Declaration of President Tomka

Document Number
137-20140127-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
137-20140127-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

74

DECLARATION OF PRESIDENT TOMKA

The single maritime boundary between the Parties starts at the intersect▯ion of
the parallel of latitude passing through Boundary Marker No. 1 with the low­water
line, and follows that parallel of latitude — Such boundary did not stop at a
distance of 80 nautical miles — The 1954 Agreement relating to a Special

Maritime Frontier Zone unquestionably recognizes the existence of a mari▯time
boundary between the Parties along that parallel, without establishing i▯t — Rather,
the boundary was intended to extend to a distance corresponding to the m▯aritime
zones claimed by the Parties at the time, that is to say, at least 200 nautical
miles — The Court’s Judgment will have the effect of closing the zone of tol▯erance
established by the 1954 Agreement at a distance of just 80 nautical miles from the
coast, which seems to run counter to the intention of the Parties — The Parties

specified the eastern, southern and northern limits of this zone of tole▯rance, without
fixing its western limit — The negotiating history of the 1952 Santiago Declaration
and domestic acts by which the Parties formulated their maritime claims ▯support
the view that the boundary extended to 200 nautical miles — The travaux
préparatoires surrounding the Lima Conference of 1954, and the resulting texts,
further support this construction and must be taken into account when in▯terpreting
the Santiago Declaration — Paragraph IV of the Santiago Declaration did not

effect a general maritime delimitation of the Parties’ respective mar▯itime zones —
The Santiago Declaration assumes that the delimitation had been settled by way of
a general maritime boundary along the parallel, thereby serving as evide▯nce of the
Parties’ recognition of a settlement but not as its legal source — Some of the
evidence referred to by the Court, particularly that pertaining to the Humboldt
Current, points to a distance much longer than 80 nautical miles — Disagreement
with the insufficient extent of the agreed maritime boundary on the para▯llel in the

Court’s decision, rather than the methodology the Court employed in d▯rawing the
continuation of the boundary — The Court need not rule on Peru’s submission
regarding the “outer triangle”, as a result of the way in which th▯e Court has drawn
the maritime boundary — Peru has an entitlement to an exclusive economic zone
and continental shelf in the outer triangle area.

1. To my regret, I have not been able to support two of the conclusions
reached by the Court in this case. While concurring with the findings éthat
the starting-point of the single maritime boundary delimiting the respec -

tive maritime areas between the Republic of Peru and the Republic of
Chile is the intersection of the parallel of latitude passing through Boéund -
ary Marker No. 1 with the low-water line, and that the single maritime
boundary follows that parallel of latitude, I parted company with my tené

colleagues when they decided that such agreed boundary stops at a dis -
tance of 80 nautical miles from the starting-point at the coast. Conse -
quently, I was not able to support the Court’s position on the drawing of

the maritime boundary from that point de novo. This declaration thus
constitutes a partly concurring and partly dissenting opinion.

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2. In the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, the Parties
acknowledged the existence of the maritime boundary between them

(United Nations Treaty Series (UNTS), Vol. 2274, p. 527). The text of
Article 1 of that Agreement leaves no doubt on this point when it states
that “[a] special zone is hereby established, at a distance of 12 nautical
miles from the coast, extending to a breadth of 10 nautical miles on either
side of the parallel which constitutes the maritime boundary between the two

countries” (emphasis added). As the Court concluded, “[t]he 1954 Agree -
ment is decisive in this respect” (Judgment, para. 91).
The 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement does not establish
the maritime boundary but recognizes its existence. I do not consider asé
relevant the practice of the Parties under that Agreement in determining
the extent of that maritime boundary. Boundaries are not established just

for fishermen conducting their activities from small boats. Boundariesé
serve more general purposes. Rather, in my view, the maritime boundary
between Peru and Chile extends to a distance corresponding to that whiché
the Parties have been maintaining in their claims to exclusive sovereignéty
and jurisdiction over the sea and sea-bed along the coasts of their respective

mainland territories.
3. In its Judgment, the Court has determined, by specifying the west -
ernmost point on the parallel, which according to it, constitutes the end -
point of the agreed maritime boundary, the western limit of the special é
maritime zone, while the Parties in their 1954 Agreement refrained from

setting such a limit. By contrast, they specified the eastern limit ofé the
special maritime zone (at a distance of 12 nautical miles from the coast),
the northern and southern limits (at 10 nautical miles from the parallel),
leaving the zone open on its western side. In my view, this deliberate
choice by the Parties can only lead to the conclusion that the special méari-
time zone was meant to extend seaward along the parallel up until the

limit of the Parties’ maritime entitlements, for a distance which alséo cor -
responded to their claimed maritime zones at that time. By its Judgment,é
the Court closes the special maritime zone at a distance of just 80 nautical
miles from the coast.
In my view, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that the agreed é

maritime boundary extends only to 80 nautical miles. The evidence rather
points to a different conclusion.
4. The fundamental issue is whether an agreement concluded for a par -
ticular purpose, namely the Agreement establishing a special maritime
zone, that is to say, a zone of tolerance for small fishing vessels wiéth insuf

ficient navigation equipment, could have implicitly determined the outéer
limit of the pre-existing maritime boundary at a distance of 80 nautical
miles when the Parties openly and publicly claimed maritime zones
extending at least to 200 nautical miles. Such an interpretation seems to
run counter to the intention of the Parties when the evidence is apprecié -
ated as a whole.

5. It is now common ground between the Parties that the Santiago
Declaration (hereinafter “Declaration”) is a treaty (UNTS, Vol. 1006,

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p. 323). The Declaration was adopted because the Governments of Chile,
Peru and Ecuador were “determined to conserve and safeguard for their

respective peoples the natural resources of the maritime zones adjacent éto
their coasts” as “the former extension of the territorial sea and the con -
tiguous zone [were] inadequate for the purposes of the conservation,
development and exploitation of these resources” (paragraph I of the
Declaration). Therefore, the three Governments proclaimed “as a normé

of their international maritime policy that they each possess exclusive é
sovereignty and jurisdiction over the sea along the coasts of their respéec -
tive countries to a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles from these
coasts” (paragraph II of the Declaration). As further specified in that
instrument, “[t]he exclusive jurisdiction and sovereignty over this mari -
time zone shall also encompass exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction

over the seabed and the subsoil thereof” (paragraph III of the Declara -
tion). By adopting these two provisions, the three States laid their cléaim
to 200-nautical-mile territorial seas as they claimed therein not only juris -
diction but also sovereignty. These claims were certainly “novel” éand it
took almost three decades for international law to develop and recognizeé

200-nautical-mile jurisdictional rights for the coastal State in the form of
the exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf. As for sovereigntéy,
the present-day law of the sea allows the coastal State to exercise it only
up to 12 nautical miles from its coast ; that distance represents the outer
limit of the territorial sea.

6. Although at the moment of its adoption, the Declaration was not in
conformity with general international law of that epoch, and still remaiéns
so in relation to extant general international law as regards the claim éto
sovereignty up to 200 nautical miles from the coast, this does not mean
that the Declaration has been void ab initio. It has produced legal effects
between the Parties to it.

7. According to Chile, it is paragraph IV of the Declaration which is
relevant for the establishment of the maritime boundary between the two é
Parties. This provision reads as follows :

“In the case of island territories, the zone of 200 nautical miles shall
apply to the entire coast of the island or group of islands. If an islanéd
or group of islands belonging to one of the countries making the
declaration is situated less than 200 nautical miles from the general

maritime zone belonging to another of those countries, the maritime
zone of the island or group of islands shall be limited by the parallel ▯at
the point at which the land frontier of the States concerned reaches the▯
sea.” (Emphasis added.)

8. This provision, as its introductory part clearly states, concerns the
delimitation of the maritime zones generated by islands; either the bound -
aries around the islands, or the boundaries in areas where the claims gen -
erated by the islands overlap with the claims generated by the mainland é

coast of another country. It is only in the latter scenario that the conécept
of “the parallel” is referred to.

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1
9. The travaux préparatoires of the Declaration reveal that the origi -
nal draft of this text did not limit an overlapping insular maritime zone
by reference to the parallel ; rather, the insular maritime zone would be

limited, “in the corresponding part, to the distance that separates iét from
the maritime zone of the other State or country”. It was the Ecuadoriéan
delegate, Mr. Fernández, who “observed that it would be advisable to
provide more clarity to Article 3 [which later became paragraph IV], in
order to avoid any error in the interpretation of the interference zone éin

the case of islands”, and suggested “that the declaration be draftéed on the
basis that the boundary line of the jurisdictional zone of each country ébe
the respective parallel from the point at which the frontier of the couné -
tries touches or reaches the sea” (ibid., see footnote 1). All delegates were

in agreement with that proposal (ibid., p. 319).
10. Draft Article 3 also provided that “[t]he zone . . . comprises all
waters within the perimeter formed by the coasts of each country and a
mathematical parallel projected into the sea to 200 nautical miles away

from the mainland, along the coastal fringe” (ibid., p. 318).

11. The text is almost identical to that contained in the Presidential
Declaration of Chile concerning Continental Shelf of 23 June 1947

(Memorial of Peru, Vol. II, Ann. 27). The contemporaneous Peruvian act
contained a similar text. The Supreme Decree No. 781 of 1 August 1947,
in its relevant part, reads as follows :

“[Peru] will exercise the same control and protection on the seas adjéa -
cent to the Peruvian coast over the area covered between the coast
and an imaginary parallel line to it at a distance of two hundred (200)é

nautical miles measured following the line of the geographical paral -
lels” (ibid., Ann. 6, pp. 26-27).

12. The concept of parallels is thus used in both domestic acts by which
Peru and Chile formulated their maritime claims in 1947. It is true thaté
the parallel is used to describe the outer limit of the claimed maritime
zones, following a line which is parallel with the lines of the coast. What

is of interest to note is the Chilean Presidential Declaration’s refeérence to
“the perimeter formed by the coast and the mathematical parallel pro -
jected into the sea at a distance of 200 nautical miles from the coasts of
Chilean territory” (emphasis added).

The word “perimeter” clearly implies that the zone would have limiéts
on all its sides. The word “perimeter” is defined as “the continuous line or
lines forming the boundary of a closed geometrical figure or of any aréea
or surface” 2.

1 Act of the First Session of the Juridical Affairs Commission of the Fiérst Conference
of the Exploitation and Conservation of the Marine Resources of the Soutéh Pacific, held
11 August 1952 (Memorial of Peru, Vol. II, Annex 56, p. 320, agreed revised translation).

2 Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 5th Edition, Vol. 2, 2002, p. 2159 ; in the original
Spanish text of the Declaration the word used is “perímetro”. Similarly, a Spanish language

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Therefore, it seems that when the Parties originally formulated their

maritime claims in a unilateral way, they envisaged that their resulting
maritime zones would have limits, not just on their western side, for thée
determination of which they used a tracé parallèle methodology.

13. It would be, however, a step too far to assert that the 1952 Declara-

tion expressly established the parallel as the boundary between the zoneés of
Chile and Peru, respectively. Paragraph IV of that Declaration is limited
to “the case of island territories”. On the other side, the questiéon can be
asked whether the boundary separating the zone generated by an island
and the zone generated by the mainland coast of another State would con -

tinue once the parallel used for separating them reaches its endpoint, téhe
point where it will be 200 nautical miles from the island. Does it mean that
there would be a boundary solely between the maritime zone generated by
the island and the zone generated by the mainland coast of another Stateé,
but there would not be a boundary separating the two zones generated by

the adjacent mainland coasts of the two neighbouring States ?
14. What happened in the Second Conference on the Exploitation and
Conservation of the Marine Resources of the South Pacific, held in
December 1954, sheds a little bit more light on the issue. During discus -
sions regarding the Complementary Convention to the Declaration of

Sovereignty on the Two-Hundred-Mile Maritime Zone (hereinafter
“Complementary Convention”), the Ecuadorian delegate proposed incélud -
ing an article “clarifying the concept of the dividing line of the juérisdic -
tional sea”. He added that the concept “ha[d] already been expoundéed at
the Conference of Santiago, but which would not be redundant to repeat

herein” (Counter-Memorial of Chile, Vol. II, Ann. 38, p. 341, revised
translation; emphasis added).
15. The Peruvian and Chilean delegates believed that “Article 4 [i.e.,
paragraph IV in the Court’s language] of the Declaration of Santiago
[was] already sufficiently clear and [did] not require a new exposition”

(ibid.).
Since the Ecuadorian delegate insisted that “a declaration to that efféect
should be included in the Convention, because Article 4 of the Declar-
ation of Santiago [was] aimed at establishing the principle of delimitation
of waters regarding the islands”, the President of the Conference askéed

him whether “he would accept, instead of a new article, that a recordé [be]
kept in the minutes” (ibid.).
The minutes further show that

“[t]he delegate of Ecuador state[d] that if the other countries consid -
er[ed] that no explicit record [was] necessary in the Convention, he
agree[d] to record in the minutes that the three countries consider[ed]
the matter on the dividing line of the jurisdictional waters resolved and

dictionary defines “perímetro” as “[el c]ontorno de una superficie”, or as “[el c]ontorno de
una figura” (Diccionario de la Lengua Española, 22nd Edition, 2001, p. 1732).

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that said line [was] the parallel starting at the point at which the land
frontier between both countries reaches the sea” (Counter-Memorial
of Chile, Vol. II, Ann. 38, p. 341 ; emphasis added).

The delegate of Peru expressed “his agreement with doing that, but
clarifie[d] that this agreement was already established in the Conference of

Santiago” (ibid., p. 342 ; emphasis added).
16. On the basis of the above, one can conclude that the Parties agreed
in 1954 to confirm that their 1952 Santiago Declaration was adopted on
the understanding that the parallel starting at the point where their laénd

frontier reaches the sea constituted the line dividing the zones they reéspec -
tively claimed.
17. Moreover, the Complementary Convention expressly states that
“[a]ll the provisions of this Convention shall be deemed to be an intéegral

and complementary part of, and shall not abrogate in any way, the reso -
lutions and agreements adopted at the Conference . . . held at Santiago de
Chile in August 1952”.
18. The 1954 Lima Conference also adopted the Agreement relating
to a Special Maritime Frontier Zone. According to Article 1 of that

instrument, “[a] special zone is hereby established, at a distance ofé 12 naut-
ical miles from the coast, extending to a breadth of 10 nautical miles on
either side of the parallel which constitutes the maritime boundary between
the two countries” 3. Similarly, the Preamble of this Agreement also refer -

ences the existence of the maritime boundary by highlighting that
“[e]xperience has shown that innocent and inadvertent violations of the
maritime frontier between adjacent States occur frequently” by small vessels
(emphasis added).

19. The travaux préparatoires reveal that the Agreement on a Special
Maritime Frontier Zone was negotiated following the adoption of the
minutes described above, and that the current text incorporated a pro -
posal by the Ecuadorian delegate to include in this provision “the coéncept
already declared in Santiago that the parallel starting at the boundary

point on the coast constitutes the maritime boundary between the neigh -
bouring signatory countries” (Counter-Memorial of Chile, Vol. II,
Ann. 39, p. 356).
20. The Agreement also stipulates that all its provisions “shall be

deemed to be an integral and complementary part of, and not in any way
to abrogate, the resolutions and agreements adopted at the Confer -
ence . . . held in Santiago de Chile in August 1952” (emphasis added ;
revised translation, see footnote 3). Thus, on the basis of this provision,

“the parallel which constitutes the maritime boundary between the two

3Emphasis added, revised translation. The authentic text in Spanish readsé as follows :
“Establécese una Zona Especial, a partir de las 12 millas marinas de la costa, de 10 millas
marinas de ancho a cada lado del paralelo que constituye el límite maérítimo entre los dos
países.” (Memorial of Peru, Vol. II, Ann. 50, p. 274.)

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countries”, contained in Article 1 of the Agreement, “shall be deemed to
be an integral and complementary part of” the Santiago Declaration.

21. In January 1955, Peru adopted a Supreme Resolution, which had as
its purpose “to specify in cartographic and geodesic work the manner éof
determining the Peruvian maritime zone of 200 [nautical] miles referred to
in the Supreme Decree of 1 August 1947 and the Joint Declaration signed
in Santiago on 18 August 1952 by Peru, Chile and Ecuador” (Memorial of

Peru, Vol. II, Ann. 9, p. 39). That zone is defined as follows :
“1. The said zone shall be limited at sea by a line parallel to the Peru -

vian coast and at a constant distance of 200 nautical miles from
it ;
2. In accordance with clause IV of the Declaration of Santiago, the
said line may not extend beyond that of the corresponding parallel
at the point where the frontier of Peru reaches the sea.” (Ibid.;
emphasis added.)

Although the text of the resolution does not expressly determine the
boundary line of the two adjacent zones, it again implies that the boundé -

ary line would follow the parallel, otherwise it would not be possible féor
the western “line parallel to the Peruvian coast” to meet “the écorrespond -
ing parallel at the point where the frontier of Peru reaches the seaӎ.
22. In light of all the above, my view is that the Parties considered the
Santiago Declaration to have settled issues relating to the delimitationé of

their general maritime zones. While it is true that a look at the text oéf the
Santiago Declaration reveals that the general maritime frontier is not
expressly determined in any of its provisions, the 1954 minutes and the
Agreement on a Special Zone have to be taken into account and are rele-
vant for the interpretation of the Santiago Declaration. Its paragraph IV
makes an assumption about the general maritime frontier when establish -

ing the Parties’ agreement on another matter, namely limiting the entéitle-
ments of islands situated less than 200 nautical miles from the general
maritime zone of the other State. Apparently, in 1952 the Parties thoughét
the issue of their general maritime frontiers, separating their general mari-
time zones adjacent to their mainland coasts, was so clear that there waés

no need for an explicit agreement in that regard, and just moved on to
deal with a logically subsequent matter, namely the delimitation of insué -
lar zones in special cases. The Santiago Declaration should serve as evi ­
dence of the Parties’ recognition of a settlement, and not as the actual
legal source of that settlement.

23. In my view, it was well established by 1955 that Peru and Chile
considered the Santiago Declaration to have legally settled the issue ofé
the lateral delimitation of their 200-nautical-mile zones of exclusive “sov -
ereignty” and jurisdiction, as declared separately by each of them iné 1947
and jointly in 1952. Whether paragraph IV of the Santiago Declaration,

viewed in isolation, is capable of sustaining this interpretation is lesés rele-
vant. The important point is that officials who represented the Partiesé in

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their international relations agreed and declared that the issue was setétled.
And the fundamental point is that the 1954 Agreement on a Special

Zone, which is deemed to be an integral and complementary part of the
Santiago Declaration, confirms the existence of the maritime boundary é
between the two countries, along the parallel of latitude.

24. Some of the evidence, referred to by the Court in determining the

extent of the agreed maritime boundary along the parallel, points in my é
view to a distance much longer than 80 nautical miles from the coast.
Both Chilean and Peruvian delegates emphasized in relevant United
Nations fora in 1956 and 1958, when the first codification of the laéw of
the sea was on their agenda, the need to protect “all the marine fléora and
fauna living in the Humboldt Current” (Judgment, para. 106). That cur -

rent, according to the information mentioned in the Judgment
(ibid., para. 105), “was to be found at a distance of 80 to 100 nautical
miles from the shore in the summer, and 200 to 250 nautical miles in the
winter”.
25. Not having been able to support the conclusion of the majority

that the agreed maritime boundary, which follows the parallel of latitudée
passing through Boundary Marker No. 1, extends only to a distance of
80 nautical miles from its starting-point, I was not in a position to sup -
port the Court’s consequential conclusion on the way the boundary theén
continues. I wish to make clear that I do not take issue with the methodé -

ology employed by the Court for the construction of that continuation ofé
the maritime boundary line, but rather with the distance at which the
maritime boundary departs from the parallel.
26. Now that the maritime boundary between the Parties has been
determined by the Court, and its decisions are to be respected, I agree é
with the Court’s conclusion that it need not rule on Peru’s submisésion

concerning the so-called “outer triangle”. The rights of Peru to that
maritime space have been recognized in the Judgment by the way in which
the Court has drawn the maritime boundary. The outer triangle is part of
Peru’s exclusive economic zone and continental shelf.
That would have been the result even if the Court had concluded that

the agreed maritime boundary extended to 200 nautical miles from the
coast. The outer triangle area lies beyond 200 nautical miles from the
Chilean coast. That area, on the other hand, is within 200 nautical miles
of Peru’s coast. There is no evidence that Peru has relinquished any é
entitlements under customary international law in areas beyond the

200-nautical-mile lateral boundary but still within 200 nautical miles of
its coast. Thus, in my view, Peru has an entitlement under general interé -
national law to an exclusive economic zone and continental shelf in the é
outer triangle.

(Signed) Peter Tomka.

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Bilingual Content

74

DECLARATION OF PRESIDENT TOMKA

The single maritime boundary between the Parties starts at the intersect▯ion of
the parallel of latitude passing through Boundary Marker No. 1 with the low­water
line, and follows that parallel of latitude — Such boundary did not stop at a
distance of 80 nautical miles — The 1954 Agreement relating to a Special

Maritime Frontier Zone unquestionably recognizes the existence of a mari▯time
boundary between the Parties along that parallel, without establishing i▯t — Rather,
the boundary was intended to extend to a distance corresponding to the m▯aritime
zones claimed by the Parties at the time, that is to say, at least 200 nautical
miles — The Court’s Judgment will have the effect of closing the zone of tol▯erance
established by the 1954 Agreement at a distance of just 80 nautical miles from the
coast, which seems to run counter to the intention of the Parties — The Parties

specified the eastern, southern and northern limits of this zone of tole▯rance, without
fixing its western limit — The negotiating history of the 1952 Santiago Declaration
and domestic acts by which the Parties formulated their maritime claims ▯support
the view that the boundary extended to 200 nautical miles — The travaux
préparatoires surrounding the Lima Conference of 1954, and the resulting texts,
further support this construction and must be taken into account when in▯terpreting
the Santiago Declaration — Paragraph IV of the Santiago Declaration did not

effect a general maritime delimitation of the Parties’ respective mar▯itime zones —
The Santiago Declaration assumes that the delimitation had been settled by way of
a general maritime boundary along the parallel, thereby serving as evide▯nce of the
Parties’ recognition of a settlement but not as its legal source — Some of the
evidence referred to by the Court, particularly that pertaining to the Humboldt
Current, points to a distance much longer than 80 nautical miles — Disagreement
with the insufficient extent of the agreed maritime boundary on the para▯llel in the

Court’s decision, rather than the methodology the Court employed in d▯rawing the
continuation of the boundary — The Court need not rule on Peru’s submission
regarding the “outer triangle”, as a result of the way in which th▯e Court has drawn
the maritime boundary — Peru has an entitlement to an exclusive economic zone
and continental shelf in the outer triangle area.

1. To my regret, I have not been able to support two of the conclusions
reached by the Court in this case. While concurring with the findings éthat
the starting-point of the single maritime boundary delimiting the respec -

tive maritime areas between the Republic of Peru and the Republic of
Chile is the intersection of the parallel of latitude passing through Boéund -
ary Marker No. 1 with the low-water line, and that the single maritime
boundary follows that parallel of latitude, I parted company with my tené

colleagues when they decided that such agreed boundary stops at a dis -
tance of 80 nautical miles from the starting-point at the coast. Conse -
quently, I was not able to support the Court’s position on the drawing of

the maritime boundary from that point de novo. This declaration thus
constitutes a partly concurring and partly dissenting opinion.

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DÉCLARATION DE M. LE JUGE TOMKA, PRÉSIDENT

[Traduction]

Frontière maritime unique entre les Parties partant de l’intersecti▯ on entre le
o
parallèle de latitude passant par la borne frontière n 1 et la laisse de basse mer, et
longeant ce parallèle de latitude — Frontière ne s’arrêtant pas à une distance
de 80 milles marins —Accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale
reconnaissant incontestablement l’existence entre les Parties d’une▯ frontière maritime
longeant ce parallèle, sans pour autant l’établir — Frontière étant plutôt censée
s’étendre sur une distance correspondant à l’étendue des ▯ ones maritimes revendiquées

par les Parties à l’époque, c’est­à­dire au moins 20milles marins —Arrêt de la Cour
ayant pour effet de limiter la zone de tolérance établie par ▯ ccord de 1954 à une
distance de seulement 80milles marins de la côte, allant ainsi à l’encontre de l’intention
des Parties —Parties ayant précisé les limites orientale, méridionale et se▯ tentrionale
de cette zone de tolérance, sans en fixer la limite occidentale — Historique des

négociations de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952 et des actes internes constatant les
revendications maritimes des Parties venant étayer l’opinion selon▯ laquelle la frontière
s’étendait sur 200 milles marins — Travaux préparatoires de la conférence de Lima
de 1954 et textes qui en sont résultés venant encore étayer cette i▯ nterprétation et
devant être pris en considération pour interpréter la déclar▯ tion de Santiago —
Paragraphe IV de la déclaration de Santiago n’ayant pas opéré de déli▯ mitation

maritime générale des espaces maritimes respectifs des Parties — Déclaration
de Santiago supposant qu’une délimitation ait été opérée a ▯ u moyen d’une frontière
maritime générale longeant le parallèle et attestant la reconnai▯ ssance d’un règlement
par les Parties sans toutefois en être la source — Certains des éléments de preuve
mentionnés par la Cour, en particulier ceux qui se rapportent au coura▯ nt de Humboldt,
indiquant une distance bien supérieure à 80milles marins —Désaccord portant sur la

longueur insuffisante que la Cour a donnée, dans sa décision, à▯ la frontière maritime
convenue longeant le parallèle, et non sur la méthode employée p ▯ ar elle pour tracer le
prolongement de la frontière— Cour n’ayant pas à se prononcer sur la conclusion du
Pérou concernant le «triangle extérieur», compte tenu de la méthode employée par
elle pour tracer la frontière maritime —Pérou pouvant prétendre à la zone du triangle
extérieur au titre de la zone économique exclusive et du plateau c▯ ntinental.

1. A mon grand regret, je n’ai pas pu souscrire à deux des conclusionés
auxquelles la Cour est parvenue en l’espèce. Même si je suis d’éaccord avec

elle pour conclure que le point de départ de la frontière maritimeé unique
délimitant les espaces maritimes respectifs de la République du Péérou et
de la République du Chili correspond à l’intersection entre le parallèle de
o
latitude passant par la borne frontière n 1 et la laisse de basse mer, et que
la frontière maritime unique longe ce parallèle, je ne partage pasé l’avis de
mes dix collègues selon lequel cette frontière convenue s’arrête à une dis -

tance de 80 milles marins à partir de son point de départ. Par conséquent, é
je n’ai pu souscrire à la position de la Cour concernant le tracéé de novo de
la frontière maritime au-delà de cette distance. La présente déclaration
constitue donc une opinion en partie concordante et en partie dissidenteé.

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2. In the 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement, the Parties
acknowledged the existence of the maritime boundary between them

(United Nations Treaty Series (UNTS), Vol. 2274, p. 527). The text of
Article 1 of that Agreement leaves no doubt on this point when it states
that “[a] special zone is hereby established, at a distance of 12 nautical
miles from the coast, extending to a breadth of 10 nautical miles on either
side of the parallel which constitutes the maritime boundary between the two

countries” (emphasis added). As the Court concluded, “[t]he 1954 Agree -
ment is decisive in this respect” (Judgment, para. 91).
The 1954 Special Maritime Frontier Zone Agreement does not establish
the maritime boundary but recognizes its existence. I do not consider asé
relevant the practice of the Parties under that Agreement in determining
the extent of that maritime boundary. Boundaries are not established just

for fishermen conducting their activities from small boats. Boundariesé
serve more general purposes. Rather, in my view, the maritime boundary
between Peru and Chile extends to a distance corresponding to that whiché
the Parties have been maintaining in their claims to exclusive sovereignéty
and jurisdiction over the sea and sea-bed along the coasts of their respective

mainland territories.
3. In its Judgment, the Court has determined, by specifying the west -
ernmost point on the parallel, which according to it, constitutes the end -
point of the agreed maritime boundary, the western limit of the special é
maritime zone, while the Parties in their 1954 Agreement refrained from

setting such a limit. By contrast, they specified the eastern limit ofé the
special maritime zone (at a distance of 12 nautical miles from the coast),
the northern and southern limits (at 10 nautical miles from the parallel),
leaving the zone open on its western side. In my view, this deliberate
choice by the Parties can only lead to the conclusion that the special méari-
time zone was meant to extend seaward along the parallel up until the

limit of the Parties’ maritime entitlements, for a distance which alséo cor -
responded to their claimed maritime zones at that time. By its Judgment,é
the Court closes the special maritime zone at a distance of just 80 nautical
miles from the coast.
In my view, there is insufficient evidence to conclude that the agreed é

maritime boundary extends only to 80 nautical miles. The evidence rather
points to a different conclusion.
4. The fundamental issue is whether an agreement concluded for a par -
ticular purpose, namely the Agreement establishing a special maritime
zone, that is to say, a zone of tolerance for small fishing vessels wiéth insuf

ficient navigation equipment, could have implicitly determined the outéer
limit of the pre-existing maritime boundary at a distance of 80 nautical
miles when the Parties openly and publicly claimed maritime zones
extending at least to 200 nautical miles. Such an interpretation seems to
run counter to the intention of the Parties when the evidence is apprecié -
ated as a whole.

5. It is now common ground between the Parties that the Santiago
Declaration (hereinafter “Declaration”) is a treaty (UNTS, Vol. 1006,

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5 CIJ1057.indb 148 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (déécl. tomka) 75

2. Dans l’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale, les
Parties ont reconnu qu’il existait entre elles une frontière maritéime (Recueil

des traités des Nations Unies (RTNU), vol. 2274, p. 527). En effet, le libellé
de l’article premier de cet accord ne laisse aucun doute à ce sujeét lorsqu’il
énonce qu’«[u]ne zone spéciale est créée par le présent accord à uneé distance
de 12 milles marins de la côte et avec une largeur de 10milles marins de part
et d’autre du parallèle qui constitue la frontière maritime entre les deux pays »

(les italiques sont de moi). La Cour a d’ailleurs conclu que « [l]’accord
de 1954 [était] un élément décisif à cet égard» (arrêt, par. 91).
L’accord de 1954 relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale n’établit
pas la frontière maritime mais en reconnaît l’existence. Je ne éconsidère pas
que la pratique des Parties dans le cadre de cet accord présente queléque
intérêt pour déterminer l’étendue de cette frontière. éEn effet, les frontières

ne sont pas établies uniquement pour permettre aux pêcheurs d’eéxercer
leurs activités au moyen de petites embarcations, mais servent des obéjectifs
plus généraux. Selon moi, la frontière maritime entre le Péréou et le Chili
s’étend plutôt sur une distance qui correspond à celle des réevendications de
souveraineté et de juridiction exclusives des Parties sur la mer baigénant les

côtes de leurs territoires continentaux respectifs et son sous-sol.
3. En précisant le point du parallèle qu’elle considère comme lée point
terminal, vers l’ouest, de la frontière maritime convenue, la Couré a, dans
son arrêt, fixé la limite occidentale de la zone maritime spéciale, ce que,
dans leur accord de 1954, les Parties s’étaient bien gardées de faire. Elles

avaient, en revanche, précisé la limite orientale de la zone maritéime spé -
ciale (à une distance de 12 milles marins de la côte), ainsi que ses limites
septentrionale et méridionale (à 10 milles marins du parallèle), laissant
ainsi la zone ouverte vers l’ouest. Je considère que ce choix déélibéré des
Parties ne permet pas d’autre conclusion que celle selon laquelle la ézone
maritime spéciale était censée longer le parallèle vers le léarge jusqu’à la

limite des espaces maritimes auxquels prétendaient les Parties, soit ésur la
distance correspondant à l’étendue des zones maritimes qu’eléles revendi -
quaient à l’époque. Par son arrêt, la Cour limite la zone maritime spéciale
à une distance de seulement 80 milles marins à partir de la côte.
Or j’estime que les éléments de preuve ne permettent pas de conéclure

que la frontière maritime convenue ne s’étend que sur 80 milles marins, et
militent en faveur d’un résultat différent.
4. La question fondamentale en l’espèce est celle de savoir si un accéord
conclu dans un but particulier, en l’occurrence l’accord établissant la zone
frontière maritime spéciale, c’est-à-dire une zone de toléérance en faveur des

bateaux de pêche de petite taille et mal équipés, a pu fixer éimplicitement
l’extrémité de la frontière maritime préexistante à unée distance de 80 milles
marins, alors que les Parties revendiquaient ouvertement et publiquementé
des espaces maritimes s’étendant sur une distance d’au moins 20é0 milles
marins. Si l’on examine les éléments de preuve dans leur ensembéle, cette
interprétation semble aller à l’encontre de l’intention des éParties.

5. Il est à présent bien établi entre les Parties que la déclaration de San -
tiago (ci-après la «déclaration») est bel et bien un traité (RTNU, vol. 1006,

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5 CIJ1057.indb 149 1/12/14 08:59 76 maritime dispute (decél. tomka)

p. 323). The Declaration was adopted because the Governments of Chile,
Peru and Ecuador were “determined to conserve and safeguard for their

respective peoples the natural resources of the maritime zones adjacent éto
their coasts” as “the former extension of the territorial sea and the con -
tiguous zone [were] inadequate for the purposes of the conservation,
development and exploitation of these resources” (paragraph I of the
Declaration). Therefore, the three Governments proclaimed “as a normé

of their international maritime policy that they each possess exclusive é
sovereignty and jurisdiction over the sea along the coasts of their respéec -
tive countries to a minimum distance of 200 nautical miles from these
coasts” (paragraph II of the Declaration). As further specified in that
instrument, “[t]he exclusive jurisdiction and sovereignty over this mari -
time zone shall also encompass exclusive sovereignty and jurisdiction

over the seabed and the subsoil thereof” (paragraph III of the Declara -
tion). By adopting these two provisions, the three States laid their cléaim
to 200-nautical-mile territorial seas as they claimed therein not only juris -
diction but also sovereignty. These claims were certainly “novel” éand it
took almost three decades for international law to develop and recognizeé

200-nautical-mile jurisdictional rights for the coastal State in the form of
the exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf. As for sovereigntéy,
the present-day law of the sea allows the coastal State to exercise it only
up to 12 nautical miles from its coast ; that distance represents the outer
limit of the territorial sea.

6. Although at the moment of its adoption, the Declaration was not in
conformity with general international law of that epoch, and still remaiéns
so in relation to extant general international law as regards the claim éto
sovereignty up to 200 nautical miles from the coast, this does not mean
that the Declaration has been void ab initio. It has produced legal effects
between the Parties to it.

7. According to Chile, it is paragraph IV of the Declaration which is
relevant for the establishment of the maritime boundary between the two é
Parties. This provision reads as follows :

“In the case of island territories, the zone of 200 nautical miles shall
apply to the entire coast of the island or group of islands. If an islanéd
or group of islands belonging to one of the countries making the
declaration is situated less than 200 nautical miles from the general

maritime zone belonging to another of those countries, the maritime
zone of the island or group of islands shall be limited by the parallel ▯at
the point at which the land frontier of the States concerned reaches the▯
sea.” (Emphasis added.)

8. This provision, as its introductory part clearly states, concerns the
delimitation of the maritime zones generated by islands; either the bound -
aries around the islands, or the boundaries in areas where the claims gen -
erated by the islands overlap with the claims generated by the mainland é

coast of another country. It is only in the latter scenario that the conécept
of “the parallel” is referred to.

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5 CIJ1057.indb 150 1/12/14 08:59 différend maritime (déécl. tomka) 76

p. 323). Elle a été adoptée parce que les Gouvernements du Chili,é du Pérou
et de l’Equateur étaient « résolus à conserver et à assurer à leurs peuples

respectifs les ressources naturelles des zones maritimes qui baign[aienté]
leurs côtes», «l’étendue première des eaux territoriales et de la zone conti-
guë ne suffis[ant] pas à la conservation, au développement et éà l’utilisation
de ces ressources» (paragraphe I de la déclaration). Ainsi, les trois gouver -
nements ont déclaré «fonde[r] leur politique internationale maritime sur la

souveraineté et la juridiction exclusives qu’a[vait] chacun d’eux sur la mer
qui baign[ait] les côtes de son pays jusqu’à 200 milles marins au moins à
partir desdites côtes» (paragraphe II de la déclaration). Le texte précise en
outre que « [l]a juridiction et la souveraineté exclusives sur la zone mari -
time indiquée entraîn[aient] également souveraineté et juridéiction exclu -
sives sur le sol et le sous-sol de ladite zone » (paragraphe III de la

déclaration). En adoptant ces deux dispositions, les trois Etats revéendi -
quaient chacun une mer territoriale de 200 milles marins, sur laquelle ils
réclamaient non seulement la juridiction mais également la souveraéineté.
Ces revendications étaient assurément « inédites», et il a fallu attendre
trois décennies pour que le droit international évolue et en viennée à recon -

naître à l’Etat côtier des droits s’étendant sur une déistance de 200 milles
marins, au titre de la zone économique exclusive et du plateau continéental.
Quant à la souveraineté, le droit de la mer actuel ne permet à él’Etat côtier
de l’exercer que sur une distance de 12 milles marins depuis sa côte, soit
jusqu’à la limite extérieure de la mer territoriale.

6. Même si, au moment de son adoption, la déclaration n’était pas
conforme au droit international général de l’époque et ne l’éest toujours
pas au regard du droit existant en ce qui concerne la revendication de léa
souveraineté sur une distance de 200 milles marins depuis la côte, cela ne
signifie pas pour autant qu’elle était nulle ab initio. Elle a produit ses
effets entre les Etats qui y étaient parties.

7. Selon le Chili, c’est le paragraphe IV de la déclaration qui est déter -
minant pour l’établissement de la frontière maritime entre les édeux Par -
ties; en voici le libellé :

«S’agissant d’un territoire insulaire, la zone de 200 milles marins
s’étendra autour de l’île ou du groupe d’îles. Si une éîle ou un groupe
d’îles appartenant à l’un des pays signataires de la présente déclara -
tion se trouve à moins de 200 milles marins de la zone maritime

générale qui se trouve sous la juridiction d’un autre d’entrée eux, la
zone maritime de l’île ou du groupe d’îles en question sera ▯limitée par
le parallèle passant par le point où aboutit en mer la frontièr▯e terrestre
des Etats en cause. » (Les italiques sont de moi.)

8. Cette disposition, comme l’indique clairement son passage introduc -
tif, concerne la délimitation des zones maritimes générées péar les îles,
notamment dans le cas où la zone à laquelle une île ouvre droité chevauche
celle que génère la côte continentale d’un autre pays. Ce n’éest que dans

cette dernière éventualité que le « parallèle» entre en jeu.

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1
9. The travaux préparatoires of the Declaration reveal that the origi -
nal draft of this text did not limit an overlapping insular maritime zone
by reference to the parallel ; rather, the insular maritime zone would be

limited, “in the corresponding part, to the distance that separates iét from
the maritime zone of the other State or country”. It was the Ecuadoriéan
delegate, Mr. Fernández, who “observed that it would be advisable to
provide more clarity to Article 3 [which later became paragraph IV], in
order to avoid any error in the interpretation of the interference zone éin

the case of islands”, and suggested “that the declaration be draftéed on the
basis that the boundary line of the jurisdictional zone of each country ébe
the respective parallel from the point at which the frontier of the couné -
tries touches or reaches the sea” (ibid., see footnote 1). All delegates were

in agreement with that proposal (ibid., p. 319).
10. Draft Article 3 also provided that “[t]he zone . . . comprises all
waters within the perimeter formed by the coasts of each country and a
mathematical parallel projected into the sea to 200 nautical miles away

from the mainland, along the coastal fringe” (ibid., p. 318).

11. The text is almost identical to that contained in the Presidential
Declaration of Chile concerning Continental Shelf of 23 June 1947

(Memorial of Peru, Vol. II, Ann. 27). The contemporaneous Peruvian act
contained a similar text. The Supreme Decree No. 781 of 1 August 1947,
in its relevant part, reads as follows :

“[Peru] will exercise the same control and protection on the seas adjéa -
cent to the Peruvian coast over the area covered between the coast
and an imaginary parallel line to it at a distance of two hundred (200)é

nautical miles measured following the line of the geographical paral -
lels” (ibid., Ann. 6, pp. 26-27).

12. The concept of parallels is thus used in both domestic acts by which
Peru and Chile formulated their maritime claims in 1947. It is true thaté
the parallel is used to describe the outer limit of the claimed maritime
zones, following a line which is parallel with the lines of the coast. What

is of interest to note is the Chilean Presidential Declaration’s refeérence to
“the perimeter formed by the coast and the mathematical parallel pro -
jected into the sea at a distance of 200 nautical miles from the coasts of
Chilean territory” (emphasis added).

The word “perimeter” clearly implies that the zone would have limiéts
on all its sides. The word “perimeter” is defined as “the continuous line or
lines forming the boundary of a closed geometrical figure or of any aréea
or surface” 2.

1 Act of the First Session of the Juridical Affairs Commission of the Fiérst Conference
of the Exploitation and Conservation of the Marine Resources of the Soutéh Pacific, held
11 August 1952 (Memorial of Peru, Vol. II, Annex 56, p. 320, agreed revised translation).

2 Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 5th Edition, Vol. 2, 2002, p. 2159 ; in the original
Spanish text of the Declaration the word used is “perímetro”. Similarly, a Spanish language

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9. Les travaux préparatoires de la déclaration 1 révèlent que, dans la
version initiale de ce texte, les zones maritimes insulaires n’étaéient pas, en
cas de chevauchement, limitées par le parallèle, mais plutôt, «édans la por -

tion en cause, à la distance qui … sépar[ait l’île] de la zone maritime de
l’autre Etat ou pays ». C’est le représentant de l’Equateur, M. Fernández,
qui a fait observer qu’«il [serait] souhaitable de clarifier l’article 3 [devenu
le paragraphe IV dans le texte final de la déclaration de Santiago de 1952]

afin d’éviter toute erreur d’interprétation concernant la ézone de chevau -
chement en présence d’îles » et qui a proposé « que la déclaration pose en
principe que la ligne frontière délimitant l’espace maritime deé chacun des
pays corresponde au parallèle passant par le point où aboutit en méer la

frontière terrestre le séparant des autres » (ibid., voir note 1). Cette propo -
sition a recueilli l’assentiment général (ibid., p. 319).
10. Dans sa version initiale, l’article 3 prévoyait également que « [l]a
zone … compren[ait] l’ensemble des eaux se trouvant à l’intériéeur du péri -

mètre formé par la côte de chacun des pays et une parallèle émathématique
projetée en mer à 200 milles marins du continent, le long de la frange
côtière » (ibid., p. 318).
11. Ce libellé est presque identique à celui de la déclaration préésiden -

tielle chilienne relative au plateau continental, en date du 23 juin 1947
(mémoire du Pérou, vol. II, annexe 27). Pris à la même époque et formulé
en termes analogues, le décret suprême péruvien n o 781 du 1 eraoût 1947
énonçait ce qui suit :

«[le Pérou] exercera cette autorité et cette protection sur les eauéx

adjacentes à la côte péruvienne dans la zone comprise entre cetéte côte
et une ligne imaginaire parallèle à celle-ci et située en mer àé une dis -
tance de deux cents (200) milles marins mesurée le long des parallèles
géographiques » (ibid., annexe 6, p. 26-27).

12. Le recours aux parallèles est ainsi consacré dans les deux actes
internes par lesquels le Pérou et le Chili ont chacun formulé leurés reven -

dications maritimes en 1947. Certes, il s’agit des parallèles correspondant
à la limite extérieure des espaces maritimes revendiqués, laqueélle suit une
ligne parallèle à celle des côtes. Mais il importe de noter la éréférence faite,
dans la déclaration présidentielle chilienne, au « périmètre délimité par les

côtes chiliennes et par une parallèle mathématique projetée éen mer à une
distance de 200 milles marins de ces côtes » (les italiques sont de moi).
Le mot « périmètre» laisse clairement entendre que la zone était censée
être limitée sur tous ses côtés. Il s’entend en effet dée la «ligne continue ou

brisée qui définit le contour d’une figure géométriquée plane ou d’un
espace quelconque » 2.

1
Procès-verbal de la première séance de la commission des affaéires juridiques de la
première conférence sur l’exploitation et la conservation des ressources maritimes du Paci-
fique Sud, tenue le 11 août 1952 (mémoire du Pérou, vol. II, annexe 56, traduction anglaise
revisée et acceptée).
2 Shorter Oxford English Dictionary, 5 éd., vol. 2, 2002, p. 2159. Dans la version origi-
nale espagnole de la déclaration, le mot utilisé étaperímetro», lequel est ainsi défini :

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Therefore, it seems that when the Parties originally formulated their

maritime claims in a unilateral way, they envisaged that their resulting
maritime zones would have limits, not just on their western side, for thée
determination of which they used a tracé parallèle methodology.

13. It would be, however, a step too far to assert that the 1952 Declara-

tion expressly established the parallel as the boundary between the zoneés of
Chile and Peru, respectively. Paragraph IV of that Declaration is limited
to “the case of island territories”. On the other side, the questiéon can be
asked whether the boundary separating the zone generated by an island
and the zone generated by the mainland coast of another State would con -

tinue once the parallel used for separating them reaches its endpoint, téhe
point where it will be 200 nautical miles from the island. Does it mean that
there would be a boundary solely between the maritime zone generated by
the island and the zone generated by the mainland coast of another Stateé,
but there would not be a boundary separating the two zones generated by

the adjacent mainland coasts of the two neighbouring States ?
14. What happened in the Second Conference on the Exploitation and
Conservation of the Marine Resources of the South Pacific, held in
December 1954, sheds a little bit more light on the issue. During discus -
sions regarding the Complementary Convention to the Declaration of

Sovereignty on the Two-Hundred-Mile Maritime Zone (hereinafter
“Complementary Convention”), the Ecuadorian delegate proposed incélud -
ing an article “clarifying the concept of the dividing line of the juérisdic -
tional sea”. He added that the concept “ha[d] already been expoundéed at
the Conference of Santiago, but which would not be redundant to repeat

herein” (Counter-Memorial of Chile, Vol. II, Ann. 38, p. 341, revised
translation; emphasis added).
15. The Peruvian and Chilean delegates believed that “Article 4 [i.e.,
paragraph IV in the Court’s language] of the Declaration of Santiago
[was] already sufficiently clear and [did] not require a new exposition”

(ibid.).
Since the Ecuadorian delegate insisted that “a declaration to that efféect
should be included in the Convention, because Article 4 of the Declar-
ation of Santiago [was] aimed at establishing the principle of delimitation
of waters regarding the islands”, the President of the Conference askéed

him whether “he would accept, instead of a new article, that a recordé [be]
kept in the minutes” (ibid.).
The minutes further show that

“[t]he delegate of Ecuador state[d] that if the other countries consid -
er[ed] that no explicit record [was] necessary in the Convention, he
agree[d] to record in the minutes that the three countries consider[ed]
the matter on the dividing line of the jurisdictional waters resolved and

dictionary defines “perímetro” as “[el c]ontorno de una superficie”, or as “[el c]ontorno de
una figura” (Diccionario de la Lengua Española, 22nd Edition, 2001, p. 1732).

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Par conséquent, il semble que, lorsque les Parties ont unilatéraleément
formulé leurs revendications maritimes pour la première fois, elleés avaient
conscience que les zones qui en résulteraient seraient limitées, eét ce, non
seulement à l’ouest, c’est pourquoi elles ont eu recours à léa méthode du
tracé parallèle.

13. Il serait toutefois exagéré d’affirmer que la déclaration dée 1952 a
expressément fait du parallèle la frontière entre les espaces réespectifs
du Chili et du Pérou, le paragraphe IV de cette déclaration ne s’appli -
quant qu’au « cas du territoire insulaire ». Par ailleurs, on peut se deman -
der si la frontière séparant la zone générée par une îéle et celle générée par

la côte continentale d’un autre Etat se prolongerait au-delà dué point ter -
minal, soit à 200 milles marins de l’île. Cela signifie-t-il qu’il n’y aurait de
frontière qu’entre la zone maritime générée par l’îéle et celle générée par la
côte continentale d’un autre Etat, et non entre les deux zones générées par

les côtes continentales adjacentes des deux Etats voisins ?

14. Ce point s’est quelque peu clarifié lors de la deuxième conférence
sur l’exploitation et la conservation des ressources maritimes du Pacéifique

Sud, qui s’est tenue en décembre 1954. Au cours des discussions relatives
à la convention complémentaire à la déclaration de souverainéeté sur la
zone maritime de deux cents milles marins (ci-après la « convention com -
plémentaire»), le représentant équatorien a proposé l’inclusion d’éun

article destiné à préciser ce qu’il convenait d’entendre épar « ligne de déli -
mitation des eaux juridictionnelles», ajoutant que cette notion avait «déjà
[été] expliquée à la conférence de Santiago, mais qu’iél n’[était] pas inutile
de [la] répéter ici » (contre-mémoire du Chili, vol. II, annexe 38, p. 341,
traduction anglaise revisée ; les italiques sont de moi).

15. Les représentants péruviens et chiliens se sont pour leur part dités
d’avis que «l’article 4 de la déclaration de Santiago [soit le paragraphe IV
du texte auquel se réfère la Cour] [était] suffisamment clair et ne néces -
sit[ait], dès lors, nul éclaircissement » (ibid.).
Le représentant de l’Equateur ayant insisté pour que « soit insérée une

déclaration à cet effet, et puisque l’article 4 de la déclaration de Santiago
visa[it] précisément à établir le principe de délimitatioén des eaux autour
des îles», le président de la conférence lui a demandé s’« il accepterait, en
lieu et place d’un nouvel article, qu’une transcription intégraéle de ses pro -

pos soit jointe [au procès-verbal] » (ibid.).
Le procès-verbal se poursuit ainsi :

«[l]e représentant de l’Equateur [a] déclar[é] que, si les auétres pays
estim[ai]ent qu’une mention expresse n’[était] pas nécessairée dans la
convention, il [était] d’accord pour que soit consigné au procèés-
verbal que les trois pays consid[éraient] que la question de la ligne de

«[el c]ontorno de una superficie » ou encore « [el c]ontorno de una figura » (Diccionario de
e
la Lengua Española, 22 éd., 2001, p. 1732).

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that said line [was] the parallel starting at the point at which the land
frontier between both countries reaches the sea” (Counter-Memorial
of Chile, Vol. II, Ann. 38, p. 341 ; emphasis added).

The delegate of Peru expressed “his agreement with doing that, but
clarifie[d] that this agreement was already established in the Conference of

Santiago” (ibid., p. 342 ; emphasis added).
16. On the basis of the above, one can conclude that the Parties agreed
in 1954 to confirm that their 1952 Santiago Declaration was adopted on
the understanding that the parallel starting at the point where their laénd

frontier reaches the sea constituted the line dividing the zones they reéspec -
tively claimed.
17. Moreover, the Complementary Convention expressly states that
“[a]ll the provisions of this Convention shall be deemed to be an intéegral

and complementary part of, and shall not abrogate in any way, the reso -
lutions and agreements adopted at the Conference . . . held at Santiago de
Chile in August 1952”.
18. The 1954 Lima Conference also adopted the Agreement relating
to a Special Maritime Frontier Zone. According to Article 1 of that

instrument, “[a] special zone is hereby established, at a distance ofé 12 naut-
ical miles from the coast, extending to a breadth of 10 nautical miles on
either side of the parallel which constitutes the maritime boundary between
the two countries” 3. Similarly, the Preamble of this Agreement also refer -

ences the existence of the maritime boundary by highlighting that
“[e]xperience has shown that innocent and inadvertent violations of the
maritime frontier between adjacent States occur frequently” by small vessels
(emphasis added).

19. The travaux préparatoires reveal that the Agreement on a Special
Maritime Frontier Zone was negotiated following the adoption of the
minutes described above, and that the current text incorporated a pro -
posal by the Ecuadorian delegate to include in this provision “the coéncept
already declared in Santiago that the parallel starting at the boundary

point on the coast constitutes the maritime boundary between the neigh -
bouring signatory countries” (Counter-Memorial of Chile, Vol. II,
Ann. 39, p. 356).
20. The Agreement also stipulates that all its provisions “shall be

deemed to be an integral and complementary part of, and not in any way
to abrogate, the resolutions and agreements adopted at the Confer -
ence . . . held in Santiago de Chile in August 1952” (emphasis added ;
revised translation, see footnote 3). Thus, on the basis of this provision,

“the parallel which constitutes the maritime boundary between the two

3Emphasis added, revised translation. The authentic text in Spanish readsé as follows :
“Establécese una Zona Especial, a partir de las 12 millas marinas de la costa, de 10 millas
marinas de ancho a cada lado del paralelo que constituye el límite maérítimo entre los dos
países.” (Memorial of Peru, Vol. II, Ann. 50, p. 274.)

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délimitation des eaux juridictionnelles [était] réglée et que cette ligne
[était] constituée par le parallèle passant par le point où abouti[ssait]
en mer la frontière terrestre des deux pays concernés » (contre-
mémoire du Chili, vol. II, annexe 38, p. 341; les italiques sont de moi).

Le représentant du Pérou a « approuv[é] cette solution, mais précis[é]
que cet accord avait déjà été établi à la conférence de Santiago » (ibid.,

p. 342; les italiques sont de moi).
16. A la lumière de ce qui précède, on peut conclure que, en 1954, éles
Parties entendaient confirmer que, en adoptant la déclaration de Saéntiago
de 1952, elles tenaient pour acquis que le parallèle partant du point oùé

leur frontière terrestre aboutissait en mer constituait la ligne de déélimita -
tion des espaces qu’elles revendiquaient respectivement.
17. En outre, la convention complémentaire énonce expressément que é
«[t]outes [s]es dispositions … sont réputées faire partie intégrante et com -

plémentaire des résolutions et accords adoptés à la conféérence tenue à
Santiago du Chili en août 1952 et ne les abroger en aucun cas ».

18. A la conférence de Lima de 1954 a également été adopté l’éaccord
relatif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale, dont l’articéle premier est

ainsi libellé : « [u]ne zone spéciale est créée par le présent accord à une
distance de … 12 milles marins de la côte et avec une largeur de 10 milles
marins de part et d’autre du parallèle qui constitue la frontière maritime
entre les deux pays » 3. De même, le préambule de cet accord laisse suppo -

ser l’existence de la frontière maritime lorsqu’il énonce quée « l’expérience
a montré que la frontière maritime entre des Etats adjacents était fréquem -
ment violée de manière innocente et par inadvertance » par des navires de
petite taille (les italiques sont de moi).

19. Les travaux préparatoires révèlent que l’accord relatif àé une zone
frontière maritime spéciale a été négocié à la suitée de l’adoption du
procès-verbal dont je viens de parler, et que le texte actuel reprendé une
proposition faite par le représentant de l’Equateur et visant àé y faire figurer
«le principe adopté à Santiago, selon lequel le parallèle passanét par le

point où aboutit en mer la frontière terrestre de deux pays signatéaires
constitue la frontière maritime entre les pays signataires voisins »
(contre-mémoire du Chili, vol. II, annexe 39, p. 356).
20. L’accord stipule également que toutes ses dispositions « sont répu -

tées faire partie intégrante et complémentaire des résolutions et accords
adoptés à la conférence tenue à Santiago du Chili en aoûté 1952 et ne les
abroger en aucun cas » (les italiques sont de moi ; traduction anglaise
revisée, voir note 3). Ainsi, par application de cette disposition, la réfé -

rence au « parallèle qui constitue la frontière maritime entre les deux

3 Les italiques sont de moi ; traduction anglaise revisée. La version espagnole authen -
tique est ainsi rédigée : « Establécese una Zona Especial, a partir de las 12 millas marinas
de la costa, de 10 millas marinas de ancho a cada lado del paralelo que constituye el líémite
marítimo entre los dos países. » (Mémoire du Pérou, vol. II, annexe 50, p. 274.)

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countries”, contained in Article 1 of the Agreement, “shall be deemed to
be an integral and complementary part of” the Santiago Declaration.

21. In January 1955, Peru adopted a Supreme Resolution, which had as
its purpose “to specify in cartographic and geodesic work the manner éof
determining the Peruvian maritime zone of 200 [nautical] miles referred to
in the Supreme Decree of 1 August 1947 and the Joint Declaration signed
in Santiago on 18 August 1952 by Peru, Chile and Ecuador” (Memorial of

Peru, Vol. II, Ann. 9, p. 39). That zone is defined as follows :
“1. The said zone shall be limited at sea by a line parallel to the Peru -

vian coast and at a constant distance of 200 nautical miles from
it ;
2. In accordance with clause IV of the Declaration of Santiago, the
said line may not extend beyond that of the corresponding parallel
at the point where the frontier of Peru reaches the sea.” (Ibid.;
emphasis added.)

Although the text of the resolution does not expressly determine the
boundary line of the two adjacent zones, it again implies that the boundé -

ary line would follow the parallel, otherwise it would not be possible féor
the western “line parallel to the Peruvian coast” to meet “the écorrespond -
ing parallel at the point where the frontier of Peru reaches the seaӎ.
22. In light of all the above, my view is that the Parties considered the
Santiago Declaration to have settled issues relating to the delimitationé of

their general maritime zones. While it is true that a look at the text oéf the
Santiago Declaration reveals that the general maritime frontier is not
expressly determined in any of its provisions, the 1954 minutes and the
Agreement on a Special Zone have to be taken into account and are rele-
vant for the interpretation of the Santiago Declaration. Its paragraph IV
makes an assumption about the general maritime frontier when establish -

ing the Parties’ agreement on another matter, namely limiting the entéitle-
ments of islands situated less than 200 nautical miles from the general
maritime zone of the other State. Apparently, in 1952 the Parties thoughét
the issue of their general maritime frontiers, separating their general mari-
time zones adjacent to their mainland coasts, was so clear that there waés

no need for an explicit agreement in that regard, and just moved on to
deal with a logically subsequent matter, namely the delimitation of insué -
lar zones in special cases. The Santiago Declaration should serve as evi ­
dence of the Parties’ recognition of a settlement, and not as the actual
legal source of that settlement.

23. In my view, it was well established by 1955 that Peru and Chile
considered the Santiago Declaration to have legally settled the issue ofé
the lateral delimitation of their 200-nautical-mile zones of exclusive “sov -
ereignty” and jurisdiction, as declared separately by each of them iné 1947
and jointly in 1952. Whether paragraph IV of the Santiago Declaration,

viewed in isolation, is capable of sustaining this interpretation is lesés rele-
vant. The important point is that officials who represented the Partiesé in

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pays», figurant à l’article premier de l’accord de 1954, est «é réputée faire
partie intégrante et complémentaire » de la déclaration de Santiago.

21. En janvier 1955, le Pérou a adopté une résolution suprême qui avait
pour objet de « préciser, dans les travaux cartographiques et géodésiques,
la méthode de détermination de la zone maritime péruvienne de 2é00milles
marins visée par le décret suprême de 1947 et la déclaration conjointe
signée à Santiago le 18 août 1952 par le Pérou, le Chili et l’Equateur »

(mémoire du Pérou, vol. II, annexe 9, p. 39). Cette zone est ainsi définie :
«1. Ladite zone est limitée en mer par une ligne parallèle à la côéte

péruvienne et située à une distance constante de 200 milles marins
de celle-ci ;
2. Conformément à la clause IV de la déclaration de Santiago, ladite
ligne ne peut dépasser le parallèle passant par le point où abo▯utit en
mer la frontière terrestre du Pérou. » (Ibid.; les italiques sont de
moi.)

Même si le texte de la résolution ne définit pas expresséméent la ligne fron -
tière séparant les deux zones adjacentes, il laisse encore une foiés entendre

qu’elle suivrait le parallèle, car, dans le cas contraire, il ne séerait pas pos-
sible pour la « ligne parallèle à la côte péruvienne » d’atteindre le « paral-
lèle passant par le point où aboutit en mer la frontière terrestre du Pérou».
22. Au vu de tout ce qui précède, je suis d’avis que la déclaratéion de San -
tiago avait, aux yeux des Parties, réglé les questions afféreéntes à la délimi-ta

tion de leurs zones maritimes générales. S’il est exact que la électure du texte
de la déclaration révèle qu’aucune de ses dispositions ne dééfinit expressé -
ment la frontière maritime générale, il y a lieu de tenir comptée, pour son
interprétation, du procès-verbal de 1954 et de l’accord relatifé à une zone
frontière maritime spéciale de la même année. Le paragraphe IV suppose la
préexistence d’une frontière maritime générale lorsqu’éil constate l’entente

intervenue entre les Parties sur un autre point, à savoir lorsqu’iél limite les
zones maritimes générées par les îles situées à moins éde 20m 0illes marins de
la zone maritime générale d’un autre Etat. Tout porte à croiére que, en 1952,
les Parties considéraient que la situation de leurs frontières maréitimes géné -
rales, censées séparer les zones maritimes générales adjacenétes à leurs côtes

continentales, était si évidente qu’un accord explicite à ce sujet paraissait
superflu. Elles se sont donc contentées de s’intéresser aux qéuestions qui en
découlaient logiquement, comme celle de la délimitation des zones éinsulaires
dans les cas particuliers. La déclaration de Santiago devrait donc êétre consi -
dérée comme un élément attestant la reconnaissance du règlement intervenu

entre les Parties et non comme la source à proprement parler de celui-ci.
23. Selon moi, il était bien établi en 1955 que le Pérou et le Chili esti -
maient que la déclaration de Santiago avait réglé, sur le plan éjuridique, la
question de la délimitation latérale de leurs zones de 200 milles marins de
«souveraineté» et de juridiction exclusives, qu’ils avaient proclamées
séparément en 1947 et conjointement en 1952. La question de savoiré si le

paragraphe IV de la déclaration de Santiago est en soi susceptible d’étayeér
cette interprétation présente moins d’intérêt. Ce qui importe, éc’est que les

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5 CIJ1057.indb 159 1/12/14 08:59 81 maritime dispute (decél. tomka)

their international relations agreed and declared that the issue was setétled.
And the fundamental point is that the 1954 Agreement on a Special

Zone, which is deemed to be an integral and complementary part of the
Santiago Declaration, confirms the existence of the maritime boundary é
between the two countries, along the parallel of latitude.

24. Some of the evidence, referred to by the Court in determining the

extent of the agreed maritime boundary along the parallel, points in my é
view to a distance much longer than 80 nautical miles from the coast.
Both Chilean and Peruvian delegates emphasized in relevant United
Nations fora in 1956 and 1958, when the first codification of the laéw of
the sea was on their agenda, the need to protect “all the marine fléora and
fauna living in the Humboldt Current” (Judgment, para. 106). That cur -

rent, according to the information mentioned in the Judgment
(ibid., para. 105), “was to be found at a distance of 80 to 100 nautical
miles from the shore in the summer, and 200 to 250 nautical miles in the
winter”.
25. Not having been able to support the conclusion of the majority

that the agreed maritime boundary, which follows the parallel of latitudée
passing through Boundary Marker No. 1, extends only to a distance of
80 nautical miles from its starting-point, I was not in a position to sup -
port the Court’s consequential conclusion on the way the boundary theén
continues. I wish to make clear that I do not take issue with the methodé -

ology employed by the Court for the construction of that continuation ofé
the maritime boundary line, but rather with the distance at which the
maritime boundary departs from the parallel.
26. Now that the maritime boundary between the Parties has been
determined by the Court, and its decisions are to be respected, I agree é
with the Court’s conclusion that it need not rule on Peru’s submisésion

concerning the so-called “outer triangle”. The rights of Peru to that
maritime space have been recognized in the Judgment by the way in which
the Court has drawn the maritime boundary. The outer triangle is part of
Peru’s exclusive economic zone and continental shelf.
That would have been the result even if the Court had concluded that

the agreed maritime boundary extended to 200 nautical miles from the
coast. The outer triangle area lies beyond 200 nautical miles from the
Chilean coast. That area, on the other hand, is within 200 nautical miles
of Peru’s coast. There is no evidence that Peru has relinquished any é
entitlements under customary international law in areas beyond the

200-nautical-mile lateral boundary but still within 200 nautical miles of
its coast. Thus, in my view, Peru has an entitlement under general interé -
national law to an exclusive economic zone and continental shelf in the é
outer triangle.

(Signed) Peter Tomka.

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responsables qui représentaient les Parties dans le cadre des relatioéns

internationales se sont déclarés d’accord pour considérer quée la question
était réglée, le point fondamental à retenir étant que l’accord de 1954 rela -
tif à une zone frontière maritime spéciale, réputé faire épartie intégrante et
complémentaire de la déclaration de Santiago, confirme l’existence entre
les deux pays d’une frontière maritime longeant le parallèle deé latitude.

24. Certains des éléments de preuve auxquels la Cour fait référeénce pour
déterminer l’étendue de la frontière maritime convenue le loéng du parallèle
indiquent, selon moi, une distance depuis la côte bien supérieure éà 8m 0illes
marins. En effet, en 1956 et en 1958, lorsque la première codification du
droit de la mer a été inscrite à l’ordre du jour des organesé compétents des

Nations Unies, les représentants chiliens et péruviens ont tous deux insisété
sur la nécessité de protéger « l’ensemble de la flore et de la faune marines
qui vivent dans le courant de Humboldt » (arrêt, par. 106). Or ce courant,
selon les informations mentionnées dans l’arrêt (ibid., par. 105), « se trou -
vait à une distance allant, depuis le littoral, de 80 à 10milles marins durant

l’été, et de 200 à 250 milles marins durant l’hiver».
25. N’ayant pas été en mesure d’adhérer à la conclusion deé la majorité
selon laquelle la frontière maritime convenue, qui suit le parallèéle de lati -
tude passant par la borne frontière n o1, ne s’étend que sur une distance
de 80 milles marins depuis son point de départ, je n’ai pas pu souscrire à

celle qui en découlait concernant la construction de la frontière éau-delà de
cette distance. Je tiens cependant à préciser que je suis en déésaccord avec
la Cour non pas sur la méthode qu’elle a employée pour tracer lée prolon -
gement de la frontière maritime, mais plutôt sur la distance à épartir de
laquelle cette frontière s’écarte du parallèle.

26. Maintenant que la Cour, dont les décisions doivent être respectéées,
a délimité la frontière maritime entre les Parties, je souscrisé à sa conclu -
sion selon laquelle elle n’a nul besoin de se prononcer sur la préétention du
Pérou concernant le « triangle extérieur». En effet, les droits du Pérou sur
cet espace maritime ont été reconnus dans l’arrêt par la manéière dont elle

a tracé la frontière maritime. Le triangle extérieur fait partiée de la zone
économique exclusive et du plateau continental péruviens.
Tel aurait également été le cas même dans l’hypothèse éoù la Cour aurait
conclu que la frontière maritime convenue s’étendait sur une diéstance de
200 milles marins depuis la côte. En effet, le triangle extérieur seé trouve à

plus de 200 milles marins de la côte chilienne, mais à moins de 200 milles
marins de la côte péruvienne. Or il n’est nullement démontréé que le Pérou
a renoncé aux droits dont il pourrait jouir au titre du droit internaétional
coutumier sur l’espace situé au-delà de la limite latérale dée 2m00illes marins,
mais en deçà de 200 milles marins depuis sa côte. Je suis donc d’avis que le

Pérou peut, en vertu du droit international général, prétendre au triangle
extérieur au titre de la zone économique exclusive et du plateau continental.

(Signé) Peter Tomka.

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Document file FR
Document Long Title

Declaration of President Tomka

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