Dissenting Opinion of Judge Gros (translation)

Document Number
059-19730622-ORD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
059-19730622-ORD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE GROS

[Translation]

In my view, the documents by which New Zealand and Australia
instituted proceedings in theNuclear Tests cases are drawn up in similar
terms, the same considerations of fact and law are relied on therein, and
the submissions are directed to an identical object. In his openingaddress
on 24 May 1973,couiisel for New Zealand stated that:

"New Zealand's case arises out of the same set of circumstances as
that of Australia, and has comparable objectives."

The claims by these two Governments should have been joined, from the
outset of the proceedings, their object being the same. It is artificial to
keep up the appearance of there being two cases, and while a joinder
might raise drafting problems for subsequent decisions of the Court, this
could not constitute a serious obstacle to a joinder. In the South West
Africa cases, the Court joined the two claims at the time when the two
Applicants nominated the samejudge adhoc,which is what New Zealand
and Australia have also done in the present cases. Since the Court has
decided not to effect a joinder of the two claims from the outset of the
cases, and to reserve itsecision on the question, 1have nothing further
to Sayat present onthe problem ofjoinder. But sincethe request made by

New Zealand for in.terim measures of protection has been made the
subject of aseparate Order, 1 should state the reasons which have led me
to dissent from that Order. In the circumstances referred to above, these
reasons are the same as those set out in my dissenting opinion appended
to the Order of the same date concerning the request made by Australia.

The declaration of acceptance of the Court's jurisdiction made by the
French Government on 20 May 1966 excludes from that jurisdiction:
". ..disputes concerning activities connected with national defence." In a
communication made to the Court on 16 May 1973 by the French
Government that reservation was formally invoked. The bounds placed
by that Governrnent on its acceptance have been deemed by the Order
not to create an impediment to the exercise of the Court's power to grant
provisional measures in application of Article 41 of the Statute, since the
Court considered that the title invoked by the Applicant to found the
jurisdiction of the Court, namely the General Act of 1928, seemedsufficient, prima facie, both to justify its competence provisionally and to
ruie out the application of the 1966reservation in the interim measures
phase, without prejudging its later decison on these questions. 1 have
therefore nothing to say,on the substance of the problems of jurisdiction
and admissibility, since cvery question, without exception, concerning the
Court's power to take jurisdiction in the case as presented in the Applica-
tion of New Zealand has been deferred to the next phase of the proceed-
ings, insiituted in the operative part of the Order.
But the decision of the Court indicating provisional measures con-
stitutes an application which 1 cannot approve of two Articles of the
Statute of the Court, Articles 53 and 41, and itis therefore proper that
1 should give the reasons for my dissent, successively on these two
points which relate to the one phase of provisional measures.

When the Court wasseised on 9 May 1973of the Application instituting
proceedings and indicating the French Republic as respondent, and then
on 14 May 1973of iirequest for the indication of interim measures of
protection, the fact was signified forthwith to the Government of the
French Republic, which replied on 16May 1973by a document formally

contesting the jurisdiction of the Court and submitting that the case
should be removed from the list. This was a document of 20 pages which
constitutes a reply to the communications of the Court. The Court,
before the first hearing, examined as in every case the question of the
communication to the public of the documents in the proceedings, in
accordance with Article 48 of the Rules of Court; in a letter to the Court
dated 23 May 1973 the Agent of the Applicant made express reservations
to the communication of the French document of 16 May 1973. On 24
May 1973, at the first hearing, counsel for the Government of New
Zealand stated :

"1 recall and adopt the proposition put forward by Australian
counsel that this document was not submitted in accordance with the
Rules of the Court."

The proposition thus adopted was as follows :
"Neither the Court nor Australia should have to deal with conten-
tions advanced by a party if not made in Court but irregularly or
outside the Court. We submit that strict adherence should be had to
the requirements that parties must put their case regularly before the
Court andthat, if they fail to appear, then theCourt should not take
notice of any statement they may make outside the framework of the

Court's established process. This rule has been a fundamental one
throughout the ages for maintaining the integrity of the judicial
process at every level. We trust that the Court will make clear that
it will not takeuch statementsinto account."And still, on the date of the present Order, the French document has not
been communicated to the public, whereas the New Zealand Application

and the records of the oral arguments of New Zealand were made public
as from 24 May 1973.
The foundation for such an attitude can only be found in a certain
interpretation of Article 53ofthe Statute or of theprocedure of theCourt
in preliminary matters.
Article 53 of the Statute of the Court deals with the situation of States
which contest the jurisdiction of the Court by failing to appear or to
present submissions. Such deliberate non-participation is an act recog-
nized in the procedure of the Court, being dealt with by an article which
is contained in Chapter III of the Statute, entitled "Procedure", and
nowhere in the intenîions of the authors of the Statute would one be able
to find any willto penalize the State which does not appear.The contrary
proposition has beeri pleaded without the support of any authority and
should be dismissed. Certainly, the absence of a State ought not to
prejudice the action lnstituted by another State, and may not be allowed
to interrupt the course of justice. But non-appearance is regulated by
Article 53, which lays down what its consequences must be and, when
non-appearance is noted, that Article must be applied. But that is what

the Court did not do; the Order notes failure to appear, in paragraph 12,
but takes into account the submissions of the document addressed to the
Court by the French Government for the purpose of requesting that the
case be removed from the list. Now, if there exist submissions of the
Government cited as respondent in the case, there is no default for want
of submissions. By pronouncing neither in one sense nor in the other,
and by deferring to a later date its decision on the submissions of the
French Government, the Court is giving an interpretation of Article 53
which 1find erroneous.
That is not a minor problem and 1 regret that the Court should have
deferred it to aater phase. Byindicating at the opening of the first hearing
that the French Government's request for the removal of the case from
the list, which had "been duly noted", would be dealt with "in due
course", the President was only settling an immediate problem, but the
Order has postponed the moment of decision still further. And that
postponement implies that the Court considers it possible to treat the

French Government both as a party to the main proceedings (cf. paras.
33and 34of the Order andthe fixingof a time-limit for a French Counter-
Memorial) and as being in default in the present phase, because its
failure to appear is noted in paragraphs 12 and 35. But if the French
Government has failed to appear and formally indicated its intention to
remain outside the main proceedings, in a way which leaves no room for
doubt, it was necessary to apply Article 53,which lays down the effects of
default, and to apply it immediately.
It does not seem to me to be in accordance with the rules of procedure
to suspend the application of Article 53 provisionally in the present case
on the groundthat this is an interim measures phase. Thus right from theoutset an error in interpretation has been made with regard to Article 53.
1need not recall the consistentjurisprudence of the Court as to the inter-
pretation of its Statute: "The Court itself, and not the parties, must be

the guardian of the Court's judicial integrity" (Northern Cameroons,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 29). It was therefore for the Court to
decide, on the basis of its own reasons, whether its Statute and Rules lay
down formalities which are indispensable, so that submissions made in
any other way are to be treated as inadmissible, and whether, on that
hypothesis, Article 53 should be applied to a twofold default, absence
from the proceedings and failure to nlake submissions. Nothing of the

kind was done, and the status of the French document remains uncertain.
Objection to it, on the level of its very existence, has been taken by the
Applicant, the decisiclnon the submissionsmade in it has been postponed;
it is impossible todelAucefron~the Order whether this document is or is
not a pleading in the case which should have been taken into account on
a footing of equality with the observations of the Applicant. For if the
Statute and Rules of Court do not forbid the making of "submissions"

in the way which waisselected in this case, the French document should
have been admitted as the observations of the respondent; and on the
opposite assumption, it should have been rejected, and Article 53 applied
as it was in the Judgment of 2 February 1973 (FislleaiesJurisdiction
(United Kingdotn v. Iceland),Jurisdictior.rof tlze Court, Judgment,1.C.J.
Reports 1973, para. 12).
The Court's postponement of the application of the effects of Article 53

until the later stages of the case is thus an implicit decision to refuse to
apply Article 53 to an interim measures phase. This is a position which
merits examination. Shortly expressed, the argument is that default does
not necessarily have the same consequences in al1 phases of a case, and
that while Article 53 does, in paragraph 2, lay down certain effects, those
effects may be set aside when dealing with a request for interim measures
of protection, despite the manifest intention of the State which is absent

from the proceedings.
It could also be nîaintained that while Article 53 provides the party
interested in note being taken of default with the right to have that done,
it does not do more, and the Court cannot take note of it proprio motu.
It will be sufficient ro observe in this respect that even if this were so,
which in my view it is not, the Applicant has in the present case implicitly
invoked Article 53 in the circumstances mentioned above, by making

reference to the applicable provisions of the Statute and Rules of Court.
But the French Government has indicated in a letter of 21 May 1973that
it is "not a party to this case"; it would appear difficuit not to see in its
statements of 16 and 21 May a formal intention to fail to appear. The
Court surely could not overlook both the position taken up by the
Applicant and that of the absent State, when they were at one in seeking
that it take note of ;afailure to appear.
Ttshould be addedthat it would be a sort of abuse of procedure to seek

to make use of a failure to appear as a breach of the rules of procedureincurring the loss of the right to be heard by the Court,and thus create a
penalty which the Statute itself formally forbids in Article 53, the main

effect of which is that, when a failure to appear has been noted, the Court
"must .. .satisfy itself, not only that it has jurisdiction in accordance
with Articles 36and 37, but also that the claim is well founded in fact and
law". It is not usual 1.0advance at one and the same time an argument
and its opposite; faced with a failure to appear, the Court, by postponing
any decision on the effects of the failure to appear, has allowed some
infringement of the equality which States must enjoy before a court.
The jurisdiction of the Court is limited on the one hand to the States
which have accepted it, and on the other to commitments freely entered
into. As a court of specificjurisdiction, the Court must above al1take care
not to exceed the cornpetence it derives from its Statute and from the
voluntary acceptance of its jurisdiction by States, each of which freely
determines the scope of the jurisdiction it confers upon the Court.
A State either is oris not subject to a tribunal. If it is not, it cannot be
treated as a "party" to a dispute, which would be non-justiciable. The
position which the Cclurt has taken is that a State which regards itself as
not concerned in a case, which fails to appear, and afirms its refusa1 to
accept the jurisdictiori of the Court, cannot obtain from the Court any-

thing more than a postponement of the consideration of its rights. This is
not what Article 53 says. Failure to appear is a means of denying juris-
diction which is recognized in the procedure ofthe Court, and to oblige a
State to defend its position otherwise than by failure to appear would be
to create an obligatiori not provided for in the Statute. It has been argued
that the only way of challenging the jurisdiction of :iie Court is to
employ a preliminary objection. The way in which States challenge the
Court's jurisdiction is not imposed upon them by a formalism which is
unknown in the procedure of the Court; when they consider that such
jurisdiction does not exist, they may choose to keep out of what, forthem,
is an unreal dispute. Article 53 is the proof of this, and the Court must
then satisfy itself of its ownjurisdiction, and of the reality of the dispute
brought before it. A State which fails to appear does of course run a risk,
that of not supplying the Court with al1 possible material for the con-
sideration of its application for dismissal of the case. But that is a risk
which the State, and it alone, is free to choose to take, and to compare

with the risk which it would run as the result of a long drawn-out proce-
dure in which it does not wish to participate, with regard to a matter
which it considers to be wholly outside the Court's jurisdiction. Certain
indications given in connection with the Order of 22June 1973show that
the possibility of successive deferments is not ruled out.
The Permanent Court of International Justice gave a warning against
the notion that an Application is sufficientto create a justiciable dispute:
". ..the Court's jurisdiction cannot depend solely on the wording of the
Application." (Certain GermanInterests inPolish UpperSilesia, Jurisdic-
lion, Judgment No. 6.,1925,P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6, p. 15.)
If, as 1think, failure to appear as provided for in Article 53 is not initself subject to any sanction, it becomes evident that the reasons for such
failure to appear, when they have been clearly stated, must be examined

fully by the Court, and above al1 they must be formally accepted or
rejected, and that without delay. The idea that a failure to appear is not
opposable to the Court and to the Applicant because it is a case of a
request for interim measures of protection is therefore, in my view, beside
the point.
In the first place, no-one disputes "the connection which must

exist under Article 6 1. paragraph 1, [now Art. 66, para. 11of the Rules
between a request for interim measures of protection and the original
Application filed with the Court" (FisheriesJurisdiction (United Kingdom
v. Ireland), InterihzProtection, Order of 17 August 1972, 1.C.J. Reports
1972, para. 12). A request for interim measures of protection is thus a
particular phase, but one which is not independent of the original

Application; there is no magic in words, and it is impossible to believe
that problems of jurisdiction, admissibility and reality of the principal
Application can be conjured away simply by stating that these points,
which are essential foi-a court of specificjurisdiction like this Court, are
just being taken for granted provisionally, prima facie, without their
being prejudged. It is in each individual case by reference to the juris-
dictional problems in the widest sense, to the circumstances, and to the

"respective rights ofeitherparty" (Art.41, emphasis added) that a decision
should be taken as to whether it is possible to indicate interim measures,
and the forms of words used must correspond to reality.
Such was not the analysis of the power instituted in Article 41 of the
Statute which was carried out in the present instance. The Court, by
putting off the decision on the effects of non-appearance, embraced the

proposition tnat a request for provisional measures is utterly independent
in relation to the case which is the subject of the Application.
It is no use referring to certain domestic systems of law which feature
such independence, because the Court has its own rules of procedure and
must apply them in its jurisdictional system, which, as a corollary of a
certain kind of international society, has been established on the basis of

the voluntary acceptance of jurisdiction. It is a fact of international life
that recourse to adjudication is not compulsory; the Court has to take
care lest, by the indirect method of requests for provisional measures, such
compulsion be introduced vis-à-vis States whose patent and proclaimed
conviction is that they have not accepted any bond with the Court,
whether in a general way or with regard to a specified subject-matter.
If it were a question of a State whose non-appearance was due to the

total absence of the Court's jurisdiction, whether for want of a valid
jurisdictional clause or by reason of the inadmissible character of the
principal claim, the immediate decision of lack of jurisdiction in regard
to the Application instituting proceedings itself would be taken without
delay; the decision of the Court in the present case is that, despite the
affirmation that a certain subject-matter has been formally excluded from
the jurisdiction of the Court, and the fact that the State which made thataffirmation considers itself to be outside the jurisdiction of the Court in
regard to everything connected with that subject-matter, it is possible to
indicate provisional measures without prejudging the rights of that State.
In the decision which the Court has to take on any request for pro-

visional measures, urgency is notà dominant and exclusiveconsideration;
one has to seek, between the two notions of jurisdiction and urgency, a
balance which varies with the facts of each case. If the jurisdiction is
evident and the urgency also, then there is no difficulty, but that is an
exceptional hypothesis. When the jurisdiction is not evident, whether
there is urgency or not, the Court must take the time needed for such an
examination of the prcsblemsarising as will enable it to decide one way or
the other,and that is something which it could have done without undue
delay inthe present instance with regard to various objections to its power
to judge the case as described in the principal Application.
There is no presuniption of the Court's jurisdiction in favour of the
applicant, nor any presumption of its lack ofjurisdiction in favour of the
respondent; there is only the right of each of them to a proper and serious
examination of its position.
A State does not have to wait two years or more for the Court to
vindicate its claim that no justiciable dispute exists, for if that is the case
there is nothing to be argued over; the other State, which has submitted
the claim whose reality is contested, evidently has an equal right to have

the Court acknowledge the existence of the dispute it invokes. But the
equality between these claims is upset if, by the indirect means of the
allegedly urgent necessity for the indication of provisional measures, a
presumption operateis in favour of the applicant without the Court's
carrying out any serious appraisal of the objection. On behalf of the
Applicant it has been pleaded that argument on al1these problems will be
presented later; that in itself is a negation of the claim of the other State
to be immediately relieved of a dispute which it alleges not to exist. Thus,
to maintain equality between the parties, in a case where objections
relating to the very stuff of the dispute are raised, the priority treatment
of these objections is a necessity. In their joint dissenting opinion, Judges
McNair, Basdevant, Klaestad and Read wrote, with reference to the
question of the obligation to submit to arbitration:

"Since there is nothing in the Declaration of 1926to indicate an
intention that prima facie considerations should be regarded as
sufficient, its oiir opinion, based on the principle referred to above
and the way in which this principle has been invariably applied, that

the United Kingdom can only be held to be under an obligation to
accept the arbitral procedure by application of the Declaration of
1926if it can be established to the satisfaction of the Court that the
difference as to the validity of the Ambatielos claim falls within the
category of differences in respect of which the United Kingdom
consented to arbitration in the Declaration of 1926." (Ambatielos,
Merits, I.C.J.Reports 1953, p. 29.) President Winiarski also expressed himself in favour of the priority of
certain questions of admissibility over questions of jurisdiction (Certain
Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17,paragraph 2, of the Cl~arter),
I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 449). Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice likewise, in a separate
opinion, said :
"There are however other objections, not in the nature of objec-
tions to the competence of the Court, which can and strictly should

be taken in advance of any question of competence. Thus a plea that
the Application did not disclose the existence, properly speaking, of
any legal dispute between the parties, must precede competence, for
if there is no dispute, thereis nothing in relation to which the Court
can consider whether it is competent or not. It is for this reason that
such a plea woultf be rather one of admissibility or receivability than
of competence."

"In the general international legal field there is nothing corres-
ponding to the procedures found under most national systems of
law, for eliminating at a relatively early stage, before they reach the
court which would otherwise hear and decide them, claims that are
considered to be objectionable or not entertainable on some a priori
ground. The absence of any corresponding 'filter'procedures in the
Court's jurisdictional field makes itnecessary to regard a right to
take similar action, on similar grounds, as being part of the inherent
powers or jurisdiction of the Court as an international tribunal."
(Nortliern Cameroons, I.C.J. Reports 1963, pp. 105and 106 f.)

It is this nexus of questions of jurisdiction and of admissibility which
has been deferred by the Court to the next phase; it will then be for the
Court, and then alone, to decide the fate of these questions in its judg-
ment.
A certain tendency has arisen to consider that the Orders of 17August
1972in the FislreriesJurisdictioncases have, as it were, consolidated the
law concerning provisional measures. But each case must be examined
according to its own merits and, as Article 41 says, according to "the

circumstances". Now the case of Iceland was entirely different in cir-
cumstances. The Court had developed an awareness of the existence of
its own jurisdiction, the urgency was admitted, the reality and the precise
definition of the dispute were not contested; finally, the right of the
Applicant States which was protected by the Orders was recognized as
being a right currently exercized, whereas the claim of Iceland constituted
a modification of existing law. It suffices to enumerare these points to
show that the situation is entirely different today; so far as the last point
is concerned, the situation is now even the reverse, since the Applicants
stand upon a claim to the modification of existing positive law whenthey ask the Court to recognize the existence of a rule forbidding the

overstepping of a threshold of atomic.pollution.

Such was the situation with which the Court found itself confronted
when the application of Article 41 of the Statute in the present case was
to be considered. The objections which were made or could be made to
the jurisdiction of the Court and the admissibility of the claim have a
character of abso1ui.e priority. Article 41 does not give the Court a
discretionary power but a competence bound by the conditions laid
down in that text; itis necessary that "circumstances so require" andthat
the measures should be necessary to preserve "the respective rights of
either party", which covers the same examination of fact and of law that
Article 53, paragraph 2, imposes on the Court, in addition to the general
obligation upon every judge, including a judge of urgent cases, to satisfy
himself that he has jurisdiction; that is what Article 36, paragraph 6,
recalls. Now, the examination of fact and of law which is the condition
of any decision on provisional measures cannot be systematically put off

until later with the indication that the Court's power under Article 41
of the Statute "presupposes that irreparable prejudice should not be
caused to rights which are the subject of dispute in judicial proceedings
and that the Court's judgment should not be anticipated by reason of
any initiative regarding the matters in issue before the Court" (Order,
para. 21).That isto solve by a mere assertion the problem of the existence
of the "circumstance:s" to which Article 41 refers. Article 41 obliges the
Court to see whether the circumstances require it to use the power of
indicating measures and, even if circumstances so require, it can only
exercise that power if its decision will be able to preserve the respective
rights of either party. But if the State cited as respondent invokes the
Court's total absence of power, and if the subject of the claim is really
non-existent, what rights would there be to preserve?
What has been said above with regard to the character of absolute
priority attaching to certain objections shows that it is impossible to
escape from the necessity of settling such objections before indicating

measures of protection; if there are no rights, there is nothing to protect.
If the claim has no subject, the principal application falls to the ground,
and with it the request for provisional measures. The objection is of so
fundamental a nature in regard to the very bases of the Court's juris-
diction that it seems to me to be a misuse of language to Saythat a jus
standi to act in such circumstances could exist prime facie.
When the Court declares on the basis of Article 41 that a decision
indicating provisional measures prejudges neither the jurisdiction nor
the merits, that isnot a finding which is likely to reassure States as to the
temporary and circumstantial nature of that decision; it is an assertion
that the examination of the case by the Court in accordance with the
criteria of Article 41 of the Statute enables it, in the circumstances of this case, to consider that its decisi011cannot in fact prejudge either its juris-
diction or the question ofjus standi. It is not just a kind of ritual formula,

but a warranty that the Court is satisfied that Article 41 has been correctly
interpreted and applied to a certain case. But if in reality an indication of
provisional measures prejudges the jurisdiction or the existence of ,jus
standi, the Court does not have the poiver to grant these measures,
because the condition laid down by Article 41 of the Statute will not have
been respected. These conditions not having been fulfilled in the present
case, the application of Article 41 in therder of 22 June 1973indicating

provisional measures constitutes an action ultra rires.

In the present case, on a point of great importance, the Court has
ignored one of the conditions for the acceptance of a request for provi-

sional measures. In the case concerning the Factory at Chorzbw, the
Permanent Court of International Justice refused to indicate provisional
measures because the request could be regarded as designed to obtain an
interim judgment in favour of a part of the claim formulated in the
Application and that, consequently, "the request [was] not covered by
the terms of the proviijions of the Statute and Rules" (P.C.I.J.,Series A,
No. 12, p. 10). Here we have a condition of general scope for the inter-

pretation of Article 41 of the Statute of the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice, which was identical to the present Article 41, and the
recognition of a procedural requirement operating in regard to inter-
locutory jurisdiction. For it would indeed, by definition, be contrary to
the nature of interlocutory proceedings if they enabled the dispute of
which they were only an accessory element to be disposed of.
Comparison between the principal claim (Application, para. 28,

submissions of the Applicant) and of the request for provisional measures
(Request, paras. 2f, and 51) shows that the latter was indeed designed to
obtain an interim judgment. The request for provisional measures ought
therefore to have beenirejected on that ground also.

(Signed) André GROS.

Bilingual Content

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. GROS

Je considère que les actes introductifs d'instance de la Nouvelle-
Zélande et del'Australiedans les affairesdes Essais nucléairsont rédigés
en termes analogues, que les mêmesconsidérations de fait et de droit y
sont invoquéeset que les conclusions ont un objet identique. Dans la
première plaidoirie, le 24 mai 1973,le conseil de la Nouvelle-Zélandea
déclaré :

«La demande néo-zélandaisetient aux mêmescirconstances que
la demande australienne et a les mêmesobjectifs.

Les demandes des deux gouvernements auraient dû êtrejointes, dès le
début de la procédure, leur objet étantle même.C'est un procédéarti-
ficiel de maintenirl'apparence de deux affaires et, mêmesi une jonction
pouvait poser desproblèmes de rédactionpour lesdécisionsultérieuresde
la Cour, il n'y avait pas là un obstacle sérieux.Dans les affaires du Sud-
Ouest africain la Cour avait joint les deux demandes au moment de la
désignationpar les deux demandeurs d'un même jugead hoc, ce que la
Nouvelle-Zélande et l'Australieont fait égalementdans les affaires actu-
elles. Puisque la Cour a décidéde ne pas procéder à lajonction des deux
demandes dèsledébutde cesaffaireset de réserversadécisionsur cepoint,
je n'ai rienajouter pour le moment sur le problèmedejonction. Mais, la
demande de mesures conservatoires de la Nouvelle-Zélande ayant fait

l'objet d'une ordonnance séparéej,e dois indiquer les raisons qui me con-
duisent à un dissentiment sur cette ordonnance. Dans les circonstances
rappelées ci-dessus,ces raisons sont les mêmesque celles exposéesdans
mon opinion dissidente sur l'ordonnance du mêmejour relative à la de-
mande présentéepar l'Australie.

La déclaration d'acceptation de la juridiction de la Cour faite par le
Gouvernement français le 20 mai 1966exclut de cettejuridiction: «...[les]
différendsconcernant des activitésse rapportant à la défensenationale.»
Dans une communication faite àla Cour le 16mai 1973par le Gouverne-
ment français cette réservea été formellement invoquéeL . a limite fixée
par ce gouvernement à son acceptation a été considéré par l'ordonnance
à l'exercicedu pouvoir dela Cour
comme ne créant pasun empêchement
d'accorder des mesures conservatoires en application de l'article 41 du
Statut, la Cour estimant que le titre invoquépar le demandeur pour fon-
der la compétencede la Cour, l'Acte généralde 1928,semblait suffisant, DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE GROS

[Translation]

In my view, the documents by which New Zealand and Australia
instituted proceedings in theNuclear Tests cases are drawn up in similar
terms, the same considerations of fact and law are relied on therein, and
the submissions are directed to an identical object. In his openingaddress
on 24 May 1973,couiisel for New Zealand stated that:

"New Zealand's case arises out of the same set of circumstances as
that of Australia, and has comparable objectives."

The claims by these two Governments should have been joined, from the
outset of the proceedings, their object being the same. It is artificial to
keep up the appearance of there being two cases, and while a joinder
might raise drafting problems for subsequent decisions of the Court, this
could not constitute a serious obstacle to a joinder. In the South West
Africa cases, the Court joined the two claims at the time when the two
Applicants nominated the samejudge adhoc,which is what New Zealand
and Australia have also done in the present cases. Since the Court has
decided not to effect a joinder of the two claims from the outset of the
cases, and to reserve itsecision on the question, 1have nothing further
to Sayat present onthe problem ofjoinder. But sincethe request made by

New Zealand for in.terim measures of protection has been made the
subject of aseparate Order, 1 should state the reasons which have led me
to dissent from that Order. In the circumstances referred to above, these
reasons are the same as those set out in my dissenting opinion appended
to the Order of the same date concerning the request made by Australia.

The declaration of acceptance of the Court's jurisdiction made by the
French Government on 20 May 1966 excludes from that jurisdiction:
". ..disputes concerning activities connected with national defence." In a
communication made to the Court on 16 May 1973 by the French
Government that reservation was formally invoked. The bounds placed
by that Governrnent on its acceptance have been deemed by the Order
not to create an impediment to the exercise of the Court's power to grant
provisional measures in application of Article 41 of the Statute, since the
Court considered that the title invoked by the Applicant to found the
jurisdiction of the Court, namely the General Act of 1928, seemedprima,facie, à la fois pour justifier provisoirement sa compétenceet pour
écarterl'application de la réservede 1966dans la phase des mesures con-
servatoires, sans préjugersa décisionultérieuresur ces questions. Je n'ai
donc rien àdire sur la substance des problèmes dejuridiction et de rece-
vabiliti puisque toutes questions sans exception concernant le pouvoir de
la Cour de se saisir de l'affaire telle qu'ellea été présentédeans la requête
de la Nouvelle-Zélande sont renvoyées à la prochaine phase de la procé-
dure, instituéedans le dispositif de'ordonnance.
Mais la décision de la Cour indiquant des mesures conservatoires
constitue une application que je n'ai pu approuver de deux articles du
Statut de la Cour, les articles 53et 41, et convient donc queje donne les

raisons de mon dissentiment successivement sur ces deux points qui sont
relatifsà la seule phase des mesures conservatoires.

Lorsque la Cour fut saisie le 9 mai 1973delarequête introductived'ins-

tance indiquant la République française comme défendeur, puis le 14
mai 1973 d'une demande sollicitant l'indication de mesures conservatoi-
res, signification fut faite immédiatement au Gouvernement de la Répu-
blique française qui réponditle 16mai 1973par un document contestant
formellement la compétence de la Cour et concluant à ce que l'affaire
soit rayée du rôle. 11s'agit d'un document de vingt pages qui constitue
une réponse aux comn~unications de la Cour. La Cour,avantla première
audience, a examinécommedans toute affaire la question de la communi-
cation au public des documents relatifs à l'instance, selon l'article 48 du
Règlement; dans une lettre à la Cour du 23 mai 1973l'agent du deman-
deur a fait d'expresses réserves la communication du document français
du 16mai 1973. Le conseil du Gouvernement de la Nouvelle-Zélande, à

,a première audience, le 24 mai 1973,a déclaré:

«Je rappelle, pour la reprendre à mon compte, l'argumentation
présentéepar le conseil australien afin d'établir que ce document
n'a pas étésoumis conformément au Règlement.»

L'argumentation ainsi reprise étaitla suivante:

«Ni la Cour ni l'Australie ne doivent êtreobligées d'examiner
les arguments invoquéspar une partie, quand celle-ci les présente,
non pas à la barre, mais de façon irrégulièreou extra-judiciaire.
Selon nous, il faut s'en tenir strictement au principe selon lequel
lesparties doivent présenter leurargumentation régulièrementdevant
la Cour; sielless'abstiennent decomparaître, la Cour ne doitprendre
en considération aucune déclaration qu'elles viendraient à faire en
dehors de ses procédures établies. Cette règle a étéen tout temps
essentielle pour maintenir l'intégrité dela procédurejudiciairetous
les niveaux. Nous sommes persuadas que la Cour fera clairement
savoir qu'elle netiendra compte d'aucune déclarationde ce genre. ))sufficient, prima facie, both to justify its competence provisionally and to
ruie out the application of the 1966reservation in the interim measures
phase, without prejudging its later decison on these questions. 1 have
therefore nothing to say,on the substance of the problems of jurisdiction
and admissibility, since cvery question, without exception, concerning the
Court's power to take jurisdiction in the case as presented in the Applica-
tion of New Zealand has been deferred to the next phase of the proceed-
ings, insiituted in the operative part of the Order.
But the decision of the Court indicating provisional measures con-
stitutes an application which 1 cannot approve of two Articles of the
Statute of the Court, Articles 53 and 41, and itis therefore proper that
1 should give the reasons for my dissent, successively on these two
points which relate to the one phase of provisional measures.

When the Court wasseised on 9 May 1973of the Application instituting
proceedings and indicating the French Republic as respondent, and then
on 14 May 1973of iirequest for the indication of interim measures of
protection, the fact was signified forthwith to the Government of the
French Republic, which replied on 16May 1973by a document formally

contesting the jurisdiction of the Court and submitting that the case
should be removed from the list. This was a document of 20 pages which
constitutes a reply to the communications of the Court. The Court,
before the first hearing, examined as in every case the question of the
communication to the public of the documents in the proceedings, in
accordance with Article 48 of the Rules of Court; in a letter to the Court
dated 23 May 1973 the Agent of the Applicant made express reservations
to the communication of the French document of 16 May 1973. On 24
May 1973, at the first hearing, counsel for the Government of New
Zealand stated :

"1 recall and adopt the proposition put forward by Australian
counsel that this document was not submitted in accordance with the
Rules of the Court."

The proposition thus adopted was as follows :
"Neither the Court nor Australia should have to deal with conten-
tions advanced by a party if not made in Court but irregularly or
outside the Court. We submit that strict adherence should be had to
the requirements that parties must put their case regularly before the
Court andthat, if they fail to appear, then theCourt should not take
notice of any statement they may make outside the framework of the

Court's established process. This rule has been a fundamental one
throughout the ages for maintaining the integrity of the judicial
process at every level. We trust that the Court will make clear that
it will not takeuch statementsinto account."Et à la date de la présenteordonnance, le document français n'a toujours
pas étécommuniquéau public, alors que la requêtenéo-zélandaiseet les

comptes rendus des plaidoiries de la Nouvelle-Zélandele furent à partir
du 24 mai 1973.
Le fondement d'une telle attitude ne peut se trouver que dans une
certaine interprétation de I'article 53 du Statut ou de la procédure de la
Courdans lesmatièrespréliminaires.
L'article 53 du Statut de la Cour traite de la situation des Etats qui
contestent la juridiction de la Cour par un défaut de comparaître ou de
conclure. Le défaut est un acte reconnu dans la procédure de la Cour,
traitépar un article qui est contenu dans le chapitreII du Statut intitulé
«Procédure» et c'est en vain qu'on chercherait dans les intentions des
auteurs du Statut la volontéde pénaliser 1'Etat qui fait défaut. La thèse
contraire a étéplaidke sans l'appui d'aucune autorité et doit être écartée.
Certes le défaut d'un Etat ne doit pas porter préjudice l'action intentée
par un autre Etat et le défautne peut interrompre le cours de la justice.

Mais le défautest réglementépar l'article 53qui décidede ses conséquen-
ces et, devant un défaut constaté, il faut appliquer cet article. Or c'est
ce que la Cour n'a pas fait; l'ordonnance relève,dans le paragraphe 12,
un défaut de comparaître, mais tient compte des conclusions du docu-
ment adressé à la Cour par le Gouvernement français pour demander la
radiation de l'affairedu rôle. Or s'il conclusions du gouvernement cité
comme défendeurdans l'affaire, il n'y a pas défautfaute de conclure. En
ne se prononçant ni dans un sens ni dans l'autre, et en renvoyant à une
date ultérieuresa décisionsur les conclusions du Gouvernement français
la Courdonne une interprétation de l'article 53qui me paraît erronée.

Ce n'est pas là un problème mineur et je regrette que la Cour l'ait

renvoyé à une phase ultérieure. En indiquantà l'ouverture de la première
audience que la demande de radiation de l'affaire faite par le Gouverne-
ment français, dont «il a étédûment pris acte» serait examinée«le mo-
ment venu», le Président ne réglait qu'un problème immédiat mais
l'ordonnance a reporté encore l'échéance.Et cette remise indique que
la Cour estime possible de traiter le Gouvernement français à la fois
commepartie à l'instance principale (cf. paragraphes 33 et 34 de I'ordon-
nance et la fixation d'un délaipour un contre-mémoire français) et com-
me en défaut dans la phase actuelle puisqu'on constate aux paragraphes
12 et 35 son défaut de comparaître. Mais si le Gouvernement français
a fait défaut et indiquéformellement son intention de rester en dehors
de l'instance principale, d'une manière qui ne laisse placeaucun doute,
il fallait appliquer l'article 53qui prévoitleseffetsdu défaut,et cela immé-
diatement.
II ne Ine paraît pas conforme aux règlesde la procédure d'écarterpro-

visoirement l'application de I'article 53 dans la présenteaffaire pour la
raison qu'il s'agitd'une phase de mesures conservatoires. Dès le début,And still, on the date of the present Order, the French document has not
been communicated to the public, whereas the New Zealand Application

and the records of the oral arguments of New Zealand were made public
as from 24 May 1973.
The foundation for such an attitude can only be found in a certain
interpretation of Article 53ofthe Statute or of theprocedure of theCourt
in preliminary matters.
Article 53 of the Statute of the Court deals with the situation of States
which contest the jurisdiction of the Court by failing to appear or to
present submissions. Such deliberate non-participation is an act recog-
nized in the procedure of the Court, being dealt with by an article which
is contained in Chapter III of the Statute, entitled "Procedure", and
nowhere in the intenîions of the authors of the Statute would one be able
to find any willto penalize the State which does not appear.The contrary
proposition has beeri pleaded without the support of any authority and
should be dismissed. Certainly, the absence of a State ought not to
prejudice the action lnstituted by another State, and may not be allowed
to interrupt the course of justice. But non-appearance is regulated by
Article 53, which lays down what its consequences must be and, when
non-appearance is noted, that Article must be applied. But that is what

the Court did not do; the Order notes failure to appear, in paragraph 12,
but takes into account the submissions of the document addressed to the
Court by the French Government for the purpose of requesting that the
case be removed from the list. Now, if there exist submissions of the
Government cited as respondent in the case, there is no default for want
of submissions. By pronouncing neither in one sense nor in the other,
and by deferring to a later date its decision on the submissions of the
French Government, the Court is giving an interpretation of Article 53
which 1find erroneous.
That is not a minor problem and 1 regret that the Court should have
deferred it to aater phase. Byindicating at the opening of the first hearing
that the French Government's request for the removal of the case from
the list, which had "been duly noted", would be dealt with "in due
course", the President was only settling an immediate problem, but the
Order has postponed the moment of decision still further. And that
postponement implies that the Court considers it possible to treat the

French Government both as a party to the main proceedings (cf. paras.
33and 34of the Order andthe fixingof a time-limit for a French Counter-
Memorial) and as being in default in the present phase, because its
failure to appear is noted in paragraphs 12 and 35. But if the French
Government has failed to appear and formally indicated its intention to
remain outside the main proceedings, in a way which leaves no room for
doubt, it was necessary to apply Article 53,which lays down the effects of
default, and to apply it immediately.
It does not seem to me to be in accordance with the rules of procedure
to suspend the application of Article 53 provisionally in the present case
on the groundthat this is an interim measures phase. Thus right from theune erreur d'interprétation est ainsi commise sur I'article 53. 11est inutile
de rappeler lajurisprudence constante de la Cour quant àl'interprétation

de son propre Statut: ((C'està la Cour elle-même etnon pas aux parties
qii'ilappartient de veillàrl'intégritde la fonction judiciaire de la Cour))
(Camerounseptentrional, C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 29). 11appartenait doncà
la Cour de décider,selon ses propres motifs, si son Statut et son Règle-
ment prévoient des formalités indispensables pour que des conclusions
présentéesautrement soient tenues pour irrecevables et si, dans cette
hypothèse, l'article 53devait êtreappliquéà un double défaut, absence et
défautde conclure. Rien de cela ne fut fait et le statutdu document fran-
çais demeure incertain. Contesté formellement par le demandeur dans
son existence même,la décisionsur sesconclusions renvoyée à plus tard,
il est impossible de déduirede l'ordonnance si ce document est ou non
une piècedu dossier dont il devait être tenu compte,àl'égal desobser-

vations du demandeur. Car, si le Statut et le Règlement n'interdisent
pas de «conclure» de la manière choisie dans cette affaire, le document
français aurait dû êtrereçu comme observations du défendeur; et dans
le cas inverse, rejeté,et I'article 53appliquécomme il le fut dans l'arrêt
du 2 février 1973 (Compétenceen matière de pêcheries,Royaume-Uni c.
Islande, arrêt,C.I.J.Recueil1973,paragraphe 12).

Le renvoi par la Cour de l'application des effets de I'article 53 aux
phases ultérieures de l'affaire est donc une décision implicitede refus
d'application de I'article 53 à une phase de mesures conservatoires.

C'est une thèsequi mériteexamen. En bref, cette thèse estque le défaut
n'aurait pas nécessairement les mêmes conséquences selon les phases
d'une affaire et que, si l'article3 prévoit bien certains effets dans son
paragraphe 2, ces effets pourraient être écartéslorsqu'il s'agit d'une
demande de mesures conservatoires, malgré l'intention manifeste de
1'Etatabsent du procès.
On pouvait aussi soutenir que I'article 53n'ouvre dedroità fairecons-
tater le défaut qu'à la partie intéressée le faire, mais que la Cour ne
peut y procéder proprio motu. Il suffira de dire que, mêmes'il en était
ainsi, ce qui n'est pas le cas selon moi, en l'espècele demandeur a implici-
tement invoqué l'article 53 dans les conditions ci-dessus rappelées ense
référant auxdispositions applicables du Statut et du Règlement. Mais le

Gouvernement français a fait savoir dans une lettre du 21 mai 1973
qu'il n'étaitpas partie à cette affaire)); il semble difficilede ne pas voir
dans ses déclarations du 16 mai et du 21 mai une volonté formelle de
défaut.La Cour ne pouvait ignorer àla fois les positions prises par le de-
mandeur et par 1'Etatabsent,alors qu'ellescoïncidaient pour luifaire cons-
tater un défautde comparaître.

II faudrait ajouter qu'ily aurait une sorte d'abus de la procédure à
vouloir utiliser un défautde comparaître comme une violation des règlesoutset an error in interpretation has been made with regard to Article 53.
1need not recall the consistentjurisprudence of the Court as to the inter-
pretation of its Statute: "The Court itself, and not the parties, must be

the guardian of the Court's judicial integrity" (Northern Cameroons,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 29). It was therefore for the Court to
decide, on the basis of its own reasons, whether its Statute and Rules lay
down formalities which are indispensable, so that submissions made in
any other way are to be treated as inadmissible, and whether, on that
hypothesis, Article 53 should be applied to a twofold default, absence
from the proceedings and failure to nlake submissions. Nothing of the

kind was done, and the status of the French document remains uncertain.
Objection to it, on the level of its very existence, has been taken by the
Applicant, the decisiclnon the submissionsmade in it has been postponed;
it is impossible todelAucefron~the Order whether this document is or is
not a pleading in the case which should have been taken into account on
a footing of equality with the observations of the Applicant. For if the
Statute and Rules of Court do not forbid the making of "submissions"

in the way which waisselected in this case, the French document should
have been admitted as the observations of the respondent; and on the
opposite assumption, it should have been rejected, and Article 53 applied
as it was in the Judgment of 2 February 1973 (FislleaiesJurisdiction
(United Kingdotn v. Iceland),Jurisdictior.rof tlze Court, Judgment,1.C.J.
Reports 1973, para. 12).
The Court's postponement of the application of the effects of Article 53

until the later stages of the case is thus an implicit decision to refuse to
apply Article 53 to an interim measures phase. This is a position which
merits examination. Shortly expressed, the argument is that default does
not necessarily have the same consequences in al1 phases of a case, and
that while Article 53 does, in paragraph 2, lay down certain effects, those
effects may be set aside when dealing with a request for interim measures
of protection, despite the manifest intention of the State which is absent

from the proceedings.
It could also be nîaintained that while Article 53 provides the party
interested in note being taken of default with the right to have that done,
it does not do more, and the Court cannot take note of it proprio motu.
It will be sufficient ro observe in this respect that even if this were so,
which in my view it is not, the Applicant has in the present case implicitly
invoked Article 53 in the circumstances mentioned above, by making

reference to the applicable provisions of the Statute and Rules of Court.
But the French Government has indicated in a letter of 21 May 1973that
it is "not a party to this case"; it would appear difficuit not to see in its
statements of 16 and 21 May a formal intention to fail to appear. The
Court surely could not overlook both the position taken up by the
Applicant and that of the absent State, when they were at one in seeking
that it take note of ;afailure to appear.
Ttshould be addedthat it would be a sort of abuse of procedure to seek

to make use of a failure to appear as a breach of the rules of procedurede procédure entraînant la perte du droit d'êtreentendu par la Cour, en
créant une pénalitéque le Statut lui-mêmeinterdit formellement dans

l'article 53 dont l'effet principal est que, le défaut constaté, la Cour
«doit s'assurer non seulement qu'elle a compétenceaux termes des arti-
cles 36 et 37, mais que les conclusions sont fondées enfait et en droit».
Il est insolite de soutenir une chose et son contraire; devant le défautde
comparaître, en repoussant toute décisionsur les effets de ce défaut, la
Cour a permis une certaine rupture de l'égalité nécessair eentre les Etats
devant lejuge.
La juridiction de la Cour est limitéed'une part aux Etats qui l'ont
acceptée, d'autre part aux obligations formellement consenties. Juge
d'attribution, la Cour doit veiller avant tout à ne pas outrepasser la
compétencequ'elle tient de son Statut et de l'acceptation volontaire de
sa juridiction par des Etats, chacun de ceux-ci déterminant librement
l'étendue delajuridiction reconnue àla Cour.
Un Etat est ou n'est pas soumis au juge. S'il ne l'est pas, il ne peut
êtretraité comme une «partie» à un litige qui ne serait pas justiciable.

La position prise par la Cour est qu'un Etat qui se tient pour étrangeà
une affaire, qui fait défautet affirme son déclinatoirede lajuridiction de
la Cour ne peut obtenir de la Cour qu'une remise à plus tard de l'examen
deson droit. Ce n'estpas ce que dit l'article 53. Le défaut decomparaître
est un moyen reconnu dans la procédure de la Cour pour contester la
juridiction et ce serait créer uneobligation non prévuedans le Statut que
d'obliger un Etat à défendre sa prétention d'une autre manière que le
défaut.Il a étésoutenu que la seule manièrede contester lajuridiction de
la Cour est d'utiliser l'exception préliminaire.La manièredont les Etats
contestent la compétencedela Cour neleur est pas imposéepar un forma-
lisme inconnu dans la procédure de la Cour; lorsqu'ils estiment que
cette compétenceest inexistante, il peuvent choisir de rester en dehors
de ce qui, selon eux, est un faux différend. L'article53 en est la preuve,
et la Cour doit alors s'assurer de sa propre compétenceet de la réalité

du différendqu'on lui soumet. Certes un Etat qui fait défaut court un
risque, celui de ne pas fournir la Cour tous les éléments possiblespour
l'appréciationde sa demande de rejet d'une instance. Maisc'estun risque
qu'il est seul maître de prendre et de comparer celui qui résulteraitpour
lui d'une attente prolongéependant une procédure à laquelle il ne veut
pas prendre part à propos d'une affaire qu'il estimeentièrementendehors
de la compétencedu juge. Certaines indications sur la portée de l'ordon-
nance du 22juin 1973 montrent que la possibilitéde remises successives
n'est pas exclue.

La Cour permanente de Justice internationale avait déjàmis en garde
contre l'idéequ'une requêtesuffit à créerun litige justiciable: «la com-
pétence dela Cour ne saurait dépendre seulement de la manière dont la
requêteest formulée)) (C.P.J.I. sériAe no6, p. 15).

Si,commeje lepense, ledéfautprévu à l'article 53n'estpas sanctionnéincurring the loss of the right to be heard by the Court,and thus create a
penalty which the Statute itself formally forbids in Article 53, the main

effect of which is that, when a failure to appear has been noted, the Court
"must .. .satisfy itself, not only that it has jurisdiction in accordance
with Articles 36and 37, but also that the claim is well founded in fact and
law". It is not usual 1.0advance at one and the same time an argument
and its opposite; faced with a failure to appear, the Court, by postponing
any decision on the effects of the failure to appear, has allowed some
infringement of the equality which States must enjoy before a court.
The jurisdiction of the Court is limited on the one hand to the States
which have accepted it, and on the other to commitments freely entered
into. As a court of specificjurisdiction, the Court must above al1take care
not to exceed the cornpetence it derives from its Statute and from the
voluntary acceptance of its jurisdiction by States, each of which freely
determines the scope of the jurisdiction it confers upon the Court.
A State either is oris not subject to a tribunal. If it is not, it cannot be
treated as a "party" to a dispute, which would be non-justiciable. The
position which the Cclurt has taken is that a State which regards itself as
not concerned in a case, which fails to appear, and afirms its refusa1 to
accept the jurisdictiori of the Court, cannot obtain from the Court any-

thing more than a postponement of the consideration of its rights. This is
not what Article 53 says. Failure to appear is a means of denying juris-
diction which is recognized in the procedure ofthe Court, and to oblige a
State to defend its position otherwise than by failure to appear would be
to create an obligatiori not provided for in the Statute. It has been argued
that the only way of challenging the jurisdiction of :iie Court is to
employ a preliminary objection. The way in which States challenge the
Court's jurisdiction is not imposed upon them by a formalism which is
unknown in the procedure of the Court; when they consider that such
jurisdiction does not exist, they may choose to keep out of what, forthem,
is an unreal dispute. Article 53 is the proof of this, and the Court must
then satisfy itself of its ownjurisdiction, and of the reality of the dispute
brought before it. A State which fails to appear does of course run a risk,
that of not supplying the Court with al1 possible material for the con-
sideration of its application for dismissal of the case. But that is a risk
which the State, and it alone, is free to choose to take, and to compare

with the risk which it would run as the result of a long drawn-out proce-
dure in which it does not wish to participate, with regard to a matter
which it considers to be wholly outside the Court's jurisdiction. Certain
indications given in connection with the Order of 22June 1973show that
the possibility of successive deferments is not ruled out.
The Permanent Court of International Justice gave a warning against
the notion that an Application is sufficientto create a justiciable dispute:
". ..the Court's jurisdiction cannot depend solely on the wording of the
Application." (Certain GermanInterests inPolish UpperSilesia, Jurisdic-
lion, Judgment No. 6.,1925,P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6, p. 15.)
If, as 1think, failure to appear as provided for in Article 53 is not in154 ESSAISNUCLÉAIRES (OP.DISS.CROS)

en soi, il devient évident que les raisons de ce défaut,orsqu'elles ont été
formulées clairement, doivent êtreexaminéespar la Cour de façon com-
plète et surtout qu'il faut les accepter ou les rejeterrmellement et sans

délai.L'idéeque le défautn'est pas opposable à la Cour et au demandeur
parce qu'il s'agit d'une demande de mesures conservatoires me paraît
donc manquer de pertinence.

En premier lieu personne ne conteste «le lien qui doit exister, en vertu
de l'article 61, paragraphe 1 [aujourd'hui article 66, paragraphe 11,du
Règlement, entre une demande en indication de mesures conservatoires
et la requête initiale)) (Compétenceen tnatièrede pêclzeries(Royaume-
Unic.Islande), ordonnancedu 17août 1972,paragraphe 12). Une deman-
de de mesures provisoires est donc une phase particulière mais non pas
indépendante de la requête initiale;il n'y a pas de magie des mots et il
est impossible de croire qu'on puisse écarter des problèmes de compé-

tence, de recevabilité etde réalitéde la requête principaleen indiquant
simplement que ces points essentiels pour le juge d'attribution qu'est la
Cour ne sont tenus pour acquis que provisoirement, prima ,facie, sans
qu'ils soient préjugés. C'estdans chaque affaire, en fonction des problè-
mesjuridictionnels au sens le plus large, des circonstances et«du droit de
cliacuri))(article 41- c'est moi qui souligne) qu'il convient de décider
s'il est possible d'indiquer des mesures conservatoires et il faut que les
formules employéescorrespondent aux réalités.

Telle n'est pas l'analyse du pouvoir institué dans l'article du Statut
qui a étéfaite dans la présente instance. La Cour, par le renvoi de la déci-
sion sur les effets du défaut, a adoptéune thèsed'indépendance complète

de la demande de mesures conservatoires par rapport à l'affaire objet de
la requête.
II est inutile de se référeà certains systèmesjuridiques internes qui
connaîtraient une telle indépendance car la Cour a ses propres règlesde
procédure et doit les appliquer dans son systèmejuridictionnel tel qu'il
a étéétabli sur la base d'une juridiction acceptée volontairement, en
fonction d'une certaine sociétéinternationale. C'est un fait de la vie inter-
nationale que le recours au juge n'est pas obligatoire; la Cour doit veiller
à ce qu'une telle obligation ne soit pas introduite par le biaisde demandes
de mesures conservatoires, à l'égardd'Etats dont la conviction visible
et proclaméeest qu'ils n'ont acceptéaucun lien avec la Cour, soit de façon
générale, soitdans une matière déterminée.

S'il s'agissait d'un Etat dont le défautfût dû à une absence totale de
juridiction de la Cour, soit faute de clause juridictionnelle valable, soit
en raison du caractère irrecevable de la demande principale, la décision
immédiate d'incompétencevis-à-vis de la requête introductive d'instance
elle-mêmeserait prise sans délai;la décisionde la Cour dans la présente
affaire est que, malgré l'affirmationqu'une matière a étéformellement
exclue de la compétencede la Cour et que 1'Etatauteur de cette affirma-
tion se considère comme en dehors de la juridiction de la Cour pour tout

23itself subject to any sanction, it becomes evident that the reasons for such
failure to appear, when they have been clearly stated, must be examined

fully by the Court, and above al1 they must be formally accepted or
rejected, and that without delay. The idea that a failure to appear is not
opposable to the Court and to the Applicant because it is a case of a
request for interim measures of protection is therefore, in my view, beside
the point.
In the first place, no-one disputes "the connection which must

exist under Article 6 1. paragraph 1, [now Art. 66, para. 11of the Rules
between a request for interim measures of protection and the original
Application filed with the Court" (FisheriesJurisdiction (United Kingdom
v. Ireland), InterihzProtection, Order of 17 August 1972, 1.C.J. Reports
1972, para. 12). A request for interim measures of protection is thus a
particular phase, but one which is not independent of the original

Application; there is no magic in words, and it is impossible to believe
that problems of jurisdiction, admissibility and reality of the principal
Application can be conjured away simply by stating that these points,
which are essential foi-a court of specificjurisdiction like this Court, are
just being taken for granted provisionally, prima facie, without their
being prejudged. It is in each individual case by reference to the juris-
dictional problems in the widest sense, to the circumstances, and to the

"respective rights ofeitherparty" (Art.41, emphasis added) that a decision
should be taken as to whether it is possible to indicate interim measures,
and the forms of words used must correspond to reality.
Such was not the analysis of the power instituted in Article 41 of the
Statute which was carried out in the present instance. The Court, by
putting off the decision on the effects of non-appearance, embraced the

proposition tnat a request for provisional measures is utterly independent
in relation to the case which is the subject of the Application.
It is no use referring to certain domestic systems of law which feature
such independence, because the Court has its own rules of procedure and
must apply them in its jurisdictional system, which, as a corollary of a
certain kind of international society, has been established on the basis of

the voluntary acceptance of jurisdiction. It is a fact of international life
that recourse to adjudication is not compulsory; the Court has to take
care lest, by the indirect method of requests for provisional measures, such
compulsion be introduced vis-à-vis States whose patent and proclaimed
conviction is that they have not accepted any bond with the Court,
whether in a general way or with regard to a specified subject-matter.
If it were a question of a State whose non-appearance was due to the

total absence of the Court's jurisdiction, whether for want of a valid
jurisdictional clause or by reason of the inadmissible character of the
principal claim, the immediate decision of lack of jurisdiction in regard
to the Application instituting proceedings itself would be taken without
delay; the decision of the Court in the present case is that, despite the
affirmation that a certain subject-matter has been formally excluded from
the jurisdiction of the Court, and the fact that the State which made thatce qui se rapporte à cette matière, il est possible d'indiquer des mesures
conservatoires sans préjugerle droit de cet Etat.

Dans lejugement que la Cour doit porter sur toute demande de mesu-
res provisoires l'urgence n'est pas une considération dominante et ex-
clusive; il faut rechercher entre les deux notions dejuridiction et d'urgen-
ce un équilibre qui varie avec les données dechaque affaire. Si la juridic-
tion est évidenteet l'urgence aussi, il n'y a aucune difficulté maisc'est
une hypothèse exceptionnelle. Lorsque la juridiction n'est pas évidente,
qu'ily ait urgence ou non, la Cour doit prendre letemps nécessairepour
un examen des problèmes posésqui soit de nature à entraîner sa convic-
tion, ce qu'elle pouvait faire sans délaiexagérédans la présente affaireà

l'égardde diverses objections à son pouvoir de juger l'affaire telle qu'elle
est décritedans la requête principale.
11n'y a pas de présomption de compétencede la Cour en faveur du
demandeur, ni de présomption d'incompétenceen faveur du défendeur;
il y a un droit de chacun à un examen utile et sérieuxde sa thèse.

Un Etat n'a pas à attendre deux ans ou davantage avant que la Cour
vérifiesa prétention qu'il n'existepas de différend justiciable,car dans ce
cas il n'y a rienà débattre; l'autre Etat auteur de la demande dont la
réalité est contestée a évidemmenu tn droit égalà faire reconnaître I'exis-
tence du différend qu'ilinvoque. Mais l'égalitéentre ces prétentions est
rompue si, par le biais de l'urgence alléguée de l'indication de mesures

conservatoires, une présomptionjoue en faveur du demandeur sans vérifi-
cation sérieusepar le juge de l'objection. On a plaidéde la part du de-
mandeur que les argumentations sur tous cesproblèmes seraient exposées
ultérieurement; cela seul, en soi, est la négation dela prétentionde l'autre
Etat d'êtreimmédiatementmis hors d'un litige inexistant selon lui. Ainsi,
pour maintenir l'égalitéentre les parties, dans un cas où des objections
relativesà la contexture du différendlui-mêmesont élevées, le traitement
prioritaire de ces objections est une nécessité.Dans leur opinion dissi-
dente commune sir Arnold McNair et MM. Basdevant, Klaestad et
Read écrivaientsurla question de l'obligation d'arbitrage:

«Rien dans la déclaration de 1926 n'indiquant une intention de
tenir pour suffisantes des considérationsrimafacie, nous estimons,
sur la base du principe ci-dessus rappeléet de l'application qui en a
été constammentfaite, que le Royaume-Uni ne peut êtredéclaré
tenu d'accepter la procédure d'arbitrage par application de la dé-
claration de 1926 que s'il est établid'une manière qui satisfasse la
conviction dela Cour que le différend relatifà la validitéde la récla-
mation Ambatielos rentre dans la catégoriede ceux pour lesquels le
Royaume-Uni a consenti à l'arbitrage par la déclaration de 1926.))
(Ambatielos,fond: obligationd'arbitrage, C.I.J. Recueil 1953, p. 29.)affirmation considers itself to be outside the jurisdiction of the Court in
regard to everything connected with that subject-matter, it is possible to
indicate provisional measures without prejudging the rights of that State.
In the decision which the Court has to take on any request for pro-

visional measures, urgency is notà dominant and exclusiveconsideration;
one has to seek, between the two notions of jurisdiction and urgency, a
balance which varies with the facts of each case. If the jurisdiction is
evident and the urgency also, then there is no difficulty, but that is an
exceptional hypothesis. When the jurisdiction is not evident, whether
there is urgency or not, the Court must take the time needed for such an
examination of the prcsblemsarising as will enable it to decide one way or
the other,and that is something which it could have done without undue
delay inthe present instance with regard to various objections to its power
to judge the case as described in the principal Application.
There is no presuniption of the Court's jurisdiction in favour of the
applicant, nor any presumption of its lack ofjurisdiction in favour of the
respondent; there is only the right of each of them to a proper and serious
examination of its position.
A State does not have to wait two years or more for the Court to
vindicate its claim that no justiciable dispute exists, for if that is the case
there is nothing to be argued over; the other State, which has submitted
the claim whose reality is contested, evidently has an equal right to have

the Court acknowledge the existence of the dispute it invokes. But the
equality between these claims is upset if, by the indirect means of the
allegedly urgent necessity for the indication of provisional measures, a
presumption operateis in favour of the applicant without the Court's
carrying out any serious appraisal of the objection. On behalf of the
Applicant it has been pleaded that argument on al1these problems will be
presented later; that in itself is a negation of the claim of the other State
to be immediately relieved of a dispute which it alleges not to exist. Thus,
to maintain equality between the parties, in a case where objections
relating to the very stuff of the dispute are raised, the priority treatment
of these objections is a necessity. In their joint dissenting opinion, Judges
McNair, Basdevant, Klaestad and Read wrote, with reference to the
question of the obligation to submit to arbitration:

"Since there is nothing in the Declaration of 1926to indicate an
intention that prima facie considerations should be regarded as
sufficient, its oiir opinion, based on the principle referred to above
and the way in which this principle has been invariably applied, that

the United Kingdom can only be held to be under an obligation to
accept the arbitral procedure by application of the Declaration of
1926if it can be established to the satisfaction of the Court that the
difference as to the validity of the Ambatielos claim falls within the
category of differences in respect of which the United Kingdom
consented to arbitration in the Declaration of 1926." (Ambatielos,
Merits, I.C.J.Reports 1953, p. 29.) M. Winiarski a pris position aussi en faveur de la prioritéde certaines
questions de recevabilitépar rapport aux questions de compétence (avis
concernant CertainesdépensesdesNations Unies,C.I.J. Recueil 1962,p.449).
De même,dans une opinion individuelle de sir Gerald Fitzmaurice:

((11est cependant d'autres exceptions n'ayant pas le caractère
d'exceptions à la compétencedela Cour qui peuvent et, à strictement
parler, doivent êtrexamiiiées préalablc~men àftoute question de conl-
pétence. Ainsi,une exception d'aprèslaquelle la requête n'a parsévélé
qu'il existait véritablement un différendentre les parties doit êtredis-
cutéeavant la compétence,car, s'iln'ya pas de différend,il n'ya rien
à propos de quoi la Cour puisse envisager sa conlpétence ou son
incompétence.C'est pour cette raison qu'une telle exception concer-
nerait plutôt la recevabilitéque la compétence..))

«Dans le domaine généraldu droit international. il n'y a rien qui
correspondeaux procéduresapplicables dans la plupart des systèmes
juridiques nationaux et où l'on prévoit l'élimination relativementtôt
au cours de l'instance, avant que le tribunal soit appelé à trancher,
des demandes considéréescomme inacceptables ou ne pouvant être
examinéespour un motif a priori.Etant donné l'absence d'un «fil-
trage» analogue dans le domaine juridictionnel ou la Cour se meut,
on doit considérerle droit de prendre des mesures semblables, pour

des motifs semblables, comme entrant dans les pouvoirs inhérents
ou dans la compétence de la Cour en tant que tribunal internatio-
nal.))(Cawlerouil septerltriona/, C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 109, 106-
107.)
C'est cet ensemble de questions de conlpétenceet de recevabilité qui
ont été renvoyéepsar la Cour à la prochaine phase; ilappartiendra alors à

la Cour, et alors seulement, de déciderdans son arrêtle sort de ces ques-
tions.
Ilya désormaisune certaine tendance à considérerque lesordonnances
du 17août 1972sur les pêcheriesont en quelque sorte consolidéle droit
en matière de mesures conservatoires. Mais chaque cas doit êtreexaminé
selon ses mériteset, comme le dit l'article 41, selon«les circonstances)).
Or le cas de I'lslande était entièrementdifférentquant aux circonstances.
La Cour s'étaitrecdu compte de l'existence de sa propre compétence,
l'urgence étaitadmise, la réalitéet la définition précisede l'objet du diffé-
rend n'étaient pas contestées;enfin le droit des Etats demandeurs qui
fut sauvegardépar lesordonnancesétait reconnu comme un droit actuelle-
ment exercétandis que la prétention de I'lslande étaitune modification
du droit existant.Il suffitd'énumérerces points pour voir que la situation

est entièrement différenteaujourd'hui; pour le dernier point c'est même
une situation inverse puisque les demandeurs se fondent sur une préten-
tion à la modification du droit positif actuel en demandant à la Cour President Winiarski also expressed himself in favour of the priority of
certain questions of admissibility over questions of jurisdiction (Certain
Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17,paragraph 2, of the Cl~arter),
I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 449). Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice likewise, in a separate
opinion, said :
"There are however other objections, not in the nature of objec-
tions to the competence of the Court, which can and strictly should

be taken in advance of any question of competence. Thus a plea that
the Application did not disclose the existence, properly speaking, of
any legal dispute between the parties, must precede competence, for
if there is no dispute, thereis nothing in relation to which the Court
can consider whether it is competent or not. It is for this reason that
such a plea woultf be rather one of admissibility or receivability than
of competence."

"In the general international legal field there is nothing corres-
ponding to the procedures found under most national systems of
law, for eliminating at a relatively early stage, before they reach the
court which would otherwise hear and decide them, claims that are
considered to be objectionable or not entertainable on some a priori
ground. The absence of any corresponding 'filter'procedures in the
Court's jurisdictional field makes itnecessary to regard a right to
take similar action, on similar grounds, as being part of the inherent
powers or jurisdiction of the Court as an international tribunal."
(Nortliern Cameroons, I.C.J. Reports 1963, pp. 105and 106 f.)

It is this nexus of questions of jurisdiction and of admissibility which
has been deferred by the Court to the next phase; it will then be for the
Court, and then alone, to decide the fate of these questions in its judg-
ment.
A certain tendency has arisen to consider that the Orders of 17August
1972in the FislreriesJurisdictioncases have, as it were, consolidated the
law concerning provisional measures. But each case must be examined
according to its own merits and, as Article 41 says, according to "the

circumstances". Now the case of Iceland was entirely different in cir-
cumstances. The Court had developed an awareness of the existence of
its own jurisdiction, the urgency was admitted, the reality and the precise
definition of the dispute were not contested; finally, the right of the
Applicant States which was protected by the Orders was recognized as
being a right currently exercized, whereas the claim of Iceland constituted
a modification of existing law. It suffices to enumerare these points to
show that the situation is entirely different today; so far as the last point
is concerned, the situation is now even the reverse, since the Applicants
stand upon a claim to the modification of existing positive law whende reconnaître l'existence d'une règle interdisant le dépassement d'un
seuil de pollution atomique.

C'est en présenced'une telle situation que la Cour s'est trouvéepour
appliquer l'article 41 du Statut dans la présente affaire. Les objections
qui étaient faites ou pouvaient l'êtreà la compétencede la Cour et à la
recevabilitéde la demande ont un caractère prioritaire absolu. L'article
41 ne donne pas àla Cour un pouvoir discrétionnaire mais une compéten-
ce liéepar les conditions établiesdans ce texte; il faut que ((lescircons-
tances l'exigent)) et que les mesures soient nécessairespour conserver le
((droit de chacun)), ce qui recouvre le même examendu fait et du droit que
l'article 53, paragraphe2, impose à la Cour, en plus de cette obligation
généralepour tout juge, y compris le juge de référéd ,e s'assurer de sa
propre compétence; c'est ceque rappelle I'article 36, paragraphe 6. Or,
l'examen du fait et du droit qui est la condition de toute décisionsur des

mesures conservatoires ne peut êtresystématiquement remis a plus tard
avec l'indication que le pouvoir de la Cour fondésur l'article 41 du Statut
((présuppose qu'un préjudice irréparable ne doit pas êtrecausé aux
droits en litige devant lejuge et qu'aucune initiative concernant les ques-
tions litigieuses ne doit anticiper sur l'arrêtde laCour» (ordonnance,
paragraphe 21). C'est résoudrepar une simple affirmation le problème
de l'existencedes «circonstances» auxquelles se réfère l'article41. L'arti-
cle 41 oblige la Cour à rechercher si les circonstances exigent qu'elle
utilise le pouvoir d'indiquer des mesures et elle ne peut l'exercer, mêmsi
les circonstances l'exigent, que si sa décisionpeut sauvegarder le droit
de chacun ...mais si 1'Etatcité en défenseinvoque l'absence totale de pou-
voir de la Cour et s'il n'y a pas véritablement d'objet de la demande, où
serait le droit conserver?

Ce qui a étédit plus haut sur le caractère absolument prioritaire de
certainesobjections montre qu'il est impossibled'échapper à la nécessitde
trancher de telles objections avant d'indiquer des mesures conservatoires;
s'il n'ya pas de droit, il n'y a rienà conserver. Si la demande manque
d'objet, la requête principaletombe, et avec elle la demande de mesures
conservatoires. L'objection est d'un caractère si fondamental quant aux
bases mêmesde lajuridiction de la Cour qu'il me semble êtreun abusde
mots de dire qu'un droit àagir dans de telles circonstances pourrait exis-
terprima facie.
Lorsque la Cour déclaresur la base de I'article 41 qu'une décision indi-
quant des mesures conservatoires ne préjugeni la juridiction, ni le fond,
ce n'est pas une constatation destinée àrassurer les Etats sur le caractère
temporaire et aléatoire de cette décision; c'est l'affirmation que l'examen
de l'affaire par la Cour selon les critères de I'article 41 du Statut lui per-
met, dans les circonstances de cette affaire, de penser que sa décision ne

26they ask the Court to recognize the existence of a rule forbidding the

overstepping of a threshold of atomic.pollution.

Such was the situation with which the Court found itself confronted
when the application of Article 41 of the Statute in the present case was
to be considered. The objections which were made or could be made to
the jurisdiction of the Court and the admissibility of the claim have a
character of abso1ui.e priority. Article 41 does not give the Court a
discretionary power but a competence bound by the conditions laid
down in that text; itis necessary that "circumstances so require" andthat
the measures should be necessary to preserve "the respective rights of
either party", which covers the same examination of fact and of law that
Article 53, paragraph 2, imposes on the Court, in addition to the general
obligation upon every judge, including a judge of urgent cases, to satisfy
himself that he has jurisdiction; that is what Article 36, paragraph 6,
recalls. Now, the examination of fact and of law which is the condition
of any decision on provisional measures cannot be systematically put off

until later with the indication that the Court's power under Article 41
of the Statute "presupposes that irreparable prejudice should not be
caused to rights which are the subject of dispute in judicial proceedings
and that the Court's judgment should not be anticipated by reason of
any initiative regarding the matters in issue before the Court" (Order,
para. 21).That isto solve by a mere assertion the problem of the existence
of the "circumstance:s" to which Article 41 refers. Article 41 obliges the
Court to see whether the circumstances require it to use the power of
indicating measures and, even if circumstances so require, it can only
exercise that power if its decision will be able to preserve the respective
rights of either party. But if the State cited as respondent invokes the
Court's total absence of power, and if the subject of the claim is really
non-existent, what rights would there be to preserve?
What has been said above with regard to the character of absolute
priority attaching to certain objections shows that it is impossible to
escape from the necessity of settling such objections before indicating

measures of protection; if there are no rights, there is nothing to protect.
If the claim has no subject, the principal application falls to the ground,
and with it the request for provisional measures. The objection is of so
fundamental a nature in regard to the very bases of the Court's juris-
diction that it seems to me to be a misuse of language to Saythat a jus
standi to act in such circumstances could exist prime facie.
When the Court declares on the basis of Article 41 that a decision
indicating provisional measures prejudges neither the jurisdiction nor
the merits, that isnot a finding which is likely to reassure States as to the
temporary and circumstantial nature of that decision; it is an assertion
that the examination of the case by the Court in accordance with the
criteria of Article 41 of the Statute enables it, in the circumstances of thispeut pas, effectivement, préjuger sajuridiction ni la qualitépour agir. Il

ne s'agit pas d'une sorte de formule rituelle, mais de la garantieque la
Cour est satisfaite que l'article1 a été correctement interprétéet appli-
qué à une certaine affaire. Mais si une indication de mesures conserva-
toires préjuge en réalité ljuridiction ou l'existence d'un droita agir, la
Cour n'a pas le pouvoir de déciderces mesures parce que les conditions
poséespar I'article41 du Statut ne seraient pas respectées.Cesconditions
n'ayant pas étéremplies dans la présenteaffaire il y a un excèsde pou-
voir dans l'application de I'article1 par l'ordonnance du 22juin 1973
indiquant des mesures conservatoires.

Dans la présenteaffaire, sur un point de grande importance, la Cour a
passéoutre à l'une desconditions d'acceptation d'une demande de mesu-

res conservatoires. Dans l'affaire del'Usinede Cl~orzb~~ l, Cour perma-
nente de Justice internationale a refuséd'indiquer des mesures conser-
vatoires parce que la demande tendait à obtenir un jugement provision-
nel adjugeant une partie des conclusions de la requêteet que, par consé-
quent, «la demande ...ne rentre pas dans les termes des dispositions du
Statut et du Règlement)) (C.P.J.I. sériA no12,p. IO).11s'agit bien d'une
condition de portéegénéralepour l'interprétation deI'article 41 du Statut
de la Cour permanente de Justice internationale qui était identique à
I'article 41 actuel, et de la reconnaissance d'une exigence de la procédure
en matière dejuridiction incidente. IIserait en effet contrairà la nature
d'une procédure incidente, par définition, qu'ellepermette de réglerle
litige dont elle n'est qu'un élément accessoire.

La comparaison de la demande principale (requête,paragraphe 28,con-

clusions du demandeur) et de la demande de mesures provisoires (de-
mande, paragraphes 2-3et 5l) montre qu'il s'agissaitbien d'une demande
de jugement provisionnel. La demande de mesures conservatoires devait
donc êtrerejetéepour ce motif également.

(SignPj AndréGROS. case, to consider that its decisi011cannot in fact prejudge either its juris-
diction or the question ofjus standi. It is not just a kind of ritual formula,

but a warranty that the Court is satisfied that Article 41 has been correctly
interpreted and applied to a certain case. But if in reality an indication of
provisional measures prejudges the jurisdiction or the existence of ,jus
standi, the Court does not have the poiver to grant these measures,
because the condition laid down by Article 41 of the Statute will not have
been respected. These conditions not having been fulfilled in the present
case, the application of Article 41 in therder of 22 June 1973indicating

provisional measures constitutes an action ultra rires.

In the present case, on a point of great importance, the Court has
ignored one of the conditions for the acceptance of a request for provi-

sional measures. In the case concerning the Factory at Chorzbw, the
Permanent Court of International Justice refused to indicate provisional
measures because the request could be regarded as designed to obtain an
interim judgment in favour of a part of the claim formulated in the
Application and that, consequently, "the request [was] not covered by
the terms of the proviijions of the Statute and Rules" (P.C.I.J.,Series A,
No. 12, p. 10). Here we have a condition of general scope for the inter-

pretation of Article 41 of the Statute of the Permanent Court of Inter-
national Justice, which was identical to the present Article 41, and the
recognition of a procedural requirement operating in regard to inter-
locutory jurisdiction. For it would indeed, by definition, be contrary to
the nature of interlocutory proceedings if they enabled the dispute of
which they were only an accessory element to be disposed of.
Comparison between the principal claim (Application, para. 28,

submissions of the Applicant) and of the request for provisional measures
(Request, paras. 2f, and 51) shows that the latter was indeed designed to
obtain an interim judgment. The request for provisional measures ought
therefore to have beenirejected on that ground also.

(Signed) André GROS.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Gros (translation)

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