Separate opinion of Judge Simma

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142-20111205-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
142-20111205-JUD-01-00-EN
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695

SEpARATE OpINION OF JUdgE SImmA

The Court missed an opportunity to clarify a controversial point of law ▯by
avoiding to deal with the question whether the exceptio non adimpleti contractus,

put forward by the Respondent as a “defence” against the accusatio▯n of treaty
breach separate, and to be distinguished, from reliance on Article 60 of the
1969 Vienna Convention or on a justification of Greece’s objection to FYRO▯M’s
admission to NATO by qualifying it as a countermeasure, still has a right of place
in international law — the answer which the Court should have given, is an
unqualified “no”: Article 60 of the Vienna Convention is to be understood as
exhausting the right, flowing from a primary rule of the law of treaties, to suspend
performance of a treaty obligation as a reaction to a prior breach by an▯other
part — a countermeasure applied in the same context might to an external obser▯ver
be hard to distinguish from the operation of Article60, but would be based on a

secondary rule of State responsibility and thus be subject to a differen▯t legal
régime.

1. I am in agreement with the findings of the Court with regard to both
its jurisdiction and the merits of the case. The only concern I have relkates

to the way in which the Judgment treats one specific argument advancedk
by the Respondent, namely the issue of the so‑called exceptio non adim ‑
pleti contractus.
2. To explain my concern and put the matter into context: greece’s

main defence against the Applicant’s accusation of breach of the Interim
Accord through the Respondent’s behaviour in the question of the
FYROm’s NATO membership was, obviously, to deny such breach alto ‑
gether and contend that it complied with its obligations under the Accorkd.

But then greece put forward the alternative argument that even if the
Court were to find that the Respondent had violated the Interim Accordk,
the wrongfulness of greece’s objection to the admission of the FYROm
to NATO would be precluded by — no less than — three justifications
(“subsidiary defences”), presented with different degrees of ckonviction

and thus convincingness, as it were, but all based on the allegation of k
prior breaches of the Interim Accord committed by the Republic of
macedonia: in the first instance by the doctrine of the exceptio non adim ‑
pleti contractus, secondly, because greece’s objection could be explained

as a response to material breaches of the Accord by the FYROm on the
basis of the law of treaties, and thirdly, because greece’s behaviour could
also be regarded as a countermeasure against the FYROm’s preceding
breaches recognized as justified by the law of State responsibility.

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3. The Judgment ultimately rejects all of these defences, and rightly so.
It does so for two reasons: to begin with, the Court was only able to fiknd

one single, isolated instance in which the Applicant violated the Interikm
Accord — a breach discontinued after the Respondent had raised its
concern (Judgment, paras. 148‑151, 160), and not accepted by the Court
as having been material (ibid., para. 163). Furthermore, the Judgment
emphasizes that in no case had greece succeeded in convincing the Court

that its objection to macedonia’s admission to NATO had any factual
connection with — i.e., was a response to — the Applicant’s alleged prior
treaty breaches, thus possibly giving rise to the various justificatiokns
pleaded (ibid., paras. 161, 163‑164). I fully support this finding. I am
convinced that before and at the time of NATO’s Bucharest meeting, thkat
is, at the time of greece’s objection to FYROm membership of the

Alliance in violation of the Interim Accord, nobody responsible for this
course of action in Athens thought of this objection as constituting anyk of
the reactions foreseen in international law to counter a preceding treaty
breach by the Applicant, as which it was construed after the fact by gree ‑
ce’s counsel in the present litigation, neither in terms of the exceptio nor

as a reaction to breach allowed by the law of treaties nor as a counter ‑
measure in the technical sense. I have difficulties to view greece’s 2008
action as anything but a politically motivated attempt at coercing the
FYROm to back down on the name issue. After having been brought
before the Court, what the Respondent then tried ex post facto was to

hide, somewhat desperately and with a pinch of embarrassment, this
show of political force amounting to a treaty breach behind the three
juridical fig leaves, presented as “subsidiary defences” by veryk able coun ‑
sel (but ad impossibilia nemo tenetur). In the Judgment, these arguments
got the treatment they deserved.

4. Let me now turn to the specific point on which I take issue with the

Court’s approach: the way in which the Judgment goes about the evaluak ‑
tion of the exceptio non adimpleti contractus, put forward, as I have just
described, by greece as a justification separate, and different, from the
other two “defences” of response to breach positioned in the law okf trea ‑
ties and that of State responsibility. greece presented the exceptio as a

“general principle of international law” permitting the Respondentk to
withhold performance of those of its own obligations which are recipro ‑
cal to, i.e., linked in a synallagmatic relationship with, the fundamentkal
provisions of the Interim Accord allegedly not complied with by the
Applicant (thus the description of the greek position in the Judgment’s
paragraph 115). Further (and conveniently), the Respondent contended

that “the conditions triggering the exception of non‑performance are k
different from and less rigid than the conditions for suspending a trekaty

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or precluding wrongfulness by way of countermeasures” (Counter‑
memorial of greece, para. 8.7); thus, the exception “does not have to be

notified or proven beforehand . . . There are simply no procedural require‑
ments to the exercise of the staying of the performance through the
mechanism of the exceptio.” (Ibid., para. 8.26.)

5. The Applicant, on the contrary, doubted the character of the excep‑
tio as a general principle of international law and disputed the greek
contention that its own obligations under the Interim Accord are to be
regarded as synallagmatic with the Respondent’s obligation not to objkect
stipulated in Article 11, paragraph 1, of the Accord. In the FYROm’s
view, Article 60 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

provides a complete set of rules and procedures governing responses to
material breaches under that law. Furthermore, the Applicant did not
accept that the exceptio could justify non‑performance under the law of
State responsibility (thus the summary of the FYROm’s view in para ‑
graph 117 of the Judgment).

6. In the face of such conflicting statements about points of law —
arguments playing a non‑negligible role in the framing of the Res ‑
pondent’s case, whether bordering the specious or not —, one would have

expected the Court to go to the heart of the matter and engage in a
state‑of‑the‑art exercise of clarifying the legal status and interrelationship
of the three “defences” invoked by greece. However, the Court refrained
from doing so. Such abstinence will once again disappoint those obser ‑
vers who might have expected some illuminating words on rather contro ‑
versial questions of law; a decision a little less “transactional” in a matter

in which the Court could have afforded to speak out. As concerns the
exceptio non adimpleti contractus in particular, it appears that the Court
openly shies away from taking a stand. Let us see how it deals with the k
exceptio as invoked by greece: as I have already mentioned, the Court
recalls that the Respondent failed to establish breaches of the Interim k

Accord save in one immaterial instance and to show a connection between k
that one breach and the greek objection to the Applicant’s admission to
NATO. And then the Judgment continues as follows:

“The Respondent has thus failed to establish that the conditions
which it has itselfasserted would be necessary for the application of the

exceptio have been satisfied in this case. It is, therefore, unnecessary for
the Court to determine whether that doctrine forms part of contempo ‑
rary international law.” (Judgment, para. 161; emphasis added.)

That much about jura novit curia. Why such Berührungsangst?

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7. As far as I am concerned, I may have become immunized against

the Court’s apparent haptophobia in my academic childhood, having
authored my first scholarly article in English on the question of treakty
breach and responses thereto more than 40 years ago . So I may be
allowed, in all due modesty, to set the record straight and try to compekn ‑

sate the Court’s abstinence as to the exceptio’s whereabouts and “right to
life” with the following brief observations 2.

8. In its Counter‑memorial the Respondent defines the exceptio in
accordance with the respective entry in the Dictionnaire de droit interna ‑
tional public:

“Literally: [the] ‘exception of a non‑performed contract’. An excep‑

tion that the injured parties can invoke because of the non‑perfor ‑
mance of a conventional agreement by another contractual party and
which allows in turn not to apply in turn the conventional agreement

in part or as a whole.” (Counter‑memorial of greece, para. 8.8.)

9. greece distinguishes the exceptio so defined from Article 60 of the
Vienna Convention. In its view, while Article 60 presupposes the occur ‑
rence of material breaches, the exceptio entitles a State to suspend perfor‑
mance of its own obligations vis‑à‑vis another State in breach of

obligations that do not amount to material breaches (ibid., para. 8.28). I
have already drawn attention to greece’s further statement according to
which the exceptio can be resorted to without any procedural precondi ‑

tions. Lastly, the Respondent argues that “the condition triggering tkhe
defence based on the exceptio non adimpleti contractus is that the Appli ‑
cant State has breached its obligations resulting from the Treaty if said
provisions are the quid pro quo of the allegedly breached obligations

of the Respondent” (ibid., para. 8.31; see also CR 2011/10, pp. 30‑32,
paras. 18‑27).

1B. Simma, “Reflections on Article 60 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Trea ‑
ties and Its Background in general International Law”, in 20 Österreichische Zeitschrift

für öffentliches Recht, pp. 5‑83 (1970). Since, as the French say, on revient toujours à
ses premiers amours, I have returned to my academic first love in a number of further
contributions; cf., B. Simma, “Zum Rücktrittsrecht wegen Vertragsverletzung nach der
Wiener Konvention von 1969”, in H. Kipp (ed.), Um Recht und Freiheit. Festschrift für
F. A. Freiherr von der Heydte, pp. 615‑630 (1977); “Termination and Suspension of Trea ‑
ties: Two Recent Austrian Cases”, in 21 German Yearbook of International Law, pp. 74‑96
(1978); Commentary on Article 60 (together with Christian Tams), in O. Corten and
p. Klein (eds.), The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A Commentary, Vol. II,
pp. 1351‑1378 (2011); “Reciprocity”, in R. Wolfrum (ed.), The Max Planck Encyclopedia
of Public International Law (online edition 2011).
2They are essentially based on my earlier publications cited in the precekding note, to
which I must refer the reader for a more profound treatment of the mattekr, as well as on

some “work in progress” on responses to breach of treaties.

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10. Even before any assessment of the correctness of greece’s views,
what becomes apparent already now is that the concept of the exceptio
flows from the principle of reciprocity. The importance of this notion fokr
the “health” of international law can hardly be overestimated. Reckipro ‑
city constitutes a basic phenomenon of social interaction and conse ‑

quently a decisive factor also behind the growth and application of law.k
In fully developed domestic legal systems the idea of reciprocity has tok a
large extent been absorbed and supplanted by specific norms and institu ‑
tions; immediate, instinctive, raw, reciprocity has been “domesticatekd”, as
it were. The lower the degree of institutionalization of a legal order, k

however, the more mechanisms of direct reciprocity will still prevail ask
such. Hence, its continuing relevance for international law despite the k
latter’s undeniable movement from bilateralism towards community
interest: as long as the international legal order lacks regular and

comprehensive mechanisms of centralized enforcement and thus has to
live with auto‑determination and self‑help, reciprocity will remain a makjor
leitmotiv — in some instances a constructive force maintaining stability in
the law, in some others a threat to that very stability. Reciprocity at kthe
basis of international law thus bears a Janus head: one and the same ideka

can serve both as a propelling force in the making and keeping of the lakw
and as a trigger in the breakdown of legal order. Focusing on the positikve
impact of our phenomenon, it will be reciprocal interest in the observance
of rules — “each . . . State within the community of nations accepting

some subtraction from its full sover3ignty in return for similar conces ‑
sions on the side of the others” — that supplies one, if not the main
reason for international law somehow managing to accomplish its tasks,
despite the absence of most features considered indispensable by domestikc
lawyers. The possibility of a State reciprocating in kind a breach of ank

international obligation will provide a powerful argument for its obser ‑
vance. The idea of reciprocity therefore lies at the root of various metkhods
of self‑help by which States may secure their rights. The historical devk‑
elopment of these methods provides convincing examples of how “raw”k
reciprocity has been channelled and civilized by subjecting it to legal

limits. In this way, reciprocity has been crystallized into internationakl
law’s sanctioning mechanisms, among them reprisals (nowadays politi ‑
cally correctly called “countermeasures”) and non‑performance of ktreaties
due to breach.

11. It is to that second category that the exceptio belongs. To use the
terms of the law in force on the matter (Article 60 of the 1969 Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties, on which infra), if an international

3
The Cristina (1938), A.C. 485.

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treaty has been breached, the other party, or parties, to the treaty mayk
invoke the breach as a ground for terminating it or suspending its operak‑
tion; such reaction is permissible as a consequence of — and thus depen ‑

ding on — the synallagmatic character of international agreements.
Expressed a bit more emphatically: “The rule pacta sunt servanda is linked
to the rule do ut des” 4; “good sense and equity rebel at the idea of a State

being held to the performance of its obligations unde5 a treaty which the
other contracting party is refusing to respect” .

12. The functional synallagma thus confirmed to be applicable also in
international law has its historical roots in the law of contracts of most
legal systems. Its genealogy can be traced back to the ancient Roman law
6
foundations of the civil law tradition (the Roman bonae fidei judicia) , as
well as to early English contract law concepts of reciprocity in dependeknt
obligations or mutual promises, the doctrine of consideration, and breackh
7
of condition . According to what is probably the majority view in inter ‑
national legal doctrine, the widespread acceptance of the principle in tkhe
main legal traditions of the civil and common law systems allows to recok ‑

gnize it as a general principle of law under Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of
the Court’s Statute.

13. The question is, of course, the transferability of such a concept
developed in foro domestico to the international legal plane, respectively

the amendments that it will have to undergo in order for such a general k
principle to be able to play a constructive role also at the internationkal
level. The problem that we face in this regard is that in fully developekd

national legal systems the functional synallagma will operate under the k
control of the courts, that is, at least, such control will always be avkailable
if a party affected by its application does not accept the presence ofk the
conditions required to have recourse to our principle. What we encounterk

at the level of international law, however, will all too often be instankces of
non‑performance of treaty obligations accompanied by invocation of our
principle, but without availability of recourse to impartial adjudicatiokn of
8
the legality of these measures . Absent the leash of judicial control, our
principle will thus become prone to abuse; the issue of legality will often

4m. Bartos in the course of the discussion of what would become Article 60, at the
692nd meeting of the International Law Commission, Yearbook of the International Law

Com5ission (YBILC), 1963, Vol. I, p. 124, para. 30.
H. Waldock, Second Report on the Law of Treaties, commentary to Article 20,
para. 1, YBILC, 1963, Vol. II, p. 73.
6R. Zimmermann, The Law of Obligations : Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradi ‑
tion, 1990, pp. 801‑802, note 133.
7Ibid., pp. 803‑804.
8For extensive references to State practice, see my 1970 article, op. cit. supra note 1.

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remain contested; a State resorting to unilateral abrogation might have

been

“determined for quite other reasons [than an alleged breach] to put akn
end to the treaty and, having alleged the violation primarily to providek

a respectable pretext for its action, has not been prepared to enter intko
a serious discussion of the legal principles governing the denunciation
of treaties on the basis of violations by the other party” 9.

The frequency of precisely these circumstances in the relevant State prakc‑
tice renders state‑of‑the art recognition of the principle’s consecraktion as

customary international law very difficult — a point not always heeded in
doctrine.
14. The traditional, “standard”, treatment of the functional synal ‑

lagma in the international legal literature has thus consisted in its rekcogn ‑i
tion in principle, supported by its apparent matter‑of‑courseness, oftenk
with a hint to the existence of a respective general principle, but thenk fre ‑

quently accompanied by a warning of the danger of auto‑determination
of its pre‑conditions 10. The complications brought about by the emergence
of multilateral treaties did not unduly bother the bulk of the literaturke.

15. The recognition of our principle dates back to the classic writers of
our discipline. According to Hugo grotius, for instance, “[i]f one of the
parties violates a treaty, such a violation releases the other from its kengage ‑
11
ments. For every clause has the binding force of a condition.” And in the
same sense Emeric de Vattel: “[T]he State which is offended or injukred by
the failure of the other to carry out the treaty can choose either to fokrce the

offender to fulfil its promises or can declare the treaty dissolved kbecause of
the violation of its provisions.” 12 Similar statements abound in the litera ‑
ture up to the time of the Vienna Convention, to which I will turn shortkly.

16. Among the confirmations of the consequences of synallagmatic
treaty provisions in the case of breach in the (pre‑Vienna Convention)k
jurisprudence of international courts and tribunals, the voices of Judgeks
Anzilotti and Hudson in their opinions in the case of Diversion of Water

from the Meuse, decided by the permanent Court in 1937, are probably
most representative. In that case Belgium had contended that by construck ‑

9 H. Waldock, Second Report on the Law of Treaties, commentary to Article 20, op.

cit10supra note 5.
11Extensive references in my 1970 article, op. cit. supra note 1.
De Iure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres, Vol. II, Chap. 15, para. 15 (1625; English transla ‑
tion from B. p. Sinha, Unilateral Denunciation of Treaty because of Prior Violations of
Obligations by other Party Nine (1966)).
12Le droit des gens, ou principes de la loi naturelle, appliqués à l▯a conduite et aux affaires
des nations et des souverains, Vol. II, Chap. 13, para. 200 (1758; English translation by
Fenwick, Carnegie Edition, 1916). For extensive references to the viewsk of early and
contemporary writers on our principle, see my 1970 article, op. cit. supra note 1.

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ting certain works contrary to a nineteenth‑century treaty, the Nether ‑
lands had forfeited the right to invoke the treaty, and requested the Cokurt

to declare that it was entitled to reserve the rights accruing to it frokm the
breaches of the treaty. The Court found that the Netherlands had not
breached the treaty and therefore did not pronounce upon Belgium’s

contention. Judge Anzilotti took a different view, however, and empha ‑
sized in his dissenting opinion that he was

“convinced that the principle underlying this submission (inadim ‑
plenti non est adimplendum) is so just, so equitable, so universally
recognized, that it must be applied in international relations also. In

any case, it is one of these ‘general principles of law recognized byk
civilized nations’ which the Court applies in virtue of Article 38 of its
Statute.” 13

In the same vein, Judge Hudson, in his individual opinion in the case,
expressed the view

“that where two parties have assumed an identical or a reciprocal
obligation, one party which is engaged in a continuing non‑perfor ‑

mance of that obligation should not be permitted to take advantage
of a similar non‑performance of that obligation by the other party”. 14

17. Like any decent principle, ours, too, got a Latin name, respectively
a Latin circumscription — in fact not just one, but several: frangenti fidem
non est fides servanda, inadimplenti non est adimplendum, exceptio non(▯rite)
15
adimpleti contractus . Returning to plain English, what is relevant here is
that in the overwhelming part of the literature, no distinction was ever, or
is currently, made between the maxim inadimplenti non est adimplendum

and its expression in the form of an exceptio; both Latin terms pronounce
the same principle — inadimplenti in its entirety, the exceptio viewed from
the position of a State which, upon another contracting party’s demand
for performance of a treaty obligation, responds in the good old Roman

law way by connecting its own non‑performance with a breach on the
part of the other. This is important in the light of my following point:k the
“reach” of the codification of our principle in Article 60 of the Vienna
Convention.

18. In the work of the International Law Commission on the law of

treaties, the provision dealing with breach, Article 60, is essentially based
on a proposal made by Special Rapporteur H. Waldock in 1963, that is,

13Diversion of Water from the Meuse, Judgment, 1937, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 70,

p. 14 (dissenting opinion Judge Anzilotti).
15Ibid., p. 77 (individual opinion Judge Hudson).
It remained for the editors of the Yearbook of the International Law Commission to
combine the two terms by speaking of a maxim exceptio inadimplenti non est adimplendum,
and ascribing this strange creation to me: YBILC, 1999, Vol. I, p. 165, para. 41.

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at a relatively late stage in the legislative history of the Vienna Conven ‑
16
tion . It developed into a complex Article which, according to the
general view, copes quite successfully with the challenge of retaining

legal certainty in the face of the many complications in the operation of
our principle, in particular of its application to different types of kmultilateral
treaties 17.

19. What is decisive in the present context, however, is that Article 60
of the Vienna Convention is meant to regulate the legal consequences of k
treaty breach in an exhaustive way. The exhaustive, conclusive nature ofk

our provision is confirmed by the Convention’s Article 42, paragraph 2,
which reads as follows:

“2. The termination of a treaty, its denunciation or the withdrawal

of a party, may take place only as a result of the application of the
provisions of the treaty or of the present Convention. The same rule

applies to suspension of the operation of a treaty.”

20. Thus, extra conventionem nulla salus; on this point, the Applicant got
it quite right (cf. paragraph 5 above). But, as a matter of course, Article 42

16
For details see my 1970 article, op. cit. supra note 1.
17 Article 60 reads as follows:

“Termination or suspension of the operation of a treaty as a consequence ▯of its
breach

1. A material breach of a bilateral treaty by one of the parties entitles tkhe other to
invoke the breach as a ground for terminating the treaty or suspending ikts opera‑
tion in whole or in part.
2. A material breach of a multilateral treaty by one of the parties entitleks:

(a) the other parties by unanimous agreement to suspend the operation of thek
treaty in whole or in part or to terminate it either:

(i) in the relations between themselves and the defaulting State; or
(ii) as between all the parties;
(b) a party specially affected by the breach to invoke it as a ground for ksuspending

the operation of the treaty in whole or in part in the relations betweenk itself
and the defaulting State;
(c) any party other than the defaulting State to invoke the breach as a grouknd
for suspending the operation of the treaty in whole or in part with respkect to
itself if the treaty is of such a character that a material breach of its provisiokns
by one party radically changes the position of every party with respect kto the

further performance of its obligations under the treaty.
3. A material breach of a treaty, for the purposes of this article, consistks in:

(a) a repudiation of the treaty not sanctioned by the present Convention; ork
(b) the violation of a provision essential to the accomplishment of the objekct or
purpose of the treaty.

4. The foregoing paragraphs are without prejudice to any provision in the tkreaty
applicable in the event of a breach.
5. paragraphs 1 to 3 do not apply to provisions relating to the protection okf the
human person contained in treaties of a humanitarian character, in partikcular to
provisions prohibiting any form of reprisals against persons protected bky such
treaties.”

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can only reach as far as the Vienna Convention as a whole is intended tok
reach. This leads us to the Convention’s Article 73, according to which its
provisions shall not prejudge any question that may arise in regard to ak
treaty from, inter alia, the international responsibility of a State. In the
language of the ILC, by now generally accepted and adopted in the litera‑

ture, the Vienna Convention is designed to provide an exhaustive restatek‑
ment of the “primary rules” on treaty breach but does not touch upon
matters of State responsibility, regulated by “secondary rules” ask codified
and progressively developed in the ILC’s 2001 Articles. In other words,
Article 60 has nothing to do with State responsibility, and State responsi ‑

bility has nothing to do with the maxim inadimplenti non est adimplendum
or the exceptio non adimpleti contractus. The functional synallagma
attached to treaties embodying reciprocal obligations finds its (not kneces ‑
sarily Latin) expression entirely in the primary rules of the law of trkeaties.

On the other hand, it is in the law on State responsibility where countekr ‑
measures have found their place, and it is justified, indeed necessaryk,
therefore to deal with them separately — as the parties to our case have
done and as our Judgment does—, even though countermeasures resorted
to as a consequence of the breach of a treaty may also lead to suspensiokn of

provisions of that same treaty, that is, they may “look alike” for practical
purposes while being subjected to a different legal régime — a matter to
which I have devoted particular attention in my scholarly contributions 18.

21. Returning to the primary rules on the consequences of a breach of
treaty embodied in Article 60, let me emphasize once again that this pro ‑

vision constitutes an exhaustive treatment of the matter. Thus, there isk no
place left besides it, so to speak, for the exception — Article 60 and the
régime provided by the Vienna Convention to complete its operation
embodies it.
22. I do not want to conceal that in my first publication on the legal

régime of treaty breach, I took the view that it would have been adviksable
for the ILC to leave a — modest — place for the exceptio on the side of
Article 60, in the sense that an extra‑conventional exceptio would remain
applicable (only) to non‑material or immaterial breaches, with Article 60

comprehensively covering the suspension of performance of treaty obliga ‑
tions as a consequence of “material” breaches as defined in thatk Article. I
thus pleaded for some limited room in general international law left fork
qualitatively proportional responses by a State in the sense that they may
be applied in the form of suspension of the reacting State’s own perfkor ‑

mance if, when and as long as that obligation’s counterpart duty is vio‑
lated. This kind of suspension, while constituting a protective measure kor
remedy with its sedes materiae also in the law of treaties, i.e., in the realm

18
Cf. the writings referred to supra in note 1.

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of primary rules, would not be covered by Article 60 because Article 60
19
de minimis non curat . As I mentioned in my description of the argu ‑
ments of the parties to our case (cf. supra paragraph 9), greece put
forward this view, but in effect did not profit from it because it rkegarded
the treaty breaches allegedly committed by the FYROm as “material”.

As I regard the matter now, I am not convinced that the solution I consik ‑
dered desirable 40 years ago would be constructive and I do not maintain
it. I doubt that it would make sense to let reactions to lesser, immaterkial

breaches off the leash set up by Article 60, particularly its procedural
conditions. Rather, I now join the ranks of those who regard Article 60
as truly exhaustive, that is, totally eclipsing the earlier non‑written klaw on
the functional synallagma operating behind treaties. But of course a lookk

across the fence into the realm of State responsibility would still showk
that the impression of a general de minimis non curat lex possibly created
by the Vienna Convention’s lack of consideration of breaches not fulfikl ‑

ling the conditions laid down in Article 60 is misleading because if a
breach not “material” enough to trigger the responses codified ikn that
Article were nevertheless to constitute an internationally wrongful act k

under the law of State responsibility, it would still entitle another affkected
contracting party, as an injured State, to resort to countermeasures,
within the limits of proportionality.

23. Article 60 of the Vienna Convention has received the imprimatur

by our Court at two earlier occasions, in both instances in ways which
confirm that the provision is to be understood as an exhaustive treatmkent
of the consequences of treaty breach under the primary rules of the law kof

treaties.

19 Cf. my 1970 article, op. cit. supra note 1, pp. 59‑60. I was not alone with this concern;

it was shared 13 years later by the ILC’s Special Rapporteur, W. Riphagen; cf. his fourth
report on the content, forms and degrees of international responsibiliYBILC, 1983,
Vol. II (part One), p. 18, para. 98:

“Since Article 60 of the Vienna Convention applies only to material breaches, it

would be necessary to cover other cases of reciprocity of the performancke of treaty
obligations. Indeed, if it appears from the treaty or is otherwise estabklished that
the performance of an obligation by a State party is the counterpart (quid pro quo)
of the performance of the same or another obligation by another State pakrty, the
non‑performance by the first mentioned State need not be a material breach in order
to justify non‑performance by the other State.”

On professor Riphagen’s subsequent proposal of “reciprocal countermeaskures”, see
infra note 28.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 126 20/06/13 08:42 706 application of interkim accord (sep. op. simkma)

24. The first instance was the 1971 Advisory Opinion on Namibia in
which the Court, among many other issues, dealt with the declaration by
the United Nations general Assembly in its resolution 2145 (XXI) of 1966

to the effect that South Africa’s mandate over South West Africa/Namibia
was to be regarded as terminated due to material breach by the former
mandatory 2. The Court set out by referring rather broadly to the “funda‑

mental principl[e] . . . that a party which disowns or does not fulfil its own
obligations cannot be recognized as retaining the rights which it claimsk to
derive from the relationship” 2, as well as to its own earlier jurisprudence
22
according to which the mandate constituted an international treaty . It
then stated that Article 60 of the Vienna Convention (at the time of the
rendering of the Opinion still nine years away from its entry into forcek)

“may in many respects be considered as a codification of existing ckustom ‑
ary law on the subject” 23. Subsequently, the Court applied the law thus
presented to the facts of the case and found that the action of the general

Assembly had been justified and had reached the desired effect.
25. The second occasion on which the Court applied Article 60 was in
its 1997 Judgment in the case of the Gabčikovo‑Nagymaros Project

between Hungary and Slovakia, in which one of Hungary’s arguments
was to the effect that it was entitled to terminate the 1977 Treaty on the
hydro‑electric project on the ground that Czechoslovakia had committed
24
a number of breaches of that treaty . The Court took the view that only
material breaches gave an affected State a right to terminate an agreek ‑
ment while

“[t]he violation of other treaty rules or of rules of general inter‑

national law may justify the taking of certain measures, including
countermeasures, by the injured State, but it does not constitute a
ground for termination under the law of treaties” 25.

Following this statement on the relationship between Article 60 and the

law of State responsibility, the Court investigated the breaches allegedk
by the claimant, in particular Czechoslovakia’s Ersatz construction of
“Variant C”, and arrived at the conclusion that the conditions for the
26
invocation of Article 60‑type termination were not fulfilled .

26. In the light of the foregoing, the pre‑Vienna Convention exceptio is

to be declared dead. But I do not want to conclude my opinion without

20Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa ▯in Namibia
(South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971, pp. 46‑50, paras. 91‑104.
21Ibid., p. 46, para. 91.
22
23Ibid., pp. 46‑47, para. 94.
24Ibid.
Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J.▯ Reports 1997,
pp. 65‑67, paras. 105‑110.
25Ibid., p. 65, para. 106.
26Ibid., pp. 66‑67, paras. 108‑110.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 128 20/06/13 08:42 707 application of interkim accord (sep. op. simkma)

mentioning a recent attempt to resuscitate it, in another legal incarnatkion,
as it were. In the context of the ILC’s work on State responsibility kand in
the course of the second reading of the Commission’s draft articles okn the

subject, Special Rapporteur James Crawford, when dealing with the
so‑called “Circumstances precluding wrongfulness”, proposed a provki ‑
sion, draft article 30bis, which had no predecessor in the first‑reading

text. The proposal read as follows:
“Article 30bis. Non‑compliance caused by prior non‑compliance by

another State
The wrongfulness of an act of a State not in conformity with an

international obligation of that State is precluded if the State has beekn
prevented from acting in conformity with the obligation as a direct
result of a prior breach of the same or a related international obliga ‑
27
tion by another State.”

27. professor Crawford expressly wanted draft article 30bisto restate the
exceptio, recognition of which he thought to find in the pCIJ’s Factory
at Chorzów (Jurisdiction) Judgment as well as in later decisions. In

order to provide a further foundation for his proposal, the Special Rap ‑
porteur referred to the ILC’s prior codification efforts both relkating to the
law of treaties and on State responsibility; in the context of the latter to

proposals made by Special Rapporteur W. Riphagen introducing so‑called
“reciprocal countermeasures” 2.

professor Crawford pleaded for recognition of the exceptio as a distinct
circumstance precluding wrongfulness because in his view, it was not
enough to deal with it under the law relating to the suspension of treatkies

because t29t law required a material breach, which was narrowly
defined . What we thus see is that the Special Rapporteur wanted to fill
what he considered to be a gap in the primary rules of the law of treatikes

27For a comprehensive analysis of this article by the Special Rapporteur, ksee his

Second report on State responsibility, YBILC, 1999, Vol. II (part One), paras. 316‑329.
28
YBILC, 1999, Vol. II (part Two), pp. 78‑79. professor Riphagen’s concept of “recip‑
rocal countermeasures” is to be found in his fifth report on the cokntent, forms and degrees
of international responsibility (part Two of the draft articles), YBILC, 1984, Vol. II (part
One), p. 3. In draft Article 8, Riphagen proposed to express this concept as follows:

“Subject to . . . [certain other provisions governing countermeasures], the injured
State is entitled, by way of reciprocity, to suspend the performance of its obligations
towards the State which has committed an internationally wrongful act, ikf such‑obliga
tions correspond to, or are directly connected with, the obligation breakched.” (Ibid.)

This proposal was not discussed by the Commission until 1992, when it waks rejected;
see, YBILC, 1992, Vol. II (part Two), p. 23, para. 151. For a critique, see B. Simma,
“grundfragen der Staatenverantwortlichkeit in der Arbeit der International Law Commis
sion”, 24 Archiv des Völkerrechts, pp. 393‑395 (1986).
29YBILC, 1999, Vol. II (part Two), p. 79.

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(Art. 60) by a secondary rule belonging to the realm of State responsi‑
bility.

28. draft article 30bis got a mixed reception in the Commission, to put
it mildly 30. As was to be expected, criticism focused on the relationship
between the State‑responsibility re‑appearance of the exceptio now pro ‑

posed and its expression in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Trea ‑
ties; the point was made that the proposed article brought together sevekral
concepts that were only partially interrelated 31. Overall, the debate was
quite confused; for instance, while according to one suggestion, the con ‑

tent of article 30bis really belonged to the concept of force majeure — an
idea which not only the Special Rapporteur found rather odd —, another
member regarded the provision as “reflecting a special department of
impossibility”; again others were reminded of the “clean hands”k princi ‑
32
ple and so forth. In light of this, the Commission did well in finally
scrapping this doctrinal cross‑breed. In its final report upon adoptiokn of
the 2001 Articles on State responsibility, it waved goodbye to the pro ‑

posal made in draft article 30bis by confirming once again that “the
exception of non‑performance (exceptio inadimpleti contractus) is best
seen as a specific feature of certain mutual or synallagmatic obligatikons
and not a circumstance precluding wrongfulness” 33.

29. Let me summarize: in the present case, the Court would have had

the opportunity to clarify a number of legal issues arising from the
Respondent’s “defences” against the Applicant’s accusation of treaty
breach, in particular, by giving an authoritative answer to the questionk

whether Article 60 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties still
leaves some place for the so‑called exceptio non adimpleti contractus. For
some reason, the Court avoided touching upon these issues. In my view,
the correct answer would have to be negative: on the plane of interna ‑

tional law’s primary rules, Article 60 regulates the legal consequences of
treaty breach in an exhaustive way; thus no version of the exceptio has
survived the codification of the law of treaties — may it rest in peace.

(Signed) Bruno Simma.

30Cf. YBILC, 1999, Vol. I, pp. 165‑171, and the summary of the discussion; ibid., 1999,

Vol31II (part Two), p. 79.
32 Ibid.
33Cf. ibid.
Report of the Commission to the general Assembly on the Work of its Fifty‑Third
Session, YBILC, 2001, Vol. II (part Two), p. 72, para. 9.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 132 20/06/13 08:42

Bilingual Content

695

SEpARATE OpINION OF JUdgE SImmA

The Court missed an opportunity to clarify a controversial point of law ▯by
avoiding to deal with the question whether the exceptio non adimpleti contractus,

put forward by the Respondent as a “defence” against the accusatio▯n of treaty
breach separate, and to be distinguished, from reliance on Article 60 of the
1969 Vienna Convention or on a justification of Greece’s objection to FYRO▯M’s
admission to NATO by qualifying it as a countermeasure, still has a right of place
in international law — the answer which the Court should have given, is an
unqualified “no”: Article 60 of the Vienna Convention is to be understood as
exhausting the right, flowing from a primary rule of the law of treaties, to suspend
performance of a treaty obligation as a reaction to a prior breach by an▯other
part — a countermeasure applied in the same context might to an external obser▯ver
be hard to distinguish from the operation of Article60, but would be based on a

secondary rule of State responsibility and thus be subject to a differen▯t legal
régime.

1. I am in agreement with the findings of the Court with regard to both
its jurisdiction and the merits of the case. The only concern I have relkates

to the way in which the Judgment treats one specific argument advancedk
by the Respondent, namely the issue of the so‑called exceptio non adim ‑
pleti contractus.
2. To explain my concern and put the matter into context: greece’s

main defence against the Applicant’s accusation of breach of the Interim
Accord through the Respondent’s behaviour in the question of the
FYROm’s NATO membership was, obviously, to deny such breach alto ‑
gether and contend that it complied with its obligations under the Accorkd.

But then greece put forward the alternative argument that even if the
Court were to find that the Respondent had violated the Interim Accordk,
the wrongfulness of greece’s objection to the admission of the FYROm
to NATO would be precluded by — no less than — three justifications
(“subsidiary defences”), presented with different degrees of ckonviction

and thus convincingness, as it were, but all based on the allegation of k
prior breaches of the Interim Accord committed by the Republic of
macedonia: in the first instance by the doctrine of the exceptio non adim ‑
pleti contractus, secondly, because greece’s objection could be explained

as a response to material breaches of the Accord by the FYROm on the
basis of the law of treaties, and thirdly, because greece’s behaviour could
also be regarded as a countermeasure against the FYROm’s preceding
breaches recognized as justified by the law of State responsibility.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 106 20/06/13 08:42 695

OpINION INdIVIdUELLE dE m. LE JUgE SImmA

[Traduction]

La Cour a manqué une occasion de clarifier un point de droit controversé en ne
traitant pas la question de savoir si l’exceptio non adimpleti contractus, que le

défendeur a présentée comme un « moyen de défense » contre l’accusation selon
laquelle il aurait commis une violation conventionnelle, moyen à la▯ is différent et
devant être distingué de l’invocation de l’article 60 de la convention de Vienne de
1969 et de la justification par lui de son opposition à l’admis▯ de l’ERYM à
l’OTAN en tant que contre‑mesure, conserve une place en droit internat▯ ional —
A cette question, la Cour aurait dû répondre sans réserve par l▯ égativ: l’article 60
de la convention de Vienne doit être considéré comme traitant d▯ manière exhaustive
le droit, qui découle d’une règle primaire du droit des tr▯ , de suspendre l’exécution
d’une obligation conventionnelle en réaction à une violation ant▯ érieure commise par
une autre partie — Une contre‑mesure prise en pareille situation pourrait, pour un

observateur extérieur, se révéler difficile à distinguer du j▯ eu de l’article; elle
serait cependant fondée sur une règle secondaire relevant de la r▯ ponsabilité de
l’Etat et, partant, soumise à un régime juridique différent.▯

1. Je souscris aux conclusions de la Cour en ce qui concerne tant sa
compétence que le fond de l’affaire. ma seule source de préoccupation

réside dans la manière dont est traité dans l’arrêt un arkgument particulier
avancé par le défendeur, à savoir la question de l’exceptio non adimpleti
contractus.
2. Afin de m’expliquer sur ce point et de le resituer dans son contextke, je

rappellerai ce qui suit. Le principal moyen de défense de la grèce contre
l’accusation formulée par le demandeur selon laquelle elle aurait,k par son
comportement relatif à la question de l’admission de l’ERYm à l’OTAN,
violé l’accord intérimaire consistait, de toute évidence, àk nier totalement

pareille violation et à affirmer qu’elle s’était conforméke aux obligations lui
incombant aux termes de l’accord. La grèce a cependant aussi avancé l’ar ‑
gument subsidiaire selon lequel, même si la Cour devait conclure qu’kelle
a violé l’accord intérimaire, l’illicéité de son oppositkion à l’admission de
l’ERYm à l’OTAN serait exclue par — pas moins de — trois justifications

(qualifiées de « moyens de défense subsidiaires »), présentées avec plus ou
moins de conviction et donc, d’une certaine façon, plus ou moins ckonvain ‑
cantes, mais reposant toutes sur l’allégation de violations antékrieures de ‑l’ac
cord intérimaire commises par la République demacédoine: premièrement,

la doctrine de l’exceptio non adimpleti contractus ;deuxièmement, le fait que
l’opposition de la grèce pourrait, sur le fondement du droit des traités, s’ex ‑
pliquer comme une réponse à des violations substantielles de l’kaccord co‑m
mises par l’ERYm ; et, troisièmement, le fait que le comportement de la

grèce pourrait également être considéré comme une contre‑mkesure — recon ‑
nue légitime par le droit de la responsabilité de l’Etat —, prise en réaction
aux violations antérieures commises par l’ERYm.

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3. The Judgment ultimately rejects all of these defences, and rightly so.
It does so for two reasons: to begin with, the Court was only able to fiknd

one single, isolated instance in which the Applicant violated the Interikm
Accord — a breach discontinued after the Respondent had raised its
concern (Judgment, paras. 148‑151, 160), and not accepted by the Court
as having been material (ibid., para. 163). Furthermore, the Judgment
emphasizes that in no case had greece succeeded in convincing the Court

that its objection to macedonia’s admission to NATO had any factual
connection with — i.e., was a response to — the Applicant’s alleged prior
treaty breaches, thus possibly giving rise to the various justificatiokns
pleaded (ibid., paras. 161, 163‑164). I fully support this finding. I am
convinced that before and at the time of NATO’s Bucharest meeting, thkat
is, at the time of greece’s objection to FYROm membership of the

Alliance in violation of the Interim Accord, nobody responsible for this
course of action in Athens thought of this objection as constituting anyk of
the reactions foreseen in international law to counter a preceding treaty
breach by the Applicant, as which it was construed after the fact by gree ‑
ce’s counsel in the present litigation, neither in terms of the exceptio nor

as a reaction to breach allowed by the law of treaties nor as a counter ‑
measure in the technical sense. I have difficulties to view greece’s 2008
action as anything but a politically motivated attempt at coercing the
FYROm to back down on the name issue. After having been brought
before the Court, what the Respondent then tried ex post facto was to

hide, somewhat desperately and with a pinch of embarrassment, this
show of political force amounting to a treaty breach behind the three
juridical fig leaves, presented as “subsidiary defences” by veryk able coun ‑
sel (but ad impossibilia nemo tenetur). In the Judgment, these arguments
got the treatment they deserved.

4. Let me now turn to the specific point on which I take issue with the

Court’s approach: the way in which the Judgment goes about the evaluak ‑
tion of the exceptio non adimpleti contractus, put forward, as I have just
described, by greece as a justification separate, and different, from the
other two “defences” of response to breach positioned in the law okf trea ‑
ties and that of State responsibility. greece presented the exceptio as a

“general principle of international law” permitting the Respondentk to
withhold performance of those of its own obligations which are recipro ‑
cal to, i.e., linked in a synallagmatic relationship with, the fundamentkal
provisions of the Interim Accord allegedly not complied with by the
Applicant (thus the description of the greek position in the Judgment’s
paragraph 115). Further (and conveniently), the Respondent contended

that “the conditions triggering the exception of non‑performance are k
different from and less rigid than the conditions for suspending a trekaty

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5 CIJ1026.indb 108 20/06/13 08:42 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. indk. simma) 696

3. La Cour a, en dernière analyse, rejeté l’ensemble de ces moyensk de
défense, et ce, à juste titre. Elle l’a fait pour deux raisons : premièrement,

elle n’a pu identifier qu’un seul cas, isolé, de violation dek l’accord intéri ‑
maire par le demandeur, violation à laquelle il a été mis fink après que le
défendeur s’en fut inquiété (arrêt, par. 148‑151, 160) et dont la Cour n’a
pas jugé qu’elle avait été substantielle (ibid., par. 163) ; deuxièmement, il
est souligné dans l’arrêt que la grèce n’est jamais parvenue à convaincre

la Cour que son opposition à l’admission de la macédoine à l’OTAN
avait un quelconque rapport factuel avec les violations antérieures dke
l’accord que le demandeur aurait commises — c’est‑à‑dire que cette oppo ‑
sition constituait une réponse auxdites violations —, ce qui aurait pu ser ‑
vir de base aux différentes justifications avancées (ibid., par. 161, 163‑164).
Je souscris pleinement à cette conclusion. En effet, j’ai la conkviction que,

dans la période qui a précédé le sommet de l’OTAN de Bucarest et au
moment de ce sommet, c’est‑à‑dire lorsque la grèce s’est opposée à l’ad ‑
mission de l’ERYm à l’Alliance en violation de l’accord intérimaire,
aucun des responsables de cette ligne de conduite à Athènes n’ak conçu
ladite opposition comme l’une quelconque des réactions prévues par le

droit international afin de contrecarrer une violation conventionnellek
antérieure commise par le demandeur — ainsi que cela a été présenté
a posteriori par les conseils de la grèce en la présente instance —, que ce
soit sous l’angle de l’exceptio, en tant que réaction à une violation telle
qu’autorisée par le droit des traités, ou en tant que contre‑meksure au sens

technique du terme. J’ai peine à considérer les actes accomplisk par la
grèce en 2008 autrement que comme une tentative motivée par des rai ‑
sons politiques de contraindre l’ERYm à céder sur la question du nom.
Ce n’est qu’après avoir été attrait devant la Cour que lek défendeur a
tenté ex post facto de dissimuler, d’une manière quelque peu désespérée et
non sans une pointe d’embarras, cette démonstration de force politkique

constitutive d’une violation conventionnelle derrière le voile pudkique des
trois moyens de défense, qui ont été présentés comme «ksubsidiaires» par
de fort talentueux conseils (mais ad impossibilia nemo tenetur). dans le
présent arrêt, ces arguments ont été traités comme il conkvenait.
4. J’en viens maintenant au point particulier qui me préoccupe dans

l’approche de la Cour, à savoir l’analyse qui est faite dans l’karrêt de la
doctrine de l’exceptio non adimpleti contractus, qui, ainsi que je viens de le
préciser, a été avancée par la grèce en tant que justification distincte et
différente des deux autres « moyens de défense » d’une réponse à une vio ‑
lation conventionnelle, respectivement présentés comme relevant duk droit

des traités et du droit de la responsabilité de l’Etat. A cet égard, le défen ‑
deur a estimé que l’exceptio était un « principe général de droit internatio‑
nal» l’autorisant à suspendre l’exécution de celles de ses obligations qui
sont réciproques aux dispositions fondamentales de l’accord intékrimaire
que le demandeur n’aurait pas respectées — dispositions auxquelles ces
obligations seraient, autrement dit, unies par un lien synallagmatique (kla

position grecque est exposée au paragraphe 115 de l’arrêt). de plus (et
fort commodément), le défendeur a soutenu que « les conditions permet ‑

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5 CIJ1026.indb 109 20/06/13 08:42 697 application of interkim accord (sep. op. simkma)

or precluding wrongfulness by way of countermeasures” (Counter‑
memorial of greece, para. 8.7); thus, the exception “does not have to be

notified or proven beforehand . . . There are simply no procedural require‑
ments to the exercise of the staying of the performance through the
mechanism of the exceptio.” (Ibid., para. 8.26.)

5. The Applicant, on the contrary, doubted the character of the excep‑
tio as a general principle of international law and disputed the greek
contention that its own obligations under the Interim Accord are to be
regarded as synallagmatic with the Respondent’s obligation not to objkect
stipulated in Article 11, paragraph 1, of the Accord. In the FYROm’s
view, Article 60 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

provides a complete set of rules and procedures governing responses to
material breaches under that law. Furthermore, the Applicant did not
accept that the exceptio could justify non‑performance under the law of
State responsibility (thus the summary of the FYROm’s view in para ‑
graph 117 of the Judgment).

6. In the face of such conflicting statements about points of law —
arguments playing a non‑negligible role in the framing of the Res ‑
pondent’s case, whether bordering the specious or not —, one would have

expected the Court to go to the heart of the matter and engage in a
state‑of‑the‑art exercise of clarifying the legal status and interrelationship
of the three “defences” invoked by greece. However, the Court refrained
from doing so. Such abstinence will once again disappoint those obser ‑
vers who might have expected some illuminating words on rather contro ‑
versial questions of law; a decision a little less “transactional” in a matter

in which the Court could have afforded to speak out. As concerns the
exceptio non adimpleti contractus in particular, it appears that the Court
openly shies away from taking a stand. Let us see how it deals with the k
exceptio as invoked by greece: as I have already mentioned, the Court
recalls that the Respondent failed to establish breaches of the Interim k

Accord save in one immaterial instance and to show a connection between k
that one breach and the greek objection to the Applicant’s admission to
NATO. And then the Judgment continues as follows:

“The Respondent has thus failed to establish that the conditions
which it has itselfasserted would be necessary for the application of the

exceptio have been satisfied in this case. It is, therefore, unnecessary for
the Court to determine whether that doctrine forms part of contempo ‑
rary international law.” (Judgment, para. 161; emphasis added.)

That much about jura novit curia. Why such Berührungsangst?

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5 CIJ1026.indb 110 20/06/13 08:42 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. indk. simma) 697

tant d’invoquer l’exception d’inexécution [étaient] diffkérentes de celles qui
entraînent la suspension d’un traité ou excluent l’illicékité par le jeu des

contre‑mesures, et [qu’]elles [étaient] moins rigides » (contre‑mémoire de
la grèce, par. 8.7) ; c’est pourquoi « il n’y a pas lieu de notifier [l’exceptio]
ou d’en prouver le bien‑fondé au préalable… Il n’existe tout simplement
pas de condition de nature procédurale pour ajourner l’exécutiokn d’une
obligation lorsque l’on fait valoir l’exceptio. » (Ibid., par. 8.26.)

5. Le demandeur, quant à lui, a émis des doutes sur le fait que l’kexcep ‑
tio fût un principe général de droit international et contesté kl’affirmation
de la grèce selon laquelle ses propres obligations au titre de l’accord iknté ‑
rimaire devaient être considérées comme ayant un lien synallagmatique
avec l’obligation du défendeur de ne pas s’opposer, telle qu’énoncée au
paragraphe 1 de l’article 11 de l’accord. Selon l’ERYm, l’article 60 de la

convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités de 1969 énonce un ensemble
complet de règles et de procédures régissant les réponses àk des violations
substantielles en vertu du corpus juridique en question. par ailleurs, le
demandeur n’a pas souscrit à l’idée selon laquelle l’exceptio pourrait jus ‑
tifier l’inexécution d’obligations conventionnelles au regardk du droit de la

responsabilité de l’Etat (les vues de l’ERYm sont résumées au para ‑
graphe 117 de l’arrêt).
6. Face à pareilles positions contradictoires sur des points de droit
— les arguments formulés à cet égard par le défendeur, mêmek s’ils confinent
parfois au spécieux, occupant une place non négligeable dans l’exposé de

sa thèse —, on se serait attendu à ce que la Cour examine le cœur du prok ‑
blème et se livre à un exercice approfondi de clarification du sktatut juri ‑
dique et de l’interdépendance des trois «moyens de défense» invoqués par
la grèce. La Cour n’en a cependant rien fait, ce qui ne manquera pas dke
décevoir, une fois encore, les observateurs qui appelaient peut‑être de leurs
vœux certains éclaircissements sur des questions juridiques plutôkt contro ‑

versées ainsi qu’une décision un tant soit peu moins « transactionnelle»
dans un domaine dans lequel elle aurait pu se permettre de faire entendrke
sa voix. En ce qui concerne, en particulier, l’exceptio non adimpleti contrac ‑
tus, il apparaît clairement que la Cour craint de prendre position. Voyokns
la manière dont elle a examiné cette doctrine, telle qu’invoquéke par la

grèce: comme je l’ai déjà indiqué, elle a rappelé que le dékfendeur n’avait
pas établi l’existence de violations de l’accord intérimairek, hormis dans un
cas sans grande importance, et qu’il n’avait pas démontré quk’existait un
lien entre cette unique violation et son opposition à l’admission kdu deman ‑
deur à l’OTAN. Et la Cour de poursuivre comme suit :

«Le défendeur n’a donc pas établi qu’il avait été satiskfait, en l’es ‑
pèce, aux conditions, énoncées par lui‑même, qui seraient requises

pour que l’exceptio s’applique. dès lors, il n’est pas nécessaire que la
Cour détermine si cette théorie fait partie du droit internationalk
contemporain.» (Arrêt, par. 161 ; les italiques sont de moi.)

Et voilà expédié le principe jura novit curia. pourquoi une telle Berüh ‑
rungsangst ?

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5 CIJ1026.indb 111 20/06/13 08:42 698 application of interkim accord (sep. op. simkma)

7. As far as I am concerned, I may have become immunized against

the Court’s apparent haptophobia in my academic childhood, having
authored my first scholarly article in English on the question of treakty
breach and responses thereto more than 40 years ago . So I may be
allowed, in all due modesty, to set the record straight and try to compekn ‑

sate the Court’s abstinence as to the exceptio’s whereabouts and “right to
life” with the following brief observations 2.

8. In its Counter‑memorial the Respondent defines the exceptio in
accordance with the respective entry in the Dictionnaire de droit interna ‑
tional public:

“Literally: [the] ‘exception of a non‑performed contract’. An excep‑

tion that the injured parties can invoke because of the non‑perfor ‑
mance of a conventional agreement by another contractual party and
which allows in turn not to apply in turn the conventional agreement

in part or as a whole.” (Counter‑memorial of greece, para. 8.8.)

9. greece distinguishes the exceptio so defined from Article 60 of the
Vienna Convention. In its view, while Article 60 presupposes the occur ‑
rence of material breaches, the exceptio entitles a State to suspend perfor‑
mance of its own obligations vis‑à‑vis another State in breach of

obligations that do not amount to material breaches (ibid., para. 8.28). I
have already drawn attention to greece’s further statement according to
which the exceptio can be resorted to without any procedural precondi ‑

tions. Lastly, the Respondent argues that “the condition triggering tkhe
defence based on the exceptio non adimpleti contractus is that the Appli ‑
cant State has breached its obligations resulting from the Treaty if said
provisions are the quid pro quo of the allegedly breached obligations

of the Respondent” (ibid., para. 8.31; see also CR 2011/10, pp. 30‑32,
paras. 18‑27).

1B. Simma, “Reflections on Article 60 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Trea ‑
ties and Its Background in general International Law”, in 20 Österreichische Zeitschrift

für öffentliches Recht, pp. 5‑83 (1970). Since, as the French say, on revient toujours à
ses premiers amours, I have returned to my academic first love in a number of further
contributions; cf., B. Simma, “Zum Rücktrittsrecht wegen Vertragsverletzung nach der
Wiener Konvention von 1969”, in H. Kipp (ed.), Um Recht und Freiheit. Festschrift für
F. A. Freiherr von der Heydte, pp. 615‑630 (1977); “Termination and Suspension of Trea ‑
ties: Two Recent Austrian Cases”, in 21 German Yearbook of International Law, pp. 74‑96
(1978); Commentary on Article 60 (together with Christian Tams), in O. Corten and
p. Klein (eds.), The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A Commentary, Vol. II,
pp. 1351‑1378 (2011); “Reciprocity”, in R. Wolfrum (ed.), The Max Planck Encyclopedia
of Public International Law (online edition 2011).
2They are essentially based on my earlier publications cited in the precekding note, to
which I must refer the reader for a more profound treatment of the mattekr, as well as on

some “work in progress” on responses to breach of treaties.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 112 20/06/13 08:42 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. indk. simma) 698

7. En ce qui me concerne, il n’est pas impossible que je me sois immu ‑

nisé contre cette apparente haptophobie de la Cour dès mes premierks
travaux universitaires, puisque que c’est à la question des violations
conventionnelles et des réponses à ces violations que j’ai conskacré mon
1
premier article de doctrine en anglais il y a plus de quarante ans . Aussi
me permettra‑t‑on peut‑être, en toute modestie, de mettre les choses au
point et de tenter de pallier le silence de la Cour quant au sort réskervé à

l’exceptio et au « droit à2la vie » de cette doctrine, en formulant les brèves
observations suivantes .
8. dans son contre‑mémoire, le défendeur donne de l’exceptio la défi‑
nition qui figure à l’entrée correspondante dans le Dictionnaire de droit

international public :

«Littéralement: «exception de contrat non rempli». Exception que
peu(ven)t invoquer la (ou les) partie(s) lésée(s) en raison de la non‑
exécution d’un engagement conventionnel par une autre partie contrac ‑

tante et qui l’autorise à ne pas appliquer à son tour tout ou pkartie de cet
engagement conventionnel.» (Contre‑mémoire de la grèce, par. 8.8.)

9. La grèce distingue l’exceptio ainsi définie de l’article 60 de la conven ‑
tion de Vienne. Selon elle, alors que l’article 60 suppose qu’aient été com ‑

mises des violations substantielles, l’exceptio autorise un Etat à suspendre
l’exécution de ses propres obligations à l’égard d’un kautre Etat si celui‑ci a,
de son côté, manqué à certaines obligations, sans que ces manquements
soient constitutifs de violations substantielles (ibid., par. 8.28). J’ai, par ail ‑

leurs, déjà rappelé l’autre assertion formulée par la grèce, selon laquelle il
peut être recouru à l’exceptio sans satisfaire à aucune condition procédu ‑
rale préalable. Enfin, la grèce soutient que « le défendeur peut invoquer

l’exceptio non adimpleti contractus comme moyen de défense si le deman ‑
deur a violé certaines obligations lui incombant en vertu du traiték et ce, si
les dispositions concernées sont le quid pro quo des obligations prétendu ‑

ment violées par le défendeur» (ibid., par. 8.31; voir également CR 2011/10,
p. 30‑32, par. 18‑27).

1B. Simma, « Reflections on Article 60 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Trea ‑
ties and Its Background in general International Law », Österreichische Zeitschrift für
öffentliches Recht, vol. 20, p. 5‑83 (1970). Comme chacun sait, orevient toujours à ses
premiers amours (en français dans le texte), et j’y suis de fait revenu dans un kcertain nombre
de contributions ultérieures ; voir B. Simma, « Zum Rücktrittsrecht wegen Vertragsverlet‑
zung nach der Wiener Konvention von 1969 », dans H. Kipp (dir. publ.), Um Recht und

Freiheit. Festschrift für F. A. Freiherr von der Heydte, p. 615‑630 (19; « Termination
and Suspension of Treaties : Two Recent Austrian Cases », German Yearbook of Interna ‑
tional Law, vol. 21, p. 74‑96 (1978) ; Commentary on Article 60 (avec Christian Tams),
dans O. Corten et p. Klein (dir. publ.), The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treat: A
Commentary, vol. II, p. 1351‑1378 (2011) ; « Reciprocity», dans R. Wolfrum (dir. publ.),
The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (édition électronique 2011).
2Ces observations sont, pour l’essentiel, fondées sur mes publicatikons antérieures citées
dans la note de bas de page précédente, auxquelles je renverrai le lecteur pour un examen
plus approfondi de la question, ainsi que sur certainstravaux en cours » consacrés aux
réponses à des violations conventionnelles.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 113 20/06/13 08:42 699 application of interkim accord (sep. op. simkma)

10. Even before any assessment of the correctness of greece’s views,
what becomes apparent already now is that the concept of the exceptio
flows from the principle of reciprocity. The importance of this notion fokr
the “health” of international law can hardly be overestimated. Reckipro ‑
city constitutes a basic phenomenon of social interaction and conse ‑

quently a decisive factor also behind the growth and application of law.k
In fully developed domestic legal systems the idea of reciprocity has tok a
large extent been absorbed and supplanted by specific norms and institu ‑
tions; immediate, instinctive, raw, reciprocity has been “domesticatekd”, as
it were. The lower the degree of institutionalization of a legal order, k

however, the more mechanisms of direct reciprocity will still prevail ask
such. Hence, its continuing relevance for international law despite the k
latter’s undeniable movement from bilateralism towards community
interest: as long as the international legal order lacks regular and

comprehensive mechanisms of centralized enforcement and thus has to
live with auto‑determination and self‑help, reciprocity will remain a makjor
leitmotiv — in some instances a constructive force maintaining stability in
the law, in some others a threat to that very stability. Reciprocity at kthe
basis of international law thus bears a Janus head: one and the same ideka

can serve both as a propelling force in the making and keeping of the lakw
and as a trigger in the breakdown of legal order. Focusing on the positikve
impact of our phenomenon, it will be reciprocal interest in the observance
of rules — “each . . . State within the community of nations accepting

some subtraction from its full sover3ignty in return for similar conces ‑
sions on the side of the others” — that supplies one, if not the main
reason for international law somehow managing to accomplish its tasks,
despite the absence of most features considered indispensable by domestikc
lawyers. The possibility of a State reciprocating in kind a breach of ank

international obligation will provide a powerful argument for its obser ‑
vance. The idea of reciprocity therefore lies at the root of various metkhods
of self‑help by which States may secure their rights. The historical devk‑
elopment of these methods provides convincing examples of how “raw”k
reciprocity has been channelled and civilized by subjecting it to legal

limits. In this way, reciprocity has been crystallized into internationakl
law’s sanctioning mechanisms, among them reprisals (nowadays politi ‑
cally correctly called “countermeasures”) and non‑performance of ktreaties
due to breach.

11. It is to that second category that the exceptio belongs. To use the
terms of the law in force on the matter (Article 60 of the 1969 Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties, on which infra), if an international

3
The Cristina (1938), A.C. 485.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 114 20/06/13 08:42 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. indk. simma) 699

10. Avant même de s’interroger sur le bien‑fondé des vues de la grèce,

il apparaît d’ores et déjà que la notion d’exceptio découle du principe de
réciprocité. L’importance que celui‑ci revêt pour la « bonne santé » du
droit international ne saurait être sous‑estimée. La réciprocitké constitue
en effet un phénomène fondamental des rapports sociaux et, partaknt, un
facteur déterminant qui contribue également au développement etk à l’ap ‑

plication du droit. dans les systèmes juridiques nationaux les plus déve ‑
loppés, l’idée de réciprocité a, dans une large mesure, ékté absorbée et
supplantée par des normes et institutions spécifiques ; la réciprocité immé ‑
diate, instinctive, brute y a, pour ainsi dire, été « domestiquée». Cepen‑
dant, moins un ordre juridique est institutionnalisé, plus les méckanismes

de réciprocité directe prévaudront en tant que tels. C’est pkourquoi le prin ‑
cipe en question conserve sa pertinence en droit international, et ce, bkien
que celui‑ci soit incontestablement en train de passer du bilatéraliskme à
l’intérêt collectif: tant que l’ordre juridique international ne sera pas doté
de mécanismes de contrainte centralisés à la fois réguliers et généraux— et

devra donc s’accommoder de l’autodétermination et de l’autopkrotec ‑
tion —, la réciprocité demeurera un leitmotiv essentiel, tantôt en tant que
force constructive garantissant la stabilité du droit, tantôt en tkant que
menace à cette stabilité même. La réciprocité, qui est àk la base du droit
international, a donc deux visages : cette seule et même idée peut aussi

bien servir de moteur dans l’élaboration et la préservation du kdroit que se
révéler l’élément déclenchant d’un effondrement dke l’ordre juridique. Si
l’on s’attache à l’effet positif de ce phénomène, c’est l’intérêt réciproque
dans le respect des règles — « chaque … Etat qui fait partie de la commu ‑
nauté des nations acceptant de renoncer à une partie de sa souverakineté

pleine e3 entière en échange de concessions similaires de la part des
autres » — qui constituera l’un, si ce n’est le principal, des facteurs perme‑kt
tant au droit international de parvenir à remplir plus ou moins sa fonc ‑
tion, nonobstant l’absence de la plupart des éléments que les jkuristes
nationaux estiment indispensables. La possibilité qu’un Etat rékponde au

manquement à une obligation internationale en adoptant à son tour kun
comportement similaire se révélera ainsi un argument de poids pourk que
cette obligation soit respectée. La notion de réciprocité est dkonc à la base
de différentes méthodes d’autoprotection permettant aux Etatsk de garan ‑
tir leurs droits. L’évolution historique qu’ont connue ces mékthodes illustre

bien la manière dont la réciprocité « brute» a été canalisée et civilisée en
étant soumise à certaines limites juridiques. La réciprociték a ainsi été cris ‑
tallisée dans des mécanismes de sanction établis par le droit iknternational,
parmi lesquels les représailles (que le politiquement correct a condkuit à
rebaptiser « contre‑mesures») et l’inexécution d’obligations convention ‑

nelles en réponse à des violations du traité en question.
11. C’est à cette seconde catégorie qu’appartient l’exceptio. pour
reprendre les termes employés dans le droit en vigueur en la matièkre
(c’est‑à‑dire l’article 60 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités

3
The Christina (1938), A.C. 485.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 115 20/06/13 08:42 700 application of interkim accord (sep. op. simkma)

treaty has been breached, the other party, or parties, to the treaty mayk
invoke the breach as a ground for terminating it or suspending its operak‑
tion; such reaction is permissible as a consequence of — and thus depen ‑

ding on — the synallagmatic character of international agreements.
Expressed a bit more emphatically: “The rule pacta sunt servanda is linked
to the rule do ut des” 4; “good sense and equity rebel at the idea of a State

being held to the performance of its obligations unde5 a treaty which the
other contracting party is refusing to respect” .

12. The functional synallagma thus confirmed to be applicable also in
international law has its historical roots in the law of contracts of most
legal systems. Its genealogy can be traced back to the ancient Roman law
6
foundations of the civil law tradition (the Roman bonae fidei judicia) , as
well as to early English contract law concepts of reciprocity in dependeknt
obligations or mutual promises, the doctrine of consideration, and breackh
7
of condition . According to what is probably the majority view in inter ‑
national legal doctrine, the widespread acceptance of the principle in tkhe
main legal traditions of the civil and common law systems allows to recok ‑

gnize it as a general principle of law under Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of
the Court’s Statute.

13. The question is, of course, the transferability of such a concept
developed in foro domestico to the international legal plane, respectively

the amendments that it will have to undergo in order for such a general k
principle to be able to play a constructive role also at the internationkal
level. The problem that we face in this regard is that in fully developekd

national legal systems the functional synallagma will operate under the k
control of the courts, that is, at least, such control will always be avkailable
if a party affected by its application does not accept the presence ofk the
conditions required to have recourse to our principle. What we encounterk

at the level of international law, however, will all too often be instankces of
non‑performance of treaty obligations accompanied by invocation of our
principle, but without availability of recourse to impartial adjudicatiokn of
8
the legality of these measures . Absent the leash of judicial control, our
principle will thus become prone to abuse; the issue of legality will often

4m. Bartos in the course of the discussion of what would become Article 60, at the
692nd meeting of the International Law Commission, Yearbook of the International Law

Com5ission (YBILC), 1963, Vol. I, p. 124, para. 30.
H. Waldock, Second Report on the Law of Treaties, commentary to Article 20,
para. 1, YBILC, 1963, Vol. II, p. 73.
6R. Zimmermann, The Law of Obligations : Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradi ‑
tion, 1990, pp. 801‑802, note 133.
7Ibid., pp. 803‑804.
8For extensive references to State practice, see my 1970 article, op. cit. supra note 1.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 116 20/06/13 08:42 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. indk. simma) 700

de 1969, qui sera commenté ci‑après), si un traité international ka été violé,

l’autre partie ou les autres parties à cet instrument sont autoriskées à invo‑
quer ladite violation comme motif pour en suspendre l’application en k
totalité ou en partie ; si pareille réaction est autorisée, c’est en raison — et

donc en fonction — du caractère synallagmatique des accords internatio ‑
naux. pour l’exprimer avec un peu plus d’emphase, « la règle pacta sunt
servanda est liée à la règle do ut des » 4; « [l]e bon sens et l’équité s’op ‑

posent à ce qu’un Etat puisse être tenu d’exécuter les obligations qui lui
incombent aux termes d’un traité alors que l’autre partie contrkactante
refuserait de respecter les siennes » 5.
12. L’élément synallagmatique fonctionnel, dont il est ainsi confikrmé

qu’il s’applique également en droit international, trouve ses rkacines histo ‑
riques dans le droit des contrats de la plupart des systèmes juridiques. Son
origine remonte aux fondements de la tradition de droit civil sous la
6
Rome antique (le bonae fidei judicia romain) , ainsi qu’à la notion de réci‑
procité des obligations ou engagements mutuels, à la doctrine de lka
«considération» et au manquement à une condition de l’ancien droit
7
contractuel anglais . Selon ce qui constitue sans doute l’opinion domi ‑
nante dans la doctrine juridique internationale, le fait que ce principek soit
généralement reconnu dans les principaux systèmes de droit civikl et de

common law autorise à le considérer comme un principe général de droit
au sens de l’alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 38 du Statut de la
Cour.
13. Se pose alors, bien évidemment, la question de la possibilité de

transposer cette notion forgée in foro domestico dans l’ordre juridique
international, et, plus précisément, celle des modifications quik devront être
apportées à ce principe général de sorte qu’il puisse ékgalement jouer un

rôle constructif sur le plan international. A cet égard, le problème est que,
dans les systèmes juridiques nationaux les plus développés, l’kélément synal ‑
lagmatique fonctionnel s’exercera sous le contrôle des juridictionks, ce qui

signifie, à tout le moins, que pareil contrôle sera toujours posksible si une
partie affectée par l’application de ce principe estime que les kconditions
requises pour y recourir n’étaient pas réunies; dans l’ordre juridique inter ‑
national, en revanche, les cas d’inexécution d’obligations convkentionnelles

s’accompagnant de l’invocation dudit principe mais dans lesquels ikl ne
peut être recouru à une décision judiciaire impartiale quant àk la licéité des
mesures en cause sont par trop fréquents 8. Le garde‑fou que constitue le

4 e
m. Bartos, au cours de la discussion de ce qui allait devenir l’article 60, à la 692séance
de la Commission du droit international (CdI), Annuaire de la CDI, 1963, vol. I, p. 124,
par. 30.
5H. Waldock, deuxième rapport sur le droit des traités, commentaire duk paragraphe 1
de l’article 20, Annuaire de la CDI, 1963, vol. II, p. 73.
6R. Zimmermann, The Law of Obligations : Roman Foundations of the Civilian Tradi ‑
tion, 1990, p. 801‑802, note 133.
7Ibid., p. 803‑804.
8pour des références détaillées à la pratique étatique, voir mon article de 1970, op. cit.
supra note 1.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 117 20/06/13 08:42 701 application of interkim accord (sep. op. simkma)

remain contested; a State resorting to unilateral abrogation might have

been

“determined for quite other reasons [than an alleged breach] to put akn
end to the treaty and, having alleged the violation primarily to providek

a respectable pretext for its action, has not been prepared to enter intko
a serious discussion of the legal principles governing the denunciation
of treaties on the basis of violations by the other party” 9.

The frequency of precisely these circumstances in the relevant State prakc‑
tice renders state‑of‑the art recognition of the principle’s consecraktion as

customary international law very difficult — a point not always heeded in
doctrine.
14. The traditional, “standard”, treatment of the functional synal ‑

lagma in the international legal literature has thus consisted in its rekcogn ‑i
tion in principle, supported by its apparent matter‑of‑courseness, oftenk
with a hint to the existence of a respective general principle, but thenk fre ‑

quently accompanied by a warning of the danger of auto‑determination
of its pre‑conditions 10. The complications brought about by the emergence
of multilateral treaties did not unduly bother the bulk of the literaturke.

15. The recognition of our principle dates back to the classic writers of
our discipline. According to Hugo grotius, for instance, “[i]f one of the
parties violates a treaty, such a violation releases the other from its kengage ‑
11
ments. For every clause has the binding force of a condition.” And in the
same sense Emeric de Vattel: “[T]he State which is offended or injukred by
the failure of the other to carry out the treaty can choose either to fokrce the

offender to fulfil its promises or can declare the treaty dissolved kbecause of
the violation of its provisions.” 12 Similar statements abound in the litera ‑
ture up to the time of the Vienna Convention, to which I will turn shortkly.

16. Among the confirmations of the consequences of synallagmatic
treaty provisions in the case of breach in the (pre‑Vienna Convention)k
jurisprudence of international courts and tribunals, the voices of Judgeks
Anzilotti and Hudson in their opinions in the case of Diversion of Water

from the Meuse, decided by the permanent Court in 1937, are probably
most representative. In that case Belgium had contended that by construck ‑

9 H. Waldock, Second Report on the Law of Treaties, commentary to Article 20, op.

cit10supra note 5.
11Extensive references in my 1970 article, op. cit. supra note 1.
De Iure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres, Vol. II, Chap. 15, para. 15 (1625; English transla ‑
tion from B. p. Sinha, Unilateral Denunciation of Treaty because of Prior Violations of
Obligations by other Party Nine (1966)).
12Le droit des gens, ou principes de la loi naturelle, appliqués à l▯a conduite et aux affaires
des nations et des souverains, Vol. II, Chap. 13, para. 200 (1758; English translation by
Fenwick, Carnegie Edition, 1916). For extensive references to the viewsk of early and
contemporary writers on our principle, see my 1970 article, op. cit. supra note 1.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 118 20/06/13 08:42 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. indk. simma) 701

contrôle judiciaire faisant défaut, ce principe se révélera kdonc propice aux

abus; la question de la licéité demeurera souvent contestée ; un Etat ayant
recours à une dénonciation unilatérale peut en effet avoir ékté

«résolu, pour des raisons tout à fait différentes [d’une vikolation allé‑
guée], à mettre fin au traité et, ayant invoqué la violatikon surtout

pour avoir un prétexte honorable de dénoncer le traité, n’éktait pas
disposé à examiner sérieusement les principes juridiques régkissant la
dénonciation des traités pour cause de violation par l’autre pakrtie» 9.

Les circonstances ainsi décrites sont fréquentes dans la pratique kétatique
pertinente. Aussi est‑il fort délicat, en l’état actuel des chokses, d’admettre

que ledit principe a été consacré en tant que droit internationkal coutumier,
ce point n’étant cependant pas toujours pris en compte dans la docktrine.
14. Ainsi la doctrine juridique internationale reconnaît‑elle tradition‑

nellement, «classiquement», le principe de l’élément synallagmatique fonc ‑
tionnel, reconnaissance étayée par le caractère apparemment naturel que
celui‑ci revêt; il est souvent fait allusion à l’existence d’un principe géknéral

correspondant et, non moins fréquemment, mis en garde contre le dangekr
que présente l’autodétermination des conditions préalables àk sa mise en
œuvre 10. A cet égard, les complications entraînées par l’émergence dkes tr‑ai

tés multilatéraux n’ont guère perturbé la majorité desk auteurs.
15. La reconnaissance du principe en question remonte aux auteurs clas ‑
siques de la discipline. Ainsi, selon Hugo grotius, «[s]i une partie a violé le
traité, l’autre pourra se retirer de l’alliance, car chacun des articles du traité
11
a la force d’une condition» . dans le même ordre d’idées, je citerai égale‑
ment Emeric de Vattel: «L’allié offensé, ou lésé dans ce qui fait l’objet du
traité, peut … choisir, ou de contraindre un infidèle à remplir ses engage ‑
12
ments, ou de déclarer le traité rompu, par l’atteinte qui y a ékté donnée» .
Jusqu’à l’époque de la convention de Vienne, instrument que kj’aborderai
incessamment, de fort nombreux auteurs ont exprimé des vues similaireks.

16. parmi les confirmations des conséquences résultant de dispositionks
synallagmatiques dans le cas de violations conventionnelles que l’on k
trouve dans la jurisprudence des juridictions internationales (antérkieure à
la convention de Vienne), les vues exprimées par les juges Anzilotti

et Hudson dans leurs opinions en l’affaire des Prises d’eau à la Meuse sont
sans doute les plus représentatives. dans cette affaire, la Belgique soute ‑

9H. Waldock, deuxième rapport sur le droit des traités, commentaire du paragraphe 2

de 10article 20, op. cit. supra note 5.
11des références détaillées figurent dans mon article de 1970, op. cit. supra note 1.
De Iure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres, livre II, chap. 15, par. 15 (; traduction fran‑
çaise, Léviathan, pUF, 1999).

12Le droit des gens, ou principes de la loi naturelle appliqués à la▯ conduite et aux affaires
des nations et des souverains, vol. II, chap. 13, par. 200 (1758 ; publié dans Classics of Inter
national Law, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1916). pour des références plus détail ‑
lées aux vues des auteurs — classiques et contemporains — sur ce point, voir mon article
de 1970, op. cit. supra note 1.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 119 20/06/13 08:42 702 application of interkim accord (sep. op. simkma)

ting certain works contrary to a nineteenth‑century treaty, the Nether ‑
lands had forfeited the right to invoke the treaty, and requested the Cokurt

to declare that it was entitled to reserve the rights accruing to it frokm the
breaches of the treaty. The Court found that the Netherlands had not
breached the treaty and therefore did not pronounce upon Belgium’s

contention. Judge Anzilotti took a different view, however, and empha ‑
sized in his dissenting opinion that he was

“convinced that the principle underlying this submission (inadim ‑
plenti non est adimplendum) is so just, so equitable, so universally
recognized, that it must be applied in international relations also. In

any case, it is one of these ‘general principles of law recognized byk
civilized nations’ which the Court applies in virtue of Article 38 of its
Statute.” 13

In the same vein, Judge Hudson, in his individual opinion in the case,
expressed the view

“that where two parties have assumed an identical or a reciprocal
obligation, one party which is engaged in a continuing non‑perfor ‑

mance of that obligation should not be permitted to take advantage
of a similar non‑performance of that obligation by the other party”. 14

17. Like any decent principle, ours, too, got a Latin name, respectively
a Latin circumscription — in fact not just one, but several: frangenti fidem
non est fides servanda, inadimplenti non est adimplendum, exceptio non(▯rite)
15
adimpleti contractus . Returning to plain English, what is relevant here is
that in the overwhelming part of the literature, no distinction was ever, or
is currently, made between the maxim inadimplenti non est adimplendum

and its expression in the form of an exceptio; both Latin terms pronounce
the same principle — inadimplenti in its entirety, the exceptio viewed from
the position of a State which, upon another contracting party’s demand
for performance of a treaty obligation, responds in the good old Roman

law way by connecting its own non‑performance with a breach on the
part of the other. This is important in the light of my following point:k the
“reach” of the codification of our principle in Article 60 of the Vienna
Convention.

18. In the work of the International Law Commission on the law of

treaties, the provision dealing with breach, Article 60, is essentially based
on a proposal made by Special Rapporteur H. Waldock in 1963, that is,

13Diversion of Water from the Meuse, Judgment, 1937, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 70,

p. 14 (dissenting opinion Judge Anzilotti).
15Ibid., p. 77 (individual opinion Judge Hudson).
It remained for the editors of the Yearbook of the International Law Commission to
combine the two terms by speaking of a maxim exceptio inadimplenti non est adimplendum,
and ascribing this strange creation to me: YBILC, 1999, Vol. I, p. 165, para. 41.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 120 20/06/13 08:42 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. indk. simma) 702

nait que, par la construction de certains ouvrages en violation d’un ktraité
du XIX siècle, les pays‑Bas avaient renoncé à leur droit d’invoquer cet

instrument, et elle priait la Cour de dire qu’elle était fondée à réserver ses
droits découlant desdites violations. Ayant conclu que les pays‑Bas
n’avaient pas violé le traité en question, la Cour ne s’est kpas prononcée

sur l’assertion de la Belgique. Le juge Anzilotti a toutefois exprimé un
avis différent, et souligné dans son opinion dissidente qu’ilk n’avait

«vraiment aucun doute que le principe qui [était] à la base de cette
conclusion (inadimplenti non est adimplendum) soit si juste, si équi ‑
table, si universellement reconnu qu’il doive être appliqué ausksi dans

les rapports internationaux. Il s’agit, en tout cas, d’un de ces «k prin ‑
cipes généraux de droit reconnus par les nations civilisées » que la
Cour applique en vertu de l’article 38 de son Statut. » 13

de même, le juge Hudson a, dans son opinion individuelle en cette affaire,
estimé

«que, quand deux parties ont assumé une obligation identique ou
réciproque, une partie qui, de manière continue, n’exécute pkas cette

obligation, ne devrait pas être autorisée à tirer avantage d’une
non‑observation analogue de cette obligation par l’autre partie » 1.

17. Comme tout principe qui se respecte, celui qui fait l’objet du préksent
examen a, lui aussi, un nom latin. plus précisément, ses contours sont défi ‑
nis par une locution latine; pas seulement une, à vrai dire, mais plusieurs :

frangenti fidem non est fides servanda, inadimplenti non est adimplendum,
exceptio non(rite) adimpleti contractus 1. pour en revenir à une langue
ordinaire, ce qu’il importe de relever, c’est que la très grandke majorité des

auteurs n’ont fait — et ne font toujours — aucune distinction entre la
maxime inadimplenti non est adimplendum et son expression sous la forme
d’une exceptio.Ces deux termes latins énoncent le même principe: l’inadim‑
plenti l’exprime dans son intégralité, l’exceptio étant, quant à elle, considé ‑

rée du point de vue d’un Etat qui, exhorté par une autre partiek contractante
à exécuter une obligation conventionnelle, répond à la bonnek vieille manière
du droit romain en établissant un lien entre sa propre inexécutionk et une
violation commise par cet autre Etat. Ce point est important au regard dke

mon observation suivante, à savoir la «portée» de la codification du prin ‑
cipe en question à l’article 60 de la convention de Vienne.
18. La disposition qui, dans les travaux de la Commission du droit inter ‑

national sur le droit des traités, porte sur les violations conventioknnelles
— à savoir l’article 60 — repose, pour l’essentiel, sur une proposition for ‑

13 Prises d’eau à la Meuse, arrêt, 1937, C.P.J.I. série A/B n 70, p. 50 (opinion dissidente

de 14 le juge Anzilotti).
15 Ibid., p. 77 (opinion individuelle de m. le juge Hudson).
Restait aux rédacteurs de l’Annuaire de la CDI à combiner ces deux dernières expres‑
sions pour former la maxime exceptio inadimplenti non est adimplendum, et à m’attribuer
cette curieuse création: Annuaire de la CDI, 1999, vol. I, p. 165, par. 41.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 121 20/06/13 08:42 703 application of interkim accord (sep. op. simkma)

at a relatively late stage in the legislative history of the Vienna Conven ‑
16
tion . It developed into a complex Article which, according to the
general view, copes quite successfully with the challenge of retaining

legal certainty in the face of the many complications in the operation of
our principle, in particular of its application to different types of kmultilateral
treaties 17.

19. What is decisive in the present context, however, is that Article 60
of the Vienna Convention is meant to regulate the legal consequences of k
treaty breach in an exhaustive way. The exhaustive, conclusive nature ofk

our provision is confirmed by the Convention’s Article 42, paragraph 2,
which reads as follows:

“2. The termination of a treaty, its denunciation or the withdrawal

of a party, may take place only as a result of the application of the
provisions of the treaty or of the present Convention. The same rule

applies to suspension of the operation of a treaty.”

20. Thus, extra conventionem nulla salus; on this point, the Applicant got
it quite right (cf. paragraph 5 above). But, as a matter of course, Article 42

16
For details see my 1970 article, op. cit. supra note 1.
17 Article 60 reads as follows:

“Termination or suspension of the operation of a treaty as a consequence ▯of its
breach

1. A material breach of a bilateral treaty by one of the parties entitles tkhe other to
invoke the breach as a ground for terminating the treaty or suspending ikts opera‑
tion in whole or in part.
2. A material breach of a multilateral treaty by one of the parties entitleks:

(a) the other parties by unanimous agreement to suspend the operation of thek
treaty in whole or in part or to terminate it either:

(i) in the relations between themselves and the defaulting State; or
(ii) as between all the parties;
(b) a party specially affected by the breach to invoke it as a ground for ksuspending

the operation of the treaty in whole or in part in the relations betweenk itself
and the defaulting State;
(c) any party other than the defaulting State to invoke the breach as a grouknd
for suspending the operation of the treaty in whole or in part with respkect to
itself if the treaty is of such a character that a material breach of its provisiokns
by one party radically changes the position of every party with respect kto the

further performance of its obligations under the treaty.
3. A material breach of a treaty, for the purposes of this article, consistks in:

(a) a repudiation of the treaty not sanctioned by the present Convention; ork
(b) the violation of a provision essential to the accomplishment of the objekct or
purpose of the treaty.

4. The foregoing paragraphs are without prejudice to any provision in the tkreaty
applicable in the event of a breach.
5. paragraphs 1 to 3 do not apply to provisions relating to the protection okf the
human person contained in treaties of a humanitarian character, in partikcular to
provisions prohibiting any form of reprisals against persons protected bky such
treaties.”

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mulée par le rapporteur spécial H. Waldock en 1963, c’est‑à‑dire à un stade
16
relativement avancé de la genèse de la convention de Vienne . Cette
proposition a débouché sur un article complexe qui, de l’avis gkénéral,

parvient assez bien à préserver la sécurité juridique face akux nombreuses
complications qu’induit la mise en œuvre du principe à l’exakmen, en
particulier, son application à différents types de traités mukltilatéraux 17.

19. L’élément déterminant aux fins présentes est cependant kque l’ar ‑
ticle 60 de la convention de Vienne est censé régir de manière exhausktive
les conséquences juridiques des violations conventionnelles. Le caractère

exhaustif et absolu de cette disposition est confirmé au paragraphek 2 de
l’article 42 de la convention, qui se lit comme suit :

«2. L’extinction d’un traité, sa dénonciation ou le retrait d’kune

partie ne peuvent avoir lieu qu’en application des dispositions du
traité ou de la présente Convention. La même règle vaut pourk la sus ‑

pension de l’application d’un traité. »

20. dès lors, extra conventionem nulla salus; sur ce point, le demandeur
avait parfaitement raison (voir paragraphe 5 ci‑dessus). Ce nonobstant, il

16
pour plus de détails, voir mon article de 1970, op. cit. supra note 1.
17L’article 60 se lit comme suit :

«Extinction d’un traité ou suspension de son application comme cons▯équence de sa
violation

1. Une violation substantielle d’un traité bilatéral par l’une kdes parties autorise
l’autre partie à invoquer la violation comme motif pour mettre fikn au traité ou
suspendre son application en totalité ou en partie.
2. Une violation substantielle d’un traité multilatéral par l’ukne des parties autorise :

a) les autres parties, agissant par accord unanime, à suspendre l’appklication du
traité en totalité ou en partie ou à mettre fin à celui‑cik :

i) soit dans les relations entre elles‑mêmes et l’Etat auteur de la vkiolation ;
ii) soit entre toutes les parties ;
b) une partie spécialement atteinte par la violation à invoquer celle‑ci comme

motif de suspension de l’application du traité en totalité ou ekn partie dans les
relations entre elle‑même et l’Etat auteur de la violation ;
c) toute partie autre que l’Etat auteur de la violation à invoquer lak violation
comme motif pour suspendre l’application du traité en totalité ou en partie en
ce qui la concerne si ce traité est d’une nature telle qu’une vkiolation substantielle
de ses dispositions par une partie modifie radicalement la situation dke chacune

des parties quant à l’exécution ultérieure de ses obligationks en vertu du traité.
3. Aux fins du présent article, une violation substantielle d’un trkaité est constituée par :

a) un rejet du traité non autorisé par la présente convention ; ou
b) la violation d’une disposition essentielle pour la réalisation de l’objet ou du but
du traité.

4. Les paragraphes qui précèdent ne portent atteinte à aucune dispkosition du traité
applicable en cas de violation.
5. Les paragraphes 1 à 3 ne s’appliquent pas aux dispositions relatives à la protec ‑
tion de la personne humaine contenues dans des traités de caractèrke humanitaire,
notamment aux dispositions excluant toute forme de représailles à l’égard des
personnes protégées par lesdits traités. »

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5 CIJ1026.indb 123 20/06/13 08:42 704 application of interkim accord (sep. op. simkma)

can only reach as far as the Vienna Convention as a whole is intended tok
reach. This leads us to the Convention’s Article 73, according to which its
provisions shall not prejudge any question that may arise in regard to ak
treaty from, inter alia, the international responsibility of a State. In the
language of the ILC, by now generally accepted and adopted in the litera‑

ture, the Vienna Convention is designed to provide an exhaustive restatek‑
ment of the “primary rules” on treaty breach but does not touch upon
matters of State responsibility, regulated by “secondary rules” ask codified
and progressively developed in the ILC’s 2001 Articles. In other words,
Article 60 has nothing to do with State responsibility, and State responsi ‑

bility has nothing to do with the maxim inadimplenti non est adimplendum
or the exceptio non adimpleti contractus. The functional synallagma
attached to treaties embodying reciprocal obligations finds its (not kneces ‑
sarily Latin) expression entirely in the primary rules of the law of trkeaties.

On the other hand, it is in the law on State responsibility where countekr ‑
measures have found their place, and it is justified, indeed necessaryk,
therefore to deal with them separately — as the parties to our case have
done and as our Judgment does—, even though countermeasures resorted
to as a consequence of the breach of a treaty may also lead to suspensiokn of

provisions of that same treaty, that is, they may “look alike” for practical
purposes while being subjected to a different legal régime — a matter to
which I have devoted particular attention in my scholarly contributions 18.

21. Returning to the primary rules on the consequences of a breach of
treaty embodied in Article 60, let me emphasize once again that this pro ‑

vision constitutes an exhaustive treatment of the matter. Thus, there isk no
place left besides it, so to speak, for the exception — Article 60 and the
régime provided by the Vienna Convention to complete its operation
embodies it.
22. I do not want to conceal that in my first publication on the legal

régime of treaty breach, I took the view that it would have been adviksable
for the ILC to leave a — modest — place for the exceptio on the side of
Article 60, in the sense that an extra‑conventional exceptio would remain
applicable (only) to non‑material or immaterial breaches, with Article 60

comprehensively covering the suspension of performance of treaty obliga ‑
tions as a consequence of “material” breaches as defined in thatk Article. I
thus pleaded for some limited room in general international law left fork
qualitatively proportional responses by a State in the sense that they may
be applied in the form of suspension of the reacting State’s own perfkor ‑

mance if, when and as long as that obligation’s counterpart duty is vio‑
lated. This kind of suspension, while constituting a protective measure kor
remedy with its sedes materiae also in the law of treaties, i.e., in the realm

18
Cf. the writings referred to supra in note 1.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 124 20/06/13 08:42 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. indk. simma) 704

est bien évident que la portée de l’article 42 ne saurait dépasser celle que la
convention de Vienne en tant que telle est censée avoir. Cela nous amkène
à l’article 73 de cet instrument, aux termes duquel les dispositions de
celui‑ci ne préjugent aucune question qui pourrait se poser à propkos d’un
traité du fait, notamment, de la responsabilité internationale d’kun Etat.

pour reprendre les termes de la CdI, qui sont désormais généralement
acceptés et adoptés par la doctrine, la convention de Vienne vise kà réaffir ‑
mer l’ensemble des «règles primaires» relatives aux violations convention‑
nelles, mais n’aborde pas les questions ayant trait à la responsabkilité de
l’Etat, qui sont régies par les « règles secondaires» telles que codifiées et

progressivement développées dans les articles de la CdI de 2001. Autre ‑
ment dit, l’article 60 n’a rien à voir avec la responsabilité de l’Etat, laquellke
n’a rien à voir avec la maxime inadimplenti non est adimplendum ou avec
l’exceptio non adimpleti contractus. L’élément synallagmatique fonctionnel

associé aux traités qui énoncent des obligations réciproquesk trouve entiè‑
rement son expression (et pas nécessairement en latin) dans les rèkgles
primaires du droit des traités. En revanche, c’est dans le droit dke la
responsabilité de l’Etat que les contre‑mesures s’inscrivent ; il est dès lors
justifié, et même nécessaire, de les traiter séparémentk — ainsi que cela a été

fait par les parties à la présente espèce comme dans l’arrêt —, et ce, même
si des contre‑mesures prises par suite d’une violation conventionnellke
peuvent elles aussi conduire à la suspension de certaines dispositionks de ce
même instrument, ce qui signifie que, dans la pratique, elles «ressemblent»

à des mesures prises en vertu de l’article 60, tout en étant soumises à un
régime juridique différent. Il s’agit là d’une questionk que j’ai examinée de
manière particulièrement approfondie dans mes travaux de recherchek 18.
21. pour en revenir aux règles primaires régissant les conséquences k
d’une violation conventionnelle telles que consacrées à l’arkticle 60, je sou ‑

lignerai une fois encore que cette disposition traite la question de mankière
exhaustive. Cela ne laisse donc, pour ainsi dire, plus aucune place àk l’ex ‑
ceptio en tant que telle; l’article 60 et le régime énoncé dans la convention
de Vienne qui en complète l’application la renferment.
22. Je ne cacherai pas que, dans mon premier article consacré au régime

juridique des violations conventionnelles, j’ai estimé qu’il aurait été souhai ‑
table que la CdI ménageât, au côté de l’article 60, une place — modeste —
à l’exceptio, au sens où une exceptio extraconventionnelle demeurerait
applicable aux (seules) violations non substantielles ou sans grande impor ‑

tance, l’article 60 régissant dans son intégralité la suspension de l’exéckution
d’obligations conventionnelles par suite de violations «substantielles» telles
que définies dans cet article. J’ai ainsi défendu la positionk selon laquelle une
place limitée devait être réservée en droit international général à des
réponses qualitativement proportionnelles d’un Etat, qui prendraieknt la

forme d’une suspension, par celui‑ci, de l’exécution de sa propre obligation
si la contrepartie de cette obligation est violée, au moment où elkle l’est
et aussi longtemps qu’elle le demeure. Une suspension de ce type, quoiquke

18
Voir les articles auxquels il est fait référence plus haut, dans lka note 1.

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of primary rules, would not be covered by Article 60 because Article 60
19
de minimis non curat . As I mentioned in my description of the argu ‑
ments of the parties to our case (cf. supra paragraph 9), greece put
forward this view, but in effect did not profit from it because it rkegarded
the treaty breaches allegedly committed by the FYROm as “material”.

As I regard the matter now, I am not convinced that the solution I consik ‑
dered desirable 40 years ago would be constructive and I do not maintain
it. I doubt that it would make sense to let reactions to lesser, immaterkial

breaches off the leash set up by Article 60, particularly its procedural
conditions. Rather, I now join the ranks of those who regard Article 60
as truly exhaustive, that is, totally eclipsing the earlier non‑written klaw on
the functional synallagma operating behind treaties. But of course a lookk

across the fence into the realm of State responsibility would still showk
that the impression of a general de minimis non curat lex possibly created
by the Vienna Convention’s lack of consideration of breaches not fulfikl ‑

ling the conditions laid down in Article 60 is misleading because if a
breach not “material” enough to trigger the responses codified ikn that
Article were nevertheless to constitute an internationally wrongful act k

under the law of State responsibility, it would still entitle another affkected
contracting party, as an injured State, to resort to countermeasures,
within the limits of proportionality.

23. Article 60 of the Vienna Convention has received the imprimatur

by our Court at two earlier occasions, in both instances in ways which
confirm that the provision is to be understood as an exhaustive treatmkent
of the consequences of treaty breach under the primary rules of the law kof

treaties.

19 Cf. my 1970 article, op. cit. supra note 1, pp. 59‑60. I was not alone with this concern;

it was shared 13 years later by the ILC’s Special Rapporteur, W. Riphagen; cf. his fourth
report on the content, forms and degrees of international responsibiliYBILC, 1983,
Vol. II (part One), p. 18, para. 98:

“Since Article 60 of the Vienna Convention applies only to material breaches, it

would be necessary to cover other cases of reciprocity of the performancke of treaty
obligations. Indeed, if it appears from the treaty or is otherwise estabklished that
the performance of an obligation by a State party is the counterpart (quid pro quo)
of the performance of the same or another obligation by another State pakrty, the
non‑performance by the first mentioned State need not be a material breach in order
to justify non‑performance by the other State.”

On professor Riphagen’s subsequent proposal of “reciprocal countermeaskures”, see
infra note 28.

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constituant une mesure de protection ou un remède trouvant également son

sedes materiae dans le droit des traités — ce qui signifie qu’elle relève de
règles primaires —, n’entrerait pas dans les prévisions de l’article 60 puisque
celui‑cide minimis non curat . Ainsi que je l’ai mentionné dans mon exposé
de l’argumentation des parties à la présente espèce (voir paragraphe 9

ci‑dessus), la grèce a avancé cette idée sans toutefois en tirer concrètemenkt
profit puisqu’elle considérait que les violations conventionnellkes commises,
selon elle, par l’ERYm étaient « substantielles». Selon la perception de la

question qui est aujourd’hui la mienne, je ne suis toutefois pas perskuadé que
cette solution que je jugeais souhaitable il y a quaranteans serait construc ‑
tive, et je ne la maintiendrai pas. Je doute en effet que cela aurait kun sens de
permettre que des réactions à des violations moins graves, sans grkande

importance, échappent aux prévisions de l’article 60 et, en particulier, aux
conditions procédurales qui y sont énoncées. Je me range donc àk l’avis de
ceux qui estiment que cette disposition est réellement exhaustive, c’kest‑à‑dire

qu’elle l’emporte totalement sur le droit antérieur, non écrkit, qui autorisait
le libre jeu de l’élément synallagmatique fonctionnel sous‑jaceknt aux traités.
A l’évidence, une brève incursion dans le domaine de la responsabkilité de

l’Etat suffirait toutefois à dissiper l’impression — qui peut être suscitée
par le fait que les violations ne satisfaisant pas aux conditions énoncékes à
l’article 60 de la convention de Vienne ne sont pas traitées dans cet instru ‑
ment — qu’il existe une de minimis non curat lex générale. En effet, si une

violation qui ne serait pas assez «substantielle» pour entraîner les réponses
codifiées dans cet article constituait néanmoins un acte internaktionalement
illicite au regard du droit de la responsabilité de l’Etat, elle akutoriserait tout

de même une autre partie contractante qui en serait affectée àk recourir, en
tant qu’Etat lésé, à des contre‑mesures, à condition que ksoit respectée la
règle de la proportionnalité.
23. La Cour a donné son imprimatur à l’article 60 de la convention de

Vienne en deux occasions, chaque fois d’une manière confirmant que
cette disposition doit être entendue comme traitant de manière exhkaustive
les conséquences des violations conventionnelles au regard des règles pri ‑

maires du droit des traités.

19Voir mon article de 1970, op. cit. supra note 1, p. 59‑60. Je n’ai pas été le seul à

exprimer cette préoccupation, puisqu’elle a été partagée ktreize ans plus tard par le rappor‑
teur spécial de la CdI, W. Riphagen; voir son quatrième rapport sur le contenu, les formes
et les degrés de la responsabilité internationale, Annuaire de la CDI, 1983, vol. II (première
partie), p. 19, par. 98 :
«Etant donné que l’article 60 de la convention de Vienne ne s’applique qu’aux

violations substantielles, il faudrait prévoir d’autres cas de rékciprocité de l’exécution
des obligations conventionnelles. En effet, s’il ressort du traiték ou s’il est établi autre
ment que l’exécution d’une obligation par un Etat partie est lek pendant (quid pro
quo) de l’exécution de la même obligation ou d’une autre par un akutre Etat partie, il
n’est pas nécessaire que la non‑exécution par le premier Etat ckonstitue une violation
substantielle pour justifier la non‑exécution par l’autre Etat. »

En ce qui concerne la proposition de « contre‑mesures réciproques » que m. Riphagen a
formulée par la suite, voir ci‑après, note 28.

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24. The first instance was the 1971 Advisory Opinion on Namibia in
which the Court, among many other issues, dealt with the declaration by
the United Nations general Assembly in its resolution 2145 (XXI) of 1966

to the effect that South Africa’s mandate over South West Africa/Namibia
was to be regarded as terminated due to material breach by the former
mandatory 2. The Court set out by referring rather broadly to the “funda‑

mental principl[e] . . . that a party which disowns or does not fulfil its own
obligations cannot be recognized as retaining the rights which it claimsk to
derive from the relationship” 2, as well as to its own earlier jurisprudence
22
according to which the mandate constituted an international treaty . It
then stated that Article 60 of the Vienna Convention (at the time of the
rendering of the Opinion still nine years away from its entry into forcek)

“may in many respects be considered as a codification of existing ckustom ‑
ary law on the subject” 23. Subsequently, the Court applied the law thus
presented to the facts of the case and found that the action of the general

Assembly had been justified and had reached the desired effect.
25. The second occasion on which the Court applied Article 60 was in
its 1997 Judgment in the case of the Gabčikovo‑Nagymaros Project

between Hungary and Slovakia, in which one of Hungary’s arguments
was to the effect that it was entitled to terminate the 1977 Treaty on the
hydro‑electric project on the ground that Czechoslovakia had committed
24
a number of breaches of that treaty . The Court took the view that only
material breaches gave an affected State a right to terminate an agreek ‑
ment while

“[t]he violation of other treaty rules or of rules of general inter‑

national law may justify the taking of certain measures, including
countermeasures, by the injured State, but it does not constitute a
ground for termination under the law of treaties” 25.

Following this statement on the relationship between Article 60 and the

law of State responsibility, the Court investigated the breaches allegedk
by the claimant, in particular Czechoslovakia’s Ersatz construction of
“Variant C”, and arrived at the conclusion that the conditions for the
26
invocation of Article 60‑type termination were not fulfilled .

26. In the light of the foregoing, the pre‑Vienna Convention exceptio is

to be declared dead. But I do not want to conclude my opinion without

20Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa ▯in Namibia
(South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971, pp. 46‑50, paras. 91‑104.
21Ibid., p. 46, para. 91.
22
23Ibid., pp. 46‑47, para. 94.
24Ibid.
Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J.▯ Reports 1997,
pp. 65‑67, paras. 105‑110.
25Ibid., p. 65, para. 106.
26Ibid., pp. 66‑67, paras. 108‑110.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 128 20/06/13 08:42 application d’accorkd intérimaire (op. indk. simma) 706

24. Tel a tout d’abord été le cas dans l’avis consultatif sur lak Namibie de
1971, dans lequel la Cour a notamment examiné la déclaration faitek par
l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies dans sa résolution 2145 (XXI)

de 1966, selon laquelle le mandat de l’Afrique du Sud sur le Sud‑Ouest akfri ‑
cain/la Namibie devait être considéré comme terminé en raisokn d’une vio ‑la
tion substantielle commise par l’ancien mandataire . La Cour a débuté son

examen par une référence assez générale à «[l]’un des principes fondamen ‑
taux … qu’une partie qui renie ou ne remplit pas ses propres obligations ne
saurait être considérée comme conservant les droits qu’elle kprétend tirer de
ce rapport » 21, ainsi qu’à sa propre jurisprudence suivant laquelle le mandat
22
constituait un traité international . Elle a ensuite précisé que l’article 60 de
la convention de Vienne (qui n’allait entrer en vigueur que neuf ans après le
prononcé de cet avis) « p[ouvait], à bien des égards, être considéré comme
23
une codification du droit coutumier existant dans ce domain» e . La Cour a
alors appliqué le droit ainsi exposé aux faits de l’espèce ekt estimé que l’action
de l’Assemblée générale avait été justifiée et avkait eu l’effet souhaité.

25. La Cour a appliqué l’article 60 pour la deuxième fois dans
l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en 1997 en l’affaire relative au Projet Gabčikovo‑
Nagymaros entre la Hongrie et la Slovaquie, dans laquelle la Hongrie

soutenait notamment qu’elle était fondée à mettre fin au tkraité de 1977
relatif au projet hydroélectrique, au motif que la Tchécoslovaquiek avait
commis un certain nombre de violations de cet instrument 2. La Cour a

considéré que seules des violations substantielles donnaient le drkoit à un
Etat lésé de mettre fin à un accord, alors que

«[l]a violation d’autres règles conventionnelles ou d’autres règles du
droit international général p[ouvait] justifier l’adoption pakr l’Etat lésé

de certaines mesures, y compris des contre‑mesures, mais …ne saurait 25
justifier qu’il soit mis fin au traité sur la base du droit deks traité» s .

A la suite de ce prononcé sur le rapport entre l’article 60 et le droit de la
responsabilité de l’Etat, la Cour a examiné les violations invokquées par le
demandeur, et, plus particulièrement, la construction de remplacementk,

par la Tchécoslovaquie, de la « variante C»; elle est parvenue à la conclu ‑
sion qu’il n’avait pas été satisfait aux conditions qui aurakient permis à la
Hongrie de se prévaloir d’une terminaison au sens de l’article 60 2.

26. Au vu de ce qui précède, l’exceptio pré‑convention de Vienne doit être
considérée comme enterrée. Je ne conclurai cependant pas la préksente opinion

20Conséquences juridiques pour les Etats de la présence continue de ▯l’Afrique du Sud en
Namibie (Sud‑Ouest africain) nonobstant la résolution 276 (1970) du Conseil de sécurité,

avi21consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 46‑50, par. 91‑104.
22Ibid., p. 46, par. 91.
Ibid., p. 46‑47, par. 94.
23Ibid.
24Projet Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J.▯ Recueil 1997,
p. 65‑67, par. 105‑110.
25Ibid., p. 65, par. 106.
26Ibid., p. 66‑67, par. 108‑110.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 129 20/06/13 08:42 707 application of interkim accord (sep. op. simkma)

mentioning a recent attempt to resuscitate it, in another legal incarnatkion,
as it were. In the context of the ILC’s work on State responsibility kand in
the course of the second reading of the Commission’s draft articles okn the

subject, Special Rapporteur James Crawford, when dealing with the
so‑called “Circumstances precluding wrongfulness”, proposed a provki ‑
sion, draft article 30bis, which had no predecessor in the first‑reading

text. The proposal read as follows:
“Article 30bis. Non‑compliance caused by prior non‑compliance by

another State
The wrongfulness of an act of a State not in conformity with an

international obligation of that State is precluded if the State has beekn
prevented from acting in conformity with the obligation as a direct
result of a prior breach of the same or a related international obliga ‑
27
tion by another State.”

27. professor Crawford expressly wanted draft article 30bisto restate the
exceptio, recognition of which he thought to find in the pCIJ’s Factory
at Chorzów (Jurisdiction) Judgment as well as in later decisions. In

order to provide a further foundation for his proposal, the Special Rap ‑
porteur referred to the ILC’s prior codification efforts both relkating to the
law of treaties and on State responsibility; in the context of the latter to

proposals made by Special Rapporteur W. Riphagen introducing so‑called
“reciprocal countermeasures” 2.

professor Crawford pleaded for recognition of the exceptio as a distinct
circumstance precluding wrongfulness because in his view, it was not
enough to deal with it under the law relating to the suspension of treatkies

because t29t law required a material breach, which was narrowly
defined . What we thus see is that the Special Rapporteur wanted to fill
what he considered to be a gap in the primary rules of the law of treatikes

27For a comprehensive analysis of this article by the Special Rapporteur, ksee his

Second report on State responsibility, YBILC, 1999, Vol. II (part One), paras. 316‑329.
28
YBILC, 1999, Vol. II (part Two), pp. 78‑79. professor Riphagen’s concept of “recip‑
rocal countermeasures” is to be found in his fifth report on the cokntent, forms and degrees
of international responsibility (part Two of the draft articles), YBILC, 1984, Vol. II (part
One), p. 3. In draft Article 8, Riphagen proposed to express this concept as follows:

“Subject to . . . [certain other provisions governing countermeasures], the injured
State is entitled, by way of reciprocity, to suspend the performance of its obligations
towards the State which has committed an internationally wrongful act, ikf such‑obliga
tions correspond to, or are directly connected with, the obligation breakched.” (Ibid.)

This proposal was not discussed by the Commission until 1992, when it waks rejected;
see, YBILC, 1992, Vol. II (part Two), p. 23, para. 151. For a critique, see B. Simma,
“grundfragen der Staatenverantwortlichkeit in der Arbeit der International Law Commis
sion”, 24 Archiv des Völkerrechts, pp. 393‑395 (1986).
29YBILC, 1999, Vol. II (part Two), p. 79.

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sans faire mention d’une récente tentative de l’exhumer, si je kpuis dire sous
une autre incarnation juridique. dans le cadre des travaux de la CdI sur la
responsabilité de l’Etat et au cours de la seconde lecture des projets d’articles

de la Commission en la matière, le rapporteur spécial, James Crawford, a,
au moment de l’examen des «circonstances excluant l’illicéité», proposé une
disposition, le projet d’article30bis, qui n’avait pas de précédent dans le texte

de la première lecture. Cette proposition se lisait comme suit :
«Article 30 bis. — Inobservation causée par l’inobservation préa ‑

lable d’un autre Etat.
L’illicéité d’un fait d’un Etat non conforme à une obligation inter ‑

nationale de cet Etat est exclue si l’incapacité de se conformer àk son
obligation, dans laquelle celui‑ci s’est trouvé, résulte directkement
d’une violation préalable par un autre Etat de la même obligatikon
27
internationale ou d’une obligation connexe. »

27. m. Crawford concevait expressément l’article 30 bis comme une
reformulation de l’exceptio, qu’il pensait pouvoir fonder sur l’arrêt rendu
par la CpJI en l’affaire de l’Usine de Chorzów (compétence) ainsi que sur

des décisions ultérieures. Afin d’étayer davantage sa propkosition, le rap ‑
porteur spécial s’est référé aux travaux de codificatiokn antérieurs effectués
par la CdI en matière de droit des traités et de responsabilité des Etatks et,

s’agissant de ce dernier domaine, à des propositions formulées par le rap ‑
porteur spécial, W. Riphagen, tendant à introduire la notion de « contre‑
mesures réciproques » 28.

m. Crawford était partisan de reconnaître l’exceptio en tant que cir ‑
constance distincte excluant l’illicéité ; selon lui, il ne suffisait en effet pas
de la considérer au regard du droit relatif à la suspension des trkaités, étant

donné que celui‑ci posait comme condition la commission 29une violkation
substantielle, dont la définition était restrictive . Il apparaît donc que le
rapporteur spécial souhaitait combler ce qu’il considérait commke un vide

27pour une analyse approfondie de cet article par le rapporteur spécial,k voir son

deuxième rapport sur la responsabilité de l’Etat, Annuaire de la CDI, 1999, vol. II, première
par28e, par. 316‑329.
Annuaire de la CDI, 1999, vol. II (deuxième partie), p. 78‑79. La notion de « contre‑
mesures réciproques» a été présentée par m. Riphagen dans son cinquième rapport sur le
contenu, les formes et les degrés de la responsabilité internationkale (deuxième partie des
projets d’articles), Annuaire de la CDI, 1984, vol. II (première partie), p. 3. m. Riphagen a,
dans le projet d’article 8, proposé d’énoncer cette notion comme suit :

«Sous réserve de [certaines autres dispositions régissant les contrke‑mesures], l’Etat
lésé peut, par mesure de réciprocité, suspendre l’exéckution de ses obligations à l’égard
de l’Etat qui a commis un fait internationalement illicite, si lesditkes obligations
correspondent ou sont directement liées à l’obligation qui a ékté violée. »(Ibid.)

Cette proposition ne fut examinée par la Commission qu’en 1992, et elle fut écartée ;voir
Annuaire de la CDI, 1992, vol. II (deuxième partie), p. 23, par. 151. pour une critique de
cette proposition, voir B. Simma,«grundfragen der Staatenverantwortlichkeit in der Arbeit
der International Law Commission », Archiv des Völkerrechts, vol. 24, p. 393‑395 (1986).
29 Annuaire de la CDI, 1999, vol. II (deuxième partie), p. 79.

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5 CIJ1026.indb 131 20/06/13 08:42 708 application of interkim accord (sep. op. simkma)

(Art. 60) by a secondary rule belonging to the realm of State responsi‑
bility.

28. draft article 30bis got a mixed reception in the Commission, to put
it mildly 30. As was to be expected, criticism focused on the relationship
between the State‑responsibility re‑appearance of the exceptio now pro ‑

posed and its expression in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Trea ‑
ties; the point was made that the proposed article brought together sevekral
concepts that were only partially interrelated 31. Overall, the debate was
quite confused; for instance, while according to one suggestion, the con ‑

tent of article 30bis really belonged to the concept of force majeure — an
idea which not only the Special Rapporteur found rather odd —, another
member regarded the provision as “reflecting a special department of
impossibility”; again others were reminded of the “clean hands”k princi ‑
32
ple and so forth. In light of this, the Commission did well in finally
scrapping this doctrinal cross‑breed. In its final report upon adoptiokn of
the 2001 Articles on State responsibility, it waved goodbye to the pro ‑

posal made in draft article 30bis by confirming once again that “the
exception of non‑performance (exceptio inadimpleti contractus) is best
seen as a specific feature of certain mutual or synallagmatic obligatikons
and not a circumstance precluding wrongfulness” 33.

29. Let me summarize: in the present case, the Court would have had

the opportunity to clarify a number of legal issues arising from the
Respondent’s “defences” against the Applicant’s accusation of treaty
breach, in particular, by giving an authoritative answer to the questionk

whether Article 60 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties still
leaves some place for the so‑called exceptio non adimpleti contractus. For
some reason, the Court avoided touching upon these issues. In my view,
the correct answer would have to be negative: on the plane of interna ‑

tional law’s primary rules, Article 60 regulates the legal consequences of
treaty breach in an exhaustive way; thus no version of the exceptio has
survived the codification of the law of treaties — may it rest in peace.

(Signed) Bruno Simma.

30Cf. YBILC, 1999, Vol. I, pp. 165‑171, and the summary of the discussion; ibid., 1999,

Vol31II (part Two), p. 79.
32 Ibid.
33Cf. ibid.
Report of the Commission to the general Assembly on the Work of its Fifty‑Third
Session, YBILC, 2001, Vol. II (part Two), p. 72, para. 9.

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dans les règles primaires du droit des traités (art. 60), au moyen d’une
règle secondaire relevant de la responsabilité des Etats.

28. Le projet d’article 30 bis a reçu un accueil mitigé, pour ne pas dire
plus, de la part de la Commission 3. Comme on pouvait s’y attendre, les
critiques ont essentiellement porté sur le rapport entre la réappakrition de

l’exceptio par le biais de la responsabilité de l’Etat ainsi proposée et kl’ex ‑
pression de cette notion dans la convention de Vienne sur le droit des tkra ‑i
tés. Il a été objecté que l’article présenté réuknissait plusieurs notions
qui n’étaient que partiellement interdépendantes 3. d’une manière géné ‑

rale, les discussions ont été assez confuses. A titre d’exemple, alors qu’une
des vues exprimées était que, par son contenu, l’article 30 bis se rattachait
en réalité à la notion de force majeure — idée que le rapporteur spécial n’a
pas été le seul à juger pour le moins étrange —, un autre membre de la

Commission a estimé que cette disposition constituait une « forme dis ‑
tincte d’impossibilité »; à d’autres encore, ladite disposition rappelait la
doctrine dite des « mains propres » 32, etc. dès lors, la Commission a été

bien avisée de mettre finalement ce croisement doctrinal au rebut. kdans
son rapport final, après l’adoption, en 2001, du projet d’articles sur la res ‑
ponsabilité de l’Etat, elle a définitivement remisé la prokposition formulée
dans le projet d’article 30 bis, confirmant une fois encore que « l’exception

d’inexécution (exceptio inadimpleti contractus) [était] surtout perçue
comme une caractéristique particulière de certaines obligations rékciproques
ou synallagmatiques et non comme une circonstance excluant l’illicékit»é 33.
29. Je résumerai ainsi mon propos : la présente espèce était, pour la

Cour, l’occasion de clarifier un certain nombre de questions juridikques
liées aux «moyens de défense» présentés par le défendeur contre l’accusa ‑
tion du demandeur selon laquelle il aurait commis une violation conven ‑

tionnelle; c’était, en particulier, l’occasion de fournir une réponsek faisant
autorité à la question de savoir si l’article 60 de la convention de Vienne
sur le droit des traités laisse encore une place, quelle qu’elle skoit, à l’excep ‑
tio non adimpleti contractus. pour une raison quelconque, la Cour s’est

abstenue de se pencher sur ces questions. Selon moi, il aurait fallu rékpondre
par la négative : sur le plan des règles primaires du droit international,
l’article 60 régit de manière exhaustive les conséquences juridiques des kvio ‑
lations conventionnelles; l’exceptio n’a donc survécu sous aucune forme à

la codification du droit des traités. Qu’elle repose en paix.

(Signé) Bruno Simma.

30Voir Annuaire de la CDI, 1999, vol. I, p. 145‑153, ainsi que le résumé de la discussion;

ibi31, 1999, vol. II (deuxième partie), p. 79.
32Ibid.
33Voir ibid. e
Rapport de la Commission sur les travaux de sa 53 session, Annuaire de la CDI,
2001, vol. II (deuxième partie), p. 72, par. 9.

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Separate opinion of Judge Simma

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