Dissenting opinion of Judge ad hoc Roucounas

Document Number
142-20111205-JUD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
142-20111205-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

720

dISSENTINg OpINION OF JUdgE AD HOC ROUCOUNAS

[Translation]

Brief history — The need to determine the name through negotiations and
common consent — The object and purpose of the Interim Accord — Disagreement
with the Court over its jurisdiction to settle this dispute — Article 5 and the
obligation to negotiate in good faith — Admission to international organizations:
NATO is a special case — Article 11: agreeing not to object if the other Party

fulfils its obligations under Article 5, which precedes Article 11 — The scope of the
obligations assumed by the Parties — The “practice of the organization”, the
violations of resolution 817 and of the Interim Accord and the protests of the
Respondent — Good neighbourliness — Rights and obligations in relation to third
parties under Article 22 — Reliance, in the alternative, on the principle of exceptio
non adimpleti contractus — Countermeasures.

table of contents

Paragraphs

Introduction and Briekf History 1‑6

I. To Resolve the Name Issuek through Negotiations kand Com ‑
mon Consent, or to maintain the “difference” at the Costk

of Frustration, Insecukrity and Confusion 7‑11

II. The Object and purpose of the Interim Akccord 12‑16

III. The Court Lacks Jurisdictkion to Settle this dispute 17‑24

IV. Article 5 and the Obligation to Nkegotiate in good Faith 25‑35

V. Admission to Internatkional Organizations: kNATO Is by
Its very Nature a Speciakl Case 36‑40

VI. Article 11: Agreeing not to Objectk if the other party

Fulfils Its Obligationsk under Article 5, which precedes
Article 11 41‑52

VII. The Scope of the Obligatikons Assumed by the parties 53

VIII. The “practice of the Organizkation”, the Violationsk of
Resolution 817 and of the Interim Acckord and the pro ‑

tests of the Respondenkt 54‑58

IX. good Neighbourliness 59‑60

X. Rights and Obligationsk in relation to Third parties under
Article 22 61‑65

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XI. Reliance, in the Alternkative, on the principle ofexceptio
n on a dimpleti contractus 66‑67

XII. Countermeasures 68‑75

*

To my regret, I voted against points 1 and 2 of the operative part of the
Judgment; I did so for the following reasons.

Introduction and Briekf History

1. Both parties accept that the Interim Accord of 13 September 1995 is
an international treaty with full legal effect. Nonetheless, it does have a

number of significant unusual features. First, it may be asked whetherk, in
the history of contemporary international relations, there have been othker
treaties in which the States parties are not referred to by name. The tekxt
is signed by two individuals, who represent respectively the “party of the

First part” and the “party of the Second part”, and one has to deduce
from this that those individuals represent greece and the former Yugo ‑
slav Republic of macedonia (FYROm). Why was the Treaty concluded
between unnamed States? The reason for this curious, uniform way in

which the parties are designated resides in the parties’ “difference” over
the name of the “party of the Second part”. That difference is omnipres ‑
ent in this case, and the other actions of the Applicant and reactions okf
the Respondent revolve around it.

2. The Interim Accord was concluded amid the tumult of the Balkan
crises of the 1990s and the events taking place in Europe at that time. k
However, it is well known that the “macedonian Question”, which
marked the rivalry between greece, Serbia and Bulgaria, dates back to

the final decades of the nineteenth century and, in particular, to the 1880s,
when the demands raised by the peoples of that region against the Otto ‑
man Empire (of which macedonia was a part) gave rise to armed con ‑
flicts, not only against the Turkish occupier, but also among the local

peoples. Since then, macedonia has not escaped a single conflict or
regional or global crisis unscathed, enduring two Balkan Wars (1912‑191k3)
and two World Wars (1914‑1918 and 1939‑1945). The Treaty of Bucha ‑
rest of 10 August 1913, which brought an end to the second Balkan War,

recognized greece’s sovereignty over an area of macedonia which
includes the greater part of the territory of historical macedonia and
which, since then, has constituted a region of greece. Following the
dissolution of the Austro‑Hungarian Empire, the 1919 Treaty of Saint‑

germain‑en‑Laye created the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
(without mention of the macedonians), a Kingdom which in 1923 adopted
the name of Yugoslavia. After the end of the Second World War (1945), k
Yugoslavia directed its policy towards incorporating both greek and Bul ‑

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garian macedonia and lent substantial support to the rebels during the

greek Civil War (1946‑1949). At the paris peace Conference (1947),
Yugoslavia called for the annexation of provinces of northern greece.
The rebel movements which greece confronted on its northern border
during the Civil War led to the creation, in 1946, of the first Commission

of Inquiry of the United Nations.
3. According to the census of 2000, greek macedonia, which extends
across almost 90 per cent of historical macedonia, has around
1
2,625,000 inhabitants ; the population of the FYROm is approximately
2,022,547 inhabitants (2002) 2.
4. In his book To End a War, Richard Holbrooke, Assistant Secretary
of State of the United States and Special Envoy for the Balkans, describes

the circumstances in which, in the midst of one of the Balkan crises —
namely, the armed conflict in Bosnia‑Herzegovina —, he met with his
colleagues in Athens and Skopje “to tackle the bitter dispute betweenk

greece and the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia (FYROm) over
the name of the country and its national flag” 3. He explains how, on
4 September 1995, the American envoys convinced Andreas papandreou,

then greek prime minister, to agree to the Accord which had been nego ‑
tiated over a two‑year period thanks to the mediation of Cyrus Vance
and matthew Nimetz, while he himself met on the same matter with pres ‑
ident Kiro gligorov, “once Tito’s Finance minister [who] had almost lit ‑
4
erally invented his country in late 1991 and early 1992” . Holbrooke
adds that the New York Times had hailed the Interim Accord as marking
the end “of a four year dispute that had threatened to break into wark” .

It is important to recall here that, immediately after its independence,k
the new State embarked upon a series of actions with irredentist aims
and acts contesting the greek cultural heritage, which were considered
unacceptable by greece.

5. The Applicant refers to the economic embargo which, against that
backdrop, was imposed by greece in 1994 against its northern neighbour.

It should be borne in mind that the economic sanctions taken by greece
against its northern neighbour occurred after the adoption of resolutionk 817
by the Security Council, meaning that the Respondent’s objection to tkhe
FYROm’s conduct took concrete form very quickly, in any event during

the period between the adoption of resolution 817 (1993) and the conclu ‑
sion of the Interim Accord (1995). I would add that, in 1994, the Commis‑
sion of the European Communities referred greece to the European Court

of Justice, asking the Court to indicate provisional measures in respectk of

1 According to Eurostat figures (20 Oct. 2010); see http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu.

2 memorial of the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia, Vol. I, para. 2.2.
3 R. Holbrooke, To End a War (revised edition), New York, The modern Library,
1998, pp. 121‑127.
4
5 Ibid., p. 125.
Ibid.

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greece and to rule on whether the measures taken by that country were in
accordance with Articles 224 and 133 of the Treaty of Rome. The Court

rejected the Commission’s request concerning the indication of proviskional
measures and the case on the merits was later removed from the list. In
respect of the merits, however, it is also important to note that, in hiks opin ‑
ion to the Court, the Court’s Advocate general (Francis Jacobs) found

that the measures taken by greece were legitimate and recommended that 6
the Commission’s request and application against greece be dismissed .
6. In order to facilitate the conclusion of the Interim Accord, and
trusting in the safeguards for the normalization of relations with its

northern neighbour, in 1995 greece consented to substantial concessions,
in return for the reciprocal obligations provided by the Accord, and
agreed to lift the embargo. I would point out that, for the FYROm, those
reciprocal obligations amounted to no more than behaving in accordance

with the rules of good neighbourliness. The Judgment refers to the opin ‑
ion of the Badinter Commission, which, on the basis of declarations by
the countries of the former Yugoslavia (simple declarations of intentiokn
whose correspondence with reality was not verified), ruled in favour kof
7
the recognition of the FYROm . The European Union also attempted
to mediate between the two parties. Those attempts were unsuccessful
and, at the Lisbon Summit of June 1992, the European Council made
known that the Applicant would only be recognized by the European
8
Union under a name which did not include the word “macedonia” .

I. To Resolve the Name Issuek through Negotiations kand Common
Consent, or to maintain the “difference” at the Costk of
Frustration, Insecurikty and Confusion

7. For several years, political, legal and cultural relations between the
two countries have been clouded by the problem of the Applicant’s namke.
That problem, like many others, surfaced in 1991, and ever since greece

has been asking its northern neighbour not to monopolize, in its capacity
as a State, the name of macedonia and to adopt a name which distin ‑
guishes it from greek macedonia. I could mention at least five cases in
Northern Europe, Central Europe, the Balkans, Africa and the pacific in

which, on the protests of neighbouring States or of their own accord, nekw
States adopted names or symbols designed to differentiate them from
their neighbours. Since 1995, negotiations aimed at settling “the diffker ‑
ence” over the name have been conducted between the parties under the

auspices of the United Nations Secretary‑general and with the mediation

6
European Court of Justice, case C‑120/94, paras. 61‑73 in particular.

7memorial of the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia, Vol. I, para. 2.13.
8Ibid., para. 2.13, footnote 37.

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of matthew Nimetz. However, the dispute remains unresolved and raises
a number of concerns for the stability of relations in the Balkans, whickh
extend beyond the scope of the two countries’ official representatiokns,
press or other public and private institutions.
8. during the written stage of the proceedings, the Applicant con ‑

tended that in the Interim Accord “[n]either party is referred to by its
constitutional name nor is the provisional reference of ‘the former Ykugo ‑
slav Republic of macedonia’, as set out in resolution 817, used to refer to
the Applicant” 9. That reading, upheld by the Court, is erroneous,
because Articles 5 and 11 of the Interim Accord transpose and legally

reinforce Security Council resolutions 817 and 845, the first of which
clearly advocates the use of the provisional reference FYROm “for all
purposes within the organization”. If the Applicant was itself not alkso
required to use the provisional name, then it would have been sufficient to

refer to resolution 845 in the Interim Accord. For its part, paragraph 2 of
resolution 817 states that, pending the settlement by common consent of
the difference over the name, the Applicant is to be “referred to fkor all
purposes” as the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia. However, by
using the name which appears in its Constitution (“the Republic of mace ‑

donia”) in its dealings with and within international organizations,k as
well as creating confusion among the members of the international com ‑
munity, the Applicant is failing to comply with its obligation in two wakys.
Firstly, it is unilaterally claiming for itself an exception to the formkula

“[is to be] referred to for all purposes”, even though there is nothing ink
resolutions 817 and 845 to allow it such an exception; use of the reference
name is binding for all, without exception, within the international orgka ‑
nization. The two resolutions in question (and the Accord) use the workd
“name” in the singular, and not in the plural, which makes perfect sense,

since they reflect the willingness of the United Nations to strive for thke
normalization of relations between two member States of the interna ‑
tional community. Furthermore, the phrase “for all purposes” emphak ‑
sizes the object of the negotiations, which are intended to achieve
agreement on one name (and one name only), which will no longer be

provisional.
9. With respect to the “difference over the name”, the Applicant adkopts —
according to the circumstances and sometimes simultaneously — at least
two different positions: it claims sometimes that resolution 817 refers to the

negotiations over the name and that, accordingly, the provisional name dkoes
not concern it, and sometimes that the negotiations concern the provisioknal
name and that, therefore, its constitutional name is not at issue. The Akppli ‑
cant thus contends that the purpose of the bilateral negotiations conduckted
under the auspices of the United Nations, which have been ongoing for

more than 16 years, is simply to reach agreement on the name which will
replace the provisional appellation of FYROm, and which is intended solely
for use by the Respondent, while the Applicant, for its part, will contiknue to

9
memorial of the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia, Vol. I, para. 2.35.

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refer to itself and to have itself referred to, as “macedonia”. This is what the
Applicant calls the “dual formula”, an interpretation which fails kto take
account of its treaty obligations. It is sufficient to note that the twko parties
have already agreed, without any intermediary and by means of the two
memoranda concluded between them in 1995, that they will each use, in thke

interim, the name of their preference. Therefore, what would be the poinkt of
the lengthy negotiations under the auspices of the United Nations if thek par ‑
ties have already reached a temporary understanding, without an intermed ‑ ki
ary, in respect of their mutual relations?
10. As regards the Applicant’s use of its constitutional name, anyone

who has been witness to the activities of international organizations over
the past 20 years will no doubt recall the countless points of order raised
by greek representatives against the use of that name, as well as the
Applicant’s responses. While voicing its opposition orally and in wrikting,

greece took account of the fact that that conflict could not be pursued
ad nauseum. Through its repeated objections, it nevertheless made its
position perfectly clear in the face of the Applicant’s shift towardsk a “dual
formula” not contemplated by the Interim Accord. For international
organs and organizations to function smoothly, it is not necessary for

those with objections to voice those objections at all times and on everky
occasion.
11. As regards the negotiations over the name, the written and oral pro ‑
ceedings in this case demonstrate to the Court that greece’s position has

changed substantially over the years. Initially, greece’s policy consisted of
objecting to any name of the Applicant which contained the term “macedo ‑
nia”. Subsequently, and in any event before the Bucharest Conference kof
3 April 2008, greece altered its position and made known that it would
accept a name that included the term “macedonia” — on the condition that

it was accompanied by a qualifier and that that name should be used
erga omnes. The Applicant, on the other hand — speaking through its pres ‑
ident or prime minister — declared that the international use of a name
which differed from its constitutional name was unacceptable (see parkas. 32‑
33 infra). That position has remained— unchanged for 16years— the posi ‑

tion of the Applicant’s successive governments. I do not propose to ekxamine
the potential long‑term effects of the usurpation of a name.

II. The Object and purpose of the Interim Akccord

12. From the various interpretations given in both jurisprudence and
doctrine to the notions of the object and the purpose of a treaty, it cakn be
taken as a working hypothesis that the object is stable whereas the pur ‑
10
pose is evolving . According to the Vienna Convention, the object and

10Cf. m. K. Yasseen, “L’interprétation des traités d’après la convkention de Vienne
sur le droit des traités”, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law,

Vol. 151‑III, 1976, p. 3 et seq., p. 55.

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purpose of the treaty are considered as a whole and not in reference to kthe
individual provisions of the instrument in question. After that, each inkdi‑

vidual provision may be considered by applying the interpretation which k
gives it a useful effect. The object of the Interim Accord is to normaklize
the relations between the parties and its purpose is the use by those par ‑
ties of the various means it offers (most notably, effective negotikations) to

reach a lasting solution to the “difference” between them, and not to “find
a way to allow for pragmatic co‑operation bilaterally and multilaterally
on an interim basis” 11.

13. It is generally recognized that a treaty is no longer characterized in 12
a rigid fashion for the purposes of its interpretation and application .
The notion of synallagmatic agreement 13is, however, referred to in the
interpretation of a great number of bilateral treaties, because it can be

found in every national legal system and serves to clarify the rights ankd
obligations of both States in their contractual relations. Nowadays,
agreements are characterized as synallagmatic primarily in order to distkin‑
guish them from certain so‑called “normative” or “integral” kmultilateral

treaties, for which the methods of interpretation and implementation arek
still evolving.
14. At the heart of any synallagmatic agreement is reciprocity, a funda ‑
mental notion in international relations. In effect, reciprocity playsk both a

constructive and stabilizing role; it is linked to the degree of organizkation
within the international community. It is reflected in equivalent or identi ‑
cal treatment in law. Further, a treaty does not have to include a specikfic

clause to that effect for reciprocity to apply: it operates even outsikde the
framework of the treaty in order to strengthen it. That is why there is ka
distinction between formal reciprocity, which is a specific legal provkision,
and actual reciprocity, two notions which, furthermore, are not mutuallyk

exclusive. In my opinion, a synallagmatic treaty which does not reflect
reciprocity could be considered as unequal. Finally, it would be wrong tko
conclude that a synallagmatic treaty cannot contain provisions which
doctrine and jurisprudence call “normative” or “integral”; ikt is the con ‑

struction of the treaty as a whole and not by artificial sections which
enables its essential nature to be determined. In that connection, I woukld
point out that the ILC’s Special Rapporteur on the Law of Treaties diks ‑
tinguished between “reciprocal” or “concessionary” and “ikntegral” obli‑

gations in all treaties, bilateral and multilateral. Even in multilaterakl
treaties, reciprocal obligations are those which “provid[e] for a mutkual
interchange of benefits between the parties, with rights and obligatiokns

11
See the Reply of the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia, para. 4.63; emphasis
add12.
13 A/CN.4/L.682, p. 338.
In “Le principe de réciprocité dans le droit international contkemporain”, Collected
Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 122, 1967‑III, Virally writes that
“reciprocity expresses the idea of an exchange, of a link between thakt which is given on
either side”, p. 100.

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for each involving specific treatment at the hands of and towards eachk the
others individually”; by way of an example, the Rapporteur cited the k
14
1961 Vienna Convention on diplomatic Relations .

15. In the context of treaty rights and obligations, the pacta sunt ser ‑

vanda rule is often invoked (and the Applicant is no exception in that
respect). In effect, it is well established that that rule is a fundakmental
principle of the law of treaties and, as milan Bartoš explained before the
International Law Commission, “the rule pacta sunt servanda is linked to
15
the rule do ut des” .
16. The Interim Accord is synallagmatic in the sense usually attributed
to that category of treaties, meaning that its provisions are closely
inter‑connected, and that the rights and obligations of the two parties are

legally dependent on one another. In fact, it is difficult to see what benefit
the Respondent would derive from the Interim Accord, other than the
regularization of its relations with its northern neighbour by joint acckep ‑
tance of a name which would distinguish one from the other. Therefore,

the Court should strive to make the object and purpose of the Interim
Accord realizable by emphasizing the need for effective negotiations ckon ‑
ducted in good faith, and take care not to prejudice those negotiations k
directly or indirectly.

III. The Court Lacks Jurisdictkion to Settle this dispute

17. paragraph 2 of Article 21 excludes from the Court’s jurisdiction
“the difference referred to in Article 5, paragraph 1”. That phrase does
not simply refer to the fact that the Court does not have jurisdiction tko

determine the name of the Applicant, which is self‑evident; it goes furtkher
and refers to “the difference”. We are all familiar with the “kdifference”,
ever present in the written and oral pleadings.
18. It follows that paragraph 2 of Article 21 excludes from the Court’s

jurisdiction not only the question of the attribution of a name for the k
Applicant (which is self‑evident), but also, by the terms used thereink, “the
difference referred to in Article 5, paragraph 1”; that is to say, it prohibits
the Court’s intervention on any question which, according to the Applki ‑

cant itself, relates “directly or indirectly” to the question of the name. I
would add that the exclusion under Article 21 is also linked to Article 22,
which reflects Articles 8 and 10 of the North Atlantic Treaty 16, the Court
having no jurisdiction to interpret that instrument. By finding that ikt

lacked jurisdiction, the Court would have helped to ensure that the negok ‑

14
See the Third Report on the Law of Treaties by gerald Fitzmaurice, UN doc. A/
CN.4/115, YBILC, Vol. II, p. 27.
15 YBILC, 1963, Vol. I, p. 124.
16 See paragraphs 37 and 61 infra.

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tiations carried out under the auspices of the United Nations Secretary‑
general (paragraph 3 of resolution 845) were meaningful and resulted in

the adoption of a name for the Applicant by common consent. It
is regrettable that the Court assumed a position capable of being inter ‑
preted as contributing to “faits accomplis”, or which might lead tko
renewed deterioration of the negotiations. To arrive at that position, ikt
adopted a restrictive interpretation of Article 5, a broad interpretation of

the first clause of Article 11 and a restrictive interpretation of the second
clause of the same Article.
19. The Applicant (changing its position) contended that the Respon ‑
dent’s interpretation of the Court’s jurisdiction would render thek Accord
wholly or partially ineffective. On that point, it presented a reasonikng
which would render inapplicable in whole or in part the provisions it fiknds

inconvenient, namely paragraph 1 of Article 5, the second clause of para ‑
graph 1 of Article 11, paragraph 2 of Article 21 and Article 22.

20. Arguing (to varying degrees) that a broad interpretation of the
“difference” over the name would restrict or diminish the Court’ks jurisdic ‑

tion is tantamount to neutralizing the effect of Article 21, paragraph 2.
But before considering the possible impact of the name issue on individ ‑
ual provisions of the Accord, it should first be noted that it is precisely
because of the unilateral interpretation which the Applicant attempts tok
apply to its own obligations that the “difference over the name” has, over

time, taken on a dimension which could not have been envisaged when
the Accord was concluded in 1995.
21. In order to understand the catalysing role played by the name in
the present case, and its significance for the Court’s jurisdictionk under
Article 21, paragraph 1, it is not necessary to venture into an examination
of which of the Accord’s provisions are to be interpreted broadly andk

which restrictively. The “name” of the Applicant is indicated refekrentially
and in a legally binding manner in two of the Accord’s key provisionsk,
namely Article 5, paragraph 1, and Article 11, paragraph 1, each taken as
a whole. It is in considering the effect accorded to those two provisions
since 1995, and the manner in which they have been implemented, that

the Court’s jurisdiction and the admissibility of the Application cank be
determined.
22. The Court’s lack of jurisdiction is also corroborated by the fact
that NATO’s decision of 3 April 2008 is an act of that international orga ‑
nization, and greece does not have to answer for the acts of the organiza‑

tions of which it is a member. Furthermore, it is not the first time tkhat an
applicant is seeking to obtain from the Court a ruling on the lawfulnessk
of certain acts of an international organization which is not a party tok the
dispute. To uphold the Applicant’s thesis means that, for the firstk time,
the highest international court is ruling through a member State on the k
lawfulness of an act of a third‑party international organization.

23. I will now consider to what extent the Court’s finding that it has k
jurisdiction will influence the effective resumption of meaningful negoktia ‑

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tions aimed at achieving agreement between the parties on the issue of the
name, which represents an obstacle with significant political and cultkural

consequences not only to the FYROm’s admission to specific interna ‑
tional organizations, but also to bilateral relations. By upholding the k
Applicant’s claim and finding that it has jurisdiction, the Court hkas
involved itself in the intricacies of the parties’ political and cultural rela‑
tions with each other and with the international organization in questiokn.

Furthermore, in finding that the Applicant’s sustained violations okf the
Interim Accord within and outside of international organizations have
had no decisive effect on the implementation of the Accord, the Judgmeknt
implies that the way in which the Applicant interprets the Accord has nok
connection with “the difference over the name”, which is excludekd from
the Court’s jurisdiction under Article 21. Instead of formulating a repeti ‑

tive series of reasons which could undermine the negotiations, the Courtk
should have contented itself with the appeal set out so clearly in para ‑
graph 166 of the Judgment. Recalling the prudent terms employed by the
permanent Court of International Justice: “the judicial settlement of k
international disputes . . . is simply an alternative to the direct and friendly

settlement of such disputes between the parties; as consequently it is for
the Court to facilitate, so far as is compatible with its Statute, such kdirect
and friendly settlement” (case concerning the Free Zones of Upper Savoy
and the District of Gex, Order of 19 August 1929, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 22, p. 13).

24. A composite reading of the Accord would have enabled the Court
to discern in the text the need to take account of the historical and cukl ‑
tural elements which loom large over the case and to distance itself frokm
the reactions, both political and on the popular psychological level, whkich
are liable to be aroused on either side by the Judgment. In finding thkat the
Applicant may use its constitutional name within international organiza ‑

tions, the Court exceeds its jurisdiction under Article 21 of the Accord.

IV. Article 5 and the Obligation to Nkegotiate in good Faith

25. The Court reduces the interpretation of the scope of Article 5,
paragraph 1, of the Interim Accord to its simplest form. That provision
stipulates that:

“[t]he parties agree to continue negotiations under the auspices of the
Secretary‑general of the United Nations pursuant to Security
Council resolution 845 (1993) with a view to reaching agreement on
the difference described in that resolution and in Security Council

resolution 817 (1993)”.
26. In the two above‑mentioned resolutions, the Security Council urges
the parties to continue to co‑operate in order to arrive at a speedy settle ‑

ment “of their difference” (resolution 817) and “of the remaining issues
between them” (resolution 845). The discrepancy in the wording of these

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two texts demonstrates that, between 1993 and 1995, the “issues to bek

resolved” multiplied.
27. When addressing the question of international negotiations, it is
often tempting to make a distinction between obligations of means and

obligations of result. In my opinion, that distinction is valid in otherk areas
of international relations. In respect of international negotiations, how ‑
ever, it belongs to a time past, when diplomacy was first and foremostk an

exercise in, or art of, intelligence, deceit, semantic subtlety and prevkarica ‑
tion. Nowadays, however, we live in an era of openness and candour.
Thus, at a minimum, two States to a dispute are expected to negotiate
with a view to reaching a settlement, especially when peace, security ankd

good neighbourliness are at stake. Such is the scope of the now classic k
phrase “meaningful negotiations”. According to the Court’s locus classi ‑
cus in the case concerning the North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal

Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/Nether ‑
lands) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, pp. 46‑47, para. 85), there are
various notions as to what the phrase “meaningful negotiations” cokvers,

but all agree that “[t]he duty seems to consist in an obligation on States
so to conduct themselves that their negotiations are meaningful, and thekre
is no genuine (good faith) negotiation if each party, or either one, iknsists
17
on its position and refuses to compromise on any point” .

28. The principle of good faith, invoked by the parties on a number of
occasions, and on the virtues of which the Court does not dwell in the
18
Judgment, is a normative and general principle of international law , a
legal institution requiring harmony between the expressed intention and k
the true intention, as the Court has repeatedly confirmed. doctrine and

practice (including during the drafting of resolution 2625 (XXV) on
“friendly relations”) have clearly underlined the moral aspect ofk good
faith and, in arbitral jurisprudence, it has also recently been recognizked as

having a “fundamental role and [a] paramount character . . . in the inter ‑
pretation . . . of all international law and not just in the interpretation of
treaties” 19. In the context of treaty law, good faith operates on three lev ‑
els: first, in the negotiation of the agreement, second, in its interpkretation
20
and, finally, in its implementation . If the agreement makes provision for

17g. White, “The principle of good Faith”, in m. B. Akehurst, V. Lowe and
C. Warbrick, The United Nations and the Principles of International Law, London/New
York, Routledge, 1994, p. 233.
18
m. Virally, “Review Essay: good Faith in International Law”, American Journal of
Int19national Law, Vol. 77, 1983, pp. 130‑132.
Case concerning the audit of accounts between the Netherlands and Francek in appl‑i
cation of the protocol of 25 September 1991 Additional to the Convention for the protec ‑
tion of the Rhine from pollution by Chlorides of 3 december 1976, decision of 12 march 2004,
Reports of International Arbitral Awards (RIAA), Vol. XXV, p. 267, paras. 65‑66.

20 panel Report, United States — Continued Suspension of Obligations in the EC —
Hormones Dispute, WT/dS320/R, adopted 14 November 2008 (as modified by the
Report of the Appellate Body, WT/dS320/AB/R), para. 7.313; panel Report, Canada —

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5 CIJ1026.indb 177 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 731

negotiations aimed at settling issues which have not been resolved by thke
agreement, good faith becomes the catalyst which enables that settlementk
to be achieved. Further, the concept of reasonableness must govern
21
throughout the life of a treaty . Thus, in the Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros case,
the Court made it clear that “[t]he principle of good faith obliges tkhe par ‑
ties to apply it in a reasonable way and in such a manner that its purpose

can be realized” (Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 79, para. 142). Finally, good faith pro ‑
tects parties which have legitimate expectations and justifiably trustk in the
22
appearances created by the conduct of the other parties to the treaty .
Since the theory of the abuse of right is closely linked to good faith 23, it
follows that acts flowing from wrongful conduct can have no legitimate
24
effects . In this connection, it has been stated that: “to negotiate other ‑
wise than in good faith is surely not to negotiate at all” 25and that “good
faith is consubstantial with the idea of negotiations” 26.

29. All negotiations are thus founded on the parties’ obligation to
carry them out in good faith, a principle which the Applicant has con ‑
stantly invoked. But it is difficult to discern the good faith in its ikntransi‑

gence over the “dual formula” — the issue at the heart of the dispute
— which is compromising the negotiations.
30. Article 5 establishes a balance between the parties’ rights and obli ‑

gations. Right from the outset, its first paragraph addresses the cruxk of
the matter: the requirement of negotiations “with a view to reaching k
agreement on the difference” — in other words, the adoption of a name

(“the name of the party of the Second part”) by common consent —
firstly over what is meant by “name” and secondly over who should use it
(clearly erga omnes). It should be noted that Article 5, paragraph 1, refers

first to Security Council resolution 845 (1993), which places the emphasis
on negotiations (para. 2), and then to resolution 817 (1993).
31. The second paragraph of Article 5 reinforces the first, without pre‑

judice to the difference over the name, by stipulating that the parties must
facilitate their mutual relations, in particular their economic and com ‑

Continued Suspension of Obligations in the EC — Hormones Dispute, WT/dS321/R,
adopted 14 November 2008 (as modified by Report of the Appellate Body WT/dS321/

AB/21, para. 7.313.
Cf. Oppenheim’s International Law (Sir R. Jennings and Sir A. Watts, eds.), Vol. I,
9th edition, London, 1996, p. 1272 ; J. Salmon, “Le concept de raisonnable en droit inter ‑
national public”, Mélanges offerts à Paul Reuter, paris, pedone, 1981, p. 447 et seq.
22m. Virally, op. cit. supra note 18, p. 133.
23See Article 300 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of
10 december 1982.
24Ex injuria non oritur jus, cf. Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia),

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 76. See also Article 61, paragraph 2, and Article 62,
par25raph 2 (b), of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.
H. Thirlway, “The Law and procedure of the International Court of Justice:
1960‑1989”, 60 British Yearbook of International Law (BYIL), 1989, p. 25.

26R. Kolb, La bonne foi en droit international public, paris, pUF, 2000, p. 588.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 179 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 732

mercial relations (bearing in mind that the Accord was signed followingk
the imposition of an embargo by the Respondent) and “shall take prackti‑

cal measures” to that end. It is well known that, in accordance with kpara ‑
graph 2, in the period which followed the conclusion of the Interim
Accord, greece made a significant contribution to the FYROm’s econ ‑
omy 27and facilitated the free movement of goods to and from that coun ‑

try.
32. I will now address the facts: in his speech of 3 November 2008
before the parliament of the Applicant, the president of the Republic,
Branko Crvenkovski, set out as follows a policy which could be described

as a “road map” for all heads of State and government of that country:

“in recent years the Republic of macedonia had a strategy which, due
to understandable reasons, was never publicly announced, but it was
a strategy that all governments and Chiefs of State have stuck to so far,

regardless of their political orientation. A strategy which was func ‑
tional and which gave results.
What were the basic principles of that concept?
First of all, in the negotiations under the UN auspices we partici ‑

pated actively, but our position was always the same and unchanged.
And that was the so‑called dual formula. That means the use of the
constitutional name of the Republic of macedonia for the entire
world, in all international organizations, and in bilateral relations

with all countries, with a compromise solution to be found only for
the bilateral relations with the Republic of greece.
Secondly, to work simultaneously on constant increase of the num ‑
ber of countries which recognize our constitutional name and thus

strengthen our proper political capital in the international field whikch
will be needed for the next phases of the process.” 28

33. moreover, on 2 November 2007, i.e., well before NATO’s decision
of 3 April 2008, Nikola gruevski, the Applicant’s prime minister, made

the following statement:
“However, there is one point, which we definitely cannot accept:

the one that says that the Republic of macedonia should accept a
name different from its constitutional one for international use. This

27
According to the statistics of the FYROm’s National Bank, commercial relations
with greece are substantial: thus, in 2010, greece was the fourth largest importer of goods
from the FYROm and the third largest exporter of goods to the FYROm. The same
statistics show that, in the area of foreign direct investment flows, greece has repeatedly
featured among the top five investors in the FYROm and in fact occupied the No. 2 spot
on that list in 2004, 2005 and 2006. See http://www.nbrm.mk/.

28Statement by president of the Republic Branko Crvenkovski to the FYROm’s
parliament on 3 November 2008. Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part B, Ann. 104.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 181 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 733

provision of the document 29is unacceptable to the Republic of mac‑
edonia and we cannot discuss it.” 30

The Judgment remains silent on the potentially destructive character of k
those statements of the FYROm’s prime minister. I would recall the
interpretation given by the Court to a very similar situation:

“The material before the Court also includes statements by repre ‑
sentatives of States, sometimes at the highest political level. Some of k

these statements were made before official organs of the State or of
an international or regional organization, and appear in the official
records of those bodies. Others, made during press conferences or
interviews, were reported by the local or international press. The

Court takes the view that statements of this kind, emanating from
high‑ranking official political figures, sometimes indeed of the highkest
rank, are of particular probative value when they acknowledge facts

or conduct unfavourable to the State represented by the person who
made them. They may then be construed as a form of admission.”
(Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nica ‑
ragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1986, p. 41, para. 64.)

That jurisprudence is clear and applies independently of when the state ‑
ments are made (before or after such and such an event), of whether thke
Respondent should have denounced the violation beforehand, or of any
other pretext which would deprive it of its decisive character. The statke ‑

ments of the president of the Republic and the prime minister of the
FYROm are directly governed by that jurisprudence of the Court. I
would add that the Judgment fails to cite the statements in question,
although it does cite verbatim those of the prime minister and the minis ‑

ter for Foreign Affairs of greece. What happened to equality of arms?
34. The Respondent officially stated that it had altered its position and
was willing to accept a name for the Applicant which included the term

“macedonia”, but which differentiated it from greek macedonia. In view
of that substantial concession, it is permissible to question whether the
Applicant’s actions were in compliance with the generally recognized con ‑
ditions for the proper conduct of “meaningful” negotiations, and ikts good

faith in a process which has been ongoing for 16 years without success.
35. Two examples show how far the Applicant goes in the way it refers
to itself: when assuming the presidency of the United Nations general
31
Assembly in 2007 and that 32 the Committee of ministers of the
Council of Europe in 2010 , the FYROm’s representatives, in their

29
This refers to a draft submitted to the parties by matthew Nimetz, United Nations
med30tor.
31Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part B, Ann. 128.
32Ibid., part A, Ann. 5.
Rejoinder of greece, Vol. II, Ann. 50.

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capacity not simply as members, but as organs of those international orga ‑
nizations, referred to themselves as the “Republic of macedonia” and the
33
“macedonian Chairmanship” . greece of course protested against
those violations — which are of differing orders of gravity — of the

Interim Accord and of the two Security Council resolutions, but in vain.k

V. Admission to Internatkional Organizations: k
NATO Is by Its very Nature a kSpecial Case

36. Admission to global international organizations is dependent on
the general and special conditions imposed by the founding States in thek
34
constituent treaty . It should be noted that international organizations
are never completely open to all States 35 and that, at the Vienna Confer ‑
ence on the Law of Treaties (1968‑1969), a proposal that “every Stakte

should be entitled as of right to become a party to a . . . multilateral
treaty” 36 was rejected. In “closed” or “regional” organizations (likke

NATO or the Council of Europe), the competent organ can also later lay k
down additional conditions for admission. Admission is linked to the
candidate’s capacity to contribute to what doctrine terms “essentikality or
37
functionality” . political factors, relating as much to the qualities of the
candidate State as to its relations with the member States, also come inkto
play during the admissions process 38, and it is for each member State to

determine subjectively whether all the necessary criteria have been met k
before giving its assent 39. The consideration of political factors can also
be added to the legal conditions set forth by the organization’s consktitu ‑
40
ent treaty , “the vote signif[ying] in effect whether or not there is recogni‑
tion of the existence of the legally imposed conditions and whether therke
41
is political willingness to admit the candidate State” . moreover, in its
Opinion on Conditions of Admission (Conditions of Admission of a State to
Membership in the United Nations (Article 4 of the Charter), Advisory

Opinion, 1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947‑1948, p. 57), the Court did not find
that every member State had to explain the reasons behind its decision

33See Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part A, Ann. 5.
34I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, 7th ed., Oxford University press,
2008, p. 79.
35p. Sands and p. Klein, Bowett’s Law of International Institutions, 5th ed., London,
Sweet & maxwell, 2001, p. 534.
36
H. Waldock, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 106,
1962‑II, pp. 81‑82; UN Secretariat Working Paper, A.CN.4/245 (23 April 1971), pp. 131‑134.
37H. Schermers and N. Blokker, International Institutional Law, 3rd ed., 1995, p. 64,
citing the classic work of Inis Claude, Swords into Plowshares, 4th ed., 1971, pp. 85‑86.
38H. Schermers and N. Blokker, op. cit. supra note 37, p. 65.
39p. Sands and p. Klein, op. cit. supra note 35, p. 538.
40I. Brownlie, op. cit. supra note 34.
41
J. p. Cot and A. pellet (eds.), La Charte des Nations Unies, paris/Brussels, Economica,
Bruylant, 1985, p. 172.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 185 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 735

(I.C.J. Reports 1947‑1948, p. 61) 4. Since even the so‑called “global”

organizations are not completely “open”, it follows a fortiori that a can ‑
didate State cannot be admitted to a military organization for defence
and security “unconditionally”.
37. In that respect, NATO is entirely typical: it is a military alliance

which, by definition, carries out peacekeeping and security operationsk
and ensures the legitimate defence of its members in case of attack. To k
admit a new member, the member States — once they have determined
whether the European candidate State is in a position to further the prikn‑

ciples of the Treaty and to contribute to the security of the North Atlakn‑
tic area — decide by unanimous agreement to invite that State to accede
to the Organization (Art. 10). It follows that all member States, without
exception, have the right — the obligation even — to decide whether the

candidate State meets the necessary conditions for its admission to the k
Organization. If the member State whose relations with the candidate
State are a source of direct concern is prevented from expressing its opin ‑
ion, how will the other member States be informed of the real state of

those relations, which are, nevertheless, fundamental to their decision? It
should be recalled that the well‑known rules of NATO, adopted by the
heads of State and government at the 1999 Washington Summit, subor ‑
dinate, and for good reason, the accession of Balkan States to good

neighbourliness and the settlement of the disputes between those States.k
38. Since 1999, in the context of NATO’s enlargement to include coun‑
tries from Central and Eastern Europe, the heads of State and govern ‑
ment have sent a clear message to all accession candidates 43.

39. With respec44to the present45ase, and on several occasions, for
example in 2006 and in 2007 — thus, well before 3 April 2008 —, the
organs of NATO more specifically indicated to the Applicant, by means
of an equally standard formula, that,

“[i]n the Western Balkans, Euro‑Atlantic integration, based on soli ‑

darity and democratic values, remains necessary for long‑term stabil‑
ity. This requires co‑operation in the region, good‑neighbourly
relations, and working towards mutually acceptable solutions to out‑
standing issues.”

40. The calls for “mutually acceptable solutions to outstanding issues”k
were diplomatic warnings, which confirm that NATO’s decision did nokt

come “out of the blue”. In order to attribute a reasonable meaningk to
Article 5, it must, therefore, at the very least be considered in its context
(Article 31 of the Vienna Convention).

42See C. F. Amerasinghe, Principles of the International Law of International Organiza‑
tions, Cambridge University press, 1966, p. 109.
43See Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part A, Ann. 21 (political and Economic
Issues, paras. 2‑3). NATO, membership Action plan (mAp), http://www.nato.int/docu/
pr/1999/p99‑066e.htm.
44
45NATO, Riga Summit declaration, 29 November 2006, para. 28.
Ibid., Final Communiqué of the North Atlantic Council, 7 december 2007, para. 14.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 187 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 736

VI. Article 11: Agreeing not to Objectk if the other party
Fulfils Its Obligationsk under Article5,

which precedes Article 11

41. In addition to its omission of the names of the States parties, the
Interim Accord has another unusual feature, namely the phrase “agreesk
not to object”, which appears in Article 11. If this phrase is notinterpreted

cautiously, it can have unreasonable, even harmful, consequences. It
would be in vain to scour international relations for a treaty which oblkiges
one of the contracting parties “not to object” to the admission and
participation of another party in international organizations. When
considering this unusual feature (the explanation for which — if there is
one — does not readily come to hand), the Court is undoubtedly bound

to assess the effect of that formula on the legal status of members ofk inter ‑
national organizations, and to bear in mind the risk that a broad interpkr‑e
tation of it might encroach on the operational autonomy of internationalk
organizations. The Court advocates a “clinical” interpretation, ackcording
priority to the first clause of Article 11, paragraph 1, not only over the

second clause of the same paragraph, but also over the rights and obligak ‑
tions of the other party in relation to third parties.

42. Thus, excessive weight is attached to the first clause of Article 11,
paragraph 1, to the point of rendering it unintelligible. The idea that the

second clause of Article 11, paragraph 1, would only apply were the orga ‑
nization to admit the Applicant under a name other than FYROm is
completely misconceived. It is not legally tenable, in light both of thek
treaty and of the specific nature of NATO, to draw a distinction betweken
what happens before admission to the international organization and
what happens afterwards.

43. In short, the interpretation adopted by the Judgment would require
the Respondent to neutralize itself : to say nothing, to do nothing and to
remain a spectator to the Applicant’s admission to and participation kin
international organizations, irrespective of the latter’s conduct in krelation
to the dispute between the two States. Furthermore, that interpretation,k

through its “ricochet” effect, amounts to denying the other membkers of
the international organization to which the FYROm is seeking admission
the right to be informed of the facts concerning the state of relations kin
terms of security and good‑neighbourliness between their partner, greece,
a member State of the Organization since 1954, and the FYROm, a

candidate State. It should be recalled that the Applicant’s minister for
Foreign Affairs was clear in his admission that his country’s position
would not alter, and that this consisted in the dual formula.
44. The Applicant argued that the first clause of Article 11, para ‑
graph 1, establishes an obligation “solely upon greece”. However, that
text embodies two rights and obligations which are reciprocally binding

on both parties. It provides that the party of the First part agrees not to
object, etc., but on the condition that, pending the settlement of the differ ‑

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5 CIJ1026.indb 189 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 737

ence, the party of the Second part respects its obligation to refer to itself
as the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia (FYROm). That is, per ‑
fectly logically, the reciprocal balance between the two parties. The “clin ‑
ical” interpretation, on the other hand, amounts quite simply to removing

all meaning from the second clause of paragraph 1. Article 11 cannot be
read as establishing an obligation solely on the Respondent.
45. The two clauses of Article 11, paragraph 1, are of equal weight: the
first is dependent on the second. It is not possible to isolate the fikrst clause

and, moreover, allow it to stand independently of the Interim Accord as k
a whole. The first clause of Article 11, paragraph 1, imposes a constraint
on the Respondent, but at the same time it offers the Applicant the opkpor ‑
tunity to demonstrate co‑operation and good faith with a view to resolv ‑
ing the difference between the two States. The first clause of Artickle 11,

paragraph 1, cannot therefore be dissociated from the rest of that same
paragraph, or from the Interim Accord as a whole, and neither can it
relate, as the Applicant contends in its memorial, solely to the “legality of
the Respondent’s objection, no more and no less” 4, which — again

according to the Applicant — is irrespective of “the merits or demerits of
either party’s position in respect of the negotiations taking place pursuant k
to Article 5 (1) of the Interim Accord relating to the difference concerning
the Applicant’s name” 4.

46. In accordance with resolution 817, greece did not object to the
FYROm’s admission to the specialized organs and institutions of the
United Nations and, in the years following the conclusion of the Interimk
Accord (from 1995 to 2006), the Applicant became a member of several
other international, multilateral and regional organizations and instituk ‑

tions. Each time, the Applicant adopted the same attitude: although the k
international organization or organ concerned admitted it under the
name the “former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia” (FYROm), the
Applicant, once admitted, called itself either the “Republic of macedo ‑

nia” or simply “macedonia”, and continued to refer to itself in that way
despite the protests of the greek representatives. In the case of NATO
more specifically, the Applicant submitted its application using its dkis ‑
puted name.

47. In respect of the Applicant’s admission, it should also be noted
that the Alliance’s decision was taken in accordance with the usual pkrac ‑
tice, following consultation within and outside the Organization. Since k
individual views are absorbed into the Organization’s decision, it isk
impossible to distinguish greece’s position from that of the Organization.

That the decision resulting from that consultation was collective can alkso
be seen in the statement made by the president of the Republic before the
Applicant’s parliament:

“as regards the dual formula as a possible compromise for solving thek
dispute we do not have either the understanding or the support of any

46memorial of the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia, Vol. I, para. 1.11.
47Ibid.

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member State of the Alliance or the [European] Union. On the con ‑
trary, that position is considered by everyone, including our major
supporters and friends, as a position which obstructs or interrupts the k
negotiations from our side. That was fully publicly, clearly and explic ‑

itly announced to us . . . Also, no one in the international community
had and has an understanding about a series of our acts and moves
made in the past couple of years, which were of no benefit to us, and k
the greeks were using them against us as a justification for their vio ‑

lation of the Interim Agreement. In other words, we unnecessarily 48st
sympathies and the support that we had up to that moment.”

48. That statement (“we do not have either the understanding or the
support of any member State of the Alliance”) is further confirmation
that the Applicant knew that the above‑mentioned concerns represented

the collective position of the Alliance and not simply the views of greece.
49. The following remarks made during the press conference of 23 Jan ‑
uary 2008 by NATO’s Secretary‑general, the Applicant’s prime minister
and a NATO spokesperson are also significant.
Jaap de Hoop Scheffer (NATO Secretary‑general):

“So that is how I can describe the atmosphere. That is what is

important. Euro‑Atlantic integration of course also demands and
requires good neighbourly relations and it is crystal clear that there
were a lot of pleas from around the table to find a solution for the
name issue, which is not a NATO affair. This is mr. Nimetz, Ambas ‑
sador Nimetz, under the UN roof . . . But I would not give you a

complete report if I would not say referring to the communiqué by
the way of the NATO Foreign ministers last december where there
is this line on good neighbourly relations and the name issue.”

Nikola gruevski (prime minister of the FYROm):

“The discussion of the Ambassador of greece was with many ele ‑

ments. He also recognized the progress that macedonia did in the last
period and of course he stressed the positions where it is necessary fork
more progress in the future. And I would say again of course, looking
from his position, he stressed the issue connected with the name.”

James Appathurai (NATO Spokesperson):

“[T]he name has to be changed . . . compromise means a change in
the name.”

48 Statement by president of the Republic Branko Crvenkovski to the parliament of the
FYROm on 3 November 2008 (mentioned above). Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II,
part B, Ann. 104.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 193 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 739

Nikola gruevski (prime minister):

“About the compromise. We have [the] feeling that when greece is

talking about compromise, they are actually talking about changing
of the name and we believe that there are better approach[es] for
solving of this issue.” 49

50. If Article 11 is considered as a whole rather than in separate sec ‑
tions, whether there was an “objection” or not becomes a false dilem ma.

NATO has its own procedures, which are based, in all respects, on the
consensus of its member States. The officials of the Organization have kre ‑
peatedly stated that there was no veto within NATO. paragraph 20 of the
Bucharest Summit declaration of 3 April 2008 states, among other things:

“Within the framework of the UN, many actors have worked hard

to resolve the name issue, but the Alliance has noted with regret that
these talks have not produced a successful outcome. Therefore we
agreed that an invitation to the former Yugoslav Republic of mace ‑

donia will be extended as soon as a mutually acceptable solution to
the name issue has been reached. We encourage the negotiations to
be resumed without delay and expect them to be concluded as soon
as possible.” 50

51. The Organization has thus left the invitation open until the question

of the name is resolved. It is therefore permissible to ask how, in accekpting
the arguments of the Applicant, which has taken no steps towards settlinkg the
difference over the name, the Court would be helping to pave the way tkowards

its participation in NATO. The Court was right to reject the FYROm’s
request for reparation (point 3 of the operative part of the Judgment).
52. A State, unless it has designs on other States, protects its identity
by distinguishing itself from others. As far as NATO is concerned, the

adoption by each member State of a unique name protects the unity of
the Alliance and avoids any unnecessary confusion or conflicts of identitky
for the members of the armed forces, not only when they are on peace ‑

keeping missions, but in p51ticular in times of combat and when the
“rules of engagement” apply, when it is imperative that there be trust
between the members of participating States’ armed forces. As I have k
already pointed out, NATO is not one of many intergovernmental orga ‑

49
Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part A, Ann. 26.
50 Bucharest Summit declaration, 3 April 2008, para. 20.
51 I experienced first‑hand the need for unity within NATO in the years fkollowing the
adoption of the First Additional protocol of 1977 to the 1949 geneva Conventions, when
an article by Bernhard graefrath, “Zum Anwendungsbereich der Ergänzungsprotokolle zu
den genfer Abkommen vom 12 August 1949”, published in Staat und Recht, Vol. 29, 1980,
p. 133 et seq., sparked a discussion within the Alliance on the scope of Article 3‑, para
graph 3, of that protocol concerning the use of nuclear weapons and the extent to which
it was applicable to the Alliance’s member States, parties and non‑parties to the protocol.

The Alliance presented a united front on that subject.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 195 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 740

nizations. It is a military alliance and its specific nature weighs heavily on
the mutual relations between its member States.

VII. The Scope of the Obligatikons Assumed by the parties

53. The Court’s reading of the phrase “agrees not to object” comprok ‑

mises the Respondent’s established international competencies. This iks
another reason to repeat that Article 11 must be interpreted as a whole,
and not in a fragmented fashion. A balanced reading of Article 11 does
not infringe on any entity’s sovereignty or competences. It would alsko
have enabled the Court to find that the Respondent was not prohibited,k
legally or politically, from making public (which implies that the Applki ‑

cant was aware of the Respondent’s position) the reasons why, in itsk view,
the Applicant’s deliberate attitude was in breach of the Interim Accord
and failed to meet the conditions of Article 10 of the North Atlantic
Treaty, despite the repeated calls from the Alliance’s organs for setktle ‑
ment of the dispute over the name. The warnings issued by the North

Atlantic Council and other organization officials to the Applicant did knot
change its unilaterally established road map, which confirms that it hkas
no intention of modifying its conduct. The Applicant is thus seeking
acceptance of the idea that, irrespective of its conduct, the Respondentk
should not object to its candidature.

VIII. The “practice of the Organizkation”, the Violationsk of
Resolution 817 and of the Interim Acckord
and the protests of the Respondkent

54. The Judgment refers in several places to the practice “of” the Orgka ‑
nization. What it should refer to, however, is the practice “within”k the
Organization, that is to say, not simply the conduct of the organs and
other components of the organization, but also that of its member Statesk.

moreover, the Court shows a particular predilection, which is difficult to
explain, for resolution 817. However that may be, resolution 817 is only
incorporated into Article 5 of the Interim Accord to the extent that it
invokes “the difference over the name”. Thus, independently of rkesolu ‑
tion 817, which is clearly binding on the Applicant within the United

Nations, the latter is also bound by the same obligation to use only thek
name FYROm in any international organization in which it participates
or will participate in the future, pending the settlement of the questiokn of
the definitive name by mutual agreement.
55. It goes without saying that “practice” implies common consent,
without which there can be no “practice”. Although this is mentioned

only fleetingly in the Judgment, anyone who has had dealings with inter ‑
national organizations since 1991 will be aware of the endless disputes,k

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both written and oral, between the representatives of the parties on the
subject of the name, as well as greece’s ongoing and repeated opposition

to the Applicant’s use of its constitutional name.
56. International protest is a legal concept of customary law, whereby
a subject of international law objects to an official act or the conduckt of
another subject, which it considers to be in breach of international lawk 52.

protest acquires greater weight when it opposes an act or conduct which
is inconsistent with the international obligations of the other subject kof
international law. It has the effect of preserving the rights of the protest ‑
ing subject and bringing to the fore the unlawful nature of the officiakl act

or conduct at issue. It is further strengthened by and becomes indisput ‑
able through its repetition.
57. The legal character and effects of protest have long been confirmed k
by international jurisprudence. In the Chamizal Arbitral Award (1911), as

well as in the decisions of the permanent Court and of this Court in the
cases concerning Jaworzina (1923), Interpretation of Peace Treaties (1950),
Fisheries (1951), Minquiers and Ecrehos (1953), Continental Shelf (1982),
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (1984),

Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (1992), Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (2002) and Certain Questions of
Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (2008), account was taken either of
the protests actually carried out by one or both parties to the dispute, or

of the absence of protest in respect of a given act or situation. The wokrld’s
highest Court has never relied on the number of protests at issue in order
to determine their legal effect. In the present Judgment, however, it kfinds

eight (8) protests to be insufficient; moreover, it contests the many otherk
protests carried out by greece against the use by the FYROm of its con ‑
stitutional name within international organizations in the period from tkhe
conclusion of the Interim Accord to the FYROm’s application to join

NATO. By introducing a quantitative measure in this way in order to
determine the legal status of an international act, the Court undermines
the very concept of international protest 5.

58. Furthermore, I cannot understand why the Court was not satisfied
by greece’s repeated protests against the use by the Applicant of a name k
other than the FYROm within international organizations, and against

other violations of the Accord, all of which relate, directly or indirecktly,
to the question of the name. I conducted a rough count, based solely on

52
See E. Suy, Les actes juridiques unilatéraux en droit international public, paris, LgdJ,
1962, p. 79 ; Ch. Eick “protest”, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law
(ac53ssed on 29 September 2011).
It is true that, in its Advisory Opinion on the Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the
Service of the United Nations (Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1949,185), the Court
invoked a quantitative measure (“fifty States”), but that measkure had no legal effect on the
creation by the States of an organization possessing objective internatikonal personality.

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the documents produced by the Respondent, and was able to find some
54
85 protests on its part . In seeking to demonstrate the Respondent’s pur‑
ported approval of the Applicant’s use of its constitutional name witkhin
the United Nations, the Judgment invokes an internal document (non‑

paper) and a letter sent to the Secretary‑general by a representative of
the Respondent, both of which date from 1993 55. The internal document
(non‑paper), however, focuses on the technical arrangements for the

FYROm’s participation in the day‑to‑day activities of the United
Nations; the letter from the Respondent’s minister for Foreign Affairs
refers to the question of the name in its very first sentence followinkg the
introductory paragraph, with the body of the text listing a number of

other measures which the Applicant was required to take.

IX. good Neighbourliness

59. Legally, the notion of good neighbourliness does not play a major

role in the area of international relations. One author of a detailed stkudy
on the subject states that “it is in the State’s interest to respekct the general
obligations vis‑à‑vis other States, because each obligation presupposkes
56
the right to claim reciprocity from the other party” . A distinction is
made between the right of neighbourliness and the right of good neigh ‑
bourliness, the borders of which are not always clearly defined. Neverkthe ‑
less, both are evolving concepts, and when good neighbourliness is

embodied in an international treaty, it becomes a legal principle, to bek
read in conjunction with the fundamental principles laid down by the
United Nations Charter, among which good faith features prominently. I

would add that, although that principle is normally applied in the politi ‑
cal domain, commentaries on the Charter of the United Nations generally k
accord it a legal sense, namely the mutual right of neighbouring States kto

the protection of their legitimate interests. It should be stated, moreokver,
that the principle of good neighbourliness is not binding on States alone.
To the extent that its non‑observance may compromise the actions of the k
organs of the international community, it is also an obligation incumbent

on international organizations, which must ensure that it is respected. k
The importance of good neighbourliness (which limits the parties’ free ‑
dom of action in seven places in the Interim Accord 5, and with good

54
protests within international organizations: Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II,
part A, Anns. 2, 3, 6, 11, 12; Counter‑memorial, Vol. II, part B, Ann. 146; Rejoinder of
greece, Vol. II, Anns.3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 59 and 60. TOTAL: 50.
protests to the FYROm: Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part A, Anns. 40, 41,
43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72,
73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79 and 80; Rejoinder of greece, Vol. II, Ann. 63. TOTAL: 35.
55 memorial of the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia, Vol. II, Ann. 30.
56 I. pop, Voisinage et bon voisinage en droit international, paris, pedone, 1980, p. 333.
57 Articles 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 and 10.

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reason) is apparent a contrario from the Court’s finding in the Oil Plat ‑
forms case that “the object and purpose of the Treaty of 1955 was not to
regulate peaceful and friendly relations between the two States in a genk ‑

eral sense” (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II),
p. 814, para. 28). The object and purpose of the Interim Accord is pre ‑
cisely to regulate peaceful relations between the parties, and that is why

provision was made for the Applicant to be referred to provisionally andk
for all purposes as the FYROm within international organizations, pend ‑
ing the settlement of the difference by negotiation.
60. most notably, the question of good neighbourliness was rekindled

in the 1980s 58 the Balkans by Romania, supported in particular by
Yugoslavia . Furthermore, it is not by chance that both Security Council
resolutions, the Interim Accord and NATO’s communiqués all mentionk
good neighbourliness. Nor is it by chance that Articles 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9

and 10 of the Accord contain provisions in that regard and, for the most
part, are directed at the Applicant. It should be recalled that immediatkely
after the FYROm achieved independence in 1991, its constitution, its
national flag, and a cascade of actions and statements by its authoritiesk

and non‑governmental elements triggered a wave of hostility towards
greece, which was also expressed by irredentist agitators, and through
demands aimed at the greek historical and cultural heritage. The repeated
protests of greece in 1991, 1993 and 1995 forced the new State to modify
its constitution and change its national flag, so that it no longer featukred

the Sun of Vergina (Vergina, the capital of classical macedonia, is in
greece and has been a part of the territory of greece since 1913), and
obliged its authorities to take further measures considered necessary ink
order for greece to recognize it. The acts of provocation continued in

various forms: irredentist claims concerning the geographical and ethnick
frontiers of the FYROm, extending to areas beyond its political borders,
school books, maps, official encyclopedias and inflammatory speeches 59.

X. Rights and Obligationsk in relation to Third

parties under Article 22

61. Article 22 reads as follows: “The Interim Accord is not directed
against any other State or entity and it does not infringe on the rightsk and

duties resulting from bilateral and multilateral agreements already in
force that the parties have concluded with other States or internationalk
organizations.” Article 8 of the North Atlantic Treaty provides, for its

58S. Sucharitkul, “The principles of good‑Neighbourliness in International Law”,
Jugoslovenska revija za međunarodno pravo, Vol. 43, 1996, p. 395 et seq., p. 399.
59Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part B, Ann. 81 et seq.

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part: “Each party declares that none of the international engagementsk
now in force between it and any other of the parties or any third State kis

in conflict with the provisions of this Treaty, and undertakes not to entker
into any international engagement in conflict with this Treaty.” I woukld
recall that the Court does not have jurisdiction to interpret this Artickle.

62. Article 22 is not a “standard clause”. This is evidenced by the fact
that when such a safeguard clause is included in a treaty, its wording dkif ‑
fers according to the parties’ objective 60. Article 22 is a response to the
concern expressed by those who study the law of treaties and who, takingk

account of the problems of interpretation and uncertainties caused by thke
silence of international agreements on the relationship between those
agreements and other earlier or subsequent treaties, ask the drafters ofk
such instruments to take care to include specific provisions in that con ‑

nection, so as to avoid any potential doubt resulting from the interpreta ‑
tion of Article 30 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 6. In
the present case, the relevant provision is Article 30, paragraph 2, which

states that: “[w]hen a treaty specifies that it is subject to, or tkhat it is not
to be considered as incompatible with, an earlier or later treaty, the provi ‑
sions of that other treaty prevail”.
63. provisions such as those contained in Article 22 are designed to

cover the whole of the treaty in which they are incorporated. That Artickle
therefore applies to the Accord as a whole and to Article 11, paragraph 1,
in particular. NATO is clearly an international organization as referredk
to in Article 22 and that Article should therefore be read in conjunction

with Article 8 of the North Atlantic Treaty, which prevents a member
State from waiving its rights and duties towards the Alliance. moreover,
by including Article 22 in the Interim Accord, both parties were deemed

to be aware of its scope in light of the specific military and defencek‑related
nature of NATO’s constituent treaty.
64. In support of its interpretation of the scope of Article 22 — which
differs from that which I have just given — the Court invokes a decision

of the Court of Justice of the European Communities in its Judgment (seke
paragraph 109). I would question the weight of that decision, since it is
well known that the organs of the European Union regularly go beyond
the notion of “fragmentation” in distinguishing themselves from gekneral

international law. moreover, the European Commission constantly points
out that it is a “general interpretation” in the Union’s “jukdicial practice”
that “its internal order is separate from international law” 62.

60 See the various examples given in E. Roucounas, “Engagements parallèles et contra‑
dictoires”, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 206, 1987,
pp. 90‑92.
61 See Sir I. Sinclair, “problems Arising from a Succession of Codification Conventions

on a particular Subject”, provisional Report, Yearbook of the Institute of International
Law62Lisbon Session, Vol. 66‑I, 1995, pp. 195‑214, p. 207.
United Nations general Assembly, A/CN.4/637, 14 February 2011, International
Law Commission, Sixty‑Third Session, “Responsibility of Internationalk Organizations.
Comments and Observations Received from International Organizations”,k p. 19, para. 1.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 205 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 745

65. The fact that the Interim Accord also contains provisions relating
to the European Union can be explained not only by the sui generis cha‑
racter of that Union (whether or not it is an international organizatiokn in
the classic sense), but also by the economic and commercial integrationk

that participation in the Union entails for its member States and by thek
fact that the matters in question fall within the Union’s jurisdictiokn. Fur‑
ther, the 1957 Treaty of Rome, as amended, provides procedural mecha ‑
nisms for any instances of incompatibility with obligations towards thirkd

States; the Interim Accord, on the other hand, like other treaties with k
provisions similar to Article 22, does not include any such procedural
mechanism to deal with incompatibility.

XI. Reliance, in the Alternkative, on the principle of
e xceptio n on a dimpleti c ontractus

66. Latin terms are not always well chosen. However, the exceptio in

question expresses a principle so just and so equitable (Diversion of Water
from the Meuse, Judgment, 1937, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 70, dissenting
opinion of Judge Anzilotti, p. 50 ; ibid., dissenting opinion of Judge Hud ‑
son, pp. 75‑78) that it can be found in one form or another in every legal

system. It is the corollary of reciprocity and synallagmatic agreements.k It
follows that Article 60 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
is not the sole form of expression of the exceptio. As a defence to the
non‑performance of an obligation, it is a general principle of law, as
enshrined in Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the Court. Yet,

as the Court found in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua, general international law and treaty
law constantly overlap. Article 60 does not deprive the injured party of
the right to invoke the exceptio. In particular, it does not make provision

for every scenario in which the injured party reacts to the non‑perfor ‑
mance by the other contracting party of its obligations. It is true thatk the
Court 63has not had occasion to rule in detail on the issue. Over a period
of several decades, it is, however, possible to find references to it knot only

in the opinions of Judges dionisio Anzilotti (who should be credited for
taking a pedagogical view of the role of the international judge) and Hkud ‑
son of the permanent Court, but also in those of Judges de Castro and
Schwebel of the present Court (Diversion of Water from the Meuse, Judg ‑
ment, 1937, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 70, dissenting opinion of Judge Hud‑

son, p. 77; Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of
South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security
Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971,
separate opinion of Judge de Castro, p. 213; Appeal Relating to the Juris ‑

diction of the ICAO Council (India v. Pakistan), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

63See, however, W. Jenks’s comments concerning the pCIJ in The Prospects of Inter‑
national Adjudication, 1964, p. 326, note 30.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 207 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 746

1972, separate opinion of Judge de Castro, p. 129; Military and Paramili ‑
tary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of

America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, dissenting opinion of
Judge Schwebel, p. 380).
67. In respect, more specifically, of paragraph 3 (b) of Article 60 of the
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, paul Reuter, who attended

the Vienna Conference of 1968‑1969 and was Special Rapporteur of the
International Law Commission on the Law of Treaties between States
and International Organizations, stated that, during the drafting of thakt
provision, the term “or” (and not “and”) between the wordsk “object” and

“purpose” had been chosen, so64s to give the party claiming injury a
greater freedom of action . For 16 years, greece has responded mildly to
the Applicant’s practices and, in the case of the latter’s applicaktion to join
NATO, it did not seek a suspension or termination of the Accord as such.k

In so doing, it made its position widely known, but without invoking spek ‑
cific articles of the Interim Accord. We should not allow unthinking fkor‑
malism to take us back to ancient Roman times, where certain formal
procedures determined the precise rights and obligations of the parties.k It

is, however, important not to lose sight of the wording of Article 65,
paragraph 5, of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, which
provides that: “[w]ithout prejudice to Article 45, the fact that a State has
not previously made the notification prescribed in paragraph 1 shall not

prevent it from making such notification in answer to another party
claiming performance of the treaty or alleging its violation”.

XII. Countermeasures

68. Also in the alternative, the Respondent invokes countermeasures

as a circumstance precluding wrongfulness. As we know, that circum ‑
stance has been codified, together with certain aspects of progressivek
development of international law, in the ILC Articles on the “Responski ‑
bility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts” . In regard to the role

of circumstances precluding wrongfulness, the ILC observed that invok ‑
ing such a circumstance does not “annul or terminate the [underlying]
obligation”. Rather, circumstances precluding wrongfulness “providke a
justification or excuse for non‑performance”; they “operate as ak shield
66
rather than a sword” .
69. As the Court has noted on several occasions, the adoption of
countermeasures presupposes, first of all, the prior existence of an iknter ‑

64
p. Reuter, “Solidarité et divisibilité des engagements conventioknnels”, in Y. dinstein
and m. Tabory (eds.), International Law at a Time of Perplexity. Essays in Honour of
Shabtai Rosenne, dordrecht, 1989, pp. 623‑634, p. 628, note 9.
65See the Report of the ILC, Fifty‑Third Session, UN doc. A/56/10, Art. 22 and
Arts. 49‑54.
66Op. cit. supra note 65, p. 71.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 209 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 747

nationally wrongful act (see in particular United States Diplomatic and
Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1980, pp. 27‑28, para. 53; Military and Paramilitary Activities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 106, para. 201; Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros

Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, pp. 55‑56,
para. 83). In that connection, the Respondent invokes a series of viola ‑
tions of the Interim Accord by the FYROm, and in particular violations
of Articles 5, 6, 7, and 11 of that Accord, which occurred before the
Bucharest Summit. It has, therefore, satisfied the substantive conditions

for the implementation of countermeasures.
70. moreover, as the ILC has stated:

“Countermeasures are limited to the non‑performance for the time
being of international obligations of the State taking the measures
towards the responsible State. Countermeasures shall, as far as pos ‑
sible, be taken in such a way as to permit the resumption of perfor ‑
67
mance of the obligations in question.”
71. The Court reaffirmed the principle of the reversibility of counter ‑

measures in the Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros case. According to the Court, the
purpose of a countermeasure “must be to induce the wrongdoing State tko
comply with its obligations under international law, and . . . the measure
must therefore be reversible” (see Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project (Hungary/

Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, pp. 56‑57, para. 87). In the
present case, and assuming that the Respondent’s attitude to the subject of
the Applicant’s admission to NATO constitutes a countermeasure, that k
countermeasure is, by its nature, reversible at any time.
72. As far as the procedural conditions governing recourse to counter ‑

measures are concerned, the ILC proposed a provision which constitutes
a mix of codification and progressive development of international lawk.
Article 52, paragraph 1, of the draft Articles on the Responsibility of
States provides that “[b]efore taking countermeasures, an injured Stakte
shall: (a) call upon the responsible State . . . to fulfil its obligations”. To

that first condition, the ILC adds a second, according to which the inkjured
State must “notify the responsible State of any decision to take counkter ‑
measures and offer to negotiate with that State” (Art. 52, para. 1 (b)). It
will be noted in this respect that an attempt to resolve the difference by

friendly means — and not the failure of negotiations — is the norm
required by customary law. On the other hand, international custom does k
not appear to demand notification of the decision to adopt countermea ‑
sures. It is also necessary to point out that neither the Court nor the kILC
have specified the exact form of the steps to be taken before the adopktion

of countermeasures. This lack of precision reflects customary law, which k
is characterized by a certain flexibility in that respect.

67
Op. cit. supra note 65, Art. 49, paras. 2 and 3, p. 58.

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73. That leaves the substantive condition governing the adoption of
countermeasures, namely proportionality. That principle has long been

accepted in State practice and jurisprudence. Its positive formulation has
been confirmed by the Court, first in the case concerning Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua(Nicaragua v. United States
of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 127, para. 249 (see

also the Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear
Weapons, I.C.J. Reports 1996, para. 41 et seq., on the application of the
principle of proportionality to self‑defence), then in the Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros
case; Article 51 of the ILC text on the Responsibility of States provides that

“[c]ountermeasures must be commensurate with the injury suffered, tkaking
into account the gravity of the internationally wrongful act and the rights
in question”.
74. In its written and oral pleadings, the Applicant does not respond,

or responds only generally, or even selectively, to the concrete exampleks
of violations of the Interim Accord complained of by the Respondent 68.
Whatever the current state of international law relating to counte r‑
measures, the measure adopted by the Respondent satisfies the conditiokn

of proportionality, taking into account the full extent of the injury sukffered
on account of the violations of Articles5, 6, 7 and11 of the Interim Accord.
Yet, in its assessment of those violations, the Court fails to address
the substance of the issues.

75. In conclusion, many of those who read the Judgment will certainly
wonder how — whether by deduction or induction — the Court reached
its decision.

(Signed) Emmanuel Roucounas.

68
See the protests by greece in the Counter‑memorial, Vol. II, part A, Ann. 62;
Counter‑memorial, part B, Anns. 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 109, 118 and 124. Total: 26. The Applicankt responds to the
violations of diplomatic and consular law, but not to those concerning skchool books, maps
and official encyclopedias.

108

5 CIJ1026.indb 213 20/06/13 08:42

Bilingual Content

720

OpINION dISSIdENTE dE m. LE JUgE AD HOC ROUCOUNAS

Aperçu historique — Nécessité de la détermination du nom par négociation et
commun accord — L’objet et le but de l’accord intérimaire — Désaccord avec la
Cour concernant sa compétence pour régler ce différend — L’article 5 et
l’obligation de négocier de bonne foi — Admission au sein des organisations

internationales: l’OTAN constitue un cas particulier — L’article 11 : ne pas
s’opposer si l’autre Partie s’acquitte de ses obligations dé▯coulant de l’article 5, qui
précède l’article 11 — La portée des obligations assumées par les Parties — La
«Pratique de l’organisation », les violations de la résolution 817 et de l’accord
intérimaire et les protestations du défendeur — Le bon voisinage — Les droits et

obligations à l’égard des tiers selon l’article 22 — L’invocation à titre subsidiaire
de l’exceptio non adimpleti contractus — Les contre‑mesures.

table des matières

Paragraphes

Introduction: aperçu historique 1‑6

I. parvenir à la déterminkation du nom par la négkociation et
d’un commun accord, oku maintenir la « divergence» au
prix de la frustratiokn, de l’insécurité et dke la confusion 7‑11

II. L’objet et le but de l’akccord intérimaire 12‑16

III. La Cour n’a pas compéteknce pour régler ce difkférend 17‑24

IV. L’article 5 et l’obligation de nékgocier de bonne foi 25‑35

V. Admission au sein desk organisations interknationales :
l’OTAN est par sa naturek même un cas particuliker 36‑40

VI. L’article 11: ne pas s’opposer si lk’autre partie s’acquitte
de ses obligations déckoulant de l’article 5, qui précède

l’article 11 41‑52

VII. La portée des obligatikons assumées par les parties 53

VIII. La «pratique de l’organiksation », les violations de lka réso
lution 817 et de l’accorkd intérimaire et les pkrotestations
du défendeur 54‑58

IX. Le bon voisinage 59‑60

X. Les droits et obligatikons à l’égard des tierks selon l’ar‑
ticle 22 61‑65

80

5 CIJ1026.indb 156 20/06/13 08:42 720

dISSENTINg OpINION OF JUdgE AD HOC ROUCOUNAS

[Translation]

Brief history — The need to determine the name through negotiations and
common consent — The object and purpose of the Interim Accord — Disagreement
with the Court over its jurisdiction to settle this dispute — Article 5 and the
obligation to negotiate in good faith — Admission to international organizations:
NATO is a special case — Article 11: agreeing not to object if the other Party

fulfils its obligations under Article 5, which precedes Article 11 — The scope of the
obligations assumed by the Parties — The “practice of the organization”, the
violations of resolution 817 and of the Interim Accord and the protests of the
Respondent — Good neighbourliness — Rights and obligations in relation to third
parties under Article 22 — Reliance, in the alternative, on the principle of exceptio
non adimpleti contractus — Countermeasures.

table of contents

Paragraphs

Introduction and Briekf History 1‑6

I. To Resolve the Name Issuek through Negotiations kand Com ‑
mon Consent, or to maintain the “difference” at the Costk

of Frustration, Insecukrity and Confusion 7‑11

II. The Object and purpose of the Interim Akccord 12‑16

III. The Court Lacks Jurisdictkion to Settle this dispute 17‑24

IV. Article 5 and the Obligation to Nkegotiate in good Faith 25‑35

V. Admission to Internatkional Organizations: kNATO Is by
Its very Nature a Speciakl Case 36‑40

VI. Article 11: Agreeing not to Objectk if the other party

Fulfils Its Obligationsk under Article 5, which precedes
Article 11 41‑52

VII. The Scope of the Obligatikons Assumed by the parties 53

VIII. The “practice of the Organizkation”, the Violationsk of
Resolution 817 and of the Interim Acckord and the pro ‑

tests of the Respondenkt 54‑58

IX. good Neighbourliness 59‑60

X. Rights and Obligationsk in relation to Third parties under
Article 22 61‑65

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XI. L’invocation, à titrek subsidiaire, de l’exceptio non adim -
pleti contractus 66‑67

XII. Les contre‑mesures 68‑75

*

A mon regret, j’ai voté contre les points 1 et 2 du dispositif de l’arrêt et
ce, pour les raisons exposées ci‑après.

Introduction: aperçu historique

1. Les deux parties reconnaissent que l’accord intérimaire du 13 sep ‑
tembre 1995 est un traité international qui produit son plein effet juri ‑

dique. Il n’en reste pas moins que cet accord présente certaines ckuriosités
importantes. Tout d’abord, on peut se demander s’il existe dans l’khistoire
des relations internationales contemporaines d’autres traités dansk lesquels
les Etats parties ne sont pas nommément désignés. Le texte est ksigné

par deux personnalités respectivement pour la « première partie » et la
«seconde partie», et dont il faut déduire qu’elles représentent la grèce et
l’ex‑République yougoslave de macédoine (ERYm). A la question de
savoir pourquoi le traité est conclu entre Etats anonymes, la réponse est

que cette curieuse uniformité dans la désignation des parties tient à la
«divergence» sur le nom de la « seconde partie ». Cette divergence est
omniprésente en l’espèce, et autour d’elle gravitent d’auktres actions du
demandeur et réactions du défendeur.

2. L’accord intérimaire a été conclu dans le tumulte des crisesk balka ‑
niques des années 1990 et des événements qui ont marqué l’Europe à cette
époque. Cependant, chacun sait que la « question macédonienne », qui a
caractérisé la rivalité entre la grèce, la Serbie et la Bulgarie, remonte aux
e
dernières décennies du XIX siècle, et notamment aux années 1880,
lorsque les revendications des populations de cette région à l’kégard de
l’Empire ottoman (dont la macédoine faisait partie) furent à l’origine de
luttes armées, non seulement contre l’occupant turc, mais aussi enktre les

populations locales. depuis lors, la macédoine n’a échappé à aucun des
conflits et crises régionaux ou mondiaux, subissant deux guerres balkak ‑
niques (1912‑1913) et deux guerres mondiales (1914‑1918 et 1939‑1945).
dans le traité de Bucarest du 10 août 1913, qui mit fin à la deuxième

guerre balkanique, était reconnue la souveraineté de la grèce sur un ter ‑
ritoire de la macédoine qui comprend la plus grande partie de la macé ‑
doine historique et constitue, depuis cette époque, une région de la grèce.
A la suite de la dissolution de l’Empire austro‑hongrois, le traiték de

Saint‑germain‑en‑Laye de 1919 créa le Royaume des Serbes, Croates et
Slovènes (sans mention des macédoniens), royaume qui, en 1923, prit le
nom de Yougoslavie. Après la fin de la seconde guerre mondiale (19k45),
la Yougoslavie orienta sa politique vers l’incorporation de la macédoine

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XI. Reliance, in the Alternkative, on the principle ofexceptio
n on a dimpleti contractus 66‑67

XII. Countermeasures 68‑75

*

To my regret, I voted against points 1 and 2 of the operative part of the
Judgment; I did so for the following reasons.

Introduction and Briekf History

1. Both parties accept that the Interim Accord of 13 September 1995 is
an international treaty with full legal effect. Nonetheless, it does have a

number of significant unusual features. First, it may be asked whetherk, in
the history of contemporary international relations, there have been othker
treaties in which the States parties are not referred to by name. The tekxt
is signed by two individuals, who represent respectively the “party of the

First part” and the “party of the Second part”, and one has to deduce
from this that those individuals represent greece and the former Yugo ‑
slav Republic of macedonia (FYROm). Why was the Treaty concluded
between unnamed States? The reason for this curious, uniform way in

which the parties are designated resides in the parties’ “difference” over
the name of the “party of the Second part”. That difference is omnipres ‑
ent in this case, and the other actions of the Applicant and reactions okf
the Respondent revolve around it.

2. The Interim Accord was concluded amid the tumult of the Balkan
crises of the 1990s and the events taking place in Europe at that time. k
However, it is well known that the “macedonian Question”, which
marked the rivalry between greece, Serbia and Bulgaria, dates back to

the final decades of the nineteenth century and, in particular, to the 1880s,
when the demands raised by the peoples of that region against the Otto ‑
man Empire (of which macedonia was a part) gave rise to armed con ‑
flicts, not only against the Turkish occupier, but also among the local

peoples. Since then, macedonia has not escaped a single conflict or
regional or global crisis unscathed, enduring two Balkan Wars (1912‑191k3)
and two World Wars (1914‑1918 and 1939‑1945). The Treaty of Bucha ‑
rest of 10 August 1913, which brought an end to the second Balkan War,

recognized greece’s sovereignty over an area of macedonia which
includes the greater part of the territory of historical macedonia and
which, since then, has constituted a region of greece. Following the
dissolution of the Austro‑Hungarian Empire, the 1919 Treaty of Saint‑

germain‑en‑Laye created the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
(without mention of the macedonians), a Kingdom which in 1923 adopted
the name of Yugoslavia. After the end of the Second World War (1945), k
Yugoslavia directed its policy towards incorporating both greek and Bul ‑

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grecque et de la macédoine bulgare, et apporta une aide substantielle aux

rebelles durant la guerre civile grecque (1946‑1949). A la conférenkce de
paix de paris (1947), la Yougoslavie revendiqua l’annexion de provinces
du nord de la grèce. Les mouvements rebelles que celle‑ci affronta à sa
frontière nord pendant la guerre civile menèrent à la création, en 1946, de

la première commission d’enquête des Nations Unies.
3. La macédoine grecque, qui s’étend sur près de 90% de la macédoine
historique, compte, selon le recensement de 2000, environ 2 625 000 habi ‑
1
tants ; la population de l’ERYm s’élève à quelque 2 022 547 habitants
(2002) 2.
4. Richard Holbrooke, secrétaire d’Etat adjoint des Etats‑Unis d’Amé ‑
rique et envoyé spécial pour les Balkans, dans son ouvrage To End a War,

évoque les conditions dans lesquelles il s’est, dans la tourmente kd’une des
crises balkaniques — à savoir le conflit armé en Bosnie‑Herzégovine —,
rendu avec ses collaborateurs à Athènes et à Skopje, « pour tenter de

venir à bout de l’âpre conflit entre la grèce et l’ex‑République yougoslave
de macédoine (ERYm) au sujet du nom du pays et de son drapeau natio ‑
nal » . Il précise que, le 4 septembre 1995, les envoyés américains ont per ‑

suadé Andréas papandréou, premier ministre grec de l’époque, d’accepter
l’accord négocié pendant deux ans grâce à la médiation de Cyrus Vance
et de matthew Nimetz, tandis que lui‑même rencontrait, au sujet de cette
même question, le président Kiro gligorov, «ancien ministre des finances

de Tito [qui] avait presque littéralement inventé son pays fin 1k991 et
début 1992 » 4. Richard Holbrooke ajoute que le New York Times avait
présenté l’accord intérimaire comme marquant la fin « d’un différend qui

durait d5puis quatre ans et avait menacé de déboucher sur un conflikt
armé » . Il importe de rappeler ici que, immédiatement après son indépke‑ n
dance, le nouvel Etat a entrepris une série d’actions à visékes irrédentistes
et d’actes de contestation du patrimoine culturel grec qui furent jugkés

inadmissibles par la grèce.
5. Le demandeur mentionne l’embargo économique que la grèce a
appliqué dans ce contexte en 1994 contre son voisin du Nord. Il convient

de garder à l’esprit que les sanctions économiques de la grèce contre son
voisin du Nord sont intervenues après l’adoption de la résolutikon 817 par
le Conseil de sécurité, ce qui signifie que la protestation du dkéfendeur à
l’égard du comportement de l’ERYm a pris très tôt une forme concrète,

en tout cas dans la période comprise entre l’adoption de la résolution 817
(1993) et la conclusion de l’accord intérimaire (1995). J’akjouterai que la
Commission des Communautés européennes a en 1994 déféré la grèce

devant la Cour de justice des Communautés européennes, en demandant

1d’après les statistiques d’Eurostat (20 octobre 2010). Voir http://epp.eurostat.ec.
europa.eu.
2mémoire de l’ex‑République yougoslave de macédoine, vol. I, par. 2.2.
3 R. Holbrooke, To End a War (édition revisée), New York, The modern Library,
1998, p. 121‑127. [Traduction du Greffe.]
4
5 Ibid., p. 125. [Traduction du Greffe.]
Ibid. [Traduction du Greffe.]

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garian macedonia and lent substantial support to the rebels during the

greek Civil War (1946‑1949). At the paris peace Conference (1947),
Yugoslavia called for the annexation of provinces of northern greece.
The rebel movements which greece confronted on its northern border
during the Civil War led to the creation, in 1946, of the first Commission

of Inquiry of the United Nations.
3. According to the census of 2000, greek macedonia, which extends
across almost 90 per cent of historical macedonia, has around
1
2,625,000 inhabitants ; the population of the FYROm is approximately
2,022,547 inhabitants (2002) 2.
4. In his book To End a War, Richard Holbrooke, Assistant Secretary
of State of the United States and Special Envoy for the Balkans, describes

the circumstances in which, in the midst of one of the Balkan crises —
namely, the armed conflict in Bosnia‑Herzegovina —, he met with his
colleagues in Athens and Skopje “to tackle the bitter dispute betweenk

greece and the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia (FYROm) over
the name of the country and its national flag” 3. He explains how, on
4 September 1995, the American envoys convinced Andreas papandreou,

then greek prime minister, to agree to the Accord which had been nego ‑
tiated over a two‑year period thanks to the mediation of Cyrus Vance
and matthew Nimetz, while he himself met on the same matter with pres ‑
ident Kiro gligorov, “once Tito’s Finance minister [who] had almost lit ‑
4
erally invented his country in late 1991 and early 1992” . Holbrooke
adds that the New York Times had hailed the Interim Accord as marking
the end “of a four year dispute that had threatened to break into wark” .

It is important to recall here that, immediately after its independence,k
the new State embarked upon a series of actions with irredentist aims
and acts contesting the greek cultural heritage, which were considered
unacceptable by greece.

5. The Applicant refers to the economic embargo which, against that
backdrop, was imposed by greece in 1994 against its northern neighbour.

It should be borne in mind that the economic sanctions taken by greece
against its northern neighbour occurred after the adoption of resolutionk 817
by the Security Council, meaning that the Respondent’s objection to tkhe
FYROm’s conduct took concrete form very quickly, in any event during

the period between the adoption of resolution 817 (1993) and the conclu ‑
sion of the Interim Accord (1995). I would add that, in 1994, the Commis‑
sion of the European Communities referred greece to the European Court

of Justice, asking the Court to indicate provisional measures in respectk of

1 According to Eurostat figures (20 Oct. 2010); see http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu.

2 memorial of the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia, Vol. I, para. 2.2.
3 R. Holbrooke, To End a War (revised edition), New York, The modern Library,
1998, pp. 121‑127.
4
5 Ibid., p. 125.
Ibid.

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à celle‑ci d’indiquer des mesures provisoires à l’endroit dek la grèce et
de se prononcer sur la conformité des mesures prises par ce pays aux
articles 224 et 133 du traité de Rome. La Cour a rejeté la demande de la

Commission quant à l’indication de mesures provisoires et, dans unk
second temps, l’affaire a été rayée du rôle. Sur le fonkd, il importe toutefois
de noter aussi que l’avocat général de la Cour (Francis Jacobsk) a, dans
son rapport devant l’organe judiciaire communautaire, jugé que lesk

mesures prises par la grèce étaient légitimes, et préconisé le rejet 6e la
demande et de la requête de la Commission contre la grèce .
6. Afin de permettre la conclusion de l’accord intérimaire et dans kl’es ‑
poir de voir respectées les garanties de normalisation des relations avec

son voisin du Nord, la grèce a fait, en 1995, des concessions substan ‑
tielles, en se fondant sur les contreparties prévues par l’accord,k et a
accepté de lever l’embargo. Je signalerai que ces contreparties sek rédui ‑
saient, pour l’ERYm, à se comporter conformément aux règles de bon

voisinage. L’arrêt fait allusion au rapport de la commission Badinkter, qui,
sur la base des déclarations des pays de l’ex‑Yougoslavie (simpleks décla ‑
rations d’intention dont la conformité à la réalité n’kétait pas vérifiée),
s’était prononcée en faveur de la reconnaissance de l’ERYm 7. Il est vrai

que l’Union européenne a fait des efforts de médiation entre kles deux par ‑
ties. Ces efforts n’ont pas abouti et, au sommet de Lisbonne de juikn 1992,
le Conseil européen a subordonné la reconnaissance du demandeur pakr
l’Union européenne à l’emploi d’une dénomination qui ne contiendrait
pas le terme «macédoine » 8.

I. parvenir à la déterminkation du nom par la négkociation
et d’un commun accordk, ou maintenir la «divergence»

au prix de la frustraktion, de l’insécurité ket de la confusion

7. depuis plusieurs années, le contexte politique, juridique et culturel kdes
relations entre les deux pays est terni par le problème du nom du demkan ‑

deur. Ce problème, comme bien d’autres, a surgi en 1991 et, depuis lors, la
grèce demande que son voisin du Nord ne monopolise pas, en tant qu’Etat,
le nom de macédoine et qu’il adopte un nom qui le distingue de la macé ‑
doine grecque. Je pourrais citer au moins cinq cas dans lesquels, en Eurkope

du Nord, en Europe centrale, dans les Balkans, en Afrique et dans le paci ‑
fique, sur protestation d’Etats voisins ou de leur propre gré, dkes Etats no‑u
veaux ont adopté des noms ou des symboles destinés à les distinkguer de
leurs voisins. depuis 1995, une négociation visant à résoudre « la diver ‑

gence» («the difference») sur le nom est engagée entre les parties sous les
auspices du Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nationsk Unies et avec

6 Cour de justice des Communautés européennes, affaire C‑120/94, nkotamment les
paragraphes 61‑73.
7 mémoire de l’ex‑République yougoslave de macédoine, vol. I, par. 2.13.
8 Ibid., par. 2.13, note 37.

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greece and to rule on whether the measures taken by that country were in
accordance with Articles 224 and 133 of the Treaty of Rome. The Court

rejected the Commission’s request concerning the indication of proviskional
measures and the case on the merits was later removed from the list. In
respect of the merits, however, it is also important to note that, in hiks opin ‑
ion to the Court, the Court’s Advocate general (Francis Jacobs) found

that the measures taken by greece were legitimate and recommended that 6
the Commission’s request and application against greece be dismissed .
6. In order to facilitate the conclusion of the Interim Accord, and
trusting in the safeguards for the normalization of relations with its

northern neighbour, in 1995 greece consented to substantial concessions,
in return for the reciprocal obligations provided by the Accord, and
agreed to lift the embargo. I would point out that, for the FYROm, those
reciprocal obligations amounted to no more than behaving in accordance

with the rules of good neighbourliness. The Judgment refers to the opin ‑
ion of the Badinter Commission, which, on the basis of declarations by
the countries of the former Yugoslavia (simple declarations of intentiokn
whose correspondence with reality was not verified), ruled in favour kof
7
the recognition of the FYROm . The European Union also attempted
to mediate between the two parties. Those attempts were unsuccessful
and, at the Lisbon Summit of June 1992, the European Council made
known that the Applicant would only be recognized by the European
8
Union under a name which did not include the word “macedonia” .

I. To Resolve the Name Issuek through Negotiations kand Common
Consent, or to maintain the “difference” at the Costk of
Frustration, Insecurikty and Confusion

7. For several years, political, legal and cultural relations between the
two countries have been clouded by the problem of the Applicant’s namke.
That problem, like many others, surfaced in 1991, and ever since greece

has been asking its northern neighbour not to monopolize, in its capacity
as a State, the name of macedonia and to adopt a name which distin ‑
guishes it from greek macedonia. I could mention at least five cases in
Northern Europe, Central Europe, the Balkans, Africa and the pacific in

which, on the protests of neighbouring States or of their own accord, nekw
States adopted names or symbols designed to differentiate them from
their neighbours. Since 1995, negotiations aimed at settling “the diffker ‑
ence” over the name have been conducted between the parties under the

auspices of the United Nations Secretary‑general and with the mediation

6
European Court of Justice, case C‑120/94, paras. 61‑73 in particular.

7memorial of the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia, Vol. I, para. 2.13.
8Ibid., para. 2.13, footnote 37.

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la médiation de matthew Nimetz. Cependant, la confrontation se poursuit

et présente plusieurs aspects inquiétants pour la stabilité desk relations dans
les Balkans, aspects qui dépassent le cadre des représentations offikcielles, de
la presse, ou des autres institutions publiques et privées des deux pkays.
8. Au cours de la procédure écrite, le demandeur a soutenu que, dans
l’accord intérimaire, « aucune des parties n’[était] désignée par son nom

constitutionnel et que l’appellation provisoire d’« ex‑République yougoslave
de macédoine» qui figure dans la résolution 817 n’[était] pas non plus
employée pour se référer au demandeur» . Il s’agit là d’une lecture erronée,
entérinée par la Cour, puisque les articles 5 et 11 de l’accord intérimaire
transforment et renforcent juridiquement les résolutions 817 et 845 du

Conseil de sécurité, dont la première prône clairement l’kappellation provi ‑
soire ERYm «à toutes fins utiles à l’Organisation » («for all purposes within
the organization») (ajoutons que le texte français traduit le mot « within»
par «à», tandis qu’à mon sens la traduction exacte est «au sein de»). Si le
demandeur n’était pas, lui aussi, tenu d’employer le nom proviskoire, alors la

référence dans l’accord intérimaire à la résolution 845 aurait suffi. Le para ‑
graphe 2 de la résolution 817 indique, quant à lui, que, jusqu’au règlement
d’un commun accord de la divergence sur le nom, le demandeur «sera dési ‑
gné … à toutes fins utiles » sous le nom d’ex‑République yougoslave de
macédoine. Or, le demandeur, en utilisant à l’égard et au seikn des organisa ‑

tions internationales le nom qui figure dans sa Constitution (l« a République
de macédoine»), outre qu’il crée la confusion parmi les membres de la com ‑
munauté internationale, manque doublement à son obligation. En prekmier
lieu, il s’arroge unilatéralement une exception à la formule «sk era désigné …
à toutes fins utiles », alors qu’il ne ressort nullement des résolutions 817

et 845 qu’il peut bénéficier de pareille exception ; l’appellation lie tout le
monde sans exception dans l’organisation internationale. Les deux réksolu ‑
tions en question (et l’accord) emploient le mot «nom» au singulier et non
pas au pluriel, en toute logique, puisqu’il s’agit de la manifestaktion de la
volonté des Nations Unies d’œuvrer en faveur de la normalisation des rela ‑

tions entre deux Etats membres de la communauté internationale. En ouktre,
l’expression «à toutes fins utiles» renforce l’effet utile de la négociation, qui
devra aboutir à un nom (et un seul) qui ne sera plus provisoire.
9. pour ce qui est de la « divergence sur le nom», le demandeur adopte,
selon le cas, et parfois simultanément, au moins deux positions diffké ‑

rentes: il prétend tantôt que la résolution 817 vise la négociation sur le
nom et que, partant, le nom provisoire ne concerne pas le demandeur,
tantôt que la négociation porte sur le nom provisoire et que, par consé ‑
quent, il n’est pas question de son nom constitutionnel. Le demandeurk
prétend ainsi que la négociation bilatérale menée sous les akuspices des

Nations Unies, qui dure depuis plus de seize ans, consiste simplement à
rechercher un accord sur le nom qui remplacera celui, provisoire,
d’ERYm par une autre désignation destinée à n’être utilisée kque par le
défendeur, tandis que le demandeur lui‑même continuera de s’appkeler et

9
mémoire de l’ex‑République yougoslave de macédoine, vol. I, par. 2.35.

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of matthew Nimetz. However, the dispute remains unresolved and raises
a number of concerns for the stability of relations in the Balkans, whickh
extend beyond the scope of the two countries’ official representatiokns,
press or other public and private institutions.
8. during the written stage of the proceedings, the Applicant con ‑

tended that in the Interim Accord “[n]either party is referred to by its
constitutional name nor is the provisional reference of ‘the former Ykugo ‑
slav Republic of macedonia’, as set out in resolution 817, used to refer to
the Applicant” 9. That reading, upheld by the Court, is erroneous,
because Articles 5 and 11 of the Interim Accord transpose and legally

reinforce Security Council resolutions 817 and 845, the first of which
clearly advocates the use of the provisional reference FYROm “for all
purposes within the organization”. If the Applicant was itself not alkso
required to use the provisional name, then it would have been sufficient to

refer to resolution 845 in the Interim Accord. For its part, paragraph 2 of
resolution 817 states that, pending the settlement by common consent of
the difference over the name, the Applicant is to be “referred to fkor all
purposes” as the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia. However, by
using the name which appears in its Constitution (“the Republic of mace ‑

donia”) in its dealings with and within international organizations,k as
well as creating confusion among the members of the international com ‑
munity, the Applicant is failing to comply with its obligation in two wakys.
Firstly, it is unilaterally claiming for itself an exception to the formkula

“[is to be] referred to for all purposes”, even though there is nothing ink
resolutions 817 and 845 to allow it such an exception; use of the reference
name is binding for all, without exception, within the international orgka ‑
nization. The two resolutions in question (and the Accord) use the workd
“name” in the singular, and not in the plural, which makes perfect sense,

since they reflect the willingness of the United Nations to strive for thke
normalization of relations between two member States of the interna ‑
tional community. Furthermore, the phrase “for all purposes” emphak ‑
sizes the object of the negotiations, which are intended to achieve
agreement on one name (and one name only), which will no longer be

provisional.
9. With respect to the “difference over the name”, the Applicant adkopts —
according to the circumstances and sometimes simultaneously — at least
two different positions: it claims sometimes that resolution 817 refers to the

negotiations over the name and that, accordingly, the provisional name dkoes
not concern it, and sometimes that the negotiations concern the provisioknal
name and that, therefore, its constitutional name is not at issue. The Akppli ‑
cant thus contends that the purpose of the bilateral negotiations conduckted
under the auspices of the United Nations, which have been ongoing for

more than 16 years, is simply to reach agreement on the name which will
replace the provisional appellation of FYROm, and which is intended solely
for use by the Respondent, while the Applicant, for its part, will contiknue to

9
memorial of the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia, Vol. I, para. 2.35.

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de se faire appeler « la macédoine». C’est ce qu’il nomme la « double for‑
mule» (« dual formula »), interprétation qui ne tient pas compte de ses
obligations conventionnelles. Il suffit de constater que les deux parties
sont déjà convenues, sans intermédiaire et par les deux mémokrandums
conclus entre elles en 1995, d’utiliser chacune dans l’intervalle le nom

qu’elles préfèrent. A quoi servirait alors la longue négociaktion menée sous
les auspices des Nations Unies, dès lors que les parties se sont entendues
provisoirement, sans intermédiaire, sur leurs relations mutuelles ?

10. En ce qui concerne l’emploi par le demandeur de son nom consti ‑

tutionnel, tous les témoins de l’activité des organisations internationales
ces vingt dernières années doivent se rappeler les innombrables pokints
d’ordre soulevés par les représentants de la grèce contre cette appellation
ainsi que les réponses du demandeur. Tout en manifestant oralement etk

par écrit son opposition, la grèce a tenu compte du fait que cette confron ‑
tation ne pouvait se poursuivre ad nauseam. par ses objections réitérées,
elle a néanmoins amplement consolidé sa position face au glissemenkt de la
position du demandeur vers une « double formule » (« dual formula »),
nullement envisagée par l’accord intérimaire. pour le bon fonctionnement

des organisations et des organes internationaux, point n’est besoin pkour
ceux qui objectent de réagir en tout temps et en toute occasion.
11. En ce qui concerne la négociation sur le nom, les écritures et plakidoi ‑
ries en l’espèce révèlent devant la Cour que la position de kla grèce s’est

substantiellement modifiée au fil des ans. Initialement, sa politkique consis ‑
tait à s’opposer à toute désignation du demandeur qui contiendrait le terme
«macédoine». par la suite, et en tous cas avant la conférence de Bucarest
du 3 avril 2008, la grèce a changé sa position et fait connaître qu’elle accep ‑
terait un nom contenant le terme de «macédoine », à condition qu’il fût

assorti d’un qualificatif, et que ce nom devrait être applicablek erga omnes.
En revanche, le demandeur, par la voix de son président et de son prekmier
ministre, déclarait inacceptable l’emploi sur le plan internationakl d’un nom
différent du nom constitutionnel (voir infraparagraphes 32‑33). Cette posi ‑
tion est restée inchangée pendant seize années, celle des gouvekrnements s‑uc

cessifs du demandeur. Il n’est pas dans mes intentions d’examiner kl’impact
que peut avoir à long terme l’usurpation d’un nom.

II. L’objet et le but de l’kaccord intérimaire

12. parmi les diverses interprétations données dans la jurisprudence etk
la doctrine des notions d’objet et de but d’un traité, on retiekndra comme
hypothèse de travail que l’objet est un élément stable tandiks que le but
10
présente un caractère évolutif . d’après la convention de Vienne, l’objet

10Voir m. K. Yasseen, « L’interprétation des traités d’après la convention de Vieknne
sur le droit des traités », Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye ▯

(RCADI), t. 151 (1976‑III), p. 3 et suiv., p. 55.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 166 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 725

refer to itself and to have itself referred to, as “macedonia”. This is what the
Applicant calls the “dual formula”, an interpretation which fails kto take
account of its treaty obligations. It is sufficient to note that the twko parties
have already agreed, without any intermediary and by means of the two
memoranda concluded between them in 1995, that they will each use, in thke

interim, the name of their preference. Therefore, what would be the poinkt of
the lengthy negotiations under the auspices of the United Nations if thek par ‑
ties have already reached a temporary understanding, without an intermed ‑ ki
ary, in respect of their mutual relations?
10. As regards the Applicant’s use of its constitutional name, anyone

who has been witness to the activities of international organizations over
the past 20 years will no doubt recall the countless points of order raised
by greek representatives against the use of that name, as well as the
Applicant’s responses. While voicing its opposition orally and in wrikting,

greece took account of the fact that that conflict could not be pursued
ad nauseum. Through its repeated objections, it nevertheless made its
position perfectly clear in the face of the Applicant’s shift towardsk a “dual
formula” not contemplated by the Interim Accord. For international
organs and organizations to function smoothly, it is not necessary for

those with objections to voice those objections at all times and on everky
occasion.
11. As regards the negotiations over the name, the written and oral pro ‑
ceedings in this case demonstrate to the Court that greece’s position has

changed substantially over the years. Initially, greece’s policy consisted of
objecting to any name of the Applicant which contained the term “macedo ‑
nia”. Subsequently, and in any event before the Bucharest Conference kof
3 April 2008, greece altered its position and made known that it would
accept a name that included the term “macedonia” — on the condition that

it was accompanied by a qualifier and that that name should be used
erga omnes. The Applicant, on the other hand — speaking through its pres ‑
ident or prime minister — declared that the international use of a name
which differed from its constitutional name was unacceptable (see parkas. 32‑
33 infra). That position has remained— unchanged for 16years— the posi ‑

tion of the Applicant’s successive governments. I do not propose to ekxamine
the potential long‑term effects of the usurpation of a name.

II. The Object and purpose of the Interim Akccord

12. From the various interpretations given in both jurisprudence and
doctrine to the notions of the object and the purpose of a treaty, it cakn be
taken as a working hypothesis that the object is stable whereas the pur ‑
10
pose is evolving . According to the Vienna Convention, the object and

10Cf. m. K. Yasseen, “L’interprétation des traités d’après la convkention de Vienne
sur le droit des traités”, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law,

Vol. 151‑III, 1976, p. 3 et seq., p. 55.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 167 20/06/13 08:42 726 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

et le but du traité sont considérés dans leur ensemble et non pkar référence
à telle ou telle disposition particulière de l’instrument en qukestion. dans

un second temps, chaque disposition particulière est susceptible d’être
appréciée suivant l’interprétation qui lui donne un effet kutile. pour ce qui
est de l’accord intérimaire, son objet est de normaliser les relatkions entre

les parties et son but, l’utilisation par celles‑ci des divers moyens qui y
sont proposés (dont la négociation effective est l’outil park excellence) pour
aboutir à une solution durable de la « divergence» qui les oppose, et non
de «trouver un moyen pour rendre possible une coopération pragmatique
11
au double plan bilatéral et multilatéral, à titre provisoire » .
13. Il est généralement reconnu que l’attribution d’une qualifikcation à
un traité n’a plus aujourd’hui de caractère dogmatique aux fins de son
interprétation et de son application 12. La notion d’accord synallagma ‑
13
tique est toutefois mentionnée dans l’interprétation d’un grand nkombre
de traités bilatéraux, parce qu’elle se retrouve dans tous les systèmes juri ‑
diques internes et permet de mieux cerner les droits et obligations des

deux Etats dans leurs relations contractuelles. de nos jours, le fait de
qualifier certains accords de synallagmatiques sert surtout à les dkistinguer
de certains traités multilatéraux dits « normatifs» ou « intégraux», dont
les méthodes d’interprétation et d’application sont en pleinke évolution.

14. Au cœur de tout accord synallagmatique se trouve la réciprocité,
une notion fondamentale dans les relations internationales. En effet, kla
réciprocité joue un rôle à la fois constructif et stabilisatkeur ; elle est liée au
degré d’organisation de la communauté internationale. Elle se tkraduit par

un traitement juridique équivalent ou identique. par ailleurs, il n’est pas
nécessaire pour son application que le traité comprenne une clausek spéci ‑
fique à cet effet : la notion opère même en dehors du traité pour le renfor ‑

cer. C’est pourquoi est établie la distinction entre réciprocitké formelle, qui
est spécifiquement juridique, et réciprocité réelle, deux knotions qui, d’ail ‑
leurs, ne s’excluent pas. Selon moi, un traité synallagmatique ne kreflétant
pas la réciprocité pourrait être considéré comme un traitké inégal. Enfin, il

serait scientifiquement erroné de considérer qu’un traité ksynallagmatique
ne peut contenir des dispositions que la doctrine et la jurisprudence quali ‑
fient de « normatives» ou d’« intégrales»; c’est la construction du traité
dans son ensemble et non le fait de procéder par coupures artificieklles qui

permet d’en apprécier le caractère essentiel. A cet égard, jke rappellerai que
le rapporteur spécial de la CdI sur le droit des traités distinguait entre
obligations «supposant l’octroi réciproque de concessions», d’une part, et

obligations nécessitant une exécution « intégrale», d’autre part, et ce,
dans tous les traités, bilatéraux ou multilatéraux. même dans les traités

11Les italiques sont de moi. Voir réplique de l’ex‑République yougoslave de macé‑
doine, par. 4.63.
12
13A/CN.4/L.682, p. 338.
m. Virally, dans « Le princpe de réciprocité dans le droit international conte‑po
rain », Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, t. 122 (1967‑III),
écrit que «la réciprocité exprime l’idée d’un retour, d’un lien dke ce qui est donné de part et
d’autre» (p. 100).

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5 CIJ1026.indb 168 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 726

purpose of the treaty are considered as a whole and not in reference to kthe
individual provisions of the instrument in question. After that, each inkdi‑

vidual provision may be considered by applying the interpretation which k
gives it a useful effect. The object of the Interim Accord is to normaklize
the relations between the parties and its purpose is the use by those par ‑
ties of the various means it offers (most notably, effective negotikations) to

reach a lasting solution to the “difference” between them, and not to “find
a way to allow for pragmatic co‑operation bilaterally and multilaterally
on an interim basis” 11.

13. It is generally recognized that a treaty is no longer characterized in 12
a rigid fashion for the purposes of its interpretation and application .
The notion of synallagmatic agreement 13is, however, referred to in the
interpretation of a great number of bilateral treaties, because it can be

found in every national legal system and serves to clarify the rights ankd
obligations of both States in their contractual relations. Nowadays,
agreements are characterized as synallagmatic primarily in order to distkin‑
guish them from certain so‑called “normative” or “integral” kmultilateral

treaties, for which the methods of interpretation and implementation arek
still evolving.
14. At the heart of any synallagmatic agreement is reciprocity, a funda ‑
mental notion in international relations. In effect, reciprocity playsk both a

constructive and stabilizing role; it is linked to the degree of organizkation
within the international community. It is reflected in equivalent or identi ‑
cal treatment in law. Further, a treaty does not have to include a specikfic

clause to that effect for reciprocity to apply: it operates even outsikde the
framework of the treaty in order to strengthen it. That is why there is ka
distinction between formal reciprocity, which is a specific legal provkision,
and actual reciprocity, two notions which, furthermore, are not mutuallyk

exclusive. In my opinion, a synallagmatic treaty which does not reflect
reciprocity could be considered as unequal. Finally, it would be wrong tko
conclude that a synallagmatic treaty cannot contain provisions which
doctrine and jurisprudence call “normative” or “integral”; ikt is the con ‑

struction of the treaty as a whole and not by artificial sections which
enables its essential nature to be determined. In that connection, I woukld
point out that the ILC’s Special Rapporteur on the Law of Treaties diks ‑
tinguished between “reciprocal” or “concessionary” and “ikntegral” obli‑

gations in all treaties, bilateral and multilateral. Even in multilaterakl
treaties, reciprocal obligations are those which “provid[e] for a mutkual
interchange of benefits between the parties, with rights and obligatiokns

11
See the Reply of the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia, para. 4.63; emphasis
add12.
13 A/CN.4/L.682, p. 338.
In “Le principe de réciprocité dans le droit international contkemporain”, Collected
Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 122, 1967‑III, Virally writes that
“reciprocity expresses the idea of an exchange, of a link between thakt which is given on
either side”, p. 100.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 169 20/06/13 08:42 727 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

multilatéraux, les obligations à caractère réciproque sont ckelles qui «pré‑
voient un échange mutuel de prestations ainsi que des droits et obligka ‑

tions pour chaque partie à l’égard de chacune des autres partieks prises
individuellement»; à titre d’exemple, le rapporteur mentionnait la conven ‑
tion de Vienne de 1961 sur les relations diplomatiques . 14
15. dans le contexte des droits et obligations conventionnelles, on

évoque souvent (et le demandeur n’y fait pas exception) la rèkgle pacta sunt
servanda. Effectivement, tout le monde s’accorde à affirmer qu’il s’kagit là
d’une règle fondamentale du droit des traités et, comme milan Bartoš
l’expliquait devant la Commission du droit international, « la règle pacta
15
sunt servanda est liée à la règle dot ut res » .
16. L’accord intérimaire est synallagmatique au sens habituellement
attribué à cette catégorie de traités, ce qui signifie quek ses dispositions
sont étroitement liées les unes aux autres et que les droits et obkligations

des deux parties sont juridiquement liés. Il est en effet difficile de voir kquel
avantage le défendeur retirait de l’accord intérimaire autre quke la norma ‑
lisation de ses relations avec son voisin du Nord par l’acceptation, kd’un
commun accord, d’un nom qui distinguerait l’un de l’autre. dès lors, la

Cour devrait, d’une part, œuvrer pour rendre réalisables l’okbjet et le but de
l’accord intérimaire en mettant l’accent sur la nécessiték d’une négociation
effective menée de bonne foi et, d’autre part, veiller à ne pkas nuire direc ‑
tement ou indirectement à cette négociation.

III. La Cour n’a pas compéteknce pour régler ce difkférend

17. Le paragraphe 2 de l’article 21 exclut de la compétence de la Cour
«la divergence visée au paragraphe 1 de l’article 5 ». Cette expression ne
renvoie pas seulement au fait que la Cour n’a pas compétence pour kdéter ‑

miner le nom du demandeur, ce qui est l’évidence même ; elle va plus loin
et vise « la divergence ». Cette « divergence», omniprésente dans les écri ‑
tures et plaidoiries, est connue de tous.
18. Il s’ensuit que le paragraphe 2 de l’article 21 exclut de la compétence

de la Cour non seulement la question de l’attribution d’un nom au kdeman ‑
deur (ce qui est l’évidence même) mais aussi, selon les termeks qui y sont
employés, «la divergence visée au paragraphe 1 de l’article 5», c’est‑à‑dire
l’intervention de la Cour sur toute question qui, selon le demandeur

lui‑même, touche « directement ou indirectement » la question du nom.
J’ajouterai que l’exclusion énoncée à l’article 21 est aussi liée à l’article 22,
qui renvoie aux articles 8 et 10 du traité de l’OTAN 1, la Cour n’étant pas
compétente pour interpréter cet instrument. La Cour, en se déclarant

incompétente, aurait contribué à faire en sorte que les négokciations menées

14
Voir gerald Fitzmaurice, Third Report on the Law of Treaties, Nations Unies,
doc. A/CN.4/115, YBILC, vol. II, p. 27.
15 YBILC, 1963, vol. I, p. 124.
16Voir infra paragraphes 37 et 61.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 170 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 727

for each involving specific treatment at the hands of and towards eachk the
others individually”; by way of an example, the Rapporteur cited the k
14
1961 Vienna Convention on diplomatic Relations .

15. In the context of treaty rights and obligations, the pacta sunt ser ‑

vanda rule is often invoked (and the Applicant is no exception in that
respect). In effect, it is well established that that rule is a fundakmental
principle of the law of treaties and, as milan Bartoš explained before the
International Law Commission, “the rule pacta sunt servanda is linked to
15
the rule do ut des” .
16. The Interim Accord is synallagmatic in the sense usually attributed
to that category of treaties, meaning that its provisions are closely
inter‑connected, and that the rights and obligations of the two parties are

legally dependent on one another. In fact, it is difficult to see what benefit
the Respondent would derive from the Interim Accord, other than the
regularization of its relations with its northern neighbour by joint acckep ‑
tance of a name which would distinguish one from the other. Therefore,

the Court should strive to make the object and purpose of the Interim
Accord realizable by emphasizing the need for effective negotiations ckon ‑
ducted in good faith, and take care not to prejudice those negotiations k
directly or indirectly.

III. The Court Lacks Jurisdictkion to Settle this dispute

17. paragraph 2 of Article 21 excludes from the Court’s jurisdiction
“the difference referred to in Article 5, paragraph 1”. That phrase does
not simply refer to the fact that the Court does not have jurisdiction tko

determine the name of the Applicant, which is self‑evident; it goes furtkher
and refers to “the difference”. We are all familiar with the “kdifference”,
ever present in the written and oral pleadings.
18. It follows that paragraph 2 of Article 21 excludes from the Court’s

jurisdiction not only the question of the attribution of a name for the k
Applicant (which is self‑evident), but also, by the terms used thereink, “the
difference referred to in Article 5, paragraph 1”; that is to say, it prohibits
the Court’s intervention on any question which, according to the Applki ‑

cant itself, relates “directly or indirectly” to the question of the name. I
would add that the exclusion under Article 21 is also linked to Article 22,
which reflects Articles 8 and 10 of the North Atlantic Treaty 16, the Court
having no jurisdiction to interpret that instrument. By finding that ikt

lacked jurisdiction, the Court would have helped to ensure that the negok ‑

14
See the Third Report on the Law of Treaties by gerald Fitzmaurice, UN doc. A/
CN.4/115, YBILC, Vol. II, p. 27.
15 YBILC, 1963, Vol. I, p. 124.
16 See paragraphs 37 and 61 infra.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 171 20/06/13 08:42 728 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

sous les auspices du Secrétaire général de l’Organisation deks Nations Unies
(paragraphe 3 de la résolution 845) aient un sens et aboutissent à l’adop ‑

tion, d’un commun accord, d’un nom pour le demandeur. Il est regrekttable
que la Cour ait adopté une position susceptible d’être interpréktée comme
contribuant à des « faits accomplis» ou risquant de provoquer une nou ‑
velle dégradation des négociations. pour parvenir à cette position, elle a
interprété restrictivement l’article 5; en ce qui concerne le premier volet de

l’article 11, elle a opté pour une interprétation extensive ; pour le second
volet de ce même article, elle est revenue à l’interprétatiokn restrictive.
19. Le demandeur a soutenu (en modifiant sa position) que l’interprék ‑
tation de la compétence de la Cour donnée par le défendeur aurait rendu
l’accord inapplicable en tout ou en partie. Sur ce point, il a préksenté une
argumentation qui rendrait inapplicables en tout ou en partie les disposki ‑

tions qui ne lui conviennent pas, à savoir le paragraphe 1 de l’article 5, le
second volet du paragraphe 1 de l’article 11, le paragraphe 2 de l’article 21
et l’article 22.
20. Soutenir (à des degrés variables) qu’une interprétation lakrge de la
«divergence» sur le nom aurait pour effet de restreindre ou d’amoindrir

la compétence de la Cour revient à neutraliser la portée du paragraphe 2
de l’article 21. mais, avant de réfléchir à l’incidence éventuelle de la queks ‑
tion du nom sur telle ou telle disposition de l’accord, le constat s’kimpose
que c’est précisément à cause de la façon dont le demandekur tente d’inter ‑
préter lui‑même ses propres obligations que la « divergence sur le nom » a

pris avec le temps une dimension qui ne pouvait être prévue au momkent
de la conclusion de l’accord en 1995.
21. pour apprécier le rôle de catalyseur que joue le nom dans la prék ‑
sente affaire et en ce qui concerne la compétence conférée àk la Cour
conformément au paragraphe 1 de l’article 21, point n’est besoin de
s’aventurer à rechercher quelles dispositions de l’accord seraikent suscep ‑

tibles d’être interprétées de manière extensive ou restrikctive. Le « nom» du
demandeur est indiqué par référence et de façon juridiquemenkt obliga ‑
toire dans deux dispositions fondamentales de l’accord, à savoir lkes
articles 5, paragraphe 1, et 11, paragraphe 1, chacun étant pris dans son
ensemble. C’est en appréciant la portée et l’application de ces deuxk dispo ‑

sitions depuis 1995 que l’on pourra se prononcer sur la compétence de la
Cour et sur la recevabilité de la requête.
22. Le défaut de compétence de la Cour est également corroboré par le
fait que la décision de l’OTAN du 3 avril 2008 est un acte de cette organi ‑
sation internationale, la grèce n’ayant pas à répondre des actes de l’organ‑i

sation dont elle est membre. Ce n’est d’ailleurs pas la premièrke fois qu’un
demandeur cherche à obtenir de la Cour qu’elle se prononce sur la klicéité de
certains actes d’une organisation internationale qui n’est pas parktie au
litige. Faire droit à l’argumentation du demandeur équivaut àk ce que, pour
la première fois, la plus haute juridiction internationale apprécike la licéité
d’un acte d’une organisation internationale tierce à travers unk Etat membre.

23. J’examinerai maintenant dans quelle mesure le fait pour la Cour de
s’être déclarée compétente influera sur la reprise effective de négociations

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5 CIJ1026.indb 172 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 728

tiations carried out under the auspices of the United Nations Secretary‑
general (paragraph 3 of resolution 845) were meaningful and resulted in

the adoption of a name for the Applicant by common consent. It
is regrettable that the Court assumed a position capable of being inter ‑
preted as contributing to “faits accomplis”, or which might lead tko
renewed deterioration of the negotiations. To arrive at that position, ikt
adopted a restrictive interpretation of Article 5, a broad interpretation of

the first clause of Article 11 and a restrictive interpretation of the second
clause of the same Article.
19. The Applicant (changing its position) contended that the Respon ‑
dent’s interpretation of the Court’s jurisdiction would render thek Accord
wholly or partially ineffective. On that point, it presented a reasonikng
which would render inapplicable in whole or in part the provisions it fiknds

inconvenient, namely paragraph 1 of Article 5, the second clause of para ‑
graph 1 of Article 11, paragraph 2 of Article 21 and Article 22.

20. Arguing (to varying degrees) that a broad interpretation of the
“difference” over the name would restrict or diminish the Court’ks jurisdic ‑

tion is tantamount to neutralizing the effect of Article 21, paragraph 2.
But before considering the possible impact of the name issue on individ ‑
ual provisions of the Accord, it should first be noted that it is precisely
because of the unilateral interpretation which the Applicant attempts tok
apply to its own obligations that the “difference over the name” has, over

time, taken on a dimension which could not have been envisaged when
the Accord was concluded in 1995.
21. In order to understand the catalysing role played by the name in
the present case, and its significance for the Court’s jurisdictionk under
Article 21, paragraph 1, it is not necessary to venture into an examination
of which of the Accord’s provisions are to be interpreted broadly andk

which restrictively. The “name” of the Applicant is indicated refekrentially
and in a legally binding manner in two of the Accord’s key provisionsk,
namely Article 5, paragraph 1, and Article 11, paragraph 1, each taken as
a whole. It is in considering the effect accorded to those two provisions
since 1995, and the manner in which they have been implemented, that

the Court’s jurisdiction and the admissibility of the Application cank be
determined.
22. The Court’s lack of jurisdiction is also corroborated by the fact
that NATO’s decision of 3 April 2008 is an act of that international orga ‑
nization, and greece does not have to answer for the acts of the organiza‑

tions of which it is a member. Furthermore, it is not the first time tkhat an
applicant is seeking to obtain from the Court a ruling on the lawfulnessk
of certain acts of an international organization which is not a party tok the
dispute. To uphold the Applicant’s thesis means that, for the firstk time,
the highest international court is ruling through a member State on the k
lawfulness of an act of a third‑party international organization.

23. I will now consider to what extent the Court’s finding that it has k
jurisdiction will influence the effective resumption of meaningful negoktia ‑

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5 CIJ1026.indb 173 20/06/13 08:42 729 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

ayant un sens pour que les parties aboutissent à un accord sur la question

du nom, qui représente un obstacle lourd de conséquences politiqueks et
culturelles non seulement pour l’admission de l’ERYm à telle ou telle
organisation internationale, mais aussi pour les relations bilatérales. La
Cour, en faisant droit à la thèse du demandeur et en se déclaraknt compé‑
tente, s’est engagée dans le domaine complexe des relations politiques et

culturelles entre les parties et entre celles‑ci et l’organisation internatio ‑
nale en cause. de surcroît, en décidant que les violations continues de
l’accord intérimaire par le demandeur au sein et en dehors des organisa ‑
tions internationales n’ont pas d’incidence décisive quant à l’application
de l’accord, l’arrêt donne à penser que l’interprétatikon que donne lui‑même

le demandeur est sans rapport avec la « divergence sur le nom », diver ‑
gence pourtant exclue de la compétence de la Cour en vertu de l’arkticle 21.
plutôt que de formuler des considérants répétitifs qui risqueknt d’empiéter
sur la négociation, la Cour aurait dû se contenter de l’appel qku’elle for ‑
mule si clairement dans le paragraphe 166 du présent arrêt. Rappelons les

termes prudents employés par la Cour permanente de Justice internatiok ‑
nale: « le règlement judiciaire des conflits internationaux … n’est qu’kun
succédané au règlement direct et amiable de ces conflits entre les parties
… dès lors, il appartient à la Cour de faciliter, dans toute lak mesure com ‑
patible avec son Statut, pareil règlement direct et amiable » (affaire

des Zones franches de la Haute‑Savoie et du Pays de Gex, ordonnance du
19 août 1929, C.P.J.I. série A n 22, p. 13).
24. Une lecture composite de l’accord aurait permis de déceler dans lek
texte la nécessité de tenir compte des éléments historiques ket culturels qui
pèsent sur l’affaire et de se distancier des réactions non sekulement poli ‑

tiques, mais aussi psychologiques populaires que l’arrêt susciterakit de part
et d’autre. En disant que le demandeur peut employer son nom constituk ‑
tionnel au sein des organisations internationales, la Cour va au‑delàk de la
compétence que lui attribue l’article 21 de l’accord.

IV. L’article 5 et l’obligation de nékgocier de bonne foi

25. La Cour réduit à sa plus simple expression l’interprétation kde la
portée de l’article 5, paragraphe 1, de l’accord intérimaire. Cette disposi ‑

tion prévoit que
«[l]es parties conviennent de poursuivre les négociations sous les aus‑

pices du Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies,
conformément à la résolution 845 (1993) du Conseil de sécurité, en
vue de parvenir à régler le différend mentionné dans cette résolution
et dans la résolution 817 (1993) du Conseil ».

26. dans les deux résolutions susmentionnées, le Conseil de sécurité
prie instamment les parties de continuer de coopérer afin d’arriver à un
règlement rapide «de la divergence qui existe entre elles» (résolution 817),

«des questions qu’il leur reste à résoudre » (résolution 845). La différence

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5 CIJ1026.indb 174 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 729

tions aimed at achieving agreement between the parties on the issue of the
name, which represents an obstacle with significant political and cultkural

consequences not only to the FYROm’s admission to specific interna ‑
tional organizations, but also to bilateral relations. By upholding the k
Applicant’s claim and finding that it has jurisdiction, the Court hkas
involved itself in the intricacies of the parties’ political and cultural rela‑
tions with each other and with the international organization in questiokn.

Furthermore, in finding that the Applicant’s sustained violations okf the
Interim Accord within and outside of international organizations have
had no decisive effect on the implementation of the Accord, the Judgmeknt
implies that the way in which the Applicant interprets the Accord has nok
connection with “the difference over the name”, which is excludekd from
the Court’s jurisdiction under Article 21. Instead of formulating a repeti ‑

tive series of reasons which could undermine the negotiations, the Courtk
should have contented itself with the appeal set out so clearly in para ‑
graph 166 of the Judgment. Recalling the prudent terms employed by the
permanent Court of International Justice: “the judicial settlement of k
international disputes . . . is simply an alternative to the direct and friendly

settlement of such disputes between the parties; as consequently it is for
the Court to facilitate, so far as is compatible with its Statute, such kdirect
and friendly settlement” (case concerning the Free Zones of Upper Savoy
and the District of Gex, Order of 19 August 1929, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 22, p. 13).

24. A composite reading of the Accord would have enabled the Court
to discern in the text the need to take account of the historical and cukl ‑
tural elements which loom large over the case and to distance itself frokm
the reactions, both political and on the popular psychological level, whkich
are liable to be aroused on either side by the Judgment. In finding thkat the
Applicant may use its constitutional name within international organiza ‑

tions, the Court exceeds its jurisdiction under Article 21 of the Accord.

IV. Article 5 and the Obligation to Nkegotiate in good Faith

25. The Court reduces the interpretation of the scope of Article 5,
paragraph 1, of the Interim Accord to its simplest form. That provision
stipulates that:

“[t]he parties agree to continue negotiations under the auspices of the
Secretary‑general of the United Nations pursuant to Security
Council resolution 845 (1993) with a view to reaching agreement on
the difference described in that resolution and in Security Council

resolution 817 (1993)”.
26. In the two above‑mentioned resolutions, the Security Council urges
the parties to continue to co‑operate in order to arrive at a speedy settle ‑

ment “of their difference” (resolution 817) and “of the remaining issues
between them” (resolution 845). The discrepancy in the wording of these

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5 CIJ1026.indb 175 20/06/13 08:42 730 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

dans le libellé de ces deux textes démontre qu’entre 1993 et 1995 les

«questions à résoudre » se sont multipliées.
27. Lorsqu’on aborde la question de la négociation internationale, on kest
souvent tenté d’établir une distinction entre obligations de moyens et obliga ‑

tions de résultat. pour ma part, je suis d’avis que cette dichotomie vaut pour
d’autres domaines des relations internationales. En ce qui concerne lka négo ‑
ciation internationale, en revanche, cette distinction appartient à dkes temps

révolus, lorsque la diplomatie était avant tout un exercice ou un art d’intel ‑
ligence, de tromperies, de subtilités sémantiques et d’atermoiekments. Or
nous vivons désormais dans une époque à la fois ouverte et brutale. Aussi,
la moindre des choses à attendre de deux Etats en litige, c’est quk’ils négo ‑

cient en vue d’aboutir à un résultat, surtout lorsque la paix, kla sécurité ou le
bon voisinage sont en cause. Telle est la portée de l’expression, dorénavant
classique, «négociation ayant un sens». Il existe, certes, différentes concep ‑

tions de ce que recouvre l’expression «négociation ayant un sens» selon le
locus classicus de la Cour dans l’affaire du Plateau continental de la mer du
Nord (Republique fédérale d’Allemagne/Danemark ; Republique fédérale d’Al ‑

lemagne/Pays‑Bas)(arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 46‑47, par. 85), mais tout
le monde s’accorde à dire que « [l]’obligation en question semble être celle,
pour les Etats, de se comporter de telle sorte que leurs négociationsk aient un

sens; il n’existe pas de véritable négociation (de bonne foi) si kchaque p17tie,
ou l’une d’elles, campe sur sa position et refuse tout compromis».
28. Le principe de bonne foi, invoqué à plusieurs reprises par les par ‑
ties, sur les vertus duquel la Cour ne s’attarde pas dans l’arrêkt, est un
18
principe normatif et général du droit international , une institution juri‑
dique requérant l’harmonie entre la volonté exprimée et la vkolonté réelle,
que la Cour n’a cessé de confirmer. La doctrine et la pratique (ky compris

au cours de l’élaboration de la résolution 2625 (XXV) sur « les relations
amicales») ont fermement souligné l’aspect moral de la bonne foi, et lka
jurisprudence arbitrale lui a récemment encore reconnu un « rôle fonda ‑

mental et [un] caractère dominant … dans l’interprétation de l’ensemble
du droit international et non seulement dans l’interprétation des trai ‑
tés » . dans le contexte du droit des traités, la bonne foi opère à troiks
niveaux: d’abord dans la négociation de l’accord, ensuite dans son intker ‑
20
prétation et enfin dans son application . Si l’accord prévoit des négocia ‑

17g. White, « The principle of good Faith », dans m. B. Akehurst, V. Lowe et
C. Warbrick, The United Nations and the Principles of International Law, Londres/New
York, Routledge, 1994, p. 233.
18
m. Virally, «Review Essay: good Faith in International Law», American Journal of
Int19national Law (AJIL), vol. 77, 1983, p. 130‑132.
Affaire concernant l’apurement des comptes entre le Royaume des pays‑Bas et la
République française en application du protocole du 25 septembre 1991 additionnel à
la convention relative à la protection du Rhin contre la pollution pakr les chlorures du
3 décembre 1976, sentence arbitrale du 12 mars 2004, Recueil des sentences arbitrales
(RSA), vol. XXV, p. 267, par. 65‑66.
20Rapport du groupe spécial, Etats‑Unis — Maintien de la suspension d’obligations
dans le différend CE — Hormones, WT/dS320/R, adopté le 14 novembre 2008, tel que
modifié par le rapport de l’organe d’appel, WT/dS320/AB/R, par. 7.313 ; Rapport du

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5 CIJ1026.indb 176 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 730

two texts demonstrates that, between 1993 and 1995, the “issues to bek

resolved” multiplied.
27. When addressing the question of international negotiations, it is
often tempting to make a distinction between obligations of means and

obligations of result. In my opinion, that distinction is valid in otherk areas
of international relations. In respect of international negotiations, how ‑
ever, it belongs to a time past, when diplomacy was first and foremostk an

exercise in, or art of, intelligence, deceit, semantic subtlety and prevkarica ‑
tion. Nowadays, however, we live in an era of openness and candour.
Thus, at a minimum, two States to a dispute are expected to negotiate
with a view to reaching a settlement, especially when peace, security ankd

good neighbourliness are at stake. Such is the scope of the now classic k
phrase “meaningful negotiations”. According to the Court’s locus classi ‑
cus in the case concerning the North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal

Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/Nether ‑
lands) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969, pp. 46‑47, para. 85), there are
various notions as to what the phrase “meaningful negotiations” cokvers,

but all agree that “[t]he duty seems to consist in an obligation on States
so to conduct themselves that their negotiations are meaningful, and thekre
is no genuine (good faith) negotiation if each party, or either one, iknsists
17
on its position and refuses to compromise on any point” .

28. The principle of good faith, invoked by the parties on a number of
occasions, and on the virtues of which the Court does not dwell in the
18
Judgment, is a normative and general principle of international law , a
legal institution requiring harmony between the expressed intention and k
the true intention, as the Court has repeatedly confirmed. doctrine and

practice (including during the drafting of resolution 2625 (XXV) on
“friendly relations”) have clearly underlined the moral aspect ofk good
faith and, in arbitral jurisprudence, it has also recently been recognizked as

having a “fundamental role and [a] paramount character . . . in the inter ‑
pretation . . . of all international law and not just in the interpretation of
treaties” 19. In the context of treaty law, good faith operates on three lev ‑
els: first, in the negotiation of the agreement, second, in its interpkretation
20
and, finally, in its implementation . If the agreement makes provision for

17g. White, “The principle of good Faith”, in m. B. Akehurst, V. Lowe and
C. Warbrick, The United Nations and the Principles of International Law, London/New
York, Routledge, 1994, p. 233.
18
m. Virally, “Review Essay: good Faith in International Law”, American Journal of
Int19national Law, Vol. 77, 1983, pp. 130‑132.
Case concerning the audit of accounts between the Netherlands and Francek in appl‑i
cation of the protocol of 25 September 1991 Additional to the Convention for the protec ‑
tion of the Rhine from pollution by Chlorides of 3 december 1976, decision of 12 march 2004,
Reports of International Arbitral Awards (RIAA), Vol. XXV, p. 267, paras. 65‑66.

20 panel Report, United States — Continued Suspension of Obligations in the EC —
Hormones Dispute, WT/dS320/R, adopted 14 November 2008 (as modified by the
Report of the Appellate Body, WT/dS320/AB/R), para. 7.313; panel Report, Canada —

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5 CIJ1026.indb 177 20/06/13 08:42 731 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

tions en vue de régler des questions non résolues par l’accord,k la bonne
foi devient le catalyseur qui permet ce règlement. En outre, le concekpt de
«reasonableness» (caractère raisonnable) régira toute la vie d’un traité 2.

Ainsi, dans l’affaire Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros, la Cour précisait que « [l]e
principe de bonne foi oblige les parties à l’appliquer de façon raisonnable
et de telle sorte que son but puisse être atteint » (Projet Gabčíkovo‑

Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1997, p. 79,
par. 142). Enfin, la bonne foi protège les parties qui ont des attentesk légi ‑
times et font raisonnablement confiance aux apparences créées pakr le
22
comportement des autres parties au traité . Considérant que la théorie
de l’abus de droit est étroitement liée à la bonne foi 23, il s’ensuit que les
faits résultant d’un acte illicite ne produisent pas des effets klicites 24. A cet

égard, il a été précisé que « le fait de négocier autrement que de bonne foi
revient assurément à ne pas négocier du tout » 25et que « la bonne foi est
consubstantielle à l’idée de négociation » 2.

29. Toute négociation est donc fondée sur l’obligation incombant aukx
parties de la mener de bonne foi, bonne foi dont le demandeur ne cesse dke
se prévaloir. mais on a peine à déceler de la bonne foi dans son intransi ‑

geance à l’égard de la « double formule » (« dual formula »), question au
cœur du litige, intransigeance qui compromet la négociation.
30. L’article 5 établit un équilibre entre les droits et les obligations des

parties. d’emblée, son premier paragraphe va à l’essentiel, requérant la
négociation « en vue de parvenir à régler le différend (the difference, kla
divergence) — c’est‑à‑dire aboutir d’un commun accord à l’adoption d’kun

seul nom (« du nom de la seconde partie ») — d’abord sur ce que l’on
entend par « nom» et ensuite sur ses destinataires (visiblement erga
omnes). Il convient de noter que le paragraphe premier de l’article 5 men ‑

tionne d’abord la résolution 845 (1993) du Conseil de sécurité, qui met
l’accent sur la négociation (par. 2), puis la résolution 817 (1993).
31. Le second paragraphe de l’article 5 vient renforcer le premier, «sans

préjudice» de la divergence sur le nom, en prévoyant que les parties faci ‑
literont leurs relations notamment économiques et commerciales (rappe ‑

groupe spécial, Canada — Maintien de la suspension d’obligations dans le différend CE —
Hormones, WT/dS321/R, adopté le 14 novembre 2008, tel que modifié par le rapport de

l’o21ane d’appel, WT/dS321/AB/R, par. 7.313.
Voer sir R. Jennings et sir A. Watts (dir. publ.), Oppenheim’s International Law,
vol. I, 9 éd., Londres, 1996, p. 1272 ; J. Salmon, « Le concept de raisonnable en droit
international public »,Mélanges offerts à Paul Reuter, paris, pedone, 1981, p. 447 et suiv.
22 m. Virally, op. cit. supra note 18, p. 133.
23 Voir article 300 de la convention des Nations Unies du 10 décembre 1982 sur le droit
de la mer.
24 Ex injuria non oritur jus, voir Projet Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie),

arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1997, p. 76. Voir de même les articles 61, paragraphe 2, et 62, para
gra25e 2, al. b), de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités.
H. Thirlway, « The Law and procedure of the International Court of Justice (1960‑
1989): general principles and Sources of the Law », British Yearbook of International Law
(BYIL), vol. 60 (1989), p. 25.
26 R. Kolb, La bonne foi en droit international public, paris, pUF, 2000, p. 588.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 178 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 731

negotiations aimed at settling issues which have not been resolved by thke
agreement, good faith becomes the catalyst which enables that settlementk
to be achieved. Further, the concept of reasonableness must govern
21
throughout the life of a treaty . Thus, in the Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros case,
the Court made it clear that “[t]he principle of good faith obliges tkhe par ‑
ties to apply it in a reasonable way and in such a manner that its purpose

can be realized” (Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 79, para. 142). Finally, good faith pro ‑
tects parties which have legitimate expectations and justifiably trustk in the
22
appearances created by the conduct of the other parties to the treaty .
Since the theory of the abuse of right is closely linked to good faith 23, it
follows that acts flowing from wrongful conduct can have no legitimate
24
effects . In this connection, it has been stated that: “to negotiate other ‑
wise than in good faith is surely not to negotiate at all” 25and that “good
faith is consubstantial with the idea of negotiations” 26.

29. All negotiations are thus founded on the parties’ obligation to
carry them out in good faith, a principle which the Applicant has con ‑
stantly invoked. But it is difficult to discern the good faith in its ikntransi‑

gence over the “dual formula” — the issue at the heart of the dispute
— which is compromising the negotiations.
30. Article 5 establishes a balance between the parties’ rights and obli ‑

gations. Right from the outset, its first paragraph addresses the cruxk of
the matter: the requirement of negotiations “with a view to reaching k
agreement on the difference” — in other words, the adoption of a name

(“the name of the party of the Second part”) by common consent —
firstly over what is meant by “name” and secondly over who should use it
(clearly erga omnes). It should be noted that Article 5, paragraph 1, refers

first to Security Council resolution 845 (1993), which places the emphasis
on negotiations (para. 2), and then to resolution 817 (1993).
31. The second paragraph of Article 5 reinforces the first, without pre‑

judice to the difference over the name, by stipulating that the parties must
facilitate their mutual relations, in particular their economic and com ‑

Continued Suspension of Obligations in the EC — Hormones Dispute, WT/dS321/R,
adopted 14 November 2008 (as modified by Report of the Appellate Body WT/dS321/

AB/21, para. 7.313.
Cf. Oppenheim’s International Law (Sir R. Jennings and Sir A. Watts, eds.), Vol. I,
9th edition, London, 1996, p. 1272 ; J. Salmon, “Le concept de raisonnable en droit inter ‑
national public”, Mélanges offerts à Paul Reuter, paris, pedone, 1981, p. 447 et seq.
22m. Virally, op. cit. supra note 18, p. 133.
23See Article 300 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of
10 december 1982.
24Ex injuria non oritur jus, cf. Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia),

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, p. 76. See also Article 61, paragraph 2, and Article 62,
par25raph 2 (b), of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.
H. Thirlway, “The Law and procedure of the International Court of Justice:
1960‑1989”, 60 British Yearbook of International Law (BYIL), 1989, p. 25.

26R. Kolb, La bonne foi en droit international public, paris, pUF, 2000, p. 588.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 179 20/06/13 08:42 732 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

lons que l’accord est intervenu à la suite de l’embargo appliquké par le
défendeur) et «prendront des dispositions pratiques» à cet égard. Chacun

sait qu’en application du second paragraphe, tout au long de la pékriode
qui a suivi la conclusion de l’accord intérimaire et jusqu’àk ce jour, la
grèce a considérablement contribué à l’économie de l’kERYm , et facilité

la libre circulation internationale de marchandises en provenance et en k
direction de ce pays.
32. J’aborderai maintenant les faits : dans son discours du 3 novembre
2008 devant le parlement du demandeur, le président de la République

Branko Crvenkovski a développé dans les termes ci‑après une politique k
qui pourrait être qualifiée de « feuille de route » pour tous les chefs d’Etat
et de gouvernement de ce pays :

«depuis quelques années, la République de macédoine poursuit une
stratégie qui, pour des raisons que l’on comprendra, n’a jamaisk été

publiquement exposée. Cette stratégie a pourtant été celle dke tous les
gouvernements et chefs d’Etat, quelle que soit leur orientation poli ‑
tique. Elle s’est révélée efficace et a produit des résukltats.
Quels en sont les principes fondamentaux ?

En premier lieu, nous avons participé activement aux négociations k
menées sous les auspices des Nations Unies, mais notre position — kà
savoir la double formule — est restée inchangée. Cela signifike que le

nom constitutionnel de République de macédoine est employé dans
le monde entier, dans toutes les organisations internationales et dans
nos relations bilatérales avec tous les pays à l’exception de la grèce,
avec laquelle une solution de compromis doit être trouvée.

En second lieu, il s’agit d’œuvrer parallèlement à l’akugmentation
constante du nombre de pays qui reconnaissent notre nom constitu ‑
tionnel et, partant, au renforcement de notre capital politique sur le
plan international, qui nous sera précieux dans les phases ultérieures
28
du processus. »

33. par ailleurs, le 2 novembre 2007, c’est‑à‑dire bien avant la décision
de l’OTAN du 3 avril 2008, Nikola gruevski, premier ministre du deman ‑
deur, a déclaré ce qui suit :

«Il est cependant un point que nous ne saurions accepter, à savoir
le fait de considérer que la République de macédoine devrait accep ‑

ter l’emploi d’un nom autre que son nom constitutionnel sur le plakn

27 Selon les statistiques de la Banque nationale de l’ERYm, les relations commerciales
avec la grèce sont substantielles : ainsi, en 2010, la grèce était le quatrième pays importa ‑
teur de biens en provenance de l’ERYm et occupait la troisième place dans les impo‑ta
tions de ce pays. Selon les mêmes sources, en matière d’investikssement direct (foreign direct

investment flows), la grèce s’est à maintes reprises trouvée parmi les cinq premierks pays
investisseurs en ERYm, occupant même la deuxième place durant les années 2004, 2005
et 2806. Voir http://www.nbrm.mk/.
déclaration par le président de la République Branko Crvenkovski au parlement de
l’ERYm, le 3 novembre 2008. Contre‑mémoire de la grèce, vol. II, partie B, annexe 104.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 180 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 732

mercial relations (bearing in mind that the Accord was signed followingk
the imposition of an embargo by the Respondent) and “shall take prackti‑

cal measures” to that end. It is well known that, in accordance with kpara ‑
graph 2, in the period which followed the conclusion of the Interim
Accord, greece made a significant contribution to the FYROm’s econ ‑
omy 27and facilitated the free movement of goods to and from that coun ‑

try.
32. I will now address the facts: in his speech of 3 November 2008
before the parliament of the Applicant, the president of the Republic,
Branko Crvenkovski, set out as follows a policy which could be described

as a “road map” for all heads of State and government of that country:

“in recent years the Republic of macedonia had a strategy which, due
to understandable reasons, was never publicly announced, but it was
a strategy that all governments and Chiefs of State have stuck to so far,

regardless of their political orientation. A strategy which was func ‑
tional and which gave results.
What were the basic principles of that concept?
First of all, in the negotiations under the UN auspices we partici ‑

pated actively, but our position was always the same and unchanged.
And that was the so‑called dual formula. That means the use of the
constitutional name of the Republic of macedonia for the entire
world, in all international organizations, and in bilateral relations

with all countries, with a compromise solution to be found only for
the bilateral relations with the Republic of greece.
Secondly, to work simultaneously on constant increase of the num ‑
ber of countries which recognize our constitutional name and thus

strengthen our proper political capital in the international field whikch
will be needed for the next phases of the process.” 28

33. moreover, on 2 November 2007, i.e., well before NATO’s decision
of 3 April 2008, Nikola gruevski, the Applicant’s prime minister, made

the following statement:
“However, there is one point, which we definitely cannot accept:

the one that says that the Republic of macedonia should accept a
name different from its constitutional one for international use. This

27
According to the statistics of the FYROm’s National Bank, commercial relations
with greece are substantial: thus, in 2010, greece was the fourth largest importer of goods
from the FYROm and the third largest exporter of goods to the FYROm. The same
statistics show that, in the area of foreign direct investment flows, greece has repeatedly
featured among the top five investors in the FYROm and in fact occupied the No. 2 spot
on that list in 2004, 2005 and 2006. See http://www.nbrm.mk/.

28Statement by president of the Republic Branko Crvenkovski to the FYROm’s
parliament on 3 November 2008. Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part B, Ann. 104.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 181 20/06/13 08:42 733 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

international. Cette disposition, qui figure dans le document 29, est
inacceptable pour la République de macédoine et nous ne pouvons
30
pas en discuter. »
Ces déclarations du premier ministre de l’ERYm ont un caractère poten ‑

tiellement dévastateur, que l’arrêt passe sous silence, et je rkappellerai
l’interprétation que la Cour a donnée dans une situation tout àk fait simila :ire

«Le dossier soumis à la Cour contient également des déclarationsk de
représentants d’Etats, parfois du plus haut niveau dans la hiérkarchie
politique. Certaines de ces déclarations ont été faites devant kdes organes

officiels de l’Etat ou d’une organisation régionale ou internaktionale et
figurent dans les comptes rendus officiels de ces institutions. d’autres,
prononcées lors de conférences de presse ou d’interviews, ont ékté rappor ‑
tées par la presse écrite locale ou internationale. La Cour considkère que

des déclarations de cette nature, émanant de personnalités poliktiques
officielles de haut rang, parfois même du rang le plus élevé, kpossèdent
une valeur probante particulière lorsqu’elles reconnaissent des fakits ou
des comportements défavorables à l’Etat que représente celuik qui les a

formulées. Elles s’analysent alors en une sorte d’aveu.» (Activités mili ‑
taires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua c.
Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 41, par. 64.)

Cette jurisprudence est claire. Elle s’applique indépendamment du k
moment où les déclarations sont faites (avant ou après tel ou ktel évé‑

nement), du fait que le défendeur aurait dû dénoncer la violatkion au pré ‑
alable, et de tout autre subterfuge qui la priverait de son caractèrek décisif.
Les déclarations du président de la République et du premier miknistre de
l’ERYm sont directement régies par cette jurisprudence de la Cour.

J’ajoute que l’arrêt omet de citer les déclarations en questkion, tandis qu’il
cite verbatim celles du premier ministre et du ministre des affaires étran ‑
gères de la grèce. Où est donc l’égalité des armes ?
34. Le défendeur a officiellement indiqué qu’il changeait sa positkion et

était disposé à accepter un nom du demandeur contenant le mot «kmacé ‑
doine» mais le distinguant de la macédoine grecque. Au regard de cette
importante concession, il est permis de s’interroger sur le respect pkar le
demandeur des conditions généralement reconnues pour la bonne

conduite de négociations « ayant un sens », et sur sa bonne foi dans un
processus qui se poursuit depuis seize ans sans aboutir.
35. deux exemples démontrent jusqu’où va le demandeur en se dési ‑

gnant lui‑même: ainsi, en assuma31 en 2007 la présidence de l’Assemblée
générale des Nations Unies et, en 2010, celle du comité des ministres du
Conseil de l’Europe 32, les représentants de l’ERYm, dans l’exercice de

29
Il s’agissait d’un projet soumis aux parties par matthew Nimetz, médiateur des
Nations Unies.
30 Contre‑mémoire de la grèce, vol. II, partie B, annexe 128.
31 Ibid., partie A, annexe 5.
32 duplique de la grèce, vol. II, annexe 50.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 182 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 733

provision of the document 29is unacceptable to the Republic of mac‑
edonia and we cannot discuss it.” 30

The Judgment remains silent on the potentially destructive character of k
those statements of the FYROm’s prime minister. I would recall the
interpretation given by the Court to a very similar situation:

“The material before the Court also includes statements by repre ‑
sentatives of States, sometimes at the highest political level. Some of k

these statements were made before official organs of the State or of
an international or regional organization, and appear in the official
records of those bodies. Others, made during press conferences or
interviews, were reported by the local or international press. The

Court takes the view that statements of this kind, emanating from
high‑ranking official political figures, sometimes indeed of the highkest
rank, are of particular probative value when they acknowledge facts

or conduct unfavourable to the State represented by the person who
made them. They may then be construed as a form of admission.”
(Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nica ‑
ragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1986, p. 41, para. 64.)

That jurisprudence is clear and applies independently of when the state ‑
ments are made (before or after such and such an event), of whether thke
Respondent should have denounced the violation beforehand, or of any
other pretext which would deprive it of its decisive character. The statke ‑

ments of the president of the Republic and the prime minister of the
FYROm are directly governed by that jurisprudence of the Court. I
would add that the Judgment fails to cite the statements in question,
although it does cite verbatim those of the prime minister and the minis ‑

ter for Foreign Affairs of greece. What happened to equality of arms?
34. The Respondent officially stated that it had altered its position and
was willing to accept a name for the Applicant which included the term

“macedonia”, but which differentiated it from greek macedonia. In view
of that substantial concession, it is permissible to question whether the
Applicant’s actions were in compliance with the generally recognized con ‑
ditions for the proper conduct of “meaningful” negotiations, and ikts good

faith in a process which has been ongoing for 16 years without success.
35. Two examples show how far the Applicant goes in the way it refers
to itself: when assuming the presidency of the United Nations general
31
Assembly in 2007 and that 32 the Committee of ministers of the
Council of Europe in 2010 , the FYROm’s representatives, in their

29
This refers to a draft submitted to the parties by matthew Nimetz, United Nations
med30tor.
31Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part B, Ann. 128.
32Ibid., part A, Ann. 5.
Rejoinder of greece, Vol. II, Ann. 50.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 183 20/06/13 08:42 734 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

leurs fonctions non pas de simple membre, mais d’organe de ces organisa‑

tions internationales, se sont eux‑mêmes nommés « République de
macédoine » ou « présidence macédonienne » 33. La grèce a évidemment
protesté — mais en vain — contre ces violations, qui ne présentent pas le

même caractère de gravité, de l’accord intérimaire et desk deux résolutions
du Conseil de sécurité.

V. Admission au sein desk organisations interknational:es

l’OTAN est par sa naturek même un cas particuliker

36. L’admission au sein des organisations internationales universelles

dépend des conditions générales et spéciales posées par lkes Etats fonda ‑
teurs dans le traité constitutif 34. Il est à noter que les organisations inter ‑
nationales ne sont jamais complètement ouvertes à tous les Etats 35et que,

à la conférence de Vienne sur le droit des traités (1968‑1969)k, une propo‑
sition tendant à donner « à tous les Etats le droit de participer aux traités
36
multilatéraux» a été rejetée . dans les organisations « fermées» ou
«régionales» (comme l’OTAN, l’Union européenne ou le Conseil de l’Eku ‑
rope), l’organe compétent peut aussi fixer ultérieurement deks conditions

supplémentaires à l’admission. Celle‑ci est liée à la posksibilité pour le can ‑
didat de contribuer à ce que la doctrine qualifie d’« essentialité ou [de]
37
fonctionnalité » . des facteurs politiques, relatifs aussi bien aux qualités
de l’Etat candidat qu’à ses rapports avec les Etats membres, enktrent égale ‑
ment en ligne de compte en matière d’admission 38, et il revient à chaque

Etat membre d’apprécier subjectivement si tous les critères reqkuis sont réu ‑
nis avant de donner son accord 39. La prise en considération de facteurs
politiques peut aussi s’ajouter aux conditions juridiques posées par le traité
40
constitutif de l’organisation , « le vote signifi[ant] en réalité que l’on
reconnaît ou non l’existence des conditions juridiquement imposékes et qu’on
41
est politiquement disposé ou non à admettre l’Etat candidat » . de plus,
dans son avis sur l’Admission (Conditions de l’admission d’un Etat comme
Membre des Nations Unies (article 4 de la Charte), avis consultatif, 1948,

C.I.J. Recueil 1947‑1948, p. 57),la Cour n’a pas dit que chaque Etat membre

33
34 Voir contre‑mémoire de la grèce, vol. II, partie A,eannexe 5.
I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, éd., Oxford University press,
2008, p. 79.
35 p. Sands et p. Klein, Bowett’s Law of International Institutions, 5 éd., Londres, Sweet
& maxwell, 2001, p. 534.
36 H. Waldock, RCADI, t. 106 (1962‑II), p. 81‑82. UN Secretariat Working Paper,
A.CN.4/245 (23 avril 1971), p. 131‑134.
37 e
H. Schermers et N. Blokker, International Institutienal Law, 3 éd., 1995, p. 64, citant
l’ouvrage classique d’Inis Claude Swords into Plowshares, 4 éd., 1971, p. 85‑86.
38 H. Schermers et N. Blokker, op. cit. supra note 37, p. 65.
39 p. Sands et p. Klein, op. cit. supra note 35, p. 538.
40 I. Brownlie, op. cit. supra note 34.
41 J. p. Cot et A. pellet (dir. publ.)La Charte des Nations Unies, paris/Bruxelles,

Economica, Bruylant, 1985, p. 172.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 184 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 734

capacity not simply as members, but as organs of those international orga ‑
nizations, referred to themselves as the “Republic of macedonia” and the
33
“macedonian Chairmanship” . greece of course protested against
those violations — which are of differing orders of gravity — of the

Interim Accord and of the two Security Council resolutions, but in vain.k

V. Admission to Internatkional Organizations: k
NATO Is by Its very Nature a kSpecial Case

36. Admission to global international organizations is dependent on
the general and special conditions imposed by the founding States in thek
34
constituent treaty . It should be noted that international organizations
are never completely open to all States 35 and that, at the Vienna Confer ‑
ence on the Law of Treaties (1968‑1969), a proposal that “every Stakte

should be entitled as of right to become a party to a . . . multilateral
treaty” 36 was rejected. In “closed” or “regional” organizations (likke

NATO or the Council of Europe), the competent organ can also later lay k
down additional conditions for admission. Admission is linked to the
candidate’s capacity to contribute to what doctrine terms “essentikality or
37
functionality” . political factors, relating as much to the qualities of the
candidate State as to its relations with the member States, also come inkto
play during the admissions process 38, and it is for each member State to

determine subjectively whether all the necessary criteria have been met k
before giving its assent 39. The consideration of political factors can also
be added to the legal conditions set forth by the organization’s consktitu ‑
40
ent treaty , “the vote signif[ying] in effect whether or not there is recogni‑
tion of the existence of the legally imposed conditions and whether therke
41
is political willingness to admit the candidate State” . moreover, in its
Opinion on Conditions of Admission (Conditions of Admission of a State to
Membership in the United Nations (Article 4 of the Charter), Advisory

Opinion, 1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947‑1948, p. 57), the Court did not find
that every member State had to explain the reasons behind its decision

33See Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part A, Ann. 5.
34I. Brownlie, Principles of Public International Law, 7th ed., Oxford University press,
2008, p. 79.
35p. Sands and p. Klein, Bowett’s Law of International Institutions, 5th ed., London,
Sweet & maxwell, 2001, p. 534.
36
H. Waldock, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 106,
1962‑II, pp. 81‑82; UN Secretariat Working Paper, A.CN.4/245 (23 April 1971), pp. 131‑134.
37H. Schermers and N. Blokker, International Institutional Law, 3rd ed., 1995, p. 64,
citing the classic work of Inis Claude, Swords into Plowshares, 4th ed., 1971, pp. 85‑86.
38H. Schermers and N. Blokker, op. cit. supra note 37, p. 65.
39p. Sands and p. Klein, op. cit. supra note 35, p. 538.
40I. Brownlie, op. cit. supra note 34.
41
J. p. Cot and A. pellet (eds.), La Charte des Nations Unies, paris/Brussels, Economica,
Bruylant, 1985, p. 172.

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devait exposer les motifs de sa décision (C.I.J. Recueil 1947‑1948, p. 61) . 42

Les organisations dites à vocation universelle n’étant pas entikèrement
«ouvertes», l’Etat candidat ne saurait a fortiori être admis « sans condi‑
tions» dans une organisation militaire de défense et de sécurité.k
37. A cet égard, le cas de l’OTAN est tout à fait représentatif : il s’agit

d’une alliance militaire qui, par définition, mène des opékrations militaires
de maintien de la paix et de la sécurité, et veille à assurer lka légitime
défense de ses membres en cas d’agression. pour l’admission d’un nou ‑
veau membre, les Etats membres, après avoir constaté que l’Etatk euro ‑

péen candidat est en mesure de favoriser le développement des principes
du traité et de contribuer à la sécurité de la région de l’Atlantique Norkd,
décident à l’unanimité de l’inviter à adhérer à kl’organisation (art. 10). Il
s’ensuit que les Etats membres ont tous, sans exception, le droit, vokire

l’obligation, d’apprécier si le candidat remplit les conditions requises pour
son adhésion à l’organisation. Si l’Etat membre dont les relkations avec
l’Etat candidat sont une source de préoccupation directe est empêché de
s’exprimer, comment les autres Etats membres seront‑ils informés dke

l’état réel de ces relations, pourtant fondamentales pour leur kdécision? Il
convient de rappeler que les règles bien connues de l’OTAN adoptékes par
les chefs d’Etat et de gouvernement lors du sommet de Washington
de 1999 subordonnent, et pour cause, l’adhésion des Etats balkaniquesk au

bon voisinage et au règlement des différends qui les opposent.
38. dès 1999, dans le cadre de l’élargissement de l’OTAN aux pays de
l’Europe centrale et orientale, les chefs d’Etat et de gouvernemenkt avaient
adressé un message clair à tout candidat à l’adhésion 4.
44
39. dans 45 cas d’espèce, et à plusieurs reprises, par exemple en 2006
et en 2007 — donc bien avant le 3 avril 2008 —, les organes de l’OTAN
avaient plus précisément indiqué au demandeur en employant une kfor ‑
mule similaire que,

«[d]ans les Balkans occidentaux, l’intégration euro‑atlantique, surk la

base de la solidarité et des valeurs démocratiques, demeure nécessaire
pour garantir la stabilité à long terme. Cela exige une coopéraktion
dans la région, des relations de bon voisinage ainsi que la recherchek de
solutions mutuellement acceptables pour les questions en suspens.»

40. Les appels en faveur « de solutions mutuellement acceptables pour
les questions en suspens » constituaient des avertissements d’ordre diplo ‑

matique, qui confirment que la décision de l’OTAN n’a pas surgi de nulle
part. pour donner à l’article 5 un sens raisonnable, il convient par consé ‑
quent, à tout le moins, de l’interpréter en le considérant dkans son contexte

(article 31 de la convention de Vienne).

42 Voir C. F. Amerasinghe, Principles of the International Law of International Organi ‑
zations, Cambridge University press, 1966, p. 109.
43 Voir contre‑mémoire de la grèce, vol. II, partie A, annexe 21 (political and Economic
Issues, par. 2 et 3). OTAN, plan d’action pour l’adhésion (mAp), http://www.nato.int/
docu/pr/1999/p99‑066f.htm.
44
45 OTAN, déclaration du sommet de Riga, 29 novembre 2006, par. 28.
Ibid., communiqué final du Conseil de l’Atlantique Nord, 7 décembre 2007, par. 14.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 186 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 735

(I.C.J. Reports 1947‑1948, p. 61) 4. Since even the so‑called “global”

organizations are not completely “open”, it follows a fortiori that a can ‑
didate State cannot be admitted to a military organization for defence
and security “unconditionally”.
37. In that respect, NATO is entirely typical: it is a military alliance

which, by definition, carries out peacekeeping and security operationsk
and ensures the legitimate defence of its members in case of attack. To k
admit a new member, the member States — once they have determined
whether the European candidate State is in a position to further the prikn‑

ciples of the Treaty and to contribute to the security of the North Atlakn‑
tic area — decide by unanimous agreement to invite that State to accede
to the Organization (Art. 10). It follows that all member States, without
exception, have the right — the obligation even — to decide whether the

candidate State meets the necessary conditions for its admission to the k
Organization. If the member State whose relations with the candidate
State are a source of direct concern is prevented from expressing its opin ‑
ion, how will the other member States be informed of the real state of

those relations, which are, nevertheless, fundamental to their decision? It
should be recalled that the well‑known rules of NATO, adopted by the
heads of State and government at the 1999 Washington Summit, subor ‑
dinate, and for good reason, the accession of Balkan States to good

neighbourliness and the settlement of the disputes between those States.k
38. Since 1999, in the context of NATO’s enlargement to include coun‑
tries from Central and Eastern Europe, the heads of State and govern ‑
ment have sent a clear message to all accession candidates 43.

39. With respec44to the present45ase, and on several occasions, for
example in 2006 and in 2007 — thus, well before 3 April 2008 —, the
organs of NATO more specifically indicated to the Applicant, by means
of an equally standard formula, that,

“[i]n the Western Balkans, Euro‑Atlantic integration, based on soli ‑

darity and democratic values, remains necessary for long‑term stabil‑
ity. This requires co‑operation in the region, good‑neighbourly
relations, and working towards mutually acceptable solutions to out‑
standing issues.”

40. The calls for “mutually acceptable solutions to outstanding issues”k
were diplomatic warnings, which confirm that NATO’s decision did nokt

come “out of the blue”. In order to attribute a reasonable meaningk to
Article 5, it must, therefore, at the very least be considered in its context
(Article 31 of the Vienna Convention).

42See C. F. Amerasinghe, Principles of the International Law of International Organiza‑
tions, Cambridge University press, 1966, p. 109.
43See Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part A, Ann. 21 (political and Economic
Issues, paras. 2‑3). NATO, membership Action plan (mAp), http://www.nato.int/docu/
pr/1999/p99‑066e.htm.
44
45NATO, Riga Summit declaration, 29 November 2006, para. 28.
Ibid., Final Communiqué of the North Atlantic Council, 7 december 2007, para. 14.

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VI. L’article 11: ne pas s’opposer si lk’autre partie
s’acquitte de ses oblkigations découlant dke l’articl5e,

qui précède l’articlke11

41. Outre que les Etats parties n’y sont pas désignés, l’accord intéri ‑
maire présente une autre curiosité, à savoir l’expression «k ne s’opposera
pas», qui figure dans l’article 11. Si cette expression n’est pas interprétée

avec circonspection, elle peut emporter des conséquences déraisonnkables,
voire néfastes. On cherchera en vain dans les relations internationalkes un
traité qui impose à l’une des parties contractantes de « ne pas s’opposer »
à l’admission et à la participation d’une autre partie à kdes organisations
internationales. En examinant cette spécificité (dont l’explkication, si tant
est qu’elle existe, est difficile à trouver), la Cour devrait cekrtainement

apprécier l’impact de cette formule sur le statut juridique de memkbre des
organisations internationales ainsi que le risque de voir une interpréktation
large de ladite formule empiéter sur le caractère autonome du foncktionne ‑
ment interne des organisations internationales. La Cour préconise une
interprétation «aseptisée», non seulement en privilégiant le premier volet

du premier paragraphe de l’article 11 au second volet de ce même para ‑
graphe, mais aussi aux droits et obligations de son cocontractant à l’égard
de tiers.
42. Ainsi, une importance excessive est attachée au premier volet du
paragraphe 1 de l’article 11, au point de le rendre inintelligible. L’idée que

le second volet du paragraphe 1 de l’article 11 ne trouverait à s’appliquer
que lorsque l’organisation admettrait le demandeur sous une appellatikon
autre que celle d’ERYm est sans fondement aucun. La distinction entre
ce qui se passe avant et ce qui advient après l’admission dans lesk organi ‑
sations internationales ne tient pas juridiquement, eu égard tant au traité
qu’au caractère spécifique de l’OTAN.

43. En somme, l’interprétation adoptée par l’arrêt conduiraitk le dé ‑
fendeur à se neutraliser : ne rien dire, ne rien faire, rester spectateur de
l’admission du demandeur et de sa participation aux organisations
internationales, quel que soit son comportement en ce qui concerne le
différend qui oppose les deux Etats. de plus, et par ricochet, cette inter ‑

prétation revient à nier aux autres membres des organisations intekrnatio‑
nales auxquelles l’ERYm demande l’adhésion le droit d’être informés des
éléments concrets relatifs à l’état des relations de sékcurité et de bon voisi ‑
nage entre leur partenaire, la grèce, Etat membre de l’organisation de ‑
puis 1954, et l’ERYm, Etat candidat. Rappelons que le ministre des

affaires étrangères du demandeur a été clair en admettant kque la position
de son pays ne changerait pas et qu’elle consiste en la double formulke.

44. Le demandeur a avancé que le premier volet du paragraphe 1 de
l’article 11 « li[ait] uniquement la grèce ». Or, ce texte intègre deux droits
et obligations qui lient réciproquement les deux parties. Il énonce que la

première partie ne s’opposera pas, etc., mais qu’il en sera ainsi à condi ‑
tion que, jusqu’au règlement de la divergence, la seconde partie se

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5 CIJ1026.indb 188 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 736

VI. Article 11: Agreeing not to Objectk if the other party
Fulfils Its Obligationsk under Article5,

which precedes Article 11

41. In addition to its omission of the names of the States parties, the
Interim Accord has another unusual feature, namely the phrase “agreesk
not to object”, which appears in Article 11. If this phrase is notinterpreted

cautiously, it can have unreasonable, even harmful, consequences. It
would be in vain to scour international relations for a treaty which oblkiges
one of the contracting parties “not to object” to the admission and
participation of another party in international organizations. When
considering this unusual feature (the explanation for which — if there is
one — does not readily come to hand), the Court is undoubtedly bound

to assess the effect of that formula on the legal status of members ofk inter ‑
national organizations, and to bear in mind the risk that a broad interpkr‑e
tation of it might encroach on the operational autonomy of internationalk
organizations. The Court advocates a “clinical” interpretation, ackcording
priority to the first clause of Article 11, paragraph 1, not only over the

second clause of the same paragraph, but also over the rights and obligak ‑
tions of the other party in relation to third parties.

42. Thus, excessive weight is attached to the first clause of Article 11,
paragraph 1, to the point of rendering it unintelligible. The idea that the

second clause of Article 11, paragraph 1, would only apply were the orga ‑
nization to admit the Applicant under a name other than FYROm is
completely misconceived. It is not legally tenable, in light both of thek
treaty and of the specific nature of NATO, to draw a distinction betweken
what happens before admission to the international organization and
what happens afterwards.

43. In short, the interpretation adopted by the Judgment would require
the Respondent to neutralize itself : to say nothing, to do nothing and to
remain a spectator to the Applicant’s admission to and participation kin
international organizations, irrespective of the latter’s conduct in krelation
to the dispute between the two States. Furthermore, that interpretation,k

through its “ricochet” effect, amounts to denying the other membkers of
the international organization to which the FYROm is seeking admission
the right to be informed of the facts concerning the state of relations kin
terms of security and good‑neighbourliness between their partner, greece,
a member State of the Organization since 1954, and the FYROm, a

candidate State. It should be recalled that the Applicant’s minister for
Foreign Affairs was clear in his admission that his country’s position
would not alter, and that this consisted in the dual formula.
44. The Applicant argued that the first clause of Article 11, para ‑
graph 1, establishes an obligation “solely upon greece”. However, that
text embodies two rights and obligations which are reciprocally binding

on both parties. It provides that the party of the First part agrees not to
object, etc., but on the condition that, pending the settlement of the differ ‑

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5 CIJ1026.indb 189 20/06/13 08:42 737 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

conforme à l’obligation de se désigner par l’appellation ex‑kRépublique
yougoslave de macédoine (ERYm). C’est là, en toute logique, l’équilibre
de réciprocité entre les deux parties. Or, l’interprétation « aseptisée»
revient tout simplement à escamoter le sens du second volet du para ‑

graphe 1. On ne saurait lire l’article 11 comme liant le seul défendeur.

45. Les deux volets du premier paragraphe de l’article 11 ont valeur
égale: le premier est conditionné par le second. On ne peut isoler la pre ‑

mière phrase et lui attribuer, de surcroît, un caractère autonokme par rap‑
port à l’ensemble de l’accord intérimaire. Le premier volet kdu paragraphe 1
de l’article 11 est une disposition contraignante pour le défendeur, mais, en
même temps, elle offre au demandeur l’occasion de faire preuve dke coopé ‑
ration et de bonne foi en vue de résoudre la divergence qui oppose leks deux

Etats. Le premier volet du paragraphe 1 de l’article 11 ne peut donc être
dissocié du reste de ce même paragraphe, ni de l’ensemble de l’kaccord inté ‑
rimaire, ni encore viser, comme le demandeur l’affirme dans le mékmoire, la
seule « licéité de l’objection du défendeur, ni plus ni moins » 46et ce, tou ‑

jours selon le demandeur, indépendamment « du bien‑fondé ou non de la
position adoptée par l’une ou l’autre des parties dans le cadre des négocia ‑
tions qui ont lieu en vertu du paragraphe 1 de l’article 5 de l’accord intéri‑
maire au sujet du différend relatif au nom du demandeur » . 47

46. En application de la résolution 817, la grèce ne s’est pas opposée
à l’admission de l’ERYm à des organes et institutions spécialisées des
Nations Unies et, après la conclusion de l’accord intérimaire (de 1995
à 2006), le demandeur est devenu membre de plusieurs autres organisa ‑
tions et institutions internationales, multilatérales et régionaleks. Chaque

fois, le demandeur a adopté le même comportement : tandis que l’organi ‑
sation internationale ou l’organe concerné l’admettait sous l’kappellation
d’«ex‑République Yougoslave de macédoine» (ERYm), une fois admis, il
se nommait lui‑même soit « République de macédoine », soit «macé ‑

doine» tout court, et continuait de se désigner ainsi malgré les proktesta ‑
tions des représentants de la grèce. dans le cas de l’OTAN, plus
précisément, le demandeur a fait acte de candidature en utilisant kson nom
contesté.

47. En ce qui concerne l’admission, il convient en outre de noter que la k
décision de l’Alliance a été prise suivant la pratique habitkuelle, après
consultation à l’intérieur et à l’extérieur de l’orkganisation. Les volontés
particulières se diluant dans l’acte de l’organisation, il est kimpossible de
dissocier la position de la grèce en tant que telle de celle de l’organisa ‑

tion. Le caractère collectif de la décision qui résulte de la ckonsultation
ressort aussi de la déclaration du président de la République dkevant le
parlement du demandeur :

«s’agissant de la double formule en tant que compromis pouvant per ‑
mettre de régler le différend, aucun Etat membre de l’Alliancke ou de

46mémoire de l’ex‑République yougoslave de macédoine, vol. I, par. 1.11.
47Ibid.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 190 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 737

ence, the party of the Second part respects its obligation to refer to itself
as the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia (FYROm). That is, per ‑
fectly logically, the reciprocal balance between the two parties. The “clin ‑
ical” interpretation, on the other hand, amounts quite simply to removing

all meaning from the second clause of paragraph 1. Article 11 cannot be
read as establishing an obligation solely on the Respondent.
45. The two clauses of Article 11, paragraph 1, are of equal weight: the
first is dependent on the second. It is not possible to isolate the fikrst clause

and, moreover, allow it to stand independently of the Interim Accord as k
a whole. The first clause of Article 11, paragraph 1, imposes a constraint
on the Respondent, but at the same time it offers the Applicant the opkpor ‑
tunity to demonstrate co‑operation and good faith with a view to resolv ‑
ing the difference between the two States. The first clause of Artickle 11,

paragraph 1, cannot therefore be dissociated from the rest of that same
paragraph, or from the Interim Accord as a whole, and neither can it
relate, as the Applicant contends in its memorial, solely to the “legality of
the Respondent’s objection, no more and no less” 4, which — again

according to the Applicant — is irrespective of “the merits or demerits of
either party’s position in respect of the negotiations taking place pursuant k
to Article 5 (1) of the Interim Accord relating to the difference concerning
the Applicant’s name” 4.

46. In accordance with resolution 817, greece did not object to the
FYROm’s admission to the specialized organs and institutions of the
United Nations and, in the years following the conclusion of the Interimk
Accord (from 1995 to 2006), the Applicant became a member of several
other international, multilateral and regional organizations and instituk ‑

tions. Each time, the Applicant adopted the same attitude: although the k
international organization or organ concerned admitted it under the
name the “former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia” (FYROm), the
Applicant, once admitted, called itself either the “Republic of macedo ‑

nia” or simply “macedonia”, and continued to refer to itself in that way
despite the protests of the greek representatives. In the case of NATO
more specifically, the Applicant submitted its application using its dkis ‑
puted name.

47. In respect of the Applicant’s admission, it should also be noted
that the Alliance’s decision was taken in accordance with the usual pkrac ‑
tice, following consultation within and outside the Organization. Since k
individual views are absorbed into the Organization’s decision, it isk
impossible to distinguish greece’s position from that of the Organization.

That the decision resulting from that consultation was collective can alkso
be seen in the statement made by the president of the Republic before the
Applicant’s parliament:

“as regards the dual formula as a possible compromise for solving thek
dispute we do not have either the understanding or the support of any

46memorial of the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia, Vol. I, para. 1.11.
47Ibid.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 191 20/06/13 08:42 738 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

l’Union [européenne] ne comprend ni ne soutient notre position. Biken
au contraire, tout le monde — y compris nos principaux soutiens et amkis
— considère que, en défendant cette position, nous faisons obstkacle aux
négociations ou empêchons qu’elles se poursuivent. Cela nous a kété
annoncé tout à fait publiquement, clairement et explicitement …k de

même, personne dans la communauté internationale n’a compris ouk ne
comprend certains actes que nous avons effectués et mesures que nouks
avons adoptées au cours des deux dernières années, qui ne nous kont rien
apporté et que les grecs ont exploités contre nous pour justifier leur
violation de l’accord intérimaire. Autrement dit, nous avons inutiklement
48
perdu la sympathie et le soutien dont nous avions jusque‑là bénéfic» ié.

48. Cette mise au point (« aucun Etat membre de l’Alliance … ne com ‑
prend ni ne soutient notre position ») confirme une fois de plus que le
demandeur savait que les préoccupations susmentionnées constituaieknt une
position collective de l’Alliance et non une position solitaire de lak grèce.
49. Les remarques ci‑après faites au cours de la conférence de presse kdu

23 janvier 2008 par le secrétaire général de l’OTAN, le premier ministrke du
demandeur et le porte‑parole de l’OTAN sont également significatkives.
Jaap de Hoop Scheffer (secrétaire général de l’OTAN) :

«C’est ainsi que je peux décrire l’ambiance qui a entouré la kréu ‑
nion. Tels sont les points importants. Bien évidemment, l’intégration
euro‑atlantique demande et exige également des relations de bon voi ‑

sinage et il est tout à fait évident que les appels à trouver une solu ‑
tion à la question du nom — ce qui n’est pas l’affaire de kl’OTAN
— ont été nombreux parmi les participants. Cela relève de m. Nimetz,
de l’ambassadeur Nimetz, dans le cadre de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies … Cependant, mon rapport ne serait pas complet si

j’omettais de rappeler le communiqué des ministres des affaires k
étrangères de l’OTAN de décembre dernier, dans lequel figukre cet
argument sur les relations de bon voisinage et la question du nom. »

Nikola gruevski (premier ministre de l’ERYm) :

«La discussion avec l’ambassadeur de grèce a porté sur de nom ‑
breux points. L’ambassadeur a lui aussi reconnu les progrès réalisés
récemment par la macédoine et, bien évidemment, a souligné les
points sur lesquels il sera nécessaire de progresser davantage à l’ave ‑

nir. Et je ne peux que répéter, bien entendu, que de son point de kvue
la question du nom mérite d’être soulignée. »

James Appathurai (porte‑parole de l’OTAN) :
«Le nom doit être changé … tout compromis passe par un chan ‑

gement du nom. »

48 déclaration précitée du président de la République Branko kCrvenkovski au parle ‑
ment de l’ERYm, le 3 novembre 2008. Contre‑mémoire de la grèce, vol. II, partie B,

annexe 104.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 192 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 738

member State of the Alliance or the [European] Union. On the con ‑
trary, that position is considered by everyone, including our major
supporters and friends, as a position which obstructs or interrupts the k
negotiations from our side. That was fully publicly, clearly and explic ‑

itly announced to us . . . Also, no one in the international community
had and has an understanding about a series of our acts and moves
made in the past couple of years, which were of no benefit to us, and k
the greeks were using them against us as a justification for their vio ‑

lation of the Interim Agreement. In other words, we unnecessarily 48st
sympathies and the support that we had up to that moment.”

48. That statement (“we do not have either the understanding or the
support of any member State of the Alliance”) is further confirmation
that the Applicant knew that the above‑mentioned concerns represented

the collective position of the Alliance and not simply the views of greece.
49. The following remarks made during the press conference of 23 Jan ‑
uary 2008 by NATO’s Secretary‑general, the Applicant’s prime minister
and a NATO spokesperson are also significant.
Jaap de Hoop Scheffer (NATO Secretary‑general):

“So that is how I can describe the atmosphere. That is what is

important. Euro‑Atlantic integration of course also demands and
requires good neighbourly relations and it is crystal clear that there
were a lot of pleas from around the table to find a solution for the
name issue, which is not a NATO affair. This is mr. Nimetz, Ambas ‑
sador Nimetz, under the UN roof . . . But I would not give you a

complete report if I would not say referring to the communiqué by
the way of the NATO Foreign ministers last december where there
is this line on good neighbourly relations and the name issue.”

Nikola gruevski (prime minister of the FYROm):

“The discussion of the Ambassador of greece was with many ele ‑

ments. He also recognized the progress that macedonia did in the last
period and of course he stressed the positions where it is necessary fork
more progress in the future. And I would say again of course, looking
from his position, he stressed the issue connected with the name.”

James Appathurai (NATO Spokesperson):

“[T]he name has to be changed . . . compromise means a change in
the name.”

48 Statement by president of the Republic Branko Crvenkovski to the parliament of the
FYROm on 3 November 2008 (mentioned above). Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II,
part B, Ann. 104.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 193 20/06/13 08:42 739 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

Nikola gruevski (premier ministre) :

«A ce propos, nous avons l’impression que, lorsque la grèce parle

de compromis, elle prône en fait un changement du nom et nous
pensons qu’il peut y avoir une meilleure approche pour régler cette
question. » 49

50. Si l’on considère l’article 11 dans son ensemble, et non de manière

morcelée, alors l’alternative « objection» ou non‑« objection» devient un
faux dilemme. L’OTAN a ses propres procédures, fondées à touks égards sur
le consensus de ses Etats membres. Les responsables de l’organisationk ont
répété que celle‑ci ne connaissait pas le veto. Le communiquék du sommet

de Bucarest du 3 avril 2008, en son paragraphe 20, indique notamment:

«dans le cadre des Nations Unies, de nombreux acteurs se sont
employés activement au règlement de la question du nom, mais l’kAl ‑
liance a noté avec regret que ces pourparlers n’avaient pas aboutik.

C’est pourquoi nous sommes convenus qu’une invitation serait faite
à l’ex‑République yougoslave de macédoine dès qu’une solution mu ‑
tuellement acceptable aura été trouvée à la question du nom.k Nous

souhaitons vivement voir les négociations reprendre sans délai et 50
comptons bien qu’elles seront menées à bonne fin dès que pkossibl» e.

51. L’organisation a donc laissé l’invitation ouverte, pour autant kque la
question du nom soit résolue. Il est dès lors permis de se demandekr comment,
en faisant droit à l’argumentation du demandeur, qui n’a fait aucun pas vers

ce règlement de la divergence sur le nom, la Cour contribuerait à ouvrir la
voie à la participation de ce dernier à l’OTAN. Elle a à juskte titre rejeté la
demande de réparation de l’ERYm (point 3 du dispositif du présent arrêt).

52. Un Etat, à moins d’avoir des visées sur d’autres pays, protèkge son
identité en se distinguant des autres. En ce qui concerne l’OTAN, kl’adop ‑
tion par chaque Etat membre d’un nom unique protège l’unité kde l’Al ‑

liance et épargne aux membres des forces armées de vaines confusiokns ou
des conflits d’identité, non seulement lorsqu’ils participent àk des missions
de maintien de la paix, mais surtout dans des circonstances de guerre
et d’application des « règles d’engagement » 51, où la confiance entre les

membres des forces armées des Etats participants est impérative. Okn l’a
déjà souligné, l’OTAN n’est pas une organisation intergoukvernementale

49 Contre‑mémoire de la grèce, vol. II, partie A, annexe 26.
50
51 déclaration du sommet de Bucarest, 3 avril 2008, par. 20.
J’ai fait personnellement l’expérience de l’impératif d’kunité à l’OTAN dans les années
qui ont suivi l’adoption du premier protocole additionnel de 1977 auxk conventions de
genève de 1949, lorsqu’un article de Bernhard graefrath, « Zum Anwendungsbereich der
Ergänzungsprotokolle zu den genfer Abkommen vom 12 August 1949 », publié dans la
revue Staat und Recht, vol. 29 (1980), p. 133 et suiv., a déclenché une discussion au sein
de l’Alliance sur la portée du paragraphe 3 de l’article 35 de ce protocole à l’égard de
l’utilisation de l’arme nucléaire, ainsi que sur l’étenduke du champ d’application ‑e ce para
graphe aux Etats membres de l’Alliance, parties et non parties au protocole. L’Alliance
s’est exprimée d’une seule voix sur ce sujet.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 194 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 739

Nikola gruevski (prime minister):

“About the compromise. We have [the] feeling that when greece is

talking about compromise, they are actually talking about changing
of the name and we believe that there are better approach[es] for
solving of this issue.” 49

50. If Article 11 is considered as a whole rather than in separate sec ‑
tions, whether there was an “objection” or not becomes a false dilem ma.

NATO has its own procedures, which are based, in all respects, on the
consensus of its member States. The officials of the Organization have kre ‑
peatedly stated that there was no veto within NATO. paragraph 20 of the
Bucharest Summit declaration of 3 April 2008 states, among other things:

“Within the framework of the UN, many actors have worked hard

to resolve the name issue, but the Alliance has noted with regret that
these talks have not produced a successful outcome. Therefore we
agreed that an invitation to the former Yugoslav Republic of mace ‑

donia will be extended as soon as a mutually acceptable solution to
the name issue has been reached. We encourage the negotiations to
be resumed without delay and expect them to be concluded as soon
as possible.” 50

51. The Organization has thus left the invitation open until the question

of the name is resolved. It is therefore permissible to ask how, in accekpting
the arguments of the Applicant, which has taken no steps towards settlinkg the
difference over the name, the Court would be helping to pave the way tkowards

its participation in NATO. The Court was right to reject the FYROm’s
request for reparation (point 3 of the operative part of the Judgment).
52. A State, unless it has designs on other States, protects its identity
by distinguishing itself from others. As far as NATO is concerned, the

adoption by each member State of a unique name protects the unity of
the Alliance and avoids any unnecessary confusion or conflicts of identitky
for the members of the armed forces, not only when they are on peace ‑

keeping missions, but in p51ticular in times of combat and when the
“rules of engagement” apply, when it is imperative that there be trust
between the members of participating States’ armed forces. As I have k
already pointed out, NATO is not one of many intergovernmental orga ‑

49
Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part A, Ann. 26.
50 Bucharest Summit declaration, 3 April 2008, para. 20.
51 I experienced first‑hand the need for unity within NATO in the years fkollowing the
adoption of the First Additional protocol of 1977 to the 1949 geneva Conventions, when
an article by Bernhard graefrath, “Zum Anwendungsbereich der Ergänzungsprotokolle zu
den genfer Abkommen vom 12 August 1949”, published in Staat und Recht, Vol. 29, 1980,
p. 133 et seq., sparked a discussion within the Alliance on the scope of Article 3‑, para
graph 3, of that protocol concerning the use of nuclear weapons and the extent to which
it was applicable to the Alliance’s member States, parties and non‑parties to the protocol.

The Alliance presented a united front on that subject.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 195 20/06/13 08:42 740 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. disks. roucounas)

parmi tant d’autres. C’est une alliance militaire et sa nature spécifique
pèse lourdement sur les relations mutuelles entre ses Etats membres.

VII. La portée des obligatikons assumées par les parties

53. La lecture faite par la Cour de l’expression « ne s’opposera pas »

constitue un empiètement sur les compétences internationales évkidentes
du défendeur. C’est là une raison supplémentaire pour redire que l’ar ‑
ticle 11 doit être interprété dans son ensemble, et non de façon fkragmen‑
taire. Une lecture équilibrée de l’article 11 n’aurait porté atteinte ni à la
souveraineté ni aux compétences de qui que ce soit. Elle aurait en outre
permis à la Cour de constater que rien n’empêchait, juridiquemeknt ou

politiquement, le défendeur de faire connaître publiquement (ce qkui
implique que le demandeur en était averti) les raisons pour lesquellkes l’at ‑
titude délibérée du demandeur violait selon lui l’accord intkérimaire et ne
remplissait pas les conditions de l’article 10 du traité de l’OTAN, malgré
les exhortations réitérées des organes de l’Alliance à rékgler le différend sur

le nom. Les avertissements du Conseil de l’Atlantique Nord et des autres
responsables de l’organisation à l’endroit du demandeur n’onkt rien changé
à la feuille de route qu’il a unilatéralement établie, ce quki confirme son
intention de ne pas modifier son comportement. Le demandeur tente ainski
de faire accroire l’idée que, quel que soit son comportement, le dkéfendeur

ne devrait pas s’opposer à sa candidature.

VIII. La « pratique de l’organiksation », les violations
de la résolution 817 et de l’accord intérkimaire
et les protestationsk du défendeur

54. L’arrêt mentionne plusieurs fois la pratique « de» l’organisation.
Or, il devrait s’agir de la pratique « au sein de» l’organisation, c’est‑à‑dire
non seulement du comportement des organes et autres composantes de
celle‑ci mais aussi des Etats membres. par ailleurs, la Cour affiche une

prédilection particulière, difficilement explicable, pour la réksolution 817.
Quoi qu’il en soit, la résolution 817 n’est intégrée dans l’article 5 de l’ac ‑
cord intérimaire que dans la mesure où elle évoque « la différence sur le
nom». Ainsi, indépendamment de la résolution 817, qui le lie évidemment
au sein des Nations Unies, le demandeur est de surplus lié par cette même

obligation de n’employer que le nom d’ERYm dans toutes les autres orga ‑
nisations internationales auxquelles il participe ou participera à l’kavenir,
jusqu’au règlement d’un commun accord de la question du nom dékfinitif.

55. Il va sans dire que la « pratique» sous‑entend le commun accord,
sans quoi il ne peut y avoir « pratique». Alors qu’il n’y est fait allusion

dans l’arrêt que de manière éparse, tous ceux qui, depuis 1991, fréquentent
les organisations internationales connaissent les interminables contesta ‑

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nizations. It is a military alliance and its specific nature weighs heavily on
the mutual relations between its member States.

VII. The Scope of the Obligatikons Assumed by the parties

53. The Court’s reading of the phrase “agrees not to object” comprok ‑

mises the Respondent’s established international competencies. This iks
another reason to repeat that Article 11 must be interpreted as a whole,
and not in a fragmented fashion. A balanced reading of Article 11 does
not infringe on any entity’s sovereignty or competences. It would alsko
have enabled the Court to find that the Respondent was not prohibited,k
legally or politically, from making public (which implies that the Applki ‑

cant was aware of the Respondent’s position) the reasons why, in itsk view,
the Applicant’s deliberate attitude was in breach of the Interim Accord
and failed to meet the conditions of Article 10 of the North Atlantic
Treaty, despite the repeated calls from the Alliance’s organs for setktle ‑
ment of the dispute over the name. The warnings issued by the North

Atlantic Council and other organization officials to the Applicant did knot
change its unilaterally established road map, which confirms that it hkas
no intention of modifying its conduct. The Applicant is thus seeking
acceptance of the idea that, irrespective of its conduct, the Respondentk
should not object to its candidature.

VIII. The “practice of the Organizkation”, the Violationsk of
Resolution 817 and of the Interim Acckord
and the protests of the Respondkent

54. The Judgment refers in several places to the practice “of” the Orgka ‑
nization. What it should refer to, however, is the practice “within”k the
Organization, that is to say, not simply the conduct of the organs and
other components of the organization, but also that of its member Statesk.

moreover, the Court shows a particular predilection, which is difficult to
explain, for resolution 817. However that may be, resolution 817 is only
incorporated into Article 5 of the Interim Accord to the extent that it
invokes “the difference over the name”. Thus, independently of rkesolu ‑
tion 817, which is clearly binding on the Applicant within the United

Nations, the latter is also bound by the same obligation to use only thek
name FYROm in any international organization in which it participates
or will participate in the future, pending the settlement of the questiokn of
the definitive name by mutual agreement.
55. It goes without saying that “practice” implies common consent,
without which there can be no “practice”. Although this is mentioned

only fleetingly in the Judgment, anyone who has had dealings with inter ‑
national organizations since 1991 will be aware of the endless disputes,k

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tions, écrites et orales, entre les représentants des parties au sujet du nom,
ainsi que l’opposition régulière et réitérée de la grèce quant à l’emploi

par le demandeur de son nom constitutionnel.
56. La protestation internationale est une institution juridique du droit
coutumier par laquelle un sujet du droit international s’oppose à kun acte
formel ou au comportement d’un autre sujet qu’il considère commke
52
contraire au droit international . La protestation acquiert davantage de
force lorsqu’elle s’oppose à un acte ou à un comportement cokntraire aux
obligations internationales de l’autre sujet de droit international. kElle a
pour effet de préserver les droits du sujet qui proteste et de mettkre en

exergue le caractère illicite attribué à l’acte formel ou auk comportement en
cause. Elle s’affermit davantage et devient incontestable par sa rékpétition.
57. Le caractère juridique et les effets de la protestation sont confirmés
de longue date par la jurisprudence internationale. dans la sentence arbi ‑

trale Chamizal (1911) ainsi que dans les décisions rendues par la Cour
permanente et la présente Cour dans les affaires Jaworzina (1923), Inter ‑
prétation des traités de paix (1950), Pêcheries (1951), Minquiers et Ecré‑
hous (1953), Plateau continental (1982), Activités militaires et paramilitaires

au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (1984), Différend frontalier terrestre, insu ‑
laire et maritime (1992), Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun
et le Nigéria (2002) et Certaines questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire
en matière pénale (2008), il a ainsi été tenu compte soit des protestations

effectivement émises par l’une ou par les deux parties au différend, soit de
l’absence de protestation à l’égard d’un acte ou d’unek situation donné.
Jamais la plus haute juridiction mondiale n’avait dénombré les protesta ‑

tions en question pour se prononcer sur leur effet juridique. Or, dansk le
présent arrêt, elle considère que huit (8) protestations sontk insuffisantes,
tout en contestant d’ailleurs les nombreuses autres protestations ékmises
par la grèce contre l’utilisation par l’ERYm de son nom constitutionnel

au sein des organisations internationales dans la période allant de lka
conclusion de l’accord intérimaire à la procédure d’admisksion du deman ‑
deur à l’OTAN. En introduisant ainsi un élément quantitatif kaux fins
d’apprécier la qualité juridique d’un acte international, lak Cour porte
53
atteinte à l’institution même de la protestation internationalek .
58. Je ne parviens pas non plus à comprendre pourquoi la Cour ne se
satisfait pas des protestations répétées de la grèce contre l’emploi par le
demandeur d’un nom autre qu’ERYm au sein des organisations internatio ‑

nales, mais aussi contre d’autres violations de l’accord qui sont ktoutes liées,
directement ou indirectement, à la question du nom. Je me suis livré à un

52
Voir E. Suy, Les actes juridiques unilatéraux en droit international public, paris,
LgdJ, 1962, p. 79 ; Ch. Eick, «protest », Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International
Law53visité le 29 septembre 2011).
Il est vrai que, dans son avis consultatif sur la Réparation de dommages subis au
service des Nations Unies (avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recu1949, p. 185), la Cour avait
invoqué un élément quantitatif, à savoir « cinquante Etats », mais cette expression n’avait
pas d’incidence juridique sur la création par les Etats d’une okrganisation possédant une
personnalité internationale objective.

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both written and oral, between the representatives of the parties on the
subject of the name, as well as greece’s ongoing and repeated opposition

to the Applicant’s use of its constitutional name.
56. International protest is a legal concept of customary law, whereby
a subject of international law objects to an official act or the conduckt of
another subject, which it considers to be in breach of international lawk 52.

protest acquires greater weight when it opposes an act or conduct which
is inconsistent with the international obligations of the other subject kof
international law. It has the effect of preserving the rights of the protest ‑
ing subject and bringing to the fore the unlawful nature of the officiakl act

or conduct at issue. It is further strengthened by and becomes indisput ‑
able through its repetition.
57. The legal character and effects of protest have long been confirmed k
by international jurisprudence. In the Chamizal Arbitral Award (1911), as

well as in the decisions of the permanent Court and of this Court in the
cases concerning Jaworzina (1923), Interpretation of Peace Treaties (1950),
Fisheries (1951), Minquiers and Ecrehos (1953), Continental Shelf (1982),
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (1984),

Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (1992), Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (2002) and Certain Questions of
Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (2008), account was taken either of
the protests actually carried out by one or both parties to the dispute, or

of the absence of protest in respect of a given act or situation. The wokrld’s
highest Court has never relied on the number of protests at issue in order
to determine their legal effect. In the present Judgment, however, it kfinds

eight (8) protests to be insufficient; moreover, it contests the many otherk
protests carried out by greece against the use by the FYROm of its con ‑
stitutional name within international organizations in the period from tkhe
conclusion of the Interim Accord to the FYROm’s application to join

NATO. By introducing a quantitative measure in this way in order to
determine the legal status of an international act, the Court undermines
the very concept of international protest 5.

58. Furthermore, I cannot understand why the Court was not satisfied
by greece’s repeated protests against the use by the Applicant of a name k
other than the FYROm within international organizations, and against

other violations of the Accord, all of which relate, directly or indirecktly,
to the question of the name. I conducted a rough count, based solely on

52
See E. Suy, Les actes juridiques unilatéraux en droit international public, paris, LgdJ,
1962, p. 79 ; Ch. Eick “protest”, Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law
(ac53ssed on 29 September 2011).
It is true that, in its Advisory Opinion on the Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the
Service of the United Nations (Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1949,185), the Court
invoked a quantitative measure (“fifty States”), but that measkure had no legal effect on the
creation by the States of an organization possessing objective internatikonal personality.

101

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décompte provisoire, sur la seule base des documents produits par le défen‑

deur, décompte qui m’a permis de recenser quelque 85 protestations de sa
part 5. dans sa recherche d’un acquiescement supposé du défendeur à cke que
le demandeur se désigne par son nom constitutionnel au sein de l’Okrganisa ‑

tion des Nations Unies, l’arrêt invoque un document interne(un non‑paper)
et une lettre du représentant du défendeur adressée au Secrétaire général,
tous deux datant de 1993 5. Or, le document interne (non‑paper) porte sur

les arrangements techniques pour la participation de l’ERYm aux activités
quotidiennes des Nations Unies, tandis que la question du nom est mention ‑
née dans la lettre du ministre des affaires étrangères du dékfendeur dans la
toute première phrase qui suit la formule introductive, le corps du tkexte énu ‑

mérant certaines autres mesures que le demandeur était appelé àk prendre.

IX. Le bon voisinage

59. Sur le plan juridique, la notion de bon voisinage ne constitue pas

un apport majeur dans le domaine des relations internationales. Un
auteur ayant consacré une monographie à ce sujet précise qu’k«il est dans
l’intérêt de l’Etat de respecter les obligations générkales à l’égard des autres

Etats, car chaque obligation su56ose le droit de prétendre la réciprocité
de la part de l’autre partie» . Une distinction est faite entre le principe de
voisinage et le principe de bon voisinage, distinction dont les contours ne
sont pas toujours clairement définis. Il s’agit néanmoins danks les deux cas

de notions évolutives et, dès lors que le bon voisinage est mentioknné dans
un traité international, il devient un principe juridique, lu conjoinktement
avec les principes fondamentaux énoncés par la Charte des NationsUnies,

parmi lesquels celui de la bonne foi occupe une place de choix. J’ajokuterai
que, quoique ce principe s’applique normalement au champ politique, lkes
commentaires de la Charte des Nations Unies attribuent habituellement

au bon voisinage un sens juridique, à savoir la protection des intékrêts
légitimes entre pays voisins. Il convient en outre de préciser quek le prin ‑
cipe de bon voisinage ne lie pas les seuls Etats. dans la mesure où son
inobservation risque de porter atteinte à l’action des organes de kla com ‑

munauté internationale, il lie également les organisations internaktionales,
qui doivent veiller à son respect. En ce qui concerne le bon voisinagke (qui
lie à sept endroits de l’accord intérimaire 5, et pour cause, les parties), son

54
protestations dans les organisations international: contre‑mémoire de la grèce,
vol. II, partie A, annexes 2, 3, 6, 11, 12; partie B, annexe 146; duplique de la grèce, vol. II,
annexes 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24,k 25, 26, 27, 28, 29,
30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 59 ekt 60. Tota:l50.
protestations à l’ERYm : contre‑mémoire de la grèce, vol. II, partie A, annexes 40, 41,
43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, k63, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72,
73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79 et 80; duplique de la grèce, vol. II, annexe 63. Total :35.
55mémoire de l’ex‑République yougoslave de macédoine, vol. II, annexe 30.
56I. pop, Voisinage et bon voisinage en droit international, paris, pedone, 1980, p. 333.
57Articles 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 et 10.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 200 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 742

the documents produced by the Respondent, and was able to find some
54
85 protests on its part . In seeking to demonstrate the Respondent’s pur‑
ported approval of the Applicant’s use of its constitutional name witkhin
the United Nations, the Judgment invokes an internal document (non‑

paper) and a letter sent to the Secretary‑general by a representative of
the Respondent, both of which date from 1993 55. The internal document
(non‑paper), however, focuses on the technical arrangements for the

FYROm’s participation in the day‑to‑day activities of the United
Nations; the letter from the Respondent’s minister for Foreign Affairs
refers to the question of the name in its very first sentence followinkg the
introductory paragraph, with the body of the text listing a number of

other measures which the Applicant was required to take.

IX. good Neighbourliness

59. Legally, the notion of good neighbourliness does not play a major

role in the area of international relations. One author of a detailed stkudy
on the subject states that “it is in the State’s interest to respekct the general
obligations vis‑à‑vis other States, because each obligation presupposkes
56
the right to claim reciprocity from the other party” . A distinction is
made between the right of neighbourliness and the right of good neigh ‑
bourliness, the borders of which are not always clearly defined. Neverkthe ‑
less, both are evolving concepts, and when good neighbourliness is

embodied in an international treaty, it becomes a legal principle, to bek
read in conjunction with the fundamental principles laid down by the
United Nations Charter, among which good faith features prominently. I

would add that, although that principle is normally applied in the politi ‑
cal domain, commentaries on the Charter of the United Nations generally k
accord it a legal sense, namely the mutual right of neighbouring States kto

the protection of their legitimate interests. It should be stated, moreokver,
that the principle of good neighbourliness is not binding on States alone.
To the extent that its non‑observance may compromise the actions of the k
organs of the international community, it is also an obligation incumbent

on international organizations, which must ensure that it is respected. k
The importance of good neighbourliness (which limits the parties’ free ‑
dom of action in seven places in the Interim Accord 5, and with good

54
protests within international organizations: Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II,
part A, Anns. 2, 3, 6, 11, 12; Counter‑memorial, Vol. II, part B, Ann. 146; Rejoinder of
greece, Vol. II, Anns.3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,
27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 59 and 60. TOTAL: 50.
protests to the FYROm: Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part A, Anns. 40, 41,
43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72,
73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79 and 80; Rejoinder of greece, Vol. II, Ann. 63. TOTAL: 35.
55 memorial of the former Yugoslav Republic of macedonia, Vol. II, Ann. 30.
56 I. pop, Voisinage et bon voisinage en droit international, paris, pedone, 1980, p. 333.
57 Articles 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 and 10.

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importance ressort a contrario du constat fait par la Cour dans l’affkaire
des Plates‑formes pétrolières, où elle a indiqué que « l’objet et le but du
traité de 1955 n’étaient pas d’organiser les relations pacifiques et amkicales

entre les deux Etats de manière générale» (Plates‑formes pétrolières (Répu‑
blique islamique d’Iran c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), exception préliminaire,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 814, par. 28). Or, l’objet et le but de
l’accord intérimaire sont précisément d’organiser les relkations pacifiques

entre les parties, et c’est pour cela qu’il a été prévu que le demankdeur
porterait provisoirement et à toutes fins utiles le nom d’ERYm au sein de
l’organisation internationale, jusqu’au règlement négociék de la divergence.
60. Fait notable, la question du bon voisinage a été ravivée dans lkes

années 1980 dans l58 Balkans par la Roumanie, appuyée notamment par
la Yougoslavie . par ailleurs, ce n’est pas un hasard si les deux résolu ‑
tions du Conseil de sécurité, l’accord intérimaire et les cokmmuniqués de
l’OTAN mentionnent tous le bon voisinage. Ce n’est pas un hasard nkon

plus si les articles 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 et 10 de l’accord contiennent des préci ‑
sions à cet égard et, pour la plupart, visent le demandeur. Il conkvient de
rappeler que, immédiatement après l’accession de l’ERYm à l’indépen ‑
dance en 1991, sa Constitution, son drapeau national, ainsi qu’une ava ‑

lanche d’actions et de déclarations de la part de ses autoritésk et d’éléments
non gouvernementaux, ont déclenché une vague d’hostilité envkers la
grèce, hostilité exprimée aussi par les ténors de l’irrédentisme et par des
revendications touchant au patrimoine historique et culturel grec. Les
protestations réitérées de la grèce dans les années 1991, 1993 et 1995 ont

obligé le nouvel Etat à modifier sa Constitution et à changerk son drapeau
national pour que n’y figure pas le soleil de Vergina (Vergina, cakpitale de
la macédoine classique, se trouve en grèce et fait partie du territoire grec
depuis 1913), et ses autorités à prendre d’autres mesures jugées nkéces ‑

saires pour que la grèce le reconnaisse. Les provocations se poursuivent
néanmoins sous diverses formes: récriminations quant aux frontières géo ‑
graphiques et ethniques de l’ERYm, qui s’étendraient au‑delà de ses fron‑
tières politiques, manuels scolaires, cartes géographiques, encyclkopédies
59
officielles et discours inopportuns .

X. Les droits et obligatikons à l’égard

des tiers selon l’artkicle22

61. L’article 22 est ainsi libellé : « Le présent accord n’est dirigé contre
aucun autre Etat ou entité et il ne porte pas atteinte aux droits et kaux

devoirs découlant d’accords bilatéraux et multilatéraux dékjà en vigueur
que les parties ont conclus avec d’autres Etats ou organisations interna ‑
tionales.» L’article 8 du traité de l’Atlantique Nord prévoit, quant à lui,

58 S. Sucharitkul, « The principles of good‑Neighbourliness in International L»,
Jugoslovenska revija za međunarodno pravo, vol. 43, 1996, p. 395 et suiv., p. 399.
59 Contre‑mémoire de la grèce, vol. II, partie B, annexes 81 et suiv.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 202 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 743

reason) is apparent a contrario from the Court’s finding in the Oil Plat ‑
forms case that “the object and purpose of the Treaty of 1955 was not to
regulate peaceful and friendly relations between the two States in a genk ‑

eral sense” (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of
America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II),
p. 814, para. 28). The object and purpose of the Interim Accord is pre ‑
cisely to regulate peaceful relations between the parties, and that is why

provision was made for the Applicant to be referred to provisionally andk
for all purposes as the FYROm within international organizations, pend ‑
ing the settlement of the difference by negotiation.
60. most notably, the question of good neighbourliness was rekindled

in the 1980s 58 the Balkans by Romania, supported in particular by
Yugoslavia . Furthermore, it is not by chance that both Security Council
resolutions, the Interim Accord and NATO’s communiqués all mentionk
good neighbourliness. Nor is it by chance that Articles 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9

and 10 of the Accord contain provisions in that regard and, for the most
part, are directed at the Applicant. It should be recalled that immediatkely
after the FYROm achieved independence in 1991, its constitution, its
national flag, and a cascade of actions and statements by its authoritiesk

and non‑governmental elements triggered a wave of hostility towards
greece, which was also expressed by irredentist agitators, and through
demands aimed at the greek historical and cultural heritage. The repeated
protests of greece in 1991, 1993 and 1995 forced the new State to modify
its constitution and change its national flag, so that it no longer featukred

the Sun of Vergina (Vergina, the capital of classical macedonia, is in
greece and has been a part of the territory of greece since 1913), and
obliged its authorities to take further measures considered necessary ink
order for greece to recognize it. The acts of provocation continued in

various forms: irredentist claims concerning the geographical and ethnick
frontiers of the FYROm, extending to areas beyond its political borders,
school books, maps, official encyclopedias and inflammatory speeches 59.

X. Rights and Obligationsk in relation to Third

parties under Article 22

61. Article 22 reads as follows: “The Interim Accord is not directed
against any other State or entity and it does not infringe on the rightsk and

duties resulting from bilateral and multilateral agreements already in
force that the parties have concluded with other States or internationalk
organizations.” Article 8 of the North Atlantic Treaty provides, for its

58S. Sucharitkul, “The principles of good‑Neighbourliness in International Law”,
Jugoslovenska revija za međunarodno pravo, Vol. 43, 1996, p. 395 et seq., p. 399.
59Counter‑memorial of greece, Vol. II, part B, Ann. 81 et seq.

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que: «Chacune des parties déclare qu’aucun des engagements internatio ‑
naux en vigueur entre Etats n’est en contradiction avec les dispositikons du

présent traité et assume l’obligation de ne souscrire aucun engagement en
contradiction avec le traité. » Je rappellerai que la Cour n’est pas compé ‑
tente pour interpréter cet article.
62. L’article 22 ne contient aucune « clause usuelle ». La preuve en est

que, lorsqu’un traité contient pa60ille sauvegarde, son libellék diffère selon
l’objectif visé par les parties . L’article 22 répond au souci exprimé par
ceux qui étudient le droit des traités et qui, se rendant compte dkes difficul ‑
tés d’interprétation et des incertitudes que crée le silencek des accords

internationaux sur le rapport entre ceux‑ci et d’autres traités anktérieurs
ou postérieurs, invitent les rédacteurs de ces instruments à vekiller à intro ‑
duire des dispositions spécifiques à cet égard, afin d’ékviter tout doute pou ‑
vant découler de l’interprétation de l’article 30 de la convention de Vienne
61
sur le droit des traités . dans le cas présent, la disposition pertinente est
l’article 30, paragraphe 2, aux termes duquel, « lorsqu’un traité précise
qu’il est subordonné à un traité antérieur ou postériekur ou qu’il ne doit
pas être considéré comme incompatible avec ce traité, les dikspositions de

celui‑ci l’emportent ».
63. des dispositions telles que celles de l’article 22 sont destinées à cou ‑
vrir l’ensemble du traité dans lequel elles sont insérées. Cket article s’ap ‑
plique donc à l’accord dans son intégralité, et notamment àk l’article 11,

paragraphe 1. L’OTAN est bel et bien une organisation internationale
visée à l’article 22, et cet article devra donc être lu conjointement avec
l’article 8 du traité de l’Atlantique Nord, qui exclut la possibilité pour un

Etat membre de renoncer à ses droits et devoirs envers l’Alliance.k de sur ‑
croît, les deux parties, en insérant l’article 22 dans l’accord intérimaire,
étaient censées connaître son champ d’application au regard de la nature
spécifique — militaire et de défense — du traité constitutif de l’OTAN.

64. A l’appui de son interprétation de la portée de l’article 22 — qui
diffère de ce qui précède —, la Cour invoque dans l’arrêt une jurispru ‑
dence de la Cour de l’Union européenne (paragraphe 109 du présent
arrêt). Je me demande quel est le poids de cette affirmation. Car ikl est bien

connu que les organes de l’Union européenne vont régulièremeknt au‑delà
du phénomène de la « fragmentation» en se distinguant du droit interna ‑
tional général. de plus, la Commission européenne ne cesse de souligner
que « la pratique judiciaire » de l’Union interprète généralement « son
62
droit interne» comme « étant distinct du droit international » .

60
Voir différents exemples dans E. Roucounas, «Engagements parallèles et contradic‑
toires »,RCADI, t. 206 (1987), p. 90‑92.
61
Voir sir I. Sinclair, «problèmes découlant d’une succession de conventions de codifi ‑
cation du droit international sur un même sujet», rapport provisoire, Annuaire de l’Institut
de droit international, session de Lisbonne, vol. 66‑I (1995), p. 195‑214, p. 207.
62Nations Unies, Assemblée générale, A/CN.4/637, 14 février 2011, Commission du
droit international, soixante‑troisième session, « La responsabilité des organisations inter ‑
nationales. Commentaires et observations des organisations internations, p. 20, par. 1.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 204 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 744

part: “Each party declares that none of the international engagementsk
now in force between it and any other of the parties or any third State kis

in conflict with the provisions of this Treaty, and undertakes not to entker
into any international engagement in conflict with this Treaty.” I woukld
recall that the Court does not have jurisdiction to interpret this Artickle.

62. Article 22 is not a “standard clause”. This is evidenced by the fact
that when such a safeguard clause is included in a treaty, its wording dkif ‑
fers according to the parties’ objective 60. Article 22 is a response to the
concern expressed by those who study the law of treaties and who, takingk

account of the problems of interpretation and uncertainties caused by thke
silence of international agreements on the relationship between those
agreements and other earlier or subsequent treaties, ask the drafters ofk
such instruments to take care to include specific provisions in that con ‑

nection, so as to avoid any potential doubt resulting from the interpreta ‑
tion of Article 30 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 6. In
the present case, the relevant provision is Article 30, paragraph 2, which

states that: “[w]hen a treaty specifies that it is subject to, or tkhat it is not
to be considered as incompatible with, an earlier or later treaty, the provi ‑
sions of that other treaty prevail”.
63. provisions such as those contained in Article 22 are designed to

cover the whole of the treaty in which they are incorporated. That Artickle
therefore applies to the Accord as a whole and to Article 11, paragraph 1,
in particular. NATO is clearly an international organization as referredk
to in Article 22 and that Article should therefore be read in conjunction

with Article 8 of the North Atlantic Treaty, which prevents a member
State from waiving its rights and duties towards the Alliance. moreover,
by including Article 22 in the Interim Accord, both parties were deemed

to be aware of its scope in light of the specific military and defencek‑related
nature of NATO’s constituent treaty.
64. In support of its interpretation of the scope of Article 22 — which
differs from that which I have just given — the Court invokes a decision

of the Court of Justice of the European Communities in its Judgment (seke
paragraph 109). I would question the weight of that decision, since it is
well known that the organs of the European Union regularly go beyond
the notion of “fragmentation” in distinguishing themselves from gekneral

international law. moreover, the European Commission constantly points
out that it is a “general interpretation” in the Union’s “jukdicial practice”
that “its internal order is separate from international law” 62.

60 See the various examples given in E. Roucounas, “Engagements parallèles et contra‑
dictoires”, Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Vol. 206, 1987,
pp. 90‑92.
61 See Sir I. Sinclair, “problems Arising from a Succession of Codification Conventions

on a particular Subject”, provisional Report, Yearbook of the Institute of International
Law62Lisbon Session, Vol. 66‑I, 1995, pp. 195‑214, p. 207.
United Nations general Assembly, A/CN.4/637, 14 February 2011, International
Law Commission, Sixty‑Third Session, “Responsibility of Internationalk Organizations.
Comments and Observations Received from International Organizations”,k p. 19, para. 1.

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65. Le fait que l’accord intérimaire contient également des disposiktions
relatives à l’Union européenne s’explique non seulement par le caractère
sui generis de celle‑ci (organisation internationale au sens classique ou
non), mais surtout par l’intégration économique et commerciale que la

participation à l’Union implique pour ses Etats membres et par le kfait que
les questions concernées relèvent de la compétence de l’Uniokn. par ail ‑
leurs, le traité de Rome de 1957, tel que modifié, prévoit des mécanismes
procéduraux en cas d’incompatibilité avec des obligations enverks des tiers,

tandis que l’accord intérimaire, comme d’ailleurs les traitéks qui contiennent
des dispositions semblables à l’article 22, ne prévoit pas de mécanisme
procédural pour lever ces incompatibilités.

XI. L’invocation, à titrek subsidiaire,
de l’exceptio non adimpleti contractus

66. Les locutions latines ne sont pas toujours bien considérées. L’kexce‑p

tio exprime cependant un principe si juste et so équitable (Prises d’eau à la
Meuse, arrêt, 1937, C.P.J.I. série A/B n 70, opinion dissidente du
juge Anzilotti, p. 50 ; ibid., opinion dissidente du juge Hudson, p. 75‑78)
qu’on le retrouve d’une façon ou d’une autre dans tous les skystèmes juri ‑

diques. C’est le corollaire de la réciprocité et des accords syknallagmatiques.
Il s’ensuit que l’article 60 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités
n’est pas l’expression exclusive de l’exceptio. L’exception opposée au non‑
accomplissement de la prestation due est un principe général du drkoit,
l’un de ceux que consacre l’alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 38 du

Statut de la Cour. Or, comme la Cour l’a jugé dans l’affaire des Activités
militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci, le droit interna ‑
tional général et le droit conventionnel se recouvrent toujours. Lk’article 60
n’exclut pas le droit, pour la partie lésée, d’invoquer l’kexceptio. En particu‑

lier, il ne prévoit pas tous les cas de figure où la partie léksée réagit à l’ino‑b
servation, par l’autre partie contractante, de ses engagements. Il eskt vrai
que la Cour 63 n’a pas eu à se prononcer en détail sur cette question. Sur
une période de plusieurs décennies, des références y ont cepkendant été

faites, non seulement dans les opinions des juges dionisio Anzilotti (maître
à qui on rendrait hommage en rappelant qu’il avait une conception kpéda ‑
gogique du juge international) et Hudson devant la Cour permanente,
mais aussi dans celles des juges de Castro et Schwebel devant la présente
Cour (Prises d’eau à la Meuse, arrêt, 1937, C.P.J.I. série A/B n o 70, opi‑

nion dissidente du juge Hudson, p. 77 ; Conséquences juridiques pour les
Etats de la présence continue de l’Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud‑ ▯ Ouest
africain) nonobstant la résolution 276 (1970) du Conseil de sécurité, avis
consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1971, opinion individuelle du juge de Castro,

p. 213 ; Appel concernant la compétence du Conseil de l’OACI (Inde

63Voir cependant les remarques de W. Jenks concernant la CpJI, dans The Prospects of
International Adjudication, 1964, p. 326, note 30.

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65. The fact that the Interim Accord also contains provisions relating
to the European Union can be explained not only by the sui generis cha‑
racter of that Union (whether or not it is an international organizatiokn in
the classic sense), but also by the economic and commercial integrationk

that participation in the Union entails for its member States and by thek
fact that the matters in question fall within the Union’s jurisdictiokn. Fur‑
ther, the 1957 Treaty of Rome, as amended, provides procedural mecha ‑
nisms for any instances of incompatibility with obligations towards thirkd

States; the Interim Accord, on the other hand, like other treaties with k
provisions similar to Article 22, does not include any such procedural
mechanism to deal with incompatibility.

XI. Reliance, in the Alternkative, on the principle of
e xceptio n on a dimpleti c ontractus

66. Latin terms are not always well chosen. However, the exceptio in

question expresses a principle so just and so equitable (Diversion of Water
from the Meuse, Judgment, 1937, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 70, dissenting
opinion of Judge Anzilotti, p. 50 ; ibid., dissenting opinion of Judge Hud ‑
son, pp. 75‑78) that it can be found in one form or another in every legal

system. It is the corollary of reciprocity and synallagmatic agreements.k It
follows that Article 60 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
is not the sole form of expression of the exceptio. As a defence to the
non‑performance of an obligation, it is a general principle of law, as
enshrined in Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Statute of the Court. Yet,

as the Court found in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua, general international law and treaty
law constantly overlap. Article 60 does not deprive the injured party of
the right to invoke the exceptio. In particular, it does not make provision

for every scenario in which the injured party reacts to the non‑perfor ‑
mance by the other contracting party of its obligations. It is true thatk the
Court 63has not had occasion to rule in detail on the issue. Over a period
of several decades, it is, however, possible to find references to it knot only

in the opinions of Judges dionisio Anzilotti (who should be credited for
taking a pedagogical view of the role of the international judge) and Hkud ‑
son of the permanent Court, but also in those of Judges de Castro and
Schwebel of the present Court (Diversion of Water from the Meuse, Judg ‑
ment, 1937, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 70, dissenting opinion of Judge Hud‑

son, p. 77; Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of
South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security
Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971,
separate opinion of Judge de Castro, p. 213; Appeal Relating to the Juris ‑

diction of the ICAO Council (India v. Pakistan), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

63See, however, W. Jenks’s comments concerning the pCIJ in The Prospects of Inter‑
national Adjudication, 1964, p. 326, note 30.

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c. Pakistan), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972, opinion individuelle du juge de Cas ‑
tro, p. 129 ; Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre

celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1986, opinion dissidente du juge Schwebel, p. 380).
67. En ce qui concerne plus précisément l’alinéa b) du paragraphe 3 de

l’article 60 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités, paul Reuter,
présent à la conférence de Vienne de 1968‑1969 et rapporteur spkécial de la
Commission du droit international pour le droit des traités entre Etakts et
organisations internationales, a précisé que, lors de la rédactkion de cette

disposition, le terme «ou» (par opposition à « et») entre les mots « objet»
et «but» avait été choisi pour donner à la partie qui se prétendk lésée une
plus grande marge d’action 64. pendant seize ans, la grèce a réagi avec
modération (mildly) aux pratiques du demandeur et, face à la candidature

de celui‑ci à l’OTAN, n’a procédé à aucune suspension kou dénonciation de
l’accord en tant que tel. Ce faisant, elle a fait connaître largemkent sa posi ‑
tion, sans pour autant invoquer des articles précis de l’accord inktérimaire.

Le formalisme aveugle ne saurait nous faire retourner à l’Antiquitké
romaine, où certains gestes rituels déterminaient exactement les dkroits et
obligations des parties. Il conviendrait cependant de ne pas perdre de vue
le libellé du paragraphe 5 de l’article 65 de la convention de Vienne sur le

droit des traités, qui prévoit que, « [s]ans préjudice de l’article 45, le fait
qu’un Etat n’ait pas adressé la notification prescrite au parkagraphe 1 ne
l’empêche pas de faire cette notification en réponse à unek autre partie qui
demande l’exécution du traité ou qui allègue sa violation ».

XII. Les contre‑mesures

68. A titre également subsidiaire, le défendeur invoque les contre‑
mesures en tant que circonstance excluant l’illicéité. On sait kque ladite cir ‑
constance a fait l’objet d’une codification, assortie de certains aspects de

développement progressif du droit international, dans les articles dek la CdI
sur la « responsabilité de l’Etat pour fait internationalement illicite » 65. Se
référant à la fonction des circonstances excluant l’illicékité, la CdI a observé
que l’invocation d’une telle circonstance n’avait pas pour effket «d’annuler

ou d’éteindre l’obligation » sous‑jacente. Les circonstances excluant l’illi ‑
céité « constituent plutôt un fait justificatif ou une excuse de l’inexécu ‑
tion»; elles «jouent plus comme un bouclier que comme une épée » . 66

69. Ainsi que la Cour l’a relevé à diverses reprises, l’adoptionk de
contre‑mesures suppose, tout d’abord, l’existence préalable d’kun fait

64 p. Reuter, «Solidarité et divisibilité des engagements conventionnel»s, dans Y. dinstein

et m. Tabory (dir. publ.), International Law at a Time of Perplexity. Essays in Honour of
Sha65ai Rosenne, dordrecht, 1989, p. 623‑634, p. 628, note 9.
Voir rapport de la CdI, cinquante‑troisième session, NationUnies, doc. A/56/10,
art6622 et art. 49‑54.
Op. cit. supra note 65, p. 71.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 208 20/06/13 08:42 application of interkim accord (diss. op. rokucounas) 746

1972, separate opinion of Judge de Castro, p. 129; Military and Paramili ‑
tary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of

America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, dissenting opinion of
Judge Schwebel, p. 380).
67. In respect, more specifically, of paragraph 3 (b) of Article 60 of the
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, paul Reuter, who attended

the Vienna Conference of 1968‑1969 and was Special Rapporteur of the
International Law Commission on the Law of Treaties between States
and International Organizations, stated that, during the drafting of thakt
provision, the term “or” (and not “and”) between the wordsk “object” and

“purpose” had been chosen, so64s to give the party claiming injury a
greater freedom of action . For 16 years, greece has responded mildly to
the Applicant’s practices and, in the case of the latter’s applicaktion to join
NATO, it did not seek a suspension or termination of the Accord as such.k

In so doing, it made its position widely known, but without invoking spek ‑
cific articles of the Interim Accord. We should not allow unthinking fkor‑
malism to take us back to ancient Roman times, where certain formal
procedures determined the precise rights and obligations of the parties.k It

is, however, important not to lose sight of the wording of Article 65,
paragraph 5, of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, which
provides that: “[w]ithout prejudice to Article 45, the fact that a State has
not previously made the notification prescribed in paragraph 1 shall not

prevent it from making such notification in answer to another party
claiming performance of the treaty or alleging its violation”.

XII. Countermeasures

68. Also in the alternative, the Respondent invokes countermeasures

as a circumstance precluding wrongfulness. As we know, that circum ‑
stance has been codified, together with certain aspects of progressivek
development of international law, in the ILC Articles on the “Responski ‑
bility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts” . In regard to the role

of circumstances precluding wrongfulness, the ILC observed that invok ‑
ing such a circumstance does not “annul or terminate the [underlying]
obligation”. Rather, circumstances precluding wrongfulness “providke a
justification or excuse for non‑performance”; they “operate as ak shield
66
rather than a sword” .
69. As the Court has noted on several occasions, the adoption of
countermeasures presupposes, first of all, the prior existence of an iknter ‑

64
p. Reuter, “Solidarité et divisibilité des engagements conventioknnels”, in Y. dinstein
and m. Tabory (eds.), International Law at a Time of Perplexity. Essays in Honour of
Shabtai Rosenne, dordrecht, 1989, pp. 623‑634, p. 628, note 9.
65See the Report of the ILC, Fifty‑Third Session, UN doc. A/56/10, Art. 22 and
Arts. 49‑54.
66Op. cit. supra note 65, p. 71.

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internationalement illicite (voir notamment Personnel diplomatique et
consulaire des Etats‑Unis à Téhéran (Etats‑Unis d’Amériq▯ue c. Iran),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1980, p. 27‑28, par. 53 ; Activités militaires et para‑
militaires au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci (Nicaragua c. Etats‑Unis
d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 106, par. 201 ; Projet

Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1997,
p. 55‑56, par. 83). Le défendeur invoque à cet égard une série de viola ‑
tions par l’ERYm de l’accord intérimaire et tout particulièrement des
violations des articles 5, 6, 7 et 11 de cet accord, survenues avant le som ‑
met de Bucarest. Il a donc rempli les conditions formelles pour la mise en

œuvre des contre‑mesures.
70. par ailleurs, ainsi que la CdI l’a précisé,

«Les contre‑mesures sont limitées à l’inexécution temporaire k
d’obligations internationales de l’Etat prenant les mesures enversk
l’Etat responsable. Les contre‑mesures doivent, autant que possible, k
être prises d’une manière qui permette la reprise de l’exékcution de
67
l’obligation en question. »
71. La Cour a réaffirmé le principe de la réversibilité des contre‑

mesures en l’affaire Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros. Selon elle, une contre‑mesure
«doit avoir pour but d’inciter l’Etat auteur du fait illicite à exécuter les
obligations qui lui incombent en droit international, et … la mesure doit
partant être réversible » (voir Projet Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros (Hongrie/

Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1997, p. 56‑57, par. 87). En l’espèce, et
à supposer que l’attitude du défendeur au sujet de l’admission duk deman ‑
deur à l’OTAN constitue une contre‑mesure, celle‑ci est, par naturke,
réversible à tout moment.
72. pour ce qui est des conditions procédurales régissant le recours àk

des contre‑mesures, la CdI a proposé une disposition qui constitue un
mélange de codification et de développement progressif du droit kinterna ‑
tional. Le paragraphe 1 de l’article 52 du projet sur la responsabilité de
l’Etat prévoit ainsi que, « [a]vant de prendre des contre‑mesures, l’Etat
lésé doit : a) [d]emander à l’Etat responsable … de s’acquitter [de ses]

obligations». A cette première condition, la CdI en ajoute une autre, sui ‑
vant laquelle l’Etat lésé doit « [n]otifier à l’Etat responsable toute décision
de prendre des contre‑mesures et offrir de négocier avec cet Etat » (art. 52,
par. 1, al. b)). On relèvera à cet égard que c’est la tentative de régkler le

différend à l’amiable — et non l’épuisement des négociations — qui est
requise par le droit coutumier. En revanche, la coutume internationale nke
paraît pas exiger que soit notifiée la décision d’adopter kdes contre‑
mesures. Encore faut‑il souligner que ni la Cour ni la CdI n’ont précisé
la forme exacte des démarches à effectuer avant l’adoption deks contre‑

mesures. Cette imprécision correspond au droit coutumier, qui se carakcté ‑
rise par une flexibilité certaine en la matière.

67
Op. cit. supra note 65, art. 49, par. 2 et 3, p. 58.

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nationally wrongful act (see in particular United States Diplomatic and
Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v. Iran), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1980, pp. 27‑28, para. 53; Military and Paramilitary Activities
in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 106, para. 201; Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros

Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, pp. 55‑56,
para. 83). In that connection, the Respondent invokes a series of viola ‑
tions of the Interim Accord by the FYROm, and in particular violations
of Articles 5, 6, 7, and 11 of that Accord, which occurred before the
Bucharest Summit. It has, therefore, satisfied the substantive conditions

for the implementation of countermeasures.
70. moreover, as the ILC has stated:

“Countermeasures are limited to the non‑performance for the time
being of international obligations of the State taking the measures
towards the responsible State. Countermeasures shall, as far as pos ‑
sible, be taken in such a way as to permit the resumption of perfor ‑
67
mance of the obligations in question.”
71. The Court reaffirmed the principle of the reversibility of counter ‑

measures in the Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros case. According to the Court, the
purpose of a countermeasure “must be to induce the wrongdoing State tko
comply with its obligations under international law, and . . . the measure
must therefore be reversible” (see Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project (Hungary/

Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997, pp. 56‑57, para. 87). In the
present case, and assuming that the Respondent’s attitude to the subject of
the Applicant’s admission to NATO constitutes a countermeasure, that k
countermeasure is, by its nature, reversible at any time.
72. As far as the procedural conditions governing recourse to counter ‑

measures are concerned, the ILC proposed a provision which constitutes
a mix of codification and progressive development of international lawk.
Article 52, paragraph 1, of the draft Articles on the Responsibility of
States provides that “[b]efore taking countermeasures, an injured Stakte
shall: (a) call upon the responsible State . . . to fulfil its obligations”. To

that first condition, the ILC adds a second, according to which the inkjured
State must “notify the responsible State of any decision to take counkter ‑
measures and offer to negotiate with that State” (Art. 52, para. 1 (b)). It
will be noted in this respect that an attempt to resolve the difference by

friendly means — and not the failure of negotiations — is the norm
required by customary law. On the other hand, international custom does k
not appear to demand notification of the decision to adopt countermea ‑
sures. It is also necessary to point out that neither the Court nor the kILC
have specified the exact form of the steps to be taken before the adopktion

of countermeasures. This lack of precision reflects customary law, which k
is characterized by a certain flexibility in that respect.

67
Op. cit. supra note 65, Art. 49, paras. 2 and 3, p. 58.

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73. Reste la condition de fond régissant l’adoption de contre‑mesures,k à
savoir la proportionnalité. Le principe en question a été accepkté de longue
date dans la pratique étatique et dans la jurisprudence. Sa formulation

positive a été consacrée par la Cour, d’abord dans l’affkaire des Activités
militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui‑ci ( (Nicaragua
c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 127, par. 249 ;
voir également l’avis consultatif sur la Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi

d’armes nucléaires, C.I.J. Recueil 1996, par. 41 et suiv., concernant l’appli ‑
cation du principe de proportionnalité en matière de légitime dkéfense),
puis dans l’affaire Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros ; l’article 51 du texte de la CdI
sur la responsabilité de l’Etat dispose que « [l]es contre‑mesures doivent

être proportionnelles au préjudice subi, compte tenu de la gravité du fait
internationalement illicite et des droits en cause».
74. dans ses écritures et plaidoiries, le demandeur ne répond pas,
répond par des généralités ou encore de façon sélective aux cas concrets
68
de violation de l’accord intérimaire dont le défendeur tire grikef . Quel
que soit l’état actuel du droit international relatif aux contre‑mkesures, la
mesure adoptée par le défendeur satisfait à la condition de la kproportion ‑
nalité si l’on tient compte de l’ensemble du préjudice à kraison des viola ‑

tions des articles 5, 6, 7 et 11 de l’accord intérimaire. Or, en appréciant ces
violations, la Cour omet de se pencher sur le fond des problèmes.

75. Enfin, nombre de lecteurs de l’arrêt se demanderont certainementk
par quelle méthode — déductive ou inductive — la Cour est parvenue à

ses conclusions.

(Signé) Emmanuel Roucounas.

68Voir les protestations de la grèce dans son contre‑mémoire, annexes, vol. II, partie
A, annexe 62 ; partie B, annexes 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 109, 118 et 124. Total : 26. Le demandeur répond au sujet de
violations du droit diplomatique et consulaire, mais non pas à cellesk qui concernent les
livres scolaires, les cartes géographiques, les encyclopédies offikcielles.

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73. That leaves the substantive condition governing the adoption of
countermeasures, namely proportionality. That principle has long been

accepted in State practice and jurisprudence. Its positive formulation has
been confirmed by the Court, first in the case concerning Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua(Nicaragua v. United States
of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 127, para. 249 (see

also the Advisory Opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear
Weapons, I.C.J. Reports 1996, para. 41 et seq., on the application of the
principle of proportionality to self‑defence), then in the Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros
case; Article 51 of the ILC text on the Responsibility of States provides that

“[c]ountermeasures must be commensurate with the injury suffered, tkaking
into account the gravity of the internationally wrongful act and the rights
in question”.
74. In its written and oral pleadings, the Applicant does not respond,

or responds only generally, or even selectively, to the concrete exampleks
of violations of the Interim Accord complained of by the Respondent 68.
Whatever the current state of international law relating to counte r‑
measures, the measure adopted by the Respondent satisfies the conditiokn

of proportionality, taking into account the full extent of the injury sukffered
on account of the violations of Articles5, 6, 7 and11 of the Interim Accord.
Yet, in its assessment of those violations, the Court fails to address
the substance of the issues.

75. In conclusion, many of those who read the Judgment will certainly
wonder how — whether by deduction or induction — the Court reached
its decision.

(Signed) Emmanuel Roucounas.

68
See the protests by greece in the Counter‑memorial, Vol. II, part A, Ann. 62;
Counter‑memorial, part B, Anns. 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 109, 118 and 124. Total: 26. The Applicankt responds to the
violations of diplomatic and consular law, but not to those concerning skchool books, maps
and official encyclopedias.

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Dissenting opinion of Judge ad hoc Roucounas

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