Joint dissenting opinion of Judges Xue, Gaja, Bhandari and Judge ad hoc Orrego Vicuña

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137-20140127-JUD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
137-20140127-JUD-01-00-EN
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100

JOINT DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGES XUE,
GAJA, BHANDARI
AND JUDGE AD HOC ORREGO VICUÑA

Introduction

1. According to the view of the majority of the Members of the Court,
by 1954 some kind of tacit agreement had come into existence between
Peru and Chile in order to define part of the lateral boundary betweené
their respective maritime zones. However, the elements of that agreementé

have not been clearly identified. There is no indication as to when anéd
how such an agreement was supposed to have been reached.
2. With regard to maritime boundaries, the only relevant agreement
that was concluded between Peru and Chile before 1954 was the Santiago
Declaration of 1952. Although this Declaration did not expressly definée

the boundary between the maritime zones generated by the continental
coasts, it contains important elements of which any interpretation couldé
not afford to lose sight, and which would give a more solid basis to the
conclusion reached by the majority on the existence of an agreed bound -

ary. This approach does not only have theoretical significance. While éthe
majority labours to argue in favour of the idea that the agreement betweéen
Peru and Chile covers a distance of 80 nautical miles from the continental
coast, the Santiago Declaration clearly indicates that the seaward end oéf
the boundary extends to 200 nautical miles.

The 1952 Santiago Declaratéion

3. The Declaration on the Maritime Zone is a treaty, which was signed
at the Santiago Conference on 18 August 1952 by the representatives of
Chile, Ecuador and Peru (hereafter “the Santiago Declaration”, oré “the
Declaration”), then approved by the respective Congresses and later éregis-

tered with the UN Secretary-General by a joint request of the parties.
During the proceedings, Peru had expressed doubts on the legal nature ofé
the Santiago Declaration as a treaty, but later accepted this characteriéza
tion.
4. The Santiago Declaration contains a specific provision on the delimi-

tation of maritime zones. Paragraph IV of the Declaration states :
“In the case of island territories, the zone of 200 nautical miles shéall

apply to the entire coast of the island or group of islands. If an islanéd

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or group of islands belonging to one of the countries making the
declaration is situated less than 200 nautical miles from the general

maritime zone belonging to another of those countries, the maritime
zone of the island or group of islands shall be limited by the parallel
at the point at which the land frontier of the States concerned reaches
the sea.”

This provision explicitly refers only to the delimitation between maritiéme
zones generated by islands and those generated by continental coasts. Ité
first states that islands are entitled to a maritime zone extending for

200 nautical miles around their coasts. It then considers the case where an
island or a group of islands belonging to one State is situated at a disétance
of less than 200 nautical miles from the general maritime zone of another
State. This would create an overlap between maritime zones belonging to
two different States. In order to harmonize these claims, the Declaratéion

adopts the criterion of cutting off the maritime zone pertaining to thée
island or the group of islands when it reaches the parallel passing through
the point where the land frontier meets the sea(el paralelo del punto en que
llega al mar la frontera terrestre de los estados respectivos).
5. In paragraph IV the criterion for delimiting one general maritime

zone from another such zone has not been explicitly set forth. However,
when paragraph IV refers to an island or a group of islands at a distance
less than 200 nautical miles from the general maritime zone of another
State, it implies that some criterion has also been adopted for delimitiéng
that general maritime zone, because it would otherwise be impossible to é

know whether an island or a group of islands is situated at less than
200 nautical miles from that zone.
6. Under the rules of treaty interpretation, treaty clauses must “be con-
strued in a manner enabling the clauses themselves to have appropriate
effects” (Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex, Order of

19 August 1929, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 22, p. 13). Every term of a treaty
should be given meaning and effect in light of the object and purpose éof
the treaty. As the Court has said in the Territorial Dispute between Libya
and Chad, the principle of effectiveness constitutes “one of the fuéndamen -
tal principles of interpretation of treaties” (Territorial Dispute (Libyan

Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, p. 25, para. 51 ;
see also Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 24). Paragraph IV of the Santiago Declaration not
only establishes the maritime entitlement of islands, but also provides éthe
delimitation criterion in case their entitlement overlaps with that of the

coastal entitlement of another contracting State. The phrases in the paréa-
graph referring to “the general maritime zone belonging to another of
those countries” and determining that the maritime zone of islands “éshall
be limited by the parallel at the point at which the land frontier of thée
States concerned reaches the sea” have a direct bearing on the islandés’

entitlement as well as on the lateral boundaries between the parties.

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7. It seems logical to infer from paragraph IV that the parallel passing
through the endpoint of the land frontier on the continental coastline

between adjacent States also marks the boundary between the maritime
zones relating to the respective continental coasts of the same States. éFor
instance, supposing that State A lies north of State B, it would make little
sense for the maritime zone generated by an island of State A to be
restricted to the south by the parallel running through the endpoint of éthe

land border with State B if the maritime zone generated by the continen -
tal coast of the same State A could extend beyond that parallel. On the
other hand, should the boundary between the maritime zones generated
by the continental coasts run north of the parallel, disproportionate
weight would be given to some small islands of State A if that boundary
were displaced because the maritime zone of these islands had to reach

the parallel running through the endpoint of the land border.

8. The minutes of the Juridical Affairs Committee of the Santiago
Conference give some support to the above interpretation. The records
(Memorial of Peru, Ann. 56) note that a proposal of the Ecuadorian dele-

gate, Mr. Fernández, was unanimously approved. He had suggested that
the Declaration “be drawn on the basis that the boundary line of the é
jurisdictional zone of each country be the respective parallel from the é
point at which the borders of the countries touches or reaches the seaӎ (el
paralelo respectivo desde el punto en que la frontera de los paises toca▯ o

llega al mar). There was a concordant view among all the negotiators on
this proposal (Todos los delegados estuvieron conformes con esta
proposición). Thus, they all agreed that the parallel would mark the lat -
eral boundary between the maritime zones of the three States. Even if théis
view was reflected only in part in the final text, there is no indication in
the preparatory work that the negotiators had changed their view on the é

boundary running between the maritime zones generated by the respec -
tive continental coasts.
9. Moreover, given that the parties publicly proclaimed that they each
possessed exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction over the sea along the é
continental coasts of their respective countries to a minimum distance

of 200 nautical miles from their coasts, and that they provided explicitly
in the Santiago Declaration that the islands off their coasts should bée
entitled to 200-nautical-mile maritime zones, it is unpersuasive to draw
the conclusion that they could have reached a tacit agreement that theiré
maritime boundary from the coast would only run for 80 nautical

miles, which is clearly contrary to their position as stated in the Santiago
Declaration.
10. One may assume that, while there was a need, in order to avoid an
overlap of conflicting claims, to select a criterion for delimiting thée mari -
time zones of islands which were in principle entitled to a zone extendiéng
to 200 nautical miles from their entire coasts, there was a lesser perceived

need to state a criterion for delimiting the maritime zones generated byé
the continental coasts. This is because these maritime zones were argu -

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ably based on the method of “tracé parallèle”, with the outer limit reflect -
ing the shape of the coast.

11. The 1947 Declaration of the President of Chile viewed the external
limit of the claimed maritime zone as being constituted by “the math-
ematical parallel (paralela matemática) projected into the sea at a distance
of 200 nautical miles from the coasts of Chilean territory”, while the mari-
time zone generated by islands extended to a “projected parallel to téhese

islands at a distance of 200 nautical miles around their coasts”. The Peru -
vian Supreme Decree, which was enacted later in the same year, consistedé
in a claim over a maritime zone between the coast and an imaginary line é
at a distance of 200 nautical miles measured from the coast following the
line of geographic parallels (siguiendo la línea de los paralelos geográfi ­
cos), while for the islands the area was meant to reach a distance of

200 nautical miles from their respective coasts.
12. According to the Chilean declaration, the external limit of its
maritime zone ran as a parallel to the continental coast at a distance
of 200 nautical miles westwards ; on the basis of the Peruvian Supreme
Decree, the line was composed of the points situated at the end of seg -

ments of a length of 200 nautical miles on the parallels starting from
the various points on the continental coast. The resulting extension of the é
claims of the two countries was identical. In line with this method, theé
claims to maritime zones in the Santiago Declaration could be viewed as é
not extending beyond the parallels passing through the endpoint of the

land border on the continental coastline. It should also be noted that téhe
application of this method for defining the maritime boundary would noét
have required any complex cartographic exercise.

13. The Peruvian Petroleum Law of 1952 defined the seaward limit of
the continental shelf as an imaginary line at a constant distance of

200 nautical miles from the low-water line along the continental coast.
Peru argues that this statute and the similarly worded 1955 Supreme Resoé-
lution defined the external limit of the relevant zone on the basis of the
“arcs-of-circles” method, considering the distance from any point of the
continental coast. However, the wording of the Peruvian statute and thaté

of the Supreme Resolution do not necessarily imply the use of this
method. They are not inconsistent with the application of the method of é
“tracé parallèle”, which is also based on the idea of points at a “constant
distance” from the continental coast, taking into account the point oéf the
coast situated on the same parallel.

14. Supposing Peru indeed had the arcs-of-circles method in mind at
that time, it would immediately have faced the situation of an overlap
between its claim and that of Chile concerning their general maritime
zones. This would have been much more significant than the overlap of é
the maritime areas generated by islands with the general zone. In fact, é

there is no single document in the records before the Court showing that
this issue was envisaged at the Santiago Conference. Moreover, Peru, as é

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indicated in its Note No. 5-20-M/18 addressed to the Minister of Foreign
Affairs of Panama by the Peruvian Embassy in Panama on 13 August 1954

(Counter-Memorial of Chile, Ann. 61), consistently held that its position
on its maritime zone was based on three instruments : the 1947 Supreme
Decree, the 1952 Petroleum Law and the 1952 Santiago Declaration. If
Peru had ever envisaged the arcs-of-circles method, it should have raised
its concern over the potential overlapping claims with Chile and reserveéd

its position on maritime delimitation. In view of all the evidence beforée
the Court, Peru did not do so until 1986 and gave expression to such
method only in its Baselines Law of 2005.

15. It is also significant that the memorandum of 2000 by the Peruvian
Navy concerning the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,

annexed to a letter of the Minister of Defence to the Foreign Minister, é
criticized the 1952 Petroleum Law, as well as the 1955 Supreme Reso-
lution, precisely for having adopted the method of “tracé parallèle” (ibid.,
Ann. 189).

16. One may further consider that in 1952 the issue of delimitation
between adjacent States was not given the importance that it has acquireéd
in recent times. The attention of the three States parties to the Santiaégo
Declaration was mainly directed at asserting their 200-nautical-mile posé-
ition towards those States which were hostile to such claims (see para -

graphs II and III of the Declaration). It is true that Peru at that time
could not foresee that the subsequent development of the law of the sea é
would render the “tracé parallèle” method unfavourable to itself, but that
is a separate matter. What the Court has to decide in the present case iés
whether Peru and Chile did or did not reach in the Santiago Declaration é
an agreement on the maritime boundary.

17. According to paragraph II of the Santiago Declaration, the claims
of Chile, Ecuador and Peru referred to a zone that would extend to a
minimum of 200 nautical miles from their coasts (hasta una distancia
mínima de 200 millas marinas desde las referidas costas). While these
claims could hardly find a basis in customary international law at theé

time they were made, a delimitation could be agreed by the three States é
even with regard to their potential entitlements. This was arguably doneé
by the Santiago Declaration.

18. This interpretation finds support in the subsequent agreements

concluded between the parties to the Santiago Declaration.

The 1954 Agreement relating toé a Special Maritime Fronétier Zone

19. In December 1954, the three parties to the Santiago Declaration

adopted in Lima six additional legal instruments. These instruments fur -
ther shed light on the object and purpose of the Santiago Declaration.

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20. The most relevant of these instruments is the Agreement relating to
a Special Maritime Frontier Zone done on 4 December 1954 (hereafter

“the 1954 Agreement”, or “the Agreement”). According to its final clauése,
the 1954 Agreement constitutes an integral and supplementary part of the
Santiago instruments, including the Santiago Declaration.
21. Under the 1954 Agreement, the three parties decided to establish a
special zone extending for 10 nautical miles on each side of the maritime

frontier between the adjacent States. Paragraph 1 of the Agreement pro -
vides that “[a] special zone is hereby established, at a distance of é12 naut-
ical miles from the coast, extending to a breadth of 10 nautical miles on
either side of the parallel which constitutes the maritime boundary
between the two countries”. On the eastern end, the special zone staréted
at 12 nautical miles from the coast, while its western seaward end was left

open without any defined limit. In order to maintain the spirit of
co-operation and unity among the countries signatories to the Santiago
instruments, it was provided that “innocent and inadvertent violations éof
the maritime frontier between adjacent States” in the special zone byé small
fishing boats that did not have sufficient knowledge of navigation oré

necessary instruments to determine accurately their position on the highé
seas were not to be subject to penalties. Such special measure, however,
was not to be construed as recognizing any right of the wrongful party
to engage in fishing activities in the said special zone.

22. In order to establish such a tolerance zone, it is apparent that the
existence of a maritime boundary between the parties was a prerequisite ;
otherwise it would have been impossible for the parties to determine
which acts constituted infringements or violations of the “waters of éthe
maritime zone”. In identifying the maritime frontier between the partéies,
paragraph 1 of the 1954 Agreement explicitly refers to “the parallel which

constitutes the maritime boundary between the two countries”. The defi -
nite article “the” before the word “parallel” indicates a prée-existing line as
agreed on by the parties. As noted above, the only relevant agreement oné
their maritime zones that existed between the parties before 1954 was the
Santiago Declaration. Given the context of the 1954 Agreement, the par -

allel referred to can be no other line than that running through the endé -
point of the land boundary, i.e., the parallel identified in the Santiéago
Declaration.
23. The minutes of the Lima Conference leave little doubt as to the
relationship between these two instruments. The minutes of the First Sesé -

sion of Commission I of the Lima Conference dated 2 December 1954,
which were adopted only two days before the 1954 Agreement was con -
cluded, contained a statement by the Ecuadorean delegate who agreed,
instead of including it in the Agreement itself, to record in the said min -
utes the understanding that “the three countries deemed the matter oné the
dividing line of the jurisdictional waters settled and that said line waés the

parallel starting at the point at which the land frontier between both
countries reaches the sea”. Considering the contextual coherence between

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the Lima and Santiago Conferences, the 1954 Agreement could not have
possibly led to the conclusion that Peru and Chile had tacitly agreed on a

maritime boundary that is much shorter than that agreed among the par -
ties to the Santiago Declaration. Ecuador’s clarification of “thée dividing
line of the jurisdictional waters” as the parallel identified in thée Santiago
Declaration may be taken as a further confirmation that the maritime
boundary would run up to 200 nautical miles along that parallel.

24. The 1954 Agreement has a rather limited purpose, only targeting
innocent and inadvertent incidents caused by small vessels. It does not é
provide where, and with regard to what kind of fishing activities, laréger
vessels of each State party should operate. Logically, ships other than é

small boats referred to above could fish well beyond the special zone, but
within the limits of the maritime frontier between the adjacent States. é
Moreover, the parties’ enforcement activities were not in any way coné -
fined by the tolerance zone. In the context of the Santiago Declaratioén,
by no means could the parties to the 1954 Agreement have intended to

use the fishing activities of small vessels as a pertinent factor for éthe deter
mination of the extent of their maritime boundary. Should that have beené
the case, it would have seriously restrained the potential catching capaécity
of the parties to the detriment of their efforts to preserve fishingé resources
within 200 nautical miles, thus contradicting the very object and purpose

of the Santiago Declaration. The fact that the seaward end of the speciaél
zone is not specifically mentioned in the 1954 Agreement and the fact
that, while the parties’ fishing activities greatly expanded in theé ensuing
years, the 1954 Agreement is still in force support the above interpret-
ation.

25. There is a distinct difference between the maritime zone that each
party claims under the Santiago Declaration and the special zone under
the 1954 Agreement. The latter is drawn by the parties to serve a particu -
lar purpose, which has nothing to do with the scope of the former. The

only element that applies to both zones is the parallel that serves as téhe
maritime boundary of the parties : the parallel that divides the general
maritime zones and serves as a reference line for the special zone. Giveén
the object and purpose of the 1954 Agreement, it is rather questionable to
construe this limited-purpose agreement as limiting the maritime bound -

ary to the extent of the inshore fishing activities as of 1954. This céonstruc-
tion of the Agreement is neither consistent with the object and purpose éof
the Agreement, nor with the context in which it was adopted.

26. The purpose of the 1954 Agreement is to maintain the maritime

order in the frontier area. This indicates that the parties had not onlyé
delimited the lateral boundary of their maritime zones, but also intended

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to maintain it. Notwithstanding the tolerance shown towards the small
ships of each other, the Agreement clearly states that the parties do noét

recognize any right arising from such infringing acts caused by small
ships in their respective maritime waters, which means that the rights oéf
each party in the general maritime zone are limited by the maritime
boundary. In establishing the special zone, each party committed itself éto
observe the lateral boundary, which was only confirmed rather than

determined by the parties in the 1954 Agreement.

The 1955 Protocol of Accesséion to the Declaratioén
on “Maritime Zone”

27. In addition to the 1954 Agreement, the adoption of the Protocol of
Accession to the Declaration on “Maritime Zone” of Santiago done aét
Quito on 6 October 1955 by the three parties (hereafter “the 1955 Proto -
col”, or “the Protocol”) is also significant. Even if it did not enter into

force, the Protocol offers evidence of the nature and extent of the maéri -
time boundaries between the parties to the Santiago Declaration.

28. When the Santiago Declaration was opened to other Latin-American
States for accession, the parties reiterated in the Protocol the basic périnciples

of the Santiago Declaration. In this regard, it is worth noting that on éthe
terms of accession the Protocol omitted paragraph IV of the Santiago
Declaration and explicitly excluded its paragraphVI from the scope of the
Protocol. The Protocol underscored that, at the moment of accession,

“every State shall be able to determine the extension and form of
delimitation of its respective zone whether opposite to one part or to
the entirety of its coastline, according to the peculiar geographic con -
ditions, the extension of each sea and the geological and biological

factors that condition the existence, conservation and development of
the maritime fauna and flora in its waters”.

29. This passage from the Protocol shows that at the time of the con -
clusion of the Santiago Declaration, notwithstanding their primary con -
cern with their 200-nautical-mile maritime claims, the parties did have the
issue of maritime delimitation in mind, albeit as a less significant qéues -
tion. It also illustrates that the parties did not envisage any general érule

applicable to delimitation and that paragraph IV was a context-specific
clause, applicable only to the parties to the Santiago Declaration.

30. The Protocol reaffirmed the parties’ claims to their exclusive jurisé-
diction and sovereignty over maritime zones extending to 200 nautical
miles, including the sea-bed and subsoil thereof. As a legal instrument

adopted by the parties subsequent to the 1954 Agreement, this Protocol
offers an important piece of evidence that disproves any tacit agreemeént

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between Peru and Chile that their maritime boundary would run only up
to 80 rather than 200 nautical miles along the parallel passing through the

point where the land frontier meets the sea.

The 1968 Arrangement on thée Installation of Lighéthouses

31. In 1968, Peru and Chile agreed to install, and subsequently indeed
installed, two leading marks (or lighthouses) at the seashore near theé first
land marker, Boundary Marker number one (No. 1) (see the Document
of 26 April 1968 adopted by the Parties, hereafter “the 1968 arrange -
ment”). One lighthouse was to be built with daylight and night signaéling
near Boundary Marker No. 1 on Peruvian territory, while the other,

1,800 metres away behind the first mark in the direction of the parallel of é
the maritime frontier, was located on Chilean territory. As was stated ién
the 1968 arrangement, the object of the installation was to make the light -
houses visible from the sea so as “to materialise the parallel of theé mari -
time frontier originating at Boundary Marker number one (No. 1)”.

32. Apparently, the installation of the two lighthouses was designed to
enforce the maritime delimitation between the Parties. From the corres-
pondence between the Parties on this matter and the text of the
1968 arrangement, it is clear that the Parties intended to ensure that with

the facilities of the lighthouses, ships would observe the maritime bounéd -
ary between the two countries.
33. More importantly, by locating the exact positions of the light -
houses the Parties clarified their understanding of the phrase in paraé -
graph IV of the Santiago Declaration : “the parallel at the point at which
the land frontier of the States concerned reaches the sea”.

34. Even if done for a limited purpose, the installation of the two light -
houses further confirms that this parallel constitutes the lateral bouéndary
between Peru and Chile. Consistent with their position taken at Santiagoé,
the boundary along the parallel that is materialized by the lighthouses éon
the territories of Peru and Chile runs for 200 rather than 80 nautical

miles.

Conclusion

35. The text of paragraph IV of the 1952 Santiago Declaration implies
that the parallel that passes through the point where the land frontier é
reaches the sea represents the lateral boundary of the general maritime é
zones of the Parties, which, on the basis of the Parties’ maritime cléaims as
pronounced in the Santiago Declaration, extends for 200 nautical miles.
Some subsequent agreements concluded between the Parties confirm this

interpretation of the Declaration, in particular the 1954 Agreement, the
1955 Protocol and the 1968 arrangement. These instruments provide a

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solid legal basis for the existence of a maritime boundary that extends é
along the parallel for 200 nautical miles from the continental coasts of
Peru and Chile. It may also be noted that consequently Peru is entitled éto
sovereign rights and jurisdiction, as accepted under the modern inter-
national law of the sea, in the “outer triangle” that lies beyond the general

maritime zone of Chile so delimited.

(Signed) Xue Hanqin.

(Signed) Giorgio Gaja.

(Signed) Dalveer Bhandari.

(Signed) Francisco Orrego Vicuña.

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Bilingual Content

100

JOINT DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGES XUE,
GAJA, BHANDARI
AND JUDGE AD HOC ORREGO VICUÑA

Introduction

1. According to the view of the majority of the Members of the Court,
by 1954 some kind of tacit agreement had come into existence between
Peru and Chile in order to define part of the lateral boundary betweené
their respective maritime zones. However, the elements of that agreementé

have not been clearly identified. There is no indication as to when anéd
how such an agreement was supposed to have been reached.
2. With regard to maritime boundaries, the only relevant agreement
that was concluded between Peru and Chile before 1954 was the Santiago
Declaration of 1952. Although this Declaration did not expressly definée

the boundary between the maritime zones generated by the continental
coasts, it contains important elements of which any interpretation couldé
not afford to lose sight, and which would give a more solid basis to the
conclusion reached by the majority on the existence of an agreed bound -

ary. This approach does not only have theoretical significance. While éthe
majority labours to argue in favour of the idea that the agreement betweéen
Peru and Chile covers a distance of 80 nautical miles from the continental
coast, the Santiago Declaration clearly indicates that the seaward end oéf
the boundary extends to 200 nautical miles.

The 1952 Santiago Declaratéion

3. The Declaration on the Maritime Zone is a treaty, which was signed
at the Santiago Conference on 18 August 1952 by the representatives of
Chile, Ecuador and Peru (hereafter “the Santiago Declaration”, oré “the
Declaration”), then approved by the respective Congresses and later éregis-

tered with the UN Secretary-General by a joint request of the parties.
During the proceedings, Peru had expressed doubts on the legal nature ofé
the Santiago Declaration as a treaty, but later accepted this characteriéza
tion.
4. The Santiago Declaration contains a specific provision on the delimi-

tation of maritime zones. Paragraph IV of the Declaration states :
“In the case of island territories, the zone of 200 nautical miles shéall

apply to the entire coast of the island or group of islands. If an islanéd

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OPINION DISSIDENTE COMMUNE DE M me LA JUGE XUE,
DE MM. LES JUGES GAJA ET BHANDARI,
ET DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC ORREGO VICUÑA

[Traduction]

Introduction

1. De l’avis de la majorité des membres de la Cour, il existait dèés 1954
entre le Pérou et le Chili une sorte d’accord tacite ayant pour efféet de
définir un segment de la limite latérale séparant leurs espacées maritimes
respectifs. La teneur de cet accord n’a toutefois pas pu être dééterminée

clairement. En effet, rien n’indique quand ou comment cet accord est
censé avoir été conclu.
2. En ce qui concerne les frontières maritimes, la déclaration de San -
tiago de 1952 est le seul accord digne d’intérêt que le Pérou et le Céhili
aient conclu avant 1954. Et même si la frontière séparant les zones mari -

times générées par les côtes continentales n’y est pas exépressément définie,
cette déclaration contient d’importants éléments qui sont inécontournables
pour son interprétation et qui permettraient d’asseoir plus solideément la
conclusion à laquelle est parvenue la majorité des membres de la Céour sur

l’existence d’une frontière convenue. Et la valeur de cette intéerprétation
n’est pas seulement théorique. Tandis que la majorité peine àé faire valoir
l’idée que l’accord intervenu entre le Pérou et le Chili couévre une distance
de 80 milles marins à partir de la côte continentale, la déclaration de San-
tiago indique clairement que la frontière s’étend vers le largeé, sur une

distance de 200 milles marins.

La déclaration de Santiago de 1952

3. La déclaration sur la zone maritime est un traité qui a été ésigné lors
de la conférence de Santiago le 18 août 1952 par les représentants du
Chili, de l’Equateur et du Pérou (ci-après la «déclaration de Santiago» ou
la «déclaration»), puis approuvé par les Parlements respectifs de ces Etats

avant d’être enregistré auprès du Secrétaire généraél de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies à la demande conjointe des Etats parties. Au cours de
l’instance, le Pérou a exprimé des doutes sur la valeur de la dééclaration
de Santiago en tant que traité, pour ensuite admettre cette qualificatéion.
4. La déclaration de Santiago contient une disposition portant préciséé -

ment sur la délimitation maritime, le paragraphe IV, qui est ainsi libellé :
«S’agissant d’un territoire insulaire, la zone de 200 milles marins

s’étendra autour de l’île ou du groupe d’îles. Si une éîle ou un groupe

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or group of islands belonging to one of the countries making the
declaration is situated less than 200 nautical miles from the general

maritime zone belonging to another of those countries, the maritime
zone of the island or group of islands shall be limited by the parallel
at the point at which the land frontier of the States concerned reaches
the sea.”

This provision explicitly refers only to the delimitation between maritiéme
zones generated by islands and those generated by continental coasts. Ité
first states that islands are entitled to a maritime zone extending for

200 nautical miles around their coasts. It then considers the case where an
island or a group of islands belonging to one State is situated at a disétance
of less than 200 nautical miles from the general maritime zone of another
State. This would create an overlap between maritime zones belonging to
two different States. In order to harmonize these claims, the Declaratéion

adopts the criterion of cutting off the maritime zone pertaining to thée
island or the group of islands when it reaches the parallel passing through
the point where the land frontier meets the sea(el paralelo del punto en que
llega al mar la frontera terrestre de los estados respectivos).
5. In paragraph IV the criterion for delimiting one general maritime

zone from another such zone has not been explicitly set forth. However,
when paragraph IV refers to an island or a group of islands at a distance
less than 200 nautical miles from the general maritime zone of another
State, it implies that some criterion has also been adopted for delimitiéng
that general maritime zone, because it would otherwise be impossible to é

know whether an island or a group of islands is situated at less than
200 nautical miles from that zone.
6. Under the rules of treaty interpretation, treaty clauses must “be con-
strued in a manner enabling the clauses themselves to have appropriate
effects” (Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex, Order of

19 August 1929, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 22, p. 13). Every term of a treaty
should be given meaning and effect in light of the object and purpose éof
the treaty. As the Court has said in the Territorial Dispute between Libya
and Chad, the principle of effectiveness constitutes “one of the fuéndamen -
tal principles of interpretation of treaties” (Territorial Dispute (Libyan

Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, p. 25, para. 51 ;
see also Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 24). Paragraph IV of the Santiago Declaration not
only establishes the maritime entitlement of islands, but also provides éthe
delimitation criterion in case their entitlement overlaps with that of the

coastal entitlement of another contracting State. The phrases in the paréa-
graph referring to “the general maritime zone belonging to another of
those countries” and determining that the maritime zone of islands “éshall
be limited by the parallel at the point at which the land frontier of thée
States concerned reaches the sea” have a direct bearing on the islandés’

entitlement as well as on the lateral boundaries between the parties.

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5 CIJ1057.indb 200 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (opé. diss. comm.) 101

d’îles appartenant à l’un des pays signataires de la présente déclara -

tion se trouve à moins de 200 milles marins de la zone maritime
générale qui se trouve sous la juridiction d’un autre d’entrée eux, la
zone maritime de l’île ou du groupe d’îles en question sera limitée par
le parallèle passant par le point où aboutit en mer la frontièrée ter -
restre des Etats en cause. »

Cette disposition ne fait expressément référence qu’à la édélimitation entre
les zones maritimes auxquelles les îles ouvrent droit et celles géénérées par

les côtes continentales. Elle dispose tout d’abord que les îlesé engendrent
autour d’elles une zone maritime s’étendant sur 200 milles marins depuis
leurs côtes. Le cas de l’île ou du groupe d’îles appartenéant à un Etat et
situé à moins de 200 milles marins de la zone maritime générale d’un autre

Etat y est ensuite considéré. Il y aurait alors chevauchement entrée les zones
maritimes appartenant à deux Etats distincts. Afin de concilier cesé préten -
tions, les Etats ont adopté dans la déclaration un critère conséistant à
amputer la zone maritime insulaire là où elle atteint le parallèéle passant
par le point où la frontière terrestre aboutit en mer (el paralelo del punto

en que llega al mar la frontera terrestre de los estados respectivos).
5. Le critère servant à délimiter une zone maritime généraleé par rap -
port à une autre n’est pas expressément énoncé au paragraéphe IV. Toute-
fois, la référence qui y est faite à l’île ou au groupe dé’îles se trouvant à

moins de 200 milles marins de la zone maritime générale d’un autre Etat
suppose l’adoption préalable d’un critère quelconque pour déélimiter cette
zone maritime générale, sans quoi il serait impossible de savoir si telle île
ou tel groupe d’îles se trouve effectivement à moins de 200 milles marins.

6. Suivant les règles d’interprétation des traités, les clausesé convention-
nelles doivent « être interprétées d’une manière [leur] permettant … de
déployer leurs effets utiles » (Zones franches de la Haute­Savoie et du Pays
de Gex, ordonnance du 19 août 1929, C.P.J.I. série A n o 22, p. 13), et cha -
cun des termes d’un traité doit être interprété à la léumière de l’objet et du

but de celui-ci. Comme la Cour l’a dit dans l’affaire du Différend territo ­
rial entre la Libye et le Tchad, le principe de l’effet utile constitue « l’un
des principes fondamentaux d’interprétation des traités » (Différend terri­
torial (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Tchad), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1994, p. 25,

par. 51 ; voir également Détroit de Corfou (Royaume­Uni c. Albanie),
fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 24). Le paragraphe IV de la déclaration
de Santiago ne se borne pas à définir les droits en mer généréés par les îles,
mais fournit également le critère de délimitation applicable ené cas de che-
vauchement entre une zone maritime insulaire et la zone qu’engendre léa

côte d’un autre Etat contractant. En faisant référence à é«la zone maritime
générale qui se trouve sous la juridiction d’un autre d’entrée eux » et en
disposant que la zone maritime des îles « sera limitée par le parallèle pas -
sant par le point où aboutit en mer la frontière terrestre des Etaéts en
cause», ce paragraphe a une incidence directe sur les droits en mer généé -

rés par les îles ainsi que sur les limites latérales entre les éEtats parties.

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5 CIJ1057.indb 201 1/12/14 08:59 102 maritime dispute (joiént diss. op.)

7. It seems logical to infer from paragraph IV that the parallel passing
through the endpoint of the land frontier on the continental coastline

between adjacent States also marks the boundary between the maritime
zones relating to the respective continental coasts of the same States. éFor
instance, supposing that State A lies north of State B, it would make little
sense for the maritime zone generated by an island of State A to be
restricted to the south by the parallel running through the endpoint of éthe

land border with State B if the maritime zone generated by the continen -
tal coast of the same State A could extend beyond that parallel. On the
other hand, should the boundary between the maritime zones generated
by the continental coasts run north of the parallel, disproportionate
weight would be given to some small islands of State A if that boundary
were displaced because the maritime zone of these islands had to reach

the parallel running through the endpoint of the land border.

8. The minutes of the Juridical Affairs Committee of the Santiago
Conference give some support to the above interpretation. The records
(Memorial of Peru, Ann. 56) note that a proposal of the Ecuadorian dele-

gate, Mr. Fernández, was unanimously approved. He had suggested that
the Declaration “be drawn on the basis that the boundary line of the é
jurisdictional zone of each country be the respective parallel from the é
point at which the borders of the countries touches or reaches the seaӎ (el
paralelo respectivo desde el punto en que la frontera de los paises toca▯ o

llega al mar). There was a concordant view among all the negotiators on
this proposal (Todos los delegados estuvieron conformes con esta
proposición). Thus, they all agreed that the parallel would mark the lat -
eral boundary between the maritime zones of the three States. Even if théis
view was reflected only in part in the final text, there is no indication in
the preparatory work that the negotiators had changed their view on the é

boundary running between the maritime zones generated by the respec -
tive continental coasts.
9. Moreover, given that the parties publicly proclaimed that they each
possessed exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction over the sea along the é
continental coasts of their respective countries to a minimum distance

of 200 nautical miles from their coasts, and that they provided explicitly
in the Santiago Declaration that the islands off their coasts should bée
entitled to 200-nautical-mile maritime zones, it is unpersuasive to draw
the conclusion that they could have reached a tacit agreement that theiré
maritime boundary from the coast would only run for 80 nautical

miles, which is clearly contrary to their position as stated in the Santiago
Declaration.
10. One may assume that, while there was a need, in order to avoid an
overlap of conflicting claims, to select a criterion for delimiting thée mari -
time zones of islands which were in principle entitled to a zone extendiéng
to 200 nautical miles from their entire coasts, there was a lesser perceived

need to state a criterion for delimiting the maritime zones generated byé
the continental coasts. This is because these maritime zones were argu -

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5 CIJ1057.indb 202 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (opé. diss. comm.) 102

7. Il semble logique de déduire du paragraphe IV que le parallèle sépa -
rant les Etats adjacents et passant par le point terminal, sur le littoral

continental, de leur frontière terrestre marque également la limitée entre
les zones maritimes générées par les côtes continentales resépectives de ces
mêmes Etats. Par exemple, à supposer que l’Etat A se trouve au nord de
l’Etat B, il serait absurde que la zone maritime générée par une îlée appar -
tenant au premier soit limitée au sud par le parallèle passant paré le point

terminal de la frontière terrestre séparant cet Etat de l’Etat B si la zone
maritime engendrée par la côte continentale de ce même Etat A pouvait
s’étendre au-delà de ce parallèle. Si, au contraire, la fronétière séparant les
zones maritimes générées par les côtes continentales passaité au nord du
parallèle en question, les petites îles de l’Etat A pourraient se voir accor -
der un effet disproportionné si elles entraînaient son déplacement au

motif que la zone maritime à laquelle elles ouvrent droit s’éteénd jusqu’au
parallèle passant par le point terminal de la frontière terrestre.é
8. Le procès-verbal de la commission des affaires juridiques de la
conférence de Santiago (mémoire du Pérou, annexe 56) vient étayer l’in -
terprétation exposée ci-dessus. Il constate en effet l’approbéation à l’una-

nimité d’une proposition du représentant équatorien, M. Fernández,
voulant «que la ligne frontière délimitant l’espace maritime de chacun dées
pays corresponde au parallèle passant par le point où aboutit en méer la
frontière le séparant des autres » (el paralelo respectivo desde el punto en
que la frontera de los paises toca o llega al mar), proposition qui a reçu

l’assentiment général des représentants (Todos los delegados estuvieron
conformes con esta proposición). Tous étaient donc d’accord pour que le
parallèle marque la limite latérale entre les espaces maritimes reéspectifs
des trois Etats. Et, même si cette position n’est exprimée qu’éen partie dans
le texte final, rien dans les travaux préparatoires ne permet de peénser que
la position des représentants ait pu changer s’agissant de la frontière sépa -

rant les zones maritimes générées par les côtes continentales respectives
des Etats.
9. En outre, étant donné que les parties ont proclamé publiquementé
que chacune d’elles avait souveraineté et juridiction exclusives séur les
eaux baignant ses côtes continentales, et ce, sur une distance minimaéle

de 200 milles marins à partir de celles-ci, et ont prévu expressément dans
la déclaration de Santiago que les îles situées au large de leurs côtes ouvri -
raient droit à des zones maritimes de 200 milles marins, il est difficile
de se convaincre qu’elles aient pu convenir tacitement que leur fron-
tière maritime ne s’étendrait que sur 80 milles marins à partir du littoral,

ce qui est clairement contraire à la position énoncée dans la déclaération
de Santiago.
10. Dans l’hypothèse où, afin de concilier les prétentions concurrentes,
le choix d’un critère s’imposait pour délimiter les zones maritimes géné -
rées par les îles, zones qui pouvaient en principe s’étendreé jusqu’à
200 milles marins tout autour de leurs côtes, on peut supposer que la

nécessité d’en faire autant pour délimiter les zones maritimées générées par
les côtes continentales paraissait moins évidente. En effet, cesé zones mari -

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5 CIJ1057.indb 203 1/12/14 08:59 103 maritime dispute (joiént diss. op.)

ably based on the method of “tracé parallèle”, with the outer limit reflect -
ing the shape of the coast.

11. The 1947 Declaration of the President of Chile viewed the external
limit of the claimed maritime zone as being constituted by “the math-
ematical parallel (paralela matemática) projected into the sea at a distance
of 200 nautical miles from the coasts of Chilean territory”, while the mari-
time zone generated by islands extended to a “projected parallel to téhese

islands at a distance of 200 nautical miles around their coasts”. The Peru -
vian Supreme Decree, which was enacted later in the same year, consistedé
in a claim over a maritime zone between the coast and an imaginary line é
at a distance of 200 nautical miles measured from the coast following the
line of geographic parallels (siguiendo la línea de los paralelos geográfi ­
cos), while for the islands the area was meant to reach a distance of

200 nautical miles from their respective coasts.
12. According to the Chilean declaration, the external limit of its
maritime zone ran as a parallel to the continental coast at a distance
of 200 nautical miles westwards ; on the basis of the Peruvian Supreme
Decree, the line was composed of the points situated at the end of seg -

ments of a length of 200 nautical miles on the parallels starting from
the various points on the continental coast. The resulting extension of the é
claims of the two countries was identical. In line with this method, theé
claims to maritime zones in the Santiago Declaration could be viewed as é
not extending beyond the parallels passing through the endpoint of the

land border on the continental coastline. It should also be noted that téhe
application of this method for defining the maritime boundary would noét
have required any complex cartographic exercise.

13. The Peruvian Petroleum Law of 1952 defined the seaward limit of
the continental shelf as an imaginary line at a constant distance of

200 nautical miles from the low-water line along the continental coast.
Peru argues that this statute and the similarly worded 1955 Supreme Resoé-
lution defined the external limit of the relevant zone on the basis of the
“arcs-of-circles” method, considering the distance from any point of the
continental coast. However, the wording of the Peruvian statute and thaté

of the Supreme Resolution do not necessarily imply the use of this
method. They are not inconsistent with the application of the method of é
“tracé parallèle”, which is also based on the idea of points at a “constant
distance” from the continental coast, taking into account the point oéf the
coast situated on the same parallel.

14. Supposing Peru indeed had the arcs-of-circles method in mind at
that time, it would immediately have faced the situation of an overlap
between its claim and that of Chile concerning their general maritime
zones. This would have been much more significant than the overlap of é
the maritime areas generated by islands with the general zone. In fact, é

there is no single document in the records before the Court showing that
this issue was envisaged at the Santiago Conference. Moreover, Peru, as é

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5 CIJ1057.indb 204 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (opé. diss. comm.) 103

times avaient sans doute été conçues suivant la méthode du « tracé paral-
lèle», leur limite extérieure épousant la forme du littoral.

11. La déclaration faite en 1947 par le président chilien énonçait que la
limite extérieure de la zone maritime revendiquée était constituée par «une
parallèle mathématique (paralela matemática) projetée en mer à une dis -
tance de 200 milles marins de[s] côtes [chiliennes] », tandis que la zone
maritime générée par les îles s’étendait jusqu’àé une «parallèle [projetée] à

une distance de 200 milles marins de leurs côtes». Le décret suprême péru -
vien pris quelques semaines plus tard portait revendication d’une zonée
maritime délimitée par la côte, d’une part, et par une ligneé imaginaire
située à une distance de 200 milles marins mesurée à partir du littoral le
long des parallèles géographiques, d’autre part (siguiendo la línea de los
paralelos geográficos), tandis que, s’agissant des îles, la zone était censée

s’étendre jusqu’à une distance de 200 milles marins depuis leurs côtes.
12. Selon la déclaration du Chili, la limite extérieure de sa zone maréitime
était une ligne parallèle à la côte continentale et située, vers l’ouest, à une
distance de 200milles marins. Dans le cadre du décret suprême péruvien, la
limite en question était formée des points situés à l’extérémité de segments

d’une longueur de 200 milles marins mesurés le long des parallèles à partir
des points correspondants sur la côte continentale. Les revendications des
deux pays avaient en définitive une portée identique. Dans cetteé optique, les
zones maritimes auxquelles prétendaient les Etats dans la déclaratéion de
Santiago pouvaient être considérées comme ne s’étendant péas au-delà des

parallèles passant respectivement par le point terminal de chacune des fron -
tières terrestres sur le littoral continental. Il convient également de signaler
que l’application de cette méthode pour définir la frontièére maritime n’au -
rait pas nécessité d’opérations complexes sur le plan cartogéraphique.
13. La loi péruvienne sur le pétrole de 1952 a défini la limite véers le
large du plateau continental comme une ligne imaginaire située à uéne dis -

tance constante de 200 milles marins depuis la laisse de basse mer de la
côte continentale. Le Pérou avance que, dans cette loi ainsi que déans la
résolution suprême de 1955, dont le libellé est analogue, la limite extérieure
de la zone en question avait été définie sur la base de la mééthode desa «rcs-
de-cercle», la même distance étant calculée à partir de chaque poiént de la

côte continentale. Toutefois, la formulation de la loi péruvienne éet celle de
la résolution suprême ne supposent pas nécessairement l’utilisation de
cette méthode. En effet, elle n’est pas incompatible avec l’aépplication de la
méthode du «tracé parallèle», également fondée sur l’idée de points situés
à une « distance constante» de la côte continentale, calculée, pour chacun

d’eux, à partir du point de la côte situé sur le même paréallèle.
14. Même à supposer que le Pérou ait effectivement eu en tête éla
méthode des arcs-de-cercle à l’époque, il se serait d’embélée vu aux prises
avec le chevauchement des zones maritimes générales auxquelles luié et le
Chili pouvaient prétendre, problème beaucoup plus important que ceélui
des zones maritimes insulaires chevauchant une zone générale. De féait, le

dossier soumis à la Cour ne contient aucun document montrant que cette
question a été envisagée lors de la conférence de Santiago. éEn outre,

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5 CIJ1057.indb 205 1/12/14 08:59 104 maritime dispute (joiént diss. op.)

indicated in its Note No. 5-20-M/18 addressed to the Minister of Foreign
Affairs of Panama by the Peruvian Embassy in Panama on 13 August 1954

(Counter-Memorial of Chile, Ann. 61), consistently held that its position
on its maritime zone was based on three instruments : the 1947 Supreme
Decree, the 1952 Petroleum Law and the 1952 Santiago Declaration. If
Peru had ever envisaged the arcs-of-circles method, it should have raised
its concern over the potential overlapping claims with Chile and reserveéd

its position on maritime delimitation. In view of all the evidence beforée
the Court, Peru did not do so until 1986 and gave expression to such
method only in its Baselines Law of 2005.

15. It is also significant that the memorandum of 2000 by the Peruvian
Navy concerning the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,

annexed to a letter of the Minister of Defence to the Foreign Minister, é
criticized the 1952 Petroleum Law, as well as the 1955 Supreme Reso-
lution, precisely for having adopted the method of “tracé parallèle” (ibid.,
Ann. 189).

16. One may further consider that in 1952 the issue of delimitation
between adjacent States was not given the importance that it has acquireéd
in recent times. The attention of the three States parties to the Santiaégo
Declaration was mainly directed at asserting their 200-nautical-mile posé-
ition towards those States which were hostile to such claims (see para -

graphs II and III of the Declaration). It is true that Peru at that time
could not foresee that the subsequent development of the law of the sea é
would render the “tracé parallèle” method unfavourable to itself, but that
is a separate matter. What the Court has to decide in the present case iés
whether Peru and Chile did or did not reach in the Santiago Declaration é
an agreement on the maritime boundary.

17. According to paragraph II of the Santiago Declaration, the claims
of Chile, Ecuador and Peru referred to a zone that would extend to a
minimum of 200 nautical miles from their coasts (hasta una distancia
mínima de 200 millas marinas desde las referidas costas). While these
claims could hardly find a basis in customary international law at theé

time they were made, a delimitation could be agreed by the three States é
even with regard to their potential entitlements. This was arguably doneé
by the Santiago Declaration.

18. This interpretation finds support in the subsequent agreements

concluded between the parties to the Santiago Declaration.

The 1954 Agreement relating toé a Special Maritime Fronétier Zone

19. In December 1954, the three parties to the Santiago Declaration

adopted in Lima six additional legal instruments. These instruments fur -
ther shed light on the object and purpose of the Santiago Declaration.

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5 CIJ1057.indb 206 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (opé. diss. comm.) 104

comme il ressort de la note n 5-20-M/18 que son ambassade à Panama a

adressée le 13 août 1954 au ministre panaméen des relations extérieures
(contre-mémoire du Chili, annexe 61), le Pérou a toujours considéré que
sa position concernant son espace maritime était fondée sur trois étextes :
le décret suprême de 1947, la loi sur le pétrole de 1952 et la déclaration de
Santiago de la même année. S’il avait envisagé la méthodeé des arcs-de-

cercle, il aurait fait état de ses préoccupations concernant le chevauche -
ment éventuel de son espace avec celui du Chili et réservé sa péosition sur
la délimitation maritime. Au vu de l’ensemble des éléments de preuve, il
n’a pas soulevé la question avant 1986 et n’a appliqué cette méthode que
dans sa loi sur les lignes de base de 2005.

15. Il est également révélateur que, dans un mémorandum de 2000
émanant de la marine péruvienne et concernant la convention des
Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, lequel a été annexé à une lettére
adressée au ministre des relations extérieures par le ministre de éla défense,
la loi sur le pétrole de 1952 ainsi que la résolution suprême dée 1955 étaient

la cible de critiques, précisément parce qu’elles étaient foéndées sur la
méthode du « tracé parallèle» (ibid., annexe 189).
16. On peut encore considérer que, en 1952, la question de la délimitaé -
tion entre Etats adjacents ne revêtait pas l’importance qu’elle a acquise
récemment. En effet, les trois Etats parties à la déclarationé de Santiago se

préoccupaient alors principalement de faire valoir leurs droits en meér sur
une distance de 200 milles marins à l’égard des Etats qui y étaient hostiles
(voir les paragraphes II et III de la déclaration). Il est vrai que, à l’époque, é
le Pérou ne pouvait prévoir que, en raison de l’évolution ulétérieure du
droit de la mer, la méthode du « tracé parallèle » lui deviendrait défavo -

rable, mais il s’agit là d’une autre question. En l’espècée, il incombe à la
Cour de décider si le Pérou et le Chili sont parvenus à un accoérd sur la
frontière maritime dans la déclaration de Santiago.
17. Selon le paragraphe II de la déclaration de Santiago, les prétentions
du Chili, de l’Equateur et du Pérou concernaient, pour chacun d’éeux, une

zone qui devait s’étendre sur une distance minimale de 200 milles marins
depuis ses côtes (hasta una distancia mínima de 200 millas marinas desde
las referidas costas). Même si ces revendications pouvaient difficilement
s’appuyer sur le droit international coutumier de l’époque oùé elles ont été
formulées, les trois Etats pouvaient avoir convenu d’une délimiétation pour

les espaces qu’ils se croyaient fondés à réclamer, et c’eést ce qui semble
avoir été fait dans la déclaration de Santiago.
18. Cette interprétation est d’ailleurs étayée par les accords céonclus
ultérieurement par les parties à la déclaration de Santiago.

L’accord de 1954 relatifé à une zone frontièreé maritime spéciale

19. En décembre 1954, les trois parties à la déclaration de Santiago ont
adopté, à Lima, six textes supplémentaires qui viennent encore ééclairer

l’objet et le but de cette déclaration.

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5 CIJ1057.indb 207 1/12/14 08:59 105 maritime dispute (joiént diss. op.)

20. The most relevant of these instruments is the Agreement relating to
a Special Maritime Frontier Zone done on 4 December 1954 (hereafter

“the 1954 Agreement”, or “the Agreement”). According to its final clauése,
the 1954 Agreement constitutes an integral and supplementary part of the
Santiago instruments, including the Santiago Declaration.
21. Under the 1954 Agreement, the three parties decided to establish a
special zone extending for 10 nautical miles on each side of the maritime

frontier between the adjacent States. Paragraph 1 of the Agreement pro -
vides that “[a] special zone is hereby established, at a distance of é12 naut-
ical miles from the coast, extending to a breadth of 10 nautical miles on
either side of the parallel which constitutes the maritime boundary
between the two countries”. On the eastern end, the special zone staréted
at 12 nautical miles from the coast, while its western seaward end was left

open without any defined limit. In order to maintain the spirit of
co-operation and unity among the countries signatories to the Santiago
instruments, it was provided that “innocent and inadvertent violations éof
the maritime frontier between adjacent States” in the special zone byé small
fishing boats that did not have sufficient knowledge of navigation oré

necessary instruments to determine accurately their position on the highé
seas were not to be subject to penalties. Such special measure, however,
was not to be construed as recognizing any right of the wrongful party
to engage in fishing activities in the said special zone.

22. In order to establish such a tolerance zone, it is apparent that the
existence of a maritime boundary between the parties was a prerequisite ;
otherwise it would have been impossible for the parties to determine
which acts constituted infringements or violations of the “waters of éthe
maritime zone”. In identifying the maritime frontier between the partéies,
paragraph 1 of the 1954 Agreement explicitly refers to “the parallel which

constitutes the maritime boundary between the two countries”. The defi -
nite article “the” before the word “parallel” indicates a prée-existing line as
agreed on by the parties. As noted above, the only relevant agreement oné
their maritime zones that existed between the parties before 1954 was the
Santiago Declaration. Given the context of the 1954 Agreement, the par -

allel referred to can be no other line than that running through the endé -
point of the land boundary, i.e., the parallel identified in the Santiéago
Declaration.
23. The minutes of the Lima Conference leave little doubt as to the
relationship between these two instruments. The minutes of the First Sesé -

sion of Commission I of the Lima Conference dated 2 December 1954,
which were adopted only two days before the 1954 Agreement was con -
cluded, contained a statement by the Ecuadorean delegate who agreed,
instead of including it in the Agreement itself, to record in the said min -
utes the understanding that “the three countries deemed the matter oné the
dividing line of the jurisdictional waters settled and that said line waés the

parallel starting at the point at which the land frontier between both
countries reaches the sea”. Considering the contextual coherence between

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5 CIJ1057.indb 208 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (opé. diss. comm.) 105

20. Le plus important d’entre eux est l’accord relatif à une zone féron -
tière maritime spéciale, conclu le 4 décembre 1954 (ci-après « l’accord

de 1954 » ou « l’accord»), dont le dernier article précise qu’il fait partie
intégrante et complémentaire des résolutions et accords adoptéés à San -
tiago, y compris la déclaration elle-même.
21. Dans l’accord de 1954, les trois parties ont décidé d’établir une zone
spéciale s’étendant sur 10 milles marins de part et d’autre de la frontière

maritime séparant les Etats adjacents. L’article premier stipule qéu’« [u]ne
zone spéciale est créée par le présent accord à une distaénce de … 12milles
marins de la côte et avec une largeur de 10 milles marins de part et d’autre
du parallèle qui constitue la frontière maritime … entre les deux pays». En
son extrémité orientale, la zone spéciale commençait à 12 milles marins de
la côte, tandis que sa limite occidentale, vers le large, n’étaéit pas définie.

Afin de maintenir l’esprit de coopération et d’unité entreé les pays signa -
taires des textes de Santiago, il était prévu de ne pas sanctionneér, dans
cette zone, les violations de « la frontière maritime entre des Etats
adjacents» commises «de manière innocente et par inadvertance » par des
navires de petite taille dont l’équipage ne connaissait pas suffiésamment la

navigation ou qui n’étaient pas équipés des instruments néécessaires pour
déterminer précisément leur position en haute mer. Cette mesureé spéciale
ne devait cependant pas être considérée comme reconnaissant àé la partie
qui franchissait illicitement la frontière le droit de mener des actiévités
halieutiques dans cette zone spéciale.

22. Il semble aller de soi que l’existence d’une frontière maritimeé entre
les parties à l’accord était une condition préalable à l’éétablissement d’une
telle zone de tolérance ; dans le cas contraire, il aurait été impossible de
savoir, s’agissant des « eaux de la zone maritime », quand il y avait infrac -
tion ou violation. Pour désigner la frontière maritime entre les péarties,
l’article premier de l’accord de 1954 fait expressément mention du «paral -

lèle qui constitue la frontière maritime entre les deux pays ». L’article
défini «du» qui précède le mot « parallèle» suppose la préexistence d’une
ligne convenue entre les Parties. Comme il a déjà été mentioénné, la décla -
ration de Santiago est le seul accord antérieur à 1954 et concernant les
espaces maritimes qui présente un intérêt en l’espèce. Coémpte tenu du

contexte de l’accord de 1954, le parallèle auquel il est fait référence ne
pouvait être autre que celui qui passait par le point terminal de la éfron -
tière terrestre, à savoir le parallèle visé dans la déclaération de Santiago.
23. Les procès-verbaux de la conférence de Lima ne laissent guère dée
doute quant au lien existant entre ces deux textes. Celui de la premièére

séance de la commission I, daté du 2 décembre 1954 et adopté deux jours
seulement avant l’accord de 1954, contient une déclaration par laquelle le
représentant équatorien acceptait que soit consigné non pas danés l’accord
même, mais dans le procès-verbal, que « les trois pays consid[éraient] que
la question de la ligne de délimitation des eaux juridictionnelles [était]
réglée et que cette ligne [était] constituée par le parallèéle passant par le

point où abouti[ssait] en mer la frontière terrestre des pays » en cause.
Compte tenu de la continuité contextuelle dans laquelle se sont inscréites

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5 CIJ1057.indb 209 1/12/14 08:59 106 maritime dispute (joiént diss. op.)

the Lima and Santiago Conferences, the 1954 Agreement could not have
possibly led to the conclusion that Peru and Chile had tacitly agreed on a

maritime boundary that is much shorter than that agreed among the par -
ties to the Santiago Declaration. Ecuador’s clarification of “thée dividing
line of the jurisdictional waters” as the parallel identified in thée Santiago
Declaration may be taken as a further confirmation that the maritime
boundary would run up to 200 nautical miles along that parallel.

24. The 1954 Agreement has a rather limited purpose, only targeting
innocent and inadvertent incidents caused by small vessels. It does not é
provide where, and with regard to what kind of fishing activities, laréger
vessels of each State party should operate. Logically, ships other than é

small boats referred to above could fish well beyond the special zone, but
within the limits of the maritime frontier between the adjacent States. é
Moreover, the parties’ enforcement activities were not in any way coné -
fined by the tolerance zone. In the context of the Santiago Declaratioén,
by no means could the parties to the 1954 Agreement have intended to

use the fishing activities of small vessels as a pertinent factor for éthe deter
mination of the extent of their maritime boundary. Should that have beené
the case, it would have seriously restrained the potential catching capaécity
of the parties to the detriment of their efforts to preserve fishingé resources
within 200 nautical miles, thus contradicting the very object and purpose

of the Santiago Declaration. The fact that the seaward end of the speciaél
zone is not specifically mentioned in the 1954 Agreement and the fact
that, while the parties’ fishing activities greatly expanded in theé ensuing
years, the 1954 Agreement is still in force support the above interpret-
ation.

25. There is a distinct difference between the maritime zone that each
party claims under the Santiago Declaration and the special zone under
the 1954 Agreement. The latter is drawn by the parties to serve a particu -
lar purpose, which has nothing to do with the scope of the former. The

only element that applies to both zones is the parallel that serves as téhe
maritime boundary of the parties : the parallel that divides the general
maritime zones and serves as a reference line for the special zone. Giveén
the object and purpose of the 1954 Agreement, it is rather questionable to
construe this limited-purpose agreement as limiting the maritime bound -

ary to the extent of the inshore fishing activities as of 1954. This céonstruc-
tion of the Agreement is neither consistent with the object and purpose éof
the Agreement, nor with the context in which it was adopted.

26. The purpose of the 1954 Agreement is to maintain the maritime

order in the frontier area. This indicates that the parties had not onlyé
delimited the lateral boundary of their maritime zones, but also intended

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5 CIJ1057.indb 210 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (opé. diss. comm.) 106

les conférences de Lima et de Santiago, on ne saurait s’appuyer suér l’ac -
cord de 1954 pour conclure que le Pérou et le Chili étaient convenus taci ­

tement d’une frontière maritime bien plus courte que celle sur laquelle éles
parties à la déclaration de Santiago s’étaient entendues. Laé précision
apportée par l’Equateur concernant la correspondance de « la ligne de
délimitation des eaux juridictionnelles » avec le parallèle désigné dans la
déclaration de Santiago peut être considérée comme une confiérmation

supplémentaire de ce que la frontière maritime suivait ce parallèéle sur une
distance de 200 milles marins.
24. L’accord de 1954 avait un objet assez limité, ne visant que les
incursions commises par les petits bateaux de manière innocente et paér
inadvertance. Il ne traitait pas de la circulation des navires de plus grande
taille des Etats parties ni des activités halieutiques qu’ils pouvaient mener.

Logiquement, les navires autres que les embarcations auxquelles il est féait
référence plus haut pouvaient pratiquer la pêche bien au-delàé de la zone
spéciale, tout en restant en deçà de la frontière maritime sééparant les
Etats adjacents. En outre, les mesures d’exécution prises par les éEtats par -
ties n’étaient aucunement limitées par la zone de tolérance.é Dans le

contexte de la déclaration de Santiago, il n’est pas envisageable éque les
parties à l’accord de 1954 aient voulu s’en tenir aux activités halieutiques
des navires de petite taille pour déterminer l’étendue de leur éfrontière
maritime. Si tel avait été le cas, leur capacité en matière éde pêche en aurait
été sérieusement restreinte, ce qui aurait rendu vains leurs efféorts visant à

préserver les ressources halieutiques se trouvant dans un rayon de
200 milles marins et serait allé à l’encontre de l’objet et du béut mêmes de
la déclaration de Santiago. Cette interprétation se trouve renforcéée par le
fait que, d’une part, l’accord de 1954 n’attribue expressément aucune
limite vers le large à la zone spéciale et que, d’autre part, iél soit toujours
en vigueur malgré l’essor qu’ont connu les activités halieutiquées des Etats

parties dans les années qui ont suivi.
25. Il existe une différence profonde entre la zone maritime que chacun
des Etats parties a revendiquée dans le cadre de la déclaration deé San -
tiago et la zone spéciale établie par l’accord de 1954. Cette dernière a été
définie par les Etats parties dans un but particulier, lequel est séans rap -

port aucun avec l’étendue des zones maritimes individuelles revendéiquées.
Le seul facteur commun aux deux types de zones est le parallèle servant
de frontière maritime entre les Etats parties, c’est-à-dire le parallèle qui
sépare les zones maritimes générales et tient lieu de ligne de éréférence
pour la zone spéciale. Compte tenu de l’objet et du but de l’acécord

de 1954, il paraît discutable d’interpréter cet accord à vocatiéon spécifique
comme limitant l’étendue de la frontière maritime à la distaénce sur
laquelle étaient menées les activités halieutiques côtièrées à partir de 1954.
Cette interprétation n’est conforme ni à l’objet ou au but dée l’accord, ni
au contexte dans lequel il a été adopté.
26. L’objet de l’accord de 1954 était de maintenir l’ordre en mer dans

la zone frontalière, ce qui indique non seulement que les Etats partiées
avaient défini la limite latérale de leurs espaces maritimes resépectifs, mais

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5 CIJ1057.indb 211 1/12/14 08:59 107 maritime dispute (joiént diss. op.)

to maintain it. Notwithstanding the tolerance shown towards the small
ships of each other, the Agreement clearly states that the parties do noét

recognize any right arising from such infringing acts caused by small
ships in their respective maritime waters, which means that the rights oéf
each party in the general maritime zone are limited by the maritime
boundary. In establishing the special zone, each party committed itself éto
observe the lateral boundary, which was only confirmed rather than

determined by the parties in the 1954 Agreement.

The 1955 Protocol of Accesséion to the Declaratioén
on “Maritime Zone”

27. In addition to the 1954 Agreement, the adoption of the Protocol of
Accession to the Declaration on “Maritime Zone” of Santiago done aét
Quito on 6 October 1955 by the three parties (hereafter “the 1955 Proto -
col”, or “the Protocol”) is also significant. Even if it did not enter into

force, the Protocol offers evidence of the nature and extent of the maéri -
time boundaries between the parties to the Santiago Declaration.

28. When the Santiago Declaration was opened to other Latin-American
States for accession, the parties reiterated in the Protocol the basic périnciples

of the Santiago Declaration. In this regard, it is worth noting that on éthe
terms of accession the Protocol omitted paragraph IV of the Santiago
Declaration and explicitly excluded its paragraphVI from the scope of the
Protocol. The Protocol underscored that, at the moment of accession,

“every State shall be able to determine the extension and form of
delimitation of its respective zone whether opposite to one part or to
the entirety of its coastline, according to the peculiar geographic con -
ditions, the extension of each sea and the geological and biological

factors that condition the existence, conservation and development of
the maritime fauna and flora in its waters”.

29. This passage from the Protocol shows that at the time of the con -
clusion of the Santiago Declaration, notwithstanding their primary con -
cern with their 200-nautical-mile maritime claims, the parties did have the
issue of maritime delimitation in mind, albeit as a less significant qéues -
tion. It also illustrates that the parties did not envisage any general érule

applicable to delimitation and that paragraph IV was a context-specific
clause, applicable only to the parties to the Santiago Declaration.

30. The Protocol reaffirmed the parties’ claims to their exclusive jurisé-
diction and sovereignty over maritime zones extending to 200 nautical
miles, including the sea-bed and subsoil thereof. As a legal instrument

adopted by the parties subsequent to the 1954 Agreement, this Protocol
offers an important piece of evidence that disproves any tacit agreemeént

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5 CIJ1057.indb 212 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (opé. diss. comm.) 107

qu’ils entendaient également la maintenir ainsi. Malgré la toléérance dont
bénéficiaient les navires de petite taille de chacun des Etats, él’accord indi-

quait clairement que les incursions illicites commises par ces embarca -
tions dans les eaux des autres Etats parties n’engendraient aucun droéit, ce
qui signifie que les droits de chacun des Etats parties dans la zone méari -
time générale restaient limités par la frontière. En adhéérant à l’établisse -
ment de la zone spéciale, chaque Etat partie s’engageait à en réespecter la

limite latérale, laquelle a été confirmée et non pas dééfinie dans l’accord
de 1954.

Le protocole d’adhésiéon à la déclaration
sur la « zone maritime» (1955)

27. Outre l’accord de 1954, l’adoption à Quito le 6 octobre 1955 du
protocole d’adhésion à la déclaration sur la « zone maritime» de Santiago
par les trois Etats parties (ci-après « le protocole de 1955 » ou « le proto -
cole») revêt elle aussi une certaine importance. En effet, même és’il n’est

jamais entré en vigueur, il contient des indications concernant la naéture et
l’étendue des frontières maritimes entre les parties à la dééclaration de
Santiago.
28. Lorsque la déclaration de Santiago a été ouverte à l’adhésion
d’autres Etats d’Amérique latine, les parties en ont réitééré dans le proto -

cole les principes sous-jacents. Il convient de noter à cet égard éque le
paragraphe IV de la déclaration n’a pas été ouvert à l’adhésioén et que le
paragraphe VI en a été expressément exclu. Il est souligné dans le protéo -
cole que, au moment de l’adhésion,

«chaque Etat peut déterminer l’étendue et la forme de délimitéation
de son espace respectif, qu’il baigne un segment ou la totalité deé ses
côtes, en tenant compte des caractéristiques géographiques partéicu -
lières, de l’étendue de chaque mer et des facteurs géologiquées et

biologiques qui conditionnent l’existence, la conservation et le dééve-
loppement de la faune et de la flore marines dans ses eaux ».

29. Cet extrait du protocole montre que, à l’époque de l’adoptioén de la
déclaration de Santiago et malgré le fait qu’ils se souciaient éprincipale -
ment de leurs revendications sur les 200 milles marins, les Etats parties
avaient bien à l’esprit la question de la délimitation maritimeé, même s’il
s’agissait pour eux d’une question de moindre importance. On y voit éga -

lement qu’ils n’avaient pas envisagé de règle généraleé pour la délimita -
tion, et que le paragraphe IV se rapportait à une situation spécifique et ne
valait qu’entre les parties à la déclaration de Santiago.
30. Le protocole réaffirmait les prétentions des parties quant à léeur
juridiction et à leur souveraineté exclusives sur une zone de 200 milles
marins, y compris les fonds marins et leur sous-sol. En tant qu’acte éjuri -

dique adopté après l’accord de 1954, ce protocole constitue un élément de
preuve important qui réfute l’existence de tout accord tacite entrée le Pérou

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5 CIJ1057.indb 213 1/12/14 08:59 108 maritime dispute (joiént diss. op.)

between Peru and Chile that their maritime boundary would run only up
to 80 rather than 200 nautical miles along the parallel passing through the

point where the land frontier meets the sea.

The 1968 Arrangement on thée Installation of Lighéthouses

31. In 1968, Peru and Chile agreed to install, and subsequently indeed
installed, two leading marks (or lighthouses) at the seashore near theé first
land marker, Boundary Marker number one (No. 1) (see the Document
of 26 April 1968 adopted by the Parties, hereafter “the 1968 arrange -
ment”). One lighthouse was to be built with daylight and night signaéling
near Boundary Marker No. 1 on Peruvian territory, while the other,

1,800 metres away behind the first mark in the direction of the parallel of é
the maritime frontier, was located on Chilean territory. As was stated ién
the 1968 arrangement, the object of the installation was to make the light -
houses visible from the sea so as “to materialise the parallel of theé mari -
time frontier originating at Boundary Marker number one (No. 1)”.

32. Apparently, the installation of the two lighthouses was designed to
enforce the maritime delimitation between the Parties. From the corres-
pondence between the Parties on this matter and the text of the
1968 arrangement, it is clear that the Parties intended to ensure that with

the facilities of the lighthouses, ships would observe the maritime bounéd -
ary between the two countries.
33. More importantly, by locating the exact positions of the light -
houses the Parties clarified their understanding of the phrase in paraé -
graph IV of the Santiago Declaration : “the parallel at the point at which
the land frontier of the States concerned reaches the sea”.

34. Even if done for a limited purpose, the installation of the two light -
houses further confirms that this parallel constitutes the lateral bouéndary
between Peru and Chile. Consistent with their position taken at Santiagoé,
the boundary along the parallel that is materialized by the lighthouses éon
the territories of Peru and Chile runs for 200 rather than 80 nautical

miles.

Conclusion

35. The text of paragraph IV of the 1952 Santiago Declaration implies
that the parallel that passes through the point where the land frontier é
reaches the sea represents the lateral boundary of the general maritime é
zones of the Parties, which, on the basis of the Parties’ maritime cléaims as
pronounced in the Santiago Declaration, extends for 200 nautical miles.
Some subsequent agreements concluded between the Parties confirm this

interpretation of the Declaration, in particular the 1954 Agreement, the
1955 Protocol and the 1968 arrangement. These instruments provide a

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5 CIJ1057.indb 214 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (opé. diss. comm.) 108

et le Chili, selon lequel leur frontière maritime ne longerait que suér
80 milles marins et non 200 le parallèle passant par le point où leuré fron -
tière terrestre aboutit en mer.

L’accord de 1968 relatifé à la construction deé phares

31. En 1968, le Pérou et le Chili ont convenu d’installer sur le littoéral
deux marques d’alignement (ou phares) à proximité du premier érepère, la
borne frontière numéro un (n o1), ce qu’ils ont effectivement fait par la

suite (voir le document adopté par les Parties le 26 avril 1968, ci-après
«l’accord de 1968 »). Conçu pour la signalisation diurne et nocturne, le
premier phare devait être construit près de la borne n o 1, en territoire
péruvien, tandis que le second devait être situé à 1800 mètres derrière le

premier repère, en territoire chilien, dans la direction du parallèéle consti -
tuant la frontière maritime. Comme l’indiquait l’accord de 1968é, le but
était de faire en sorte que les phares soient visibles depuis la mer,é de
manière à « matérialiser le parallèle constituant la frontière maritime àé
partir de la borne frontière n o 1 ».

32. La construction des deux phares visait vraisemblablement à assurer
le respect de la délimitation maritime entre les Parties. La correspoéndance
échangée entre celles-ci sur cette question et le libellé de l’éaccord de 1968
montrent clairement qu’elles entendaient, par ce biais, veiller à ce que les

navires respectent la frontière maritime les séparant.

33. Chose plus importante encore, en fixant l’emplacement exact des
phares, les Parties ont précisé leur interprétation du passage éci-après du
paragraphe IV de la déclaration de Santiago : «le parallèle passant par le

point où aboutit en mer la frontière terrestre des Etats en cause ».
34. Même si elle avait un objectif limité, l’érection des deux péhares
vient encore confirmer que le parallèle en question constituait la limite
latérale entre le Pérou et le Chili. Conformément à la positéion que les
Parties ont adoptée à Santiago, la frontière longeant le paralléèle matéria -

lisé par les phares érigés sur les territoires du Pérou et déu Chili s’étend sur
200 milles marins et non sur 80.

Conclusion

35. Le libellé du paragraphe IV de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952
suppose que le parallèle passant par le point où la frontière téerrestre
aboutit en mer représentait la limite latérale des zones maritimesé géné -

rales des Parties, lesquelles, selon les prétentions formulées danés la décla-
ration de Santiago, s’étendaient sur 200 milles marins. Certains accords
conclus ultérieurement par les Parties confirment cette interpréétation de la
déclaration; c’est le cas notamment de l’accord de 1954, du protocole
de 1955 et de l’accord de 1968. Ces textes viennent étayer solidementé

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5 CIJ1057.indb 215 1/12/14 08:59 109 maritime dispute (joiént diss. op.)

solid legal basis for the existence of a maritime boundary that extends é
along the parallel for 200 nautical miles from the continental coasts of
Peru and Chile. It may also be noted that consequently Peru is entitled éto
sovereign rights and jurisdiction, as accepted under the modern inter-
national law of the sea, in the “outer triangle” that lies beyond the general

maritime zone of Chile so delimited.

(Signed) Xue Hanqin.

(Signed) Giorgio Gaja.

(Signed) Dalveer Bhandari.

(Signed) Francisco Orrego Vicuña.

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l’existence d’une frontière maritime longeant le parallèle séur une distance
de 200 milles marins à partir des côtes continentales du Pérou et du Céhili.
Il convient également de noter que le Pérou peut prétendre àé la juridiction
et aux droits souverains que lui reconnaît le droit international de éla mer
contemporain sur le « triangle extérieur », lequel est situé au-delà de la

zone maritime générale du Chili ainsi délimitée.

(Signé) Xue Hanqin.

(Signé) Giorgio Gaja.

(Signé) Dalveer Bhandari.

(Signé) Francisco Orrego Vicuña.

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5 CIJ1057.indb 217 1/12/14 08:59

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Joint dissenting opinion of Judges Xue, Gaja, Bhandari and Judge ad hoc Orrego Vicuña

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