Separate opinion of Judge Owada

Document Number
137-20140127-JUD-01-03-EN
Parent Document Number
137-20140127-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

86

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE OWADA

1. The Judgment, in its operative part (dispositif) states the decision of
the Court, inter alia, as follows :

“The Court,

(1) . . .,
Decides that the starting-point of the single maritime boundary

delimiting the respective maritime areas between the Republic of Peru
and the Republic of Chile is the intersection of the parallel of latitudée
passing through Boundary Marker No. 1 with the low-water line ;

(2) . . .,
Decides that the initial segment of the single maritime boundary

follows the parallel of latitude passing through Boundary Marker
No. 1 westward ;
(3) . . .,

Decides that this initial segment runs up to a point (Point A) situ -
ated at a distance of 80 nautical miles from the starting-point of the
single maritime boundary ;

(4) . . .,

Decides that from Point A, the single maritime boundary shall con -
tinue south-westward along the line equidistant from the coasts of the
Republic of Peru and the Republic of Chile, as measured from that
point, until its intersection (at Point B) with the 200-nautical-mile
limit measured from the baselines from which the territorial sea of the

Republic of Chile is measured ; . . .” (Judgment, para. 198.)

2. Although I have accepted the conclusions contained in these opera -
tive paragraphs, I have not been able to associate myself fully with the
reasoning which has led the Court to this conclusion relating to the coné -
crete delimitation of the single maritime boundary between Peru and
Chile. I wish to explain in some detail my reasons why I have to maintain

my reservations with regard to some aspects of the Judgment, in spite of
my vote in favour of the final conclusions that the Judgment has reached.
3. The Judgment comes to the above conclusions on the basis of a
number of findings it made as explained in its reasoning part. They caén be
summarized as follows :

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(1) The Judgment rejects the position of the Respondent, developed in
its contention that “the respective maritime zone entitlements of Chiéle

and Peru have been fully delimited by agreement” (Judgment, para 1.4;
Final Submissions of Chile(b) (i)), more specifically, by the 1952San-
tiago Declaration. I fully endorse this position of the Judgment.
(2) The Judgment does not accept the position of the Applicant either,
as based on its contention that “[t]he maritime zones between Chile

and Peru have never been delimited by agreement or otherwise”
(Application instituting proceedings, para. 2), and that therefore

“[t]he delimitation between the respective maritime zones between
[Peru] and [Chile], is a line starting at ‘Point Concordia’ . .. and equi-
distant from the baselines of both Parties, up to a point situated at a é
distance of 200 nautical miles from those baselines” (Judgment,
para. 14; Final Submissions of Peru (1)).

I equally support this position of the Judgment.

(3) In their stead, the Judgment finds in the contexts of the 1954 Agree -
ment on the establishment of the “Special Maritime Frontier Zone”
(hereinafter “1954 Agreement”), as well as the 1968-1969 arrange -
ments for the construction of lighthouses, that the Parties acknow-
ledge, in spite of, and separately from, the finding outlined in (a)éove,

the existence of an agreement between the Parties on a maritime
(zone) boundary along the parallel of latitude up to 80 nautical miles
from the starting-point. On this finding of the Court, however, I have
to express my serious reservation.

4. On the basis of these findings, which form the legal premise from
which the dispositif of the Judgment is derived, the Judgment comes to
the conclusion that

“the initial segment of the single maritime boundary follows the par -
allel of latitude passing through Boundary Marker No. 1 westward ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

that this initial segment runs up to a point (Point A) situated at a
distance of 80 nautical miles from the starting-point of the single mari-
time boundary ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

[and] that from Point A, the single maritime boundary shall continue
south-westward along the line equidistant from the coasts of [Peru]
and [Chile], as measured from that point, until its intersection (at
Point B) with the 200-nautical-mile limit measured from the baselines
from which the territorial sea of [Chile] is measured” (Judgment,

para. 198).
5. Inasmuch as the Judgment takes the view that the 1952 Santiago
Declaration did not contain an agreement on the delimitation of the

zones of the respective maritime entitlements of the parties to the Decléa -
ration, and that the 1954 Agreement acknowledges the existence of an

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agreement delimiting the zones of the respective maritime entitlements oéf

the Parties to the present dispute, the Judgment has to establish :
(a) that there has been some new legal fact (acts/omissions) on the part

of the Parties to the present dispute that legally created an agreement é
setting forth a single maritime boundary between the Parties along
the parallel of latitude passing through Boundary Marker No. 1; and

(b) that this single maritime boundary, which follows the parallel of lati-

tude, extends only to a distance of 80 nautical miles, beyond which
there does not exist any delimited maritime boundary accepted by the
Parties (by agreement or otherwise).

6. The present Judgment, however, does not seem to have substanti -
ated these points with sufficiently convincing supporting evidence. Espe -
cially problematical to my mind are the following two points :

(a) the Judgment states quite categorically that the Parties acknowledge
in the 1954 Agreement the existence of a maritime boundary for all
purposes between them, without showing how and when such agree -

ment came about and what concretely this agreement consists in ;

(b) the Judgment observes in this connection that this maritime boundary
acknowledged by the Parties as a line of parallel of latitude passing
through Boundary Marker No. 1, should be regarded as extending

up to a distance of 80 nautical miles but no further.

I shall try to focus my examination especially on these two issues.

I. On What Legal Basis Does téhe Judgment Declare thaét the
Parties Acknowledge thée Existence of the Mariétime Boundary

along a Parallel of Latéitude?

7. Throughout the pleadings, Chile has consistently maintained its
position that the 1952 Santiago Declaration was the legal basis, i.e., fons
et origo of the maritime boundary between Chile and Peru, which “estab -

lished an international maritime boundary along the parallel of latitudeé
passing through the starting-point of the Peru-Chile land boundary and
extending to a minimum of 200 nautical miles” (Judgment, para. 22). The
Judgment, quite correctly in my view, has rejected this position, both as a
matter of interpretation of the provisions of the Declaration and on theé

basis of its legislative history as revealed in the travaux préparatoires of
the Santiago Conference.

8. Proceeding to the 1954 Agreement relating to a Special Maritime
Frontier Zone, however, the Judgment, in an almost Delphic manner,

declares as follows :

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“In the view of the Court, the operative terms and purpose of the
1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement are . . . narrow and

specific [but] [t]hat is not however the matter under consideration byé
the Court at this stage. Rather, its focus is on one central issue,
namely, the existence of a maritime boundary. On that issue the terms
of the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, especially Arti ­
cle 1 read with the preambular paragraphs, are clear. They acknow-

ledge in a binding international agreement that a maritime boundary
already exists.” (Judgment, para. 90 ; emphasis added.)

The Judgment concludes that “[t]he Parties’ express acknowledgment of
[the maritime boundary’s] existence can only reflect a tacit agreeméent
which they had reached earlier” (ibid., para. 91).
9. After close scrutiny of “the terms of the 1954 Special Maritime
Frontier Zone Agreement, especially Article 1 read with the preambular

paragraphs” (ibid., para. 90), I fail to see how these provisions can be said
to be so “clear” as to justify this conclusion.

10. The Preamble and Article 1 of the 1954 Agreement provide as fol -
lows :

“Experience has shown that innocent and inadvertent violations of
the maritime frontier between adjacent States occur frequently

because small vessels manned by crews with insufficient knowledge of
navigation or not equipped with the necessary instruments have dif -
ficulty in determining accurately their position on the high seas ;

The application of penalties in such cases always produces ill-
feeling in the fishermen and friction between the countries concerned,é

which may affect adversely the spirit of co-operation and unity which
should at all times prevail among the countries signatories to the
instruments signed at Santiago ; and
It is desirable to avoid the occurrence of such unintentional infringe -
ments, the consequences of which affect principally the fishermen ;

Have agreed as follows :

1. A special zone is hereby established, at a distance of 12 nautical
miles from the coast, extending to a breadth of 10 nautical miles
on either side of the parallel which constitutes the maritime
boundary between the two countries.”

11. It should be clear from those passages quoted above, that the plain
and ordinary meaning of the language used is anything but “clear”.é The
crucial words in Article 1 state that “[a] special zone is hereby estab -
lished . . . extending to a breadth of 10 nautical miles on either side of the

parallel which constitutes the maritime boundary between the two coun ­
tries” (1954 Agreement; emphasis added). This wording, however, can be

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read either as declaratory of the legal situation that already exists, as the
Judgment claims, or as constitutive of a line which the Parties created éfor

the implementation of the purposes of this functional agreement. There iés
no clue to clarify this point in the Preamble, which contains no languagée
whatsoever that refers to this point.

12. In my view, this language, in its plain meaning, does not, as such

and without additional evidence, warrant the existence of a tacit agree -
ment establishing such a boundary for all purposes between the Parties.
Tacit agreements establishing any type of international boundary, eitheré
land or maritime, are exceptional for the simple reason that when it comes
to the question of territorial sovereignty, States almost always are
extremely jealous of safeguarding their sovereignty, and, in a situationé

involving the issue of transfer of territorial sovereignty, normally acté with
particular care and caution. It is for this reason that the Court has aléways
adopted a sceptical view towards the claim by a State that a tacit agreeé -
ment exists establishing a maritime boundary in its favour. Thus the
Court, in the recent cases involving territorial and maritime disputes,

rejected the claim of one of the parties that a tacit agreement existed,
stating that:

“[e]vidence of a tacit legal agreement must be compelling. The estab -
lishment of a permanent maritime boundary is a matter of grave
importance and agreement is not easily to be presumed.” (Territorial
and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J.

Reports 2012 (II), p. 705, para. 219, quoting Territorial and Maritime
Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 735,
para. 253; emphasis added.)

It is my view that this stringent standard is not met in the present case.
13. In the context of the present situation, where a provision of a treaty
remains ambiguous or obscure after an effort to interpret it “in goéod faith
in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the

treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose”
(Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Art. 31, para. 1) has not led
to a satisfactory resolution, the natural course to follow is to have reécourse
to “supplementary means of interpretation, including the preparatory
work of the treaty and the circumstances of its conclusion” (ibid., Art. 32).

14. The travaux préparatoires of the 1954 Agreement reveal that the
final version of the relevant language in Article 1 of the 1954 Agreement,
relied upon by the Judgment to establish the existence of a tacit agree -
ment on a maritime boundary, emerged in a murky situation which leads
me to the conclusion that the Judgment rests on a factually quite dubious
ground.

15. The 1954 Agreement establishing the “Zone of Tolerance” has its
origin in a paper jointly submitted by the delegates of Ecuador and Perué

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at the Permanent Commission of the Conference on the Exploitation and
Conservation of the Maritime Resources of the South Pacific (hereinaféter

“CPPS”) on 8 October 1954. It is entitled the “Recommendation for the
Establishment of a Neutral Zone for Fishing in the Maritime Frontier of
the Neighbouring States” of the Santiago Conference. As originally pro -
posed, the aim of this paper was stated as “[t]he creation of a neutral zone
at a distance of 12 nautical miles from the coast, extending to a breadth

of ten nautical miles on either side of the parallel which passes through
the point of the coast that signals the boundary between the two countri▯es”
(emphasis added). This recommendation was adopted by the CPPS and
later became the 1954 Agreement. This initial language explaining the
goal of the 1954 Agreement gives no indication whatsoever for the exis -
tence of a tacit agreement establishing a maritime boundary. Rather, it é

refers to “the parallel which passes through the point of the coast that
signals the boundary between the two countries” (Judgment, para. 73 ;
emphasis added), suggesting that what the drafters were indicating was é
the land boundary between the countries concerned.
16. The case file before the Court submitted by the Parties does not

contain any other document indicating that any changes had been made
to this language subsequently, until two months later when this resolution
adopted by the CPPS was presented as a draft for agreement to the
1954 Conference on 3 December 1954. At this Conference, the Ecuador -
ian delegate proposed that “the concept already declared in Santiago éthat

the parallel starting at the boundary point on the coast constitutes theé
maritime boundary between the neighbouring signatory countries, [be]
incorporated into this article”, together with the change of the titlée of the
agreement from “Establishment of a Neutral Fishing and Hunting Zone”é
to “Special Maritime Frontier Zone”. Article 1 was thus “amended”,
apparently without any discussion, to its present wording, incorporating

the phrase “the parallel which constitutes the maritime boundary between
the two countries” (ibid.). Thus, the travaux of the Conference would
seem to indicate that the language of Article 1 of the 1954 Agreement,
relied upon by the Judgment to prove the existence of a tacit agreement,é
was to my mind drafted reflecting the perception of the delegate of

Ecuador that what he was proposing was no more than what had already
been “declared in Santiago” in 1952.
17. As the Judgment has concluded — correctly, in my view — that the
1952 Santiago Declaration in fact had not declared that the parallel start -
ing at the boundary point on the coast constituted a maritime boundary,

it seems reasonable to assume that what the Ecuadorian delegate was
referring to in fact was the “principle of delimitation of waters regarding
the islands”, enshrined in Article 4 of the 1952 Santiago Declaration. Be
that as it may, regardless of the thinking of the Ecuadorian delegate, the
Judgment takes a position that no maritime boundary agreements had
been reached in Santiago in 1952, other than those relating to islands. é

The travaux of the 1954 Agreement thus demonstrate that the language of
Article 1 of the 1954 Agreement does not seem to endorse the reasoning

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on which the Judgment is based that a tacit agreement had arisen betweené
the Parties during the period between 1952 to 1954. It is possible, thouégh,

that what took place in 1954 may have reflected some perception or con -
fusion in the mind of some delegates at the CPPS conference as to exactléy
what had been “declared in Santiago” in 1952. But such perception éor
confusion has been dispelled and clarified by the Judgment.
18. The 1968-1969 lighthouse arrangements similarly do not provide

“compelling” evidence of the existence of a tacit agreement establéishing an
all-purpose maritime boundary. As the Judgment itself acknowledges,
what emerges from these arrangements is that the arrangements proceeded
on the premise that a maritime boundary of some sort extending along theé
parallel beyond 12 nautical miles had “already exist[ed]” (Judgment,

para. 99), without any specific language to that effect found in the arrange -
ments concerned. The Judgment, quoting from the opening paragraph of
a document which was signed by the delegates of the Parties to those negéo -
tiations for the purpose of making a number of practical submissions foré
the examination and determination of their respective Governments on

the location of the lighthouses to be constructed, states as follows :
“on 26 April 1968, following communication between the Peruvian

Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Chilean chargé d’affaires earlier
that year, delegates of both Parties signed a document whereby they
undertook the task of carrying out ‘an on-site study for the installa -
tion of leading marks visible from the sea to materialise the parallel
of the maritime frontier originating at Boundary Marker number one

(No. 1)’” (ibid., para. 96 ; emphasis added).
19. Based on this fact, the Judgment concludes that “[a]long with the

1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, the arrangements
acknowledge that [a maritime boundary extending along the parallel
beyond 12 nautical miles already exists]” (ibid., para. 99; emphasis added).
These arrangements are thus no more than a logical follow-up of the
1954 Agreement, and add nothing more (or less) to what the 1954 Agree -

ment prescribes (or does not prescribe) about the nature of the parallel as
a line of maritime demarcation.
20. In my view, for the Judgment to conclude from the language of the
1954 Agreement that the Parties reached a tacit agreement on their mari -
time boundary, it is essential that the Court is able to establish the féollow-

ing two points :
(a) that such agreement between the Parties on a maritime boundary

extending along the parallel beyond 12 nautical miles came to exist
between the Parties at some point in time on the basis of some legal
acts or omissions of the Parties subsequent to the 1952 Santiago Dec -
laration, but prior to the 1954 Agreement; and
(b) that the agreement on this maritime boundary is of such a nature as

would amount to the definitive and all-purpose boundary constituting
the lateral maritime border between the two neighbouring States of

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Peru and Chile for the purposes of the delimitation of their respective
maritime zone entitlements (Judgment, para. 14; Final Submissions

of Chile (b) (ii) and Final Submissions of Peru (1)).
21. It is my submission that the Judgment has not succeeded in estab -

lishing these two points.

II. Where Does this Maritimée Boundary Line Terminaét? e

22. The next question is the length to which this alleged maritime
boundary line extends. This issue is inseparably linked with the first ques-
tion. If the Parties, for whatever reason and under whatever circum -
stances, had come to accept the parallel of latitude as the definitiveé

maritime boundary line for all purposes, as the Judgment assumes it to
be on the basis of the 1954 Agreement and the 1968-1969 lighthouse
arrangements, then there should be no reason to think that this line
should terminate at a distance of 80 nautical miles from the starting-point.
It could instead extend to the maximum of 200 nautical miles.

23. In this respect, a frequent reference is made in the Judgment to the
fact that under the 1954 Agreement, whose purpose was specific and
limited, such a line (or the acknowledgment of it) would not have beené
required beyond the distance of 80 nautical miles, because the maximum
limit of the fisheries activities of Peru and Chile in those days did not go

further than 80 nautical miles, as demonstrated by the statistics supplied
by the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO).

24. It is accepted that the real situation on the ground (or rather on the é
sea!) obtaining at the time of the 1954 Agreement and the 1968-1969

lighthouse arrangements at the relevant period — i.e., the period between
the 1950s and 1970s — was as described in the Judgment. But “the real
situation on the ground” relating to fishing activities should haveé no rele-
vance to the consideration of this issue by the Judgment, if the reasoning
of the Judgment were that a tacit agreement had come to exist as an

all-purpose maritime boundary along the parallel of latitude. If the
boundary which the Parties are supposed to have acknowledged were
indeed an all-purpose one, it would be extremely difficult to argue that its
length be limited by relying upon the evidence relating to fishing actéivities
and to justify this conclusion that the boundary line along the parallel of

latitude should stop at a distance of 80 nautical miles. As the Judgment
quite rightly acknowledges, “the all-purpose nature of the maritime
boundary . . . means that evidence concerning fisheries activity, in itself,
cannot be determinative of the extent of that boundary” (Judgment,
para. 111). Logically there should be no reason why the line should stop
at 80 nautical miles, rather than extending to the 200-nautical-mile limit,

as each of the Parties claimed in the Santiago Declaration.

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25. If we start, on the contrary, from the premise that this boundary
line should stop at some point less than 200 nautical miles for the reason

that the real situation on the ground relating to the actual fishing activi -
ties obtaining in the sea area extended only to a certain point, then thée
rationale for relying upon that distance has to be based on the legal
nature of the line not as a line of a permanent delimitation of the marié -
time boundary for all purposes, but as a line of a maritime zone for theé

specific purposes of creating the regulatory régime for fisheries in line
with the specific purposes of the 1954 Agreement and of the 1968-1969
lighthouse arrangements.
It seems to me that the Judgment in the present case cannot escape this é
dilemma created by its own reasoning, as long as the Judgment is based

on the presumed (but not proven) existence of a tacit agreement on the
permanent maritime boundary.
26. Instead of basing its reasoning for the existence of a line of demar -
cation on the acknowledgment of tacit agreement on a maritime bound -
ary of an all-purpose nature, the Judgment should base itself on a slightly

modified legal reasoning along the following lines :

(1) The Court should reject, as the present Judgment does, the contention
of the Respondent that the 1952 Santiago Declaration constitutes an
agreement on the part of the Parties thereto to recognize and accept
a maritime boundary line, following a parallel of latitude drawn from
the point of the intersection of the existing land boundary between

the States concerned with the low-water line of the sea.
(2) The practice of the States involved in the field of exercising nationaél
jurisdiction in the sea, in particular, relating to the fishing activiéties
of Chile and Peru in the region, which gradually emerged in the years
through the Santiago Declaration and beyond, as reflected in the pro -

cesses of creating a special “Zone of Tolerance” in 1954 and of esétab -
lishing lighthouses in 1968-1969, demonstrates the gradual emergence
of a tacit understanding among the Parties to accept some jurisdic -
tional delimitation of the area of national competence in the sea along é
the line of latitude, especially for the purposes of the regulation of

fisheries. This acceptance of the zoning of the maritime areas would
appear to have developed de facto specifically in the lateral direction
(along the coasts) to enclose sea areas belonging to each of the Partiées
for the purposes of fishing activities, which in those days were pri -
marily focused on the fishing resources within the coastal waters

(especially anchovy fishing). Those fishing activities were rapidléy
growing during this period in the waters within the distance of roughly é
50 nautical miles off the coasts of Peru and Chile. This development
of tacit acceptance took place, in addition to the Parties’ explicit é
acceptance, achieved by the 1952 Santiago Declaration, of the exten -

sion of maritime zones in the horizontal (seaward) direction extendingé
to 200 nautical miles for the joint defence of the natural resources of

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fisheries against the foreign ocean going fishing fleets engaged in deep
water fishing off their coasts (e.g., whaling and tuna fishing).é This

practical need to enclose coastal fishing areas off the coasts of Peéru
and Chile, developed through the years after the 1952 Santiago Dec-
laration, led the Parties to come to a series of related agreements
adopted in the 1954 Conference in implementation of the Santiago
Declaration.

The process of this tacit acceptance through State practice in the
regulatory régime, primarily for the regulation of fishing activitiées
through enclosing the sea areas for the respective Parties, came to
develop apparently without taking the form of an agreement, tacit or
express, between the Parties. This tacit acceptance came to be reflected

in the form of a de facto delimitation of the lateral maritime boundary
along the coasts of the neighbouring States of Peru and Chile, pri -
marily to deal with the practical need for regulating coastal fishing é
activities of the area, along the line of parallel of latitude.
(3) As this has been a process of tacit acceptance that came to emerge in

the form of a gradual development through the practice of the States
concerned, without involving any formal act of effecting an agree -
ment, tacit or express, through the years of the 1950s to 1970s, it is
not possible nor necessary in my view to pinpoint when and how this
tacit acceptance crystallized into a normative rule that the Parties

came to recognize as constituting the legal delimitation of their
respective zones of maritime entitlement in the coastal areas close to
both countries, nor to define in precise terms how far this legal deliémi-
tation extended. It would seem safe to state, however, that such a
normative rule did indeed develop, especially in relation to the regu -
lation of fisheries, during the period between the 1950s and 1970s.

(4) The 1954 Agreement on the Special Zone of Protection thus cannot
be considered as an agreement which de novo created a new maritime
zone boundary on the basis of a parallel of latitude to delimit the
lateral boundary between the States involved. It was not the fons et
origo of the new maritime title based on the parallel of latitude and

as such not constitutive of a new title to the States concerned. In thisé
sense the position taken by the Judgment in my view is justified.

(5) Nor in my view was the 1954 Agreement declaratory, conferring as

such the maritime titles of the respective States created by an already é
existing (but not identified or identifiable) agreement, which theé Judg -
ment declares to have been acknowledged by the parties in the
1954 Agreement. The parties in the 1954Agreement accepted this line
as a maritime boundary line primarily for the practical purpose of
regulating conflicts between fishermen of the region and the States

enforcing fisheries laws in their respective jurisdictions, which had éthe
practical purpose of clarifying the lateral extent of the limits of their

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respective maritime jurisdiction (specifically on fishing) in the relevant
maritime areas of their respective coasts.

In my view, the 1954 Agreement did not purport to acknowledge an
existing agreement for the maritime zone delimitation that would
have definitively defined the limits of the Parties’ maritime jurisdiction

for all purposes.
(6) The 1954 Agreement nonetheless has had an important legal signifi -
cance in the process of consolidating the legal title based on tacit
acceptance through practice, as that agreement constitutes, to the ex-
tent of its practical application, a significant, or even decisive, eléement
in the process of turning State practice into a normative rule. Together

with the 1968-1969 lighthouse arrangements, the 1954 Agreement
thus formed an important basis for the consolidation of a maritime title
based on tacit acceptance by both Parties through their subsequent
practice in the area during the period following the 1952 Santiago
Conference until the 1970s.

(7) This analysis should be sufficient also for explaining the reason why
there should be a limit for such delimitation line based on the parallelé
of latitude referred to in this Agreement of1954. The tacit acceptance
was based in its origin on State practice at that time and thus had to
be limited to the extent of the actual fishing activities conducted byé

the coastal fishermen of the two States involved. It prompted the
Parties to accept this development as a normative rule, inasmuch as
such tacit acceptance had to be operative with regard to a certain sea
area where fishermen of the States concerned were actually engaged
in fishing.
(8) It is for this reason that the precise distance out to sea to which the é

sea area belonging to the two States was delimited between them has
to be determined primarily in light of the reality of the State practiceé
developed through these years, especially in the field of fishing activ -
ities in the relevant areas, since they formed the legal basis for the
emergence of the tacit acceptance of the delimitation of the maritime

areas. On the basis of this consideration, I come to the conclusion
that a delimitation line along the parallel going beyond 80 nautical
miles would be excessive in consideration of the reality of the fishinég
activities in the region, taking into account the predominant pattern
of fishing activities by Peru and Chile in the relevant period. Accordé -

ing to the opinion expressed in the literature regarding the analysis of
the fishing pattern of those days of the 1950s to 1970s, together with
the oceanographic and biological analysis of the flow of the Hum -
boldt Current and the pattern of the fishing activities focusing pre -
dominantly on anchovy fishing in the area in those days, the reason -
able geographic limit in which such fishing activities could be presuméed

to have been in operation would seem to be within the distance of
50 nautical miles from the respective coasts of Peru and Chile. When

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the distance from the coast is translated into the length of the line of

parallel of latitude, this line corresponds roughly to 80 nautical miles
from the point where the land boundary between Peru and Chile
meets the sea (cf. Judgment, paras. 103-111).

27. I am therefore prepared to accept the figure of 80 nautical miles as
the length of the parallel line to be drawn from the starting-point where
the land boundary between the two countries reaches the sea as most
faithfully reflecting the reality of State practice as primarily refléected in

the fishing activities of the region in those days, when the parallel éline of
demarcation came to form a normative rule. On this reasoning, I find iét
difficult to accept the position that this line should extend to 100 nautical
miles.

28. On this basis of analysis, the argument based on the consideration
of equitable allocation of the entire sea area in dispute between the twéo
contending States should have no place in our consideration of the prob -
lem of how far this line of parallel of latitude should extend. As this éline

dividing the jurisdictional waters of the two Parties along the parallelé is
based on the tacit acceptance of the Parties, and thus to be regarded asé
the line of delimitation by agreement of the Parties and as such lying
beyond the scope of the general principle of equitable allocation as enuén -

ciated by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Arts. 74
and 83), the consideration of equitable principles in relation to this parté
of the area in question is irrelevant and should play no role in the Couért’s
consideration of the issue as far as the maritime delimitation of this péart
of the maritime area in dispute between the parties is concerned. Such aén

approach cannot be justified as offering any legal justification oén which
the present Judgment should proceed in arriving at its conclusion.

(Signed) Hisashi Owada.

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5 CIJ1057.indb 192 1/12/14 08:59

Bilingual Content

86

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE OWADA

1. The Judgment, in its operative part (dispositif) states the decision of
the Court, inter alia, as follows :

“The Court,

(1) . . .,
Decides that the starting-point of the single maritime boundary

delimiting the respective maritime areas between the Republic of Peru
and the Republic of Chile is the intersection of the parallel of latitudée
passing through Boundary Marker No. 1 with the low-water line ;

(2) . . .,
Decides that the initial segment of the single maritime boundary

follows the parallel of latitude passing through Boundary Marker
No. 1 westward ;
(3) . . .,

Decides that this initial segment runs up to a point (Point A) situ -
ated at a distance of 80 nautical miles from the starting-point of the
single maritime boundary ;

(4) . . .,

Decides that from Point A, the single maritime boundary shall con -
tinue south-westward along the line equidistant from the coasts of the
Republic of Peru and the Republic of Chile, as measured from that
point, until its intersection (at Point B) with the 200-nautical-mile
limit measured from the baselines from which the territorial sea of the

Republic of Chile is measured ; . . .” (Judgment, para. 198.)

2. Although I have accepted the conclusions contained in these opera -
tive paragraphs, I have not been able to associate myself fully with the
reasoning which has led the Court to this conclusion relating to the coné -
crete delimitation of the single maritime boundary between Peru and
Chile. I wish to explain in some detail my reasons why I have to maintain

my reservations with regard to some aspects of the Judgment, in spite of
my vote in favour of the final conclusions that the Judgment has reached.
3. The Judgment comes to the above conclusions on the basis of a
number of findings it made as explained in its reasoning part. They caén be
summarized as follows :

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5 CIJ1057.indb 170 1/12/14 08:59 86

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE OWADA

[Traduction]

1. Dans le dispositif de l’arrêt que la Cour vient de rendre figureént
notamment les points suivants :

« La Cour,

1) …,

Décide que le point de départ de la frontière maritime unique déli -
mitant les espaces maritimes respectifs de la République du Pérou é
et de la République du Chili est situé à l’intersection du paraéllèle
de latitude passant par la borne frontière n o 1 avec la laisse de

basse mer ;
2) …,

Décide que le segment initial de la frontière maritime unique suit,
en direction de l’ouest, le parallèle de latitude passant par la borne
frontière no 1 ;

3) …,

Décide que ce segment initial s’étend jusqu’à un point (point A)
situé à une distance de 80 milles marins du point de départ de la
frontière maritime unique ;
4) …,

Décide que, à partir du point A, la frontière maritime unique se
poursuit en direction du sud-ouest, le long de la ligne équidistante é

des côtes de la République du Pérou et de la République du Céhili,
calculée depuis ce point, jusqu’au point (point B) où elle rencontre la
limite des 200 milles marins calculée depuis les lignes de base à partir
desquelles est mesurée la mer territoriale de la République du
Chili…» (Arrêt, par. 198.)

2. Bien qu’ayant admis les conclusions énoncées dans ces points dué

dispositif, je ne partage pas entièrement le raisonnement qui a amenéé la
Cour à sa conclusion concernant la manière de délimiter concrèétement la
frontière maritime unique entre le Pérou et le Chili. J’entendsé donc expli -
quer de façon assez détaillée pourquoi, bien qu’ayant votéé pour les
conclusions finales que renferme l’arrêt, je maintiens les rééserves que

m’inspirent certains aspects de celui-ci.
3. La Cour est parvenue aux conclusions suscitées en se fondant sur un
certain nombre de considérants qu’elle a énoncés dans la parétie de l’arrêt
exposant son raisonnement. Ces considérants peuvent se résumer coméme
suit :

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5 CIJ1057.indb 171 1/12/14 08:59 87 maritime dispute (sepé. op. owada)

(1) The Judgment rejects the position of the Respondent, developed in
its contention that “the respective maritime zone entitlements of Chiéle

and Peru have been fully delimited by agreement” (Judgment, para 1.4;
Final Submissions of Chile(b) (i)), more specifically, by the 1952San-
tiago Declaration. I fully endorse this position of the Judgment.
(2) The Judgment does not accept the position of the Applicant either,
as based on its contention that “[t]he maritime zones between Chile

and Peru have never been delimited by agreement or otherwise”
(Application instituting proceedings, para. 2), and that therefore

“[t]he delimitation between the respective maritime zones between
[Peru] and [Chile], is a line starting at ‘Point Concordia’ . .. and equi-
distant from the baselines of both Parties, up to a point situated at a é
distance of 200 nautical miles from those baselines” (Judgment,
para. 14; Final Submissions of Peru (1)).

I equally support this position of the Judgment.

(3) In their stead, the Judgment finds in the contexts of the 1954 Agree -
ment on the establishment of the “Special Maritime Frontier Zone”
(hereinafter “1954 Agreement”), as well as the 1968-1969 arrange -
ments for the construction of lighthouses, that the Parties acknow-
ledge, in spite of, and separately from, the finding outlined in (a)éove,

the existence of an agreement between the Parties on a maritime
(zone) boundary along the parallel of latitude up to 80 nautical miles
from the starting-point. On this finding of the Court, however, I have
to express my serious reservation.

4. On the basis of these findings, which form the legal premise from
which the dispositif of the Judgment is derived, the Judgment comes to
the conclusion that

“the initial segment of the single maritime boundary follows the par -
allel of latitude passing through Boundary Marker No. 1 westward ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

that this initial segment runs up to a point (Point A) situated at a
distance of 80 nautical miles from the starting-point of the single mari-
time boundary ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

[and] that from Point A, the single maritime boundary shall continue
south-westward along the line equidistant from the coasts of [Peru]
and [Chile], as measured from that point, until its intersection (at
Point B) with the 200-nautical-mile limit measured from the baselines
from which the territorial sea of [Chile] is measured” (Judgment,

para. 198).
5. Inasmuch as the Judgment takes the view that the 1952 Santiago
Declaration did not contain an agreement on the delimitation of the

zones of the respective maritime entitlements of the parties to the Decléa -
ration, and that the 1954 Agreement acknowledges the existence of an

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5 CIJ1057.indb 172 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (opé. ind. owada) 87

1) La Cour rejette la position exprimée par le défendeur lorsqu’ilé a affirmé

que «les espaces maritimes respectifs des Parties [avaient] été intégra -
lement délimités par voie d’accord», entendant par «accord» la décla-
ration de Santiago de 1952 (arrêt, par. 14; conclusions finales du Chili,
point b) i)). Je m’associe pleinement à ce considérant.
2) La Cour n’admet pas non plus la position que le demandeur a expriméée

en affirmant que « [l]es zones maritimes entre le Chili et le Pérou
n’[avaient] jamais été délimitées, ni par voie d’accoréd ni d’aucune autre
manière» (requête, par. 2), et que, en conséquence,

«la ligne délimitant les espaces maritimes entre [le Pérou et le Chéili]
commen[çait] au « point Concordia» …, [était] équidistante des lignes
de base des Parties et s’étend[ait] jusqu’à un point situéé à
200 milles marins de ces lignes de base » (arrêt, par. 14 ; conclusions

finales du Pérou, point 1).
Je suis également d’accord avec la Cour sur ce point.

3) La Cour, nonobstant sa position résumée ci-dessus sous l’alinééa 1),
considère que, eu égard au contexte de la conclusion de l’accoréd
de 1954 relatif à une « zone frontière maritime spéciale » (ci-après

l’«accord de 1954 »), les Parties ont admis l’existence entre elles d’une
frontière maritime suivant le parallèle de latitude jusqu’à une distance
de 80 milles marins de son point de départ. Cette conclusion m’inspire
de sérieuses réserves.

4. Ayant ainsi arrêté ses positions, qui sont les prémisses juridiéques du
dispositif de l’arrêt, la Cour conclut ce qui suit :

«le segment initial de la frontière maritime unique suit, en directioné
o
de l’ouest, le parallèle de latitude passant par la borne frontièrée n 1 ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ce segment initial s’étend jusqu’à un point (point A) situéé à une dis -
tance de 80 milles marins du point de départ de la frontière maritime

unique ;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . é. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
à partir du point A, la frontière maritime unique se poursuit en
direction du sud-ouest, le long de la ligne équidistante des côtesé de la

République du Pérou et de la République du Chili, calculée déepuis
ce point, jusqu’au point (point B) où elle rencontre la limite des é
200 milles marins calculée depuis les lignes de base à partir desquelles
est mesurée la mer territoriale … du Chili » (arrêt, par. 198).

5. Dès lors qu’elle a considéré que la déclaration de Santiaégo de 1952
ne constituait pas un accord entre les parties à celle-ci sur la délimitation
des zones maritimes auxquelles elles pouvaient respectivement prétendére,

mais que l’accord de 1954 reconnaissait l’existence d’une entenéte entre les

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5 CIJ1057.indb 173 1/12/14 08:59 88 maritime dispute (sepé. op. owada)

agreement delimiting the zones of the respective maritime entitlements oéf

the Parties to the present dispute, the Judgment has to establish :
(a) that there has been some new legal fact (acts/omissions) on the part

of the Parties to the present dispute that legally created an agreement é
setting forth a single maritime boundary between the Parties along
the parallel of latitude passing through Boundary Marker No. 1; and

(b) that this single maritime boundary, which follows the parallel of lati-

tude, extends only to a distance of 80 nautical miles, beyond which
there does not exist any delimited maritime boundary accepted by the
Parties (by agreement or otherwise).

6. The present Judgment, however, does not seem to have substanti -
ated these points with sufficiently convincing supporting evidence. Espe -
cially problematical to my mind are the following two points :

(a) the Judgment states quite categorically that the Parties acknowledge
in the 1954 Agreement the existence of a maritime boundary for all
purposes between them, without showing how and when such agree -

ment came about and what concretely this agreement consists in ;

(b) the Judgment observes in this connection that this maritime boundary
acknowledged by the Parties as a line of parallel of latitude passing
through Boundary Marker No. 1, should be regarded as extending

up to a distance of 80 nautical miles but no further.

I shall try to focus my examination especially on these two issues.

I. On What Legal Basis Does téhe Judgment Declare thaét the
Parties Acknowledge thée Existence of the Mariétime Boundary

along a Parallel of Latéitude?

7. Throughout the pleadings, Chile has consistently maintained its
position that the 1952 Santiago Declaration was the legal basis, i.e., fons
et origo of the maritime boundary between Chile and Peru, which “estab -

lished an international maritime boundary along the parallel of latitudeé
passing through the starting-point of the Peru-Chile land boundary and
extending to a minimum of 200 nautical miles” (Judgment, para. 22). The
Judgment, quite correctly in my view, has rejected this position, both as a
matter of interpretation of the provisions of the Declaration and on theé

basis of its legislative history as revealed in the travaux préparatoires of
the Santiago Conference.

8. Proceeding to the 1954 Agreement relating to a Special Maritime
Frontier Zone, however, the Judgment, in an almost Delphic manner,

declares as follows :

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5 CIJ1057.indb 174 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (opé. ind. owada) 88

Parties à la présente affaire sur la délimitation de leurs zones maritimes

respectives, elle devait, dans son arrêt, établir :
a) qu’un fait juridique nouveau (acte ou omission) s’était produéit dans les

relations entre les Parties, qui avait eu pour effet juridique de fairée
naître entre elles un accord établissant une frontière maritimeé unique
qui séparait leurs zones maritimes respectives et coïncidait avec éle
parallèle de latitude passant par la borne frontière n o 1; et
b) que la longueur de cette frontière maritime unique ne dépassait paés

80 milles marins et que, au-delà, il n’existait aucune frontière maritime
acceptée par les Parties (par voie d’accord ou de toute autre manéière).

6. Or, il ne me semble pas que la Cour ait établi ces points en s’ap -
puyant sur des moyens de preuve suffisamment convaincants. Deux éléé -
ments de l’arrêt, en particulier, me semblent prêter à la créitique à cet égar:d

a) la Cour affirme, quelque peu péremptoirement, que les Parties, en
concluant l’accord de 1954, ont reconnu l’existence entre elles d’une
frontière maritime à vocation générale, mais elle n’indiqéue ni comment

ni quand cet accord est intervenu, et ne précise pas non plus en quoié il
consiste ;
b) la Cour dit que cette frontière maritime reconnue par les Parties,
constituée par une ligne qui coïncide avec le parallèle passanté par la
borne frontière n o1, doit être considérée comme se poursuivant jusqu’à

un point situé à une distance de 80 milles marins de son point de
départ, et pas au-delà.

Ces éléments de l’arrêt soulèvent à mon avis deux quesétions, sur lesquelles
portera l’essentiel de mes observations.

I. Sur quoi la Cour se fondée-t-elle juridiquementé pour déclarer
dans son arrêt que lesé Parties reconnaissenét l’existence entre eélles

d’une frontière mariétime coïncidant avecé un parallèl? e

7. Durant toute la procédure orale, le Chili a fermement maintenu sa
position selon laquelle la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 constituait la
base juridique, les fons et origo de l’existence d’une frontière maritime

entre le Chili et le Pérou, cette déclaration ayant selon lui «établi une fron-
tière maritime internationale suivant sur une distance d’au moins 200milles
marins le parallèle de latitude passant par le point de départ de la frontière
terrestre le séparant du Pérou » (arrêt, par. 22). Dans son arrêt, la Cour a
eu raison, à mon avis, de rejeter cette position, qui selon elle ne pérocédait

pas d’une interprétation correcte de la déclaration et ne cadraéit pas non
plus avec l’historique de la rédaction de cet instrument, comme leé mon -
traient les travaux préparatoires de la conférence de Santiago.
8. Toutefois, lorsqu’elle aborde l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone
frontière maritime spéciale, la Cour, se montrant presque aussi ambiguë

que l’oracle de Delphes, déclare ce qui suit :

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“In the view of the Court, the operative terms and purpose of the
1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement are . . . narrow and

specific [but] [t]hat is not however the matter under consideration byé
the Court at this stage. Rather, its focus is on one central issue,
namely, the existence of a maritime boundary. On that issue the terms
of the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, especially Arti ­
cle 1 read with the preambular paragraphs, are clear. They acknow-

ledge in a binding international agreement that a maritime boundary
already exists.” (Judgment, para. 90 ; emphasis added.)

The Judgment concludes that “[t]he Parties’ express acknowledgment of
[the maritime boundary’s] existence can only reflect a tacit agreeméent
which they had reached earlier” (ibid., para. 91).
9. After close scrutiny of “the terms of the 1954 Special Maritime
Frontier Zone Agreement, especially Article 1 read with the preambular

paragraphs” (ibid., para. 90), I fail to see how these provisions can be said
to be so “clear” as to justify this conclusion.

10. The Preamble and Article 1 of the 1954 Agreement provide as fol -
lows :

“Experience has shown that innocent and inadvertent violations of
the maritime frontier between adjacent States occur frequently

because small vessels manned by crews with insufficient knowledge of
navigation or not equipped with the necessary instruments have dif -
ficulty in determining accurately their position on the high seas ;

The application of penalties in such cases always produces ill-
feeling in the fishermen and friction between the countries concerned,é

which may affect adversely the spirit of co-operation and unity which
should at all times prevail among the countries signatories to the
instruments signed at Santiago ; and
It is desirable to avoid the occurrence of such unintentional infringe -
ments, the consequences of which affect principally the fishermen ;

Have agreed as follows :

1. A special zone is hereby established, at a distance of 12 nautical
miles from the coast, extending to a breadth of 10 nautical miles
on either side of the parallel which constitutes the maritime
boundary between the two countries.”

11. It should be clear from those passages quoted above, that the plain
and ordinary meaning of the language used is anything but “clear”.é The
crucial words in Article 1 state that “[a] special zone is hereby estab -
lished . . . extending to a breadth of 10 nautical miles on either side of the

parallel which constitutes the maritime boundary between the two coun ­
tries” (1954 Agreement; emphasis added). This wording, however, can be

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5 CIJ1057.indb 176 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (opé. ind. owada) 89

«De l’avis de la Cour, les dispositions et l’objectif de l’accoréd
de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale étaient …

étroits et spécifiques. Telle n’est cependant pas la questioné que la
Cour doit examiner à ce stade ; celle-ci doit plutôt s’attacher à un
point essentiel, à savoir l’existence d’une frontière maritiéme. Et, sur
ce point, la formulation de l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière
maritime spéciale, en particulier celle de l’article premier, cons▯idéré à

la lumière du préambule, est claire : elle reconnaît, dans le cadre d’un
accord international contraignant, qu’une frontière maritime existée
déjà.» (Arrêt, par. 90 ; les italiques sont de moi.)

La Cour conclut que « [l]a reconnaissance expresse de … [l’]existence [de
la frontière maritime] par les Parties repose nécessairement sur uén accord
tacite intervenu entre elles auparavant » (ibid., par. 91).
9. Ayant étudié attentivement « la formulation de l’accord de 1954
relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale, en particulier écelle de l’ar -

ticle premier, considéré à la lumière du préambule » (ibid., par. 90), je vois
mal comment on peut la considérer d’une clarté telle qu’elleé justifie
pareille conclusion.
10. Le préambule et l’article premier de l’accord de 1954 sont ainsi
libellés :

«Considérant que l’expérience a montré que la frontière maritime
entre des Etats adjacents était fréquemment violée de manièrée inno -

cente et par inadvertance parce que les navires de petite taille dont
l’équipage ne connaît pas suffisamment la navigation ou qui neé sont
pas équipés des instruments nécessaires ont du mal à déterminer pré -
cisément leur position en haute mer ;
Considérant que l’application de peines en pareils cas crée toué -
jours un malaise chez les pêcheurs et des frictions entre les pays inté -

ressés, ce qui peut nuire à l’esprit de coopération et d’éunité qui
devrait en tout temps régner entre les pays signataires des instru -
ments signés à Santiago ;
Considérant qu’il est souhaitable d’éviter que ne se produiséent de
telles violations non intentionnelles dont les conséquences sont priné -

cipalement ressenties par les pêcheurs ;
[Les signataires] [s]ont convenus de ce qui suit :

1. Une zone spéciale est créée par le présent accord à une déistance
de 12 milles marins de la côte, et avec une largeur de 10 milles
marins de part et d’autre du parallèle qui constitue la frontièére
maritime entre les deux pays. »

11. Le passage que je viens de citer devrait suffire à montrer que le seéns
ordinaire de la formulation considérée est bien loin d’être é«clair». Je sou -
ligne la partie du texte de l’article premier qui me paraît essentéielle :
«[u]ne zone spéciale est créée par le présent accord … avec une

largeur de 10 milles marins de part et d’autre du parallèle qui constitue la
frontière maritime entre les deux pays » (accord de 1954 ; les italiques sont

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5 CIJ1057.indb 177 1/12/14 08:59 90 maritime dispute (sepé. op. owada)

read either as declaratory of the legal situation that already exists, as the
Judgment claims, or as constitutive of a line which the Parties created éfor

the implementation of the purposes of this functional agreement. There iés
no clue to clarify this point in the Preamble, which contains no languagée
whatsoever that refers to this point.

12. In my view, this language, in its plain meaning, does not, as such

and without additional evidence, warrant the existence of a tacit agree -
ment establishing such a boundary for all purposes between the Parties.
Tacit agreements establishing any type of international boundary, eitheré
land or maritime, are exceptional for the simple reason that when it comes
to the question of territorial sovereignty, States almost always are
extremely jealous of safeguarding their sovereignty, and, in a situationé

involving the issue of transfer of territorial sovereignty, normally acté with
particular care and caution. It is for this reason that the Court has aléways
adopted a sceptical view towards the claim by a State that a tacit agreeé -
ment exists establishing a maritime boundary in its favour. Thus the
Court, in the recent cases involving territorial and maritime disputes,

rejected the claim of one of the parties that a tacit agreement existed,
stating that:

“[e]vidence of a tacit legal agreement must be compelling. The estab -
lishment of a permanent maritime boundary is a matter of grave
importance and agreement is not easily to be presumed.” (Territorial
and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment, I.C.J.

Reports 2012 (II), p. 705, para. 219, quoting Territorial and Maritime
Dispute between Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea
(Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), p. 735,
para. 253; emphasis added.)

It is my view that this stringent standard is not met in the present case.
13. In the context of the present situation, where a provision of a treaty
remains ambiguous or obscure after an effort to interpret it “in goéod faith
in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the

treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose”
(Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, Art. 31, para. 1) has not led
to a satisfactory resolution, the natural course to follow is to have reécourse
to “supplementary means of interpretation, including the preparatory
work of the treaty and the circumstances of its conclusion” (ibid., Art. 32).

14. The travaux préparatoires of the 1954 Agreement reveal that the
final version of the relevant language in Article 1 of the 1954 Agreement,
relied upon by the Judgment to establish the existence of a tacit agree -
ment on a maritime boundary, emerged in a murky situation which leads
me to the conclusion that the Judgment rests on a factually quite dubious
ground.

15. The 1954 Agreement establishing the “Zone of Tolerance” has its
origin in a paper jointly submitted by the delegates of Ecuador and Perué

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de moi). Ce libellé peut être lu comme la constatation d’une situation
juridique préexistante, ce qu’a fait la Cour dans son arrêt, oué comme une

disposition par laquelle les Parties ont créé une limite en vue d’éatteindre
les buts de l’accord d’ordre pratique qu’elles concluaient. Le épréambule,
qui ne fait aucunement référence à cette disposition, n’ééclaire en rien le
choix à opérer entre ces deux interprétations.
12. Selon moi, cette formulation, prise dans son sens ordinaire, ne sau -

rait en elle-même, en l’absence de preuve complémentaire, étéablir l’exis -
tence d’un accord tacite par lequel les Parties auraient fait de cettée ligne
une frontière à vocation générale séparant leurs zones maéritimes respec -
tives. Les accords tacites sur les frontières internationales, qu’éelles soient
terrestres ou maritimes, sont extrêmement rares, pour la simple raisoén
que les Etats, lorsque leur souveraineté territoriale est en jeu, sonét presque

toujours extrêmement jaloux de leurs prérogatives et que, lorsqu’il est
question d’un transfert de souveraineté, ils se montrent normalemeént très
circonspects et prudents. C’est pourquoi la Cour s’est toujours moéntrée
sceptique lorsqu’un Etat cherchait à se prévaloir de l’existéence d’un
accord tacite établissant une frontière maritime à sa convenancée. Ainsi,

dans une affaire récente relative à un différend terrestre éet maritime, elle a
rejeté les prétentions de l’une des Parties quant à l’exiéstence d’un accord
tacite dans les termes suivants :

«[l]es éléments de preuve attestant l’existence d’un accord tacite d[e -
vaient] être convaincants. L’établissement d’une frontière maritime
permanente est une question de grande importance, et un accord ne
doit pas être présumé facilement. » (Différend territorial et maritime

(Nicaragua c. Colombie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (II), p. 705,
par. 219, citant Différend territorial et maritime entre le Nicaragua et
le Honduras dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Honduras), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II), p. 735, par. 253 ; les italiques sont de moi.)

A mon avis, ce critère rigoureux n’a pas été respecté en éla présente affaire.
13. Lorsque, comme dans le cas présent, une disposition d’un traitéé
reste ambiguë ou obscure en dépit de tentatives pour l’interprééter « de
bonne foi suivant le sens ordinaire à attribuer aux termes du traitéé dans

leur contexte et à la lumière de son objet et de son but » (convention de
Vienne sur le droit des traités, art. 31, par. 1), la démarche normale
consiste à faire appel « à des moyens complémentaires d’interprétation, et
notamment aux travaux préparatoires et aux circonstances dans lesquelles
le traité a été conclu » (ibid., art. 32).

14. L’examen des travaux préparatoires de l’accord de 1954 montre
que la formulation définitive de la partie pertinente de son articlée premier,
sur laquelle la Cour s’est appuyée dans son arrêt pour établéir l’existence
d’un accord tacite sur une frontière maritime, a été adoptéée dans des
conditions confuses, ce qui me porte à conclure que l’arrêt repose sur des
constatations factuelles peu fiables.

15. L’accord de 1954 portant création d’une «zone de tolérance» trouve
son origine dans une proposition soumise conjointement par les délééga -

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at the Permanent Commission of the Conference on the Exploitation and
Conservation of the Maritime Resources of the South Pacific (hereinaféter

“CPPS”) on 8 October 1954. It is entitled the “Recommendation for the
Establishment of a Neutral Zone for Fishing in the Maritime Frontier of
the Neighbouring States” of the Santiago Conference. As originally pro -
posed, the aim of this paper was stated as “[t]he creation of a neutral zone
at a distance of 12 nautical miles from the coast, extending to a breadth

of ten nautical miles on either side of the parallel which passes through
the point of the coast that signals the boundary between the two countri▯es”
(emphasis added). This recommendation was adopted by the CPPS and
later became the 1954 Agreement. This initial language explaining the
goal of the 1954 Agreement gives no indication whatsoever for the exis -
tence of a tacit agreement establishing a maritime boundary. Rather, it é

refers to “the parallel which passes through the point of the coast that
signals the boundary between the two countries” (Judgment, para. 73 ;
emphasis added), suggesting that what the drafters were indicating was é
the land boundary between the countries concerned.
16. The case file before the Court submitted by the Parties does not

contain any other document indicating that any changes had been made
to this language subsequently, until two months later when this resolution
adopted by the CPPS was presented as a draft for agreement to the
1954 Conference on 3 December 1954. At this Conference, the Ecuador -
ian delegate proposed that “the concept already declared in Santiago éthat

the parallel starting at the boundary point on the coast constitutes theé
maritime boundary between the neighbouring signatory countries, [be]
incorporated into this article”, together with the change of the titlée of the
agreement from “Establishment of a Neutral Fishing and Hunting Zone”é
to “Special Maritime Frontier Zone”. Article 1 was thus “amended”,
apparently without any discussion, to its present wording, incorporating

the phrase “the parallel which constitutes the maritime boundary between
the two countries” (ibid.). Thus, the travaux of the Conference would
seem to indicate that the language of Article 1 of the 1954 Agreement,
relied upon by the Judgment to prove the existence of a tacit agreement,é
was to my mind drafted reflecting the perception of the delegate of

Ecuador that what he was proposing was no more than what had already
been “declared in Santiago” in 1952.
17. As the Judgment has concluded — correctly, in my view — that the
1952 Santiago Declaration in fact had not declared that the parallel start -
ing at the boundary point on the coast constituted a maritime boundary,

it seems reasonable to assume that what the Ecuadorian delegate was
referring to in fact was the “principle of delimitation of waters regarding
the islands”, enshrined in Article 4 of the 1952 Santiago Declaration. Be
that as it may, regardless of the thinking of the Ecuadorian delegate, the
Judgment takes a position that no maritime boundary agreements had
been reached in Santiago in 1952, other than those relating to islands. é

The travaux of the 1954 Agreement thus demonstrate that the language of
Article 1 of the 1954 Agreement does not seem to endorse the reasoning

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tions de l’Equateur et du Pérou à la commission permanente de léa confé-
rence sur l’exploitation et la conservation des ressources maritimes édu

Pacifique Sud (ci-après la « CPPS») le 8 octobre 1954. Cette proposition
était intitulée « Recommandation en vue de l’établissement d’une zone
neutre pour la pêche dans la zone frontalière maritime des Etats véoisins»
représentés à la conférence de Santiago. Selon sa version initiale, la propo -
sition avait pour objet « d’établir une zone neutre à une distance de

12 milles marins de la côte, avec une largeur de 10 milles marins de part et
d’autre du parallèle passant par le point de la côte qui marque la frontière
entre les deux pays» (les italiques sont de moi). La CPPS a approuvé cette
recommandation, qui a abouti plus tard à la conclusion de l’accord de
1954. La formule citée plus haut, initialement employée pour définir le but
de l’accord de 1954, ne dit absolument rien de l’existence d’un accord

tacite établissant une frontière maritime. Il fait référenceé au p«arallèle pas -
sant par le point sur la côte qui marque la frontière entre les deux pays »
(arrêt, par. 73 ; les italiques sont de moi), ce qui donne à penser que les
rédacteurs avaient à l’esprit la frontière terrestre entre les deux Etats.
16. Les pièces que les Parties ont versées au dossier de l’affairée ne

contiennent aucun autre document qui indiquerait que ce libellé a éété
modifié avant que la résolution de la CPPS où il figurait née soit soumise
à la conférence de 1954 deux mois plus tard, le 3 décembre 1954, sous la
forme d’un projet d’accord. Lors de cette conférence, le représentant de
l’Equateur a proposé « que soit reprise dans cet article la formule figurant

déjà dans la déclaration de Santiago selon laquelle le parallèéle partant du
point d’aboutissement de la frontière sur la côte constitue la frontière
maritime entre les pays voisins signataires », et a proposé également, pour
le titre de l’accord, de remplacer « zone neutre de pêche et de chasse » par
«zone frontière maritime spéciale ». L’article premier a donc fait l’objet
d’un «amendement», adopté apparemment sans débat, qui a consisté à y

faire figurer la formule «parallèle qui constitue la frontière maritime entre
les deux pays » (ibid.). Les travaux de la conférence sembleraient donc
indiquer que le libellé de l’article premier de l’accord de 195é4, sur lequel
la Cour s’appuie dans son arrêt pour prouver l’existence d’un accord
tacite, ait été proposé par le représentant de l’Equateuré dans l’idée qu’il

ne faisait rien d’autre que reprendre une formule figurant déjàé « dans la
déclaration de Santiago » de 1952.
17. La Cour ayant conclu dans son arrêt — et elle a à mon avis eu rai -
son de le faire — qu’en fait la déclaration de Santiago ne disait pas que le
parallèle qui partait du point marquant la frontière sur la côtée constituait

une frontière maritime, il semble raisonnable de supposer que le repréésen -
tant de l’Equateur faisait en réalité référence au « principe de délimitation
des eaux entourant les îles » énoncé à l’article 4 de la déclaration de San -
tiago de 1952. Quoi qu’il en soit, et abstraction faite de ce que le représéen -
tant de l’Equateur pouvait avoir à l’esprit, la Cour a considééré qu’aucun
accord frontalier n’avait été conclu à Santiago en 1952, sauf pour les îles.

Les travaux préparatoires de l’accord de 1954 montrent donc que la for -
mulation de l’article premier de celui-ci ne semble pas valider le raéisonne-

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on which the Judgment is based that a tacit agreement had arisen betweené
the Parties during the period between 1952 to 1954. It is possible, thouégh,

that what took place in 1954 may have reflected some perception or con -
fusion in the mind of some delegates at the CPPS conference as to exactléy
what had been “declared in Santiago” in 1952. But such perception éor
confusion has been dispelled and clarified by the Judgment.
18. The 1968-1969 lighthouse arrangements similarly do not provide

“compelling” evidence of the existence of a tacit agreement establéishing an
all-purpose maritime boundary. As the Judgment itself acknowledges,
what emerges from these arrangements is that the arrangements proceeded
on the premise that a maritime boundary of some sort extending along theé
parallel beyond 12 nautical miles had “already exist[ed]” (Judgment,

para. 99), without any specific language to that effect found in the arrange -
ments concerned. The Judgment, quoting from the opening paragraph of
a document which was signed by the delegates of the Parties to those negéo -
tiations for the purpose of making a number of practical submissions foré
the examination and determination of their respective Governments on

the location of the lighthouses to be constructed, states as follows :
“on 26 April 1968, following communication between the Peruvian

Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Chilean chargé d’affaires earlier
that year, delegates of both Parties signed a document whereby they
undertook the task of carrying out ‘an on-site study for the installa -
tion of leading marks visible from the sea to materialise the parallel
of the maritime frontier originating at Boundary Marker number one

(No. 1)’” (ibid., para. 96 ; emphasis added).
19. Based on this fact, the Judgment concludes that “[a]long with the

1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, the arrangements
acknowledge that [a maritime boundary extending along the parallel
beyond 12 nautical miles already exists]” (ibid., para. 99; emphasis added).
These arrangements are thus no more than a logical follow-up of the
1954 Agreement, and add nothing more (or less) to what the 1954 Agree -

ment prescribes (or does not prescribe) about the nature of the parallel as
a line of maritime demarcation.
20. In my view, for the Judgment to conclude from the language of the
1954 Agreement that the Parties reached a tacit agreement on their mari -
time boundary, it is essential that the Court is able to establish the féollow-

ing two points :
(a) that such agreement between the Parties on a maritime boundary

extending along the parallel beyond 12 nautical miles came to exist
between the Parties at some point in time on the basis of some legal
acts or omissions of the Parties subsequent to the 1952 Santiago Dec -
laration, but prior to the 1954 Agreement; and
(b) that the agreement on this maritime boundary is of such a nature as

would amount to the definitive and all-purpose boundary constituting
the lateral maritime border between the two neighbouring States of

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ment dont procède l’arrêt, selon lequel un accord tacite étaéit intervenu

entre les Parties entre 1952 et 1954. Il est toutefois possible que ce qui s’est
passé en 1954 ait été influencé par l’idée plus ou moins confuseé que cer -
tains représentants à la conférence de la CPPS se faisaient de éce qui avait
effectivement été « décidé à Santiago » en 1952. Or, confuses ou non, ces
idées ont été écartées dans l’arrêt au profit d’éune conception plus nette.

18. Les arrangements de 1968-1969 relatifs à la construction de phares
ne fournissent pas non plus la preuve « convaincante» de l’existence entre
les Parties d’un accord tacite établissant une frontière maritime à voca -
tion générale. Ce que la Cour en a retenu, c’est qu’ils éétaient fondés sur la

«préexistence» d’une frontière maritime suivant le parallèle au-delà dée
12 milles marins (arrêt, par. 99), même s’ils ne renfermaient aucune dispo -
sition à cet effet. La Cour cite dans son arrêt le premier paragéraphe d’un
document signé par les représentants des Parties aux négociations rela -
tives à la construction de phares, document qui renfermait un certainé

nombre de propositions pratiques à soumettre à l’approbation deés deux
gouvernements relativement à l’emplacement des phares ; le passage perti -
nent se lit comme suit :

«le 26 avril 1968, à l’issue d’échanges intervenus plus tôt la méême
année entre le ministère péruvien des relations extérieures et le chargé
d’affaires chilien, les représentants des deux Parties ont signé un docu -

ment par lequel ils s’engageaient à effectuer «une étude de site en vue
de l’installation de marques d’alignement visibles depuis la mer pour
matérialiser le parallèle constituant la frontière maritime à partir de la
borne numéro un (n o 1) » » (ibid., par. 96; les italiques sont de moi).

19. Se fondant sur cet élément factuel, la Cour conclut dans son arrêét
que, «[à] l’instar de l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime
spéciale, [les arrangements] confirment l’existence d’une … frontière mari -

time [suivant le parallèle au-delà de 12 milles marins]» (ibid., par. 99; les
italiques sont de moi). Ces arrangements ne sont donc rien d’autre qéu’un
prolongement logique de l’accord de 1954, et ils ne changent rien à ce qui
y est dit (ou n’y est pas dit) quant à la qualification du paréallèle en tant
que ligne de démarcation maritime.

20. Pour pouvoir conclure, en se fondant sur la formulation de l’ac -
cord de 1954, que les Parties s’étaient tacitement accordées sur leur féron-
tière maritime, il était essentiel que la Cour parvienne à éétablir les deux
points ci-après :

a) que cet accord entre les Parties sur l’existence d’une frontièrée maritime
suivant le parallèle au-delà de 12 milles marins est intervenu à un cer -

tain moment par l’effet juridique d’actes ou omissions de leur péart,
postérieurs à la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 mais antérieurs à la
conclusion de l’accord de 1954 ; et
b) que l’accord sur cette frontière maritime est d’une nature tellée qu’il
revient à fixer la frontière permanente, à vocation généérale, délimitant

latéralement les espaces maritimes respectifs des deux Etats voisins éque

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Peru and Chile for the purposes of the delimitation of their respective
maritime zone entitlements (Judgment, para. 14; Final Submissions

of Chile (b) (ii) and Final Submissions of Peru (1)).
21. It is my submission that the Judgment has not succeeded in estab -

lishing these two points.

II. Where Does this Maritimée Boundary Line Terminaét? e

22. The next question is the length to which this alleged maritime
boundary line extends. This issue is inseparably linked with the first ques-
tion. If the Parties, for whatever reason and under whatever circum -
stances, had come to accept the parallel of latitude as the definitiveé

maritime boundary line for all purposes, as the Judgment assumes it to
be on the basis of the 1954 Agreement and the 1968-1969 lighthouse
arrangements, then there should be no reason to think that this line
should terminate at a distance of 80 nautical miles from the starting-point.
It could instead extend to the maximum of 200 nautical miles.

23. In this respect, a frequent reference is made in the Judgment to the
fact that under the 1954 Agreement, whose purpose was specific and
limited, such a line (or the acknowledgment of it) would not have beené
required beyond the distance of 80 nautical miles, because the maximum
limit of the fisheries activities of Peru and Chile in those days did not go

further than 80 nautical miles, as demonstrated by the statistics supplied
by the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO).

24. It is accepted that the real situation on the ground (or rather on the é
sea!) obtaining at the time of the 1954 Agreement and the 1968-1969

lighthouse arrangements at the relevant period — i.e., the period between
the 1950s and 1970s — was as described in the Judgment. But “the real
situation on the ground” relating to fishing activities should haveé no rele-
vance to the consideration of this issue by the Judgment, if the reasoning
of the Judgment were that a tacit agreement had come to exist as an

all-purpose maritime boundary along the parallel of latitude. If the
boundary which the Parties are supposed to have acknowledged were
indeed an all-purpose one, it would be extremely difficult to argue that its
length be limited by relying upon the evidence relating to fishing actéivities
and to justify this conclusion that the boundary line along the parallel of

latitude should stop at a distance of 80 nautical miles. As the Judgment
quite rightly acknowledges, “the all-purpose nature of the maritime
boundary . . . means that evidence concerning fisheries activity, in itself,
cannot be determinative of the extent of that boundary” (Judgment,
para. 111). Logically there should be no reason why the line should stop
at 80 nautical miles, rather than extending to the 200-nautical-mile limit,

as each of the Parties claimed in the Santiago Declaration.

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sont le Pérou et le Chili (arrêt, par. 14; conclusions finales du Chili,
point b) ii), et conclusions finales du Pérou, point 1).

21. Je considère que, dans son arrêt, la Cour n’est pas parvenue àé éta-

blir ces deux points.

II. Jusqu’où cette frontiéère maritime se poursuéit-ell?e

22. La deuxième question importante est de savoir quelle est la lon -
gueur de cette prétendue frontière maritime. Cette question est inédisso -
ciable de la première. Si les Parties, pour telle ou telle raison ou dans
telles ou telles circonstances, en étaient venues à admettre que lée parallèle

constituait leur frontière maritime permanente, à vocation généérale,
comme la Cour le suppose dans son arrêt en se fondant sur l’accordé
de 1954 et les arrangements de 1968-1969 relatifs à la construction de
phares, il n’y aurait aucune raison de considérer que cette ligne édoive
s’arrêter à 80 milles marins de son point de départ. Elle pourrait fort bien
se poursuivre jusqu’à la distance maximale de 200 milles marins.

23. A cet égard, l’arrêt fait fréquemment référence au faiét que l’accord
de 1954 ayant un objet précis et limité, point n’était besoin péour sa mise
en œuvre que cette ligne (ou la reconnaissance de celle-ci) s’éétende au-delà
de 80 milles marins mesurés depuis son point d’origine, la raison en éétant
qu’à l’époque les activités halieutiques du Pérou et déu Chili ne s’exer -

çaient pas au-delà de 80 milles marins, comme le montraient les statis -
tiques établies par l’Organisation des Nations Unies pour l’alimentation
et l’agriculture (FAO).
24. Je conviens que l’arrêt décrit correctement la situation qui réégnait
sur le terrain (ou plutôt en mer !) à l’époque de la conclusion de l’accord

de 1954 et des arrangements de 1968-1969 relatifs à la construction de
phares, et plus généralement durant la période comprise entre lées
années 1950 et 1970. Cependant, la Cour n’avait pas à tenir compte des
réalités de la «situation sur place» concernant la pêche si le raisonnement
suivi par elle était qu’un accord tacite était intervenu entre éles Parties sur

une frontière maritime à vocation générale suivant le parallèle de latitude.
Si l’on admet que la frontière que les Parties sont supposées aévoir recon -
nue est une frontière à vocation générale, il devient extrêémement difficile
de prétendre que sa longueur doit être déterminée en fonctioén d’éléments
de preuve concernant la pêche, et de justifier la conclusion selon élaquelle

la ligne frontière suivant le parallèle ne doit pas se prolonger au-delà de
80 milles marins. Comme la Cour l’a très justement admis, « étant donné
la vocation générale de la frontière maritime …, les éléments de preuve
relatifs aux activités halieutiques ne sauraient, en eux-mêmes, êétre décisifs
en ce qui concerne l’étendue de cette frontière » (arrêt, par. 111). En toute
logique, il n’y a aucune raison pour que la ligne s’arrête àé 80milles marins

au lieu de se poursuivre jusqu’à la limite des 200 milles marins revendi -
quée par l’une et l’autre des Parties dans la déclaration deé Santiago.

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25. If we start, on the contrary, from the premise that this boundary
line should stop at some point less than 200 nautical miles for the reason

that the real situation on the ground relating to the actual fishing activi -
ties obtaining in the sea area extended only to a certain point, then thée
rationale for relying upon that distance has to be based on the legal
nature of the line not as a line of a permanent delimitation of the marié -
time boundary for all purposes, but as a line of a maritime zone for theé

specific purposes of creating the regulatory régime for fisheries in line
with the specific purposes of the 1954 Agreement and of the 1968-1969
lighthouse arrangements.
It seems to me that the Judgment in the present case cannot escape this é
dilemma created by its own reasoning, as long as the Judgment is based

on the presumed (but not proven) existence of a tacit agreement on the
permanent maritime boundary.
26. Instead of basing its reasoning for the existence of a line of demar -
cation on the acknowledgment of tacit agreement on a maritime bound -
ary of an all-purpose nature, the Judgment should base itself on a slightly

modified legal reasoning along the following lines :

(1) The Court should reject, as the present Judgment does, the contention
of the Respondent that the 1952 Santiago Declaration constitutes an
agreement on the part of the Parties thereto to recognize and accept
a maritime boundary line, following a parallel of latitude drawn from
the point of the intersection of the existing land boundary between

the States concerned with the low-water line of the sea.
(2) The practice of the States involved in the field of exercising nationaél
jurisdiction in the sea, in particular, relating to the fishing activiéties
of Chile and Peru in the region, which gradually emerged in the years
through the Santiago Declaration and beyond, as reflected in the pro -

cesses of creating a special “Zone of Tolerance” in 1954 and of esétab -
lishing lighthouses in 1968-1969, demonstrates the gradual emergence
of a tacit understanding among the Parties to accept some jurisdic -
tional delimitation of the area of national competence in the sea along é
the line of latitude, especially for the purposes of the regulation of

fisheries. This acceptance of the zoning of the maritime areas would
appear to have developed de facto specifically in the lateral direction
(along the coasts) to enclose sea areas belonging to each of the Partiées
for the purposes of fishing activities, which in those days were pri -
marily focused on the fishing resources within the coastal waters

(especially anchovy fishing). Those fishing activities were rapidléy
growing during this period in the waters within the distance of roughly é
50 nautical miles off the coasts of Peru and Chile. This development
of tacit acceptance took place, in addition to the Parties’ explicit é
acceptance, achieved by the 1952 Santiago Declaration, of the exten -

sion of maritime zones in the horizontal (seaward) direction extendingé
to 200 nautical miles for the joint defence of the natural resources of

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25. Si, cependant, on considère au départ que la ligne frontière doéit
s’arrêter à moins de 200 milles marins en raison des réalités sur place, à

savoir que les activités halieutiques exercées dans la zone maritiéme consi-
dérée ne s’exerçaient pas au-delà d’une certaine distaénce, la longueur de la
ligne doit être déterminée en fonction de la nature juridique dée celle-ci,
qui est celle non pas d’une ligne délimitant définitivement uéne frontière
maritime à vocation générale, mais d’une ligne délimitanté une zone mari -

time aux fins bien précises de l’application du régime de rééglementation
des pêcheries dans les buts expressément définis par l’accéord de 1954 et les
arrangements de 1968-1969 relatifs aux phares.
Il me semble que la Cour n’a pas pu éviter le dilemme créé péar son
propre raisonnement, qui fonde l’arrêt sur l’existence présuémée (et non

prouvée) d’un accord tacite entre les Parties sur leur frontièére maritime
permanente.
26. Au lieu de faire reposer son raisonnement concernant l’existence
d’une ligne de démarcation sur la reconnaissance d’un accord taécite éta -
blissant une frontière maritime à vocation générale, la Couré aurait dû, à

mon sens, suivre une démarche juridique légèrement différente, que je me
permets d’esquisser ci-après :

1) La Cour devait d’abord, et elle l’a fait, rejeter la prétentioné du défen -
deur selon laquelle la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 constitue un
accord par lequel les Parties à cet instrument ont reconnu et acceptéé
une ligne frontière maritime suivant un parallèle à partir du péoint d’in -
tersection de la frontière terrestre existante des Etats concernésé avec la

laisse de basse mer.
2) Il lui fallait ensuite considérer la pratique suivie par les Etats en litige
dans l’exercice de leur juridiction nationale sur des zones maritimes,
en particulier dans le cadre de leurs activités halieutiques dans la
région, qui se sont développées progressivement au fil des anés après

l’adoption de la déclaration de Santiago, comme le montrent la crééa -
tion d’une «zone de tolérance» pour les navires de pêche en 1954 et la
construction de phares en 1968-1969, et constater qu’une entente tacite
s’était peu à peu établie entre elles sur la délimitationé partielle des zones
maritimes relevant de leur juridiction nationale selon une ligne coïnéci -

dant avec un parallèle, aux fins en particulier de la réglementaétion des
pêcheries. Cette acceptation de la délimitation de zones maritimesé
semble être intervenue de facto en ce qui concerne l’étendue latérale
(parallèlement à la côte) de ces zones, chacune des Parties céirconscri -
vant le secteur qu’elle estimait lui appartenir aux fins de ses actéivités

halieutiques, qui à l’époque s’exerçaient essentiellementé dans les eaux
côtières (particulièrement pour la pêche aux anchois). Cesé activités
halieutiques, durant la période considérée, se sont rapidement éétendues
jusqu’à une distance d’environ 50 milles marins des côtes du Pérou et
du Chili. Cette acceptation tacite s’est progressivement établie eéntre les

Parties après qu’elles se furent expressément entendues, par laé décla -
ration de Santiago de 1952, pour fixer la limite vers le large de leurs

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fisheries against the foreign ocean going fishing fleets engaged in deep
water fishing off their coasts (e.g., whaling and tuna fishing).é This

practical need to enclose coastal fishing areas off the coasts of Peéru
and Chile, developed through the years after the 1952 Santiago Dec-
laration, led the Parties to come to a series of related agreements
adopted in the 1954 Conference in implementation of the Santiago
Declaration.

The process of this tacit acceptance through State practice in the
regulatory régime, primarily for the regulation of fishing activitiées
through enclosing the sea areas for the respective Parties, came to
develop apparently without taking the form of an agreement, tacit or
express, between the Parties. This tacit acceptance came to be reflected

in the form of a de facto delimitation of the lateral maritime boundary
along the coasts of the neighbouring States of Peru and Chile, pri -
marily to deal with the practical need for regulating coastal fishing é
activities of the area, along the line of parallel of latitude.
(3) As this has been a process of tacit acceptance that came to emerge in

the form of a gradual development through the practice of the States
concerned, without involving any formal act of effecting an agree -
ment, tacit or express, through the years of the 1950s to 1970s, it is
not possible nor necessary in my view to pinpoint when and how this
tacit acceptance crystallized into a normative rule that the Parties

came to recognize as constituting the legal delimitation of their
respective zones of maritime entitlement in the coastal areas close to
both countries, nor to define in precise terms how far this legal deliémi-
tation extended. It would seem safe to state, however, that such a
normative rule did indeed develop, especially in relation to the regu -
lation of fisheries, during the period between the 1950s and 1970s.

(4) The 1954 Agreement on the Special Zone of Protection thus cannot
be considered as an agreement which de novo created a new maritime
zone boundary on the basis of a parallel of latitude to delimit the
lateral boundary between the States involved. It was not the fons et
origo of the new maritime title based on the parallel of latitude and

as such not constitutive of a new title to the States concerned. In thisé
sense the position taken by the Judgment in my view is justified.

(5) Nor in my view was the 1954 Agreement declaratory, conferring as

such the maritime titles of the respective States created by an already é
existing (but not identified or identifiable) agreement, which theé Judg -
ment declares to have been acknowledged by the parties in the
1954 Agreement. The parties in the 1954Agreement accepted this line
as a maritime boundary line primarily for the practical purpose of
regulating conflicts between fishermen of the region and the States

enforcing fisheries laws in their respective jurisdictions, which had éthe
practical purpose of clarifying the lateral extent of the limits of their

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5 CIJ1057.indb 188 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (opé. ind. owada) 95

zones maritimes respectives à 200milles marins, dans le but de défendre
en commun leurs ressources halieutiques contre les flottes hauturières

étrangères opérant au large (pour la chasse à la baleine oué la pêche au
thon, par exemple). Cette nécessité pratique de définir leurés zones res-
pectives de pêche côtière, pêche qui s’était déveloéppée après l’adoption
de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952, a amené le Pérou et le Chili à
conclure lors de la conférence de 1954 une série d’accords interdépen -

dants donnant effet à cette déclaration.
Cette acceptation tacite s’est dégagée de la pratique régleméentaire des
deux Etats qui, visant principalement les activités halieutiques, les a
amenés à définir leurs zones maritimes respectives apparemmenét sans
qu’intervienne entre eux un accord implicite ou exprès. Cette acceépta -
tion tacite s’est manifestée par la délimitation, selon un paraéllèle de

latitude, de la frontière latérale des zones maritimes respectivesé du
Pérou et du Chili au large de leurs côtes, pour répondre princiépalement
à la nécessité pratique de réglementer la pêche côtièére.

3) Cette acceptation tacite s’étant dégagée progressivement, deés années 1950

aux années 1970, de la pratique des Etats concernés, sans qu’intervienne
entre eux un accord la consacrant implicitement ou expressément, il mée
paraît inutile, et d’ailleurs impossible, de déterminer exacteméent quand
et comment ladite acceptation s’est cristallisée en une règle aédmise par
les Parties comme définissant juridiquement la limite séparant leurs

zones maritimes respectives à proximité de leurs côtes, et il est également
inutile, si tant est que ce soit possible, de définir préciséément jusqu’où
se poursuit la ligne ainsi définie. Il me semble cependant possibleé d’af -
firmer avec certitude que ladite règle s’est dégagée au coéurs de la période
allant des années 1950 aux années 1970, en particulier pour les besoins
de la réglementation de la pêche.

4) L’accord de 1954 relatif à la zone spéciale de protection ne peut donc
pas être considéré comme créant de novo une nouvelle frontière coïn -
cidant avec un parallèle et délimitant latéralement les zones méaritimes
respectives des Etats concernés. Cet accord ne constitue pas les fons et
origo du nouveau titre de juridiction maritime résultant de la désigna -

tion d’une limite qui coïncidait avec un parallèle, et il ne coénfère donc,
en lui-même, aucun titre nouveau aux Etats en question. Ainsi consi -
dérée, la position que la Cour a adoptée sur ce point dans son éarrêt me
paraît être la bonne.
5) L’accord de 1954 n’a pas non plus, selon moi, le caractère d’un instru -

ment déclaratoire, proclamant les titres sur des espaces maritimes
conférés aux deux Etats par une entente préexistante (mais noné spéci -
fiée faute de pouvoir l’être) que la Cour dit, dans son arrêét, avoir été
reconnue par les parties audit accord. Les parties à l’accord de 1954
ont accepté cette ligne comme constituant une frontière maritime périn -
cipalement pour répondre à la nécessité pratique de mettre béon ordre

aux conflits entre les pêcheurs opérant dans la région et perémettre aux
Etats de faire respecter leur législation en matière de pêche déans les

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respective maritime jurisdiction (specifically on fishing) in the relevant
maritime areas of their respective coasts.

In my view, the 1954 Agreement did not purport to acknowledge an
existing agreement for the maritime zone delimitation that would
have definitively defined the limits of the Parties’ maritime jurisdiction

for all purposes.
(6) The 1954 Agreement nonetheless has had an important legal signifi -
cance in the process of consolidating the legal title based on tacit
acceptance through practice, as that agreement constitutes, to the ex-
tent of its practical application, a significant, or even decisive, eléement
in the process of turning State practice into a normative rule. Together

with the 1968-1969 lighthouse arrangements, the 1954 Agreement
thus formed an important basis for the consolidation of a maritime title
based on tacit acceptance by both Parties through their subsequent
practice in the area during the period following the 1952 Santiago
Conference until the 1970s.

(7) This analysis should be sufficient also for explaining the reason why
there should be a limit for such delimitation line based on the parallelé
of latitude referred to in this Agreement of1954. The tacit acceptance
was based in its origin on State practice at that time and thus had to
be limited to the extent of the actual fishing activities conducted byé

the coastal fishermen of the two States involved. It prompted the
Parties to accept this development as a normative rule, inasmuch as
such tacit acceptance had to be operative with regard to a certain sea
area where fishermen of the States concerned were actually engaged
in fishing.
(8) It is for this reason that the precise distance out to sea to which the é

sea area belonging to the two States was delimited between them has
to be determined primarily in light of the reality of the State practiceé
developed through these years, especially in the field of fishing activ -
ities in the relevant areas, since they formed the legal basis for the
emergence of the tacit acceptance of the delimitation of the maritime

areas. On the basis of this consideration, I come to the conclusion
that a delimitation line along the parallel going beyond 80 nautical
miles would be excessive in consideration of the reality of the fishinég
activities in the region, taking into account the predominant pattern
of fishing activities by Peru and Chile in the relevant period. Accordé -

ing to the opinion expressed in the literature regarding the analysis of
the fishing pattern of those days of the 1950s to 1970s, together with
the oceanographic and biological analysis of the flow of the Hum -
boldt Current and the pattern of the fishing activities focusing pre -
dominantly on anchovy fishing in the area in those days, the reason -
able geographic limit in which such fishing activities could be presuméed

to have been in operation would seem to be within the distance of
50 nautical miles from the respective coasts of Peru and Chile. When

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zones relevant de leur juridiction ; l’acceptation de cette ligne par les
Etats concernés avait concrètement pour but de préciser l’eméplacement

des limites latérales de leur juridiction maritime (en matière deé pêche)
dans les eaux baignant leurs côtes respectives.
A mon avis, les Etats parties à l’accord de 1954 n’entendaient pas
consacrer par celui-ci un accord préexistant sur la délimitation dée leurs
zones maritimes, qui aurait établi définitivement et à tous éégards les

limites de leur juridiction maritime.
6) L’accord de 1954 a néanmoins, juridiquement, joué un rôle important
dans la consolidation du titre juridique que chacune des Parties tenait é
de son acceptation tacite issue de la pratique, cet accord constituant, é
dans les limites de son application pratique, un élément importanté,
voire décisif, de la cristallisation de la pratique des Etats en une érègle

normative. Les arrangements de 1968-1969 relatifs à la construction de
phares et l’accord de 1954 contribuaient à la consolidation du titre de
juridiction maritime que conférait aux Parties l’acceptation tacitée qui
s’était dégagée de leur pratique durant la période allanté de la confé -
rence de Santiago de 1952 aux années 1970.

7) Cette analyse aurait dû suffire à expliquer pourquoi la ligne de édélimi -
tation coïncidant avec un parallèle visée dans l’accord de 1954 ne pou-
vait pas se poursuivre au-delà d’une certaine distance. En effeté, l’ac -
ceptation tacite des deux Etats s’était dégagée de la pratiqéue qu’ils
suivaient à l’époque, et elle ne valait donc que pour l’espace maritime

où opéraient alors leurs navires de pêche côtière respectéifs. Les Parties
en sont venues à tirer une règle normative du développement de éleur
pratique pour autant que leur acceptation tacite ne portait que sur un
espace maritime déterminé, celui où leurs navires de pêche oépéraient
effectivement.
8) C’est pour cette raison que la distance exacte jusqu’à laquelleé se pour -

suivait, vers le large, la limite séparant les zones maritimes appartenant
respectivement aux deux Etats devait être déterminée avant touté en
fonction des réalités de leur pratique dans ces zones telle qu’éelle s’était
développée durant les années considérées, particulièreément de leur pra -
tique en matière de pêche, celle-ci constituant la base juridique éde l’en -

tente tacite qui s’était dégagée entre eux sur la délimitéation de leurs
espaces maritimes. Cette considération m’amène à conclure qué’il eût
été excessif d’attribuer à la ligne de délimitation suivaént le parallèle une
longueur supérieure à 80 milles marins, eu égard aux réalités de la
pêche dans la région, en particulier à ce qu’étaient àé l’époque les acti -

vités halieutiques dominantes du Pérou et du Chili. Selon les auteéurs
qui ont étudié la composition des activités halieutiques dans léa période
allant des années 1950 aux années 1970 et ont analysé les caractéris -
tiques océanographiques et biologiques du courant de Humboldt,
constatant que la pêche aux anchois était celle qui était alorsé le plus
largement pratiquée dans le secteur considéré, on peut raisonnaéble -

ment supposer que les navires de pêche n’opéraient pas à plués de
50 milles marins des côtes du Pérou et du Chili. La longueur du segment

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the distance from the coast is translated into the length of the line of

parallel of latitude, this line corresponds roughly to 80 nautical miles
from the point where the land boundary between Peru and Chile
meets the sea (cf. Judgment, paras. 103-111).

27. I am therefore prepared to accept the figure of 80 nautical miles as
the length of the parallel line to be drawn from the starting-point where
the land boundary between the two countries reaches the sea as most
faithfully reflecting the reality of State practice as primarily refléected in

the fishing activities of the region in those days, when the parallel éline of
demarcation came to form a normative rule. On this reasoning, I find iét
difficult to accept the position that this line should extend to 100 nautical
miles.

28. On this basis of analysis, the argument based on the consideration
of equitable allocation of the entire sea area in dispute between the twéo
contending States should have no place in our consideration of the prob -
lem of how far this line of parallel of latitude should extend. As this éline

dividing the jurisdictional waters of the two Parties along the parallelé is
based on the tacit acceptance of the Parties, and thus to be regarded asé
the line of delimitation by agreement of the Parties and as such lying
beyond the scope of the general principle of equitable allocation as enuén -

ciated by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Arts. 74
and 83), the consideration of equitable principles in relation to this parté
of the area in question is irrelevant and should play no role in the Couért’s
consideration of the issue as far as the maritime delimitation of this péart
of the maritime area in dispute between the parties is concerned. Such aén

approach cannot be justified as offering any legal justification oén which
the present Judgment should proceed in arriving at its conclusion.

(Signed) Hisashi Owada.

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de la frontière coïncidant avec le parallèle, induite de cette distance

mesurée à partir des côtes, s’établit à environ 80 milles marins mesurés
depuis le point où la frontière terrestre entre le Pérou et le éChili aboutit
à la mer (voir arrêt, par. 103-111).

27. J’ai donc admis que le chiffre de 80 milles marins soit retenu pour
fixer la longueur du segment de frontière coïncidant avec le parallèle qui
devait être tracé à partir du point où la frontière terreéstre entre les deux
Etats aboutit à la mer ; j’ai en effet considéré que ce chiffre était celui quié

reflétait le plus fidèlement les réalités de la pratiqueé des deux Etats, réalité
qui était principalement celle des activités halieutiques exercéées dans la
région à l’époque où la ligne de démarcation suivant le parallèle a acquis
son caractère normatif. Il me semble que, en suivant le raisonnement éque
je viens d’exposer, il aurait été difficile de prétendre quée ladite ligne se

poursuivait, par exemple, jusqu’à une distance de 100 milles marins.
28. Il découle de l’analyse que je viens d’esquisser que la Cour n’éavait
pas à tenir compte d’arguments faisant valoir la nécessité dée répartir équi -
tablement entre les deux Etats en litige la totalité de l’espace méaritime
contesté lorsqu’elle a examiné la question de savoir jusqu’où la ligne coïn -

cidant avec le parallèle devait se poursuivre. En effet, cette lignée séparant
les eaux relevant de la juridiction de chacune des Parties, ayant étéé tacite -
ment acceptée par elles, devait être considérée comme la ligéne de délimi -
tation dont elles étaient convenues et comme ne relevant pas, en tanté que

telle, du champ d’application du principe de répartition équitaéble énoncé
dans la convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer (art. 74 et 83);
ce principe était dénué de pertinence pour ce qui concerne la partie de
l’espace maritime contesté devant être délimitée par cettée ligne, et la Cour
aurait été bien en peine de justifier juridiquement des conclusiéons à son

sujet tenant compte dudit principe.

(Signé) Hisashi Owada.

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Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Owada

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