Separate Opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

Document Number
149-20130416-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
149-20130416-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

97

SEPARATE OPINION
OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. Prolegomena 1-5

II. Provisions of Treatiesb after Independence i1960 Express-

ing Concern with the Lobcal Populations 6-10

III. Concern of the Parties with the Local Populations in the
Written Phase of Proceebdings 11-22

IV. Communiqués after Independence ibn1960 Expressing Con-

cern with the Local Popbulations 23-26

V. Views of the Parties Conbcerning Villages 27-31

VI. Concern of the Parties with the Local Populations in the

Oral Phase of Proceedinbgs (First and Second Rounbds of
Oral Arguments) 32-34

VII. Concern of the Parties with the Local Populations in the
Responses of the Partibes to Questions from thbe Bench 35-54

1. Questions from the Bench 35-36

2. Responses from Burkina Faso 37-40
3. Responses from Niger 41-45
4. General assessment 46-54

VIII. Some Remarks on the Tracibng of the Frontier Lineb in the

IGN Map 55-62

IX. The Human Factor and Fronbtiers 63-69

X. Admission by the Partiebs that They Are Bound by Tbheir
Pledge to Co-operation in Respect bof Local Populations 70-86

1. In multilateral African fora 71-79
2. In bilateral agreements 80-82

3. The régime of transhumance 83-86

XI. Population and Territbory Together: Conformation of a
“System of Solidarity”b 87-98

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1. Transhumance and the “system of solidarity” 88

2. People and territory together 89-94
3. Solidarity in the jus gentium 95-98

XII. Concluding Observations 99-105

*

I. P rolegomena

1. I have voted in favour of the adoption of the present Judgment in
the case of the Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso and Niger, whereby

the International Court of Justice (ICJ) has, at the request of the Pabrties,
determined the course of their frontier. Although I have agreed with theb
Court’s majority as to the findings and resolutory points of the Court in
its present Judgment, yet there are certain points — to which I attribute

much importance — which are not properly reflected in the reasoning of
its Judgment, or which have not been sufficiently stressed therein, as b
much as I think they should have been.
2. In respect of those points, I do not find the Judgment just adopted
by the Court today entirely satisfactory, and I pursue a distinct reasonb -

ing, particularly in respect of the relationship between the territory at
issue and the local (nomadic and semi-nomadic) populations. This being
so, I feel thus obliged to dwell upon them in the present separate opinibon,
so as, on the basis of the documentation conforming the dossier of the

present case (not wholly reflected in the present Judgment), to clarbify the
matter dealt with by the Court, and to present the foundations of my
personal position thereon.

3. My reflections, developed in the present separate opinion, pertain to b
the following points, in relation to which I do not find the reasoningb of
the Court entirely satisfactory or complete, namely : (a) provisions of
treaties (after independence in 1960) expressing concern with the local
populations ; (b) concern of the Parties with the local populations in the

written phase of proceedings ; (c) communiqués (after independence
in 1960) expressing concern with the local populations ; and (d) views of
the Parties concerning villages.

4. Moving from the written to the oral phase of proceedings, I shall
then turn attention to the following points : (a) concern of the Parties
with the local populations in the oral phase of proceedings (first anbd sec-
ond rounds of oral arguments) ; (b) concern of the Parties with the local

populations in the responses of the Parties to questions from the bench ;
and ( c) the tracing of the frontier line in the IGN map. May I here
observe that there is a wealth of materials, in the dossier of the present
case, in the responses provided by the Parties to questions from the benbch,

not fully or sufficiently reflected in the present Judgment of the Coburt.

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5. My next line of considerations will focus on : (a) the human factor
and frontiers ;(b) admission by the Parties that they are bound by their
pledge to co-operation in respect of local populations (in multilateral
African fora, and in bilateral agreements, conforming the régime of trans-
humance) ; and ( c) population and territory together, conforming a “sys-

tem of solidarity” (encompassing transhumance and the “system of b
solidarity”; people and territory together ; and solidarity in the jus gen ­
tium). The way will then be paved for the presentation of my concluding
observations.

II. Provisions of Treatiesb after Independence
in 1960 Expressing Concern

with the Local Populatbions

6. In the present Judgment in the case of the Frontier Dispute between
Burkina Faso and Niger, the ICJ begins by pointing out that the dispute
at issue is set within a historical context marked by the accession to inde ­

pendence of the two contending Parties (Burkina Faso and Niger), which
were formerly part of French West Africa (para. 12). In my reasoning in
the present separate opinion, I ascribe particular importance to the docbu -
ments after their independence in 1960. The Court further recalls that, in

the colonial period, the two countries concerned were “made up of basbic
units called cercles” ; each cercle, in turn, was composed of subdivisions,
which “comprised cantons, which grouped together a number of villages”
(ibid.).

7. In effect, in my view, it is commendable that the two contending
Parties, Burkina Faso and Niger, deemed it fit to insert, into treaties they
concluded after their independence in 1960, provisions expressing their
concern with the local populations. Thus, their 1964 Protocol of Agree -
ment (concluded in Niamey, on 23 June 1964) , contains a provision, on

“population movements”, which states that

“2. Provided they are carrying the official identity documents of
their State, nationals (within the meaning of the Nationality Code of
the State concerned) of the Contracting Parties may move freely from
one side of the frontier to the other.

All nationals of either of the Contracting Parties may enter the
territory of the other, travel on that territory, establish their residebnce
there in the place of their choice and leave the territory, without beinbg
obliged to obtain a visa or residence permit of any kind.

1
Memorial of Niger, Annex A1.

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However, transhumant nationals of one State travelling to the
other State must have a transhumance certificate stating the compo -
sition of their family and the number of their animals.

The two Contracting Parties shall communicate to each other all
documents concerning transhumance, in particular details of routes
followed and movement calendars. (. . .)”

8. Years later, the Agreement between Burkina Faso and Niger

of 28 March 1987, on the demarcation of the frontier between the two
countries , contained a provision to (Article 5) the effect that “[r]ights of
peoples living along the frontier in respect of the utilization of farmlband,

pasturage, waterpoints, saline lands and economic trees shall be definbed
in the Protocol of Agreement”. This Protocol of Agreement, celebratedb
by those two States on the same date 3, provides (Article 19) that

“After demarcation of the frontier has been completed, nationals
of each State who are not originally from the State where they are
residing, and who decide to remain there, shall forthwith become sub -

ject to the jurisdiction, laws and regulations of the latter State.”

9. And Article 20 of the same 1987 Protocol of Agreement adds that :

“Nationals of one State residing on the territory of the other who
decide to return to their country of origin shall have a maximum of
five (5) years in which to do so, with effect from the date on whibch

their presence is recorded; during that period they shall not be subject
to any form or taxation or other charge” 4.

10. In addition, the Protocol of Agreement Establishing a Consulta -
tion Framework between Burkina Faso and Niger, celebrated at Tillabéry
5
on 26 January 2003 , extends such consultation to “cross-border trans -
humance” (Article 1), and explains, in Article 2 that

2 Memorial of Niger, Annex A4.
3 Ibid.
4Moreover, Article 13 of the aforementioned 1987 Protocol of Agreement determines
that :

“Use and/or ownership rights of nationals of the two Parties in respect of land
situated along the frontier in regard to farming and pasturage, includinbg the right to
exploit economic trees such as the néré and the karaté, shall be governed by the laws
of the country where the land is located and, on a subsidiary basis, by bcustomary law.”

And Article 14 adds that :

“Rights of utilization in respect of wells, rivers and waterpoints albong the frontier
shall likewise be governed by law and, subsidiarily, by the customs of tbhe country
where such wells, rivers and waterpoints are located. The régime governing frontier
watercourses shall remain that applicable under the relevant internationbal law.”

5 Replies of Burkina Faso and Niger to the Questions Put by Judge Cançabdo Trindade
at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 October 2012, doc. of 16 Novbember 2012
[Niger’s Response].

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“The purpose of the consultation framework on cross-border
transhumance is to :

— manage transhumance between the two States ; (. . .)
— promote consultation and exchange between the two States
with respect to transhumance and the management of natural

resources ;
— propose all appropriate steps to promote and support the
development and implementation of a regional 6inter-State
transhumance policy.”

III. Concern of the Partiesb with the Local Populatbions
in the Written Phase ofb Proceedings

11. In my perception, a significant feature of the documentation form -
ing the dossier of the present case (written and oral phases) of the Frontier
Dispute opposing Burkina Faso to Niger lies in the attention dispensed to
the human factor — the local population — considered together with the

territory under contention (cf. Part IX, infra). Niger has been attentive to
it from the very start, since its Memorial of April 2011, whilst Burkina Faso
has likewise turned attention to it as from its Counter-Memorial of Janub -
ary 2012. Niger invokes the constant displacements of population in
order to interpret the inter-colonial line, as fixed by the 1927 Arrêté and

Erratum, taking into account the position of the villages at that time.

12. Burkina Faso, for its part, contends that such constant displace -
ments of populationper se have rendered it impossible to take into account

the segments of the population at issue in drawing the frontier line. Thbus,
in Burkina Faso’s view, the frontier was deliberately artificial, and the
effectivités cannot, in its view, provide a basis for the interpretation of the
1927 Arrêté. Yet, the ICJ itself has pondered, in its Judgment (of 22 Decem -

ber 1986) in the Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso and Mali, that in
the hypothesis of a legal title not being precise as to the extent of the cor -
responding frontier, the effectivités can play “an essential role” to indicate
how a legal title ought to be interpreted in practice (para. 63).
13. Some specific points, raised by both Niger and Burkina Faso in the

written phase in the cas d’espèce, as to the ineluctable relationship between
territory and population, should not, in my view, pass unnoticed here. Ibn its
aforementioned Memorialof April 2011, for example, Niger observes that the
frontier ensuing from the 1927 Arrêté and Erratum, from the very beginning

“raised problems for the nomadic populations, who were accustomed
to travelling within a unitary area, which was now divided into two

6 So as to ensure a proper implementation of Decision A/DEC.5/10/98 ofOctober
1998 regulating transhumance between ECOWAS member States (cf. infra).

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separate colonies. In order to retain their customary transhumant
routes, or even to cultivate their croplands which overlapped the

boundary, they had to pass from one colony to the other. (. . .)
On the other hand, very quickly, the nomadic or semi-nomadic
populations became aware of the advantages that they could derive
from the situation in order to escape taxes or other services required
by the colonial power, or enlistment in the armed forces. (. . .)”

(Para. 2.5.)
14. Niger holds that the 1927 Arrêté and the Erratum have not been

sufficiently precise to fix the frontier at issue (paras. 2.1-4), and adds that
this latter has raised problems for the nomadic populations (concerningb,
e.g., cultivation of croplands and tax collection — paras. 2.5-8), in their
“customary transhumant routes”, which they wanted to retain (parab. 2.5).
Niger argues so, without questioning the principle of the “intangibilbity of
boundaries” (as inherited by the colonial administration — paras. 5.1-2).

15. From then onwards — Niger proceeds — “[a]t all times, the
Administrators sought to determine the boundaries of their cantons”
(para. 5.11). There have occurred different kinds of transhumance ; for
example, in the Say sector (not so much populated) — Niger adds —

there have been: (a) “major transhumance, . . . generally practiced by the
Bororo and related Peulhs” ; (b) a movement over short and medium
distances, generally carried out in order to exploit the pastureland be -
side rivers and pools” ; (c) commercial transhumance, concerning
“small flocks” “for the purpose of increasing milk production and takinbg

advantage of the pasturage provided by fallow croplands” (para. 7.7).
This longstanding activity — Niger remarks — is nowadays regu -
lated within ECOWAS, of which Niger and Burkina Faso are members
(ibid.).

16. Moreover, Niger argues that the territorial colonial partitions con -

stituted “socially disruptive factor”, which provoked “populatibon move-
ments motivated by the preservation of communal or cultural identities, b
or the safeguard of interests” (para. 6.6). And it adds :

“The instability of the populations of areas close to the shared
boundaries or territories resulted in multiple registrations and the useb
of contradictory criteria for defining administrative links (place ofb

temporary settlement or village of origin).
Apart from traditional nomadic movements or the search for new
land, there were various factors impelling populations to change from
one territory to another : differences in régime as between colonies in
the matter of compulsory service or of human or livestock taxation,
the existence of basic infrastructure in the neighbouring territory

(access to water, vaccination facilities for livestock, schools, healthb
centres, etc.), power relationships within tribes, etc. Thus, all alongb

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the frontier, a game of cat-and-mouse developed between colonial
administrators and frontier populations.” (Para. 6.6.)

17. Niger further remarks that the Téra/Dori frontier zone, for exam -
ple, has been inhabited by sedentary, nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples
(para. 6.7). It then added that

“[t]he problems of the frontier area are conditioned by various dom -
inant forms of production, namely : itinerant nomadism, seasonal
trans-frontier pastoral transhumance, conducted on a pendular basis,
semi-nomadism, sedentary field agriculture, itinerant agriculture,

gold prospection and extraction” (para. 6.7).

18. For its part, Burkina Faso, in its Memorial (of 20 April 2011) con -
cedes that the boundary created by the 1927 Arrêté and Erratum was
deliberately an artificial one (“artificial in nature” — para. 2.38). It adds
that such has been the practice in the fixing of borders by the colonibal
administrations (paras. 2.36-39), the primary goal being stability, so as to

reach the consolidation of peace and security in the region (para. 3.37).
19. In its Counter-Memorial (of January 2012), Niger contends that,
even in the colonial times, the administrators took into due account “bthe
human factor/l’élement humain” 7, with regard to a possible change of
limits between Upper Volta and Niger (para. 1.1.11). The transfer of ter -

ritory between the two colonies — it proceeds — was effected on the basis
not of straight lines, but rather of transferring cantons between them
(paras. 1.1.14-15), with attention to local traditions (paras. 1.1.24-25).
Burkina Faso, in turn, in its Counter-Memorial (of 20 January 2012),

retorted that the 1927 Arrêté and Erratum never intended to base the
delimitation on the then existing limits of cantons, not to allocate villages
to one or the other colony ; if that was the intention — it added — it
would have been explicit (paras. 3.53-55).

20. By and large, one may distinguish two main trends of thinking, in
the briefs of the Parties, on the relationship between the population cobn -
cerned and the territory under contention, namely : (a) the reasoning on
the impact of the presence of the population on the fixing of the fronbtier;

and (b) the historical accounts of the displacements of the populations in
the frontier surroundings. While Niger generally upholds that local popu -
lations are to be taken into account in the fixing of the boundary,
Burkina Faso sustains the opposite, adding that, in any case, such popu -
lations are nomadic, and their continuous displacement renders it diffibcult

to take them into account for the fixing of the border.

21. From its perspective, it is thus not surprising to find that
Burkina Faso does not refer in its Memorial to the population spreading
on the land in both parts of the frontier. Niger, on the other hand, dedbi -

7
In relation to a letter by the administrator of the Dori cercle.

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8
cates a part of its Memorial to an examination of the distribution of
those populations 9and to their historical belonging to one or another
State. It thus challenges the “artificial nature” of the frontier invoked by

Burkina Faso.
22. In turn, in its Counter-Memorial (of 20 January 2012), Burkina Faso
dismisses the practice — and the effectivités invoked by Niger — subse -
10
quent to the 1927 Arrêté and Erratum (paras. 3.56-64) . It insists that,
“[i]n actual fact, the colonial authorities were fully aware that theb

‘artificial’ colonial boundary which had been adopted could not b
reflect the complex situations on the ground, far removed from any
ideas of frontier division” (para. 3.60).

Burkina Faso concedes that

“It is indeed an undisputed fact that the human geography of the

frontier area has always been characterized by mobility on the part of
the local people. This is an everyday occurrence and also follows a
more general pattern. Population groups move according to weather

conditions or the economic situation. The consequence is the existence
of ‘fossilized’ or ‘ghost’ villages, and also a degree of vabgueness with
regard to the names of places in the frontier zone, to mention just thesbe

two aspects. Besides, even the most sedentary groups may live in dif -
ferent villages according to the season, and those villages may in some
instances be on different sides of the colonial frontier.” (Para. 3.61.) 11

Yet, Burkina Faso’s conclusion is that, given all these complexities, “[i]n

such circumstances, the choice of an artificial boundary, despite its balleged
disadvantages, probably turned out to be the wisest one” (para. 3.63).

IV. C ommuniqués after Independence ibn1960
Expressing Concern

with the Local Populatbions

23. In addition to the aforementioned treaty provisions expressing

concern with the local populations, references were made, in the course b

8 Passages in Chapters VI-VII.
9 Niger examines the movements of populations on the sectors of Téra anbd Say, and
warns that to adopt straight lines throughout, making abstraction of theb villages therein,

would have the effect of “uprooting” some villages of Niger, by bplacing them on the terri
tor10of Burkina Faso.
It further dismisses Niger’s argument that some of the local villages (such as Bangaré)
allegedly belonged always to Niger Burkina Faso argues lack of evidence to that end
(cf. infra).
11 Burkina Faso adds that “the territories to which the native groupements lay claim, in
particular in semi-desert savannah areas, have traditional boundaries which are somewhat
imprecise” (para. 3.61).

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of the written phase of proceedings, also to communiqués between
Burkina Faso and Niger (after independence in 1960), concerning free -

dom of movement of local populations (free circulation of persons and
goods; trade, transportation and customs). Thus, in the Ministerial Meet -
ing between Niger and Upper Volta in January 1968, the two parties

agreed “henceforth to dispense with the movement calendar require -
ment”, as that clause was difficult to put into practice” ; instead, they
decided that the local administrative authorities were to “communicatbe to
each other all documents concerning transhumance” 1.

24. Subsequently, in their meeting at Ouagadougou, of 12-14 Febru -
ary 1985, Niger’s Minister Delegate for the Interior and Burkina Faso’s
Minister for Territorial Administration and Security, reached a modus
vivendi on transit (of livestock), in the ambit of ECOWAS, including
13
trade and customs . Shortly afterwards, in another meeting,
on 9 April 1986, Burkina Faso’s Minister for Territorial Administration
and Security and Niger’s Minister Delegate for the Interior agreed onb

directives concerning free circulation of persons and goods, public healbth
(including campaigns of vaccination), animal health, reciprocal recogni -
tion of documents, water and protected zones 14.
25. One decade later, the report of the meeting held at Kompienga,

on 5-6 December 1997, between the Ministers for Territorial Administra -
tion and Security of Niger and Burkina Faso, addressed specific issues
that needed further consideration on their part, concerning free circula -
tion of persons and goods, documentation for transhumance policy, vac -

cination cards, public health (before vaccination), customs harmonizatbion
and public security. These issues admittedly required the continuing
co-operation between the authorities of the two bordering States. Accord -

ingly,
“With a view to enhancing the free movement of people and goods,

the meeting of Kompienga urges : the harmonization of regulations
and procedures in force ; the interconnection of road networks ; the
involvement of transporters in the management of transportation and

transit problems ; the monitoring of the application of ECOWAS 15
Conventions concerning inter-State transport and transit routes.”

26. Subsequently, in their meeting held at Tenkodogo, on 24-26 May
2000, Niger’s Minister for the Interior and Burkina Faso’s Minister for
Territorial Development agreed on fostering the “integration among thbe

populations in border areas”, with particular attention to the “frbee c16cu -
lation of persons and goods” in the ambit of “transhumance” .

12
13 Memorial of Burkina Faso, Annex 54.2.
14 Memorial of Niger, Annex A2.
15 Memorial of Burkina Faso, Annex 68.
16 Ibid., Annex 92.
Ibid., Annex 93.

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V. Views of the Parties cobncerning Villages

27. Both Niger and Burkina Faso have conveyed to the ICJ consider -
able additional information and their views on the villages in their borbder
surroundings 1, in their responses to the questions I deemed fit to pose to

them, at the end of the public sitting of 17 October 2012. Niger’s claims
over some villages in the region at issue were challenged by Burkina Faso
on five grounds, namely :

(a) the documents produced purportedly supporting Niger’s claim that

certain villages belonged to it, in its view, did not demonstrate “anby -
thing” claimed by Niger (sector of Téra : villages of Petelkolé,
Ihouchaltane [Ouchaltan], Bangaré, Beina, Mamassirou, Ouro
Gaobé, Yolo, Paté Bolga; and sector of Say: Fombon, Tabaré, Latti,
18
Dissi, Boborgou Saba [Dogona]) ;
(b) certain villages were mentioned in Niger’s written pleadings, but no
documents were cited in support of the claim that they were “Niger”b
villages (sector of Téra : villages of Tindiki, Lolnango, Hérou Bou -

laré, Nababori) ;
(c) the basis for Niger’s claim over the villages had not, in its view, bbeen
provided by Niger (sector of Téra: Bambaré, Imoudakan 1, Imouda -

kan 2 or Kogonyé, Dankama, Zongowaétan Gourmantché, Bourou-
guita, Tchintchirguel, Mandaw ; and sector of Say : Kankani,
Nioumpalma, Bounga Bounga, Foltiangou, Mangou, Bandiolo,
Kerta, Danbouti, Golongana, Kakao Tamboulé, Koguel, Hanti-

kouta, Déba, Béla) ;
(d) Niger had, in its view, attributed the villages to Burkina Faso in
Niger’s written arguments (sector of Téra : Komanti, Kamanti
[Ouro Toupé], Gourel Manma, Sénobellabé, Hérou Bouléba); and

(e) there were, at last, in its view, those which were encampments, and
not villages (sector of Téra : Débéré Bagna or Débéré Siri N’gobé
[Ousalta peul], Komanti, Zongowaétan [Fété Tao], Ouro Tambella
19
[Dingui Dingui]).
28. One can consider, without precision or certainty, that certain vil -

lages belonged to Niger or else to Burkina Faso, at the time of their
accession to independence in 1960. Moreover, there were villages (e.g.,

17Mainly in the sectors of Téra (about 150 km long), relatively more populated, and of
Say (about 160 km long), not so much populated, with “a relatively hostile natural enbvi
ronment” ;cf., e.g., Niger’s Counter-Memorial, of January 2012, para. 2.0.

18Burkina Faso did not expressly refer to these villages, but this informabtion can be

understood from other information provided in Written Comments of Burkina Faso
on Niger’s Replies to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade at the End of the
Hearing Held on 17 October 2012 (hereinafter “Written Comments of Burkina Faso”),
doc19of 23 November 2012, p. 4, para. 12 (v).
Ibid., pp. 3-4, para. 12 (i-v).

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Tokalan and Tankouro) that seem to have disappeared during the period
contemporary of the Arrêté and Erratum of 1927, and thus can no longer
be taken into account in the determination of the frontier nowadays
(cf. sketch-map No. 1, p. 108).
29. It further appears, adding to uncertainties, that some of the villages
20
in the region at issue were at times designated by different names . By
and large, the documentation forming part of the dossier of the present
case, as to the distribution of the local populations (and the administra -
tion of villages) on both sides of the frontier, in sum, is not amenablbe to
clear conclusions as to their belonging to Burkina Faso or Niger. It is not

my intention to proceed to an examination of the present situation of
each of those villages for the purposes of the present separate opinion ; it
is beyond its scope.

30. The present case before the Court is far more specific, and concerns
the tracing of a part of the frontier between Burkina Faso and Niger. My
purpose herein is to demonstrate and sustain that people and territory abre
related to each other, that they go together, that the tracing of the frbon -
tier in the present context cannot be made in abstracto. To this end, the

consideration of the local populations and of the surrounding villages in
the frontier zone is necessary and suffices. The determination of the fbron -
tier line is thus to take into account the transhumant movement of per -
sons across the border, so as to secure its freedom. Frontier line fixbing

and free movement of persons, in the present African context, do not
exclude each other.

31. More important than the aforementioned challenges, controver -
sies, uncertainties, is the fact that, when it comes to take into accounbt the

fulfilment of the needs of the peoples (nomadic or semi-nomadic), living
in, and moving around, the region across the border, both Burkina Faso
and Niger appear to converge in their acknowledgement of a shared and
common duty to that end (cf. Part VII, infra). More than that, they have
recognized to be bound by their duty of co-operation in this respect

(cf. Part X, infra). Such engagement in securing the freedom of movement
of those persons is, in my perception, highly significant, and stands to the
credit of both Niger and Burkina Faso.

VI. Concern of the Partiesb with the Local Populatbions
in the Oral Phase of Probceedings
(First and Second Roundbs of Oral Arguments)

32. In their two rounds of oral arguments before the Court, the
contending Parties retook their respective lines of reasoning on the relba -

20As pointed out by Niger, in its oral arguments ; cf. CR 2012/26, of 17 October 2012,

p. 56.

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Separate Opinion of Judge CançadoTrindade: Sketch Map 1:
PARTIES’CLAIMS AND LINE DEPICTED ONTHE 1960 IGN MAP
Thissketchmaphasbeenpreparedforillustrativepurposesonly

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tionship between people and territory in the cas d’espèce. In the first
round of those arguments, Burkina Faso, for its part, referred to the
21
demographic, ecological and economic elements of the region , and to
the fact that the nomadic peoples lived therein, in the frontier area, obff
22
pastoralism . It explained that they tend to settle in easily dismountable 23
huts, so that they can move according to the pastoral calendar .
Burkina Faso recalled that Niger and itself are member States of

ECOWAS, which has adopted agreements concerning cross-border move -
ments of livestock . Having said that, it insisted on its position based on
legal title, discarding Niger’s reliance on effectivités 2.

33. Niger, in turn, dismissed Burkina Faso’s reliance on a deliberately
“artificial” frontier line, and invoked the cantons’ borders (created by
going from one village to another), which, in its view, showed the awarbe -

ness of colonial administrators of the fact that villages had been estabb -
lished on both sides of the frontier, and had been taken into account fobr
the frontier’s delimitation 26. According to Niger, the limits established by

the 1927 Arrêté and its Erratum ought to be presumed to have followed
the limits of the cantons 2. Niger then invoked the effectivités to the effect
28
of interpreting the legal title in practice .
34. In the second round of oral arguments, the two contending Parties
devoted much of their attention to the argument on the effectivités. Once

again, Niger supports recourse to these latter, as it sees the legal title
unclear; Burkina Faso, on the other hand, opposes such recourse to the
effectivités, as it regards the historical title as being clear 29. That was not,

however, the end of the exchanges between the contending Parties in the b
procedure of the cas d’espèce.

VII. Concern of the Partiesb with the Local Populatbions

in the Responses of thbe Parties to Questionsb from the Bench

1. Questions from the Bench

35. At the end of the public sittings before the Court, on 17 Octo -
ber 2012, I deemed it fit to put to the contending Parties the following
questions :

21 CR 2012/19, of 8 October 2012, p. 33.
22 Ibid., pp. 34 and 36.
23 Ibid., p. 40.
24
25 Ibid., p. 38.
CR 2012/20, of 8 October 2012, pp. 34-45 ; and CR 2012/21, of 9 October 2012,
pp. 10-13.
26 CR 2012/22, of 11 October 2012, pp. 50-51 and 53.
27 Ibid., pp. 55-56.
28 CR 2012/23, of 12 October 2012, pp. 45 and 48.
29 Cf., as to the arguments of Niger, CR 2012/26, of 17 October 2012, pp. 21-23,

25-29, 33, 35-36 and 38-41. And, as to the arguments of Burkina Faso, cf. CR 2012/22, of
11 October 2012, pp. 23 and 50 ; and CR 2012/25, of 15 October 2012, pp. 24 and 26-36.

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“For the purposes of precision as to the factual context of the pres-

ent case, I pose the following questions to both Parties :

(1) First, could the Parties indicate in a map the location areas of
nomadic populations at the epoch of accession to independence
and nowadays, and indicate with precision to what extent will the

fixing of the frontier have a bearing on those populations ?
(2) In which radius around the frontier between the two States do the
populations’ movements take place ? Would you please indicate

in a map, if possible, which are precisely the portions of the fron -
tier at issue.
(3) Which are the villages susceptible of being affected by the fixing
of the frontier claimed by the Parties ?” 30

36. In response to my questions, Burkina Faso and Niger have pro -
31
vided the Court — in three rounds of responses to my questions — with
considerable additional information (a file of 140 pages), containing rele -
vant details for the consideration of the present case. Certain passagesb of

their responses were particularly enlightening — in particular those per -
taining to nomadic populations — as we shall see next (infra). Both
Burkina Faso and Niger thus disclosed a commendable spirit of proce -

dural co-operation before the Court.

2. Responses from Burkina Faso

37. Burkina Faso has provided responses to each of the questions I
posed to both Parties 32. In response to the question concerning the areas
through which nomadic populations used to move, during the period

when they became independent and today, Burkina Faso submits that,
despite its efforts, it is unable to indicate in a map the areas used bby the
nomads at the time of independence since it was not able to find this b
information in the colonial archives and studies consulted ; it does how -

ever provide indications of nomadic existence in the border area in the b
years close to the States’ independence 33. As to the nomads in the “Téra
sector”, Burkina Faso claims that although it cannot identify the precise

30 CR 2012/26, of 17 October 2012, pp. 59-60.
31 Cf. Replies of Burkina Faso and Niger to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trin-
dade at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 October 2012, doc. of 16 November 2012,

pp. 1-150 ; Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Tribndade
at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 October 2012, doc. of 23 Novbember 2012,
pp. 1-2 ; Written Comments of Burkina Faso on Niger’s Replies to the Questions bPut by
Judge Cançado Trindade at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 Ocbtober 2012, doc. of
23 November 2012, pp. 1-7.
32 Replies of Burkina Faso and Niger to the Questions Put by Judge Cançabdo Trindade
at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 October 2012, doc. of 16 November 2012 [here-
inafter referred to as “Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Pbut by Judge Cançado
Trindade”].
33 Ibid., paras. 1-3.

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nomadic areas at the time of independence, it asserts that the Parties hbave
engaged, since their independence, in the facilitation of freedom of cirbcu-
lation from each side of the border 34.

38. As to the question as to how the frontier could affect these popula -

tions, Burkina Faso claims that, in general, the reduction of pastoral
spaces posed by international borders may cause difficulties to the
nomads, while stating that, in the present case, any frontier that is debter -
mined between it and Niger will have no detrimental effect on the popula-
35
tions (nomads or otherwise) living in the border area . As to the question
concerning the movement of nomadic populations in the border area,
between the two countries, Burkina Faso submits a map depicting the
36
itineraries of transhumance at present time . Then, in relation, more spe-
cifically, to the radius of areas of movement of the nomadic populatiobns,
Burkina Faso claims that it can be calculated on the basis of a description

of the transhumance movements. It explains that transhumance is dic -
tated by nature and natural resources, without taking into account border
lines between States ; and, it adds, transhumance is also based on solidar ­
37
ity (cf. infra).

39. Burkina Faso next submits that States take political, technical and

judicial measures concerning transhumance, and that regional organiza -
tions develop initiatives to promote breeding. Burkina Faso adds that the
available statistics are poor, which leads it to rely on scattered studibes to

examine the question of transhumance movements. Between Burkina Faso
and Niger, transhumance movements arrive, depart and transit through
the border regions of Tillabéry, Niamey and Dosso, for Niger, and theb
38
Sahel and Est for Burkina Faso .
40. Burkina Faso adds that the radius of movement of nomadic popu -
lations depends on the richness of the pasture, watering points and salt
licks, animal health conditions and commercial facilities (livestock anbd
39
animal produce markets) . And — last but not least — as to the question
of villages susceptible to be affected by the frontier, Burkina Faso simply
claims that because the 1987 Agreement confirms that the legal title is the

Erratum of 1927, no village is susceptible of being affected by the frontier,
since the delimitation has remained the same between 1927 and the pres -
ent date .40

34Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade,

par35. 4-15.
36Ibid., paras. 16-17 and 19.
Ibid., paras. 53-55.
37Ibid., para. 59.
38Ibid. It submits two maps showing first the movements in West Africa and secondly
between Burkina Faso and Niger.
39Ibid., paras. 56-65.
40Ibid., p. 23, par. 66.

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3. Responses from Niger

41. For its part, Niger, likewise, has provided responses to the ques -
tions I put to both Parties 4. As to the questions concerning nomadic

populations, Niger explains that the relevant area from the Niger River bto
the south of Dori is populated by sedentary, nomads and semi-nomads. It

adds that these populations remain the same at this date and that they abre
currently located in the new administrative sections (the Téra sectobr, and
the provinces of Oudalan, Séno and Yagha). It further points out that the

disputed area is not occupied exclusively by nomadic populations. Niger b
further asserts that transhumance across borders is regulated in numeroubs

documents annexed to Niger’s Memorial, ensuring the liberty of move -
ment of nomads . 42

43
42. In relation to my first question , Niger submits that it was not
able to find maps adequately addressing the question ; it thus relies on the
44
documents used in the proceedings , and it submits two maps indicating
first the areas through which nomadic populations used to move during
the period when they became independent, and another map indicating

the areas of movement today. It notes that, during the colonial and

41 Replies of Burkina Faso and Niger to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade
at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 October 2012 (hereinafter “Niger’s Response to
the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade”), doc. of 16 November 2012.
42 Ibid., pp. 1-3.
43
Which reads as follows :“indicate in a map the areas through which nomadic popula-
tions used to move, during the period when they became independent and tboday”.
44 Mainly in its Memorial. The documents referred to are the following : (a) Letter
No. 96 from the Commander of Dori cercle to the Commander of Upper Volta
dated 23 April 1929, which Niger claims to highlight transhumance movement between

Dori and Téra ; (b) Letter No. 367 from the Commander of Dori cercle to the Governor
of Upper Volta dated 31 July 1929 and previous correspondence, wherein Niger claims
the links which exist between populations and the places where they wereb established or
had pastures ; (c) Report No. 416 from the Commander of Dori cercle on the difficul -
ties created by the delimitation established in 1927 between the Colonies of Niger and
Upper Volta (Arrêté of 31 August 1927) regarding the boundaries between Dori cercle

and Tillabéry cercle, 7 July 1930 ;(d) Niger claims that this Report highlights the problem
of the distribution of the nomadic populations between Téra and Dori ; (e) Directory
(of 1941) of Villages of Téra Subdivision (villages of Kel Tamared, Kel Tinijirt, Logo-
maten Assadek, Logomaten Allaban), in respect to which Niger argues all the nomadic
tribes, their pasture areas and watering points are mentioned ; (f) Report of Delimitation

Operations between Dori and Tillabéry cercles, dated 8 December 1943, stating :“[T]here is
traditionally a cross-movement of Yagha and Diagourou herds. At the start and end of the
rainy season, the herds from the central area of the Yagha go to Taka Pool, in Diagourou,
for the salt lick, while, during the same periods, the Diagourou herds tbravel to the banks of
Yiriga Pool for the same purpose” ; (g) Report from the Head of Téra Subdivision on the

Census of Diagourou canton, dated 10 August 1954, in relation to which Niger claims that
the sheets of place names show the historical background and the places bof establishment
of certain villages and certain tribes.

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post-colonial periods, there was little transhumance movement between
Burkina Faso and the Say cercle, as during the colonial and the post-
45
colonial periods pastoral activities were prohibited .

43. As to the question concerning the extent to which the frontier will
affect these populations, Niger explains first the current régimeb (in the

absence of a definite frontier). It states that the movement of populbations
and the access to natural resources follows the modus vivendi between the
authorities of both States, which does not apply very rigorously the regu -
lations for the movement of populations (such as, e.g., the requirementb of

an identity card, or else a vaccination booklet) ; it refers, in this regard, to
paragraph 2 of Protocol of Agreement of 1964.

44. As to the future movement of populations, Niger asserts that the

free circulation of populations and goods between the two States will beb
guaranteed by the bilateral and multilateral agreements concerning the
liberty of movement and access to natural resources between member
States. Niger refers in this regard to documents submitted with its

response, explaining the transhumance movements and the organization
of the transhumance régime conceived on the basis of international agree -
ments. It then concludes that such agreements guarantee that the nomadicb
populations that move across the border between Niger and Burkina Faso
46
will be able to keep their modus vivendi .
45. And, last but not least, as to the question of which villages are
susceptible of being affected by the frontier which each Party is claibming,

in addressing the question from its point of view, Niger distinguishes ab
scenario in which there is a change in the current national status of vibl -
lages that have always been considered to be in Niger’s territory andb
which it continues to claim to be located in its territory ; and villages with

Nigerien populations located in territory that Niger implicitly admits, by
excluding them from its claim, will no longer be part of the State of Nibger.
Niger submits four maps (two for each scenario), as well as a list of bvil -
lages with respective co-ordinates 47.

4. General Assessment

46. The Parties’ responses have shed light on some important ques -

tions that, earlier on, were not entirely clear. Some observations can be
made in view of the responses of the Parties. As to the nomadic and
semi-nomadic populations, both Parties have submitted that : (a) there

45
46 Niger’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade, pp. 4-8.
Ibid., pp. 9-11. As to the question concerning the radius of the areas of movement of
nomadic populations along the border between the two States concerned, Nbiger indicates
such movement in a map which it submits with its response ; cf. ibid., pp. 11-12.
47 Ibid., pp. 13-21.

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are nomads and semi-nomads located in the border area and in the
region ;(b) the nomadic populations move across the areas where any of

the frontiers claimed by the Parties would be located ; (c) the Parties are
willing and are bound (by their membership in regional organizations and
by their bilateral engagements), to continue to guarantee free movementb
to the nomadic populations.

47. In this light, any frontier to be determined does not seem likely to
have an impact on the population, as long as both States continue to
guarantee the free movement to the nomads and semi-nomads, and their
living conditions do not change as a consequence of the fixing of the bfron -
tier (by the Court). It is important, in this connection, that the Judbgment
makes use of the extensive information now available in the case file band

refers to the guarantees both States have given that they will not curtabil
the living conditions of the nomads and semi-nomads of the region.

48. As to the question relating to villages which are susceptible to be
affected by the frontier, each Party claims, according to the responsebs

provided by Niger (as Burkina Faso practically evaded the question,
without providing much information in this regard), taking the claims obf
Niger at face value, there appear to be many Niger villages that would bbe
on Burkina Faso’s side were the Court to adopt a straight line between
Tao and Bossébangou (i.e., as proposed by Burkina Faso). Furthermore,

it is to be noted that Niger made the distinction in its response between
villages that in its view have always belonged to Niger and should con -
tinue so, and villages that have a Nigerien population but that it does bnot
claim to be on Niger’s side.

49. This is a point which was not entirely clear before. Niger provided

specific (and helpful) co-ordinates for most villages to which it refers,
which is very helpful to locate these villages in a map. Yet, there remabins
a question which the Parties’ responses did not clarify entirely : whether
there is sufficient evidence in the case file that these villages havbe been as
Niger claims Nigerien. Niger, in its response, limits itself to providinbg the

names and co-ordinates of villages it claims to be Nigerien (and maps to
this effect), without however providing evidence that these villages bare
indeed Nigerien. The next question to consider is that of the possible
courses of the frontier in the area between Tao and Bossébangou, wherbe
most villages are located.

50. The area between the Tao astronomic marker and Bossébangou, in
particular, seems to be the most complex portion of the frontier to be
determined. This is so because first, the text of the Erratum is not ebntirely
clear in its description of the course of the frontier. Secondly, anothebr dif-
ficulty of determining the frontier in this area concerns the presenceb of

villages located near the border and claimed by Niger. I propose thus to
share some reflections concerning this section of the frontier, in ligbht of

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the responses of the Parties previously discussed. My observations are
informed by the principle that the territory exists for the people that

inhabit it.
51. The responses of the Parties were necessary in order to form a clear
opinion on the border in this area, where the majority of concerned villbages
are located. As to methodology, the point of start should be the Erratumb.
In this regard, however, the text of the Erratum does not appear entirelby

clear as to the course of the frontier in this area (except concerning bthe end
ing point, which the text is clear that the line “reach[es] the Riverb Sirba at
Bossébangou”). It gives some indications (frontier points, direcbtion, and
that the line “turns”); yet, these indications of the Erratum do not necessar -
ily lead to a straight line on the basis of the text of the Erratum.
52. Thus, as the text of the Erratum is not by itself clear as to the fron -

tier line, other elements of the case file — which do not seem to clarify
further the exact course of the frontier — need to be assessed to interpret
the text of the Erratum. As to the top part of the frontier between Tongb-
Tong to Tao, both Parties propose a straight line, there appearing to exbist
enough elements to justify it, connecting Tong-Tong and Tao.

53. It is the area between Tao and Bossébangou, as already stated, that
is the more complex one, in particular due to the presence of villages. bOn
the basis of the clarifying responses of the Parties concerning the villbages
in question, many villages seem to be susceptible to be affected by thbe

frontier if a straight line were to connect the Tao astronomic marker anbd
the Bossébangou area. Recourse can thus be made, in my view, to the line
of the 1960 IGN map (given the insufficiency of the Erratum to determine
the course of the frontier — supra), pursuant to the 1987 Agreement.

54. As to the part of the frontier between Tao and Bossébangou, the

text of the Erratum does not appear entirely clear in its description. Ibt
gives some indications (frontier points, direction); yet it does not state the
shape of the line. It is, however, clear that the line should reach the bRiver
Sirba at Bossébangou (the ending point of this section of the frontiber). In
face of a text that is not entirely clear, it is necessary to have recoubrse to

other elements of the case file, so as to interpret the text in an attbempt to
clarify its meaning. As to the bottom part of the section of the frontiebr
(from Tao to Bossébangou), if the text of the Erratum and the elements
of the case file do not appear sufficient to clarify the meaning of tbhe text,
it would thus appear necessary to have recourse to the 1960 IGN map to

determine the course of the frontier.

VIII. Some Remarks on the Tracibng
of the Frontier Line inb the IGN Map

55. Reference has already been made to the line of the map (1960 edition)
of the Institut géographique national de France (IGN) in the factual context

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of the present case (supra). In effect, the IGN map had already drawn the
attention of the ICJ Chamber in the earlier case of the Frontier Dispute

between Burkina Faso and Mali (Judgment of 22 December 1986, para. 61).
The Chamber expressly referred to one of the documents in the dossier of
that case, namely, a Note of 27 January 1975, compiled by the IGN, on the

positioning of the frontiers on the maps (para. 61). In its Judgment, the
Chamber quoted only an extract of that Note; its full text is in the archives
of this Court. In effect, having researched on the archives of the ICJb, bearing
in mind the present case between Burkina Faso and Niger, I have found out

that there are some other related and supporting documents (pertaining bto
the previous Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso and Mali, 1986), of
pertinence and relevance for the adjudication of the cas d’espèce 4.
56. For example, one such document of the IGN (letter of 24 June 1975)

expressly refers to difficulties in the tracing of frontiers, solved, obn most
occasions, with the obtaining of information provided in loco to the
“opérateurs sur le terrain” by the “chefs des circonscriptiobns frontalières,
49
les chefs de villages et les populations locales” . In this way, local popu -
lations and their representatives gave their contribution to the tracing of
the frontiers in the region they lived, as set in the IGN map, — as the
documentation of the previous Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso

and Mali, kept in the archives of this Court, indicates.

57. In the course of the proceedings (written and oral phases) of the
present Frontier Dispute case between Burkina Faso and Niger, the point

was stressed by Niger. Thus, in its Counter-Memorial (of January 2012),
Niger observes that, from the cartographical standpoint, the 1960 IGN
map rests on “solid technical bases”, being as complete as “knobwledge of

occupation on the ground allowed. [T]he indications of the boundaries
are based on information obtained from the local authorities”
(para. 1.1.32).
58. In its oral argument in the public sitting before the Court

of 11 October 2012, Niger added that the 1960 IGN map, prepared “at
the dawn of decolonization”, was the one to be relied upon. After allb, it
was compiled, as far as possible, not only on the basis of “detailed btopo -
graphical surveys”, but also on the basis of “information providedb by the

local authorities on the boundaries of their cantons”. In its view, all those
elements, “garnered on the eve of independence”, were therefore “bhighly
relevant” 50.

48 Namely, besides the aforementioned Note of 27 January 1975 (doc. D/134), the
following ones : (a) letter of 31 January 1975, accompanying the aforementioned Note
(doc. D/135) ; (b) document (D/136) of 25 February 1975 (on the insufficiency of the
Arrêté and the Erratum) ; (c) telegram of 9 June 1975 (on the need of observation in loco,

doc. D/137) ;(d) letter of 24 June 1975 (doc. D/138), on information obtained in loco ; and
(e) letter of 5 September 1978 (doc. D/139), on the need of new cartography.
49
50 Doc. D/138, p. 3, para. 4.
CR 2012/22, of 11 October 2012, p. 30, para. 17.

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59. Furthermore, again in its Counter-Memorial, Niger retorted the
usual argument that its frontier with Burkina Faso, like other frontiers in
the African continent, had a rather “artificial and arbitrary” cbharacter.
Niger dismissed this argument by remarking that

“It is of course well known that the colonial powers, particularly
in Africa, did have recourse to straight lines of an artificial and arbi -
trary character in drawing the boundaries of colonial territories. This b

was the case across deserts, uninhabited regions and regions that
remained unexplored before or after conquest. One needs only to
think of the boundaries of Western Sahara, Mauritania, Algeria,
Libya, Chad, etc., to cite just a few examples. [P. 13.]

However, this is not at all the case in respect of the boundaries
concerned here. The circumstances in which the boundary between
Niger and Upper Volta was established reveal, on the contrary, a true
concern to respect local inhabitants and pre-existing administrative

divisions. The historical context and map archives prove this.”
(Para. 1.1.7.)

60. Also in relation to the present case, Niger further stated in the
Counter-Memorial that

“It was thus not a question of drawing (straight or curved) geo-
metric lines through unknown regions, but rather of incorporating
pre-existing cantons into the territory of one colony or the other. The
areas comprising these cantons — inhabited by indigenous peoples

and consisting of villages, crop and pastureland, and nomad routes —
did not in principle follow abstract lines, but were based on land
occupation and followed the configuration or nature of the ground.”
(Para. 1.1.15.)

61. In sum, in my perception, in the area between the Tao astronomic
marker and Bossébangou, the IGN line appears, from the perspective ofb
the relations between people and territory, as the appropriate one. All b

evidence available in the dossier of the present case, as well as in the
archives of this Court, points to the fact that the IGN line was drawn
taking into account the consultations undertaken in loco by IGN cartog -
raphers with village chiefs and local people 5.

62. People and territory stand together ; it is clear, in contemporary jus
gentium, that territorial or frontier disputes cannot be settled making
abstraction of the local populations concerned. As it can be seen
(cf. sketch-map No. 2, p. 119), the IGN line, and indeed the course of the
frontier determined by the Court in the cas d’espèce in the area between

the Tao astronomic marker and Bossébangou, cuts across the width of

51 Cf., to this effect, e.g., case of the Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali),

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, pp. 585-586, para. 61.

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the areas of population movements today in a balanced way, equitably
within the orbit of their present-day movements’ areas.

IX. The Human Factor and Fronbtiers

63. It ensues from all the aforesaid that, in circumstances of the kind
of the present case, or of inhabited territories in general, people and bterri -

tory go together (cf. Part XI, infra). In the case of nomadic peoples, in
distinct regions of the world, it has been observed that nomads “haveb
become the prisoners of an annual climatic and vegetational cycle (. . .).
They have not, indeed, passed across the stage of the histories of civiliza -
tions without having left their mark.” 52This has been pondered by

Arnold J. Toynbee, in his masterful, if not epic, 10-volume A Study of
History (1934-1957). He then added that

“in spite of (. . .) occasional incursions into the field of historical
events, Nomadism is essentially a society without a history. Once
launched on its annual orbit, the Nomadic horde revolves in it there -

after and might go on revolving forever if an external force against
which Nomadism is defenceless did not eventually bring the horde’s
movements to a standstill and its life to an end. This force is the
pressure of the sedentary civilizations round about.” 53

64. May I add, in this respect, that this may happen to any commu -

nity, in any part of the world, for example, those who have lived on agrbi-
culture for generations and then decide to migrate into (new) industrialized
centres, in the quest for, or illusion of, a “better” life. Furthermore, as the
present case illustrates, nomadic, semi-nomadic and sedentary peoples

may co-exist harmoniously in the same region. In any case, it is not sur -
prising to me to find learned historians of the twentieth century (such as
Arnold J. Toynbee and F. Braudel, among others) approaching their dis -
cipline from the outlook of lifecycles, or, in a longer-time scale, of cul -

tural cycles.

65. Nomads may not have a history of big events, but they surely have
their history, their modus vivendi, projected in time immemorial. History
is included in civilization, which, in Fernand Braudel’s outlook, further

requires, in order to be understood, the combined endeavours of all
the social sciences, and encompasses climate, vegetation, animal species,
natural or other elements ; it, moreover, comprises and considers what
the human beings concerned have made of such basic conditions as “agri -

52A. J. Toynbee, A Study of History (abridged by D. C. Somervell), Oxford/London,
Oxford University Press, 1960 [reimpr.], p. 169.
53Ibid., p. 169.

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Separate Opinion of Judge CançadoTrindade: Sketch Map 2:
COURSE OFTHE FRONTIER AS DECIDED BYTHE COURT
Thissketchmaphasbeenpreparedforillustrativepurposesonly

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culture, stock-breeding, food, shelter, clothing, communications, industry
and so on” . One can then identify the “underlying structures” of civili -
zations, namely, “religious beliefs, family life, attitudes towards lbife and
55
death, timeless peasantry, attitudes towards work and leisure” .

66. Nomadic groups constitute one of the most ancient forms of com -
munity, as aptly recalled by Toynbee. He added that nomadic shepherds

move or displace themselves in a “fixed annual orbit” ; they have never
been able to become “technologically or economically independent” bfrom
the type of community or society they came from 56, nor did they seem to

have wanted to become so. He further observed that the members of
those ancient agricultural communities never broke up into serious con -
flict with each other, nor even with their more distant neighbours 57.

67. Another learned historian (and anthropologist) of the last century,
the Senegalese scholar Cheikh Anta Diop, in one of his thoughtful mono -
graphs, L’unité culturelle de l’Afrique noire (1959), pondered that seden -

tary and nomadic ways of life (in distinct regions) have led to two dibstinct
types of family life (matriarchal and patriarchal) and to distinct orgbaniza -
tions of social collectivities, leading later to distinct forms of Stateb 58.

Nomadic life soon disclosed needs of its own, and everything seemed
linked to the earlier conditions of existence (and survival), with theb notion
of justice only emerging later on, in time perspective ; distinct social ideas
59
derived from nomadic and sedentary ways of life .

68. Cheikh Anta Diop added that private law emerged first, and only

much later on, with the passing of time, public law was to take its placbe
in order to regulate social relations, then followed by the rise of the bStates,
marked by the séquelles of the earlier historical periods 6. As observed,

for his part, by the archaeologist Félix Sartiaux in 1938, in ancient times
nomadic populations exerted influence upon sedentary populations ; the
two forms of modus vivendi (pastoral life and agriculture) were to co-exist,

and, with the passing of time, sedentary populations gained increasing
importance and were to influence others 61.
69. Yet — as the present case bears witness of — nomadic populations

never vanished, and their way of life and their spirit survive nowadays,b

54 F. Braudel, A History of Civilizations, N.Y./London, Penguin Books, 1995, pp. 9-10,
and cf. pp. 18 and 25.
55 Ibid., p. 28.
56A. J. Toynbee, Le changement et la tradition, Paris, Payot, 1969, pp. 33-34 and 73.
57
58 Ibid., p. 119.
Cheikh Anta Diop, L’unité culturelle de l’Afrique noire [1959], 2nd rev. ed., Dakar/
Paris, Ed. Présence africaine, 1982, pp. 135-136.
59 Ibid., pp. 150, 152, 154 and 167, and cf. pp. 185-186.
60 Ibid., pp. 139-140.
61 F. Sartiaux, La civilisation, Paris, Libr. A. Colin, 1938, pp. 40-42, 72-73 and 182.

80

6 CIJ1042.indb 196 8/04/14 08:34 121 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

62
“in the agitation and disquiet of modern times” . In my perception, even
in the determination of frontiers in regions inhabited by human groups obf
such dense cultural features, one should not simply draw entirely and

admittedly “artificial” lines, overlooking the human element ; the central -
ity, in my view, is of human beings.

X. Admission by the Partiebs that They Are Bound by Tbheir Pledge
to Co-operation in Respect bof Local Populations

70. In the present Judgment on the Frontier Dispute case between
Burkina Faso and Niger, the Court has expressed “its wish” that each
Party has due regard to the needs of the population concerned, in par -
ticular those of the nomadic or semi-nomadic populations (para. 112).

This is very reassuring. In effect, the contending Parties themselves bhave,
in response to my questions, indicated that they regard themselves boundb
to do so, by virtue of their acknowledgment of their duty of co-operation
in respect of local populations (in particular nomadic and semi-nomadic

ones), as manifested in multilateral African fora, as well as in bilateral
agreements, conforming the régime of transhumance (with freedom of
movement of those local populations across their borders).

1. In Multilateral African Fora

71. In their responses to questions I have deemed it fit to put to both
of them at the end of the public sittings before this Court, on 17 Octo -

ber 2012, Burkina Faso points out, together with Niger, that both States
are parties to numerous regional co-operation and integration organiza -
tions establishing freedom of movement of populations, goods and ser -
vice, as well as the right of residence and establishment 63. Burkina Faso

refers, in this regard, to the Economic Community of West African Statesb
(ECOWAS), the West African Economic and Monetary Union
(WAEMU), the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in
the Sahel (CILSS), the Liptako-Gourma Integrated Development Author -

ity (LGA), the Niger Basin Authority (NBA) and the Conseil de l’entente.

72. As to the ECOWAS, in explaining the nature of the organization,
Burkina Faso notes in particular its objective of suppressing obstacles to

the free movement of people, goods and services, as well as the right ofb
residence. Burkina Faso contends that the Heads of State and Government

62F. Sartiaux, La civilisation, Paris, Libr. A. Colin, 1938, p. 73.
63Replies of Burkina Faso and Niger to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade
at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 October 2012, doc. of 16 November 2012,
paras. 18-19.

81

6 CIJ1042.indb 198 8/04/14 08:34 122 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

of ECOWAS adopted Protocol A/P.1/5/79, in Dakar, on 29 May 1979 64,
on freedom of movement of persons, the right of residence and establish -

ment in the ECOWAS area, which reasserted and clarified the details ofb the
freedom of movement of persons as well as the right of residence and estbab -

lishment. In this regard, it also invokes Protoco65A/P.3/5/82, of 29 May 1982,
on the definition of community citizenship .
73. Moreover, it cites other documents of the ECOWAS concerning
66
the free circulation of persons . Burkina Faso further argues that free -
dom of movement is accorded to nomadism or cross-border transhu -
mance, which is subject to a minimum amount of regulatory legislation 67.

Burkina Faso also notes that ECOWAS authorities have organized
awareness-raising and outreach seminars, and workshops concerning
freedom of movement, residence and establishment within the ECOWAS
68
member States .

74. As to the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU),

in recalling that it is a regional economic and monetary union composed
of eight West African countries, Burkina Faso notes, in particular, that

its objective is to create a common market based, inter alia, on the free
circulation of people, goods, services, capitals, and the right of estabblish -
ment of people conducting an independent or paid activity, as well as

external tariff and a common trade policy. Burkina Faso further claims
that several texts issued by the Conference of the Heads of State and
Government, the Council of Ministers, the Commission and the President

of the Commission, supplement and further clarify the nature and scope

64 Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trinbdade, Annex 2.

65
66 Ibid., Annex 3.
Namely, Supplementary Protocol A/SP.1/7/85, signed in Lomé, on 6 July 1985, on
the code of conduct for the implementation of the Protocol on free movembent of persons,
the right of residence and establishment ;Decision A/DEC.2/7/85, of 6 July 1985, on
the establishment of the ECOWAS travel certificate for member States ; Supplementary
Protocol A/SP.1/7/86, signed in Abuja, on 1 July 1986, on the second phase (right of resi -
dence) of the Protocol on free movement of persons, the right of residebnce and establish -

ment ; Supplementary Protocol A/SP.2/5/90, signed in Banjul, on 29 May 1990, on the
implementation of the third phase (right of establishment) of the Protbocol on free move -
ment of persons, right of residence and establishment Decision A/DEC.2/5/90, adopted
in Banjul, on 30 May 1990, establishing a residence card in the ECOWAS member States ;
Decision C/DEC.3/12/92, adopted in Abuja, on 5 December 1992, on the introduction of
a harmonized immigration and emigration form in the ECOWAS member States ; and the
adoption of the ECOWAS Embarkation and Disembarkation Form, used by the bairport

police services of the various ECOWAS member States.

67 Burkina Faso cites, in this regard, the Decision A/DEC.5/10/98, of 31 October 1998,
regulating transhumance between the ECOWAS member States, and the Regulabtion C/
REG.3/01/03 on the implementation of the regulation of transhumance betwbeen the
ECOWAS member States, submitted as Annexes 4 and 5 of Burkina Faso’s Response.

68
Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trinbdade,
paras. 20-30.

82

6 CIJ1042.indb 200 8/04/14 08:34 123 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

of the freedom of movement and the right of establishment and residence
69
in the WAEMU area .
75. As to the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in
the Sahel (CILSS), Burkina Faso points out that a transhumance agree -
ment has been concluded among its member States 70. And as to the Con­

seil de l’entente, Burkina Faso refers to the free movement of people and
goods, the right of residence and of establishment (recognized in Articble 2
and 3 of the Charter of the Conseil), and to a Protocol of Agreement
adopted by member States in 1989 relating to an international transhu -

mance certificate in the Conseil member States, and highlighting transit
through the entry and exit points established by the States and the healbth
protection and security conditions to cross borders 71.
76. As to the Liptako-Gourma Integrated Development Authority

(LGA), in recalling that it is a sub-regional organization composed of
Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger (created by a Protocol of Agreement,
signed in Ouagadougou on 3 December 1970), Burkina Faso remarks

that this institution is the most active on the ground concerning nomadibc
populations of member States and transhumance movements. It further
claims that LGA, in partnership with the ECOWAS (financial develop -
ment partners), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and profes -

sional agro-pastoral organizations and associations, organized a regional
workshop on the findings of a study concerning existing legislation gobv -
erning transhumance in the Organization’s member States 72.
77. For its part, in response to a question I have deemed it fit to put tob

the two contending Parties, on 17 October 2012, at the end of the public
sittings before this Court, Niger refers to ECOWAS Decision A/
DEC.5/10/98, of 31 October 1998, which purports to regulate transhu -
mance between ECOWAS member States, in the “communitarian space”
73
(preamble). The Decision provides, inter alia (Article 3), that

“The crossing of terrestrial frontiers for purposes of transhumance
is authorized between all countries of the Community for bovine,
ovine, caprine, cameline and asine species under the conditions laid
down in the present Decision. (. . .)”

78. To regulate transhumance harmoniously — it proceeds — an

ECOWAS certificate, with public health indications (Article 5), provides
for the protection of the rights of the “beneficiaries of transhumabnce”, as
set forth in Article 16, which states that

“Transhumant pastoralists who have lawfully been admitted to the
country shall be entitled to the protection of the authorities in the

69 Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trinbdade,
paras. 31-34.
70 Ibid., paras. 35-36.
71 Ibid., paras. 37-40.
72
73 Ibid., paras. 41-46.
Niger’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade, Abnnex A.

83

6 CIJ1042.indb 202 8/04/14 08:34 124 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

host country, and their basic rights shall be guaranteed by the judicialb
institutions of the host country. (. . .)”

79. Furthermore, Niger refers to the general report on the Consulta -

tion Meeting on Cross-Border Transhumance,74eld in Dori, Burkina Faso,
on 19-20 December 2002. The report was prepared following that meet-
ing, on animal transhumance, which gathered ministers “responsible for
animal husbandry”, from ECOWAS member States, held in Ouagadou -

gou, Burkina Faso, on 9-10 October 2002.

2. In Bilateral Agreements

80. In response to a question I have deemed it fit to put to the contend-
ing Parties at the end of the public sittings before this Court, on 17 Octo -
ber 2012, Burkina Faso further adds that the two States have developed
bilateral relations concerning this question. In this regard, Burkina Faso

cites the 1964 Protocol of Agreement which recognized the free move -
ment of populations and it also asserts that the two States have never
ceased to co-operate to further improve and facilitate the conditions and

modalities of free circulation of people and transhumance movements.
Burkina Faso concludes that the frontier will not affect the nomads par -
ticularly since both States’ membership in regional integration and
co-operation institutions recognizes the freedom of movement and resi -
75
dence rights to the populations .
81. For its part, Niger states, in its response to my question, that

“As regards the future, the free movement of persons and goods
between the two States will remain safeguarded under the conventions
binding the two States within a bilateral framework and under inter -

national agreements establishing freedom of movement and free
access to natural resources between member States.” 76

82. The admission by the contending Parties, that they are bound by
their pledge to co-operation — at multilateral and bilateral levels — in
respect of local populations, is, in my perception, very significant ibndeed.

However harmonious human relations might be in the interior of nomadic
and semi-nomadic communities (cf. supra), it is not surprising to find that
their relations with the public power of the State may at times discloseb
77
tension and some degree of mistrust . Yet, this seems also to be sur -
mountable, and renders it much to the credit of both Burkina Faso and
Niger to have found the way to establish a régime of transhumance and a
true “system of solidarity” (cf. infra), so as to fulfil the needs of the local

74 Niger’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade, Abnnex B.
75
Burkina’s Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançadob Trindade,
par76. 47-52.
77 Niger’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade, pb. 6.
For a recent account, cf. inter alia, e.g., B. Oumarou, Pasteurs nomades face à l’Etat
du Niger, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2011, pp. 69-74, 168-175, 198-206 and 215-216.

84

6 CIJ1042.indb 204 8/04/14 08:34 125 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

populations (and to preserve their modus vivendi, whether nomadic,
semi-nomadic or sedentary), within themselves and in their international

relations.

3. The Régime of Transhumance

83. Besides transmitting to the Court important elements such as the
ones reviewed in the present separate opinion (supra), the two contending
Parties, also in their responses to the questions I have deemed it fitb to put to
both of them at the end of the public sittings before this Court, on 17 Octo -

ber 2012, added some thoughts which leave no doubt as to their clear pledge
to co-operation with regard to the living conditions of the population over
the territory at issue. Thus, in this respect Burkina Faso ponders that

“it is the practice of nomadism in Africa and, more generally, the
movement of pastoralists and their herds as part of transhumance
(. . .), which led Niger and Burkina, once they had achieved independ-

ence, to undertake to f78ilitate the freedom of movement on either
side of the frontier” .

84. Burkina Faso assures that the living conditions of the local popula -
tions will not be affected by the tracing of the frontier line betweenb itself
and Niger. In its own words,

“[C]ommunity law in West Africa, as deriving from the legal pro -
visions of the instruments establishing the sub-regional organizations
which Burkina Faso and Niger have joined, and as deriving from the
regulatory instruments of the organs of those organizations, as well

as the practices followed or observed by the States of the sub-region,
Burkina Faso is in a position to respond that the frontier line between
Burkina Faso and Niger will not affect the life or fate of the nomadic
populations living on either side of the border.” 79

85. For its part, in basically the same general line of thinking, Niger
contends that

“The current system of transhumance is as described hereafter. In
the absence of a precise frontier line, movements and access to natu -

ral resources on either side of the frontier are unrestricted under a
modus vivendi arrangement between the authorities of the two States,
which do not strictly apply the rules in force concerning the movement
of persons and livestock (requirement for an identity card, laissez-
80
passer, vaccination certificate, etc.).”

78 Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trinbdade,
para. 15. Burkina Faso adds that “the area frequented by nomads goes way beyond the

frontier zone” (para. 54) ; in referring to their free circulation between itself and Niger,
Burkina Faso adds that the “transhumance routes” correspond to the “zonbes currently
fre79ented by nomads” (para. 55).
80 Ibid., par. 52.
Niger’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade, pb. 8.

85

6 CIJ1042.indb 206 8/04/14 08:34 126 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

86. Despite not coinciding in their submissions as to the specific aspectsb
of the tracing of the frontier line, Burkina Faso and Niger agree as to the

assurance of freedom of movement of nomadic populations across their
borders. Thus, in its additional comments to the responses given by Nigebr
to the questions I put to both contending Parties at the close of the pubblic
sittings before the ICJ, on 17 October 2012, Burkina Faso ponders, inter

alia, that
“it should be pointed out that both Parties agree that the rules in fborce

and effectively applied between the two States allow for — and widely
facilitate — cross-border transhumance. Niger describes this as a
modus vivendi arrangement (. . .) : whatever its precise significance,
that expression does not give an accurate representation of the situa -
81
tion. As shown by Burkina Faso in its own reply , and confirmed by
the additional information given by Niger, the freedom of nomadic
movement and transhumance is established (and supported) by an
82
effective legal framework, which guarantees its continuity.”

XI. Population and Territbory Together: Conformation
of a “System of Solidarbity”

87. All the aforementioned discloses that the two Parties, in response

to my questions, have confirmed their understanding of the conformatiobn
of a régime of transhumance, described, by one of them, as a true “bsystem
of solidarity”. The ICJ now sees that people and territory go togethebr
(infra); the latter cannot make abstraction of the former, in particular

in cases of such a cultural density as the present one. After all, since thbe
time of its “founding fathers”, the law of nations (jus gentium) has
born witness of the presence of solidarity in its corpus juris, as we shall
see next.

1. Transhumance and the “System of Solidarity”

88. May I single out, at this stage, a passage of the responses of
Burkina Faso to the questions that I put to both Parties at the end of the
public sittings before this Court, on 17 October 2012 ; in dwelling upon

the phenomenon of transhumance, Burkina Faso observes that

81
Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade, paras.
17-52.
82Written Comments of Burkina Faso on Niger’s Replies to the Questions Put by
Judge Cançado Trindade at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 Ocbtober 2013, doc. of
23 November 2012, para. 4.

86

6 CIJ1042.indb 208 8/04/14 08:34 127 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

“Transhumance is a traditional herding system based on longstand-
ing routes and itineraries which are still in use today. The volume of
movement varies in terms of both time and space, depending on the
year and more particularly, periods of drought. (. . .)

Livestock are moved in search of pasture, watering points and salt
licks. Those movements of livestock take no account of national fron -
tiers. Livestock movements are dependent solely upon nature, natural

resources and their capacity to feed their stock. (. . .)

The resources shared by herders are never appropriated by one
community to the detriment of another. All depend on the rainfall
and its vagaries; no one knows in advance when fodder resource con -

ditions will fail. A system of solidarity, of tontine (mutual assistance)
exists, where each welcomes the other when the conditions are better
in his area, in the certainty of being welcomed in turn in other areas
when nature is more favourable there.” (Paras. 57-59.)

After explaining that the radius of movement or displacement of the

nomadic populations depends on “the richness of the pasture, wateringb
points and salt licks, animal health conditions and commercial facilitiebs”,
it concludes on this matter that Burkina Faso and Niger are, “at the same
time, and reciprocally, host and transit zones for livestock moving

between the countries” (para. 65).

2. People and Territory Together

89. It is reassuring that, even a classic subject like territory, is seen

today — even by the International Court of Justice — as going together
with the population. In this respect, it should not pass unnoticed that,b in
its Order of Provisional Measures of Protection (of 18 July 2011) in the
Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the Case

concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), the ICJ
approached territory together with the (affected) population, and
ordered — in an unprecedented way in its case law — the creation of a
demilitarized zone in the surroundings of the aforementioned Temple
(near the borderline between the two countries).

90. In my separate opinion appended thereto, I observed that such
demilitarized zone seeks to protect not only the territory at issue, but also
the segments of the populations that live thereon 8. Beyond the classic
territorialist approach is the “human factor” ; this paves the way, I pro -

ceeded, for protecting, by means of such provisional measures, the rightb
to life of the members of the local populations as well as the spiritualb

83As well as aset of monuments situated thereon (conforming the Temple) which
nowadays integrate — by decision of UNESCO — the cultural and spiritual heritage of
humankind (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), pp. 588-598, paras. 66-95).

87

6 CIJ1042.indb 210 8/04/14 08:34 128 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

heritage of humankind (paras. 96-113). Underlying this jurisprudential
construction, I added, is the principle of humanity, orienting the search for

the improvement of the conditions of living of the societas gentium and
the attainment and realization of the common good (paras. 114-115), in
the framework of the new jus gentium of our times (para. 117).

91. In my aforementioned separate opinion, I further pondered that

“the needs of protection of people comprise all their needs”, inclbuding
their modus vivendi, their “right to live with dignity” (para. 102), and I
added that

“Cultural and spiritual heritage appears more closely related to a
human context, rather than to the traditional State-centric context ; it
appears to transcend the purely inter-State dimension, that the Court
is used to. I have made this point also on other occasions, in the
adjudication of distinct cases lodged with the Court. For example,

two weeks ago, in the Court’s Order of 4 July 2011 in the case of the
Jurisdictional Immunities of the State(Germany v. Italy) (intervention
of Greece), I sustained, in my separate opinion, that rights of States b
and rights of individuals evolve pari passu in contemporary jus gen ­
tium (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), pp. 506-530, paras. 1-61), to a greater

extent than one may prima facie realize or assume.

In any case, beyond the States are the human beings who organize
themselves socially and compose them. The State is not, and has never
been, conceived as an end in itself, but rather as a means to regulate

and improve the living conditions of the societas gentium, keeping in
mind the basic principle of humanity, amongst other fundamental
principles of the law of nations, so as to achieve the common good.
Beyond the States, the ultimate titulaires of the right to the safeguard
and preservation of their cultural and spiritual heritage are the col -
lectivities of human beings concerned, or else humankind as a whole.”b

(I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), p. 606, paras. 113-114.)
After all — I concluded — “[c]ultures, like human beings, are vulnerable,

and need protection” in all their diversity, and such protection is “bwell in
keeping with the jus gentium of our times” (ibid., para. 117).
92. The ICJ’s 2011 decision in the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear
is not the only example to this effect. Reference could further be madbe to
a couple of other recent ICJ decisions acknowledging likewise the need to

take into account people and territory together. For example, earlier onb,
in its Judgment (of 13 July 2009) on the Dispute relating to Navigational
and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), the ICJ upheld the cus -
tomary right of fishing for subsistence (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009,
p. 266, paras. 143-144) of the inhabitants of both margins of the River
San Juan. Such fishing for subsistence was never objected to (by the

respondent State). And, ultimately, those who fish for subsistence arbe not
the States, but rather the human beings affected by poverty. The ICJ tbhus

88

6 CIJ1042.indb 212 8/04/14 08:34 129 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

turned its attention, beyond strictly territorial inter-State outlook, also
towards the affected segments of the local populations concerned. Thisb

was reassuring, bearing in mind, in historical perspective, that States exist
for human beings, and not vice versa.

93. Shortly afterwards, in its Judgment (of 20 April 2010) in the case
concerning the Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay),

the ICJ, in examining the arguments and evidence produced by the par -
ties (on the environmental protection in the River Uruguay), took into
account aspects pertaining to the affected local populations, and the bcon-

sultation to these latter. I drew attention to this point in my separateb
opinion (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), pp. 192-207, paras. 153-190), wherein I
pondered that, once again, it was necessary to go beyond the purely ter -

ritorial inter-State dimension, and to take in due account the imperatives
of human health and the well-being of the peoples concerned, the role of
civil society in environmental protection , as well as the emergence of the

obligations of objective character (beyond reciprocity) in environmentbal
protection, to the benefit of present and future generations.

94. In the present case of the Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso
and Niger, the Court has taken yet another step in the right direction, bto
the same effect of caring about the fulfilment of the needs of the popula -

tions concerned, in pointing out, in paragraph 112 of the Judgment just
delivered today, that

“Having determined the course of the frontier between the two
countries (. . .), as the Parties requested of it, the Court expresses its

wish that each Party, in exercising its authority over the portion of
the territory under its sovereignty, should have due regard to the
needs of the populations concerned, in particular those of the nomadic

or semi-nomadic populations, and to the necessity to overcome diffi -
culties that may arise for them because of the frontier. The Court

notes the co-operation that has already been established on a regional
and bilateral basis between the Parties in this regard, in particular

84In that same separate opinion, I deemed it fit to recall that, before bthat case had
become an inter-State dispute by the end of 2003, in its origins was the initiative, two
years earlier (end of 2001), of an Argentinean non-governmental organization (NGO), of
expressing its preoccupation to an international entity (CARU), with a subject of consi -

derable public interest (the alleged environmental risks), affecting the local populations.
Subsequently, several NGOs (both Argentinean and Uruguayan) manifested themselves in
this respect. This disclosed the artificiality of a simply inter-State outlook when one is faced
with challenges of public or general interest (such as those pertainingb to environmental
protection).

89

6 CIJ1042.indb 214 8/04/14 08:34 130 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

under Chapter III of the 1987 Protocol of Agreement, and encourages

them to develop it further.”

3. Solidarity in the Jus Gentium

95. Working in a hectic and short-sighted milieu of droit d’étatistes,
who can only behold State sovereignty (without knowing what it exactly b
means), I feel that some words of caution and serenity are here called bfor,
in the light of the circumstances and lessons of the cas d’espèce. In his -

torical perspective, may I recall herein that the “founding fathers”b of the
law of nations (in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries) propounded a
universalist outlook (encompassing totus orbis), in a world marked by

diversification (of peoples and cultures) and by pluralism (of ideas and
cosmovisions), seeking thereby to secure the unity of the societas gentium.

96. The jus gentium they conceived was for everyone, all peoples, indi -

viduals and groups of individuals, as well as States (then, only then, b
emerging), all “fractions” of humankind . They endeavoured to pave the
way for the prevalence of a true jus necessarium, transcending the tradi -

tional limitations of the jus voluntarium. The gradual and felicitous
encounter of scholastic knowledge with humanism propitiated further
perennial insights. This is, in my perception, an appropriate moment to b
rescue herein a couple of them.

97. Thus, one of the most learned of the “founding fathers” of the lawb
of nations (droit des gens), Francisco Suárez, in Book II (on “The Eter -
nal Law, the Natural Law, and the Jus Gentium”) of his masterful De

Legibus, Ac Deo Legislatore (1612), in upholding the unity of the human
kind (wherefrom jus gentium emanates), singled out the “natural precept”
(praeceptum naturale) of mutual “affection and mercy” [solidarity] (mutui
amoris et misericordiae) , applying to everyone. There was awareness of

sociability and mutual interdependence as limits to State sovereignty, tbo
the benefit of the populations concerned, who stood in need of each otbher
and could hardly live (or survive) in an isolated way.

98. “Natural precepts” of the kind found expression by the force of
“natural reflection”, under the “pressure of necessity”, rbather than as a

85
A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Totus Orbis : A Visão Universalista e Pluralista do Jus
Gentium :Sentido e Atualidade da Obra de Francisco de Vitoria”, 24 Revista da Academia
Brasileira de Letras Jurídicas — Rio de Janeiro (2008), No. pp. 197-212 ; Association
Internationale Vitoria-Suarez, Vitoria et Suarez —Contribution des théologiens au ­roit inter
national moderne, Paris, Pedone, 1939, pp. 169-170 ; A. Truyol y Serra, “La conception de
la paix chez Vitoria et les classiques espagnols du droit des gens”,in: A. Truyol y Serra and
P. Foriers,La conception et l’organisation de la paix chez Vitoria et Grotius, Paris, Libr. Philos.
J. Vrin, 1987, pp. 243, 257, 260 and 263 ; A. Gómez Robledo, “Fundadores del Derecho
Internacional — Vitoria, Gentili, Suárez, Grocio”, Obras— Derecho, Vol. 9, Mexico,

Col86io Nacional, 2001, pp. 434-442, 451-452, 473, 481, 493-499, 511-515 and 557-563.
Chapter XIX, para. 9 ; and cf. Chapter XX, paras. 2-3.

90

6 CIJ1042.indb 216 8/04/14 08:34 131 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

result of “deliberate will”. After all, in the jus gentium, reason stands
above the will. The foundation of law lies in the recta ratio (evoking Cice-
ro’s De Legibus, 52-43 bc), and solidarity and mutual interdependence are
always present in the regulation of the relations among the members of
the universal societas. In the words of F. Suárez himself,

“equity and justice must be observed in the precepts of thejus gentium.
For such observance is included in the essential character of every
true law (. . .) ; and the rules pertaining to the jus gentium are indeed

true law (. . .) ; it is impossible that t87se precepts of the jus gentium
should be contrary to natural equity.”
In sum, solidarity has always had a place in the jus gentium, in the law of

nations. And the circumstances of the cas d’espèce before the ICJ between
Burkina Faso and Niger bear witness of that today, in so far as their
nomadic and semi-nomadic (local) populations are concerned.

XII. Concluding Observations

99. The basic lesson I extract from the present case of the Frontier Dis ­
pute between Burkina Faso and Niger is that — as the present Judgment

of the ICJ shows — it is perfectly warranted and viable to determine a
frontier line keeping in mind the needs of the local populations. In theb cas
d’espèce, the contending Parties themselves, disclosing a commendable
spirit of procedural co-operation, have provided the Court with the ele -
ments needed for its determination, taking into account people and terrib-

tory together. Both BurkinaFaso and Niger have expressed their common
concern with the local populations (on both sides of their border and
constantly moving across it) in their arguments before the Court in theb
written and oral phases of the proceedings. They have expressed their

common concern with the villages in the region, focusing on territory anbd
their inhabitants together.
100. Both Niger and Burkina Faso have referred to provisions of trea -
ties, as well as communiqués, after independence in 1960, likewise giving
expression to their common concern with the local populations. Signifib -

cantly, they have jointly admitted that they are bound by their pledge tbo
co-operate in respect of local populations, as expressed in multilateral
African fora as well as at bilateral level, in respect of the régime of trans -
humance. They have made it clear that this latter amounts to a “system

of solidarity”, to be pursued, encompassing people and territory togebther.

101. The Court, for its part, has rightly expressed its wish that each
Party kept its attention to “the needs of the populations concerned, bin

87F. Suárez, Selections from Three Works — De Legibus, Ac Deo Legislatore (1612),

Vol. II, Oxford/London, Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1944, p. 352.

91

6 CIJ1042.indb 218 8/04/14 08:34 132 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

particular those of the nomadic or semi-nomadic populations, and to the

necessity to overcome difficulties that may arise for them because of the
frontier” (para. 112). Moreover, as to the River Sirba in the area of
Bossébangou, the Court has pointed out that “the requirement concebrning
access to water resources of all the people living in the riparian villages is

better met by a frontier situated in the river than on one bank or the
other” (para. 101). The ICJ has thus indicated, in the Judgment that it has
just adopted today on the Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso and

Niger, that the age of resolving territorial disputes in the abstract, nbot tak -
ing into account the needs of local populations, is fortunately over.
102. The ghost of the outcome of the Berlin Conference (1885
onwards) 88has at last vanished, and is no longer haunting Africa, with its
89
secular cultures. The complexities of African boundary problems can-
not be reduced to the tracing simply of “artificial” straight libnes every -
where. In the present case of the Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso

and Niger, the ICJ has found that, in the area between the Tao astro -
nomic marker and Bossébangou, the IGN line was the one which consti -
tutes the course of their frontier. The IGN line in that area is indeed bthe

appropriate frontier line therein, for all the reasons that I have pointbed
out in the present separate opinion, from the perspective of the relatiobns
between people and territory.

103. The ICJ could have examined such relations to a far greater depth,
had it dwelt upon — as I think it should have done — more attentively,
the wealth of information on this matter (a dossier of 140 pages) transmit -

ted to it by the Parties in response to the questions I deemed it fit bto put to
them at the end of the public sittings before the Court, on 17 October 2012.
In any case (keeping in mind that the optimum is enemy of the bonum), the
Court has moved a significant step ahead, in expressly acknowledging tbhat

territorial problems, such as the one raised in the cas d’espèce, are to be
properly tackled taking into account the fulfilment of the needs of thbe
local (nomadic, semi-nomadic and sedentary) populations.

104. Law cannot be applied mechanically; the unending work of jurists90
and magistrates appears to me — paraphrasing Isaiah Berlin — like
swimming against the current, and consideration of frontiers cannot

88
Cf. N. J. Udombana, “The Ghost of Berlin Still Haunts Africa ! The ICJ Judgment
on the Land and Maritime Boundary Dispute between Cameroon and Nigeria”b, 10 African
Yearbook of International Law (2003), pp. 13-61. The Berlin Conference itself lasted
from 15 November 1884 to 26 February 1885.
89Cf., inter alia, e.g., S. Tägil, “The Study of Boundaries and Boundary Disputes”,
in C. G. Widstrand (ed.), African Boundary Problems, Uppsala, Scandinavian Institute
of African Studies, 1969, pp. 22-32 ; A. Allott, “Boundaries and the Law in Africa”, in
ibid., pp. 9-21; A. C. McEwen, International Boundaries of East Africa, Oxford, Clarendon
Press, 1971, pp. 21-27 and 285-290 ; and cf. the well-known monograph (of 1962) of the
agronomic engineer René Dumont, L’Afrique noire est mal partie, Paris, Seuil, 2012 [reed.],
pp. 7-264 ;among others.
90
I. Berlin, Against the Current — Essays in the History of Ideas, N.Y., Viking Press,
1980 [reed.], pp. 1-355.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 220 8/04/14 08:34 133 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

ignore or overlook the human factor. After all, in historical or temporabl

perspective, nomadic and semi-nomadic, as well as sedentary, popula -
tions have largely antedated the emergence of States in classic jus gentium.
This latter, the law of nations (droit des gens), cannot be reduced to the
inter-State cosmos of the plaideurs of the great-small world of the
Peace Palace here at The Hague and of the legal profession “specialized”b

on inter-State litigation and its idiosyncrasies.

105. The fact remains that States, in turn, are not perennial entities,
not even in the history of the law of nations. States were conceived, anbd
gradually took shape, in order to take care of human beings under their

respective jurisdictions, and to strive towards the common good. States b
have human ends. Well beyond State sovereignty, the basic lesson to be
extracted from the present case is, in my perception, focused on human
solidarity, pari passu with the needed juridical security of frontiers. This is
in line with sociability, emanating from the recta ratio in the foundation

of jus gentium. Recta ratio marked presence in the thinking of the “found -
ing fathers” of the law of nations, and keeps on echoing in human conb -
science in our days.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

93

6 CIJ1042.indb 222 8/04/14 08:34

Bilingual Content

97

SEPARATE OPINION
OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. Prolegomena 1-5

II. Provisions of Treatiesb after Independence i1960 Express-

ing Concern with the Lobcal Populations 6-10

III. Concern of the Parties with the Local Populations in the
Written Phase of Proceebdings 11-22

IV. Communiqués after Independence ibn1960 Expressing Con-

cern with the Local Popbulations 23-26

V. Views of the Parties Conbcerning Villages 27-31

VI. Concern of the Parties with the Local Populations in the

Oral Phase of Proceedinbgs (First and Second Rounbds of
Oral Arguments) 32-34

VII. Concern of the Parties with the Local Populations in the
Responses of the Partibes to Questions from thbe Bench 35-54

1. Questions from the Bench 35-36

2. Responses from Burkina Faso 37-40
3. Responses from Niger 41-45
4. General assessment 46-54

VIII. Some Remarks on the Tracibng of the Frontier Lineb in the

IGN Map 55-62

IX. The Human Factor and Fronbtiers 63-69

X. Admission by the Partiebs that They Are Bound by Tbheir
Pledge to Co-operation in Respect bof Local Populations 70-86

1. In multilateral African fora 71-79
2. In bilateral agreements 80-82

3. The régime of transhumance 83-86

XI. Population and Territbory Together: Conformation of a
“System of Solidarity”b 87-98

57

6 CIJ1042.indb 150 8/04/14 08:34 97

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE
DE M. LE JUGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

[Traduction]

table des matières

Paragraphes

I. Prolégomènes 1-5

II. Dispositions conventbionnelles postérieubres à l’indépen -
dance de 1960 reflétant la préoccbupation des Parties àb

l’égard des populatibons locales 6-10

III. Intérêt des Parties à lb’égard des populatiobns locales au
stade de la procédureb écrite 11-22

IV. Communiqués postérieubrs à l’indépendance dbe 1960 reflé -
tant les préoccupatibons des Parties à l’égabrd des popula -

tions locales 23-26

V. Vues des Parties concebrnant les villages 27-31

VI. Intérêt des Parties à lb’égard des populatiobns locales au
stade de la procédureb orale (premier et secbond tours de
plaidoiries) 32-34

VII. Intérêt des Parties à lb’égard des populatiobns locales dans

leurs réponses aux qubestions émanant de membbres de la
Cour 35-54

1. Questions émanant de membres de la Cour 35-36
2. Réponses du Burkina Faso 37-40
3. Réponses du Niger 41-45

4. Appréciation générale 46-54

VIII. Certaines observationbs sur le tracé de la libgne frontière
figurant sur la carteb IGN 55-62

IX. Le facteur humain dansb la délimitation des fbrontières 63-69

X. La reconnaissance, par les Parties, de leur engagement de

coopération à l’égarbd des populations locbales 70-86
1. Instances multilatérales africaines 71-79

2. Accords bilatéraux 80-82
3. Le régime de transhumance 83-86

XI. La population et le tebrritoire considérésb comme un tout:
établissement d’un « système de solidaritéb» 87-98

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6 CIJ1042.indb 151 8/04/14 08:34 98 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

1. Transhumance and the “system of solidarity” 88

2. People and territory together 89-94
3. Solidarity in the jus gentium 95-98

XII. Concluding Observations 99-105

*

I. P rolegomena

1. I have voted in favour of the adoption of the present Judgment in
the case of the Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso and Niger, whereby

the International Court of Justice (ICJ) has, at the request of the Pabrties,
determined the course of their frontier. Although I have agreed with theb
Court’s majority as to the findings and resolutory points of the Court in
its present Judgment, yet there are certain points — to which I attribute

much importance — which are not properly reflected in the reasoning of
its Judgment, or which have not been sufficiently stressed therein, as b
much as I think they should have been.
2. In respect of those points, I do not find the Judgment just adopted
by the Court today entirely satisfactory, and I pursue a distinct reasonb -

ing, particularly in respect of the relationship between the territory at
issue and the local (nomadic and semi-nomadic) populations. This being
so, I feel thus obliged to dwell upon them in the present separate opinibon,
so as, on the basis of the documentation conforming the dossier of the

present case (not wholly reflected in the present Judgment), to clarbify the
matter dealt with by the Court, and to present the foundations of my
personal position thereon.

3. My reflections, developed in the present separate opinion, pertain to b
the following points, in relation to which I do not find the reasoningb of
the Court entirely satisfactory or complete, namely : (a) provisions of
treaties (after independence in 1960) expressing concern with the local
populations ; (b) concern of the Parties with the local populations in the

written phase of proceedings ; (c) communiqués (after independence
in 1960) expressing concern with the local populations ; and (d) views of
the Parties concerning villages.

4. Moving from the written to the oral phase of proceedings, I shall
then turn attention to the following points : (a) concern of the Parties
with the local populations in the oral phase of proceedings (first anbd sec-
ond rounds of oral arguments) ; (b) concern of the Parties with the local

populations in the responses of the Parties to questions from the bench ;
and ( c) the tracing of the frontier line in the IGN map. May I here
observe that there is a wealth of materials, in the dossier of the present
case, in the responses provided by the Parties to questions from the benbch,

not fully or sufficiently reflected in the present Judgment of the Coburt.

58

6 CIJ1042.indb 152 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 98

1. La transhumance et le « système de solidarité » 88

2. Les peuples et le territoire pris comme un tout 89-94
3. Solidarité dans le jus gentium 95-98

XII. Observations finales 99-105

*

I. Prolégomènes

1. J’ai voté en faveur de l’adoption du présent arrêt rendu ben l’affaire
du Différend frontalier entre le Burkina Faso et le Niger, par lequel la

Cour a, à la demande des Parties, déterminé le tracé de leurb frontière.
Bien que m’étant rallié à la majorité à l’égard bdes conclusions et du dispo -
sitif de cet arrêt, certains points — revêtus, à mon sens, d’une importance
particulière — ne sont pas convenablement pris en compte dans le raison-

nement suivi par la Cour, ou n’y ont pas la place qu’ils méritebnt selon
moi.

2. A l’égard de ces points, l’arrêt adopté ce jour par la Cobur ne me
semble pas entièrement satisfaisant, et la logique que j’ai choisib de suivre

s’en écarte quelque peu, notamment pour ce qui est de la relation bentre le
territoire en cause et les populations (nomades et semi-nomades) localbes.
Dans ces conditions, je crois de mon devoir de revenir sur ces points dabns
la présente opinion individuelle, afin d’apporter un éclairagbe supplémen-

taire sur la question tranchée par la Cour et de présenter les fondements
de ma position personnelle à cet égard ; je le ferai sur la base des éléments
versés au dossier de cette affaire, lesquels me semblent avoir ébté insuffi -
samment reflétés par le présent arrêt.

3. Les réflexions présentées dans cette opinion concernent les pboints
sur lesquels le raisonnement suivi par la Cour me semble imparfait ou
incomplet, à savoir : a) les dispositions conventionnelles (postérieures à
l’accession à l’indépendance en 1960) reflétant la préoccupation des Par -
ties à l’égard des populations locales ; b) l’intérêt exprimé par les Parties

à l’égard des populations locales au stade de la procédure ébcrite ; c) les
communiqués (postérieurs à l’accession à l’indépenbdance en 1960) reflé -
tant la préoccupation des Parties à l’égard des populations locales ; et
d) les vues des Parties sur les villages.

4. Je me pencherai ensuite sur la procédure orale, et plus particulièbrement
sur les points suivants : a) l’intérêt exprimé par les Parties à l’égard des
populations locales au stade de la procédure orale (premier et seconbd tours
de plaidoiries) ;b) l’intérêt exprimé par les Parties à l’égard des popbulations

locales dans leurs réponses aux questions des juges; et c) le tracé de la ligne
frontière sur la carte IGN. Je me permets ici de relever qu’il exibste pléthore
d’éléments, tant dans le dossier de l’affaire que dans lesb réponses fournies
par les Parties aux questions émanant des membres de la Cour, qui n’bont

pas été pleinement ou suffisamment pris en compte dans le présbent arrêt.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 153 8/04/14 08:34 99 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

5. My next line of considerations will focus on : (a) the human factor
and frontiers ;(b) admission by the Parties that they are bound by their
pledge to co-operation in respect of local populations (in multilateral
African fora, and in bilateral agreements, conforming the régime of trans-
humance) ; and ( c) population and territory together, conforming a “sys-

tem of solidarity” (encompassing transhumance and the “system of b
solidarity”; people and territory together ; and solidarity in the jus gen ­
tium). The way will then be paved for the presentation of my concluding
observations.

II. Provisions of Treatiesb after Independence
in 1960 Expressing Concern

with the Local Populatbions

6. In the present Judgment in the case of the Frontier Dispute between
Burkina Faso and Niger, the ICJ begins by pointing out that the dispute
at issue is set within a historical context marked by the accession to inde ­

pendence of the two contending Parties (Burkina Faso and Niger), which
were formerly part of French West Africa (para. 12). In my reasoning in
the present separate opinion, I ascribe particular importance to the docbu -
ments after their independence in 1960. The Court further recalls that, in

the colonial period, the two countries concerned were “made up of basbic
units called cercles” ; each cercle, in turn, was composed of subdivisions,
which “comprised cantons, which grouped together a number of villages”
(ibid.).

7. In effect, in my view, it is commendable that the two contending
Parties, Burkina Faso and Niger, deemed it fit to insert, into treaties they
concluded after their independence in 1960, provisions expressing their
concern with the local populations. Thus, their 1964 Protocol of Agree -
ment (concluded in Niamey, on 23 June 1964) , contains a provision, on

“population movements”, which states that

“2. Provided they are carrying the official identity documents of
their State, nationals (within the meaning of the Nationality Code of
the State concerned) of the Contracting Parties may move freely from
one side of the frontier to the other.

All nationals of either of the Contracting Parties may enter the
territory of the other, travel on that territory, establish their residebnce
there in the place of their choice and leave the territory, without beinbg
obliged to obtain a visa or residence permit of any kind.

1
Memorial of Niger, Annex A1.

59

6 CIJ1042.indb 154 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 99

5. Mes considérations porteront ensuite sur : a) le facteur humain dans
la délimitation des frontières ; b) la reconnaissance, par les Parties, de
l’obligation de respecter leur engagement de coopération à l’bégard des
populations locales (manifesté auprès d’organisations multilatbérales afri-
caines et en vertu d’accords bilatéraux, qui constituent le régbime de

transhumance) ; etc) la population et le territoire considérés comme un
tout, et le « système de solidarité » qui en découle (avec trois sous-parties :
«La transhumance et le « système de solidarité »», «Les peuples et le ter -
ritoire pris comme un tout » et « La solidarité dans le jus gentium »). Ces
fondements ainsi jetés, je présenterai mes observations finales.b

II. Dispositions conventbionnelles postérieubres
à l’indépendance de 1960 reflétant la préoccbupation des Parties

à l’égard des populatbions locales

6. Dans le présent arrêt rendu en l’affaire du Différend frontalier entre
le Burkina Faso et le Niger, la Cour commence par souligner que le diffé -
rend s’inscrit dans un contexte historique marqué par l’accession à l’indé ­

pendance des deux Parties en présence (le Burkina Faso et le Niger),
lesquelles faisaient autrefois partie de l’Afrique occidentale françbaise
(par. 12). Dans le raisonnement suivi en la présente opinion individuelle,b
j’ai accordé une importance particulière aux documents postérieurs à l’ac -

cession des deux pays à l’indépendance, en 1960. La Cour rappelle ensuite
que, dans la période coloniale, les deux pays étaient « constitu[és] de cir -
conscriptions de base appelées cercles », chaque cercle étant à son tour
composé de subdivisions, lesquelles étaient constituées de «b cantons,
regroupant plusieurs villages » (ibid.).

7. Il y a tout lieu de se féliciter, me semble-t-il, de ce que les deux bPar -
ties en présence, le Burkina Faso et le Niger, aient jugé utile d’insérer,
dans les traités conclus après leur accession à l’indépenbdance en 1960, des
dispositions montrant qu’elles se préoccupaient des populations lobcales.
Ainsi, le protocole d’accord signé entre elles à Niamey le 23 juin 1964 1

contient-il une clause sur le « mouvement de populations » qui se lit
comme suit :

«2. Pourvu qu’ils soient munis des pièces d’identité réglebmentaires
de leur Etat, les nationaux (au sens du Code de la nationalité de
l’Etat intéressé) des parties contractantes circulent libremenbt d’une
part et d’autre de la frontière.

Tout national de l’une des parties contractantes peut rentrer sur le b
territoire de l’autre, y voyager, y établir sa résidence dans lbe lieu de
son choix et en sortir sans être astreint à un visa ou [une] autorbisa -
tion quelconque de séjour.

1
Mémoire du Niger, annexe A1.

59

6 CIJ1042.indb 155 8/04/14 08:34 100 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

However, transhumant nationals of one State travelling to the
other State must have a transhumance certificate stating the compo -
sition of their family and the number of their animals.

The two Contracting Parties shall communicate to each other all
documents concerning transhumance, in particular details of routes
followed and movement calendars. (. . .)”

8. Years later, the Agreement between Burkina Faso and Niger

of 28 March 1987, on the demarcation of the frontier between the two
countries , contained a provision to (Article 5) the effect that “[r]ights of
peoples living along the frontier in respect of the utilization of farmlband,

pasturage, waterpoints, saline lands and economic trees shall be definbed
in the Protocol of Agreement”. This Protocol of Agreement, celebratedb
by those two States on the same date 3, provides (Article 19) that

“After demarcation of the frontier has been completed, nationals
of each State who are not originally from the State where they are
residing, and who decide to remain there, shall forthwith become sub -

ject to the jurisdiction, laws and regulations of the latter State.”

9. And Article 20 of the same 1987 Protocol of Agreement adds that :

“Nationals of one State residing on the territory of the other who
decide to return to their country of origin shall have a maximum of
five (5) years in which to do so, with effect from the date on whibch

their presence is recorded; during that period they shall not be subject
to any form or taxation or other charge” 4.

10. In addition, the Protocol of Agreement Establishing a Consulta -
tion Framework between Burkina Faso and Niger, celebrated at Tillabéry
5
on 26 January 2003 , extends such consultation to “cross-border trans -
humance” (Article 1), and explains, in Article 2 that

2 Memorial of Niger, Annex A4.
3 Ibid.
4Moreover, Article 13 of the aforementioned 1987 Protocol of Agreement determines
that :

“Use and/or ownership rights of nationals of the two Parties in respect of land
situated along the frontier in regard to farming and pasturage, includinbg the right to
exploit economic trees such as the néré and the karaté, shall be governed by the laws
of the country where the land is located and, on a subsidiary basis, by bcustomary law.”

And Article 14 adds that :

“Rights of utilization in respect of wells, rivers and waterpoints albong the frontier
shall likewise be governed by law and, subsidiarily, by the customs of tbhe country
where such wells, rivers and waterpoints are located. The régime governing frontier
watercourses shall remain that applicable under the relevant internationbal law.”

5 Replies of Burkina Faso and Niger to the Questions Put by Judge Cançabdo Trindade
at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 October 2012, doc. of 16 Novbember 2012
[Niger’s Response].

60

6 CIJ1042.indb 156 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 100

Cependant, les transhumants nationaux d’un Etat se rendant dans
l’autre Etat devront être munis d’un titre de transhumance mentbion-
nant la composition de la famille et le nombre des animaux.

Les deux parties contractantes se communiqueront tous docu -
ments concernant la transhumance, en particulier les itinéraires
empruntés et les calendriers des déplacements… »

8. L’accord conclu entre le Burkina Faso et le Niger quelques années b
plus tard, le 28 mars 1987, sur la matérialisation de la frontière entre les
2
deux pays , contenait une disposition (l’article 5) prévoyant que « [l]e
droit d’usage des terres de culture, des pâturages, des points d’beau, des
terres salées et des arbres économiques des populations résidant le long

de la frontière, sera[it] défini dans le Protocole d’accord ». Ce proto -
cole, signé le même jour entre les deux Etats , stipule, en son article 19,
que,

«[a]près la matérialisation de la frontière, les ressortissants bde l’un ou

l’autre Etat qui ne sont pas originaires de l’Etat de leur lieu deb rési -
dence et qui décident d’y rester seront immédiatement soumis àb la
juridiction et aux lois et règlements de cet Etat ».

9. A l’article 20 du même protocole d’accord de 1987, il est précisé que

«[l]es ressortissants d’un Etat qui résident sur le territoire de lb’autre

et qui décident de regagner leur pays d’origine auront un délaib de
cinq (5) ans au plus pour le faire, à compter de la date de leur recen -
sement; durant cette période, ils ne seront soumis à aucune forme
4
d’imposition ou de taxation » .

10. Par ailleurs, le protocole d’accord portant création d’un cadreb de
concertation entre le Burkina Faso et la République du Niger, signéb à
Tillabéry le 26 janvier 2003 5, inclut la « transhumance transfrontalière »

(article 1) en précisant, en son article 2, que,

2 Mémoire du Niger, annexe A4.
3 Ibid.
4 L’article 13 du protocole d’accord stipule en outre que

«[l]es droits d’usage et/ou de propriété des ressortissants des bdeux Parties, sur les
terres le long de la frontière, concernant l’agriculture, les pâbturages, y compris le
droit d’exploitation des arbres économiques tels que le néréb [et] le karité, seront régis
par les lois du pays où la terre est située et, subsidiairement, pbar les coutumes »,

l’article 14 précisant que

«[l]e droit d’usage des fontaines, rivières et points d’eau, le long de la frontière,
sera également régi par les lois et, subsidiairement, par les coutbumes du pays où se
trouvent ces fontaines, rivières et points d’eau. Le régime desb cours d’eau aux fron
tières demeure celui de la réglementation internationale en la matbière. »

5 Réponses du Burkina Faso et du Niger aux questions posées par M. lbe juge Cançado
Trindade au terme de l’audience tenue le 17 octobre 2012, document dub 16 novembre 2012
[réponse du Niger].

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6 CIJ1042.indb 157 8/04/14 08:34 101 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

“The purpose of the consultation framework on cross-border
transhumance is to :

— manage transhumance between the two States ; (. . .)
— promote consultation and exchange between the two States
with respect to transhumance and the management of natural

resources ;
— propose all appropriate steps to promote and support the
development and implementation of a regional 6inter-State
transhumance policy.”

III. Concern of the Partiesb with the Local Populatbions
in the Written Phase ofb Proceedings

11. In my perception, a significant feature of the documentation form -
ing the dossier of the present case (written and oral phases) of the Frontier
Dispute opposing Burkina Faso to Niger lies in the attention dispensed to
the human factor — the local population — considered together with the

territory under contention (cf. Part IX, infra). Niger has been attentive to
it from the very start, since its Memorial of April 2011, whilst Burkina Faso
has likewise turned attention to it as from its Counter-Memorial of Janub -
ary 2012. Niger invokes the constant displacements of population in
order to interpret the inter-colonial line, as fixed by the 1927 Arrêté and

Erratum, taking into account the position of the villages at that time.

12. Burkina Faso, for its part, contends that such constant displace -
ments of populationper se have rendered it impossible to take into account

the segments of the population at issue in drawing the frontier line. Thbus,
in Burkina Faso’s view, the frontier was deliberately artificial, and the
effectivités cannot, in its view, provide a basis for the interpretation of the
1927 Arrêté. Yet, the ICJ itself has pondered, in its Judgment (of 22 Decem -

ber 1986) in the Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso and Mali, that in
the hypothesis of a legal title not being precise as to the extent of the cor -
responding frontier, the effectivités can play “an essential role” to indicate
how a legal title ought to be interpreted in practice (para. 63).
13. Some specific points, raised by both Niger and Burkina Faso in the

written phase in the cas d’espèce, as to the ineluctable relationship between
territory and population, should not, in my view, pass unnoticed here. Ibn its
aforementioned Memorialof April 2011, for example, Niger observes that the
frontier ensuing from the 1927 Arrêté and Erratum, from the very beginning

“raised problems for the nomadic populations, who were accustomed
to travelling within a unitary area, which was now divided into two

6 So as to ensure a proper implementation of Decision A/DEC.5/10/98 ofOctober
1998 regulating transhumance between ECOWAS member States (cf. infra).

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6 CIJ1042.indb 158 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 101

«[l]e cadre de concertation sur la transhumance transfrontalière a
pour objets de :

— gérer la transhumance entre les deux Etats ; …
— promouvoir les concertations et les échanges entre les deux
Etats en matière de transhumance et de gestion des ressources

naturelles ;
— proposer toutes mesures de nature à favoriser et à soutenir la
définition et la mise en œuvre de la politique régionale 6en
matière de transhumance inter-Etats. »

III. Intérêt des Parties à lb’égard des populatiobns locales
au stade de la procédbure écrite

11. Ce qui caractérise, selon moi, les documents versés au dossier (tbant
au stade de la procédure écrite que dans le cadre de la procédubre orale)
dans la présente affaire du Différend frontalier entre le Burkina Faso et le
Niger, c’est l’attention qui y est accordée au facteur humain, bc’est-à-dire à

la population locale envisagée de manière indissociable avec le territoire en
litige (voir section IX infra). Le Niger y a été attentif dès le départ, dans
son mémoire d’avril 2011, le Burkina Faso commençant également à s’en
préoccuper dans son contre-mémoire de janvier 2012. Le Niger invoque les
déplacements constants de population aux fins de l’interprétation de la

ligne de délimitation intercoloniale telle que fixée par l’arrêté de 1927 et
son erratum, en tenant compte de l’emplacement des villages à l’bépoque.
12. Le Burkina Faso avance, pour sa part, que, du fait même de ces
déplacements constants, il est devenu impossible de tenir compte des bgroupes

de population en question pour délimiter la ligne frontière. Il considère, par
conséquent, que c’est délibérément qu’un tracé artibficiel a été donné à la
frontière, et que les effectivités ne sauraient fonder l’intebrprétation de l’arrêté
de 1927. Or, la Cour elle-même a estimé, dans son arrêt du 2d 2écembre1986

rendu en l’affaire du Différend frontalier entre le Burkina Faso et le Mali,
que, lorsqu’un titre juridique manque de précision quant au tracéb de la fron -
tière correspondante, les effectivités peuvent alors jouer «un rôle essentiel»
en indiquant comment le titre doit être interprété dans la pratbique (par. 63).
13. Certains points soulevés dans les écritures des deux Parties, notabm -

ment le lien fondamental entre territoire et population, ne doivent pas,b
me semble-t-il, être sous-estimés. Ainsi, dans son mémoire d’bavril 2011,
mentionné ci-dessus, le Niger observe que, dès le départ, la frbontière fixée
en application de l’arrêté de 1927 et de son erratum

«suscita des problèmes pour les populations nomades habituées à b
circuler dans un seul espace qui se trouvait désormais divisé entrbe

6 Afin de garantir l’exécution conforme de la décision A/DEC.5/b10/98 du 31 octobre
1998 relative à la réglementation de la transhumance entre les Etabts membres de la
CEDEAO (voir infra).

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6 CIJ1042.indb 159 8/04/14 08:34 102 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

separate colonies. In order to retain their customary transhumant
routes, or even to cultivate their croplands which overlapped the

boundary, they had to pass from one colony to the other. (. . .)
On the other hand, very quickly, the nomadic or semi-nomadic
populations became aware of the advantages that they could derive
from the situation in order to escape taxes or other services required
by the colonial power, or enlistment in the armed forces. (. . .)”

(Para. 2.5.)
14. Niger holds that the 1927 Arrêté and the Erratum have not been

sufficiently precise to fix the frontier at issue (paras. 2.1-4), and adds that
this latter has raised problems for the nomadic populations (concerningb,
e.g., cultivation of croplands and tax collection — paras. 2.5-8), in their
“customary transhumant routes”, which they wanted to retain (parab. 2.5).
Niger argues so, without questioning the principle of the “intangibilbity of
boundaries” (as inherited by the colonial administration — paras. 5.1-2).

15. From then onwards — Niger proceeds — “[a]t all times, the
Administrators sought to determine the boundaries of their cantons”
(para. 5.11). There have occurred different kinds of transhumance ; for
example, in the Say sector (not so much populated) — Niger adds —

there have been: (a) “major transhumance, . . . generally practiced by the
Bororo and related Peulhs” ; (b) a movement over short and medium
distances, generally carried out in order to exploit the pastureland be -
side rivers and pools” ; (c) commercial transhumance, concerning
“small flocks” “for the purpose of increasing milk production and takinbg

advantage of the pasturage provided by fallow croplands” (para. 7.7).
This longstanding activity — Niger remarks — is nowadays regu -
lated within ECOWAS, of which Niger and Burkina Faso are members
(ibid.).

16. Moreover, Niger argues that the territorial colonial partitions con -

stituted “socially disruptive factor”, which provoked “populatibon move-
ments motivated by the preservation of communal or cultural identities, b
or the safeguard of interests” (para. 6.6). And it adds :

“The instability of the populations of areas close to the shared
boundaries or territories resulted in multiple registrations and the useb
of contradictory criteria for defining administrative links (place ofb

temporary settlement or village of origin).
Apart from traditional nomadic movements or the search for new
land, there were various factors impelling populations to change from
one territory to another : differences in régime as between colonies in
the matter of compulsory service or of human or livestock taxation,
the existence of basic infrastructure in the neighbouring territory

(access to water, vaccination facilities for livestock, schools, healthb
centres, etc.), power relationships within tribes, etc. Thus, all alongb

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6 CIJ1042.indb 160 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 102

deux colonies différentes [et que] [p]our conserver leurs parcours b
habituels de transhumance ou même pour cultiver leurs champs che -

vauchant des limites, il leur fallait passer d’une colonie à l’bautre…
En revanche, très rapidement, les populations nomades ou
semi-nomades se rendirent compte des avantages qu’elles pouvaient
tirer de la situation pour échapper à l’impôt, aux autres prbestations
requises par la puissance coloniale, ou à l’enrôlement dans lesb forces

armées…» (Par. 2.5.)
14. Le Niger fait valoir que l’arrêté de 1927 et son erratum n’ont pas

défini de manière suffisamment précise la frontière en cabuse (par. 2.1-4), et
que la création de celle-ci a généré des difficultés pour les populations
nomades (concernant, notamment, l’exploitation des terres cultivébes et le
recouvrement de l’impôt, par. 2.5-8), sur leurs « parcours habituels de
transhumance», qu’ils souhaitaient conserver (par. 2.5). Le Niger avance
cet argument sans contester le principe de l’« intangibilité des frontières »

(telles qu’héritées de l’administration coloniale, par. 5.1-2).
15. Il poursuit en indiquant que, depuis lors et « [à] toutes époques, les
administrateurs ont cherché à retrouver les limites de leurs cantobns »
(par. 5.11). La transhumance revêt différentes formes. Ainsi, explique-t-il,
dans le secteur (faiblement peuplé) de Say, l’on a observé debs mouve -

ments a) «de très grande amplitude généralement pratiqués par les peulbhs
Bororo et apparentés », b) un mouvement « de courte et moyenne ampli -
tude généralement effectué pour exploiter les pâturages debs rivières et des
mares », etc) une transhumance commerciale concernant les « petits trou -
peaux», ayant pour objectif de « valoriser la production laitière et de pro-

fiter des pâturages offerts par les champs de culture après lebur exploitatio »n
(par. 7.7). Cette activité, précise le Niger, est aujourd’hui régblementée
dans le cadre de la Communauté économique des Etats d’Afrique de
l’Ouest (CEDEAO), dont le Niger et le Burkina Faso sont membres
(ibid.).
16. Le Niger soutient par ailleurs que les partitions territoriales colo -

niales ont constitué un « facteur de désordre social » et provoqué des
«mouvements de populations motivés par la conservation des identitébs
communautaires ou culturelles, ou par la sauvegarde des intérêts »
(par. 6.6). Il ajoute :

«L’instabilité des populations voisinant les limites ou les terroirbs
partagés a donné lieu à des enregistrements multiples et à lb’invoca -
tion de critères de rattachement contradictoires (lieu de nomadisa -

tion ou village d’origine).
Outre les mouvements relevant du nomadisme traditionnel ou de la
recherche de nouvelles terres, divers facteurs ont amené les populations
à changer de secteur: les différences de réglementation entre colonies en
matière de servitudes coloniales ou de fiscalité sur les personnes ou le
bétail, l’existence d’infrastructures de base sur le territoireb voisin (accès

à l’eau, parc de vaccination pour le bétail, écoles, centresb de santé, etc.),
les relations de pouvoir au sein des tribus, etc. Ainsi, tout au long deb la

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6 CIJ1042.indb 161 8/04/14 08:34 103 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

the frontier, a game of cat-and-mouse developed between colonial
administrators and frontier populations.” (Para. 6.6.)

17. Niger further remarks that the Téra/Dori frontier zone, for exam -
ple, has been inhabited by sedentary, nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples
(para. 6.7). It then added that

“[t]he problems of the frontier area are conditioned by various dom -
inant forms of production, namely : itinerant nomadism, seasonal
trans-frontier pastoral transhumance, conducted on a pendular basis,
semi-nomadism, sedentary field agriculture, itinerant agriculture,

gold prospection and extraction” (para. 6.7).

18. For its part, Burkina Faso, in its Memorial (of 20 April 2011) con -
cedes that the boundary created by the 1927 Arrêté and Erratum was
deliberately an artificial one (“artificial in nature” — para. 2.38). It adds
that such has been the practice in the fixing of borders by the colonibal
administrations (paras. 2.36-39), the primary goal being stability, so as to

reach the consolidation of peace and security in the region (para. 3.37).
19. In its Counter-Memorial (of January 2012), Niger contends that,
even in the colonial times, the administrators took into due account “bthe
human factor/l’élement humain” 7, with regard to a possible change of
limits between Upper Volta and Niger (para. 1.1.11). The transfer of ter -

ritory between the two colonies — it proceeds — was effected on the basis
not of straight lines, but rather of transferring cantons between them
(paras. 1.1.14-15), with attention to local traditions (paras. 1.1.24-25).
Burkina Faso, in turn, in its Counter-Memorial (of 20 January 2012),

retorted that the 1927 Arrêté and Erratum never intended to base the
delimitation on the then existing limits of cantons, not to allocate villages
to one or the other colony ; if that was the intention — it added — it
would have been explicit (paras. 3.53-55).

20. By and large, one may distinguish two main trends of thinking, in
the briefs of the Parties, on the relationship between the population cobn -
cerned and the territory under contention, namely : (a) the reasoning on
the impact of the presence of the population on the fixing of the fronbtier;

and (b) the historical accounts of the displacements of the populations in
the frontier surroundings. While Niger generally upholds that local popu -
lations are to be taken into account in the fixing of the boundary,
Burkina Faso sustains the opposite, adding that, in any case, such popu -
lations are nomadic, and their continuous displacement renders it diffibcult

to take them into account for the fixing of the border.

21. From its perspective, it is thus not surprising to find that
Burkina Faso does not refer in its Memorial to the population spreading
on the land in both parts of the frontier. Niger, on the other hand, dedbi -

7
In relation to a letter by the administrator of the Dori cercle.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 162 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 103

frontière, s’est développé un jeu du chat et de la souris enbtre adminis -
trateurs coloniaux et populations frontalières» . (Par. 6.6.)

17. Le Niger fait ensuite observer que la zone frontalière Téra/Dori, b
par exemple, est peuplée de sédentaires, nomades et semi-nomades
(par. 6.7), et que

«[l]es problèmes de la zone frontalière sont conditionnés par divers
facteurs de production dominants, à savoir : le nomadisme itinérant,
les transhumances pastorales saisonnières transfrontalières en moub -
vement pendulaire, le semi-nomadisme, l’agriculture sédentaire de b

plein champ, l’agriculture itinérante et l’orpaillage » (par. 6.7).

18. Dans son mémoire du 20 avril 2011, le Burkina Faso concède, pour
sa part, que la frontière définie par l’arrêté de 1927 et son erratum était
délibérément «de nature artificielle» (par. 2.38), et précise que telle était la
pratique des administrations coloniales en matière de délimitationb des fron -
tières (par. 2.36-39), essentiellement dans un but de stabilité, l’objectif ébtant

de parvenir à consolider la paix et la sécurité dans la régibon (par. 3.37).
19. Dans son contre-mémoire de janvier 2012, le Niger avance que,
même à l’époque coloniale, les administrateurs prirent dûbment en compte
« l’élément humain » 7lorsqu’il fut question d’une éventuelle modification
des limites séparant la Haute-Volta du Niger (par. 1.1.11). Le transfert de

territoire entre les deux colonies, poursuit-il, ne fut pas effectuéb sur la
base de lignes droites, mais de telle sorte que fussent rattachés àb l’une et à
l’autre des cantons préexistants (par. 1.1.14-15), en suivant les traditions
locales (par. 1.1.24-25). Dans son contre-mémoire du 20 janvier 2012, le

Burkina Faso soutient, pour sa part, que l’arrêté de 1927 et son erratum
n’ont jamais eu vocation à établir la délimitation sur la babse des limites
des cantons telles qu’elles existaient alors, ni à attribuer tel vbillage à telle
colonie; si telle avait été l’intention, ajoute-t-il, cela aurait ébté expressé -
ment indiqué (par. 3.53-55).

20. Dans l’ensemble, il se dégage des écritures des Parties deux grands
axes de réflexion concernant le rapport entre la population en quesbtion et
le territoire litigieux : a) le raisonnement touchant à l’impact de la pré -
sence de cette population sur la détermination du tracé de la fronbtière, et

b) l’historique des déplacements de population dans les environs de lba
frontière. Si le Niger fait valoir, de manière générale, queb les populations
locales doivent être prises en compte dans la délimitation de la fbrontière,
le Burkina Faso soutient le contraire, considérant que, en tout état de
cause, il s’agit de populations nomades, qui, du fait de leurs mouvembents

incessants, peuvent difficilement être prises en compte dans la débtermina -
tion du tracé de la ligne frontière.
21. Il n’est donc pas surprenant, si l’on se place de son point de vue,
que le mémoire du Burkina Faso ne fasse nullement référence àb la popu -
lation occupant les territoires situés de part et d’autre de la frbontière. Le

7
Dans le cadre d’une lettre adressée par l’administrateur du cerbcle de Dori.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 163 8/04/14 08:34 104 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

8
cates a part of its Memorial to an examination of the distribution of
those populations 9and to their historical belonging to one or another
State. It thus challenges the “artificial nature” of the frontier invoked by

Burkina Faso.
22. In turn, in its Counter-Memorial (of 20 January 2012), Burkina Faso
dismisses the practice — and the effectivités invoked by Niger — subse -
10
quent to the 1927 Arrêté and Erratum (paras. 3.56-64) . It insists that,
“[i]n actual fact, the colonial authorities were fully aware that theb

‘artificial’ colonial boundary which had been adopted could not b
reflect the complex situations on the ground, far removed from any
ideas of frontier division” (para. 3.60).

Burkina Faso concedes that

“It is indeed an undisputed fact that the human geography of the

frontier area has always been characterized by mobility on the part of
the local people. This is an everyday occurrence and also follows a
more general pattern. Population groups move according to weather

conditions or the economic situation. The consequence is the existence
of ‘fossilized’ or ‘ghost’ villages, and also a degree of vabgueness with
regard to the names of places in the frontier zone, to mention just thesbe

two aspects. Besides, even the most sedentary groups may live in dif -
ferent villages according to the season, and those villages may in some
instances be on different sides of the colonial frontier.” (Para. 3.61.) 11

Yet, Burkina Faso’s conclusion is that, given all these complexities, “[i]n

such circumstances, the choice of an artificial boundary, despite its balleged
disadvantages, probably turned out to be the wisest one” (para. 3.63).

IV. C ommuniqués after Independence ibn1960
Expressing Concern

with the Local Populatbions

23. In addition to the aforementioned treaty provisions expressing

concern with the local populations, references were made, in the course b

8 Passages in Chapters VI-VII.
9 Niger examines the movements of populations on the sectors of Téra anbd Say, and
warns that to adopt straight lines throughout, making abstraction of theb villages therein,

would have the effect of “uprooting” some villages of Niger, by bplacing them on the terri
tor10of Burkina Faso.
It further dismisses Niger’s argument that some of the local villages (such as Bangaré)
allegedly belonged always to Niger Burkina Faso argues lack of evidence to that end
(cf. infra).
11 Burkina Faso adds that “the territories to which the native groupements lay claim, in
particular in semi-desert savannah areas, have traditional boundaries which are somewhat
imprecise” (para. 3.61).

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8
Niger, en revanche, consacre une partie de son mémoire à l’examen de
la répartition de ces populations 9 et à leur appartenance historique à tel
ou tel Etat. Il conteste ainsi la « nature artificielle » de la frontière invo -

quée par le Burkina Faso.
22. Dans son contre-mémoire du 20janvier 2012, le Burkina Faso rejette
la pratique — ainsi que les effectivités invoquées par le Niger — postérieure
10
à l’arrêté de 1927 et à son erratum (par. 3.56-64) , soulignant que,
«[e]n réalité, les autorités coloniales avaient pleinement conscbience

que la limite coloniale « artificielle» qui avait été adoptée ne pouvait
refléter les réalités complexes du terrain qui étaient étrangères à toute
idée de partage frontalier » (par. 3.60).

Il concède néanmoins :

«C’est un fait incontesté en effet que la géographie humaine dbe la

zone frontière a toujours été caractérisée par la mobilitbé des popula -
tions. Celle-ci est à la fois quotidienne et joue aussi sur un plan pblus
général. Les populations se déplaçaient en fonction des alébas clima -

tiques ou de la conjoncture économique. La conséquence en est
l’existence de villages « fossiles» ou « fantômes», mais aussi l’impré -
cision de la toponymie de la zone frontière, pour ne citer que ces

deux aspects. Par ailleurs, même des populations plus sédentaires b
pouvaient vivre dans des villages distincts selon les saisons, situésb le
cas échéant de part et d’autre de la frontière coloniale.» (Par. 3.61.) 11

Toutefois, conclut-il, l’ensemble des difficultés rencontrées faisaient que,

«[d]ans de telles circonstances, le choix d’une limite artificielle bétait celui
qui, malgré ses inconvénients allégués, se révéla sansb doute être le plus
sage» (par. 3.63).

IV. Communiqués postérieubrs à l’indépendance dbe 1960
reflétant les préoccbupations des Parties bà l’égard

des populations locables

23. Outre les dispositions conventionnelles visées ci-dessus, où étaient

formulées certaines préoccupations à l’égard des populatibons locales, il a

8Différents passages dans les chapitres VI et VII.
9Le Niger analyse les mouvements de population dans les secteurs de Tébra et de Say,
et relève que l’adoption systématique de lignes droites, en faisant abstraction des villages

qui s’y trouvent, aurait pour effet dedéraciner » certains d’entre eux du Niger en les
pla10nt sur le territoire du Burkina Faso.
Il réfute également l’argument du Niger selon lequel certains vbillages locaux (tel
Bangaré) auraient toujours appartenu au Niger, invoquant l’absencbe de preuve à cet effet
(voir infra).
11Le Burkina Faso ajoute que « les territoires revendiqués par les groupements indi -
gènes, surtout en pays de savane semi-désertique, ont des limites btraditionnelles plutôt
vagues » (par. 3.61).

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6 CIJ1042.indb 165 8/04/14 08:34 105 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

of the written phase of proceedings, also to communiqués between
Burkina Faso and Niger (after independence in 1960), concerning free -

dom of movement of local populations (free circulation of persons and
goods; trade, transportation and customs). Thus, in the Ministerial Meet -
ing between Niger and Upper Volta in January 1968, the two parties

agreed “henceforth to dispense with the movement calendar require -
ment”, as that clause was difficult to put into practice” ; instead, they
decided that the local administrative authorities were to “communicatbe to
each other all documents concerning transhumance” 1.

24. Subsequently, in their meeting at Ouagadougou, of 12-14 Febru -
ary 1985, Niger’s Minister Delegate for the Interior and Burkina Faso’s
Minister for Territorial Administration and Security, reached a modus
vivendi on transit (of livestock), in the ambit of ECOWAS, including
13
trade and customs . Shortly afterwards, in another meeting,
on 9 April 1986, Burkina Faso’s Minister for Territorial Administration
and Security and Niger’s Minister Delegate for the Interior agreed onb

directives concerning free circulation of persons and goods, public healbth
(including campaigns of vaccination), animal health, reciprocal recogni -
tion of documents, water and protected zones 14.
25. One decade later, the report of the meeting held at Kompienga,

on 5-6 December 1997, between the Ministers for Territorial Administra -
tion and Security of Niger and Burkina Faso, addressed specific issues
that needed further consideration on their part, concerning free circula -
tion of persons and goods, documentation for transhumance policy, vac -

cination cards, public health (before vaccination), customs harmonizatbion
and public security. These issues admittedly required the continuing
co-operation between the authorities of the two bordering States. Accord -

ingly,
“With a view to enhancing the free movement of people and goods,

the meeting of Kompienga urges : the harmonization of regulations
and procedures in force ; the interconnection of road networks ; the
involvement of transporters in the management of transportation and

transit problems ; the monitoring of the application of ECOWAS 15
Conventions concerning inter-State transport and transit routes.”

26. Subsequently, in their meeting held at Tenkodogo, on 24-26 May
2000, Niger’s Minister for the Interior and Burkina Faso’s Minister for
Territorial Development agreed on fostering the “integration among thbe

populations in border areas”, with particular attention to the “frbee c16cu -
lation of persons and goods” in the ambit of “transhumance” .

12
13 Memorial of Burkina Faso, Annex 54.2.
14 Memorial of Niger, Annex A2.
15 Memorial of Burkina Faso, Annex 68.
16 Ibid., Annex 92.
Ibid., Annex 93.

65

6 CIJ1042.indb 166 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 105

également été fait état, dans le cadre de la procédure écrite, de communi -
qués échangés entre le Burkina Faso et le Niger (après leurb accession à

l’indépendance en 1960) concernant la liberté de mouvement des popula -
tions locales (libre circulation des personnes et des biens ; commerce,
transport et douane). Ainsi, lors de la réunion ministérielle tenbue en jan -

vier 1968 entre le Niger et la Haute-Volta, il fut décidé de « ne plus exiger
les calendriers de déplacements … cette clause étant difficile à mettre en
pratique»; dorénavant, les autorités administratives locales intéressébes
«se communiquer[aient] tous documents concernant la transhumance » 1.

24. Lors d’une rencontre tenue à Ouagadougou du 12 au 14 février 1985,
le ministre délégué à l’intérieur du Niger et le minisbtre de l’administration
territoriale et de la sécurité du Burkina Faso parvinrent, dans le cadre de
la CEDEAO, à un modus vivendi sur le transit (du bétail), couvrant les
13
questions touchant au commerce et aux douanes . Lors d’une nouvelle
réunion tenue peu de temps après, le 9 avril 1986, les deux ministres éta -
blirent conjointement des directives concernant la libre circulation desb

personnes et des biens, la santé publique (avec notamment des campagnes
de vaccination), la santé animale, la reconnaissance réciproque dbes docu -
ments, l’eau et les zones protégées 14.
25. Une dizaine d’années plus tard, lors d’une rencontre tenue àb Kom -

pienga les 5 et 6 décembre 1997, les ministres de l’administration territo -
riale et de la sécurité de la République du Niger et du Burkinab Faso
abordèrent certaines questions qui méritaient d’être plus ambplement exa -
minées, concernant la libre circulation des personnes et des biens, les for -

malités de transhumance, les carnets de vaccination, la santé publbique
(avant vaccination), l’harmonisation douanière et la sécurité publique. Il
fut convenu que ces questions exigeaient une coopération continue entbre

les autorités des deux Etats voisins. Par conséquent,
«[e]n vue de renforcer la libre circulation des personnes et des biens, lba

rencontre de Kompienga préconise: l’harmonisation de la réglementa -
tion et des procédures en vigueur ; l’interconnexion des réseaux rou -
tiers; l’implication des transporteurs dans la gestion des problèmes deb

transport et de transit ; le suivi de l’application des conventions de la 15
CEDEAO en matière de transport et de transit routiers inter-Etats» .

26. Par la suite, lors de leur rencontre tenue à Tenkodogo du 24 au
26 mai 2000, le ministre de l’intérieur de la République du Niger bet le
ministre de l’administration territoriale du Burkina Faso convinrent de

promouvoir l’«intégration entre les populations frontalières », en mettant
un accent particulier sur la « libre circulation des personnes et des biens
dans le cadre de la transhumance » 16.

12
13 Mémoire du Burkina Faso, annexe 54.2.
14 Mémoire du Niger, annexe A2.
15 Mémoire du Burkina Faso, annexe 68.
16 Ibid., annexe 92.
Ibid., annexe 93.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 167 8/04/14 08:34 106 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

V. Views of the Parties cobncerning Villages

27. Both Niger and Burkina Faso have conveyed to the ICJ consider -
able additional information and their views on the villages in their borbder
surroundings 1, in their responses to the questions I deemed fit to pose to

them, at the end of the public sitting of 17 October 2012. Niger’s claims
over some villages in the region at issue were challenged by Burkina Faso
on five grounds, namely :

(a) the documents produced purportedly supporting Niger’s claim that

certain villages belonged to it, in its view, did not demonstrate “anby -
thing” claimed by Niger (sector of Téra : villages of Petelkolé,
Ihouchaltane [Ouchaltan], Bangaré, Beina, Mamassirou, Ouro
Gaobé, Yolo, Paté Bolga; and sector of Say: Fombon, Tabaré, Latti,
18
Dissi, Boborgou Saba [Dogona]) ;
(b) certain villages were mentioned in Niger’s written pleadings, but no
documents were cited in support of the claim that they were “Niger”b
villages (sector of Téra : villages of Tindiki, Lolnango, Hérou Bou -

laré, Nababori) ;
(c) the basis for Niger’s claim over the villages had not, in its view, bbeen
provided by Niger (sector of Téra: Bambaré, Imoudakan 1, Imouda -

kan 2 or Kogonyé, Dankama, Zongowaétan Gourmantché, Bourou-
guita, Tchintchirguel, Mandaw ; and sector of Say : Kankani,
Nioumpalma, Bounga Bounga, Foltiangou, Mangou, Bandiolo,
Kerta, Danbouti, Golongana, Kakao Tamboulé, Koguel, Hanti-

kouta, Déba, Béla) ;
(d) Niger had, in its view, attributed the villages to Burkina Faso in
Niger’s written arguments (sector of Téra : Komanti, Kamanti
[Ouro Toupé], Gourel Manma, Sénobellabé, Hérou Bouléba); and

(e) there were, at last, in its view, those which were encampments, and
not villages (sector of Téra : Débéré Bagna or Débéré Siri N’gobé
[Ousalta peul], Komanti, Zongowaétan [Fété Tao], Ouro Tambella
19
[Dingui Dingui]).
28. One can consider, without precision or certainty, that certain vil -

lages belonged to Niger or else to Burkina Faso, at the time of their
accession to independence in 1960. Moreover, there were villages (e.g.,

17Mainly in the sectors of Téra (about 150 km long), relatively more populated, and of
Say (about 160 km long), not so much populated, with “a relatively hostile natural enbvi
ronment” ;cf., e.g., Niger’s Counter-Memorial, of January 2012, para. 2.0.

18Burkina Faso did not expressly refer to these villages, but this informabtion can be

understood from other information provided in Written Comments of Burkina Faso
on Niger’s Replies to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade at the End of the
Hearing Held on 17 October 2012 (hereinafter “Written Comments of Burkina Faso”),
doc19of 23 November 2012, p. 4, para. 12 (v).
Ibid., pp. 3-4, para. 12 (i-v).

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6 CIJ1042.indb 168 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 106

V. Vues des Parties concebrnant les villages

27. Le Niger et le Burkina Faso ont tous deux présenté à la Cour, dans
le cadre de leurs réponses aux questions qu’il m’a semblé debvoir leur poser
à l’issue de l’audience du 17 octobre 2012, de nombreuses informations

complémentaires ainsi que leurs vues sur les villages situés dans leurs
zones frontalières respectives 17. Contestant les prétentions du Niger sur
certains villages de la région concernée, le Burkina Faso a exposé les cinq

arguments suivants :

a) les documents produits par le Niger, censés étayer ses prétentibons, n’en
démontrent nullement le bien-fondé, et ce, pour aucun des villagesb
revendiqués (secteur de Téra : Petelkolé, Ihouchaltane [Ouchaltan],
Bangaré, Beina, Mamassirou, Ouro Gaobé, Yolo, Paté Bolga ; secteur
18
de Say: Fombon, Tabaré, Latti, Dissi, Boborgou Saba [Dogona]) ;

b) pour certains villages mentionnés dans ses écritures, le Niger ne bcite

aucun document prouvant qu’il s’agit bien de villages «nigériens» (sec -
teur de Téra : Tindiki, Lolnango, Hérou Boularé, Nababori) ;

c) le Niger n’a, selon le Burkina Faso, apporté aucun élément à l’appui

de ses prétentions sur les villages concernés (secteur de Téra: Bambaré,
Imoudakan 1, Imoudakan 2 ou Kogonyé, Dankama, Zongowaétan
Gourmantché, Bourouguita, Tchintchirguel, Mandaw; secteur de Say:

Kankani, Nioumpalma, Bounga Bounga, Foltiangou, Mangou, Ban -
diolo, Kerta, Danbouti, Golongana, Kakao Tamboulé, Koguel, Han-
tikouta, Déba, Béla) ;
d) le Niger lui avait, dans ses écritures, attribué les villages (sebcteur de

Téra: Komanti, Kamanti [Ouro Toupé], Gourel Manma, Sénobellabé,
Hérou Bouléba); et
e) enfin, certains des noms cités correspondent à des campements etb non

à des villages (secteur de Téra : Débéré Bagna ou Débéré Siri N’gobé
[Ousalta peul], Komanti, Zongowaétan [Fété Tao], Ouro Tambella b
[Dingui Duingui]). 19

28. L’on peut considérer, sans précision ni certitude, que certainsb vil -
lages appartenaient au Niger et d’autres au Burkina Faso, lors de leubr

accession à l’indépendance en 1960. Par ailleurs, certaines localités

17Essentiellement dans le secteur relativement peuplé de Téra (s’bétendant sur environ
150 km) et dans celui de Say (environ 160 km), zone moins peuplée, caractérisée par un
«environnement naturel relativement hostile » ;voir notamment contre-mémoire du Niger,
janvier 2012, par. 2.0.
18Le Burkina Faso n’a pas expressément mentionné ces villages, mabis leur liste peut
être déduite d’autres informations figurant dans ses observatbions écrites sur les réponses
du Niger aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançado Trindade au terme de l’audience
du 17 octobre 2012, document du 23 novembre 2012 (ci-après « observations écrites du

Bur19na Faso »),p. 4, par. 12 v).
Ibid., p. 3-4, par. 12 i)-v).

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6 CIJ1042.indb 169 8/04/14 08:34 107 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

Tokalan and Tankouro) that seem to have disappeared during the period
contemporary of the Arrêté and Erratum of 1927, and thus can no longer
be taken into account in the determination of the frontier nowadays
(cf. sketch-map No. 1, p. 108).
29. It further appears, adding to uncertainties, that some of the villages
20
in the region at issue were at times designated by different names . By
and large, the documentation forming part of the dossier of the present
case, as to the distribution of the local populations (and the administra -
tion of villages) on both sides of the frontier, in sum, is not amenablbe to
clear conclusions as to their belonging to Burkina Faso or Niger. It is not

my intention to proceed to an examination of the present situation of
each of those villages for the purposes of the present separate opinion ; it
is beyond its scope.

30. The present case before the Court is far more specific, and concerns
the tracing of a part of the frontier between Burkina Faso and Niger. My
purpose herein is to demonstrate and sustain that people and territory abre
related to each other, that they go together, that the tracing of the frbon -
tier in the present context cannot be made in abstracto. To this end, the

consideration of the local populations and of the surrounding villages in
the frontier zone is necessary and suffices. The determination of the fbron -
tier line is thus to take into account the transhumant movement of per -
sons across the border, so as to secure its freedom. Frontier line fixbing

and free movement of persons, in the present African context, do not
exclude each other.

31. More important than the aforementioned challenges, controver -
sies, uncertainties, is the fact that, when it comes to take into accounbt the

fulfilment of the needs of the peoples (nomadic or semi-nomadic), living
in, and moving around, the region across the border, both Burkina Faso
and Niger appear to converge in their acknowledgement of a shared and
common duty to that end (cf. Part VII, infra). More than that, they have
recognized to be bound by their duty of co-operation in this respect

(cf. Part X, infra). Such engagement in securing the freedom of movement
of those persons is, in my perception, highly significant, and stands to the
credit of both Niger and Burkina Faso.

VI. Concern of the Partiesb with the Local Populatbions
in the Oral Phase of Probceedings
(First and Second Roundbs of Oral Arguments)

32. In their two rounds of oral arguments before the Court, the
contending Parties retook their respective lines of reasoning on the relba -

20As pointed out by Niger, in its oral arguments ; cf. CR 2012/26, of 17 October 2012,

p. 56.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 170 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 107

(notamment Tokalan et Tankouro) semblent avoir disparu à l’épboque
de l’arrêté de 1927 et de son erratum, et ne peuvent donc plus être prises
en compte aujourd’hui pour déterminer le tracé de la frontière b(voir
carte n 1, p. 108).
29. Source supplémentaire d’incertitude, il apparaît que certains des

villages concernés dan20la région ont été désignés, aub fil du temps, sous
des noms différents . De manière générale, et en résumé, les éléments
versés au dossier de la présente affaire concernant la répartbition de la
population locale (et l’administration des villages) de part et d’bautre de la
frontière ne permettent pas de tirer de conclusions claires quant àb l’appar -

tenance des villages en question au Burkina Faso ou au Niger. Mon pro -
pos n’est pas ici d’examiner la situation actuelle de chacune de cbes
localités, car il ne m’appartient pas de procéder à un tel ebxamen dans le
cadre de la présente opinion.

30. Le différend dont la Cour a à connaître est bien plus spécbifique,
puisqu’il porte sur le tracé d’une partie de la frontière entre le Bur -
kina Faso et le Niger. Dans la présente opinion, j’entends démontrerb et
soutenir que les peuples et le territoire sont étroitement liés, qu’ils vont de
pair, et que, dans le contexte de la présente affaire, la délimibtation de la

frontière ne saurait être faite in abstracto. A cette fin, il est nécessaire et
suffisant de prendre en considération les populations locales et lesb villages
environnants de la zone frontalière. La détermination de la frontibère doit
donc tenir compte des mouvements de transhumance transfrontalière desb

personnes afin d’en garantir la liberté. La fixation d’une ligne frontière et
la libre circulation des personnes, dans le contexte africain actuel, neb s’ex -
cluent pas l’une l’autre.
31. Plus encore que les difficultés, divergences et incertitudes mentionb -
nées ci-dessus, ce qui importe, c’est que, lorsqu’il s’agit bde prendre en

considération les besoins des peuples (nomades ou semi-nomades) vivbant
et se déplaçant dans les régions situées de part et d’autbre de la frontière,
le Burkina Faso et le Niger semblent admettre tous deux l’existence db’un
devoir commun et partagé à cet égard (voir section VII infra), chacun
ayant même reconnu être lié par une obligation de coopératiobn en ce sens

(voir section X infra). Pareil engagement à garantir la liberté de mouve -
ment de ces populations revêt, me semble-t-il, une importance particub -
lière, et est à porter au crédit du Niger autant que du Burkinab Faso.

VI. Intérêt des Parties à lb’égard des populatiobns locales
au stade de la procédbure orale
(premier et second toubrs de plaidoiries)

32. Lors de leurs deux tours de plaidoiries, les deux Parties ont repris
leurs argumentations respectives concernant les rapports entre populatiobns

20Comme l’a souligné le Niger à l’audience ; voir CR 2012/26 (17 octobre 2012), p. 56.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 171 8/04/14 08:34 108 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

Separate Opinion of Judge CançadoTrindade: Sketch Map 1:
PARTIES’CLAIMS AND LINE DEPICTED ONTHE 1960 IGN MAP
Thissketchmaphasbeenpreparedforillustrativepurposesonly

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6 CIJ1042.indb 172 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 108

Opinion individuelle de M. le juge CançadoTrindade : carte n o1 :
PRÉTENTIONS DES PARTIES ET LIGNE REPRÉSENTÉE SUR LA CARTE IGN DE 1960

Cettecarteaétéétablieàfind’illustrationuniquement

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6 CIJ1042.indb 173 8/04/14 08:34 109 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

tionship between people and territory in the cas d’espèce. In the first
round of those arguments, Burkina Faso, for its part, referred to the
21
demographic, ecological and economic elements of the region , and to
the fact that the nomadic peoples lived therein, in the frontier area, obff
22
pastoralism . It explained that they tend to settle in easily dismountable 23
huts, so that they can move according to the pastoral calendar .
Burkina Faso recalled that Niger and itself are member States of

ECOWAS, which has adopted agreements concerning cross-border move -
ments of livestock . Having said that, it insisted on its position based on
legal title, discarding Niger’s reliance on effectivités 2.

33. Niger, in turn, dismissed Burkina Faso’s reliance on a deliberately
“artificial” frontier line, and invoked the cantons’ borders (created by
going from one village to another), which, in its view, showed the awarbe -

ness of colonial administrators of the fact that villages had been estabb -
lished on both sides of the frontier, and had been taken into account fobr
the frontier’s delimitation 26. According to Niger, the limits established by

the 1927 Arrêté and its Erratum ought to be presumed to have followed
the limits of the cantons 2. Niger then invoked the effectivités to the effect
28
of interpreting the legal title in practice .
34. In the second round of oral arguments, the two contending Parties
devoted much of their attention to the argument on the effectivités. Once

again, Niger supports recourse to these latter, as it sees the legal title
unclear; Burkina Faso, on the other hand, opposes such recourse to the
effectivités, as it regards the historical title as being clear 29. That was not,

however, the end of the exchanges between the contending Parties in the b
procedure of the cas d’espèce.

VII. Concern of the Partiesb with the Local Populatbions

in the Responses of thbe Parties to Questionsb from the Bench

1. Questions from the Bench

35. At the end of the public sittings before the Court, on 17 Octo -
ber 2012, I deemed it fit to put to the contending Parties the following
questions :

21 CR 2012/19, of 8 October 2012, p. 33.
22 Ibid., pp. 34 and 36.
23 Ibid., p. 40.
24
25 Ibid., p. 38.
CR 2012/20, of 8 October 2012, pp. 34-45 ; and CR 2012/21, of 9 October 2012,
pp. 10-13.
26 CR 2012/22, of 11 October 2012, pp. 50-51 and 53.
27 Ibid., pp. 55-56.
28 CR 2012/23, of 12 October 2012, pp. 45 and 48.
29 Cf., as to the arguments of Niger, CR 2012/26, of 17 October 2012, pp. 21-23,

25-29, 33, 35-36 and 38-41. And, as to the arguments of Burkina Faso, cf. CR 2012/22, of
11 October 2012, pp. 23 and 50 ; and CR 2012/25, of 15 October 2012, pp. 24 and 26-36.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 174 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 109

et territoire en l’espèce. Lors du premier tour, le Burkina Faso ab, pour sa
part, évoqué les aspects démographiques, écologiques et ébconomiques de la
21
région , et le fait qu’il existe, dans la zone frontière, des populationsb
nomades qui vivent du pastoralisme 22. Il a expliqué que ces populations

s’abritent généralement dans des cases rapidement démontablebs23fin de pou -
voir se déplacer en fonction du calendrier pastoral . Le Burkina Faso a
rappelé que le Niger et lui-même sont membres de la CEDEAO, laquelble a
24
adopté des accords relatifs à la circulation transfrontalière dbes troupeaux .
Il a ensuite insisté sur le fait que sa position repose sur un titre bjuridique,
contestant la possibilité pour le Niger d’invoquer des effectivibtés 25.

33. Le Niger a, pour sa part, réfuté l’argument du Burkina Faso selbon
lequel la ligne frontière serait de nature délibérément «b artificielle», et s’est
référé aux limites des cantons (établies sur le terrain, enb allant d’un village

à l’autre), témoignant de ce que les administrateurs coloniauxb avaient
conscience du fait que les villages avaient été établis de partb et d’autre de
la limite et pris en compte dans la détermination de son tracé 26. Il convient,

selon lui, de présumer que les frontières établies par l’arrbêté de 1927 et son
erratum suivaient les limites des cantons 2. Le Niger a ensuite invoqué les
28
effectivités aux fins de l’interprétation pratique du titreb juridique .
34. Lors du second tour, les deux Parties ont consacré l’essentiel de b
leurs plaidoiries à l’argument des effectivités. Une fois encore, le Niger a

préconisé de s’y référer, considérant que le titre jurbidique manque de
clarté. Le Burkina Faso s’est, quant à lui, opposé à pareille approche, le
titre historique étant, selon lui, sans ambiguïté 2. Les échanges entre les

Parties n’en sont toutefois pas restés là.

VII. Intérêt des Parties à lb’égard des populatiobns locales

dans leurs réponses abux questions émanantb de membres de la Cour

1. Questions émanant de membres de la Cour

35. Au terme des audiences publiques, le 17 octobre 2012, il m’a sem -
blé utile d’interroger les Parties sur les points suivants :

21 CR 2012/19 (8 octobre 2012), p. 33.
22 Ibid., p. 34 et 36.
23 Ibid., p. 40.
24
25 Ibid., p. 38.
CR 2012/20 (8 octobre 2012), p. 34-45, et CR 2012/21 (9 octobre 2012), p. 10-13.

26 CR 2012/22 (11 octobre 2012), p. 50-51 et 53.
27 Ibid., p. 55-56.
28 CR 2012/23 (12 octobre 2012), p. 45 et 48.
29 Voir, concernant les arguments du Niger, CR 2012/26 (17 octobre 2012), p. 21-23,

25-29, 33, 35-36 et 38-41, et, concernant les arguments du Burkina Faso, CR 2012/22
(11 octobre 2012), p. 23 et 50, et CR 2012/25 (15 octobre 2012), p. 24 et 26-36.

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“For the purposes of precision as to the factual context of the pres-

ent case, I pose the following questions to both Parties :

(1) First, could the Parties indicate in a map the location areas of
nomadic populations at the epoch of accession to independence
and nowadays, and indicate with precision to what extent will the

fixing of the frontier have a bearing on those populations ?
(2) In which radius around the frontier between the two States do the
populations’ movements take place ? Would you please indicate

in a map, if possible, which are precisely the portions of the fron -
tier at issue.
(3) Which are the villages susceptible of being affected by the fixing
of the frontier claimed by the Parties ?” 30

36. In response to my questions, Burkina Faso and Niger have pro -
31
vided the Court — in three rounds of responses to my questions — with
considerable additional information (a file of 140 pages), containing rele -
vant details for the consideration of the present case. Certain passagesb of

their responses were particularly enlightening — in particular those per -
taining to nomadic populations — as we shall see next (infra). Both
Burkina Faso and Niger thus disclosed a commendable spirit of proce -

dural co-operation before the Court.

2. Responses from Burkina Faso

37. Burkina Faso has provided responses to each of the questions I
posed to both Parties 32. In response to the question concerning the areas
through which nomadic populations used to move, during the period

when they became independent and today, Burkina Faso submits that,
despite its efforts, it is unable to indicate in a map the areas used bby the
nomads at the time of independence since it was not able to find this b
information in the colonial archives and studies consulted ; it does how -

ever provide indications of nomadic existence in the border area in the b
years close to the States’ independence 33. As to the nomads in the “Téra
sector”, Burkina Faso claims that although it cannot identify the precise

30 CR 2012/26, of 17 October 2012, pp. 59-60.
31 Cf. Replies of Burkina Faso and Niger to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trin-
dade at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 October 2012, doc. of 16 November 2012,

pp. 1-150 ; Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Tribndade
at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 October 2012, doc. of 23 Novbember 2012,
pp. 1-2 ; Written Comments of Burkina Faso on Niger’s Replies to the Questions bPut by
Judge Cançado Trindade at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 Ocbtober 2012, doc. of
23 November 2012, pp. 1-7.
32 Replies of Burkina Faso and Niger to the Questions Put by Judge Cançabdo Trindade
at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 October 2012, doc. of 16 November 2012 [here-
inafter referred to as “Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Pbut by Judge Cançado
Trindade”].
33 Ibid., paras. 1-3.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 176 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 110

«A des fins de précision quant au contexte factuel dans lequel

s’inscrit la présente affaire, je souhaite adresser aux deux Parbties les
questions suivantes :

1) Les Parties pourraient-elles indiquer sur une carte les zones fré -
quentées par les populations nomades à l’époque de l’accebssion à
l’indépendance et aujourd’hui, et préciser dans quelle mesure le

tracé de la frontière aura une incidence pour ces populations ?
2) Dans quel rayon autour de la frontière séparant les deux Etats cesb
populations évoluent-elles? Merci d’indiquer sur une carte, si pos -

sible, quelles sont exactement les portions de la frontière concer -
nées.
3) Quels sont les villages susceptibles d’être affectés par le tbracé de la
frontière que les Parties revendiquent ?» 30

36. En réponse à mes questions, le Burkina Faso et le Niger ont fournib
31
à la Cour, en trois tours , un volume considérable d’informations com -
plémentaires (140 pages) contenant des éléments pertinents aux fins de
l’examen de la présente affaire. Certains passages de leurs rébponses étaient

particulièrement instructifs, notamment ceux ayant trait aux populatibons
nomades, comme nous le verrons (infra). Les deux Parties ont ainsi fait
montre d’une volonté louable de coopération dans le cadre de lab procé -

dure conduite devant la Cour.

2. Réponses du Burkina Faso

37. Le Burkina Faso a répondu à chacune des questions que j’avais
posées aux deux Parties 32. En réponse à la question concernant les zones
dans lesquelles les populations nomades évoluaient à l’époqube de l’acces -

sion à l’indépendance et aujourd’hui, le Burkina Faso a fait valoir que,
malgré ses efforts, il n’était pas en mesure d’indiquer subr une carte les
zones fréquentées par les nomades à l’époque de l’accession des deux pays
à l’indépendance, n’ayant pas retrouvé ces informations dbans les archives

coloniales et les différentes études consultées ; il a toutefois fourni des
indications sur l’existence du nomadisme dans la région frontalièbre dans
les années proches de celle de l’indépendance des deux Etats 3. Concer-

30 CR 2012/26 (17 octobre 2012), p. 59-60.
31 Voir réponses du Burkina Faso et du Niger aux questions posées parb M. le juge
Cançado Trindade au terme de l’audience tenue le 17 octobre 2012, document du

16 novembre 2012, p. 1-150 ; réponse du Burkina Faso en réponse aux questions posées
aux Parties à l’issue de l’audience de la Cour du 17 octobre par M. le juge Cançado Trin -
dade, document du 23 novembre 2012, p. 1-2 ; observations écrites du Burkina Faso sur
les réponses du Niger aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançabdo Trindade au terme de
l’audience tenue le 17 octobre 2012, document du 23 novembre 2012, pp. 1-7.
32 Réponses du Burkina Faso et du Niger aux questions posées par M. lbe juge
Cançado Trindade au terme de l’audience tenue le 17 octobre 2012, document du
16 novembre 2012 [ci-après «réponse du Burkina Faso aux questions posées par M. le juge
Cançado Trindade »].
33 Ibid., par. 1-3.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 177 8/04/14 08:34 111 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

nomadic areas at the time of independence, it asserts that the Parties hbave
engaged, since their independence, in the facilitation of freedom of cirbcu-
lation from each side of the border 34.

38. As to the question as to how the frontier could affect these popula -

tions, Burkina Faso claims that, in general, the reduction of pastoral
spaces posed by international borders may cause difficulties to the
nomads, while stating that, in the present case, any frontier that is debter -
mined between it and Niger will have no detrimental effect on the popula-
35
tions (nomads or otherwise) living in the border area . As to the question
concerning the movement of nomadic populations in the border area,
between the two countries, Burkina Faso submits a map depicting the
36
itineraries of transhumance at present time . Then, in relation, more spe-
cifically, to the radius of areas of movement of the nomadic populatiobns,
Burkina Faso claims that it can be calculated on the basis of a description

of the transhumance movements. It explains that transhumance is dic -
tated by nature and natural resources, without taking into account border
lines between States ; and, it adds, transhumance is also based on solidar ­
37
ity (cf. infra).

39. Burkina Faso next submits that States take political, technical and

judicial measures concerning transhumance, and that regional organiza -
tions develop initiatives to promote breeding. Burkina Faso adds that the
available statistics are poor, which leads it to rely on scattered studibes to

examine the question of transhumance movements. Between Burkina Faso
and Niger, transhumance movements arrive, depart and transit through
the border regions of Tillabéry, Niamey and Dosso, for Niger, and theb
38
Sahel and Est for Burkina Faso .
40. Burkina Faso adds that the radius of movement of nomadic popu -
lations depends on the richness of the pasture, watering points and salt
licks, animal health conditions and commercial facilities (livestock anbd
39
animal produce markets) . And — last but not least — as to the question
of villages susceptible to be affected by the frontier, Burkina Faso simply
claims that because the 1987 Agreement confirms that the legal title is the

Erratum of 1927, no village is susceptible of being affected by the frontier,
since the delimitation has remained the same between 1927 and the pres -
ent date .40

34Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade,

par35. 4-15.
36Ibid., paras. 16-17 and 19.
Ibid., paras. 53-55.
37Ibid., para. 59.
38Ibid. It submits two maps showing first the movements in West Africa and secondly
between Burkina Faso and Niger.
39Ibid., paras. 56-65.
40Ibid., p. 23, par. 66.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 178 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 111

nant les nomades évoluant dans le « secteur de Téra », s’il ne peut déter -
miner avec précision les zones de nomadisme à l’époque de l’baccession à
l’indépendance, le Burkina Faso affirme toutefois que les Parties se sont

engagées, depuis leur accession à l’indépendance, à 34cilbiter la liberté de
circulation de part et d’autre de la frontière .
38. A la question de savoir dans quelle mesure le tracé de la frontièrbe

pourrait avoir une incidence sur ces populations, le Burkina Faso indique
que, de manière générale, la réduction des espaces pastorauxb engendrée par
le tracé de frontières internationales est susceptible de poser debs difficultés
aux nomades, tout en affirmant que, en l’espèce, le tracé d’bune frontière

entre lui et le Niger ne saurait affecter les populations (nomades etb autres)
vivant dans la zone frontalière 35. En réponse à la question concernant les
déplacements des populations nomades de la zone frontalière entre bles deux

pays, le Burkina Faso a présenté une carte faisant apparaître les itinérairesb
contemporains de transhumance 3. Concernant, plus particulièrement, le
rayon autour de la frontière dans lequel les populations nomades ébvoluent,

il serait possible de calculer cette amplitude à partir de la descripbtion des
mouvements de transhumance. Le Burkina Faso a ainsi expliqué que la
transhumance est dictée par la nature et les ressources naturelles, sbans que

soient prises en compte les limites frontalières entre Etats ; elle serait, de
surcroît, fondée sur un système de solidarité 37(voir infra).
39. Le Burkina Faso souligne ensuite que les Etats prennent des mesures

politiques, techniques et juridiques en matière de transhumance, et qbue les
organisations régionales développent desinitiatives pour promouvoir l’éle -
vage. Il ajoute que, les statistiques faisant défaut, l’on en est bréduit à s’ap-

puyer sur des études éparses pour examiner la question des mouvemebnts de
transhumance. Entre le Burkina Faso et le Niger, ceux-ci auraient pour
points de départ, d’arrivée et de transit les zones frontalières de Tibllabéry,
38
Niamey et Dosso pour le Niger, et le Sahel et l’Est pour le Burkina Fbaso .
40. Le Burkina Faso ajoute que le rayon de déplacement des popula -
tions nomades dépend de la richesse en pâturages, points d’eau bet zones
d’affleurement de sel, des conditions zoosanitaires et des facilitébs d’écou -
39
lement (marchés de bétail et de produits de l’élevage) . Enfin et surtout,
sur la question de savoir quels villages sont susceptibles d’être baffectés par
le tracé de la frontière, le Burkina Faso se contente d’avancer que,

l’accord de 1987 ayant confirmé que le titre juridique était l’erratum deb
1927, le tracé de la frontière ne saurait affecter aucun villageb, puisque la
délimitation n’a pas varié depuis 1927 40.

34Réponse du Burkina Faso aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançbado Trindade,

par354-15.
36Ibid., par. 16-17 et 19.
Ibid., par. 53-55.
37Ibid., par 59.
38Ibid. Il fournit deux cartes, représentant, pour l’une, les mouvements ben Afrique de
l’Ouest, et pour l’autre, ceux entre le Burkina Faso et le Niger.
39Ibid., par. 56-65.
40Ibid., p. 23, par. 66.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 179 8/04/14 08:34 112 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

3. Responses from Niger

41. For its part, Niger, likewise, has provided responses to the ques -
tions I put to both Parties 4. As to the questions concerning nomadic

populations, Niger explains that the relevant area from the Niger River bto
the south of Dori is populated by sedentary, nomads and semi-nomads. It

adds that these populations remain the same at this date and that they abre
currently located in the new administrative sections (the Téra sectobr, and
the provinces of Oudalan, Séno and Yagha). It further points out that the

disputed area is not occupied exclusively by nomadic populations. Niger b
further asserts that transhumance across borders is regulated in numeroubs

documents annexed to Niger’s Memorial, ensuring the liberty of move -
ment of nomads . 42

43
42. In relation to my first question , Niger submits that it was not
able to find maps adequately addressing the question ; it thus relies on the
44
documents used in the proceedings , and it submits two maps indicating
first the areas through which nomadic populations used to move during
the period when they became independent, and another map indicating

the areas of movement today. It notes that, during the colonial and

41 Replies of Burkina Faso and Niger to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade
at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 October 2012 (hereinafter “Niger’s Response to
the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade”), doc. of 16 November 2012.
42 Ibid., pp. 1-3.
43
Which reads as follows :“indicate in a map the areas through which nomadic popula-
tions used to move, during the period when they became independent and tboday”.
44 Mainly in its Memorial. The documents referred to are the following : (a) Letter
No. 96 from the Commander of Dori cercle to the Commander of Upper Volta
dated 23 April 1929, which Niger claims to highlight transhumance movement between

Dori and Téra ; (b) Letter No. 367 from the Commander of Dori cercle to the Governor
of Upper Volta dated 31 July 1929 and previous correspondence, wherein Niger claims
the links which exist between populations and the places where they wereb established or
had pastures ; (c) Report No. 416 from the Commander of Dori cercle on the difficul -
ties created by the delimitation established in 1927 between the Colonies of Niger and
Upper Volta (Arrêté of 31 August 1927) regarding the boundaries between Dori cercle

and Tillabéry cercle, 7 July 1930 ;(d) Niger claims that this Report highlights the problem
of the distribution of the nomadic populations between Téra and Dori ; (e) Directory
(of 1941) of Villages of Téra Subdivision (villages of Kel Tamared, Kel Tinijirt, Logo-
maten Assadek, Logomaten Allaban), in respect to which Niger argues all the nomadic
tribes, their pasture areas and watering points are mentioned ; (f) Report of Delimitation

Operations between Dori and Tillabéry cercles, dated 8 December 1943, stating :“[T]here is
traditionally a cross-movement of Yagha and Diagourou herds. At the start and end of the
rainy season, the herds from the central area of the Yagha go to Taka Pool, in Diagourou,
for the salt lick, while, during the same periods, the Diagourou herds tbravel to the banks of
Yiriga Pool for the same purpose” ; (g) Report from the Head of Téra Subdivision on the

Census of Diagourou canton, dated 10 August 1954, in relation to which Niger claims that
the sheets of place names show the historical background and the places bof establishment
of certain villages and certain tribes.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 180 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 112

3. Réponses du Niger

41. Le Niger a, lui aussi, fourni des réponses aux questions que j’avabis
41
posées aux deux Parties . Sur les questions concernant les populations
nomades, il indique que la zone en question, qui s’étend du fleubve Niger
au sud de Dori, est peuplée de sédentaires, de nomades et de semi-b

nomades. Ces populations, poursuit-il, qui n’ont pas changé à cbe jour,
sont actuellement réparties dans les nouvelles circonscriptions administra -

tives (département de Téra et provinces de l’Oudalan, du Sébno et du
Yagha). Il souligne que la zone en litige n’est pas exclusivement ocbcupée

par des populations nomades et fait valoir, pour finir, que la question de
la transhumance transfrontalière est abordée dans un ensemble de dbocu -
ments annexés à son mémoire, lesquels garantissent la libertéb de mouve -
42
ment des nomades .
42. Concernant ma première question 43, le Niger indique qu’il n’a

pas été en mesure de trouver des cartes permettant d’y répondre bde ma -
nière satisfaisante ; il se réfère donc aux documents utilisés dans le cadre
de la procédure 44 et présente deux cartes, représentant l’une les zones

fréquentées par les populations nomades à l’époque de l’baccession
à l’indépendance et l’autre leur rayon de déplacement aujourd’bhui. Il

41 Réponses du Burkina Faso et du Niger aux questions posées par M. lbe juge Cançado

Trindade au terme de l’audience tenue le 17 octobre 2012, document du 16 novembre 2012
[ci-après «réponse du Niger aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançado Trbindade »].
42 Ibid., p. 1-3.
43 Par laquelle les Parties étaient priées d’« indiquer sur une carte les zones fréquentées
par les populations nomades à l’époque de l’accession à lb’indépendance et aujourd’hui ».
44
Emanaot essentiellement de son mémoire, les documents invoqués sont les suivants :
a) lettre n 96 en date du 23 avril 1929 adressée au gouverneur de la Haute-Volta par
le commandant du cercle de Dori, qui, selon le Niger, met en lumière ble mouvement de
transhumance entre Dori et Téra ; b) lettre no367 en date du 31 juillet 1929 adressée
au gouverneur de la Haute-Volta par le commandant du cercle de Dori et échange de

correspondance préalable, dans lesquels le Niger invoque les liens exbistant entre les popu
lations et les lieux dans lesquels elles vivaient ou possédaient des bpâturagec) rapport
n 416 du commandant du cercle de Dori sur les difficultés créées par la délimitation
établie en 1927 entre les colonies du Niger et de Haute-Volta (arrêté du 31 août 1927)
en ce qui concerne les limites entre le cercle de Dori et le cercle de Tbillabéry, en date du

7 juillet 1930 ; d) le Niger avance que ce rapport met en évidence le problème de la répar -
tition des populations nomades entre Téra et Dori ; e) dictionnaire (de 1941) des villages
de la subdivision de Téra (Kel Tamared, Kel Tinijirt, Logomaten Assabdek, Logomaten
Allaban), dont le Niger prétend qu’il mentionne toutes les tribusb nomades, ainsi que leurs
zones de pâturage et leurs points d’eau ; f) procès-verbal des opérations de délimitation

entre les cercles de Dori et de Tillabéry, en date du 8 décembre 1943, dans lequel il est
indiqué qu’«[u]n chassé-croisé traditionnel a lieu en effet entre le cheptel du Yagha et ceblui
du Diagourou : les troupeaux de la région centrale du Yagha se rendent au début et à la
fin des pluies d’été à la mare de Taka, dans le Diagourou, pour la cbure saline ;ceux du
Diagourou au contraire fréquentent, aux mêmes époques et pour lbe même motif, les rives
de la mare de Yiriga » ; g) rapport du chef de la subdivision de Téra sur le recensement

du canton de Diagourou, en date du 10 août 1954, dont le Niger avance que les fiches des
toponymes font apparaître l’historique et les lieux d’établibssement de certains villages et
certaines tribus.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 181 8/04/14 08:34 113 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

post-colonial periods, there was little transhumance movement between
Burkina Faso and the Say cercle, as during the colonial and the post-
45
colonial periods pastoral activities were prohibited .

43. As to the question concerning the extent to which the frontier will
affect these populations, Niger explains first the current régimeb (in the

absence of a definite frontier). It states that the movement of populbations
and the access to natural resources follows the modus vivendi between the
authorities of both States, which does not apply very rigorously the regu -
lations for the movement of populations (such as, e.g., the requirementb of

an identity card, or else a vaccination booklet) ; it refers, in this regard, to
paragraph 2 of Protocol of Agreement of 1964.

44. As to the future movement of populations, Niger asserts that the

free circulation of populations and goods between the two States will beb
guaranteed by the bilateral and multilateral agreements concerning the
liberty of movement and access to natural resources between member
States. Niger refers in this regard to documents submitted with its

response, explaining the transhumance movements and the organization
of the transhumance régime conceived on the basis of international agree -
ments. It then concludes that such agreements guarantee that the nomadicb
populations that move across the border between Niger and Burkina Faso
46
will be able to keep their modus vivendi .
45. And, last but not least, as to the question of which villages are
susceptible of being affected by the frontier which each Party is claibming,

in addressing the question from its point of view, Niger distinguishes ab
scenario in which there is a change in the current national status of vibl -
lages that have always been considered to be in Niger’s territory andb
which it continues to claim to be located in its territory ; and villages with

Nigerien populations located in territory that Niger implicitly admits, by
excluding them from its claim, will no longer be part of the State of Nibger.
Niger submits four maps (two for each scenario), as well as a list of bvil -
lages with respective co-ordinates 47.

4. General Assessment

46. The Parties’ responses have shed light on some important ques -

tions that, earlier on, were not entirely clear. Some observations can be
made in view of the responses of the Parties. As to the nomadic and
semi-nomadic populations, both Parties have submitted that : (a) there

45
46 Niger’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade, pp. 4-8.
Ibid., pp. 9-11. As to the question concerning the radius of the areas of movement of
nomadic populations along the border between the two States concerned, Nbiger indicates
such movement in a map which it submits with its response ; cf. ibid., pp. 11-12.
47 Ibid., pp. 13-21.

73

6 CIJ1042.indb 182 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 113

relève que, tant à l’époque coloniale que dans la périodeb qui a suivi, il
y a eu peu de mouvements de transhumance entre le Burkina Faso et

le cercle d45Say, étant donné que les activités pastorales y étbaient
interdites .
43. Sur la question de savoir dans quelle mesure le tracé de la frontièbre
aura une incidence pour ces populations, le Niger commence par présen -

ter le régime actuel (en l’absence de frontière bien définie). Il indique que
le mouvement des populations et l’accès aux ressources naturelles bsuivent
le modus vivendi établi entre les autorités respectives des deux Etats, lequel
n’applique pas de manière très rigoureuse les réglementationbs applicables

en matière de mouvement de population (telles que, par exemple, l’bobliga -
tion de présenter une carte d’identité ou un carnet de vaccinatbions) ; il se
réfère, à cet égard, au paragraphe 2 du protocole d’accord de 1964.
44. Concernant l’avenir de ces populations, le Niger affirme que la

libre circulation des personnes et des biens entre les deux Etats sera gbaran -
tie par les accords bilatéraux et internationaux relatifs à la libberté de mou -
vement et d’accès aux ressources naturelles conclus entre les Etatbs
membres. Il renvoie, à cet égard, aux documents annexés à sab réponse,

qui fournissent des renseignements sur les mouvements de transhumance
et l’organisation du régime correspondant établi sur la base debs accords
internationaux. Il conclut en indiquant que pareils accords garantissentb
aux populations qui effectuent des migrations transfrontalières entbre le
46
Niger et le Burkina Faso de pouvoir conserver leur mode de vie actuel .
45. Dernier point, mais non des moindres, le Niger répond à la ques -
tion de savoir quels villages, à son sens, sont susceptibles d’êbtre affectés

par le tracé de la frontière que revendique chaque Partie, en distinguant
deux situations : d’une part, un changement d’appartenance nationale de
certains villages qui ont toujours été considérés comme situbés en territoire
nigérien et qu’il continue à considérer comme tels, et, d’bautre part, le cas

des villages occupés par des populations nigériennes et situés sur des ter -
ritoires dont le Niger admet implicitement, en les excluant de sa demande,
qu’ils ne feront plus partie de la République du Niger. Il présbente quatre
cartes (deux pour chacun de ces deux scénarios), ainsi qu’une libste de vil -
47
lages avec les coordonnées correspondantes .

4. Appréciation générale

46. Dans leurs réponses, les Parties ont fait la lumière sur certains b

points importants qui n’étaient, jusqu’alors, pas parfaitement bclairs.
Quelques observations peuvent être faites sur ces réponses. Concernant
les populations nomades et semi-nomades, les deux Parties ont fait valoibr

45
46 Réponse du Niger aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançado Trbindade, p. 4-8.
Ibid., p. 9-11. Concernant la question de savoir dans quel rayon autour de la frontièbre
séparant les deux Etats ces populations évoluent, le Niger reprébsente ce rayon de déplace-
ment sur une carte soumise avec sa réponse ; voir ibid., p. 11-12.
47 Ibid., p. 13-21.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 183 8/04/14 08:34 114 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

are nomads and semi-nomads located in the border area and in the
region ;(b) the nomadic populations move across the areas where any of

the frontiers claimed by the Parties would be located ; (c) the Parties are
willing and are bound (by their membership in regional organizations and
by their bilateral engagements), to continue to guarantee free movementb
to the nomadic populations.

47. In this light, any frontier to be determined does not seem likely to
have an impact on the population, as long as both States continue to
guarantee the free movement to the nomads and semi-nomads, and their
living conditions do not change as a consequence of the fixing of the bfron -
tier (by the Court). It is important, in this connection, that the Judbgment
makes use of the extensive information now available in the case file band

refers to the guarantees both States have given that they will not curtabil
the living conditions of the nomads and semi-nomads of the region.

48. As to the question relating to villages which are susceptible to be
affected by the frontier, each Party claims, according to the responsebs

provided by Niger (as Burkina Faso practically evaded the question,
without providing much information in this regard), taking the claims obf
Niger at face value, there appear to be many Niger villages that would bbe
on Burkina Faso’s side were the Court to adopt a straight line between
Tao and Bossébangou (i.e., as proposed by Burkina Faso). Furthermore,

it is to be noted that Niger made the distinction in its response between
villages that in its view have always belonged to Niger and should con -
tinue so, and villages that have a Nigerien population but that it does bnot
claim to be on Niger’s side.

49. This is a point which was not entirely clear before. Niger provided

specific (and helpful) co-ordinates for most villages to which it refers,
which is very helpful to locate these villages in a map. Yet, there remabins
a question which the Parties’ responses did not clarify entirely : whether
there is sufficient evidence in the case file that these villages havbe been as
Niger claims Nigerien. Niger, in its response, limits itself to providinbg the

names and co-ordinates of villages it claims to be Nigerien (and maps to
this effect), without however providing evidence that these villages bare
indeed Nigerien. The next question to consider is that of the possible
courses of the frontier in the area between Tao and Bossébangou, wherbe
most villages are located.

50. The area between the Tao astronomic marker and Bossébangou, in
particular, seems to be the most complex portion of the frontier to be
determined. This is so because first, the text of the Erratum is not ebntirely
clear in its description of the course of the frontier. Secondly, anothebr dif-
ficulty of determining the frontier in this area concerns the presenceb of

villages located near the border and claimed by Niger. I propose thus to
share some reflections concerning this section of the frontier, in ligbht of

74

6 CIJ1042.indb 184 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 114

que :a) il existe des groupes nomades et semi-nomades dans la zone fron -
talière et dans la région qui l’entoure ; b) les populations nomades se

déplacent à travers les zones où passeraient l’une et l’abutre des lignes fron -
tières revendiquées par les Parties ; c) les Parties sont déterminées à conti-
nuer de garantir la libre circulation des populations nomades, et y sontb
d’ailleurs tenues (de par leur appartenance aux organisations régionales et
leurs engagements bilatéraux).

47. Compte tenu de ces éléments, il semble peu probable que le tracé
d’une frontière, quelle qu’elle soit, ait une incidence sur la bpopulation,
sous réserve que les deux Etats continuent de garantir la libre circublation
aux nomades et semi-nomades, et que les conditions de vie de ces groupesb
ne changent pas en conséquence de l’établissement (par la Courb) du tracé
de la frontière. Il est important, à cet égard, que l’arrêbt repose sur les

nombreux éléments versés au dossier, et rappelle les engagementbs pris par
les deux Etats de ne pas contraindre les conditions de vie des nomades ebt
semi-nomades de la région.
48. Sur la question de savoir quels villages sont susceptibles d’être b
affectés par le tracé de la frontière revendiquée par chaque Partie, suivant

les réponses fournies par le Niger (le Burkina Faso ayant pour sa part
quasiment occulté la question, ne fournissant que très peu d’inbformation
sur ce point), et en appliquant à la lettre les prétentions du Niger, il appa -
raît que, si la Cour devait adopter une ligne droite entre Tao et Bosbséban -
gou (soit, la solution préconisée par le Burkina Faso), de nombreux

villages nigériens se retrouveraient du côté burkinabé. Par bailleurs, il
convient de relever que le Niger a fait une distinction, dans sa répobnse,
entre les villages qui lui ont, de son point de vue, toujours appartenu et
devraient donc demeurer nigériens, et ceux dont la population est nigbé -
rienne mais dont il ne prétend pas qu’ils sont situés en territboire nigérien.
49. Ce point n’était pas entièrement clair auparavant. Le Niger a

fourni des coordonnées précises (et fort précieuses) pour la plupart des
villages qu’il mentionne, ce qui est très utile pour les localiserb sur une
carte. Il reste toutefois une question que les réponses des Parties nb’ont pas
permis d’éclairer entièrement, celle de savoir s’il existe, bdans cette affaire,
des preuves suffisantes démontrant que ces villages appartiennent bien au

Niger, comme celui-ci le prétend. Dans sa réponse, le Niger se conbtente de
fournir les noms et coordonnées des villages qu’il revendique (aibnsi que
des cartes correspondantes), mais ne présente aucun élément prouvant
qu’ils sont effectivement nigériens. Il nous reste à présebnt à examiner les
tracés possibles de la frontière dans la zone comprise entre Tao ebt Bossé -

bangou, où sont situés la plupart des villages.
50. La zone comprise entre la borne astronomique de Tao et Bossébangou,
en particulier, semble être le segment de frontière le plus difficile à définir.
La première raison à cela est que le texte de l’erratum n’esbt pas parfaite -
ment clair dans la description qu’il fait de ce segment de frontièbre. Le deu -
xième élément expliquant la complexité liée à la déblimitation de la frontière

dans ce secteur concerne la présence de villages, à proximité dbe la frontière,
qui sont revendiqués par le Niger. Dans ces conditions, je me proposeb de

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the responses of the Parties previously discussed. My observations are
informed by the principle that the territory exists for the people that

inhabit it.
51. The responses of the Parties were necessary in order to form a clear
opinion on the border in this area, where the majority of concerned villbages
are located. As to methodology, the point of start should be the Erratumb.
In this regard, however, the text of the Erratum does not appear entirelby

clear as to the course of the frontier in this area (except concerning bthe end
ing point, which the text is clear that the line “reach[es] the Riverb Sirba at
Bossébangou”). It gives some indications (frontier points, direcbtion, and
that the line “turns”); yet, these indications of the Erratum do not necessar -
ily lead to a straight line on the basis of the text of the Erratum.
52. Thus, as the text of the Erratum is not by itself clear as to the fron -

tier line, other elements of the case file — which do not seem to clarify
further the exact course of the frontier — need to be assessed to interpret
the text of the Erratum. As to the top part of the frontier between Tongb-
Tong to Tao, both Parties propose a straight line, there appearing to exbist
enough elements to justify it, connecting Tong-Tong and Tao.

53. It is the area between Tao and Bossébangou, as already stated, that
is the more complex one, in particular due to the presence of villages. bOn
the basis of the clarifying responses of the Parties concerning the villbages
in question, many villages seem to be susceptible to be affected by thbe

frontier if a straight line were to connect the Tao astronomic marker anbd
the Bossébangou area. Recourse can thus be made, in my view, to the line
of the 1960 IGN map (given the insufficiency of the Erratum to determine
the course of the frontier — supra), pursuant to the 1987 Agreement.

54. As to the part of the frontier between Tao and Bossébangou, the

text of the Erratum does not appear entirely clear in its description. Ibt
gives some indications (frontier points, direction); yet it does not state the
shape of the line. It is, however, clear that the line should reach the bRiver
Sirba at Bossébangou (the ending point of this section of the frontiber). In
face of a text that is not entirely clear, it is necessary to have recoubrse to

other elements of the case file, so as to interpret the text in an attbempt to
clarify its meaning. As to the bottom part of the section of the frontiebr
(from Tao to Bossébangou), if the text of the Erratum and the elements
of the case file do not appear sufficient to clarify the meaning of tbhe text,
it would thus appear necessary to have recourse to the 1960 IGN map to

determine the course of the frontier.

VIII. Some Remarks on the Tracibng
of the Frontier Line inb the IGN Map

55. Reference has already been made to the line of the map (1960 edition)
of the Institut géographique national de France (IGN) in the factual context

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livrer certaines de mes réflexions sur cette partie de la frontièbre, au vu des
réponses des Parties examinées plus haut. Mes observations s’appuient sur

le principe selon lequel le territoire existe pour les peuples qui l’bhabitent.
51. Les réponses des Parties étaient nécessaires pour permettre àb la Cour
de se forger une opinion claire sur la frontière dans cette zone, oùb sont
situés la majorité des villages en cause. Concernant la méthodoblogie, c’est
l’erratum qui doit servir de point de départ. Toutefois, son texteb ne semble

pas parfaitement limpide sur le tracé de la frontière dans ce sectbeur (à l’ex -
ception du point de terminaison, clairement défini comme celui oùb la ligne
«attein[t] la rivière Sirba à Bossébangou»). S’il fournit certaines indications
(points de la frontière, orientation, et le fait que la frontièrebr«emonte»), le
texte de l’erratum ne conduit pas nécessairement à établir ubne ligne droite.
52. Ainsi, étant donné que ce texte n’est pas lui-même suffisambment

clair, il y a lieu de prendre en considération d’autres élémbents versés au
dossier — qui ne semblent pas apporter d’éclairage supplémentaire sur le b
tracé précis de la frontière — pour interpréter le texte de l’erratum.
Concernant la partie supérieure de la frontière entre Tong-Tong etb Tao,
les deux Parties préconisent de relier ces deux points par une ligne bdroite,

laquelle semble être étayée par des éléments suffisants.b
53. C’est le secteur situé entre Tao et Bossébangou, comme on l’ba vu,
qui pose le plus de difficultés, notamment en raison de la présenbce de vil -
lages. Sur la base des réponses éclairantes des Parties concernantb les vil -
lages en question, de nombreuses localités semblent susceptibles d’bêtre

affectées par la frontière si une ligne droite devait être tracée entre la
borne astronomique de Tao et la zone de Bossébangou. Il est donc pos -
sible, selon moi, d’utiliser la ligne de la carte IGN de 1960 (étant donné
l’insuffisance de l’erratum pour déterminer le tracé de la bfrontière, ainsi
qu’on l’a vu supra), conformément à l’accord de 1987.
54. Concernant le segment de frontière entre Tao et Bossébangou, la

description fournie par l’erratum ne semble pas totalement claire. Sib le
texte donne certaines indications (points de la frontière, orientatibon), il ne
précise pas la forme de la ligne. Il apparaît néanmoins trèsb clairement que
celle-ci doit atteindre la rivière Sirba à Bossébangou (le poibnt terminal de
la frontière). Face à un texte manquant de clarté, il est nébcessaire d’avoir

recours aux autres éléments versés au dossier, afin d’intebrpréter le texte et
de tenter d’en éclairer le sens. Concernant la partie inférieurbe de ce seg -
ment de frontière (de Tao à Bossébangou), étant donné qbue le sens du
texte ne se dégage pas clairement ni du texte lui-même ni des ébléments
versés au dossier, il apparaît nécessaire de se référer àb la carte IGN

de 1960 pour déterminer le tracé de la frontière.

VIII. Certaines observationbs sur le tracé
de la ligne frontière bfigurant sur la carteb IGN

55. Il a déjà été fait référence à la ligne de la carteb (édition de 1960) de
l’Institut géographique national de France (IGN) dans le contexte factuel

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of the present case (supra). In effect, the IGN map had already drawn the
attention of the ICJ Chamber in the earlier case of the Frontier Dispute

between Burkina Faso and Mali (Judgment of 22 December 1986, para. 61).
The Chamber expressly referred to one of the documents in the dossier of
that case, namely, a Note of 27 January 1975, compiled by the IGN, on the

positioning of the frontiers on the maps (para. 61). In its Judgment, the
Chamber quoted only an extract of that Note; its full text is in the archives
of this Court. In effect, having researched on the archives of the ICJb, bearing
in mind the present case between Burkina Faso and Niger, I have found out

that there are some other related and supporting documents (pertaining bto
the previous Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso and Mali, 1986), of
pertinence and relevance for the adjudication of the cas d’espèce 4.
56. For example, one such document of the IGN (letter of 24 June 1975)

expressly refers to difficulties in the tracing of frontiers, solved, obn most
occasions, with the obtaining of information provided in loco to the
“opérateurs sur le terrain” by the “chefs des circonscriptiobns frontalières,
49
les chefs de villages et les populations locales” . In this way, local popu -
lations and their representatives gave their contribution to the tracing of
the frontiers in the region they lived, as set in the IGN map, — as the
documentation of the previous Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso

and Mali, kept in the archives of this Court, indicates.

57. In the course of the proceedings (written and oral phases) of the
present Frontier Dispute case between Burkina Faso and Niger, the point

was stressed by Niger. Thus, in its Counter-Memorial (of January 2012),
Niger observes that, from the cartographical standpoint, the 1960 IGN
map rests on “solid technical bases”, being as complete as “knobwledge of

occupation on the ground allowed. [T]he indications of the boundaries
are based on information obtained from the local authorities”
(para. 1.1.32).
58. In its oral argument in the public sitting before the Court

of 11 October 2012, Niger added that the 1960 IGN map, prepared “at
the dawn of decolonization”, was the one to be relied upon. After allb, it
was compiled, as far as possible, not only on the basis of “detailed btopo -
graphical surveys”, but also on the basis of “information providedb by the

local authorities on the boundaries of their cantons”. In its view, all those
elements, “garnered on the eve of independence”, were therefore “bhighly
relevant” 50.

48 Namely, besides the aforementioned Note of 27 January 1975 (doc. D/134), the
following ones : (a) letter of 31 January 1975, accompanying the aforementioned Note
(doc. D/135) ; (b) document (D/136) of 25 February 1975 (on the insufficiency of the
Arrêté and the Erratum) ; (c) telegram of 9 June 1975 (on the need of observation in loco,

doc. D/137) ;(d) letter of 24 June 1975 (doc. D/138), on information obtained in loco ; and
(e) letter of 5 September 1978 (doc. D/139), on the need of new cartography.
49
50 Doc. D/138, p. 3, para. 4.
CR 2012/22, of 11 October 2012, p. 30, para. 17.

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de la présente affaire (supra). En réalité, la Chambre de la Cour s’était
déjà intéressée à la carte IGN dans la précédente abffaire du Différend

frontalier entre le Burkina Faso et le Mali (arrêt du 22 décembre 1986,
par. 61), faisant expressément référence à l’un des documents versé au
dossier de l’affaire, une note du 27 janvier 1975, établie par l’IGN, sur le

positionnement des frontières sur les cartes (par. 61). Dans son arrêt, la
Chambre n’a cité qu’un extrait de cette note, dont le texte intégral a été
consigné dans les archives de la Cour. Ayant effectué des recherbches dans
les archives de la Cour aux fins de la présente affaire entre le bBurkina

Faso et le Niger, j’ai découvert l’existence d’autres documebnts (relatifs au
Différend frontalier entre le Burkina Faso et le Mali de 1986) qui pré -
sentent une certaine pertinence et un certain intérêt en la prébsente espèce. 48
56. Ainsi, l’un de ces documents émanant de l’IGN (lettre du 24 juin

1975) fait expressément état de difficultés liées au tracé des frontières,
dont la plupart auraient été surmontées grâce à l’obtebntion d’informa -
tions fournies sur place par les « opérateurs sur le terrain », ainsi que par

les « chefs des circonsc49ptions frontalières, les chefs de villages et lesb
populations locales » . Ainsi, les populations locales et leurs représen -
tants ont-ils contribué à délimiter, dans leur région, les frontières telles
qu’elles apparaissent sur la carte IGN, comme l’indiquent les docubments

versés au dossier du précédent Différend frontalier entre le Burkina Faso
et le Mali, consignés dans les archives de la Cour.
57. Au cours de la procédure (phases écrite et orale) en la présebnte
affaire du Différend frontalier entre le Burkina Faso et le Niger, ce point

a été souligné par le Niger. En effet, dans son contre-mémboire de janvier
2012, il observe que, d’un point de vue cartographique, la carte IGN b
de 1960 repose sur des « bases techniques solides », qu’elle est aussi com -

plète que « le permettaient les connaissances relatives à l’occupation du
terrain … [et que] les indications quant aux limites … s’appuient sur des
informations obtenues des autorités locales » (par. 1.1.32).
58. Lors des plaidoiries qu’il a présentées à l’audience du 11 octobre

2012, le Niger a précisé que la carte IGN de 1960, établie «b à l’aube de la
décolonisation», était celle à laquelle il convenait de se fier. Celle-ci, rap -
pelle-t-il, avait été élaborée, autant que faire se peut, enb s’appuyant non
seulement sur les « levés topographiques affinés », mais également sur des

«indications données par les autorités locales sur les limites de lbeurs can -
tons». Tous ces éléments, « recueilli[s] à la veille de l’indépendance »,
étaient donc, selon le Niger, « des plus pertinent[s] » 50.

48A savoir, outre la note susmentionnée du 27 janvier 1975 (doc. D/134) : a) lettre
du 31 janvier 1975 accompagnant ladite note (doc. D/135) ; b) document du 25 février
1975 (doc. D/136) concernant l’insuffisance de l’arrêté ebt de l’erratum ; c) télégramme du
9 juin 1975 relatif à la nécessité de procéder à des observatiobns sur les lieux (doc. D/137) ;

d) lettre du 24 juin 1975 (D/138) relative aux informations recueillies lors des observatibons
sur place ; et e) lettre du 5 septembre 1978 (doc. D/139) mettant en évidence la nécessité
d’é49blir de nouvelles cartes.
50Doc. D/138, p. 3, par. 4.
CR 2012/22 (11 octobre 2012), p. 30, par. 17.

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59. Furthermore, again in its Counter-Memorial, Niger retorted the
usual argument that its frontier with Burkina Faso, like other frontiers in
the African continent, had a rather “artificial and arbitrary” cbharacter.
Niger dismissed this argument by remarking that

“It is of course well known that the colonial powers, particularly
in Africa, did have recourse to straight lines of an artificial and arbi -
trary character in drawing the boundaries of colonial territories. This b

was the case across deserts, uninhabited regions and regions that
remained unexplored before or after conquest. One needs only to
think of the boundaries of Western Sahara, Mauritania, Algeria,
Libya, Chad, etc., to cite just a few examples. [P. 13.]

However, this is not at all the case in respect of the boundaries
concerned here. The circumstances in which the boundary between
Niger and Upper Volta was established reveal, on the contrary, a true
concern to respect local inhabitants and pre-existing administrative

divisions. The historical context and map archives prove this.”
(Para. 1.1.7.)

60. Also in relation to the present case, Niger further stated in the
Counter-Memorial that

“It was thus not a question of drawing (straight or curved) geo-
metric lines through unknown regions, but rather of incorporating
pre-existing cantons into the territory of one colony or the other. The
areas comprising these cantons — inhabited by indigenous peoples

and consisting of villages, crop and pastureland, and nomad routes —
did not in principle follow abstract lines, but were based on land
occupation and followed the configuration or nature of the ground.”
(Para. 1.1.15.)

61. In sum, in my perception, in the area between the Tao astronomic
marker and Bossébangou, the IGN line appears, from the perspective ofb
the relations between people and territory, as the appropriate one. All b

evidence available in the dossier of the present case, as well as in the
archives of this Court, points to the fact that the IGN line was drawn
taking into account the consultations undertaken in loco by IGN cartog -
raphers with village chiefs and local people 5.

62. People and territory stand together ; it is clear, in contemporary jus
gentium, that territorial or frontier disputes cannot be settled making
abstraction of the local populations concerned. As it can be seen
(cf. sketch-map No. 2, p. 119), the IGN line, and indeed the course of the
frontier determined by the Court in the cas d’espèce in the area between

the Tao astronomic marker and Bossébangou, cuts across the width of

51 Cf., to this effect, e.g., case of the Frontier Dispute (Burkina Faso/Republic of Mali),

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, pp. 585-586, para. 61.

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59. Le Niger a également réfuté, dans son contre-mémoire, l’abrgument
habituel selon lequel sa frontière avec le Burkina Faso aurait, commeb
d’autres sur le continent africain, un « caractère artificiel et arbitraire », et
fait observer :

«Il est certes bien connu que les puissances coloniales, en particulier
en Afrique, n’ont pas manqué de recourir à des lignes droites abyant un

caractère artificiel et arbitraire pour tracer les limites des terrbitoires
coloniaux. Il en est allé ainsi à travers les déserts, les rébgions inhabitées
ou dans celles restées inexplorées avant ou après la conquêtbe. Il suffit
de penser aux limites du Sahara occidental, de la Mauritanie, de

l’Algérie, de la Libye, du Tchad, etc., pour ne citer que quelques
exemples. [P. 13].
On ne trouve cependant rien de tel pour les limites ici concernées.
Les conditions dans lesquelles la limite entre le Niger et la Haute-

Volta fut établie font apparaître, au contraire, un grand souci dub
respect des populations et des circonscriptions administratives pré -
existantes. Le contexte historique et les archives cartographiques le
démontrent.» (Par. 1.1.7.)

60. Au sujet du présent différend, le Niger a également indiquéb:

«Il ne s’agit donc pas de tracer des lignes géométriques (droitbes ou
courbes) à travers des terres inconnues, mais bien de rattacher des b

cantons préexistants au territoire de l’une et l’autre des colonies. Les
espaces composant ces cantons, occupés par des populations autoch -
tones, composés de villages, de terrains de culture ou pâturages, de
circuits de nomadisation, ne se développaient pas en suivant des

lignes abstraites, mais reposaient sur des occupations de sol et époub -
saient la configuration ou la nature du terrain. » (Par. 1.1.15.)

61. En résumé, entre la borne astronomique de Tao et Bossébangou, lba
ligne de la carte IGN me semble être, du point de vue du rapport entre les
peuples et le territoire, celle qu’il convient d’adopter. Tous lesb éléments
versés au dossier de la présente affaire, ainsi que les documentbs consignés

aux archives de la Cour, indiquent que cette ligne a été tracéeb en prenant
en considération les concertations entreprises sur les lieux par les bcarto -
graphes de l’IGN avec les chefs de villages et les populations localebs . 51
62. Les peuples et les territoires vont de pair. Il ne fait aucun doute
que, dans le jus gentium de notre époque, les différends territoriaux ou

frontaliers ne sauraient être réglés en faisant abstraction desb populations
locales concernées. Ainsi que l’on peut l’observer (voir carteb n o 2, p. 119),
la ligne IGN et, de fait, le tracé de la frontière déterminéb par la Cour
entre la borne astronomique de Tao et Bossébangou coupent à traverbs les

51Voir notamment, à cet effet, Différend frontalier (Burkina Faso/République du Mali),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 585-586, par. 61.

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the areas of population movements today in a balanced way, equitably
within the orbit of their present-day movements’ areas.

IX. The Human Factor and Fronbtiers

63. It ensues from all the aforesaid that, in circumstances of the kind
of the present case, or of inhabited territories in general, people and bterri -

tory go together (cf. Part XI, infra). In the case of nomadic peoples, in
distinct regions of the world, it has been observed that nomads “haveb
become the prisoners of an annual climatic and vegetational cycle (. . .).
They have not, indeed, passed across the stage of the histories of civiliza -
tions without having left their mark.” 52This has been pondered by

Arnold J. Toynbee, in his masterful, if not epic, 10-volume A Study of
History (1934-1957). He then added that

“in spite of (. . .) occasional incursions into the field of historical
events, Nomadism is essentially a society without a history. Once
launched on its annual orbit, the Nomadic horde revolves in it there -

after and might go on revolving forever if an external force against
which Nomadism is defenceless did not eventually bring the horde’s
movements to a standstill and its life to an end. This force is the
pressure of the sedentary civilizations round about.” 53

64. May I add, in this respect, that this may happen to any commu -

nity, in any part of the world, for example, those who have lived on agrbi-
culture for generations and then decide to migrate into (new) industrialized
centres, in the quest for, or illusion of, a “better” life. Furthermore, as the
present case illustrates, nomadic, semi-nomadic and sedentary peoples

may co-exist harmoniously in the same region. In any case, it is not sur -
prising to me to find learned historians of the twentieth century (such as
Arnold J. Toynbee and F. Braudel, among others) approaching their dis -
cipline from the outlook of lifecycles, or, in a longer-time scale, of cul -

tural cycles.

65. Nomads may not have a history of big events, but they surely have
their history, their modus vivendi, projected in time immemorial. History
is included in civilization, which, in Fernand Braudel’s outlook, further

requires, in order to be understood, the combined endeavours of all
the social sciences, and encompasses climate, vegetation, animal species,
natural or other elements ; it, moreover, comprises and considers what
the human beings concerned have made of such basic conditions as “agri -

52A. J. Toynbee, A Study of History (abridged by D. C. Somervell), Oxford/London,
Oxford University Press, 1960 [reimpr.], p. 169.
53Ibid., p. 169.

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zones dans lesquelles les populations se déplacent aujourd’hui, etb ce, de
manière équilibrée, et dans le respect de leur rayon de déplbacement actuel.

IX. Le facteur humain dansb la délimitation des fbrontières

63. Il découle de l’ensemble des éléments qui précèdent qube, dans des

circonstances telles que celles de la présente affaire, ou, de manibère géné -
rale, dans le contexte des territoires inhabités, les peuples et le tberritoire
vont de pair (voir section XI infra). Concernant les peuples nomades, il a
été observé dans différentes régions du monde que ceux-bci « sont

aujourd’hui prisonniers d’un cycle annuel en matière de climat bet de végé -
tation… Ils n’ont certes pas traversé l’histoire des civilisbations sans avoir
laissé leur marque. » 52C’est M. Arnold J. Toynbee qui nous livrait cette
réflexion dans son ouvrage magistral, pour ne pas dire épique, ebn

dix volumes A Study of History (1934-1957). Il ajoutait :
«en dépit … d’incursions ponctuelles sur le terrain des événements

historiques, le nomadisme est, en substance, une société dénuébe d’his -
toire. Une fois lancée sur son orbite annuelle, la horde nomade
tourne ensuite autour de cette orbite et pourrait continuer à l’inbfini si
une force extérieure, que le nomadisme est impuissant à combattre,b

ne mettait finalement un terme à ce mouvement et à son existenceb
même. Cette force, c’est la pression des civilisations sédentaibres qui
l’entourent. » 53

64. J’ajouterai que cette réflexion s’applique à n’importe bquelle comm-u
nauté, dans n’importe quelle région du monde ; l’on peut ainsi citer les
peuples qui vivaient de l’agriculture depuis plusieurs génératibons et ont

décidé de migrer vers les (nouveaux) centres industrialisés à la recherche,
sans doute illusoire, d’une vie « meilleure». De plus, comme l’illustre la
présente affaire, les peuples nomades, semi-nomades et sédentairbes peuvent
cohabiter de manière harmonieuse dans la même région. En tout ébtat de

cause, il n’est guère surprenant, selon moi, de constater que d’béminents
historiens du XX e siècle tels que MM. Arnold J. Toynbee et F. Braudel,
pour ne citer qu’eux, appréhendent leur discipline en se plaçanbt dans la
perspective de cycles biologiques ou, à plus long terme, de cycles culturels.

65. Les nomades n’ont peut-être pas d’histoire, en termes de grandsb
événements, mais ils ont sans aucun doute leur histoire, leur mode de vie
perpétué depuis des temps immémoriaux. L’histoire fait partie intégrante
de la civilisation, dont Fernand Braudel estime qu’elle ne peut être bien

comprise qu’avec le concours de toutes les sciences sociales, et qu’belle
recouvre le climat, la végétation, les espèces animales, ainsi bque les élé -
ments naturels et autres ; l’on ajoutera que cette notion englobe et prend

52A. J. Toynbee, A Study of History (abrégé par D. C. Somervell), Oxford/Londres,
Oxford University Press, 1960 (réimpr.), p. 169.
53Ibid., p. 169.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 193 8/04/14 08:34 119 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

Separate Opinion of Judge CançadoTrindade: Sketch Map 2:
COURSE OFTHE FRONTIER AS DECIDED BYTHE COURT
Thissketchmaphasbeenpreparedforillustrativepurposesonly

79

6 CIJ1042.indb 194 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 119

Opinion individuelle de M. le juge CançadoTrindade : carte n o2 :
TRACÉ DE LA FRONTIÈRETEL QUE DÉTERMINÉ PAR LA COUR

Cettecarteaétéétablieàfind’illustrationuniquement

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6 CIJ1042.indb 195 8/04/14 08:34 120 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

culture, stock-breeding, food, shelter, clothing, communications, industry
and so on” . One can then identify the “underlying structures” of civili -
zations, namely, “religious beliefs, family life, attitudes towards lbife and
55
death, timeless peasantry, attitudes towards work and leisure” .

66. Nomadic groups constitute one of the most ancient forms of com -
munity, as aptly recalled by Toynbee. He added that nomadic shepherds

move or displace themselves in a “fixed annual orbit” ; they have never
been able to become “technologically or economically independent” bfrom
the type of community or society they came from 56, nor did they seem to

have wanted to become so. He further observed that the members of
those ancient agricultural communities never broke up into serious con -
flict with each other, nor even with their more distant neighbours 57.

67. Another learned historian (and anthropologist) of the last century,
the Senegalese scholar Cheikh Anta Diop, in one of his thoughtful mono -
graphs, L’unité culturelle de l’Afrique noire (1959), pondered that seden -

tary and nomadic ways of life (in distinct regions) have led to two dibstinct
types of family life (matriarchal and patriarchal) and to distinct orgbaniza -
tions of social collectivities, leading later to distinct forms of Stateb 58.

Nomadic life soon disclosed needs of its own, and everything seemed
linked to the earlier conditions of existence (and survival), with theb notion
of justice only emerging later on, in time perspective ; distinct social ideas
59
derived from nomadic and sedentary ways of life .

68. Cheikh Anta Diop added that private law emerged first, and only

much later on, with the passing of time, public law was to take its placbe
in order to regulate social relations, then followed by the rise of the bStates,
marked by the séquelles of the earlier historical periods 6. As observed,

for his part, by the archaeologist Félix Sartiaux in 1938, in ancient times
nomadic populations exerted influence upon sedentary populations ; the
two forms of modus vivendi (pastoral life and agriculture) were to co-exist,

and, with the passing of time, sedentary populations gained increasing
importance and were to influence others 61.
69. Yet — as the present case bears witness of — nomadic populations

never vanished, and their way of life and their spirit survive nowadays,b

54 F. Braudel, A History of Civilizations, N.Y./London, Penguin Books, 1995, pp. 9-10,
and cf. pp. 18 and 25.
55 Ibid., p. 28.
56A. J. Toynbee, Le changement et la tradition, Paris, Payot, 1969, pp. 33-34 and 73.
57
58 Ibid., p. 119.
Cheikh Anta Diop, L’unité culturelle de l’Afrique noire [1959], 2nd rev. ed., Dakar/
Paris, Ed. Présence africaine, 1982, pp. 135-136.
59 Ibid., pp. 150, 152, 154 and 167, and cf. pp. 185-186.
60 Ibid., pp. 139-140.
61 F. Sartiaux, La civilisation, Paris, Libr. A. Colin, 1938, pp. 40-42, 72-73 and 182.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 196 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 120

en compte ce que les êtres humains concernés ont fait de leur condbition
dans des domaines aussi élémentaires que « l’agriculture, l’élevage, la
nourriture, la maison, les vêtements, les communications, l’industbrie,
54
etc. » . Il est alors possible de découvrir les « grandes permanences …
inconscientes» des civilisations, c’est-à-dire les « sentiments religieux …
ou les immobilités paysannes, ou les attitudes devant la mort, le trabvail, le
55
plaisir, la vie familiale » .
66. Le nomadisme fait partie des formes de communauté les plus
anciennes, ainsi que le rappelait fort à propos Toynbee. Il ajoutait bque les

bergers nomades circulent ou se déplacent sur une « orbite annuelle fixe»;
ils ne sont jamais « affranchis technologiquement ou économiquement »
du type de communauté ou de société dont ils sont issus 5, et ne semblent

pas avoir jamais cherché à le faire. Par ailleurs, ces antiques cobmmunau -
tés agricoles n’ont pas connu de conflits graves, que ce soit enb leur sein
même ou vis-à-vis de communautés voisines 5.

67. Un autre grand historien (et anthropologue) du siècle dernier, l’buni -
versitaire sénégalais Cheikh Anta Diop, soulignait, dans l’une bde ses mon -o
graphies riches d’enseignements, L’unité culturelle de l’Afrique noire (1959),

que les modes de vie sédentaires et nomades (dans différentes rbégions) ont
conduit à deux types de structures familiales (matriarcale et patriabrcale) et
à des organisations différentes des collectivités locales, abboutissant, à terme,
58
à des régimes étatiques différents . Il est apparu assez rapidement que la
vie nomade comportait des besoins propres, et que tout semblait lié abux
conditions de vie (et de survie) prévalant autrefois, la notion de bjustice ne se

faisant jour que plus tard, au fil du temps ; les modes de vie nomades et
sédentaires ont donné naissance à des idées sociales diffébrentes 59.
68. Pour Cheikh Anta Diop, le droit privé s’est fait jour le premier, et

ce n’est que bien plus tard que le droit public a, peu à peu, prisb sa place
pour encadrer les relations sociales, avant d’être suivi par la mobntée des
Etats, marquée par les séquelles des toutes premières périodbes de l’his -
60
toire . Comme l’a observé l’archéologue Félix Sartiaux en 1938, les
populations sédentaires ont d’abord subi l’influence des peupbles nomade;s
les deux formes de modes de vie (vie pastorale et agriculture) ont coebxisté,

mais ce sont les populations sédentaires qui ont peu à peu gagnéb en
importance et fini par triompher 61.
69. Toutefois, comme en témoigne la présente affaire, les populationbs

nomades n’ont jamais disparu, et leur mode de vie ainsi que l’esprbit qui les

54 F. Braudel, Grammaire des civilisations, Paris, Flammarion, 1993, p. 50 ; voir égale-
ment p. 73.
55 Ibid., p. 75.
56 A. J. Toynbee, Le changement et la tradition, Paris, Payot, 1969, p. 33-34 et 73.
57
58 Ibid., p. 119. e
Cheikh Anta Diop, L’unité culturelle de l’Afrique noire [1959], 2éd. rev., Dakar/
Paris, Ed. Présence africaine, 1982, p. 135-136.
59 Ibid., p. 150, 152, 154 et 167 ; voir également p. 185-186.
60 Ibid., p. 139-140.
61 F. Sartiaux, La civilisation, Paris, Libr. A. Colin, 1938, p. 40-42, 72-73 et 182.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 197 8/04/14 08:34 121 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

62
“in the agitation and disquiet of modern times” . In my perception, even
in the determination of frontiers in regions inhabited by human groups obf
such dense cultural features, one should not simply draw entirely and

admittedly “artificial” lines, overlooking the human element ; the central -
ity, in my view, is of human beings.

X. Admission by the Partiebs that They Are Bound by Tbheir Pledge
to Co-operation in Respect bof Local Populations

70. In the present Judgment on the Frontier Dispute case between
Burkina Faso and Niger, the Court has expressed “its wish” that each
Party has due regard to the needs of the population concerned, in par -
ticular those of the nomadic or semi-nomadic populations (para. 112).

This is very reassuring. In effect, the contending Parties themselves bhave,
in response to my questions, indicated that they regard themselves boundb
to do so, by virtue of their acknowledgment of their duty of co-operation
in respect of local populations (in particular nomadic and semi-nomadic

ones), as manifested in multilateral African fora, as well as in bilateral
agreements, conforming the régime of transhumance (with freedom of
movement of those local populations across their borders).

1. In Multilateral African Fora

71. In their responses to questions I have deemed it fit to put to both
of them at the end of the public sittings before this Court, on 17 Octo -

ber 2012, Burkina Faso points out, together with Niger, that both States
are parties to numerous regional co-operation and integration organiza -
tions establishing freedom of movement of populations, goods and ser -
vice, as well as the right of residence and establishment 63. Burkina Faso

refers, in this regard, to the Economic Community of West African Statesb
(ECOWAS), the West African Economic and Monetary Union
(WAEMU), the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in
the Sahel (CILSS), the Liptako-Gourma Integrated Development Author -

ity (LGA), the Niger Basin Authority (NBA) and the Conseil de l’entente.

72. As to the ECOWAS, in explaining the nature of the organization,
Burkina Faso notes in particular its objective of suppressing obstacles to

the free movement of people, goods and services, as well as the right ofb
residence. Burkina Faso contends that the Heads of State and Government

62F. Sartiaux, La civilisation, Paris, Libr. A. Colin, 1938, p. 73.
63Replies of Burkina Faso and Niger to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade
at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 October 2012, doc. of 16 November 2012,
paras. 18-19.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 198 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 121

anime se perpétuent encore aujourd’hui, « dans l’agitation et l’inquiétude
des temps modernes » . L’on ne saurait, à mon sens, même dans les
régions hébergeant des populations au patrimoine culturel moins debnse,

tracer tout simplement des lignes qui sont purement, et de l’avis de btous,
«artificielles», en faisant abstraction de l’élément humain; c’est, selon moi,
l’être humain qui doit être au cœur des préoccupations dabns ce domaine.

X. La reconnaissance, pabr les Parties, de leur ebngagement
de coopération à l’égbard des populations lbocales

70. Dans le présent arrêt rendu en l’affaire du Différend frontalier entre
le Burkina Faso et le Niger, la Cour a formulé « le souhait » que chaque
Partie tienne dûment compte des besoins des populations concernéesb, en
particulier des populations nomades ou semi-nomades (par. 112). Il y a

tout lieu de s’en féliciter. En effet, les Parties en présence ontb indiqué, en
réponse à mes questions, qu’elles s’y considèrent elles-mbêmes comme
tenues, ayant reconnu leur devoir de coopération à l’égard dbes popula -
tions locales (notamment nomades et semi-nomades) tel qu’il a pu être

formulé dans le cadre d’instances multilatérales africaines et bd’accords
bilatéraux, par lesquels a ainsi été établi le régime de bla transhumance
(qui garantit à ces populations locales la liberté de déplacembent à travers
leurs frontières).

1. Instances multilatérales africaines

71. Dans leurs réponses aux questions que j’ai cru devoir poser à cbha -
cune des Parties à l’issue des audiences tenues devant la Cour, le

17 octobre 2012, le Burkina Faso et le Niger ont tous deux souligné leur
appartenance respective à de nombreuses organisations régionales dbe
coopération et d’intégration consacrant la liberté de circulbation des per -
sonnes, des biens et des services, ainsi que le droit de résidence et d’éta -
63
blissement . Le Burkina Faso cite, à cet égard, la Communauté
économique des Etats de l’Afrique de l’Ouest (CEDEAO), l’Ubnion éco -
nomique et monétaire ouest-africaine (UEMOA), le Comité permanenbt
inter-Etats de lutte contre la sécheresse dans le Sahel (CILSS), l’bAutorité

de développement intégré du Liptako-Gourma (ALG), l’Autoribté du bas -
sin du Niger (ABN) et le Conseil de l’entente.
72. Pour ce qui est de la CEDEAO, le Burkina Faso en décrit la nature
en soulignant, en particulier, qu’elle a pour objectif de supprimer lbes obs -

tacles à la libre circulation des personnes, des biens et des servicebs,
ainsi qu’au droit de résidence. Il rappelle que les chefs d’Etat et dbe gouver -

62F. Sartiaux, La civilisation, Paris, Libr. A. Colin, 1938, p. 73.
63Réponses du Burkina Faso et du Niger aux questions posées par M. lbe juge Cançado
Trindade au terme de l’audience tenue le 17 octobre 2012, document du 16 novembre 2012,
par. 18-19.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 199 8/04/14 08:34 122 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

of ECOWAS adopted Protocol A/P.1/5/79, in Dakar, on 29 May 1979 64,
on freedom of movement of persons, the right of residence and establish -

ment in the ECOWAS area, which reasserted and clarified the details ofb the
freedom of movement of persons as well as the right of residence and estbab -

lishment. In this regard, it also invokes Protoco65A/P.3/5/82, of 29 May 1982,
on the definition of community citizenship .
73. Moreover, it cites other documents of the ECOWAS concerning
66
the free circulation of persons . Burkina Faso further argues that free -
dom of movement is accorded to nomadism or cross-border transhu -
mance, which is subject to a minimum amount of regulatory legislation 67.

Burkina Faso also notes that ECOWAS authorities have organized
awareness-raising and outreach seminars, and workshops concerning
freedom of movement, residence and establishment within the ECOWAS
68
member States .

74. As to the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU),

in recalling that it is a regional economic and monetary union composed
of eight West African countries, Burkina Faso notes, in particular, that

its objective is to create a common market based, inter alia, on the free
circulation of people, goods, services, capitals, and the right of estabblish -
ment of people conducting an independent or paid activity, as well as

external tariff and a common trade policy. Burkina Faso further claims
that several texts issued by the Conference of the Heads of State and
Government, the Council of Ministers, the Commission and the President

of the Commission, supplement and further clarify the nature and scope

64 Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trinbdade, Annex 2.

65
66 Ibid., Annex 3.
Namely, Supplementary Protocol A/SP.1/7/85, signed in Lomé, on 6 July 1985, on
the code of conduct for the implementation of the Protocol on free movembent of persons,
the right of residence and establishment ;Decision A/DEC.2/7/85, of 6 July 1985, on
the establishment of the ECOWAS travel certificate for member States ; Supplementary
Protocol A/SP.1/7/86, signed in Abuja, on 1 July 1986, on the second phase (right of resi -
dence) of the Protocol on free movement of persons, the right of residebnce and establish -

ment ; Supplementary Protocol A/SP.2/5/90, signed in Banjul, on 29 May 1990, on the
implementation of the third phase (right of establishment) of the Protbocol on free move -
ment of persons, right of residence and establishment Decision A/DEC.2/5/90, adopted
in Banjul, on 30 May 1990, establishing a residence card in the ECOWAS member States ;
Decision C/DEC.3/12/92, adopted in Abuja, on 5 December 1992, on the introduction of
a harmonized immigration and emigration form in the ECOWAS member States ; and the
adoption of the ECOWAS Embarkation and Disembarkation Form, used by the bairport

police services of the various ECOWAS member States.

67 Burkina Faso cites, in this regard, the Decision A/DEC.5/10/98, of 31 October 1998,
regulating transhumance between the ECOWAS member States, and the Regulabtion C/
REG.3/01/03 on the implementation of the regulation of transhumance betwbeen the
ECOWAS member States, submitted as Annexes 4 and 5 of Burkina Faso’s Response.

68
Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trinbdade,
paras. 20-30.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 200 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 122

nement de la CEDEAO ont adopté, à Dakar, le 29 mai 1979, le protocole
64
A/P.1/5/79 sur la libre circulation des personnes, le droit de résidence et
d’établissement dans l’espace CEDEAO, lequel a réaffirméb et précisé les
contours de la liberté de circulation des personnes et du droit de rébsidence

et d’établissement. A cet égard, il invoque également le protocole A/P.3/5/82
du 29 mai 1982 portant code de la citoyenneté de la communauté 65.
73. Le Burkina Faso cite également d’autres instruments de la
66
CEDEAO relatifs à la libre circulation des personnes . Il fait ensuite
valoir que la liberté de circulation est reconnue à l’égard bdes activités de

nomadisme et de transhumance transfrontalière, même si une réglbementa -
tion minimale s’applique en la matière 67. Il relève par ailleurs que les
autorités de la CEDEAO ont, depuis peu, entrepris l’organisation dbe

séminaires et d’ateliers de sensibilisation et de vulgarisation subr le thème
de la liberté de mouvement, ainsi que des droits de résidence et db’établis -
sement dans les Etats membres de la CEDEAO 68.

74. A propos de l’Union économique et monétaire ouest-africaine
(UEMOA), le Burkina Faso rappelle qu’il s’agit d’une organisation éco -

nomique et monétaire régionale regroupant huit pays de l’Afriqube de
l’Ouest et visant, en particulier, à créer un marché commun bbasé notam -
ment sur la libre circulation des personnes, des biens, des services et bdes

capitaux, et le droit d’établissement des personnes exerçant unbe activité
indépendante ou salariée, ainsi que sur un tarif extérieur commbun et une

politique commerciale commune. Il ajoute que plusieurs textes émanantb
de la conférence des chefs d’Etat et de gouvernement, du conseil des
ministres, de la commission et du président de la commission complètent

64
Réponse du Burkina Faso aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançbado Trindade,
annexe 2.
65 Ibid., annexe 3.
66 A savoir, le protocole additionnel A/SP.1/7/85 signé à Lomé le b6 juillet 1985, portant
code de conduite pour l’application du protocole sur la libre circulabtion des personnes, le

droit de résidence et d’établissement ; la décision A/DEC.2/7/85 du 6 juillet 1985, portant
institution d’un carnet de voyage des Etats membres de la CEDEAO ; le protocole addi-
tionnel A/SP.1/7/86 signé à Abuja le 1 erjuillet 1986, relatif à l’exécution de la deuxième
étape (droit de résidence) du protocole sur la libre circulationb des personnes, le droit
de résidence et d’établissement ; le protocole additionnel A/SP.2/5/90 signé à Banjul le
29 mai 1990, relatif à l’exécution de la troisième étape (droit d’établissement) du prot-

cole sur la libre circulation des personnes, le droit de résidence et d’établissement ; la déci-
sion A/DEC.2/5/90 adoptée à Banjul le 30 mai 1990, portant institution d’une carte de
résident des Etats membres de la CEDEAO ; la décision C/DEC.3/12/92 adoptée à Abuja
le 5 décembre 1992, relative à l’institution d’un formulaire harmonisé d’bimmigration et
d’émigration des Etats membres de la CEDEAO ; et l’adoption de l’exemplaire de la carte
d’embarquement et de débarquement de la CEDEAO, utilisé par les services de police des
aéroports des différents Etats membres de la CEDEAO.
67
Le Burkina Faso cite, à cet égard, la décision A/DEC.5/10/98 dub 31 octobre 1998,
relative à la réglementation de la transhumance entre les Etats membres de la CEDEAO, et
le règlement C/REG.3/01/03, relatif à la mise en œuvre de la réglementation de la transhu
mance entre les Etats membres de la CEDEAO, joints en annexes 4 et 5 de sa réponse aux
questions posées par M. le juge Cançado Trindade.
68 Réponse du Burkina Faso aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançbado Trindade,

par. 20-30.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 201 8/04/14 08:34 123 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

of the freedom of movement and the right of establishment and residence
69
in the WAEMU area .
75. As to the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in
the Sahel (CILSS), Burkina Faso points out that a transhumance agree -
ment has been concluded among its member States 70. And as to the Con­

seil de l’entente, Burkina Faso refers to the free movement of people and
goods, the right of residence and of establishment (recognized in Articble 2
and 3 of the Charter of the Conseil), and to a Protocol of Agreement
adopted by member States in 1989 relating to an international transhu -

mance certificate in the Conseil member States, and highlighting transit
through the entry and exit points established by the States and the healbth
protection and security conditions to cross borders 71.
76. As to the Liptako-Gourma Integrated Development Authority

(LGA), in recalling that it is a sub-regional organization composed of
Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger (created by a Protocol of Agreement,
signed in Ouagadougou on 3 December 1970), Burkina Faso remarks

that this institution is the most active on the ground concerning nomadibc
populations of member States and transhumance movements. It further
claims that LGA, in partnership with the ECOWAS (financial develop -
ment partners), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and profes -

sional agro-pastoral organizations and associations, organized a regional
workshop on the findings of a study concerning existing legislation gobv -
erning transhumance in the Organization’s member States 72.
77. For its part, in response to a question I have deemed it fit to put tob

the two contending Parties, on 17 October 2012, at the end of the public
sittings before this Court, Niger refers to ECOWAS Decision A/
DEC.5/10/98, of 31 October 1998, which purports to regulate transhu -
mance between ECOWAS member States, in the “communitarian space”
73
(preamble). The Decision provides, inter alia (Article 3), that

“The crossing of terrestrial frontiers for purposes of transhumance
is authorized between all countries of the Community for bovine,
ovine, caprine, cameline and asine species under the conditions laid
down in the present Decision. (. . .)”

78. To regulate transhumance harmoniously — it proceeds — an

ECOWAS certificate, with public health indications (Article 5), provides
for the protection of the rights of the “beneficiaries of transhumabnce”, as
set forth in Article 16, which states that

“Transhumant pastoralists who have lawfully been admitted to the
country shall be entitled to the protection of the authorities in the

69 Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trinbdade,
paras. 31-34.
70 Ibid., paras. 35-36.
71 Ibid., paras. 37-40.
72
73 Ibid., paras. 41-46.
Niger’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade, Abnnex A.

83

6 CIJ1042.indb 202 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 123

et précisent le sens et la portée de la liberté de circulation bet du droit
69
d’établissement et de résidence dans l’espace UEMOA .
75. Concernant le Comité permanent inter-Etats de lutte contre la séchbe -
resse dans le Sahel (CILSS), le Burkina Faso relève qu’un accordb sur la
transhumance a été conclu entre ses Etats membres , et, pour ce qui est du

Conseil de l’entente, il renvoie au principe de libre circulation des personnes
et des biens et à celui du droit de résidence et d’établissebment, lesquels sont
reconnus aux chapitres 2 et 3 de sa charte, ainsi qu’au protocole d’accord
adopté par les pays membres en 1989, instituant un certificat international

de transhumance dans les pays membres du Conseil, le recours à des pobrtes
de sortie et d’entrée établies par les Etats, et des conditionsb de protection et
de sécurité sanitaires à respecter pour traverser les frontièbres. 71
76. Au sujet de l’Autorité de développement intégré du Liptako-Gourma

(ALG), le Burkina Faso rappelle qu’il s’agit d’une organisation soru ésg-ionale
regroupant le Burkina Faso, le Mali et le Niger (et créée par un protocole
d’accord signé à Ouagadougou le 3 décembre 1970), et précise que c’est dans

les domaines touchant aux populations nomades des Etats membres et aux
mouvements de transhumance que cette institution est le plus active. Il bajoute
que, en partenariat avec la CEDEAO, des acteurs financiers d’aide abu déve -
loppement, des organisations non gouvernementales et des associations pr-bo

fessionnelles agropastorales, l’ALG a organisé un atelier régional visant à
analyser les résultats d’une étude conduite sur la législatibon en vigueur en
matière de transhumance dans les Etats membres de l’organisation . 72
77. Dans sa réponse à une question que j’ai estimé devoir poser baux

deux Parties le 17 octobre 2012 au terme des audiences tenues devant la
Cour, le Niger se réfère, pour sa part, à la décision A/DEC.5/10/98 du
31 octobre 1998 de la CEDEAO visant à réglementer la transhumance
entre les Etats membres de la CEDEAO dans l’« espace communautaire»
73
(préambule). Cette décision prévoit notamment ce qui suit (article 3) :

«Le franchissement des frontières terrestres en vue de la trans-
humance est autorisé entre tous les pays de la Communauté pour
les espèces bovine, ovine, caprine, caméline et asine dans les condi -
tions définies par la présente décision… »

78. Afin de réguler harmonieusement la transhumance, poursuit-il, un

certificat CEDEAO comportant des indications de santé publique
(article 5) assure la protection des droits des « bénéficiaires de la trans-
humance» tel qu’il est prévu à l’article 16, aux termes duquel

«[l]es éleveurs transhumants, qui sont régulièrement admis, bébnéfi -
cient de la protection des autorités du pays d’accueil, et leurs droits

69 Réponse du Burkina Faso aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançbado Trindade,
par. 31-34.
70 Ibid., par. 35-36.
71 Ibid., par. 37-40.
72
73 Ibid., par. 41-46.
Réponse du Niger aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançado Trbindade, annexe A.

83

6 CIJ1042.indb 203 8/04/14 08:34 124 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

host country, and their basic rights shall be guaranteed by the judicialb
institutions of the host country. (. . .)”

79. Furthermore, Niger refers to the general report on the Consulta -

tion Meeting on Cross-Border Transhumance,74eld in Dori, Burkina Faso,
on 19-20 December 2002. The report was prepared following that meet-
ing, on animal transhumance, which gathered ministers “responsible for
animal husbandry”, from ECOWAS member States, held in Ouagadou -

gou, Burkina Faso, on 9-10 October 2002.

2. In Bilateral Agreements

80. In response to a question I have deemed it fit to put to the contend-
ing Parties at the end of the public sittings before this Court, on 17 Octo -
ber 2012, Burkina Faso further adds that the two States have developed
bilateral relations concerning this question. In this regard, Burkina Faso

cites the 1964 Protocol of Agreement which recognized the free move -
ment of populations and it also asserts that the two States have never
ceased to co-operate to further improve and facilitate the conditions and

modalities of free circulation of people and transhumance movements.
Burkina Faso concludes that the frontier will not affect the nomads par -
ticularly since both States’ membership in regional integration and
co-operation institutions recognizes the freedom of movement and resi -
75
dence rights to the populations .
81. For its part, Niger states, in its response to my question, that

“As regards the future, the free movement of persons and goods
between the two States will remain safeguarded under the conventions
binding the two States within a bilateral framework and under inter -

national agreements establishing freedom of movement and free
access to natural resources between member States.” 76

82. The admission by the contending Parties, that they are bound by
their pledge to co-operation — at multilateral and bilateral levels — in
respect of local populations, is, in my perception, very significant ibndeed.

However harmonious human relations might be in the interior of nomadic
and semi-nomadic communities (cf. supra), it is not surprising to find that
their relations with the public power of the State may at times discloseb
77
tension and some degree of mistrust . Yet, this seems also to be sur -
mountable, and renders it much to the credit of both Burkina Faso and
Niger to have found the way to establish a régime of transhumance and a
true “system of solidarity” (cf. infra), so as to fulfil the needs of the local

74 Niger’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade, Abnnex B.
75
Burkina’s Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançadob Trindade,
par76. 47-52.
77 Niger’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade, pb. 6.
For a recent account, cf. inter alia, e.g., B. Oumarou, Pasteurs nomades face à l’Etat
du Niger, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2011, pp. 69-74, 168-175, 198-206 and 215-216.

84

6 CIJ1042.indb 204 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 124

fondamentaux sont garantis par les institutions judiciaires du pays
d’accueil… ».

79. Le Niger invoque par ailleurs le rapport général de la rencontre dbe

concertation sur la transhumance transfrontalière tenue à Dori (74ur -
kina Faso) les 19 et 20 décembre 2002. Ce document a été établi à la
suite de la réunion des ministres chargés de l’élevage des Etats membres
de la CEDEAO sur la transhumance des animaux, tenue à Ouagadougou,

au Burkina Faso, les 9 et 10 octobre 2002.

2. Accords bilatéraux

80. Dans sa réponse à l’une des questions que j’ai cru devoir pobser aux
Parties au terme des audiences, le 17 octobre 2012, le Burkina Faso pré -
cise que des accords bilatéraux ont été établis entre les debux Etats sur
cette question. Il cite, à cet égard, le protocole d’accord de 1964 qui a

consacré la libre circulation des personnes, indiquant en outre que lbes
deux Etats n’ont jamais cessé de coopérer en vue d’améliobrer et de facili -
ter les conditions et modalités de la libre circulation des personnesb et de la

transhumance. Il conclut en affirmant que le tracé de la frontière n’affec -
tera pas les populations nomades étant donné, notamment, l’appabrte -
nance des deux Etats aux organisations régionales d’intégrationb et de
coopération, qui témoigne de leur attachement à préserver lab liberté de
75
circulation et les droits de résidence de ces populations .
81. Le Niger, pour sa part, affirme dans sa réponse que,

«[s]’agissant de l’avenir, la libre circulation des personnes et debs
biens entre les deux Etats restera garantie par les conventions liant
les deux Etats dans le cadre bilatéral ainsi que par les accords intebr -

nationaux qui consacrent la liberté de circulation et le libre accèbs aux
ressources naturelles entre les Etats membres… » 7.

82. La reconnaissance par les Parties du fait qu’elles sont liées par bleur
engagement de coopération — aux niveaux international et bilatéral — à
l’égard des populations locales est, me semble-t-il, tout à faibt détermi -

nante. L’on constate sans surprise que les rapports humains, si harmo -
nieux soient-ils au sein des communautés nomades et semi-nomades (vobir
supra), peuvent parfois s’accompagner de tensions et d’une certaine

méfiance, lorsqu’il s’77it des échanges avec la puissance bpublique de l’Etat
dont elles relèvent . Ces difficultés semblent toutefois être surmontables,
et ne rendent que plus louables encore les moyens mis en œuvre par leb
Burkina Faso et le Niger pour établir un régime de transhumance aibnsi

74 Réponse du Niger aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançado Trbindade, annexe B.
75
Réponse du Burkina Faso aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançbado Trindade,
par7647-52.
77 Réponse du Niger aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançado Trbindade, p. 6.
Pour une analyse récente, voir notamment B. Oumarou, Pasteurs nomades face à
l’Etat du Niger, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2011, p. 69-74, 168-175, 198-206 et 215-216.

84

6 CIJ1042.indb 205 8/04/14 08:34 125 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

populations (and to preserve their modus vivendi, whether nomadic,
semi-nomadic or sedentary), within themselves and in their international

relations.

3. The Régime of Transhumance

83. Besides transmitting to the Court important elements such as the
ones reviewed in the present separate opinion (supra), the two contending
Parties, also in their responses to the questions I have deemed it fitb to put to
both of them at the end of the public sittings before this Court, on 17 Octo -

ber 2012, added some thoughts which leave no doubt as to their clear pledge
to co-operation with regard to the living conditions of the population over
the territory at issue. Thus, in this respect Burkina Faso ponders that

“it is the practice of nomadism in Africa and, more generally, the
movement of pastoralists and their herds as part of transhumance
(. . .), which led Niger and Burkina, once they had achieved independ-

ence, to undertake to f78ilitate the freedom of movement on either
side of the frontier” .

84. Burkina Faso assures that the living conditions of the local popula -
tions will not be affected by the tracing of the frontier line betweenb itself
and Niger. In its own words,

“[C]ommunity law in West Africa, as deriving from the legal pro -
visions of the instruments establishing the sub-regional organizations
which Burkina Faso and Niger have joined, and as deriving from the
regulatory instruments of the organs of those organizations, as well

as the practices followed or observed by the States of the sub-region,
Burkina Faso is in a position to respond that the frontier line between
Burkina Faso and Niger will not affect the life or fate of the nomadic
populations living on either side of the border.” 79

85. For its part, in basically the same general line of thinking, Niger
contends that

“The current system of transhumance is as described hereafter. In
the absence of a precise frontier line, movements and access to natu -

ral resources on either side of the frontier are unrestricted under a
modus vivendi arrangement between the authorities of the two States,
which do not strictly apply the rules in force concerning the movement
of persons and livestock (requirement for an identity card, laissez-
80
passer, vaccination certificate, etc.).”

78 Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trinbdade,
para. 15. Burkina Faso adds that “the area frequented by nomads goes way beyond the

frontier zone” (para. 54) ; in referring to their free circulation between itself and Niger,
Burkina Faso adds that the “transhumance routes” correspond to the “zonbes currently
fre79ented by nomads” (para. 55).
80 Ibid., par. 52.
Niger’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade, pb. 8.

85

6 CIJ1042.indb 206 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 125

qu’un vrai « système de solidarité » (voir infra) afin de répondre aux

besoins des populations locales (et de préserver leur mode de vie, qbu’il
soit nomade, semi-nomade ou sédentaire), tant au sein de chacun des b
deux Etats que dans leurs relations internationales.

3. Le régime de transhumance

83. Outre les éléments importants communiqués à la Cour, tels que
ceux examinés dans la présente opinion individuelle (supra), les deux Par -
ties ont, dans leurs réponses aux questions que j’ai cru devoir lebur poser à

l’issue de l’audience du 17 octobre 2012, formulé certaines réflexions qui
ne laissent planer aucun doute quant à leur engagement clair à coobpérer
en vue de préserver les conditions de vie des populations présentes sur le
territoire en cause. Le Burkina Faso affirme ainsi, sur ce point, que

«c’est la pratique du nomadisme en Afrique, et, plus généralement,
la circulation des pasteurs et de leurs troupeaux dans le cadre de la

transhumance …, qui a conduit le Niger et le Burkina, une fois leur
indépendance acquise, à s’engager à faciliter la liberté de circulation
de part et d’autre de la frontière » . 78

84. Le Burkina Faso assure que les conditions de vie des populations
locales ne seront pas affectées par le tracé de la frontière bavec le Niger,
affirmant à cet égard :

«[L]e droit communautaire en Afrique de l’Ouest tel qu’il résulte

des dispositions juridiques des textes constitutifs des organisations
sous-régionales auxquelles le Burkina Faso et le Niger ont adhéréb et
des actes réglementaires des organes de ces organisations, ainsi que
la pratique suivie ou observée par les Etats de la sous-région per -

mettent de répondre que le tracé de la frontière entre le Burkibna Faso
et le Niger n’affectera pas la vie ou le sort des populations nomadbes
vivant de part et d’autre de la frontière. » 79

85. Le Niger adopte, pour sa part, une logique assez proche :

«Le régime actuel de la transhumance est le suivant. En l’absence
d’un tracé précis de la frontière, les déplacements et l’baccès aux res -
sources naturelles de part et d’autre de la frontière se font librbement

en application d’un modus vivendi entre les autorités des deux Etats,
qui n’appliquent pas de manière rigoureuse la réglementation enb
vigueur en matière de déplacement des populations et du bétail b(exi-
gence de carte d’identité, laissez-passer, carnet de vaccination, betc» .).0

78 Réponse du Burkina Faso aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançbado Trindade,
par. 15. Le Burkina Faso ajoute que « la zone fréquentée par des nomades dépasse large -
ment la zone frontalière » (par. 54) ; au sujet de la libre circulation entre son territoire et
celui du Niger, le Burkina Faso précise que les «itinéraires de transhumance » corres
pondent aux «zones fréquentées par les nomades à l’heure actuelle » (par. 55).
79
80 Ibid., par. 52.
Réponse du Niger aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançado Trbindade, p. 8.

85

6 CIJ1042.indb 207 8/04/14 08:34 126 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

86. Despite not coinciding in their submissions as to the specific aspectsb
of the tracing of the frontier line, Burkina Faso and Niger agree as to the

assurance of freedom of movement of nomadic populations across their
borders. Thus, in its additional comments to the responses given by Nigebr
to the questions I put to both contending Parties at the close of the pubblic
sittings before the ICJ, on 17 October 2012, Burkina Faso ponders, inter

alia, that
“it should be pointed out that both Parties agree that the rules in fborce

and effectively applied between the two States allow for — and widely
facilitate — cross-border transhumance. Niger describes this as a
modus vivendi arrangement (. . .) : whatever its precise significance,
that expression does not give an accurate representation of the situa -
81
tion. As shown by Burkina Faso in its own reply , and confirmed by
the additional information given by Niger, the freedom of nomadic
movement and transhumance is established (and supported) by an
82
effective legal framework, which guarantees its continuity.”

XI. Population and Territbory Together: Conformation
of a “System of Solidarbity”

87. All the aforementioned discloses that the two Parties, in response

to my questions, have confirmed their understanding of the conformatiobn
of a régime of transhumance, described, by one of them, as a true “bsystem
of solidarity”. The ICJ now sees that people and territory go togethebr
(infra); the latter cannot make abstraction of the former, in particular

in cases of such a cultural density as the present one. After all, since thbe
time of its “founding fathers”, the law of nations (jus gentium) has
born witness of the presence of solidarity in its corpus juris, as we shall
see next.

1. Transhumance and the “System of Solidarity”

88. May I single out, at this stage, a passage of the responses of
Burkina Faso to the questions that I put to both Parties at the end of the
public sittings before this Court, on 17 October 2012 ; in dwelling upon

the phenomenon of transhumance, Burkina Faso observes that

81
Burkina Faso’s Response to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade, paras.
17-52.
82Written Comments of Burkina Faso on Niger’s Replies to the Questions Put by
Judge Cançado Trindade at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 17 Ocbtober 2013, doc. of
23 November 2012, para. 4.

86

6 CIJ1042.indb 208 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 126

86. Bien que présentant des conclusions divergentes quant aux aspects
précis du tracé de la frontière, le Burkina Faso et le Niger cobnviennent

tous deux de la nécessité de garantir la liberté de mouvement abux popula-
tions nomades vivant le long de leurs frontières. Dans ses observations
complémentaires sur les réponses du Niger aux questions que j’abi posées
aux Parties au terme des audiences, le 17 octobre 2012, le Burkina Faso

livre, notamment, la considération suivante :
«il convient de constater que les deux Parties s’accordent pour consi -

dérer que les règles en vigueur et effectivement appliquées ebntre les
deux Etats permettent — et facilitent largement — les mouvements
de transhumance transfrontière. Le Niger qualifie cette situation dbe
modus vivendi…; quelle que soit sa signification précise, cette expres -

sion ne la décrit pas de manière exacte : comme le Burkina l’a montré
dans sa propre réponse 81et comme les informations complémen -
taires données par le Niger le confirment, la liberté des mouvembents

nomades et de la transhumance est établie (ou encadrée) p82 un véri -
table ordre juridique qui en garantit la pérennité. »

XI. La population et le tebrritoire considérésb comme un tou:t
établissement d’un « système de solidaritéb»

87. L’ensemble des éléments qui précèdent démontrent que lbes deux

Parties, dans leurs réponses à mes questions, ont confirmé lebur accord sur
l’existence d’un régime de transhumance, que l’une d’ellebs décrit comme
un réel « système de solidarité ». La Cour considère aujourd’hui que
les peuples et les territoires vont de pair (infra) ; l’on ne saurait envisager

les uns en faisant abstraction des autres, notamment dans les affairesb
présentant une grande densité culturelle, comme celle qui nous
occupe aujourd’hui. Après tout, depuis l’époque de ses « pères fonda -
teurs», le droit des nations (jus gentium) témoigne de la présence de

la notion de solidarité dans son corpus juris, comme nous le verrons
ci-après.

1. La transhumance et le « système de solidarité »

88. Je me permettrai, à ce stade, de citer un passage des réponses du b
Burkina Faso aux questions que j’ai posées aux Parties au terme des
audiences, le 17 octobre 2012, qui, à propos du phénomène de la transhu -

mance, observe ce qui suit :

81
Réponse du Burkina Faso aux questions posées par M. le juge Cançbado Trindade,
par. 17-52.
82Observations écrites du Burkina Faso sur les réponses du Niger auxb questions posées
par M. le juge Cançado Trindade au terme de l’audience tenue le 17 octobre 2012, -ocu
ment du 23 novembre 2012, par. 4.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 209 8/04/14 08:34 127 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

“Transhumance is a traditional herding system based on longstand-
ing routes and itineraries which are still in use today. The volume of
movement varies in terms of both time and space, depending on the
year and more particularly, periods of drought. (. . .)

Livestock are moved in search of pasture, watering points and salt
licks. Those movements of livestock take no account of national fron -
tiers. Livestock movements are dependent solely upon nature, natural

resources and their capacity to feed their stock. (. . .)

The resources shared by herders are never appropriated by one
community to the detriment of another. All depend on the rainfall
and its vagaries; no one knows in advance when fodder resource con -

ditions will fail. A system of solidarity, of tontine (mutual assistance)
exists, where each welcomes the other when the conditions are better
in his area, in the certainty of being welcomed in turn in other areas
when nature is more favourable there.” (Paras. 57-59.)

After explaining that the radius of movement or displacement of the

nomadic populations depends on “the richness of the pasture, wateringb
points and salt licks, animal health conditions and commercial facilitiebs”,
it concludes on this matter that Burkina Faso and Niger are, “at the same
time, and reciprocally, host and transit zones for livestock moving

between the countries” (para. 65).

2. People and Territory Together

89. It is reassuring that, even a classic subject like territory, is seen

today — even by the International Court of Justice — as going together
with the population. In this respect, it should not pass unnoticed that,b in
its Order of Provisional Measures of Protection (of 18 July 2011) in the
Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of 15 June 1962 in the Case

concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), the ICJ
approached territory together with the (affected) population, and
ordered — in an unprecedented way in its case law — the creation of a
demilitarized zone in the surroundings of the aforementioned Temple
(near the borderline between the two countries).

90. In my separate opinion appended thereto, I observed that such
demilitarized zone seeks to protect not only the territory at issue, but also
the segments of the populations that live thereon 8. Beyond the classic
territorialist approach is the “human factor” ; this paves the way, I pro -

ceeded, for protecting, by means of such provisional measures, the rightb
to life of the members of the local populations as well as the spiritualb

83As well as aset of monuments situated thereon (conforming the Temple) which
nowadays integrate — by decision of UNESCO — the cultural and spiritual heritage of
humankind (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), pp. 588-598, paras. 66-95).

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6 CIJ1042.indb 210 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 127

«La transhumance est un mode d’élevage traditionnel reposant
sur des axes et itinéraires créés de longue date et qui perdurebnt de nos
jours. Les amplitudes des mouvements varient dans le temps et dans
l’espace selon les années et plus encore lors des périodes de crise ali -
mentaire du bétail (sécheresse)…

La transhumance est organisée à la recherche de pâturages, de
points d’eau et de cures salées. Elle ne tient pas compte des limibtes de
frontières entre les Etats. Le territoire du transhumant n’obéit qu’à
la nature, ses richesses naturelles et leurs capacités à bien nourbrir le
cheptel…

[C]es ressources partagées entre éleveurs ne sont jamais appro -
priées par une communauté au détriment d’une autre. Tous débpen -
dant de la pluviométrie et de ses caprices, nul ne sait à l’avance
quand manqueront les bonnes conditions pour nourrir le bétail. On

est alors dans un système de solidarité, de tontine, où chacun baccueille
les autres quand les conditions sont meilleures chez lui, dans la certi -
tude d’être accueilli à son tour chez les autres lorsque les fabveurs de
la nature leur sont plus favorables. » (Par. 57-59.)

Après avoir expliqué que le rayon de déplacement des populationbs
nomades dépend de la «richesse en pâturages, points d’eau et cures salées,
des conditions zoosanitaires et des facilités d’écoulement », il conclut sur

ce point en affirmant que le Burkina Faso et le Niger sont « à la fois, et
réciproquement, des zones d’accueil et de transit des transhumantsb venant
de l’un ou de l’autre pays » (par. 65).

2. Les peuples et le territoire pris comme un tout

89. Il y a tout lieu de se réjouir qu’un sujet aussi classique que le terri -
toire soit aujourd’hui considéré — même par la Cour internationale de
Justice — comme allant de pair avec la population. Rappelons, à cet
égard, que, dans l’affaire relative à la Demande en interprétation de l’arrêt

du 15 juin 1962 en l’affaire du Temple de Préah Vihéar (présentée par le
Cambodge contre la Thaïlande), la Cour a pris en compte le territoirbe
sans le dissocier de la population (affectée), et a indiqué, dbe manière iné -
dite dans sa jurisprudence, la création d’une zone démilitarisébe dans les

environs dudit temple (à proximité de la frontière entre les dbeux Etats).

90. Dans l’opinion individuelle que j’ai jointe à cette ordonnance,b j’ob-
servais qu’une telle zone démilitarisée visait à protégerb non seulement le
territoire en question, mais également les segments de population l’boccu -
83
pant . Au-delà de la conception traditionnelle exclusivement axée sur lbe
territoire, il convient de prendre en considération le « facteur humain »;
pareille démarche permet, poursuivais-je, de protéger, au moyen debs

83Ainsi qu’un ensemble de monuments s’y trouvant (et formant le tembple), qui font
aujourd’hui partie, par décision de l’UNESCO, du patrimoine culturel et spirituel de l’hu -

manité (C.I.J.Recueil 2011 (II), p. 588-598, par. 66-95).

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6 CIJ1042.indb 211 8/04/14 08:34 128 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

heritage of humankind (paras. 96-113). Underlying this jurisprudential
construction, I added, is the principle of humanity, orienting the search for

the improvement of the conditions of living of the societas gentium and
the attainment and realization of the common good (paras. 114-115), in
the framework of the new jus gentium of our times (para. 117).

91. In my aforementioned separate opinion, I further pondered that

“the needs of protection of people comprise all their needs”, inclbuding
their modus vivendi, their “right to live with dignity” (para. 102), and I
added that

“Cultural and spiritual heritage appears more closely related to a
human context, rather than to the traditional State-centric context ; it
appears to transcend the purely inter-State dimension, that the Court
is used to. I have made this point also on other occasions, in the
adjudication of distinct cases lodged with the Court. For example,

two weeks ago, in the Court’s Order of 4 July 2011 in the case of the
Jurisdictional Immunities of the State(Germany v. Italy) (intervention
of Greece), I sustained, in my separate opinion, that rights of States b
and rights of individuals evolve pari passu in contemporary jus gen ­
tium (I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), pp. 506-530, paras. 1-61), to a greater

extent than one may prima facie realize or assume.

In any case, beyond the States are the human beings who organize
themselves socially and compose them. The State is not, and has never
been, conceived as an end in itself, but rather as a means to regulate

and improve the living conditions of the societas gentium, keeping in
mind the basic principle of humanity, amongst other fundamental
principles of the law of nations, so as to achieve the common good.
Beyond the States, the ultimate titulaires of the right to the safeguard
and preservation of their cultural and spiritual heritage are the col -
lectivities of human beings concerned, or else humankind as a whole.”b

(I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), p. 606, paras. 113-114.)
After all — I concluded — “[c]ultures, like human beings, are vulnerable,

and need protection” in all their diversity, and such protection is “bwell in
keeping with the jus gentium of our times” (ibid., para. 117).
92. The ICJ’s 2011 decision in the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear
is not the only example to this effect. Reference could further be madbe to
a couple of other recent ICJ decisions acknowledging likewise the need to

take into account people and territory together. For example, earlier onb,
in its Judgment (of 13 July 2009) on the Dispute relating to Navigational
and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), the ICJ upheld the cus -
tomary right of fishing for subsistence (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009,
p. 266, paras. 143-144) of the inhabitants of both margins of the River
San Juan. Such fishing for subsistence was never objected to (by the

respondent State). And, ultimately, those who fish for subsistence arbe not
the States, but rather the human beings affected by poverty. The ICJ tbhus

88

6 CIJ1042.indb 212 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 128

mesures conservatoires, le droit à la vie des populations locales ainsi que
le patrimoine spirituel mondial (par. 96-113). J’ajoutais encore que cet

édifice jurisprudentiel repose sur le principe d’humanité, lequel anime la
quête d’amélioration des conditions de vie de la societas gentium et de
réalisation du bien commun (par. 114-115) dans le cadre du jus gentium
contemporain (par. 117).
91. Dans l’opinion individuelle susmentionnée, je soulignais que, «bpar

«besoins auxquels doit répondre la protection », [il convenait d’entendre]
tous les besoins de la population », à commencer par son mode de vie et
son «droit de vivre dans la dignité » (par. 102), et j’ajoutais :

«Le patrimoine culturel et spirituel relève d’une dimension humaine
plutôt que de la dimension étatique traditionnelle, et paraît tbranscen -
der la dimension purement interétatique à laquelle la Cour est habbi-
tuée. Je l’ai déjà fait observer à d’autres occasions,b dans le cadre
d’affaires dont le règlement avait été confié à lab Cour. Par exemple,

au sujet de l’ordonnance rendue par la Cour il y a deux semaines, le b
4 juillet 2011, en l’affaire des Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat
(Allemagne c. Italie) (intervention de la République hellénique), j’ai
dit, dans mon opinion individuelle, que les droits des Etats et ceux
des personnes évoluaient de concert dans le cadre du jus gentium

moderne (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II), p. 506-530, par. 1-61), bien davan -
tage qu’on pourrait l’observer ou le supposer de prime abord.
En tout état de cause, au-delà des Etats se trouvent les êtres b
humains, qui s’organisent en société et forment l’Etat. Celui-ci n’est
pas, et n’a jamais été, conçu comme une fin en soi, mais cbomme un

moyen de régir et d’améliorer les conditions de vie de la societas gen ­
tium, en gardant à l’esprit le principe d’humanité, entre autres prin -
cipes fondamentaux du droit des gens, de sorte à parvenir à la
réalisation du bien commun. Au-delà des Etats, les titulaires ultimes
du droit à la sauvegarde et à la préservation du patrimoine culbturel
et spirituel sont les collectivités humaines concernées, voire l’bhuma -

nité tout entière. » (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II), p. 606, par. 113-114.)
Après tout, concluais-je, «[l]es cultures, comme les êtres humains, sont vul-

nérables et doivent être protégées » dans toute leur diversité, protection
«parfaitement en accord avec le jus gentium contemporain » (ibid., par. 117).
92. La décision rendue en 2011 par la Cour dans l’affaire relative à la
Demande en interprétation de l’arrêt du 15 juin 1962 en l’affaire du Temple
de Préah Vihéar n’est pas le seul exemple à cet égard, etb l’on pourrait, de

fait, mentionner une ou deux autres décisions récentes par lesquelbles la
Cour a, de la même manière, reconnu la nécessité de prendre ben compte
les peuples et le territoire de manière indissociable. Ainsi, dans son arrêt
du 13 juillet 2009 en l’affaire du Différend relatif à des droits de navigation
et des droits connexes (Costa Rica c. Nicaragua), la Cour avait confirmé
l’existence d’un droit coutumier de pratiquer la pêche à des fins de subsis -

tance (C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 266, par. 143-144) en faveur des habitants
des deux rives du fleuve San Juan, l’Etat défendeur n’ayant fbormulé

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6 CIJ1042.indb 213 8/04/14 08:34 129 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

turned its attention, beyond strictly territorial inter-State outlook, also
towards the affected segments of the local populations concerned. Thisb

was reassuring, bearing in mind, in historical perspective, that States exist
for human beings, and not vice versa.

93. Shortly afterwards, in its Judgment (of 20 April 2010) in the case
concerning the Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay),

the ICJ, in examining the arguments and evidence produced by the par -
ties (on the environmental protection in the River Uruguay), took into
account aspects pertaining to the affected local populations, and the bcon-

sultation to these latter. I drew attention to this point in my separateb
opinion (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), pp. 192-207, paras. 153-190), wherein I
pondered that, once again, it was necessary to go beyond the purely ter -

ritorial inter-State dimension, and to take in due account the imperatives
of human health and the well-being of the peoples concerned, the role of
civil society in environmental protection , as well as the emergence of the

obligations of objective character (beyond reciprocity) in environmentbal
protection, to the benefit of present and future generations.

94. In the present case of the Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso
and Niger, the Court has taken yet another step in the right direction, bto
the same effect of caring about the fulfilment of the needs of the popula -

tions concerned, in pointing out, in paragraph 112 of the Judgment just
delivered today, that

“Having determined the course of the frontier between the two
countries (. . .), as the Parties requested of it, the Court expresses its

wish that each Party, in exercising its authority over the portion of
the territory under its sovereignty, should have due regard to the
needs of the populations concerned, in particular those of the nomadic

or semi-nomadic populations, and to the necessity to overcome diffi -
culties that may arise for them because of the frontier. The Court

notes the co-operation that has already been established on a regional
and bilateral basis between the Parties in this regard, in particular

84In that same separate opinion, I deemed it fit to recall that, before bthat case had
become an inter-State dispute by the end of 2003, in its origins was the initiative, two
years earlier (end of 2001), of an Argentinean non-governmental organization (NGO), of
expressing its preoccupation to an international entity (CARU), with a subject of consi -

derable public interest (the alleged environmental risks), affecting the local populations.
Subsequently, several NGOs (both Argentinean and Uruguayan) manifested themselves in
this respect. This disclosed the artificiality of a simply inter-State outlook when one is faced
with challenges of public or general interest (such as those pertainingb to environmental
protection).

89

6 CIJ1042.indb 214 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 129

aucune objection à l’égard de cette pêche de subsistance. Etb, après tout,
ceux qui pêchent pour vivre ne sont pas des Etats, ce sont des êtrbes

humains frappés par la pauvreté. La Cour a donc, dans cette affabire,
dépassé la dimension interétatique strictement axée sur le tberritoire pour
s’intéresser également aux segments affectés des populations locales

concernées. Il y a tout lieu de s’en féliciter, si l’on consbidère que, d’un
point de vue historique, l’Etat est au service des êtres humains, bet non
l’inverse.

93. Dans son arrêt rendu peu de temps après (le 20 avril 2010) dans
l’affaire relative à des Usines de pâte à papier sur le fleuve Uruguay (Argen­
tine c. Uruguay), la Cour, examinant les arguments et éléments de preuve

présentés par les Parties (sur la protection de l’environnement du fleuve
Uruguay), a pris en considération des aspects concernant les populatbions
locales touchées ainsi que la consultation entreprise auprès d’belles. J’ai

appelé l’attention sur ce point dans mon opinion individuelle (C.I.J.
Recueil 2010 (I), p. 192-207, par. 153-190), en soulignant que, une fois
encore, il était nécessaire de dépasser la dimension interétbatique focalisée

sur le territoire et de prendre dûment en compte les impératifs deb la santé
humaine et du bien-être des peuples concernés, le rôle de la sobciété civile
dans la protection de l’environnement 8, ainsi que l’émergence d’obliga -

tions à caractère objectif (au-delà de la réciprocité) en matière de protec -
tion de l’environnement, dans l’intérêt des générationbs présentes et futures.
94. Dans la présente affaire du Différend frontalier (Burkina Faso/

Niger), la Cour a franchi un nouveau pas en direction de la prise en
considération des besoins des populations concernées, en soulignanbt, au
paragraphe 112 de l’arrêt rendu ce jour :

«Ayant procédé à la détermination du tracé de la frontièbre entre
les deux pays …, comme les Parties le lui ont demandé, la Cour
exprime le souhait que chaque Partie, en exerçant son autorité sur le

territoire qui relève de sa souveraineté, tienne dûment compte bdes
besoins des populations concernées, en particulier des populations
nomades ou semi-nomades, et de la nécessité de surmonter les diffib -

cultés qui pourraient surgir pour ces populations du fait de la fron -
tière. La Cour prend note de la coopération sur une base régionbale et
bilatérale qui s’est déjà instaurée entre les Parties àb ce propos, notam -

84
Dans cette même opinion individuelle, j’ai estimé utile de rappbeler que cette affaire,
avant de devenir un litige interétatique à la fin de 2003, avaitb pour origine une initiative
menée deux ans auparavant (à la fin de 2001) par une organisatbion non gouvernementale
(ONG) argentine qui s’était inquiétée, auprès d’une instance internationalbe (CARU), d’un
problème d’intérêt public considérable (les risques supposés pour l’environnement) affec -
tant les populations locales. Par la suite, différentes ONG (argenbtines et uruguayennes)
étaient intervenues sur cette question. Avait ainsi été mis en blumière le caractère artificiel
d’une démarche strictement interétatique lorsque se trouvent enb présence des questions
d’intérêt public ou général (comme celles touchant à bla protection de l’environnement).

89

6 CIJ1042.indb 215 8/04/14 08:34 130 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

under Chapter III of the 1987 Protocol of Agreement, and encourages

them to develop it further.”

3. Solidarity in the Jus Gentium

95. Working in a hectic and short-sighted milieu of droit d’étatistes,
who can only behold State sovereignty (without knowing what it exactly b
means), I feel that some words of caution and serenity are here called bfor,
in the light of the circumstances and lessons of the cas d’espèce. In his -

torical perspective, may I recall herein that the “founding fathers”b of the
law of nations (in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries) propounded a
universalist outlook (encompassing totus orbis), in a world marked by

diversification (of peoples and cultures) and by pluralism (of ideas and
cosmovisions), seeking thereby to secure the unity of the societas gentium.

96. The jus gentium they conceived was for everyone, all peoples, indi -

viduals and groups of individuals, as well as States (then, only then, b
emerging), all “fractions” of humankind . They endeavoured to pave the
way for the prevalence of a true jus necessarium, transcending the tradi -

tional limitations of the jus voluntarium. The gradual and felicitous
encounter of scholastic knowledge with humanism propitiated further
perennial insights. This is, in my perception, an appropriate moment to b
rescue herein a couple of them.

97. Thus, one of the most learned of the “founding fathers” of the lawb
of nations (droit des gens), Francisco Suárez, in Book II (on “The Eter -
nal Law, the Natural Law, and the Jus Gentium”) of his masterful De

Legibus, Ac Deo Legislatore (1612), in upholding the unity of the human
kind (wherefrom jus gentium emanates), singled out the “natural precept”
(praeceptum naturale) of mutual “affection and mercy” [solidarity] (mutui
amoris et misericordiae) , applying to everyone. There was awareness of

sociability and mutual interdependence as limits to State sovereignty, tbo
the benefit of the populations concerned, who stood in need of each otbher
and could hardly live (or survive) in an isolated way.

98. “Natural precepts” of the kind found expression by the force of
“natural reflection”, under the “pressure of necessity”, rbather than as a

85
A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Totus Orbis : A Visão Universalista e Pluralista do Jus
Gentium :Sentido e Atualidade da Obra de Francisco de Vitoria”, 24 Revista da Academia
Brasileira de Letras Jurídicas — Rio de Janeiro (2008), No. pp. 197-212 ; Association
Internationale Vitoria-Suarez, Vitoria et Suarez —Contribution des théologiens au ­roit inter
national moderne, Paris, Pedone, 1939, pp. 169-170 ; A. Truyol y Serra, “La conception de
la paix chez Vitoria et les classiques espagnols du droit des gens”,in: A. Truyol y Serra and
P. Foriers,La conception et l’organisation de la paix chez Vitoria et Grotius, Paris, Libr. Philos.
J. Vrin, 1987, pp. 243, 257, 260 and 263 ; A. Gómez Robledo, “Fundadores del Derecho
Internacional — Vitoria, Gentili, Suárez, Grocio”, Obras— Derecho, Vol. 9, Mexico,

Col86io Nacional, 2001, pp. 434-442, 451-452, 473, 481, 493-499, 511-515 and 557-563.
Chapter XIX, para. 9 ; and cf. Chapter XX, paras. 2-3.

90

6 CIJ1042.indb 216 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 130

ment en vertu du chapitre III du protocole d’accord de 1987, et les

encourage à la développer ultérieurement. »

3. La solidarité dans le jus gentium

95. Evoluant dans un milieu agité et peu clairvoyant d’étatistes avbeu -
glés par la notion de souveraineté des Etats (sans savoir exactement de
quoi il retourne), je pense qu’une attitude de prudence et de sérbénité s’im -

pose ici, au vu des circonstances et des enseignements de l’affaireb. Je rap-
pellerai, d’un point de vue historique, que les « pères fondateurs» du droit
des gens (aux XVI eet XVII siècles) préconisaient une démarche univer -

saliste (englobant l’ensemble du genre humain) dans un monde marquéb
par la diversification (des peuples et des cultures) et le pluralismbe (des
idées et des visions du monde), cherchant ainsi à garantir l’ubnité de la

societas gentium.
96. Le jus gentium a été conçu pour tous — les peuples, les individus et
les groupes d’individus, ainsi que les Etats (qui n’en étaientb alors qu’à
leurs premiers balbutiements) —, autrement dit, pour toutes les « frac-
85
tions» du genre humain . Ses pères fondateurs se sont efforcés d’ouvrir
la voie à la primauté d’un véritable jus necessarium transcendant les
limites traditionnelles du jus voluntarium. La rencontre progressive et heu-
reuse entre le savoir scolastique et l’humanisme a donné naissanceb à de

nouvelles réflexions appelées à un long avenir. Le moment me bsemble
opportun pour revenir sur certaines d’entre elles.
97. Ainsi, dans le livre II (« La loi éternelle, la loi naturelle et le droit

des gens») de son ouvrage magistral De legibus, ac Deo legislatore (« Des
lois et du Dieu législateur », 1612), Francisco Suárez, l’un des plus émi -
nents «pères fondateurs» du droit des nations (ou droit des gens), réaffir -
mant l’unité du genre humain (dont émane le jus gentium), s’est notamment

arrêté sur le «précepte naturel» (praeceptum naturale) de la « fraternité et
[d’]aide étendue à tous [soit, la solidarité] » (mutui amoris et misericor ­
diae) , qui s’applique à tous. La sociabilité et l’interdépendabnce se sont,

selon lui, imposées comme autant de limites à la souveraineté dbes Etats, et
ce, dans l’intérêt des populations concernées, qui avaient besoin les unes
des autres et pouvaient difficilement vivre (ou survivre) de manière isolée.
98. Les « préceptes naturels » de ce type ont pu s’exprimer sous l’effet

d’une « réflexion naturelle » menée « par nécessité », et non du fait d’une

85 A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Totus Orbis : A Visão Universalista e Pluralista do Jus

Gentium: Sentido e Atualidade da Obra de Froncisco de Vitoria » , Revista da Academia
Brasileira de Letras Jurídicas, vol. 24 (2008), nio de Janeiro, p. 197-212; Association
internationale Vitoria-Suarez, Vitoria et Suarez —Contribution des théologiens au d­oit inter
national moderne, Paris, Pedone, 1939, p. 169-170; A. Truyol y Serra, «La conception de la
paix chez Vitoria et les classiques espagnols du droit des gens » , dans A. Truyol y Serra et
P. Foriers, La conception et l’organisation de la paix chez Vitoria et Grotius, Paris, Librairie
philosophique J. Vrin, 1987, p. 243, 257, 260 et 263 ; A. Gómez Robledo, «Fundadores del
Derecho Internacional — Vitoria, Gentili, Suárez, Grocio,»Obras — Derecho,vol. 9 (2001),
Mexico, Colegio Nacional, p. 434-442, 451-452, 473, 481, 493-499, 511-515 et 557-563.
86 Chap. XIX, par. 9 ; voir également chap. XX, par. 2-3.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 217 8/04/14 08:34 131 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

result of “deliberate will”. After all, in the jus gentium, reason stands
above the will. The foundation of law lies in the recta ratio (evoking Cice-
ro’s De Legibus, 52-43 bc), and solidarity and mutual interdependence are
always present in the regulation of the relations among the members of
the universal societas. In the words of F. Suárez himself,

“equity and justice must be observed in the precepts of thejus gentium.
For such observance is included in the essential character of every
true law (. . .) ; and the rules pertaining to the jus gentium are indeed

true law (. . .) ; it is impossible that t87se precepts of the jus gentium
should be contrary to natural equity.”
In sum, solidarity has always had a place in the jus gentium, in the law of

nations. And the circumstances of the cas d’espèce before the ICJ between
Burkina Faso and Niger bear witness of that today, in so far as their
nomadic and semi-nomadic (local) populations are concerned.

XII. Concluding Observations

99. The basic lesson I extract from the present case of the Frontier Dis ­
pute between Burkina Faso and Niger is that — as the present Judgment

of the ICJ shows — it is perfectly warranted and viable to determine a
frontier line keeping in mind the needs of the local populations. In theb cas
d’espèce, the contending Parties themselves, disclosing a commendable
spirit of procedural co-operation, have provided the Court with the ele -
ments needed for its determination, taking into account people and terrib-

tory together. Both BurkinaFaso and Niger have expressed their common
concern with the local populations (on both sides of their border and
constantly moving across it) in their arguments before the Court in theb
written and oral phases of the proceedings. They have expressed their

common concern with the villages in the region, focusing on territory anbd
their inhabitants together.
100. Both Niger and Burkina Faso have referred to provisions of trea -
ties, as well as communiqués, after independence in 1960, likewise giving
expression to their common concern with the local populations. Signifib -

cantly, they have jointly admitted that they are bound by their pledge tbo
co-operate in respect of local populations, as expressed in multilateral
African fora as well as at bilateral level, in respect of the régime of trans -
humance. They have made it clear that this latter amounts to a “system

of solidarity”, to be pursued, encompassing people and territory togebther.

101. The Court, for its part, has rightly expressed its wish that each
Party kept its attention to “the needs of the populations concerned, bin

87F. Suárez, Selections from Three Works — De Legibus, Ac Deo Legislatore (1612),

Vol. II, Oxford/London, Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1944, p. 352.

91

6 CIJ1042.indb 218 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 131

«volonté délibérée ». Après tout, dans le jus gentium, la raison prend le
pas sur la volonté. Le droit trouve ses fondements dans la recta ratio (qui
renvoie au De legibus de Cicéron, 52-43 av. J.-C.), ou « droite raison», et
les notions de solidarité et d’interdépendance sont systématbiquement pré-
sentes dans la réglementation des relations entre les membres de la sbociété

universelle. Selon les termes de F. Suárez lui-même,
«dans les préceptes du droit des gens, il faut respecter les exigencesb
de l’équité et de la justice. En effet, cette observation constitue la
raison de toute loi … et les lois qui font partie du droit des gens sont

de véritables lois … ; il en découle qu’il est impossible que ces pré 87 -
ceptes du droit des gens soient contraires à l’équité natureblle.»
En résumé, la solidarité a toujours eu sa place dans le jus gentium, dans le

droit des nations, ce dont témoignent d’ailleurs les circonstancesb du pré -
sent différend entre le Burkina Faso et le Niger, pour ce qui concerne
leurs populations nomades et semi-nomades (locales).

XII. Observations finales

99. L’enseignement élémentaire que je tire de la présente affaire duDiffé ­
rend frontalier entre le Burkina Faso et le Niger est que, comme le montre

l’arrêt rendu ce jour par la Cour, il est parfaitement justifié et possible de
déterminer le tracé d’une frontière en prenant en considération les besoins
des populations locales. En l’espèce, les Parties elles-mêmes, bfaisant preuve
d’un esprit louable de coopération procédurale, ont fourni à la Cour les élé -
ments requis pour lui permettre de se prononcer, en appréhendant les bpeuples

et le territoire de manière indissociable. Le Burkina Faso et le Niger ont tous
deux exprimé leur préoccupation commune à l’égard des popbulations locales
(qui vivent de part et d’autre de la frontière et la traversent cbonstamment)
dans les écritures et plaidoiries qu’ils ont présentées devabnt la Cour au fil de

la procédure. Ils ont manifesté un intérêt commun à l’bégard des villages de la
région, en considérant le territoire et leurs habitants comme un tbout.
100. Les deux Parties ont invoqué des dispositions conventionnelles ainsi
que des communiqués, postérieurs à leur accession à l’indbépendance en 1960,
exprimant également leur préoccupation commune pour les populationbs

locales. Il convient de relever, en particulier, qu’elles ont toutes bdeux admis
être liées par leur engagement de coopérer dans l’intérêt des populations
locales, engagement qu’elles ont exprimé dans le cadre d’instances multilaté -
rales africaines et au niveau bilatéral, concernant le régime de lba transhu-

mance. Elles ont indiqué que ce régime constituait uns« ystème de solidarité»
qu’il convenait de faire perdurer, et qui englobait les peuples et leb territoire.
101. La Cour a, pour sa part, exprimé à juste titre le souhait que chaqbue
Partie demeure attentive aux «besoins des populations concernées, en parti -

87F. Suárez, Des lois et du Dieu législateur, introduction, traduction et notes par

Jean-Paul Coujou, Paris, Dalloz, 2003, p. 632-633.

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6 CIJ1042.indb 219 8/04/14 08:34 132 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

particular those of the nomadic or semi-nomadic populations, and to the

necessity to overcome difficulties that may arise for them because of the
frontier” (para. 112). Moreover, as to the River Sirba in the area of
Bossébangou, the Court has pointed out that “the requirement concebrning
access to water resources of all the people living in the riparian villages is

better met by a frontier situated in the river than on one bank or the
other” (para. 101). The ICJ has thus indicated, in the Judgment that it has
just adopted today on the Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso and

Niger, that the age of resolving territorial disputes in the abstract, nbot tak -
ing into account the needs of local populations, is fortunately over.
102. The ghost of the outcome of the Berlin Conference (1885
onwards) 88has at last vanished, and is no longer haunting Africa, with its
89
secular cultures. The complexities of African boundary problems can-
not be reduced to the tracing simply of “artificial” straight libnes every -
where. In the present case of the Frontier Dispute between Burkina Faso

and Niger, the ICJ has found that, in the area between the Tao astro -
nomic marker and Bossébangou, the IGN line was the one which consti -
tutes the course of their frontier. The IGN line in that area is indeed bthe

appropriate frontier line therein, for all the reasons that I have pointbed
out in the present separate opinion, from the perspective of the relatiobns
between people and territory.

103. The ICJ could have examined such relations to a far greater depth,
had it dwelt upon — as I think it should have done — more attentively,
the wealth of information on this matter (a dossier of 140 pages) transmit -

ted to it by the Parties in response to the questions I deemed it fit bto put to
them at the end of the public sittings before the Court, on 17 October 2012.
In any case (keeping in mind that the optimum is enemy of the bonum), the
Court has moved a significant step ahead, in expressly acknowledging tbhat

territorial problems, such as the one raised in the cas d’espèce, are to be
properly tackled taking into account the fulfilment of the needs of thbe
local (nomadic, semi-nomadic and sedentary) populations.

104. Law cannot be applied mechanically; the unending work of jurists90
and magistrates appears to me — paraphrasing Isaiah Berlin — like
swimming against the current, and consideration of frontiers cannot

88
Cf. N. J. Udombana, “The Ghost of Berlin Still Haunts Africa ! The ICJ Judgment
on the Land and Maritime Boundary Dispute between Cameroon and Nigeria”b, 10 African
Yearbook of International Law (2003), pp. 13-61. The Berlin Conference itself lasted
from 15 November 1884 to 26 February 1885.
89Cf., inter alia, e.g., S. Tägil, “The Study of Boundaries and Boundary Disputes”,
in C. G. Widstrand (ed.), African Boundary Problems, Uppsala, Scandinavian Institute
of African Studies, 1969, pp. 22-32 ; A. Allott, “Boundaries and the Law in Africa”, in
ibid., pp. 9-21; A. C. McEwen, International Boundaries of East Africa, Oxford, Clarendon
Press, 1971, pp. 21-27 and 285-290 ; and cf. the well-known monograph (of 1962) of the
agronomic engineer René Dumont, L’Afrique noire est mal partie, Paris, Seuil, 2012 [reed.],
pp. 7-264 ;among others.
90
I. Berlin, Against the Current — Essays in the History of Ideas, N.Y., Viking Press,
1980 [reed.], pp. 1-355.

92

6 CIJ1042.indb 220 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 132

culier des populations nomades ou semi-nomades, et [à] la nécessitbé de sur -

monter les difficultés qui pourraient surgir pour ces populations dub fait de la
frontière» (par. 112). Par ailleurs, concernant la rivière Sirba, dans la région
de Bossébangou, la Cour a relevé que « l’exigence en matière d’accès aux

ressources en eau de l’ensemble des populations des villages riverainbs est
mieux satisfaite par une frontière placée dans la rivière plutôbt que sur l’une
ou l’autre rive» (par. 101). Ainsi, dans l’arrêt adopté ce jour sur le Différend

frontalierentre le Burkina Faso et le Niger, la Cour a montré que le temps
où les différends territoriaux étaient résolus dans l’abbstrait, sans prendre en
compte les besoins des populations locales, était heureusement révbolu.
102. Les résultats de la conférence de Berlin (qui prévalaient depubis
88
1885) ont enfin cessé de nous hanter, notamment dans le contexte de
l’Afrique et de ses cultures séculaires. L’on ne saurait surmonbter les diffi -
cultés liées aux différends frontaliers africains 89en se contentant de tracer

systématiquement des lignes droites « artificielles». En la présente affaire
du Différend frontalier entre le Burkina Faso et le Niger, la Cour a estimé
que, dans la zone comprise entre la borne astronomique de Tao et Bosséb -

bangou, la ligne figurant sur la carte IGN représentait le tracéb de la fron-
tière entre les Parties. Dans cette zone, la ligne IGN est, de fait, bcelle qu’il
y a lieu de retenir, pour toutes les raisons que j’ai évoquées bdans la pré -

sente opinion individuelle, du point de vue de la relation entre les peubples
et le territoire.
103. La Cour aurait pu examiner cette relation de manière bien plus
approfondie, si elle s’était penchée plus attentivement — comme elle

aurait dû le faire à mon sens — sur la multitude d’informations (un dos -
sier de 140 pages) communiquées sur ce point par les Parties en réponse
aux questions que j’ai cru devoir leur poser au terme de l’audiencbe du

17 octobre 2012. En tout état de cause (car il ne faut pas oublier que le
mieux est l’ennemi du bien), la Cour a accompli un pas important en b
reconnaissant expressément que les différends territoriaux tels bque celui

qui était en cause ici doivent être réglés en prenant en conbsidération les
besoins des populations (nomades, semi-nomades et sédentaires) locables.
104. Le droit ne peut pas être appliqué mécaniquement ; le travail sans
fin que mènent juristes et magistrats revient, me semble-t-il — et je me
90
permets ici de paraphraser Isaiah Berlin —, à nager à contre-courant, et

88Voir N. J. Udombana, « The Ghost of Berlin Still Haunts Africa ! The ICJ Judgment
on the Land and Maritime Boundary Dispute between Cameroon and Nigeria », African
Yearbook of International Law, vol. 10 (2003), p. 13-61. La conférence proprement dite

s’e89 tenue du 15 novembre 1884 au 26 février 1885.
Voir notamment S. Tägil, «The Study of Boundaries and Boundary Disputes », dans
C. G. Widstrand (dir. publ.), African Boundary Problems, Uppsala, Scandinavian Institute
of African Studies, 1969, p. 22-32 ; A. Allott, « Boundaries and the Law in Africa », dans
ibid., p. 9-21 ; A. C. McEwen, International Boundaries of East Africa, Oxford, Clarendon
Press, 1971, p. 21-27 et 285-290 ; et voir la monographie (de 1962) bien connue de l’ingé -
nieur agronome René Dumont, L’Afrique noire est mal partie, Paris, Seuil, 2012 (rééd.),
p. 7-264, et d’autres ouvrages.
90 I. Berlin, Against the Current — Essays in the History of IdeNew York, Viking
Press, 1980 (rééd.), p. 1-355.

92

6 CIJ1042.indb 221 8/04/14 08:34 133 frontier dispute (sebp. op. cançado trindadbe)

ignore or overlook the human factor. After all, in historical or temporabl

perspective, nomadic and semi-nomadic, as well as sedentary, popula -
tions have largely antedated the emergence of States in classic jus gentium.
This latter, the law of nations (droit des gens), cannot be reduced to the
inter-State cosmos of the plaideurs of the great-small world of the
Peace Palace here at The Hague and of the legal profession “specialized”b

on inter-State litigation and its idiosyncrasies.

105. The fact remains that States, in turn, are not perennial entities,
not even in the history of the law of nations. States were conceived, anbd
gradually took shape, in order to take care of human beings under their

respective jurisdictions, and to strive towards the common good. States b
have human ends. Well beyond State sovereignty, the basic lesson to be
extracted from the present case is, in my perception, focused on human
solidarity, pari passu with the needed juridical security of frontiers. This is
in line with sociability, emanating from the recta ratio in the foundation

of jus gentium. Recta ratio marked presence in the thinking of the “found -
ing fathers” of the law of nations, and keeps on echoing in human conb -
science in our days.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

93

6 CIJ1042.indb 222 8/04/14 08:34 différend frontaliebr (op. ind. cançado tribndade) 133

l’on ne saurait envisager les frontières en ignorant ou en sous-esbtimant le

facteur humain. Après tout, d’un point de vue historique ou temporbel, les
populations nomades et semi-nomades, comme les populations séden -
taires, ont largement devancé l’émergence des Etats dans le jus gentium
classique. Ce droit des nations (ou droit des gens) ne se réduit pabs au
cosmos interétatique des plaideurs du formidable petit monde du Palaibs

de la Paix de La Haye, et des juristes « spécialistes» du contentieux inter-
étatique et de ses particularités.
105. Il reste que les Etats ne sont pas des entités pérennes, pas mêbme
dans l’histoire du droit des nations. Les Etats ont été conçbus, et ont pris
forme, progressivement, dans le but de prendre soin des êtres humainsb

relevant de leurs juridictions respectives et de parvenir à réalisber le bien
commun. Ils ont des finalités humaines. Bien au-delà de la souvebraineté
de l’Etat, l’enseignement fondamental qui peut être retiré dbe la présente
affaire touche, selon moi, à la solidarité humaine et, parallèblement, à la
nécessaire sécurité juridique des frontières. Ces notions sobnt dans le droit-

fil de la sociabilité découlant de la recta ratio qui constitue le fondement
du jus gentium. Cette « droite raison» était particulièrement présente dans
l’esprit des « pères fondateurs» du droit des nations, et continue à réson -
ner aujourd’hui dans la conscience humaine.

(Signé) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

93

6 CIJ1042.indb 223 8/04/14 08:34

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Separate Opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

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