Separate opinion by Judge Shahabuddeen

Document Number
097-19950922-ORD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
097-19950922-ORD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SHAHABUDDEEN

The growing recognition of the need to protect the natural environ-
ment is striking. Contemporary international law has been developing

responsively.1 understand New Zealand's concerns and agree with its
case on several points. 1agree that it was entitled to come to the Court,
entitled to a hearing, entitled to age ad hoc, and that it was not shut
out by the words in paragraph 63 of the 1974Judgrnent, "in accordance
with the provisions of the Statute". If 1 do not go the remainder of the
way,the reason liesin what appears to me to be substantial legalobstacles,
some of which 1would like to explain.

The central point in New Zealand's caseis that the basis of the 1974
Judgment lay in an assumption by the Court that underground tests were
safe, that more recent scientific evidencedisproves that assumption, and
that consequently the basis of the Judgment has been affected within the
meaning of paragraph 63 of the Judgrnent.

A question could arise as to whether the true position was that the
Court made an assumption that underground tests were safe, or whether
it acted on an understanding that New Zealand was satisfied that such

tests were safe, the Court itselfbeing in no position to judge of a complex
technicalmatter not put in issue and not examined. However, whether
the distinction between these two possibilities can be made and, if so,
with what significanceare questions which need not be pursued for the
reasons given in Sections II and III below.

II. WHETHER NEWZEALANDR 'SEQUESIT SWITHIN
THE LIMITS OF THE DISPUTE

Paragraph 64 of New Zealand's present Request States :
"The 1973Application makes it clear that the dispute was in its
origin about nuclearcontamination of the environment arising from
nuclear testing of whatever nature. The 'atmospheric' feature was

merely incidental to the 'contamination' feature, which was of the
essence."New Zealand's position is that the 1974 Judgment incorrectly assumed
that its 1973Application was limited to the question of the legality of
atmospheric testing.
1 accept that New Zealand was opposed to nuclear contamination
arisingfrom nuclear testing of any kind. Evidence of this is to be seen at
various places in the pleadings and other material placed before the
Court in 1973-1974 (see I.C.J. Pleadings, NuclearTests, Vol. II, pp. 4,
18, 22 and 301). The question is how far was this general opposition to
contamination from nuclear testing of any kind made the subject of the
dispute presented in the particular case which New Zealand brought
against France in 1973.The bringing of the case wasno doubt motivated
by New Zealand's general opposition to contamination from nuclear
testing of any kind; however, the framework of the case would fa11to be
determined by more specific considerations governing the designing of

any concrete piece of litigation.

In determining what the 1973case was about, it is necessary to start
with the concept of a legal dispute. As the Court remarked in its
Judgment of 20 December 1974,"the existenceof a dispute isthe primary
condition for the Court to exerciseits judicial function" (1.C.J. Reports
1974, p. 476, para. 58).
The case for New Zealand is that its present Request does not intro-
duce a new case, but rather represents a continuation of its,,1973case. It
follows that the Request hinges on the disputepresented by the 1973case
and cannot expand it. So the question is, what was the dispute presented
in that case?

After references in New Zealand's 1973 Application to discussions

between the two sides, paragraph 8 of the Application stated:
"The French Government . ..made it plain that it did not accept
the contention that its programme of atmospheric nuclear testing in
the South Pacific involved a violation of international law. There is,
accordingly, a dispute between the Government of NewZealand and
the French Government as to the legality of atmospheric nuclear

tests in the'South Pacific region." (1C. J. Pleadings, Nuclear Tests,
Vol. II, p. 4.)
That passage fell under the heading "The Subject of the Dispute". Para-
graph 10of the Application, falling under the same heading, added:

"Having failed to resolve through diplomatic means the dispute
that existsbetween it and the French Government, the New Zealand
Government is compelled to refer the dispute to the International
Court of Justice." (Ibid.)

Thus, the dispute which was referred by New Zealand to the Court in
1973was one "as to the legality of atmospheric nuclear tests". It is notthat the Court assumed that this was the dispute, and even less that it
assumed so erroneously: New Zealand said that that was the dispute; it
did so in the operative part of its Application by which it formally
defined its complaint and referred it to the Court.
The foregoing viewof the dispute, as one which concernedthe legality
of atmospheric nuclear tests, was maintained in paragraph 188 of New
Zealand's 1973 Memorial. Under the heading "Nature of the Claim

Which 1sthe Subject of the Dispute and of the Legal Rights for Which
New Zealand Seeks Protection", that paragraph read:
"The dispute between New Zealand and France is of a legal char-
acter. New Zealand claims that the atmospheric testing of nuclear
weapons by France in the South Pacificis undertaken in violation of
legal obligations owed by France to New Zealand. France has
denied and continues to deny this claim."C.J. Pleadings, Nuclear

Tests, Vol. II, p. 203.)
Against this background it is not surprising that, at the beginning of
the oral proceedings relating to jurisdiction and admissibility, President
Lachs referred to the Application as having "instituted proceedings
against France in respect of a dispute as to the legality of atmospheric
nuclear tests in the South Pacificion" (ibid., p. 250).The remark drew
no objection from the Bar.

That view of the purpose of the proceedings was maintained by the
Court after reviewing al1 of the material before it, including the argu-
ments of New Zealand. Summing up its conclusion in paragraph 29 of
the Judgment, the Court said, in a key passage recalled in today's Order:

"the New Zealand claim is to be interpreted as applying only to
atmospheric tests, not to any otherorm of testing, and as applying

only to atmospheric tests so conducted as to giverise to radio-active
fall-out on New Zealand territory"1C..J, Reports 1974,p. 466; and
see, ibid.p. 458, para. 1, and p. 461, para. 16).

New Zealand has not sought to contest the submission of France that
nothing in any of the dissenting opinions appended to the Judgment
questioned that part of the Court's finding(Aide-mémoireof France,

6 September 1995,para. 15).The limits of the dispute, as both positively
and negatively defined by the Court in that finding, still control the
debate. The legality of underground tests liesside of those limits.

III. WHETHER NEWZEALANDR 'SEQUES1 TsOTHERWISE
AUTHORIZE BY PARAGRAP 63 OF THE JUDGMENT

It is necessary to bear in mind the substantive nature of the reliefs
being sought by New Zealand in respect of the underground tests nowbeing conducted by France. New Zealand is not simply asking the Court
to reconsider the matters complained of in its 1973Application in the
light of the new situation; it issking for substantive reliefs in respect of
the new situation in like manner as it would if, instead of its request, it
had brought a new case. Its request for an examination of the situation is

asking for declarations as to the legality of the underground tests; its
request for an indication of provisional measures is seeking measures
restraining France from conducting the tests. The acts complained of are
new acts. Was a request within the meaning of paragraph 63 of the 1974
Judgment intended to extend to such a case?

The reservation in paragraph 63 of the 1974 Judgment was not
intended,in my opinion, to enable the Court to assume and exercisecom-
petence over fresh matters not covered by such jurisdictional bond, if
any, as existed betweenthe Parties when the Application was brought in
1973.Where the Court has jurisdiction at the time when an Application
is brought, the Nottebohm principle entitlesit to continue to exercisethat
jurisdiction in relation to the dispute presented in the Application not-
withstanding that thejurisdiction was terminated during the course of the
proceedings. The last sentence of paragraph 63 of the 1974 Judgment
sought to treat a request made pursuant to that paragraph as falling
within the operation of that principle, in the same way that the principle
would have applied to the original case had it continued; the sentence

could not be construed as an attempt by the Court, by force of its own
decision, to vest itself with jurisdiction not otherwise available to it.
1have not been able to find any principle of law which entitlesthe Court
to exercise a terminated jurisdiction over fresh acts occurring after the
termination, in this case some 21 years after thejurisdiction (if it existed)
was terminated. A request which leads to that result is not, in my
opinion, a request within the meaning of paragraph 63 of the Judgment.

As will appear from other opinions appended to the Order, the case
raises important questions of principle concerningthe role and functions
of the Court.
In this respect, it is right to recall that the title of the Court is the
"International Court of Justice". However, it is also useful to bear in
mind that the "Justice" spoken of isnot justice at large; as in the case of

courts of justice generally, itis "the primary function of the Court to
administer justice based on law" (Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955 (Israel
v. Bulgaria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959,
p. 191,joint dissenting opinion). That is made clear by Article 38, para-
graph 1, of the Statute, which provides that the Court's "function is to
decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are sub-316 REQUEST FOR AN EXAMINATION (SEP.OP.SHAHABUDDEEN)

mitted to it...".It is for this reason that the Court is sometimesreferred
to in its own jurisprudence as "a court of law" (North Sea Continental
ShelJ; Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 165, Vice-Pres'identKoretsky,
dissenting opinion; Legal Consequencesfor States of the ContinuedPres-
ence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding
Security CouncilResolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports
1971, p. 23, para. 29; and Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of
Germany v. Iceland), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 192,
para. 45); and that, indeed, was how the Court described itselfin its 1974
Judgrnent in this case (Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), I.C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 476, para. 58).

It does not follow from the fact that the Court may also be described

as a court of law that it administers the law mechanically. Lacking the
full measure of the judicial power available to some national courts, it
has nevertheless found opportunity for enterprise and even occasional
boldness. Especiallywhere there is doubt, its forward course is helpfully
illuminated by broad notions of justice. However, where the law is clear,
the law prevails.
The law is clear that the Court cannot act unless there is a dispute
before it, and then only within the limits of the dispute. The dispute
which New Zealand referred to the Court in 1973arose out of a claim by
New Zealand which the Court found applied "only to atmospheric tests,
not to any other form of testing" (emphasis added). The Court would
have been acting ultra petita in 1974had it sought to adjudicate on the
legality of underground tests (supposing it had been asked to do so),
these being another form of testing. It is in respect of the legality of
underground tests that New Zealand's present Request seeks relief. The

matters sought to be so raised do not fa11within the limits of the 1973
dispute by which the Court is still bound.

1t is for these reasons that, although agreeing with New Zealand on
some points, 1 have not found it possible to accept its main arguments.

(Signed) Mohamed SHAHABUDDEEN.

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SHAHABUDDEEN

The growing recognition of the need to protect the natural environ-
ment is striking. Contemporary international law has been developing

responsively.1 understand New Zealand's concerns and agree with its
case on several points. 1agree that it was entitled to come to the Court,
entitled to a hearing, entitled to age ad hoc, and that it was not shut
out by the words in paragraph 63 of the 1974Judgrnent, "in accordance
with the provisions of the Statute". If 1 do not go the remainder of the
way,the reason liesin what appears to me to be substantial legalobstacles,
some of which 1would like to explain.

The central point in New Zealand's caseis that the basis of the 1974
Judgment lay in an assumption by the Court that underground tests were
safe, that more recent scientific evidencedisproves that assumption, and
that consequently the basis of the Judgment has been affected within the
meaning of paragraph 63 of the Judgrnent.

A question could arise as to whether the true position was that the
Court made an assumption that underground tests were safe, or whether
it acted on an understanding that New Zealand was satisfied that such

tests were safe, the Court itselfbeing in no position to judge of a complex
technicalmatter not put in issue and not examined. However, whether
the distinction between these two possibilities can be made and, if so,
with what significanceare questions which need not be pursued for the
reasons given in Sections II and III below.

II. WHETHER NEWZEALANDR 'SEQUESIT SWITHIN
THE LIMITS OF THE DISPUTE

Paragraph 64 of New Zealand's present Request States :
"The 1973Application makes it clear that the dispute was in its
origin about nuclearcontamination of the environment arising from
nuclear testing of whatever nature. The 'atmospheric' feature was

merely incidental to the 'contamination' feature, which was of the
essence." OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. SHAHABUDDEEN

[Traduction]

La teconnaissance de plus en plus large de la nécessitde protégerle
milieu naturel est frappante, et le développementdu droit international
contemporainen tient compte.Je comprendslesinquiétudesdela Nouvelle-
Zélandeet, à plusieurs égards,je partage son point de vue. Je souscris a
l'idéequ'elleavait le droit de saisir la Cour, d'être entendue, dedésigner
un juge ad hoc, et je reconnais que l'expression((conformémentaux dis-
positions du Statut)) figurant au paragraphe 63 de l'arrêtde 1974 ne
créait aucunempêchement àcet égard.Si jene vais pas plus loin sur cette
voie, c'estparce que je perçois plusieurs obstaclesjuridiques importants
dont quelques-unsméritent à mon sens une explication.

La clef de l'argumentation de la Nouvelle-Zélande estque le fonde-
ment de l'arrêtde 1974résidaitdans le postulat posépar la Cour que les
essais nucléairessouterrains étaient inoffensifs, que des preuves scienti-
fiquesplus récentescontredisent ce postulat et que, dèslors, le fondement
de l'arrêta étéremis en cause selon les prévisionsdu paragraphe 63 de
celui-ci.

On pourrait se demander si en réalité laCour a supposé queles essais
souterrains étaient inoffensifs ou si elle a statué en supposant que la
Nouvelle-Zélandeétait convaincuede l'innocuitéde ce type d'essais, la
Cour elle-même n'étantpas en mesure de trancher une question technique
complexe dont elle n'avait pas étésaisie et qu'elle n'avait pas examinée.
Cependant, eu égard aux raisons exposéesaux sections II et III ci-après,
il n'y a pas lieu de s'attarder sur l'opportunité d'une distinction entreces
deux hypothèses, nisur la portée, lecas échéant, de cette distinction.

II. LA DEMANDE DE LA NOUVELLE-ZÉLAN S'IESCRIT-ELLE
DANS LE CADRE DU DIFFÉREND?

Auparagraphe 64de sademande actuelle,la Nouvelle-Zélande affirme :

«il est précisédans la requêtede 1973que le différendportait, ori-
ginellement, sur la contamination radioactive de l'environnement
causéepar des essais nucléaires dequelque nature que ce soit. L'élé-
ment ((atmosphère » n'était qu'accessoirepar rapport à l'élément
((contamination »,qui étaitl'élément essentiel.New Zealand's position is that the 1974 Judgment incorrectly assumed
that its 1973Application was limited to the question of the legality of
atmospheric testing.
1 accept that New Zealand was opposed to nuclear contamination
arisingfrom nuclear testing of any kind. Evidence of this is to be seen at
various places in the pleadings and other material placed before the
Court in 1973-1974 (see I.C.J. Pleadings, NuclearTests, Vol. II, pp. 4,
18, 22 and 301). The question is how far was this general opposition to
contamination from nuclear testing of any kind made the subject of the
dispute presented in the particular case which New Zealand brought
against France in 1973.The bringing of the case wasno doubt motivated
by New Zealand's general opposition to contamination from nuclear
testing of any kind; however, the framework of the case would fa11to be
determined by more specific considerations governing the designing of

any concrete piece of litigation.

In determining what the 1973case was about, it is necessary to start
with the concept of a legal dispute. As the Court remarked in its
Judgment of 20 December 1974,"the existenceof a dispute isthe primary
condition for the Court to exerciseits judicial function" (1.C.J. Reports
1974, p. 476, para. 58).
The case for New Zealand is that its present Request does not intro-
duce a new case, but rather represents a continuation of its,,1973case. It
follows that the Request hinges on the disputepresented by the 1973case
and cannot expand it. So the question is, what was the dispute presented
in that case?

After references in New Zealand's 1973 Application to discussions

between the two sides, paragraph 8 of the Application stated:
"The French Government . ..made it plain that it did not accept
the contention that its programme of atmospheric nuclear testing in
the South Pacific involved a violation of international law. There is,
accordingly, a dispute between the Government of NewZealand and
the French Government as to the legality of atmospheric nuclear

tests in the'South Pacific region." (1C. J. Pleadings, Nuclear Tests,
Vol. II, p. 4.)
That passage fell under the heading "The Subject of the Dispute". Para-
graph 10of the Application, falling under the same heading, added:

"Having failed to resolve through diplomatic means the dispute
that existsbetween it and the French Government, the New Zealand
Government is compelled to refer the dispute to the International
Court of Justice." (Ibid.)

Thus, the dispute which was referred by New Zealand to the Court in
1973was one "as to the legality of atmospheric nuclear tests". It is notLa position de la Nouvelle-Zélandeest que la Cour, dans son arrêtde
1974,a supposé à tort que sa requêtede 1973étaitlimitée àla question de
la licéitdes essais atmosphériques.
La Nouvelle-Zélandeétait certes opposée à la contamination radio-
active causéepar des essais nucléairesde quelque type que ce soit. On en
trouve la preuve en plusieurs endroits des piècesde procédure et dans
d'autres documents produits devant la Cour en 1973 et en 1974 (voir
C.I.J. Mémoires, Essais nucléairev s, l. II, p. 4, 18,22et 301).La question
est de savoir dans quelle mesure cette opposition de nature générale à la
contamination radioactive causéepar des essais nucléaires dequelque
type que ce soit constituait l'objet du différenddans l'instance particu-
lière quela Nouvelle-Zélandea introduite contre la France en 1973. Il ne
fait aucun doute que l'introduction de l'instance étaitmotivéepar l'oppo-
sition générale dela Nouvelle-Zélande à la contamination radioactive
causéepar toute forme d'essaisnucléaires.Néanmoins,lecadre del'affaire
doit être déterminé par des considérationsplus précisesrégissantla défi-

nition de tout litige concret.
Pour décider quelétaitl'objet del'instance de 1973, il faut partir du
concept de différendd'ordre juridique. Comme la Cour l'a fait observer
dans son arrêtdu 20 décembre1974 «[lI7existenced'un différendest ..la
condition premièrede l'exercicede sa fonctionjudiciaire)) (C.I.J. Recueil
1974, p. 476, par. 58).
La thèse dela Nouvelle-Zélandeest que sa demande actuelle n'intro-
duit pas une nouvelleinstancemaisconstitue au contraire la continuation
de son instance de 1973. Il s'ensuit que la demande s'appuie sur le diffé-
rend qui faisait l'objet de l'affaire de 1973et qu'ellene peut en élargir la
portée.La question est dès lors de savoirquel étaitle différend soumis à
la Cour dans cette affaire.
Dans sa requêtede 1973,la Nouvelle-Zélande,après avoir fait étatdes
discussions entre les deux parties, indiquait au paragraphe 8:

«Le Gouvernementfrançais a clairementindiqué ...qu'il n'acceptait
pas la thèse selon laquelleson programme d'expériencesnucléaires
en atmosphère dans le Pacifique Sud constituait une violation du
droit international. Il y a donc un différendentre le Gouvernement
néo-zélandais etle Gouvernement français en ce qui concerne la
légalité deessais nucléairesatmosphériques dans la régiondu Paci-
fique Sud.» (C.1.J. Mémoires,Essais nucléaires,vol. II, p. 4.)

Ce passage se trouve dans la partie de la requête intitulée «Objet dudif-
férend)),tout comme le paragraphe 10qui ajoute:
((N'ayant pu résoudrepar la voie diplomatique le différendqui

l'oppose au Gouvernement français, le Gouvernement néo-zélandais
se trouve contraint de le porter devant la Cour internationale de
Justice. (Ibid.)
Par conséquent,le différenddont la Nouvelle-Zélandea saisi la Cour en
1973portait sur «la légalitédes essais nucléairesatmosphériques». Cethat the Court assumed that this was the dispute, and even less that it
assumed so erroneously: New Zealand said that that was the dispute; it
did so in the operative part of its Application by which it formally
defined its complaint and referred it to the Court.
The foregoing viewof the dispute, as one which concernedthe legality
of atmospheric nuclear tests, was maintained in paragraph 188 of New
Zealand's 1973 Memorial. Under the heading "Nature of the Claim

Which 1sthe Subject of the Dispute and of the Legal Rights for Which
New Zealand Seeks Protection", that paragraph read:
"The dispute between New Zealand and France is of a legal char-
acter. New Zealand claims that the atmospheric testing of nuclear
weapons by France in the South Pacificis undertaken in violation of
legal obligations owed by France to New Zealand. France has
denied and continues to deny this claim."C.J. Pleadings, Nuclear

Tests, Vol. II, p. 203.)
Against this background it is not surprising that, at the beginning of
the oral proceedings relating to jurisdiction and admissibility, President
Lachs referred to the Application as having "instituted proceedings
against France in respect of a dispute as to the legality of atmospheric
nuclear tests in the South Pacificion" (ibid., p. 250).The remark drew
no objection from the Bar.

That view of the purpose of the proceedings was maintained by the
Court after reviewing al1 of the material before it, including the argu-
ments of New Zealand. Summing up its conclusion in paragraph 29 of
the Judgment, the Court said, in a key passage recalled in today's Order:

"the New Zealand claim is to be interpreted as applying only to
atmospheric tests, not to any otherorm of testing, and as applying

only to atmospheric tests so conducted as to giverise to radio-active
fall-out on New Zealand territory"1C..J, Reports 1974,p. 466; and
see, ibid.p. 458, para. 1, and p. 461, para. 16).

New Zealand has not sought to contest the submission of France that
nothing in any of the dissenting opinions appended to the Judgment
questioned that part of the Court's finding(Aide-mémoireof France,

6 September 1995,para. 15).The limits of the dispute, as both positively
and negatively defined by the Court in that finding, still control the
debate. The legality of underground tests liesside of those limits.

III. WHETHER NEWZEALANDR 'SEQUES1 TsOTHERWISE
AUTHORIZE BY PARAGRAP 63 OF THE JUDGMENT

It is necessary to bear in mind the substantive nature of the reliefs
being sought by New Zealand in respect of the underground tests nown'estpas la Cour qui a présumé , fortioràtort, que tel était lediffér:nd
c'estla Nouvelle-Zélandequi l'a définiainsi, dans la partie essentiellede
sa requête oùelle explicitait formellement sa demande et la soumettaità
la Cour.
Cette manière d'envisagerle différend commeportant sur la licéitédes

essais nucléairesatmosphériques a été repriseau paragraphe 188 du
mémoiresoumis par la Nouvelle-Zélandeen 1973.Sous le titre ((Nature
de la demande qui fait l'objet du différendet des droits dont la Nouvelle-
Zélandesollicitela protection)), ce paragraphe était ainsi libellé:
«Le différendqui oppose la Nouvelle-Zélande à la France a un

caractère juridique. La Nouvelle-Zélande prétend que les essais
atmosphériques d'armes nucléaires effectués par la France dans le
Pacifique Sud violent les obligationsjuridiques de la France envers
la Nouvelle-Zélande.La France a niéet continue ànier cette asser-
tion. (C.I.J. Mémoires,Essais nucléairesv ,ol. II, p. 203.)

Dans cecontexte, il n'estpas surprenant qu'à l'ouverture des audiences
sur la compétenceet la recevabilité,M. Lachs, Président, ait dit que la
requête avait((introduit une instance contre la France relativemenà un
différend sur la légalité desessais nucléairesatmosphériques dans la
région du Pacifique Sud» (ibid., p. 250). Cette remarque n'a soulevé
aucune contestation de la part des conseils.
La Cour a maintenu cette conception du but de l'instance après avoir
examinéla totalité des élémentsdont elle avait étésaisie, y compris
l'argumentation de la Nouvelle-Zélande. Enrésumantsa conclusion au
paragraphe 29 de l'arrêt,la Cour a dit, dans un passage essentiel qui est

rappelé dans l'ordonnance rendue aujourd'hui :
«la demande de la Nouvelle-Zélandedoit s'interprétercommeunique-
ment applicable aux essais atmosphériques,et non à des essais d'un
autre type, et comme uniquement applicable à des essais en atmo-
sphère réalisés deaçon à provoquer des retombéesradioactives sur
le territoire néo-zélandais))(C.I.J.cueil 1974, p. 466; voir aussi,

ibid., p. 458, par. 1, et p. 461, par. 16).
La Nouvelle-Zélanden'a pas tentéde réfuter l'affirmationde la France
selon laquelle aucun des auteurs d'opinons dissidentes jointes à l'arrêt
n'avait contestécet élément dela conclusion de la Cour (aide-mémoirede
la France, 6 septembre 1995,par. 15). Le cadre du différend,définide

manière àla fois positive et négativepar la Cour dans cette conclusion,
cerne toujours le débat. Or, lalicéité dsssais souterrains se trouve hors
de ce cadre.

111.LE PARAGRAPHE 63 DE L'ARRÉT AUTORISE-T- DLUNE AUTRE MANIÈRE
LA DEMANDE DE LA NOUVELLE-ZÉLANDE?

Il faut garderàl'espritlecaractère substantiel des chefs de demande de
la Nouvelle-Zélandeen ce qui concerne lesessaissouterrains actuellementbeing conducted by France. New Zealand is not simply asking the Court
to reconsider the matters complained of in its 1973Application in the
light of the new situation; it issking for substantive reliefs in respect of
the new situation in like manner as it would if, instead of its request, it
had brought a new case. Its request for an examination of the situation is

asking for declarations as to the legality of the underground tests; its
request for an indication of provisional measures is seeking measures
restraining France from conducting the tests. The acts complained of are
new acts. Was a request within the meaning of paragraph 63 of the 1974
Judgment intended to extend to such a case?

The reservation in paragraph 63 of the 1974 Judgment was not
intended,in my opinion, to enable the Court to assume and exercisecom-
petence over fresh matters not covered by such jurisdictional bond, if
any, as existed betweenthe Parties when the Application was brought in
1973.Where the Court has jurisdiction at the time when an Application
is brought, the Nottebohm principle entitlesit to continue to exercisethat
jurisdiction in relation to the dispute presented in the Application not-
withstanding that thejurisdiction was terminated during the course of the
proceedings. The last sentence of paragraph 63 of the 1974 Judgment
sought to treat a request made pursuant to that paragraph as falling
within the operation of that principle, in the same way that the principle
would have applied to the original case had it continued; the sentence

could not be construed as an attempt by the Court, by force of its own
decision, to vest itself with jurisdiction not otherwise available to it.
1have not been able to find any principle of law which entitlesthe Court
to exercise a terminated jurisdiction over fresh acts occurring after the
termination, in this case some 21 years after thejurisdiction (if it existed)
was terminated. A request which leads to that result is not, in my
opinion, a request within the meaning of paragraph 63 of the Judgment.

As will appear from other opinions appended to the Order, the case
raises important questions of principle concerningthe role and functions
of the Court.
In this respect, it is right to recall that the title of the Court is the
"International Court of Justice". However, it is also useful to bear in
mind that the "Justice" spoken of isnot justice at large; as in the case of

courts of justice generally, itis "the primary function of the Court to
administer justice based on law" (Aerial Incident of 27 July 1955 (Israel
v. Bulgaria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1959,
p. 191,joint dissenting opinion). That is made clear by Article 38, para-
graph 1, of the Statute, which provides that the Court's "function is to
decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are sub- DEMANDE D'EXAMEN (OP. IND.SHAHABUDDEEN) 315

effectuéspar la France. La Nouvelle-Zélandene demande pas simple-
ment à la Cour de réexaminer,compte tenu de la situation nouvelle, les
questions qui avaient fait l'objet de sarequêtede 1973. Elledemande des
décisionsdefond à l'égard de la situationnouvelle,tout comme si,au lieu
de sa demande, elle avait porté devant la Cour une affaire nouvelle. Sa
demande d'examen de la situation vise à ce que la Cour se prononce sur
la licéitdes essais souterrains, et sa demande en indication de mesures
conservatoires viseà obtenir des mesures empêchantla France de procé-

der aux essais. Les actes dont il est tirégrief sont des actes nouveaux.
S'agit-ilà d'un cas auquel une demande au sens du paragraphe 63 de
l'arrêtde 1974étaitcensées'étendre?
A mon avis, la réserveénoncée au paragraphe 63 de l'arrêtde 1974ne
visait pasà permettre à la Cour de s'attribuer et d'exercer unecompé-
tence à l'égard dequestions nouvelles n'entrant pas dans le cadre de la
relation juridictionnelle qui pouvait éventuellement exister entre les
Parties lorsque la requêtea étédéposéeen 1973.Sila Cour a compétence
lors de l'introduction d'une instance, le principe affirmé'occasion de
l'affaireottebohm lui permet de continuer à exercer cette compétence à
l'égarddu différend exposédans la requête,même sila compétenceest

dénoncée encours d'instance. La dernière phrase du paragraphe 63 de
l'arrêtde 1974signifiait qu'une demande présentée envertu de ce para-
graphe relèverait del'application de ce principe, tout comme celui-ci se
seraitappliqué àl'affaire initialesi celle-cis'était poursuivie.Cette phrase
ne saurait être interpréteomme une tentative, de la part de la Cour, de
s'arroger de son propre chef une compétencequi n'aurait pas autrement
étéla sienne. Je n'ai trouvé aucun principede droit qui autorise la Cour
à exercer une compétencequi a étédénoncée à l'égard defaits nouveaux
survenus après la dénonciation,en l'occurrence quelque vingt et un ans
après l'extinction de la compétence(à supposer qu'elle ait existé).Une
demande qui tend à ce résultatn'est pas,àmon avis, une demande aux

fins du paragraphe 63 de l'arrêt.

Ainsi qu'il appert d'autres opinionsjointesl'ordonnance, cetteaffaire
soulève d'importantes questionsde principeconcernant le rôle et lesfonc-
tions de la Cour.
A cet égard,il convient de rappeler que la Cour est dénommée«Cour
internationale de Justice)), en gardant toutefoià l'esprit que le terme
«justice» n'est pas entendu ici au sens large. Tout comme pour les tribu-

naux en général, «la fonction principale de la Cour [est]d'administrer la
justice sur la base du droit»(Incident aériendu 27 juillet 1955 (Israël
c.Bulgarie), exceptions préliminaires,arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1959, p. 191,
opinion dissidente collective). C'est ce qu'indique clairement le para-
graphe 1 de l'article 38 du Statut qui énonce quela mission de la Cour
«est de réglerconformémentau droit international les différendsqui lui316 REQUEST FOR AN EXAMINATION (SEP.OP.SHAHABUDDEEN)

mitted to it...".It is for this reason that the Court is sometimesreferred
to in its own jurisprudence as "a court of law" (North Sea Continental
ShelJ; Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 165, Vice-Pres'identKoretsky,
dissenting opinion; Legal Consequencesfor States of the ContinuedPres-
ence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding
Security CouncilResolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports
1971, p. 23, para. 29; and Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of
Germany v. Iceland), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 192,
para. 45); and that, indeed, was how the Court described itselfin its 1974
Judgrnent in this case (Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), I.C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 476, para. 58).

It does not follow from the fact that the Court may also be described

as a court of law that it administers the law mechanically. Lacking the
full measure of the judicial power available to some national courts, it
has nevertheless found opportunity for enterprise and even occasional
boldness. Especiallywhere there is doubt, its forward course is helpfully
illuminated by broad notions of justice. However, where the law is clear,
the law prevails.
The law is clear that the Court cannot act unless there is a dispute
before it, and then only within the limits of the dispute. The dispute
which New Zealand referred to the Court in 1973arose out of a claim by
New Zealand which the Court found applied "only to atmospheric tests,
not to any other form of testing" (emphasis added). The Court would
have been acting ultra petita in 1974had it sought to adjudicate on the
legality of underground tests (supposing it had been asked to do so),
these being another form of testing. It is in respect of the legality of
underground tests that New Zealand's present Request seeks relief. The

matters sought to be so raised do not fa11within the limits of the 1973
dispute by which the Court is still bound.

1t is for these reasons that, although agreeing with New Zealand on
some points, 1 have not found it possible to accept its main arguments.

(Signed) Mohamed SHAHABUDDEEN.sont soumis ..»C'estpour cetteraison que, dans sa proprejurisprudence,
la Cour est parfois désignéecomme un ((tribunal judiciaire))qui ((jugeen
droit» (Plateau continental de la merdu Nord, arrêt,C.Z.J.Recueil 1969,
p. 165,opinion dissidente de M. Koretsky, Vice-Président;Conséquences
juridiques pour les Etats de la présencecontinue de l'Afrique du Sud en
Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain) nonobstant la résolution 276(1970) du
Conseil desécurité, avisconsultatg C.I.J. Recueil 1971,p. 23, par. 29, et
Compétenceen matière de pêcheries(Républiquefédéraled'Allemagne
c.Islande),fond, arrêt,C.Z.J.Recueil 1974, p. 192,par. 45); c'estd'ailleurs
ainsi que la Cour s'est décritedans l'arrêtqu'elle a rendu en 1974dans
cette affaire (Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), C.1.J.
Recueil 1974, p. 476, par. 58).

Il ne faudrait pas pour autant en déduire que la Cour administre le
droit de manière mécanique.Bien qu'elle nejouisse pas de la plénitude
des pouvoirs judiciaires dont disposent certains tribunaux nationaux, la
Cour a néanmoins trouvé certainesoccasions de faire preuve d'initiative,
voire parfois de hardiesse. Notamment en cas de doute, sa ligne de
conduite est utilement éclairéepar des principes généraux dejustice.Mais
lorsque le droit est clair, c'est luiqui prévaut.
Or, il est clair en droit que la Cour ne peut agir que si elle est saisie
d'un différendet qu'elle est alors tenue de rester dans le cadre de ce dif-
férend.Le différenddont la Cour a étésaisie en 1973procédait d'une
demande de la Nouvelle-Zélande quela Cour a interprétéecomme ((uni-
quement applicable aux essais atmosphériques, et non à des essais d'un
autre type» (les italiques sont de moi). En 1974,la Cour aurait agi ultra

petita sielleavait tentéde seprononcer sur la licéitédes essaissouterrains
(à supposer qu'elleen ait étépriée),s'agissant là d'un autre type d'essais.
La demande actuelle de la Nouvelle-Zélandevise à obtenir une décision
quant à la licéité des essaissouterrains. Les questions qu'elle cherche
ainsi à soulever n'entrent pas dans le cadre du différend de 1973que la
Cour reste tenue de respecter.
C'est pour ces motifs que, bien qu'étant d'accord avec la Nouvelle-
Zélandesur certains points, je n'ai pasjugépossible d'accueillir ses prin-
cipaux moyens.

(Signé) Mohamed SHAHABUDDEEN.

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Separate opinion by Judge Shahabuddeen

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