour l'environ-
nement. L'évaluation de l'im~actsur l'environnement vise sim~lement à
instituer une procéduregaraniissant le respect de cette obligati&nde droit
international. La Nouvelle-Zélande a invoquéun certain nombre d'ins-
truments internationaux, notamment l'article 205 de la convention des
Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, qui mentionnent expressément une
telle évaluation.
88. En vertu du projet d'article 12que la Commission du droit inter-
national a adoptéau cours de ses débats,il est prévu qu'avant d'entre-
prendre des activitésqui comportent un risque de causer un dommage
transfrontière significatifde par leurs conséquences physiques

«un Etat veilleà ce qu'il soit procédéà l'évaluationdu risque que
comporte cette activité.Cette évaluationporte notamment sur les

éventuelseffetsde l'activitéen question sur lespersonnes ou lesbiens
ainsi que sur l'environnement desautres Etats.

La convention de Nouméa, déjà mentionnée, prévoie tlle aussà l'ar-
ticle 16 l'obligation expresse d'effectuer une évaluation de l'impactsur
l'environnement avant d'entreprendre de grands projets qui pourraient
avoir une incidence sur le milieu marin. L'article 12 de la convention de
Nouméa est encore plus précis, puisqu'il prévoitque les parties ont le
devoir de prévenir, réduire etombattre la pollution de la zone d'applica-
tion de la convention qui pourrait résulter de l'expérimentationd'engins
nucléaires. Pvecautionavy Principle
89. So far as the precautionary principle is concerned New Zealand
submitted that in the circumstancesit required two things. First, that the
assessment must be carried out before and not after the activities are

undertaken. Second, that it is for the State contemplating these activities
to carry out the assessment and to demonstrate that there is no real risk.
It is not for potentially affected States to demonstrate that there will be
a risk.
90. 1have set out these arguments in some detail because they exhibit
the issues that would have been traversed had the case gone to the next
stage. France did not address arguments on these points since it at al1
times regardedthe issuesbefore the Court as threshold issuesthat did not
require it to meet the arguments put above. It would be wrong in these
circumstances to reach substantive conclusions on the application of the
arguments to the facts of the case. It is, however, appropriate to reach a
conclusion on what the principles of law discussed establish from the
point of viewof meeting the test required to examine again the 1974case.

Conclusion
91. What those principles of international law establish in my vieware
the following propositions :

(a) international environmental law has developed rapidly and is tend-
ing to develop in a way that provides comprehensive protection for
the natural environment ;
(b) international law has taken an increasingly restrictive approach to
the regulation of nuclear radiation;
(c) customary international law may have developed a norm of requir-
ing environmental impact assessment where activities may have a
significant effect on the environment;

(d) the norm involved in the precautionary principle has developed
rapidly and may now be a principle of customary international law
relating to the environment;
(e) there are obligations based on Conventions that may be applicable
here requiring environmentalimpact assessmentand the precaution-
ary principle to be observed.
Taken together, in application to the present dispute, the legal develop-
ments are sufficientto meet a prima facietest that the legal circumstances
have altered sufficientlyto favour an examination of the 1974case. Let

me emphasize again, however, this is not to Saywhat principles of law
may apply here in the particular circumstances or indeed what their con-
tent might be. That is for the next stage.

92. It is necessary toSaysomething about the application of principles
of law at the stage they have reached in 1995to a case that was pleaded Le principe deprécaution
89. En ce qui concerne le principe de précaution, laNouvelle-Zélande
a soutenu que, en l'occurrence, il impose une double obligation. Il faut

d'abord que l'évaluation soiteffectuéepréalablement et non postérieure-
ment aux activitésentreprises. Ensuite, c'est à 1'Etat qui envisage de
mener cesactivitésqu'il incombed'effectuerl'évaluationet de démontrer
qu'il n'y a aucun risque réel.Ce n'est pas aux Etats susceptibles d'être
affectés qu'il incombe deprouver qu'il existe un risque.
90. J'ai exposéendétailcesargumentsparce qu'ilsmettent en évidence
lesproblèmesqui auraient étéabordéssi l'affaire était parvenueau stade
suivant de la procédure. La France n'a pas répliquésur ces points,
puisqu'elle a constamment soutenu que les questions posées à la Cour
étaientdes questions préliminairesqui ne l'obligeaientpasàrépondre aux
moyens ainsi exposés.Dans ces conditions, on aurait tort de tirer des
conclusions de fond quant à l'application de ces moyens aux faits de
l'espèce.Il est en revanchejustifiéde détermineren quoi les principes de
droit évoqués permettentde dégager uneconclusion quant au respect de

la norme requise pour un réexamen del'affaire de 1974.

Conclusion
91. Selon moi, ces principes de droit international permettent d'affir-
mer ce qui suit:

a) le droit international de l'environnement connaît un développement
rapide et tendà assurer une protection globale du milieu naturel;

b) le droit international s'oriente versune réglementationde plus en plus
stricte du rayonnement nucléaire;
c) le droit international coutumier a peut-êtrecréé unenorme qui exige
une évaluationde l'impact sur l'environnement dès lors que desacti-

vitésrisquent d'avoir des effets sensibles sur l'environnement;
d) la norme que traduit le principe de précaution s'estdéveloppée rapi-
dement et constitue peut-être aujourd'hui un principe dudroit inter-
national coutumier relatifà l'environnement;
e) il existe des obligations résultant de conventions susceptibles d'être
applicables en l'espècequi imposent une évaluation de l'impact sur
l'environnement et le respect du principe de précaution.

Globalement, le développementdu droit appliquéau présentdifférend
autorise à considérerprima facie que la situation juridique a suffisam-
ment changé pourjustifier un réexamen de l'affaire de1974.Je tiens tou-
tefoisà souligner de nouveau que, par cetteconclusion, je ne prétends pas
définirquelssont les principes dedroit applicablesen l'espèce,ni d'ailleurs
quellepourrait être leur teneur.Car cela relèvedu stade suivant de la pro-
cédure.
92. Il faut dire un mot ici de l'application des principes de droit, au
stade de développementqu'ils ont atteint en 1995, à une affaire qui a étéand first dealt with in the mid 1970s.The harm complained of - nuclear
contamination - is a continuing one. It seems apparent to me that the
applicable law must be determined, in a circumstance like the present
one, at the date the Court is called on to apply it. The converse proposi-
tion cannot stand in my opinion.
93. In my viewit would exert a salutary and needed influenceon inter-
national environmental law for this Court to enter upon full hearings and
a serious consideration of the issuesof this case, whatever ultimate result

was eventually reached. There is a pressing need to develop the law in the
area. Given the possibility left open expresslyin 1974that in appropriate
circumstances the Court could return to these issues,it would be possible
to examine the 1974 decisionin light of massivechanges in the legalprin-
ciples that have been developed in the period between the Court's two
considerations of the issues.In the event, however, because a majority of
the Court has taken another view New Zealand's effort to hold France
accountable under the principles of international environmental law will
fail.

The Ovdevof the Court

94. The formalistic approach adopted by the majority of the Court in
framing its Order makes it necessary to isolate the stepsin its reasoning.
It is reasoning 1 cannot accept. The reasoning the Court advances for
making the Order that it can take no action on New Zealand's request
for an examination has a number of elements:

(a) the broader designs beyond atmospheric testing that New Zealand
might have had when filingits 1973Application cannot be the sub-
ject of the Court's investigations now;

(b) the Court in 1974was entitled to isolate the real issue and limit it to
atmospheric testing and did so;
(c) the language used by the Court in the companion case brought by
Australia means that the Court treated the New Zealand case as
identical with the Australian one;
(d) thus the 1974Court was entitled to treat the matter at an end relying
on France's unilateral declaration;
(e) it wasin the event of a resumption of nucleartests in the atmosphere
that the basis of the Judgment would have been affected;
(f) in consequence of its view in 1995 of the Judgment of 1974it was
not open for the Court to enter into a consideration of underground

testing or the arguments on either side relating to those events and
take them into account; DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP.DISS.PALMER) 413

plaidéeet traitéeune ~remièrefois vers le milieu des années soixante-dix.
Le dommage invoqué - la contamination nucléaire - s'inscrit dans la
durée.Il me semble évident quele droit pertinent doit êtredéterminéen
l'espèceà la dateà laquelle la Cour est appeléeà l'appliquer. Soutenir le
contraire est à mon avis indéfendable.
93. Je pense qu'il serait opportun et mêmesalutaire pour le droit
international de l'environnement que la Cour tienne des audiences en
bonne et due forme et se penche sérieusement sur les problèmes que
pose cette affaire, quelle que soit l'issue de celle-ci.l est urgent de

développer le droit en ce domaine. Puisque la Cour, en 1974, s'est
expressément réservé la possibilitéd ,ans certaines circonstances, de
revenir sur ces questions, il devrait êtrepossible de reconsidérer la déci-
sion de 1974en tenant compte de l'évolution considérabledes principes
de droit depuis cette époque. En l'occurrence, cependant, la majorité
de la Cour ayant étéd'un autre avis, la tentative de la Nouvelle-
Zélandepour faire constater la responsabilité de la France au regard
des principes du droit international de l'environnement se solde par un
échec.

L'ordonnance de la Cour

94. Le point de vue formaliste adopté par la majoritéde la Cour dans
son ordonnance rend nécessaireune analyse étape par étapede son rai-
sonnement. C'est un raisonnement que je ne peux approuver. Le raison-
nement de la Cour motivant l'ordonnance par laquelle elle déclarene

pouvoir donner suite à la demande d'examen néo-zélandaisese décom-
pose en un certain nombre d'éléments:
a) les préoccupationsgénérales,dépassantla question des essais atmo-
sphériques, que pouvait nourrir la Nouvelle-Zélande lorsqu'elle a

déposé sa requêtdee 1973,ne sauraient faire l'objet aujourd'hui d'un
examen par la Cour;
b) la Cour, en 1974,était fondée àcirconscrire le véritable problèmeen
cause età le limiter aux essais atmosphériques,ce qu'ellea fait;
c) les termes employéspar la Cour dans l'instance parallèleintroduite
par l'Australie montrent que la Cour a traité l'affairenéo-zélandaise
comme étant identique à l'affaire australienne;
d) ainsi la Cour était-elle fondéeen 1974à clore l'affaire, en s'appuyant
sur les déclarationsunilatéralesde la France;
e) c'est dans l'hypothèsed'une reprise des essais nucléairesatmosphé-
riques que le fondement de l'arrêt auraitété remisen cause;
f) vu la manièredont la Cour comprend en 1995son arrêtde 1974, elle

ne saurait aborder l'examen des essaissouterrains ou les arguments
de chaque partie à cet égard,ni en tenir compte; (g) for the same reasons as in (f the Court cannot take into account
the developmentsin international environmental law that have taken
place since the 1974Judgment.

95. The conclusion reached by the majority taking into account al1of
the above is that the 1974Judgrnent has not been affected.
96. The essenceof the approach taken represents a triumph of fonnal-
ism over substance.The law appears as some disembodied construct that
is far removed from the concerns of the real world. The law is frozen in
time, nothing beyond 1974has any relevance or importance in interpret-
ing paragraph 63, except a resumption of atmospheric testing. It is an
approach that depends upon reading down the plain language of para-
graph 63, and sapping it of vitality. 1 find such an approach to legal
reasoning arid and intellectually unsatisfying. When dealing with sub-
stantive issuesofsuch overwhelmingimportance, decisionsnot to address

those issues need to be convincing and carry legal conviction. In this
instance, however, the reasoning is laconic.

97. The whole approach by the Court depends upon drawing a distinc-
tion between atmospheric nuclear testing and underground nuclear test-
ing and refusing to accept that they are linked by the underlyingcommon
factor of nuclear contamination. The distinction is fundamentally
unsound in comrnon-sense terms and that ought to be reflected in legal
terms. It is legal reasoning of a highly mechanical quality. The signifi-
cance of the basic distinction drawn by the Court is not easy to defend
except by an approach well described as the austerity of tabulated legal-
ism (Minister of Home Affairs v. Fisher [1980]Appeal Case, p. 328).
1 cannot defend the distinction relied upon by the Court and therefore
respectfully dissent from it.

98. The Court also relies inits Order on the fact that the Court in the
companion case brought by Australia in 1973employed in the Judgment
in that case a form of words identical to the one used in paragraph 63 of
the New Zealand case. The 1995 Court concludes for that reason the
1974Court regarded the two cases as identical.With respect, the conclu-

sion does not follow. Worse, it does injustice to New Zealand.

99. One learned author has found no fewer than seven important dis-
tinctions between the Australian and New Zealand cases (J. Stephen Kos,
"Interim Reliefin the International Court: New Zealand and the Nuclear
Test Cases", 14 Victoria Universityof WellingtonLaw Review 357(1984)).
The first observation to be made in this respect is that the cases were
not joined in 1973and the reasons for notjoining them are plain enough.
As the New Zealand Attorney-General, Dr. A. M. Finlay, Q.C., told
the Court :

"The Governments of Australia and New Zealand do not have a DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP.DISS.PALMER) 414

g) pour le motif énoncéau point f), la Cour ne peut tenir compte du
développement du droit international de l'environnement depuis
l'arrêtde 1974.

95. La majoritéde la Cour, eu égard à ce qui précède,a conclu que le
fondement de l'arrêtde 1974n'avait pas été remis en cause.
96. Pour l'essentiel, ce raisonnement marque le triomphe du forma-
lisme sur le fond. Il fait apparaître le droit comme une construction
désincarnéet,rèséloignée des problèmes du monde réel.Le droit est figé
dans le temps; au-delà de 1974,rien n'a de pertinence ni d'importance
pour l'interprétationdu paragraphe 63, si cen'est une reprise des essais
dans l'atmosphère. C'est là une démarche qui procède d'une lecture
réductricedes termes clairsdu paragraphe 63,et qui vide celui-cide toute
force. Pour ma part, je trouve aride et peu satisfaisant intellectuellement
ce mode de raisonnement juridique. Quand les questions de fond sont
d'une telle importance, il faut, pour décider dene pas les aborder, des

raisons décisivesqui emportent la conviction en droit. Mais en l'occur-
rence le raisonnement de la Cour est laconique.
97. Toute la démarche de la Cour procède d'une distinction entre
essais nucléairesatmosphériques et essais nucléairessouterrains, et d'un
refus de reconnaître qu'ils ont comme dénominateur commun la conta-
mination nucléaire.Cette distinction est fondamentalement contraire au
bon senset elledevrait de mêmeêtrejugéeinacceptable en droit. C'estun
raisonnementjuridique éminemmentmécanique.La valeur de la distinc-
tion fondamentale établie par la Cour n'est guèredéfendable,sauf dans
une perspective dénotant,comme il a été ditpar ailleurs, l'austérité d'un
légalismepointilleux (Minister of Home Affairs v. Fisher [1980],Appeal
Cases, p. 328). Personnellement, je ne peux admettre la distinction sur
laquelle sefondela Cour etje me permets donc respectueusement d'expri-
mer mon désaccord.

98. Dans son ordonnance, la Cour s'appuie aussi sur le fait que, dans
l'instanceparallèleintroduite par l'Australie en 1973,la Cour a employé
dans son arrêtun libelléidentique à celui du paragraphe 63 de l'arrêt
rendu dans l'affaire néo-zélandaise.La Cour, siégeanten 1995, conclut
donc que la Cour, siégeanten 1974,a considéréles deux affaires comme
identiques. Je me permets d'observer respectueusement quecette conclu-
sion ne va pas de soi. Et ce qui est pis, elle ne rend pas justice à la
Nouvelle-Zélande.
99. Un éminentcommentateur a recenséau moins sept différences
importantes entre l'affaire australienne et l'affaire néo-zélandaise
(J. Stephen Kos, ((Interim Relief in the International Court: New Zea-
land and the Nuclear Test Cases)), Victoria Universityof WellingtonLaw
Review, 1984,vol. 14,p. 357). La premièreremarque qui s'impose à cet

égardest qu'iln'y a pas eujonction d'instancesen 1973et qu'ily avait de
bonnes raisons à cela. Comme M. A. M. Finlay, Q.C., Attorney-General
de Nouvelle-Zélande, l'avait déclardéevant la Cour:
«Le Gouvernement néo-zélandais etle Gouvernement australien415 REQUEST FOR AN EXAMINATION (DISS .P. PALMER)

joint approach to the presentation of their respective cases against
the Government of France; nor did they bring these cases for the
purpose of supporting each other. Actions taken in their region that
may violate obligations erga omnes, or cause an identical threat to
the well-beingof the citizensof both their countries, are naturally of

concern to both; but history and geography condition and differen-
tiate their individualperceptions of a common threat." (I.C.J. Plead-
ings, Nuclear Tests, Vol. II, p. 254.)

100. The New Zealand case had a broader objective than Australia;

there were substantial differencesin the submissions and in the remedies
sought. New Zealand's case had a stronger ground in law and in fact
than Australia's. Mr. Kos, in the article cited above, summarizes the
reason for that conclusion :

(a) The equities favoured New Zealand in terms of its past diplomatic
and political record. New Zealand's association with United King-
dom nuclear testing was very limited. New Zealand had a consistent
and outspoken record of opposition to testing since 1958.The ter-
ritory of NewZealand and that for which New Zealand was respon-
siblewas closer to the test site than Australia's. Its case at the merits
stage would have been stronger. New Zealand had legallya stronger
position on the legal issues of the application of Article 17 of the
General Act for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes,
which Australia had allegedly violated. New Zealand, unlike

Australia, had not declared that its considered General Assembly
resolutions were not legally binding. New Zealand had a record in
the General Assembly of support for the Partial Test Ban Treaty.

(6) New Zealand asserted different rights that it claimed were owed
erga omnes in equal measure to al1 States - indicating freedom
from "unjustified artificial radioactive contamination of the terres-

trial, maritime and aerial environment". New Zealand pleaded wide
considerations of freedom from harm.

(c) New Zealand asked for different remediesfrom Australia. New Zea-
land sought only a declaration that French conduct constituted a
violation of New Zealand's rights in international law - it included
conduct past and future.

(d) New Zealand alleged different injury from that argued by Australia.

(e) New Zealand took a different approach to the conduct of its legal
argument. DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP.DISSP. ALMER) 415

n'ont pasadoptéune démarchecommunepour engager leur instance
contre le Gouvernement français; et leur but n'était pas dese soute-
nir mutuellement. Certes, des actes commis dans leur région,qui
peuvent constituer des violations d'obligationserga omnes ou qui
menacent de la mêmefaçon le bien-êtredeleur population, suscitent
naturellement l'inquiétudede l'un et l'autre pays; mais leurs parti-
cularités historiques et géographiquesleur font percevoir différem-
ment une menace commune. » (C.I.J. Mémoires,Essais nucléaires,
vol. II, p. 254.)

100. La Nouvelle-Zélande visait un objectifplus généraql ue1'Austra-
lie; il y avait des différences defond dans l'argumentation des parties et
leurs chefs de demande. La thèse dela Nouvelle-Zélandeétait plussoli-
dement fondéeen droit et en fait que celle de l'Australie.. Kos, dans
l'article précitér,écapituletout ce qui autorise cette conclusion:

a) Les principes de l'équité plaidaient davantage pour la Nouvelle-
Zélande, eu égard àson passédiplomatique et politique. La Nouvelle-
Zélanden'aété associéeque de façon trèslimitéeaux essaisnucléaires
du Royaume-Uni. La Nouvelle-Zélanden'a cessé demanifester fran-
chement son opposition aux essais depuis 1958. Le territoire de la
Nouvelle-Zélandeet les autres territoires dont elle était responsable
étaientplus proches du site des essais que le territoire de l'Australie.
Au stade de l'examen au fond, le dossier de la Nouvelle-Zélande
aurait été plus solide. Endroit, la Nouvelle-Zélandeavait une posi-

tion plus assurée s'agissantdesproblèmesjuridiques poséspar l'appli-
cation de l'articlede l'Actegénérap lour le règlement pacifique des
différendsinternationaux, que l'Australie, était-ilallégu,vait violé.
Contrairement à l'Australie, la Nouvelle-Zélande n'avait jamais
déclaré qu'elleconsidéraitcomme juridiquement non contraignantes
lesrésolutionsde l'AssembléegénéraleE . t la Nouvelle-Zélande s'était
toujours prononcée à l'Assembléegénérale en faveurdu traité d'inter-
diction partielle des essais nucléaires.
b) La Nouvelle-Zélandefaisait valoir différentsdroits qui, selon elle,
étaient duserga omnes, de manièreégale à tous les Etats- notam-
ment le droit à ce que «le milieu terrestre, maritime et aérien))soit
protégé contre «une contamination injustifiéerésultantd'une radio-
activité artificielle)).La Nouvelle-Zélandea amplement défendu le
droit de ne pas subir de préjudice.

c) La Nouvelle-Zélandea soumis à la Cour des chefs de demande dif-
férentsde ceux de l'Australie. Visant les comportements passéset
futurs de la France, la Nouvelle-Zélandea prié simplementla Cour
de dire etjuger que la France avait enfreint les droits de la Nouvelle-
Zélandeau regard du droit international.
d) La Nouvelle-Zélandea allégué des préjudices différents d ceux allé-
guéspar l'Australie.
e) La Nouvelle-Zélandea conduit différemmentsonargumentationjuri-
dique.(fl Each country took different approaches to the French reservation to
compulsory jurisdiction of 20 May 1966.

(g) Australian concessions on the reliance on the General Act were not
shared by New Zealand.
101. The Order of the Court also reliesupon the argument that France
conducted 134 underground nuclear tests without New Zealand ever
having claimed that the basis of the Judgment had been affected. New
Zealand's recordof consistent opposition to French testing in that regard
is set out at paragraphs 14-23of this opinion. Further, it is submitted

that the argument made by New Zealand that the situation developed
gradually ispersuasive in this respect. It is the cumulative effect ofevents
that is determinative. Paragraph 63 itself is not limited as to time. It
comes into effect only when matters which affect the basis of the Judg-
ment have crystallized.

102. For the above reasons it is suggestedthat the decisionto treat the
New Zealand and Australian cases as identical in legal terms is unsound.
It was unsound in 1974and it does not follow that the Court intended
then to limit paragraph 63 of its Judgment to circumstances that would
be identical to Australia's despite the use ofsirnilarlanguage. The context
is important.

Wider Issues

103. The nature of thejudicial choicebetween the opposing legalposi-
tions in this case is stark partlycause of the way the case was argued
and partly because of the unprecedented nature of the proceeding. The
answer reached depends as much upon implicitjudgments concerning the

proper scope ofthejudicial role asupon the detailed reasoningby whichthe
result isreached. Law isa hurnan contrivance designedto advance human
purposes. Public international law has traditionally been concerned with
the relations between States and States were often regarded in the past as
its only subjects.But things change and there are signsthat the doctrine of
State sovereigntyupon whichso much of the edificeof publicinternational
law rests is eroding. The opportunity offered in a case like the present
one is to take a wider perspective. It should be remembered that as long
ago as 1958Dr. C. W. Jenks wrote in The ConzrnonLaw of Mankind:

"International law can no longer be adequately or reasonably
defined or described as the law governing the mutual relations of
States, even if such a basic definition is accompanied by qualifica-
tions or exceptions designed to allow for modern developments; it
represents thecomrnon law of mankind in an early stage of devel-
opment, of which the law governing the relations between States is
one, but only one, major division." (P. 58.)f) La Nouvelle-Zélandeet l'Australie ont adoptédes points de vue dif-
férents surla réserveformuléepar la France le 20 mai 1966dans sa
déclaration d'acceptationde la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour.
g) La Nouvelle-Zélandene s'est pas associéeaux concessions austra-
liennes quant àl'invocation de l'Actegénéral.

101. L'ordonnance de la Cour s'appuie par ailleurs sur le fait que la
France a effectuécent trente-quatre essaisnucléairessouterrains sans que
la Nouvelle-Zélandeait jamais prétendu que le fondement de l'arrêtse
trouvait remis en cause. J'ai déjà rappelé, aux paragraphes 14 à 23,
l'opposition systématiquede la Nouvelle-Zélande aux essais français.
J'estime en outre que l'argument de la Nouvelle-Zélande selon lequella
situation a évolué progressivementest convaincant à cet égard. C'est
l'effetcumulé des événementqsui est déterminant.Le paragraphe 63 lui-
mêmen'est assorti d'aucune limite dans le temps. II n'entre enjeu que
lorsque lescirconstancesqui remettent en cause lefondement de l'arrêtse
sont cristallisées.

102. Pour lesraisons queje viensd'exposer,je pense que la décision de
considérercommeidentiques,sur leplanjuridique, l'affairede la Nouvelle-
Zélande etl'affaire del'Australieest mal fondée.Elle était mal fondéeen
1974; de plus, l'emploid'un libelléidentique ne signifiepas que la Cour
ait entendu à l'époquerestreindre le paragraphe 63 de son arrêt à des
circonstances identiques pour la Nouvelle-Zélande et l'Australie. Le
contexte est important.

Les questionsplus générales

103. En l'espèce, le choix judiciaire entre les positions juridiques
contraires des parties a un caractère absolu, d'une part en raison de la
manièredont l'affairea été débattue, d'autrepart parce qu'il s'agitd'une
procédure sans précédent. La réponse dépenadutant dejugements impli-
cites quant à la portéeexacte de la fonction judiciaire que du raisonne-

ment précisqui y conduit. Le droit est une invention humaine conçue à
des finshumaines. Depuis toujours, le droit international publictraite des
relations entre Etats et ces derniers ont été souventconsidérésdans le
passé commeses seuls sujets. Mais les choses changent et la théorie de la
souverainetédes Etats sur laquelle repose une bonne part du droit inter-
national public subit une érosion. Une affaire comme celle-ci offre
l'occasion d'élargir laperspective. On se souviendra que, en 1958déjà,
M. C. W. Jenks écrivaitdans The CommonLaw of Mankind:

«Il n'est plus adéquatni rationnel de définirou de décrirele droit
international commeledroit régissantlesrelationsentre Etats, même
si on nuance cette définition élémentairp ear des réservesou des
exceptions censéestenir compte de son évolution; car il s'agit du
droit commun de l'humanité, à un stade précoce deson développe-
ment, dont le droit régissantles relations entre Etats n'est qu'un
aspect parmi d'autres.» (P. 58.) 104. One of the signal weaknesses of international law is the fact that
thejurisdiction of this Court rests atbottom on the consent of the States.
Only about one-third of nations accept the compulsory jurisdiction of
this Court under Article 36 (2) of the Statute of the International Court
of Justice. In general, the most powerful nations are not among the
strongest adherents of compulsoryjurisdiction for the Court. The Court
is reminded of this fact in the letter dated 28 August 1995addressed to
the Registrar of the Court by the Ambassador of the French Republic to
the Netherlands in which the following paragraph appears:

"The jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice rests on the
consent of States. In the absence of the prior consent of France, the
requests of New Zealand both as regards the principal request and
as regards the indication of provisional measures are thus manifestly
inadmissible."

Yet as Professor E. Lauterpacht remarks "some cracks in the edificeare
developing" (Aspects of the Administration of International Justice, 1991,
p. 23).
105. Arguments about consent and the logic of the situation in which
the Court finds itselfhave in my opinion caused the Court to be cautious
in the past, sometimes unnecessarily. The decision of the majority in this
case in 1995 follows the cautious approach. Against that approach it
needs to be borne in mind that notwithstanding the fundamental differ-
ences between international law and municipal law international law is
widelyobeyed on the whole. So concern that the basis of the systemmay
be consensual is not a reason for failing to decide principles of interna-
tional law when they are presented and properly fa11to be decided. As

Professor Louis Henkin wrote in How Nations Behave - Law and
ForeignPolicy (2nd ed., 1979,p. 47): "It is probably the case that almost
al1nations observe almost al1principles of international law and almost
al1of their obligations almost al1of the time."

106. But it must be accepted at once that the Court cannot go off on
frolics of its own. It mustaintain its credibility in the eyes ofStates who
do not on the whole relishthe prospect of third party adjudication which
they cannot control. The Court has an obligation in my opinion to
maintain itself in the tension between principle and practicality. In this it
occupies a role not unfamiliar to domestic tribunals imbued with wide
constitutional powers, such as the Supreme Court of the United States.
(Seegenerally Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, 1962.)
Yet courts like that one choose their cases, this Court cannot. States set
the Court's agenda, not the Court. And this Court does not have avail-

able to it the filtering devices available to the Supreme Court of the
United States.

107. The Court has a responsibility to declare, develop and uphold
international law. But it must be mindful of the lirnits of law. In disputes 104. Une des faiblesses remarquables du droit international tient au
fait que la compétence dela Cour internationale de Justice dépend, en
dernière analyse,du consentement des Etats. Environ un tiers des nations
seulementacceptent lajuridiction obligatoire dela Cour en vertu dupara-
graphe 2 de l'article 36 de son Statut. D'une façon généralel,es nations
les plus puissantes ne sont pas de cellesqui acceptent de meilleure grâce
la juridiction obligatoire de la Cour. Ce fait est rappelé à la Cour dans
une lettre datéedu 28 août 1995adresséeau Greffier par l'ambassadeur

de France aux Pays-Bas, où il est dit notamment:
«La compétence dela Cour internationale de Justice repose sur le
consentement des Etats. En l'absence d'un consentement préalable
de la France, les demandes de la Nouvelle-Zélandetant au principal
qu'en vue de l'indication de mesures conservatoiressont dès lors

manifestement irrecevables. ))
Mais, comme l'a fait observerM. E. Lauterpacht, «des fissuresapparais-
sent dans l'édifice)(Aspects of theAdministrationof InternationalJustice,
1991,p. 23).
105. A mon avis, les controverses au sujet du consentement et la lo-

gique de la situation dans laquelle se trouve la Cour ont amenécelle-ci à
faire preuve dans le passé d'une prudenceparfois inutile. En 1995, la
décisionqu'a prise la majoritéen l'espèceest conforme à cette attitude de
prudence. A l'encontre d'une telle attitude, il faut bien voir que, malgré
lesdifférencesfondamentalesentre ledroit international et ledroit interne,
le droit international est dans l'ensemble largement respecté.Le fait que
le systèmerepose sur une base consensuelle ne saurait donc justifier un
refus de statuer sur des principes de droit international quand ils sont
avanceset appellent légitimementune décision.Comme l'aécritM. Louis
Henkin dans son ouvrage How Nations Behave - Law and Foreign
Policy (2"éd.,1979,p. 47): «on peut probablement dire que laplupart du
temps,presque toutes les nations observent presquetous lesprincipes du

droit international et s'acquittent depresque toutes leurs obligations».
106. Mais il faut d'embléeadmettre que la Cour ne peut s'autoriser des
fantaisies. Elle doit rester crédiblepour les Etats qui, dans l'ensemble,
n'envisagent pas de gaieté de cŒur unrèglementpar tierce partie qu'ilsne
maîtrisent pas. A mon avis, la Cour est tenue de maintenir un équilibre
entre principe et pragmatisme. C'est là un rôle qui n'est pas inconnu des
juridictions internesinvestiesde pouvoirs constitutionnels étendus,comme
la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis (voir de manière générale AlexandM er.
Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch, 1962). Mais de telles juridictions
décident des affairesqu'ellesexaminent, alors que la Cour internationale
de Justice n'a pas cette possibilité.Ce sont les Etats, non la Cour elle-

même,qui fixentleprogramme de travail de celle-ci.Et la Cour ne dispose
pas des mécanismesde filtrage que peut employer la Cour suprême des
Etats-Unis.
107. La Cour est chargéede dire, de développer etde faire respecter le
droit international. Mais elle doit être attentive aux limites du droit.that involvelargepolitical elements it willneed to be particularly vigilant

to avoid over-reaching itself, while at thesame time facing up to the fact
that disputes between States almost always involve a high political ele-
ment. It needs to be borne in mind, however, that the fact that the testing
of nuclear weapons gives rise to big political disputes does not mean that
aspects of the dispute cannot be dealt with by the international legal
process.
108. In such circumstancesas the present resort to techniques for not
deciding cases by other means may be found; to scrutinizejurisdictional
arguments and technical arguments with a favourable eye in order to
avoid making pronouncements in an area where it is suspected nations
may not observe the terms of judgrnents of the Court or acceptance of
the Court's position will be imperilled. These are hard judgrnents to
make. But the consequences of never taking them on such matters as the
present one willbe to retard progress in the development of international
law.
109. For this Judge, the range ofjudicial choice for this Court is well
summed up by Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice in The Law and Procedureof the
International Courtof Justice:

"There are broadly two main possible approaches to the task of a
judge, whether in the international field or elsewhere. There is the
approach which conceivesit to be the primary, if not the sole duty of
the judge to decide the case in hand, with the minimum of verbiage
necessary for this purpose, and to confine himself to that. The other
approach conceives it to be the proper function of the judge, while
duly deciding the case in hand, with the necessary supporting
reasoning, and whilenot unduly straying outside the four corners of
the case, to utilize those aspects of it which have a wider interest or
connotation, in order to make general pronouncements of law and
principle that may enrich and develop the law.

If it be asked which of these two attitudes is the better, the answer
may well be'both', or at any rate that each is defensible;but clearly
much depends on the circumstances. The sort of bare order or find-
ing that may suit many of the purposes of the magistrate or county
court judge willby no means do for the Court of Appeal, the House
of Lords or the Judicial Cornmittee of the Privy Council, and their
equivalents in other countries. International tribunals at any rate
have usually regarded it as an important part of their function, not
only to decide, but, in deciding,to expound generally the law having
a bearing on the matters decided." (Pp. 647-648.)

110. My own approach falls clearly in the category that it is necessary
for the International Court of Justice to develop the law and expound it.
The Court should deal with al1the legal issues and given the nature of
international law and the absence of a legislature, clarification and
advancement of the law is peculiarly within this Court's responsibility.Dans les différendsmettant enjeu d'importants facteurs politiques, il lui
faudra tout particulièrement veillerà ne pas trop présumer deses fonc-
tions, tout en admettant que les différendsentre Etats comportent pres-
que toujours une forte composante politique. Il faut toutefois garder à
l'esprit que si les essais d'armes nucléairessuscitent de vifs affrontements
politiques, cela n'empêchepas que certains aspects du différend puissent
être traitéspar les voies de droit l'écheloninternational.

108. Dans des circonstances telles que celle-ci, on peut recourir à
divers procédéspour ne pas trancher une affaire par d'autres moyens:
ainsi, en prêtant uneoreille complaisante à des arguments d'ordre juri-
dictionnel ou procédural, on évite dese prononcer dans un domaine où
l'on peut craindre que les Etats n'observent pas les termes de l'arrêtde la
Cour ou que l'acceptation de la position de celle-cisoit compromise. Il
est des arrêtsdifficiles rendre. Mais en ne les rendant jamais dans des
affaires comme la présente,on freine le développementdu droit interna-
tional.
109. Il me semble que sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, dans son ouvrage The
Law and Procedureof the International Courtof Justice, a parfaitement
résumé les choix judiciaires qui s'offreàtla Cour:

((11y a en gros deux principales façons de concevoir les fonctions
d'un juge, à l'écheloninternational ou autre. Certains disent que la
fonction première, sinon unique, du juge est de se prononcer sur
l'affaire dont il est saisi, avec la concision requise, et de se limiter
cela. Mais d'autres soutiennent que la véritable fonction dujuge, si

elleest de se prononcer en bonne et due forme sur la demande dont
il est saisi en motivant dûment sa décisionet en restant dans les
limites de l'affaire est aussi de tirer parti de certains aspects de
l'affaire qui ont un intérêt ou une portéeplus vaste pour faire des
prononcésde droit et de principe de caractèregénérap lropres à enri-
chir et faire progresser le droit.
Quant à savoir quelle attitude est la meilleure, on peut dire que
l'une et l'autre sont bonnes, ou du moins défendables; mais tout
dépendévidemment des circonstances.Une simpledécisionou cons-
tatation qui réponden grande partie aux fins de la fonction dejuge
d'une courde magistrat ou d'une cour de comténe suffirapas, s'agis-
sant de la cour d'appel, de la Chambre des lords, ou du comitéjudi-

ciaire du Conseil privé,ou de leurs équivalents dans d'autres pays.
En tout état de cause, les juridictions internationales considèrent
généralemenq tu'il entrepour une grande part dans leur mission non
seulement de statuer mais, ce faisant, d'exposer en termes généraux
le droit applicable aux questions tranchées.»(P. 647-648.)

110. Je suis évidemment deceux qui pensent que la Cour internatio-
nale de Justice doit développerle droit et l'exposer. La Cour devrait
traiter tous lesproblèmesd'ordre juridique et, vu la nature du droit inter-
national et l'absence d'organe législatif à ce niveau, c'est à elle qu'il
incombe tout particulièrement de préciseret de faire progresser le droit. 111. The nature of the dis~ute between France and New Zealand has
been apparent for the wholkperiod spanned by this case in this Court,
except between 1991and 1995when France observed a moratorium on
testing. The dispute is palpably about nuclear testing in the Pacificin al1
its forms. The officia1citation for this case was and remains Nuclear
Tests (New Zealand v. France) case. Despite that fact, the Court in its
1995 judgment has chosen to draw a fundamental distinction between
atmospheric testing and underground testing.

112. It might have been thought by some that the present application
was an appropriate occasion upon which to push out the boat from the
shore a little towards the incoming tide of international environmental

jùrisprudence. The Court failed to decide the issue in 1974 and it has
failedagain in 1995.
113. The 1974Judgment created widespread controversy in the inter-
national legal literature, some learned commentators regarding it as
imaginative and innovative, others called it a landmark of political
caution, weak in law and logic. A third group thought the decision a
lost opportunity for dealing with international environmental law.
(D. P. Verma, "The Nuclear Tests Cases: An Inquiry into the Judicial
Response of the International Court of Justice", 8 South African Year-
book of International Law 20 (1982); Edward McWhinney, The World
Court and the Contemporary International Law-Making Process, 1979;
R. St. J. Macdonald and Barbara Hough, "The Nuclear Tests Case
Revisited", 20 German Yearbook of International Law 337 (1977);
Jerome B. Elkind, "Footnote to the Nuclear Tests Cases: Abuse of Right

- A Blind Alleyfor Environmentalists", 9 Vanderbilt Journal of Trans-
national Law 57 (1976); Thomas M. Franck, "Word Made Law: The
Decision of the I.C.J. in the Nuclear Test Cases", 69American Journal of
International Law 612 (1975).)A similar range of reaction to the Court's
treatment of the present phase of the case is predictable.

114. In its essencethis case has to be understood as an environmental
case. New technology has given humankind massive ability to alter the
natural environment. The consequences of these activities need to be
carefully analysed and examined unless we are to imperil those who come
after us. It is a concern well known to international law (see generally
E. B.Weiss,In Fairness to Future Generations, 1989).AsProfessor Edith
Brown Weisspoints out:

"We, as a species, hold the natural and cultural environment of
Ourplanet in common, both with other members of the present gen-
eration and with other generations, past and future. At any given DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP. DISS .ALMER) 419

111. La nature du différendentre la France et la Nouvelle-Zélandea
été constamment manifeste depuis que l'affaire a étéintroduite devant la
Cour, si l'on excepteles années1991 à 1995pendant lesquellesla France
a observéun moratoire sur les essais. De toute évidence, ledifférend
porte sur les essais nucléairesdans le Pacifique, sous toutes leurs formes.
Le mode officielde citation de cette affaire étaitet restesais nucléaires

(Nouvelle-Zélande c. France). Nonobstant ce fait, la Cour, dans sa déci-
sion de 1995,a choisi d'établir une distinctionfondamentale entre essais
atmosphériqueset essais souterrains.
112. On aurait pu penser que la demande d'examen de la situation
était l'occasion de pousser un peuau large vers la maréemontante du
droit international de l'environnement. La Cour ne s'étaitpas prononcée
sur la question en 1974,elle ne l'a pas fait non plus en 1995.

113. L'arrêtde 1974a suscité de vastes controverses dedoctrine; cer-
tains spécialistes éminentsdu droit international l'ont jugéingénieux et
novateur, tandis que d'autres y ont vu un remarquable exemple de pru-

dence politique, critiquable sur le plan du droit et de la logique. Pour un
troisièmegroupe de commentateurs, cette décisionétait uneoccasionman-
quéed'examinerle droit international de l'environnement.(D. P. Verma,
«The Nuclear Tests Cases: An Inquiry into the Judicial Response of
the International Court of Justice)), South African Yearbook of Inter-
national Law, 1982, vol. 8, p. 20; Edward McWhinney, The World
Court and the Contemporary International Law-Making Process, 1979;
R. St. J. Macdonald et Barbara Hough, «The Nuclear Tests Case Revi-
sited)), German Yearbook of International Law, 1977, vol. 20, p. 337;
Jerome B. Elkind, ((Footnote to the Nuclear Tests Cases: Abuse of Right
- A Blind Alley for Environmentalists», VanderbiltJournal of Transna-

tional Law, 1976,vol. 9, p. 57; Thomas M. Franck, «Word Made Law:
The Decision of the I.C.J. in the Nuclear Test Cases)),American Journal
of International Law, 1975,vol. 69, p. 612.)On peut prévoirque la déci-
sion de la Cour dans la phase actuelle de l'affaire suscitera les mêmes
types de réactions.
114. Il faut bien voir que, pour l'essentiel, cette affaire porte sur
l'environnement. Les nouvelles technologies ont doté l'humanité de
moyens considérables de modifierle milieu naturel. Il nous faut analyser
et surveiller attentivement les conséquences deces activitéssi nous ne
voulons pas mettre en périlles générationsfutures. C'est une préoccupa-
tion familièredu droit international (voir de façon généraleE. B. Weiss,

In Fairness to Future Generations, 1989).MmeEdith Brown Weiss écrit
notamment :

«Le milieu naturel et le patrimoine culturel de la planète sont le
bien commun de l'humanité; nousles partageons avec nos contem-
porains mais aussi avec les générationspasséeset à venir. A chaque time, each generation is both a custodian or trustee of the planet for

future generations and a beneficiary of its fruits. This imposes obli-
gations upon us to care for the planet and givesus certain rights to
use it." (P. 17.)

Further, the special problems created for the law by nuclear energy and
tests flow from the ultrahazardous nature of nuclear energy and nuclear
explosions (A.Boyle, "Nuclear Energy and International Law: An Envi-
ronmental Perspective", 60 British Year Book of International Law 257
(1989); G. Handl, "Transboundary Nuclear Accidents: The Post-
Chernobyl Multilateral Legislative Agenda", 15Ecology Law Quarterly
203 (1988))
115. The issues generated for the environment by nuclear testing and
nuclear accidents demonstrate that States have been unwilling to act as
good stewards for or guardians of the environment. The experience
suggests that environmental rights ought to be established at the inter-
national level and be enforceablethere.
116. If in 1995 this Court had been prepared to enter into the next
phase of the case, the dispute may at last have been put to rest. For far

too longthis issuehas given rise to substantial, evenpainful difficultiesin
the relations between France and New Zealand. The two functions of this
Court as 1understand it are to act as an institution to settle disputesand
to clarify and develop the law. Regrettably the dispute has not been put
to rest and the law has not been developed.
117. In this case the Court had an opportunity to make a contribution
to one of the most critical environmental issues of Our time. It has
rejected the opportunity for technical legal reasons which could in my
opinion have been decided the other way, fully consonant with proper
legal reasoning. Itis true that much of thejurisdiction of this Court rests
upon the consent of States. It is true that France has withdrawn the
consent that allowed the 1974case to be heard. That is not an adequate
reason to refrain from re-opening the case, a possibility that the Judg-
ment in 1974expressly contemplated. The case is=e the Court had the
power to decide then; it has the power to decide it now. But the Court
refuses to decide it.

118. The position of an ad hocjudge on this Court is an unusual one
and the nature of the obligations imposed on such a judge have been a

source of consideration for me. The Statute provides, in Article 31 (6),
that such judges "shall take part in the decision on terrns of complete
equality with their colleagues". In this case1feel the institution served a
useful purpose of bringing to the Court a perspective of one who livesin
the region of the world with which the application deals. But 1have not
felt that my position on the Court is a representative one. Its utility was
in providing another perspective and some more detailedfamiliarity with
the background. With respect, 1 adopt the formulation of an ad hoc
judge's office put forward by Judge ad hoc Lauterpacht in Application époque, l'hommeest àla fois le dépositaire oule gardien de la pla-
nète pour les générations futures mais aussi son usufruitier. Cela
entraîne pour nous l'obligation d'en prendre soin et certains droits
d'en user. (P. 17.)

De plus, lesproblèmesparticuliers que posent en droit l'énergie nucléaire
et les essais nucléairestiennent leur caractère extrêmementdangereux
(A. Boyle, ((Nuclear Energy and International Law: An Environmental

Perspective)),ritish YearBook of InternationalLaw, 1989,vol. 60,p. 257;
G. Handl, ((Transboundary Nuclear Accidents: The Post-Chernobyl
Multilateral Legislative Agenda», Ecology Law Quaterly, 1988,vol. 15,
p. 203).
115. Les problèmes écologiques créép sar les essais et les accidents
nucléairesmontrent que les Etats ne sont pas disposésà se comporter en
bons gestionnaires ou gardiens de l'environnement. L'expérienceenseigne
que c'est au niveau international qu'il faut établir et faire respecter les
droits en matière d'environnement.
116. Si,en 1995,la Cour avait étéprêteà aborder la phase suivante de
l'affaire, le différendaurait pu au moins s'apaiser. Cela fait bien trop
longtemps que ce problèmecompromet sérieusement, voireempoisonne,
les relations entre la France et la Nouvelle-Zélande.Les deux fonctions
de la Cour sont, selon moi, de réglerles différends,d'une part, et de pré-

ciser et développerle droit, d'autre part. Malheureusement, il n'y a eu ni
apaisement du différendni développementdu droit.
117. Cette affaire offrait l'occasiona Cour de contribuer à la solu-
tion d'un des problèmes écologiquesles plus cruciaux de notre époque.
Elle a refusé dela saisir, pour des motifsjuridiques d'ordre technique qui
ont à mon avis une valeur contingente par rapport au raisonnementjuri-
dique proprement dit. Il est vrai que la compétence dela Cour repose en
grande partie sur le consentement des Etats. Il est vrai que la France a
retiréle consentement qui avait permis à la Cour, en 1974,de connaître
de l'affaire. Maiscen'estpas une raison suffisantepour s'abstenir de rou-
vrir l'instance, alors que l'arrêt de1974 envisageait expressémentcette
possibilité.A cette époque, la Cour avait compétencepour statuer dans
cette affaire, et cette compétence subsisteaujourd'hui. Mais la Cour se
refuse àstatuer.

118. Etre jugead hoc à la Cour internationale de Justice est une posi-
tion singulière, et les obligations dont elle est assortie m'ont fourni
matière à réflexion. LeStatut dispose, au paragraphe 6 de l'article 31,que
les juges désignésen cette qualité ((participentà la décisiondans des
conditions de complète égalité avelceurs collègues».En l'espèce, jepense
qu'ila été utild'introduireà la Cour lepoint de vue de quelqu'un qui vit
dans la partie du monde concernéepar la demande d'examen. Mais je
n'ai pas eu le sentiment d'avoir au sein de la Cour une position représen-
tative. Ma présencea permis d'offrir une autre perspective et de préciser
quelquepeu le contexte de l'affaire.Je me permettrai de reprendre mon
compte la définition dela mission d'un juge ad hoc qu'avait proposéeof the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, ProvisionalMeasures, Order of 13 September 1993:

"He has, 1 believe, the special obligation to endeavour to ensure
that, so far as is reasonable, everyrelevant argument in favour of the
party that has appointed him has been fully appreciated in the
course of collegial consideration and, ultimately, is reflected -
though not necessarily accepted - in any separate or dissenting
opinion that he may write." (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 409, para. 6.)

119. Finally, let me add that 1have had the opportunity of readingthe
elegant and persuasive dissenting opinion of my colleague Judge Weera-
mantry. 1 agree with it.

(Signed) Sir Geoffrey PALMER.M. Lauterpacht, désigné commejuge ad hoc dans l'affaire relative à
l'Application dela convention pour lapréventionet la répressiondu crime
de génocide :

((Selonmoi, il est spécialementtenu de veillerà ce que, dans toute
la mesure possible, chacun des arguments pertinents de la partie qui
l'a désignéait été pleinement prisen considérationau cours de l'exa-
men collégialet soit, en fin de compte, reflété - à défaut d'être

accepté - dans sa propre opinion individuelle ou dissidente.»(Appli-
cation de la convention pourlapréventionet la répressiondu crime
de génocide,mesures conservatoires, ordonnancedu 13 septembre
1993, C.Z.J. Recueil 1993,p. 409, par. 6.)

119. Je tiens enfinàdire qu'ayant eu l'occasion de lire l'opinion dissi-
dente qu'a rédigée avec autant d'élégance que de force de persuasionmon
collègue, M. Weeramantry, je souscris à son analyse.

(Signé) Sir Geoffrey PALMER.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion by Judge ad hoc Sir Geoffrey Palmer

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