Declaration of Judge Bennouna

Document Number
142-20111205-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
142-20111205-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

709

dECLARATION OF JUdgE BENNOUNA

[English Original Text]

Exceptio non adimpleti contractus — Synallagmatic obligations — Counter ‑
measures — Role of the judge — Dynamic analysis of international law.

my aim, in this declaration, is simply to point out that the Court has
chosen to evade certain key legal issues raised and discussed at length kby

the parties, sheltering behind its assessment of the facts relied on in sup ‑
port of the parties’ arguments, in order to conclude that it need not
address those issues.
Thus the Court, after recalling the arguments of the parties concerning
the application to this case of the exceptio non adimpleti contractus, is con‑

tent to conclude that “[t]he Respondent has thus failed to establish kthat
the conditions which it has itself asserted would be necessary for the akppli‑
cation of the exceptio have been satisfied in this case”, adding: “It is, there‑
fore, unnecessary for the Court to determine whether that doctrine forms
part of contemporary international law.” (Judgment, para. 161.)

First, the issue is not about determining whether or not a given theory
is recognized by general international law, but rather of ascertaining tkhe
scope, in general international law, of the principle of reciprocity, prke ‑
sented as exceptio non adimpleti contractus, with regard to the obligations

of the parties under the Interim Accord and, specifically, Article 11 thereof.
Even if the status of the exception in general international law remainsk
uncertain, as noted by certain scholars (J. Crawford and S. Olleson, “The
Exception of Non‑performance: Links between the Law of Treaties and
the Law of State Responsibility”, Australian Year Book of International

Law, 2000, Vol. 21), the fact is that, in the past, the Court has frequently
revisited concepts, institutions or norms, by taking into account the prko‑
cess of their evolution over time in accordance with the needs of the inter‑
national community.
The Court has thus demonstrated that its role, as a world court with

general jurisdiction, goes beyond the resolution, on a case‑by‑case basiks,
of the disputes submitted to it.
The Court could accordingly have taken the opportunity in the present
case to emphasize that the exceptio can only be contemplated, in general
international law, under a strict construction of reciprocity in the impkle‑

mentation of certain international obligations, where the implementationk
of one is inconceivable without the other. These are obligations of a
strictly interdependent nature. The Court thus considered in the case ofk
Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v.
France) that: “djibouti cannot rely on the principle of reciprocity”,

because the Convention on mutual Assistance in Criminal matters con ‑

69

5 CIJ1026.indb 134 20/06/13 08:42 710 application of interkim accord (decl. bennokuna)

cluded with France does not provide that “the granting of assistance kby
one State in respect of one matter imposes on the other State the obliga ‑

tion to do likewise when assistance is requested of it in turn” (Certain
Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 221, para. 119).
In the present case, the Court could have reached the same conclusion
in addressing the exceptio, since greece’s obligation not to oppose the

admission of the FYROm to NATO does not depend on the latter’s
implementation of some other obligation included in the Interim Accord, k
with the exception of that laid down in the second clause of Article 11,
paragraph 1, namely its agreement to join NATO under its provisional
name. Both obligations can be considered as synallagmatic: accession
under its provisional name on the one side, and the non‑objection to

admission on the other. The scope of the exception stops there, and can ‑
not concern the entire Interim Accord, presented by greece as a legal
transaction, a negotium, or a balanced exchange of reciprocal obligations
in the context of a modus vivendi (CR 2011/8, Abi‑Saab).
In the alternative, greece argued that its objection to the admission of

the FYROm to membership of NATO can be justified as a countermea ‑
sure, proportional to the breaches of the Interim Accord allegedly com ‑
mitted by the FYROm. Once again, the Court provided an account of
the parties’ arguments and then concluded that it “rejects the Respon ‑
dent’s claim that its objection could be justified as a countermeasure pre ‑

cluding the wrongfulness of the Respondent’s objection to the Applicaknt’s
admission to NATO”, basing itself on a factual finding, namely thatk there
had been no violation of the Interim Accord as alleged against the Appli ‑
cant. The Court adds that: “there is no reason for [it] to consider any of
the additional arguments advanced by the parties with respect to the law
governing countermeasures” (Judgment, para. 164).

I believe that, after recalling that, even if it is yet to be established that
the legal régime of countermeasures, as set forth in Articles 49 to 54 of
the International Law Commission’s draft Articles on the Responsibility
of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (annexed to resolution 56/83
of 12 december 2001 of the general Assembly of the United Nations) is

of a customary nature, the Court could have pointed out that that régkime
nonetheless provides certain procedural conditions for its implementatiokn
(Art. 52), which were not met in this case, notably the duty to “notify thke
responsible State of any decision to take countermeasures and offer
to negotiate with that State”. Since greece never fulfilled this obligation,

it cannot, in any case, invoke the right to take countermeasures in the k
present case.

Of course, whenever the Court considers a particular legal régime, itk
must bear in mind the overall legal context in which such a régime opker ‑
ates. The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, in providing, in

Article 31.3 (c), concerning the general rule of interpretation, that
“[t]here shall be taken into account, together with the context . . . any

70

5 CIJ1026.indb 136 20/06/13 08:42 711 application of interkim accord (decl. bennokuna)

relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between kthe
parties”, thus underlines the existing interconnection, not only between
different obligations of States, but also between the different areaks of
international law. In considering this interconnection, the Court cannotk
ignore the general architecture of this branch of the law, including thek

values that underpin it.
In a fragmented community, governed by a law which contains many
lacunae, as is the case for the international community, the judge owes kit
to himself to engage in a dynamic analysis of international law, taking k
account of its temporal and material evolution, and thus to go beyond thke

resolution on a case‑by‑case basis of the disputes submitted to him.

(Signed) mohamed Bennouna.

71

5 CIJ1026.indb 138 20/06/13 08:42

Bilingual Content

709

dECLARATION OF JUdgE BENNOUNA

[English Original Text]

Exceptio non adimpleti contractus — Synallagmatic obligations — Counter ‑
measures — Role of the judge — Dynamic analysis of international law.

my aim, in this declaration, is simply to point out that the Court has
chosen to evade certain key legal issues raised and discussed at length kby

the parties, sheltering behind its assessment of the facts relied on in sup ‑
port of the parties’ arguments, in order to conclude that it need not
address those issues.
Thus the Court, after recalling the arguments of the parties concerning
the application to this case of the exceptio non adimpleti contractus, is con‑

tent to conclude that “[t]he Respondent has thus failed to establish kthat
the conditions which it has itself asserted would be necessary for the akppli‑
cation of the exceptio have been satisfied in this case”, adding: “It is, there‑
fore, unnecessary for the Court to determine whether that doctrine forms
part of contemporary international law.” (Judgment, para. 161.)

First, the issue is not about determining whether or not a given theory
is recognized by general international law, but rather of ascertaining tkhe
scope, in general international law, of the principle of reciprocity, prke ‑
sented as exceptio non adimpleti contractus, with regard to the obligations

of the parties under the Interim Accord and, specifically, Article 11 thereof.
Even if the status of the exception in general international law remainsk
uncertain, as noted by certain scholars (J. Crawford and S. Olleson, “The
Exception of Non‑performance: Links between the Law of Treaties and
the Law of State Responsibility”, Australian Year Book of International

Law, 2000, Vol. 21), the fact is that, in the past, the Court has frequently
revisited concepts, institutions or norms, by taking into account the prko‑
cess of their evolution over time in accordance with the needs of the inter‑
national community.
The Court has thus demonstrated that its role, as a world court with

general jurisdiction, goes beyond the resolution, on a case‑by‑case basiks,
of the disputes submitted to it.
The Court could accordingly have taken the opportunity in the present
case to emphasize that the exceptio can only be contemplated, in general
international law, under a strict construction of reciprocity in the impkle‑

mentation of certain international obligations, where the implementationk
of one is inconceivable without the other. These are obligations of a
strictly interdependent nature. The Court thus considered in the case ofk
Certain Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v.
France) that: “djibouti cannot rely on the principle of reciprocity”,

because the Convention on mutual Assistance in Criminal matters con ‑

69

5 CIJ1026.indb 134 20/06/13 08:42 709

dÉCLARATION dE m. LE JUgE BENNOUNA

[Texte original français]

Exceptio non adimpleti contractus — Obligations synallagmatiques — Contre‑
mesures — Rôle du juge — Analyse dynamique du droit international.

Je souhaite, par cette déclaration, relever simplement que la Cour a
choisi d’esquiver certaines questions juridiques essentielles soulevékes et

débattues longuement par les parties, en s’abritant derrière son évalua ‑
tion des faits avancés, pour conclure qu’il n’est pas nécesskaire d’analyser
de telles questions.
Ainsi, la Cour, après avoir rappelé les arguments des parties au sujet de
l’application à l’espèce de l’exceptio non adimpleti contractus, se contente

de conclure que «[l]e défendeur n’a donc pas établi qu’il avait été satkisfait,
en l’espèce, aux conditions, énoncées par lui‑même, qui seraient requises
pour que l’exceptio s’applique » et elle ajoute : « [d]ès lors, il n’est pas
nécessaire que la Cour détermine si cette théorie fait partie dku droit inter‑
national contemporain» (arrêt, par. 161).

Tout d’abord, il ne s’agit pas de déterminer si une théorie kfait partie ou
non du droit international mais plutôt de rechercher quelle est la pokrtée,
en droit international général, du principe de réciprocité pkrésenté comme
exceptio non adimpleti contractus, par rapport aux obligations des parties

au titre de l’accord intérimaire, et notamment l’article 11 de celui‑ci.
Si le statut de l’exceptio peut être considéré comme incertain en droit
international général, ainsi que l’a relevé la doctrine (J.k Crawford et
S. Olleson, «The Exception of Non‑performance: Links between the Law
of Treaties and the Law of State Responsibility», Australian Year Book of

International Law, 2000, vol. 21), il n’en demeure pas moins que, par le
passé, la Cour a souvent revisité des concepts, des institutions oku des
normes, en prenant en compte le processus de leur évolution dans le
temps en fonction des nécessités de la communauté internationalke.
La Cour a démontré ainsi que son rôle, en tant que cour mondialke à

compétence générale, va au‑delà du règlement, au cas par kcas, des diffé ‑
rends qui lui sont soumis.
dès lors, à l’occasion de cette affaire, la Cour aurait pu soukligner que
l’exceptio ne peut être envisagée, en droit international général, quek dans
le cadre d’une acception stricte de la réciprocité dans la misek en œuvre de

certaines obligations internationales, lorsque l’application de l’kune est
inconcevable en dehors de celle de l’autre. Il s’agit donc d’obkligations
strictement interdépendantes. La Cour a estimé ainsi, dans l’affkaire rela‑
tive à Certaines questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire en matière pé▯nale
(Djibouti c. France), que «djibouti ne peut se fonder sur le principe de

réciprocité» car la convention d’entraide judiciaire qu’il a conclue avec kla

69

5 CIJ1026.indb 135 20/06/13 08:42 710 application of interkim accord (decl. bennokuna)

cluded with France does not provide that “the granting of assistance kby
one State in respect of one matter imposes on the other State the obliga ‑

tion to do likewise when assistance is requested of it in turn” (Certain
Questions of Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (Djibouti v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 221, para. 119).
In the present case, the Court could have reached the same conclusion
in addressing the exceptio, since greece’s obligation not to oppose the

admission of the FYROm to NATO does not depend on the latter’s
implementation of some other obligation included in the Interim Accord, k
with the exception of that laid down in the second clause of Article 11,
paragraph 1, namely its agreement to join NATO under its provisional
name. Both obligations can be considered as synallagmatic: accession
under its provisional name on the one side, and the non‑objection to

admission on the other. The scope of the exception stops there, and can ‑
not concern the entire Interim Accord, presented by greece as a legal
transaction, a negotium, or a balanced exchange of reciprocal obligations
in the context of a modus vivendi (CR 2011/8, Abi‑Saab).
In the alternative, greece argued that its objection to the admission of

the FYROm to membership of NATO can be justified as a countermea ‑
sure, proportional to the breaches of the Interim Accord allegedly com ‑
mitted by the FYROm. Once again, the Court provided an account of
the parties’ arguments and then concluded that it “rejects the Respon ‑
dent’s claim that its objection could be justified as a countermeasure pre ‑

cluding the wrongfulness of the Respondent’s objection to the Applicaknt’s
admission to NATO”, basing itself on a factual finding, namely thatk there
had been no violation of the Interim Accord as alleged against the Appli ‑
cant. The Court adds that: “there is no reason for [it] to consider any of
the additional arguments advanced by the parties with respect to the law
governing countermeasures” (Judgment, para. 164).

I believe that, after recalling that, even if it is yet to be established that
the legal régime of countermeasures, as set forth in Articles 49 to 54 of
the International Law Commission’s draft Articles on the Responsibility
of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (annexed to resolution 56/83
of 12 december 2001 of the general Assembly of the United Nations) is

of a customary nature, the Court could have pointed out that that régkime
nonetheless provides certain procedural conditions for its implementatiokn
(Art. 52), which were not met in this case, notably the duty to “notify thke
responsible State of any decision to take countermeasures and offer
to negotiate with that State”. Since greece never fulfilled this obligation,

it cannot, in any case, invoke the right to take countermeasures in the k
present case.

Of course, whenever the Court considers a particular legal régime, itk
must bear in mind the overall legal context in which such a régime opker ‑
ates. The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, in providing, in

Article 31.3 (c), concerning the general rule of interpretation, that
“[t]here shall be taken into account, together with the context . . . any

70

5 CIJ1026.indb 136 20/06/13 08:42 application d’accorkd intérimaire (décl. beknnouna) 710

France ne prévoit pas que « l’octroi par un Etat d’une assistance dans un
dossier donné impose à l’autre de faire de même lorsqu’ilk est sollicité à

son tour »(Certaines questions concernant l’entraide judiciaire en matière
pénale (Djibouti c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 221, par. 119).

La Cour, dans la présente affaire, aurait pu parvenir à la mêkme conclu ‑
sion en abordant l’exceptio car l’obligation de la grèce de ne pas s’opposer

à l’admission de l’ERYm à l’OTAN n’est pas fonction de la mise en œuvre
d’une autre obligation contenue dans l’accord intérimaire, àk l’exception de
celle prévue par la deuxième clause du paragraphe 1 de l’article 11, à savoir
l’accès de l’ERYm à cette organisation sous son nom provisoire. Les deux
obligations peuvent être considérées comme synallagmatiques, sokit l’accès
sous le nom provisoire d’un côté et la non‑objection à l’kadmission de

l’autre; la portée de l’exceptio s’arrête là, elle ne peut concerner l’ensemble
de l’accord intérimaire présenté par la grèce comme une transaction juri ‑
dique, un negotium ou un échange équilibré d’engagements réciproques
dans le contexte d’un modus vivendi (CR 2011/8, Abi‑Saab).
Un autre moyen de défense a été avancé, à titre subsidiaire, par la

grèce lorsqu’elle a soutenu que l’objection à l’admission kde l’ERYm à
l’OTAN peut être justifiée en tant que contre‑mesure proportikonnée aux
violations de l’accord intérimaire qu’elle lui impute. La Cour,k là aussi,
après avoir rendu compte de l’argumentation des parties, a conclu qu’elle
«rejette la prétention du défendeur selon laquelle son objection pokurrait

se justifier comme une contre‑mesure excluant l’illicéité de kl’opposition
manifestée par lui à l’admission du demandeur à l’OTAN » et ceci sur une
base factuelle, soit l’absence de violation de l’accord intérimkaire imputée
au demandeur. Elle ajoute : «[la Cour] n’a donc pas à examiner les argu ‑
ments supplémentaires que les parties ont pu avancer au sujet du droit
régissant les contre‑mesures » (arrêt, par. 164).

Je pense que la Cour aurait pu, après avoir rappelé que, bien qu’kil ne
soit pas établi que le régime juridique des contre‑mesures prévku aux
articles 49 à 54 du projet d’articles sur la responsabilité de l’Etat pour fakit
internationalement illicite de la Commission du droit international
(annexé à la résolution de l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies 56/83

du 12 décembre 2001) ait un caractère coutumier, il n’en demeure pas
moins que ce régime prévoit certaines conditions procédurales pkour sa
mise en œuvre (art. 52) et que celles‑ci n’ont pas été remplies en l’espèce,k
notamment l’obligation de « [n]otifier à l’Etat responsable toute décision
de prendre des contre‑mesures et offrir de négocier avec cet Etat ». Or, la

grèce ne s’étant jamais acquittée de cette obligation, elle nke pourrait pas,
de toute façon, invoquer le droit de recourir à des contre‑mesuresk en la
présente affaire.
Bien entendu, lorsque la Cour se penche sur tel ou tel régime juridiqkue
particulier, elle devrait le faire en ayant à l’esprit le contextek juridique glo
bal dans lequel il s’inscrit. Ainsi, lorsque la convention de Vienne ksur le

droit des traités prévoit à l’article 31.3 c), relatif à la règle générale d’inter
prétation, qu’« [i]l sera tenu compte, en même temps que du contexte :

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5 CIJ1026.indb 137 20/06/13 08:42 711 application of interkim accord (decl. bennokuna)

relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between kthe
parties”, thus underlines the existing interconnection, not only between
different obligations of States, but also between the different areaks of
international law. In considering this interconnection, the Court cannotk
ignore the general architecture of this branch of the law, including thek

values that underpin it.
In a fragmented community, governed by a law which contains many
lacunae, as is the case for the international community, the judge owes kit
to himself to engage in a dynamic analysis of international law, taking k
account of its temporal and material evolution, and thus to go beyond thke

resolution on a case‑by‑case basis of the disputes submitted to him.

(Signed) mohamed Bennouna.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 138 20/06/13 08:42 application d’accorkd intérimaire (décl. beknnouna) 711

… de toute règle pertinente du droit international applicable dans les krel‑a
tions entre les parties», elle souligne l’interconnexion, non seulement entre
les différentes obligations des Etats, mais aussi entre les diffékrents domaines
du droit international. En appréciant cette interconnexion, la Cour nke peut
ignorer l’architecture globale de cette branche du droit, y compris lkes

valeurs qui la fondent.
dans une communauté fragmentée et régie par un droit lacunaire, telle
que la communauté internationale, le juge se doit de procéder àk une ana ‑
lyse dynamique du droit international, dans son évolution temporelle ket
matérielle, et d’aller ainsi au‑delà du règlement, au cas par cas, des diffé ‑

rends qui lui sont soumis.

(Signé) mohamed Bennouna.

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Document file FR
Document Long Title

Declaration of Judge Bennouna

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