Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

Document Number
144-20120720-JUD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
144-20120720-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

487

SEPARATE OPINION

OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. Prolegomena 1-4

II. The Factual Background ovf the Present Case : The Regime
Habré in Chad (1982-1990) in the Findings of thve Chadian
Commission of Inquiryv (Report of 1992) 5-15

1. The organs of repression of the regime Habré in Chad

(1982-1990) 9-10
2. The systematic practice of torture of persons arbitrarily
detained 11-12

3. Extra-judicial or summary executions and massacres 13

4. The intentionality of extermination of those who allegedly
opposed the regime 14-15

III. The Decision of May 2006 ofv the UN Committee againsvt

Torture 16-21

IV. The Case before the ICJ : Responses to Questionvs Put to
the Contending Partiesv 22-43

1. Questions put to both Parties 22
2. Reponses by Belgium 23-33

3. Responses by Senegal 34-40
4. General assessment 41-43

V. Peremptory Norms of Intvernational Law (J us C ogens ) :

The Corresponding Obligations of Result, and Not of
Simple Conduct 44-51

VI. The Everlasting Quest fovr the Realization of Juvstice in

the Present Case 52-64
1. Legal actions in domestic courts 53-55

2. Requests of extradition 56
3. Initiatives at international level 57-61

4. Initiative of entities of African civil society 62-64

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VII. The Search for Justice : Initiatives and Endeavovurs of the
African Union 65-72

VIII. Urgency and the Needed Provvisional Measures of Prvotec -

tion 73-81

IX. The Absolute Prohibitiovn of Torture in the Realvm of Jus
Cogens 82-103

1. The international legal regime against torture 83-94

2. Fundamental human values underlying that prohibition 95-103

X. Obligations erga omnes P artes under the UN Conven -
tion against Torture 104-108

XI. The Gravity of the Human Rights Violationsv and the
Compelling Struggle agaivnst Impunity 109-133

1. Human cruelty at the threshold of gravity 109-115
2. The inadmissibility of impunity of the perpetrators 116-125
3. The position of Chad against impunity 126-129

4. The struggle against impunity in the law of the United
Nations 130-133

XII. Obligations under Custovmary International Lavw : A Pre-

cision as to the Courtv’s Jurisdiction 134-144

XIII. A Recurring Issue : The Time of Human Justicve and the
Time of Human Beings 145-157

1. An unfortunate décalage to be bridged 145-153
2. Making time work pro victima 154-157

XIV. The Time Factor : A Rebuttal of a Regressivve Interpreta -
tion of the Conventionv against Torture 158-168

XV. A New Chapter in Restoratvive Justice? 169-174

XVI. Epilogue: Concluding Reflectionvs 175-184

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I.P rolegomena

1. I have voted in favour of the adoption of the present Judgment in
the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or
Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), whereby the International Court of Jus -
tice (ICJ) has established violations of Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of the
1
1984 United Nations Convention against Torture , has asserted the need
to take immediately measures to comply with the duty of prosecution
under that Convention 2, and has rightly acknowledged that the absolute
prohibition of torture is one of jus cogens 3. Although I have agreed with

the Court’s majority as to most of the findings of the Court in its present
Judgment, there are two points of its reasoning which I do not find savtis -
factory or consistent with its own conclusions, and on which I have a
distinct reasoning, namely, the Court’s jurisdiction in respect of obliga -

tions under customary international law, and the handling of the time
factor under the UN Convention against Torture. I feel thus obliged
to dwell upon them in the present separate opinion, so as to clarify the
matter dealt with by the Court, and to present the foundations of my

personal position thereon.
2. My reflections, developed in the present separate opinion, pertain to v
considerations at factual, conceptual and epistemological levels, on dis -
tinct points in relation to which I do not find the reasoning of the Cvourt

entirely satisfactory or complete. At the factual level, I shall dwell upon :
(a) the factual background of the present case: the regime Habré in Chad
(1982-1990) in the findings of the Chadian Commission of Inquiry

(Report of 1992); (b) the significance of the decision of 2006 of the
UN Committee against Torture ; ( c) the clarifications on the case before
the ICJ, in the responses to questions put to the contending Parties in vthe
course of the legal proceedings; and (d) the everlasting quest for the real -

ization of justice in the present case.
3. At the conceptual and epistemological levels, my reflections in the
present separate opinion will focus on : (a) urgency and the needed pro -
visional measures of protection in the cas d’espèce ; (b) the acknowledg-

ment of the absolute prohibition of torture in the realm of jus cogens ;
(c) the obligations erga omnes partes under the UN Convention against
Torture ; (d) the gravity of the human rights violations and the compel -
ling struggle against impunity (within the law of the United Nations

itself) ;(e) the obligations under customary international law; and (f) the
décalage between the time of human justice and the time of human beings
revisited (and the need to make time work pro victima).

1 Judgment, resolutory points 4 and 5 of dispositif.
2 Ibid., point 6 of dispositif.
3 Ibid., para. 99.

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4. In sequence, I will proceed to : (a) a rebuttal of a regressive inter -

pretation of the UN Convention against Torture (CAT) ; and (b) the
identification of the possible emergence of a new chapter in restorativve
justice. As to the reassuring assertion by the Court that the absolute

prohibition of torture is one of jus cogens (Judgment, para. 99) — which
I strongly support — I go further than the Court, as to what I perceive as
the pressing need to extract the legal consequences therefrom, which the

Court has failed to do. The way will then be paved, in the epilogue, for
the presentation of my concluding reflections on the matter dealt with in
the present Judgment of the Court.

II. The Factual Background ovf the Present Case: The Regime
Habré in Chad (1982-1990) in the Findings of thve Chadian

Commission of Inquiryv (Report of 1992)

5. In the written and oral phases of the proceedings before this Court,

both Belgium and Senegal referred to the Report of the National Com -
mission of Inquiry of the Chadian Ministry of Justice, concluded and
adopted in May 1992. Thus, already in its Application Instituting

Proceedings (of 19 February 2009), Belgium referred repeatedly to the
findings of the 1992 Report of the Truth Commission of the Chadian
Ministry of Justice, giving account of grave violations of human rights
and of international humanitarian law during the Habré regime (1982-
4
1990) in Chad . Subsequently, in its Memorial (of 1 July 2010), in dwel-
ling upon Chad under the regime of Mr. H. Habré, Belgium recalled that,

“[a]ccording to an assessment published in 1993 by the National Com -
mission of Inquiry of the Chadian Ministry of Justice, Mr. Habré’s

presidency produced tens of thousands of victims. The Commission
gives the following figures : ‘more than 40,000 victims ; more than
80,000 orphans; more than 30,000widows; more than 200,000people
5
left with no moral or material support as a result of this repression’v.”
(Para. 1.10.)

6. The aforementioned Report was also referred to in the course of the
oral arguments at the provisional measures phase 6. Subsequently, Bel -
gium referred repeatedly to the Report, from the very start of its oral v
7
arguments on the merits of the case . For its part, in its oral argument

4
5 Application instituting proceedings, pp. 13, 39, 57, 89 and 93.
Chadian Ministry of Justice, «Les crimes et détournements de l’ex-président Habré et
de ses complices — Rapport de la commission d’enquête nationale du ministère vtchadien de
la justice »[«The Crimes and Misappropriations Committed by ex-President Habré and His
Accomplices — Report by the National Commission of Inquiry of the Chadian Ministrvy of
Justice »], Paris, L’Harmattan, 1993, pp. 3-266. For the English translation, (erdi.t)z,. K
Transitional Justice, Vol. III, Washington D.C., U.S. Institute of Peace Press, 1995, pp. 51-93.
6 CR 2009/08, of 6 April 2009, pp. 18-19.
7 CR 2012/2, of 12 March 2012, pp. 12 and 23.

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of 16 March 2012 before the Court, Senegal also referred to those find8 -
ings of the Chadian Truth Commission, as evoked by Belgium . Those
findings were not controverted.
7. In my understanding, those findings ought to be taken into account
in addressing the questions lodged with the Court in the present case,

under the CAT, one of the “core Conventions” on human rights of thve
United Nations. (This is of course without prejudice to the determination
of facts by the competent criminal tribunal that eventually becomes
entrusted with the trial of Mr. H. Habré.) After all, the exercise of juris -
diction — particularly in pursuance to the principle aut dedere aut judi -

care — by any of the States parties to the CAT (Arts. 5-7) is prompted by
the gravity of the breaches perpetrated to the detriment of human beings,
of concern to the members of the international community as a whole.

8. Bearing this in mind, the main findings set forth in the Report of thev
Chadian Truth Commission may here be briefly recalled, for the purposevs
of the consideration of the cas d’espèce. They pertain to : (a) the organs
of repression of the regime Habré in Chad (1982-1990) ; (b) arbitrary
detentions and torture ; (c) the systematic nature of the practice of tor -

ture of detained persons ; (d) extra-judicial or summary executions, and
massacres. The corresponding passages of the Report, published in 1993,
can be summarized as follows.

1. The Organs of Repression of the Regime Habré
in Chad (1982-1990)

9. According to the aforementioned Report of the Chadian Truth Com-
mission, the machinery of repression of the Habré regime in Chad (19v82-

1990) was erected on the creation and function of four organs of his
dictatorship, namely : the Directorate of Documentation and Security
(Direction de la documentation et de la sécurité — DDS) or the “political
police”, the Service of Presidential Investigation (Service d’investigation pré

sidentielle — SIP), the General Information [Unit] (Renseignements
généraux — RG) and the State party (parti-Etat), called the Union natio -
nale pour l’indépendance et la révolution — UNIR). And the Report added:

“All these organs had the mission of controlling the people, keeping
them under surveillance, watching their actions and attitudes even in
the smallest matters, in order to flush out so-called enemies of the

nation and neutralize them permanently.
The DDS is the principal organ of repression and terror. Among
all the oppressive institutions of the Habré regime, the DDS distin -
guished itself by its cruelty and its contempt for human life. It fully

8
CR 2012/5, of 16 March 2012, p. 31.

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carried out its mission, which was to terrorize the population to make
them better slaves.
Habré laid all the foundations for his future political police in thev

first days after he seized power. Initially it existed in embryonic fovrm
as the ‘Documentation and Intelligence Service’ (. . .). The DDS as it
is known today was created by Decree No. 005/PR of 26 January
9
1983.”

10. The “territorial competence” of the DDS extended over “the wholve
national territory” and even abroad. No sector, public or private, esvcaped
its supervision :

“Agents were everywhere in the country, beginning with the pre -

fectures, the subprefectures, the cantons and even the villages. It had
a branch in every electoral borough. To oversee its territory, it
recruited local agents as spies and informers. Each branch was com -
10
posed of a chief and a deputy.”

Promotions were given in exchange for information 11. The DDS aimed
also at those who opposed the regime and were based in neighbouring

countries, whereto it sent its agents to perpetrate murder or kidnap -
pings . The DDS was directly linked and subordinated to the Presidence
of the Republic, as set forth by the decree which instituted the DDS ;

given the “confidential character” of its activities, there was vno intermedi -
ary between President H. Habré and the DDS 13.

2. The Systematic Practice of Torture of Persons
Arbitrarily Detained

11. The same Report adds that, in the period of the Habré regime,
most victims were arbitrarily detained by the DDS, without knowing the
charges against them. They were systematically tortured, either for
14
“intimidation” or else as “reprisal” . And the Report added that

“Torture was an institutional practice in the DDS. Arrestees were
systematically tortured, then kept in tiny cells under terrible and inhuv -

mane conditions. (. . .) [T]he DDS elevated torture virtually to

9 Chadian Ministry of Justice, “Report by the National Commission of Invquiry of
the Chadian Ministry of Justice on ‘The Crimes and Misappropriations vCommitted by
ex-President Habré and His Accomplices’ ”, op. cit. supra note 5.
10Ibid.
11
12Ibid., pp. 61-62.
13Ibid.
He gave all the orders, and the DDS reported to him daily ; ibid. This was how,
during his eight years in power, he imposed a regime of terror in Chad.

14Ibid., p. 69.

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the status of a standard procedure, and almost all detainees were
subjected to it one way or another, regardless of sex or age.” 15

12. And the Chadian Truth Commission proceeded in its account of
the facts it found :

“Everyone arrested by the DDS, in N’Djamena or in the provinces,
was systematically subjected to at least one interrogation session, fol -
lowing which an interrogation report was prepared. Torture being the

tool of choice during interrogation, DDS agents resorted to it syste-
matically.
A number of former DDS detainees told the Commission of Inquiry
about the torture and abuse to which they were subjected during their

detention. Scars from these tortures and medical examinations have
corroborated their testimony.” 16

3. Extra-Judicial or Summary Executions
and Massacres

13. The Report of the Chadian Truth Commission also acknowledged
cases of extra-judicial or summary executions, and of massacres :

“During his eight-year reign Hissein Habré created a regime where v

adherence to any political opinions contrary to his own could mean
physical liquidation. Thus, from the time he came to power in June
1982 through November 1990 when he fled, a large number of Chad -
ians were persecuted for their efforts to modify his autocratic policives.

That is why entire families were arrested and imprisoned with no trial
of any kind, or simply hunted down and wiped out. (. . .)

Individuals arrested by DDS had very little chance of coming out
alive. This sad reality was known to all Chadians. Detainees died in
one of two ways : either slowly, following days or months of impris -
onment, or quickly, in the first few days after arrest, at the hands ovf

Hissein Habré’s executioners. (. . .)

Testimony from former political prisoners has provided ample evi-
dence about the ways their comrades died in prison. Some died of

physical exhaustion due to inhuman prison conditions (. . .). Others
died from asphyxiation. Packed into minuscule cells (. . .), prisoners
died one after another.

15
Neil J. Kritz (ed.), Transitional Justice, op. cit. supra note 5, p. 38. Su-h prac
tice was conducted pursuant to superior orders, in the hierarchy of powev; cf. ibid.,
pp. 69-70.
16Ibid., pp. 70-71.

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Removals at night and extra-judiciary executions are practiced
regularly by DDS agents on detainees. These are generally the most
bloodthirsty agents (. . .) who proceed in the selection of prisoners
destined for the abattoir located near N’Djamena. These odious
17
and barbarous and acts target a certain category of detainees.”

4. The Intentionality of Extermination of Those Who

Allegedly Opposed the Regime

14. In its remaining parts, the Report of the Chadian Truth Commis -
sion addressed aggravating circumstances of the oppression of the regimev
Habré, mainly the intentionality of the atrocities perpetrated. In its own
words,

“The Hissein Habré regime was a veritable hecatomb for the Chad -
ian people; thousands of people died, thousands of others suffered in

mind and body and continue to suffer.

Throughout this dark reign, in N’Djamena and everywhere else in
the country, systematic repression was the rule for all opponents or

suspected opponents of the regime.
The possessions of persons arrested or hunted were pillaged and
their relatives persecuted. Entire families were decimated.
In the interior, villages were completely burned down and their
populations massacred. Nothing was immune to this murderous mad -

ness, and the entire country was in a state of terror. (. . .)
Never in the history of Chad have there been so many deaths, never
have there been so many innocent victims. When the Commission of
Inquiry began its work, it believed that at worst it would be dealing

with massacres, but the further it proceeded in its investigations, the
larger loomed the dimensions of the disaster, until finally it was a
question of extermination. No ethnic group, no tribe, no family was
spared, except the Goranes and their allies. The killing machine made
no distinction between men, women and children. The mildest protest

was equated with revolt and triggered horrible reprisals. The silenced
and submissive population watched powerless its own gradual asphyx -
iation. Starting in 1982, political prisons sprang up all over Chad, andv
they were not emptied until the fall of the regime in 1990. In

N’Djamena as well as the provinces, arrests were made at a frenetic
pace. People were arrested on any pretext, even without any pretext.
A slip of the tongue, an old grudge never forgiven by a Gorane or
DDS agent, even an incident fabricated of whole cloth was enough
for one to find himself in the grim dungeons of the DDS.

17 Neil J. Kritz (ed.), Transitional Justice, op. cit. s5, pp. 54 and 75.

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In these dungeons, a very large number of people died. The number
of political prisoners counted by the Commission of Inquiry for the

period 1982-1990 and the number who died during the same period
boggle the imagination.” 18

15. The Report of the Chadian Truth Commission, published in 1993,
was in fact concluded on 7 May 1992, with a series of recommendations 19.
Its over-all assessment was quite sombre. In its own words,

“The record of Habré’s eight-year reign is terrifying. The Commvis -

sion still wonders how a citizen, a child of the country, could have
committed so much evil, so much cruelty, against his own people. The
stereotype of the hard-core revolutionary idealist quickly gave way to
that of a shabby and sanguinary tyrant.

Recapitulating the evils he has wrought on his fellow citizens, the
toll is heavy and the record grim :

— more than 40,000 victims ;
— more than 80,000 orphans ;

— more than 30,000 widows ;
— more than 200,000 people left with no moral or material sup -
port as the result of this repression.

Add to that the movable and immovable goods plundered and
confiscated from peaceful citizens — an amount estimated at ONE

BILLION CFA FRANCS each year.
Eight years of rule, eight years of tyranny (. . .). Why so much evil,
so much hatred of his own people? Was it worth the pain of struggling
for a whole decade to win power, just to do that ? For what ideal and

to what end was Habré fighting ? (. . .)
The Habré regime and what became of it should serve as a lesson
to all Chadians, and in particular to the country’s rulers. A wise mavn
20
once said: ‘Power is like a shadow, and shadows are never eternal.’”

III. The Decision of May 2006

of the UN Committee agaivnst Torture

16. On 18 April 2001, a group of persons who claimed to be victims
of torture during the regime Habré in Chad lodged a complaint with

the UN Committee against Torture, supervisory organ of the
UN Convention against Torture (CAT). They did so under Article 22
of the CAT, in the exercise of the right of individual complaint or peti -

18
Neil J. Kritz (ed.), Transitional Justice, op. cit. s5, pp. 79-80.
19
20f. ibid., pp. 92-93.
Ibid., p. 97.

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21
tion . The Committee then proceeded to the examination of the case
of Souleymane Guengueng and al. v. Senegal . It should not pass
unnoticed, at this stage, that the Committee was enabled to pronounce

on this matter due to the exercise, by the individuals concerned, of their
right of complaint or petition at international level.
17. Half a decade later, on 19 May 2006, the Committee against Tor -

ture adopted a decision, under Article 22 of the CAT, on the case Souley -
mane Guengueng and al., concerning the complaints of Chadian nationals
living in Chad, who claimed to be victims of a breach by Senegal of
Articles 5 (2) and 7 of the CAT 22. The Committee did so taking into

account the submissions of the complainants and of the respondent State,v
bearing in mind the factual background of the case as contained in the
Report (of May 1992) of the National Commission of Inquiry of
23
the Chadian Ministry of Justice . In their complaint lodged with
the UN Committee against Torture, the complainants claimed, as to the
facts, that, between 1982 and 1990, they were tortured by agents of Chad

who answered directly to Mr. H. Habré, the then President of Chad
during the period at issue.
18. The Committee referred to the aforementioned Report by the

National Commission of Inquiry established by the Chadian Ministry of
Justice (cf. supra), giving account of 40,000 “political murders” and “sys -
tematic acts of torture” allegedly committed during the H. Habré regime.

The Committee recalled that, after being ousted by Mr. Idriss Déby in
December 1990, Mr. H. Habré took refuge in Senegal, where he has been
living ever since. The Committee further recalled the initiatives of legal

action (from 2000 onwards) against Mr. H. Habré, in Senegal and in
Belgium. The Committee then found the communication admissible
and considered that the principle of universal jurisdiction enunciated in

Articles 5 (2) and 7 of the CAT implies that the jurisdiction of States
parties “must extend to potential complainants in circumstances similar
to the complainants” 2.

19. As to the merits of the communication in the case Souleymane Guen -

21 Article 22 of the CAT has been accepted by both Senegal (on 16 October 1996) and
Belgium (on 25 July 1999). To date, 64 of the 150 States parties to the CAT have accepvted
this optional clause of recognition of the competence of the UN Committee against
Torture. For an updated digest of the consideration of complaints under vArticle 22 of the
CAT, cf. UN, Report of the Committee against Torture, 45th-46th Sessions (2010-2011),
UN doc. A/66/44, pp. 150-203.

22
CAT, paras. 1.1-1.3. The Committee (acting under Article 108 (9) of its Rules of
Procedure) requested Senegal, as an interim measure, not to expel Mr. H. Habré and to
take all necessary measures to prevent him from leaving the country (otvher than an extradi
tion) — a request to which Senegal acceded.

23 Ibid., para. 2.1.
24 Ibid., para. 6.4, and cf. paras. 6.1-6.5.

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gueng and Others, the Committee, after reviewing the arguments of the
parties as to the alleged violations of the relevant provisions of the CvAT,
noted that Senegal had not contested the fact that it had not taken “vsuch

measures as may be necessary” under Article 5 (2). The Committee found 25
that Senegal had not fulfilled its obligations under that provision . In
reaching this decision, the Committee deemed it fit to warn, in its devcision

of 19 May 2006, that
“the reasonable time-frame within which the State party should have

complied with this obligation [under Article 5 (2) of the CAT] has
been considerably exceeded” 26.

20. As to the alleged breach of Article 7 of the CAT, the Committee
noted that “the obligation to prosecute the alleged perpetrator of acvts of

torture does not depend on the prior existence of a request for his extrvadi -
tion”; it further observed that the objective of Article 7 is “to prevent any
act of torture from going unpunished” 27. The Committee also pondered

that Senegal or any other State party “cannot invoke the complexity ovf its
judicial proceedings or other reasons stemming from domestic law to jus -
tify its failure to comply with [its] obligations under the Convention”v 28.

The Committee found that Senegal was under an obligation to prosecute
Mr. H. Habré for alleged acts of torture, unless it could demonstrate that
there was not sufficient evidence to prosecute (at the time of the comv -

plainants’ submission of their original complaint of January 2000).

21. The Committee recalled that the decision of March 2001 by the

Court of Cassation had put an end to any possibility of prosecuting
Mr. H. Habré in Senegal, and added that since Belgium’s request of
extradition of September 2005, Senegal also had the choice to extradite

Mr. H. Habré. As Senegal decided neither to prosecute nor to extradite
him, the Committee found that it had failed to perform its obligations
under Article 7 of the CAT 29. The Committee then concluded that Sen-
egal had violated Articles 5 (2) and 7 of the CAT; it added that itsdecision

in no way influenced the possibility of “the complainants’ obtaivning com -
pensation through the domestic courts for the State party’s failure to
comply with its obligations under the Convention” 3. This decision of the

Committee against Torture is, in my view, of particular relevance to thev
present case before this Court 31.

25
26CAT, paras. 9.1-9.6.
Ibid., para. 9.5.
27Ibid., para. 9.7.
28Ibid., para. 9.8.
29Ibid., paras. 9.7-9.12.
30Ibid., paras. 9.12 and 10.
31Cf. also Section XV, infra.

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IV. The Case before the ICJ :
Responses to Questionsv Put to the Contending Pavrties

1. Questions Put to Both Parties

22. At the end of the public hearings before this Court, I deemed it fit

to put to the two contending Parties, on 16 March 2012, the following
questions :

“(. . .) First question :

1. As to the facts which lie at the historical origins of this case, taking
into account the alleged or eventual projected costs of the trial of
Mr. Habré in Senegal, what in your view would be the probatory

value of the Report of the National Commission of Inquiry of the
Chadian Ministry of Justice ?

Second question :

2. As to the law :

— (a) Pursuant to Article 7 (1) of the United Nations Convention
against Torture, how is the obligation to ‘submit the case to its
competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution’ to be inter-

preted? In your view, are the steps that Senegal alleges to have
taken to date sufficient to fulfil the obligation under Article 7 (1)
of the United Nations Convention against Torture ?

— (b) According to Article 6 (2) of the United Nations Convention
against Torture, a State party wherein a person alleged to have
committed an offence (pursuant to Article 4) is present ‘shall

immediately make a preliminary inquiry into the facts’. How is
this obligation to be interpreted ? In your view, are the steps that
Senegal alleges to have taken to date sufficient to fulfil its obli-
gation under this provision of the United Nations Convention
32
against Torture? ”

2. Reponses by Belgium

23. Concerning the first question I posed 3, Belgium gave its response
on the basis of the relevant rules of Belgian law, and invited Senegal to

elaborate on the rules applicable under Senegalese law. Belgium contended

32
33CR 2012/5, of 16 March 2012, pp. 42-43.
Namely : “As to the facts which lie at the historical origins of this case, taking into
account the alleged or eventual projected costs of the trial of Mr. Habré in Senegal, what
in your view would be the probatory value of the Report of the National vCommission of
Inquiry of the Chadian Ministry of Justice ? ”

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that Belgian law espouses the principle of “liberté de la preuve” in criminal
contexts, which, according to Belgium, entails, first, the free choicev of evi -

dence and, secondly, allows the trial judge to have discretion to assessv its
probative value. Belgium pointed out that the Belgian Court of Cassation
has upheld this principle many times 34. Belgium further argued that the
corollary of the principle of “liberté de la preuve” is that of firm conviction,

whereby the judge can only uphold the charges in case all the evidence
submitted to him by the prosecutor warrants the firm conviction that tvhe
individual has committed the offence he is charged with.
24. Belgium contended, in addition, that, essentially, any type of evi -

dence is thus admissible, as long as it is rational and recognized, by rveason
and experience, as capable of convincing the judge. Belgium also allegedv
that, in accordance with the general legal principle of respect for the vrights
of the defence, any evidence taken into account by the judge in a criminval

case must be subjected to adversarial argument. Belgium contended that
the judge in a criminal case may take into consideration all the evidencve
which has been gathered abroad and which has been transmitted to the
Belgian authorities, such as, a copy of the Report of the National Com -

mission of Inquiry of the Chadian Ministry of Justice (hereinafter : “the
Report”), as long as that evidence does not violate the right to a fvair trial.
Belgium further argued that the judge will determine the legality of thev
evidence obtained abroad based on the following considerations : whether

the foreign law allows the evidence used ; whether or not this evidence is
consistent with the rules of international law directly applicable in the
domestic courts and with Belgian public policy rules ; and, whether the

evidence was obtained in compliance with the foreign law, in35o far as the
judge has been seised of a dispute in this connection .
25. Belgium further claimed that when the international arrest warrant
against Mr. Habré was issued, the Belgian investigating judge took

account, in particular, of the evidence contained in the Report. Thus —
to conclude — Belgium argued that, while keeping in mind that it is
for the trial judge to rule on the probative value of the Report at issue,
it could certainly be used as evidence in proceedings against Mr. Habré.

Belgium added that the use of the Report could save a considerable
amount of time and money in pursuit of the obligation to prosecute, evenv
if — and Belgium referred to Senegal’s arguments in this regard — it is
not possible to point to “lack of funds or difficulties in establishving a

special budget as exonerating factors” concerning the responsibility vof
the State which is obliged to prosecute or, failing that, to extradite 3.

34
CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 21. Belgium argues that the Court of Cassation has
found that “in respect of criminal law, when the law does not lay dowvn a particular method
of proof, the trial judge in fact assesses the probative value of the evvidence, submitted in
due form, on which he bases his opinion”, Belgian Court of Cassation,v 27 February 2002,
Pas., 2002, p. 598 [translation by the Registry].
35 CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 21.
36 Ibid., p. 22.

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26. As to the second question I posed 37, Belgium argued that there are
three steps to be taken pursuant to Article 6 of the Convention against

Torture (CAT) :

“first, to secure the offender’s presence ; second, to conduct, immedi -
ately, a preliminary inquiry; and,third, to notify, immediately, certain
States what is going on, including in particular reporting to them its
findings following the preliminary inquiry and indicating whether it

intends to exercise jurisdiction”.

As to the first requirement of Article 6, Belgium argued that it never con -
tested that Senegal fulfilled this first step, even though, from timve to time,

Belgium has had serious concerns about Senegal’s continuing commit -
ment to this obligation, given certain statements by high-level officials of
Senegal.

27. As concerns Article 6 (2), Belgium argued that Senegal’s counsel
did not make arguments in this regard during the oral hearings. Belgium v
claimed that Article 6 is a common provision in Conventions containing
aut dedere aut judicare clauses (as, e.g., in the Hague and Montreal Con -

ventions concerning civil aviation), and referred to the United Nationsv
Study of such clauses, to the effect that the preliminary steps set out in the
Conventions, including “measures (. . .) to investigate relevant facts”, are
indispensable to allow the proper operation of the mechanism for the

punishment of offenders in the relevant Conventions. Belgium went on tvo
argue that the nature of the investigation required by Article 6 (2)
depended to some extent on the legal system concerned, and the circum -

stances of the particular case. It contended, however, that from the strvuc-
ture of the aut dedere aut judicare provisions of the Convention against
Torture, the reference to a preliminary inquiry in Article 6 (2) is of the
kind of preliminary investigation which precedes the submission of the

matter to the prosecuting authorities.

28. Belgium claimed that Article 6 (4) makes it clear that the prelimi -
nary inquiry should lead to findings, and that the main purpose of thev
inquiry is to enable the State in whose territory the alleged offenderv is

37
Namely :
“According to Article 6 (2) of the United Nations Convention against
Torture, a State party wherein a person alleged to have committed an offvence

(pursuant to Article 4) is present ‘shall immediately make a preliminary inquiry
into the facts’. How is this obligation to be interpret? In your view, are the
steps that Senegal alleges to have taken to date sufficient to fulfilv its obliga
tion under this provision of the United Nations Convention against Tortuvre ?”

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present to take a decision on whether it intends to take jurisdiction, avnd
to report its findings to other interested States so that they may take a

decision whether or not to seek extradition. In Belgium’s submission,v

“[t]he preliminary inquiry referred to in Article 6, paragraph 2, thus
requires the gathering of first pieces of evidence and information,
sufficient to permit an informed decision by the competent authorities v

of the territorial State whether a person should be charged with a
serious criminal offence and brought to justice” 3.

Belgium concluded by claiming that there is no information before the

Court speaking to any preliminary inquiry on the part of Senegal.

39
29. As to my question concerning the interpretation of Article 7 , Bel-
gium first argued that the obligation under Article 7 (1) is closely related
to the obligations under Articles 5 (2), and 6 (2) of the CAT — which in

its view Senegal has also violated — and Belgium further claimed in this
regard that “the breach of Article 7 flowed from the breach of the other
two provisions”. Belgium explained that

“[t]he absence of the necessary legislation, in clear breach of Articvle 5,
paragraph 2, until 2007/2008 meant that Senegal’s prosecutorial

efforts were doomed to failure. So the prosecutorial efforts under -
taken in 2000 and 2001 cannot be seen as fulfilling the obligation laivd
down in Article 7, paragraph 1, of the Convention.” 40

38
CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, pp. 42-44. Belgium also cites the Commentary, by
Nowak and McArthur, in this sense :
“[s]uch criminal investigation is based on the information made availvable by the

victims and other sources as indicated in Article 6 (1) and includes active measures of
gathering evidence, such as interrogation of the alleged torturer, takinvg witness testi
monies, inquiries on the spot, searching for documentary evidence, et; M. Nowak,
E. McArthur et al., The United Nations Convention against Torture — A Commen -
tary, Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 340.

39 Namely :

“Pursuant to Article 7 (1) of the United Nations Convention against Torture, how
is the obligation to ‘submit the case to its competent authorities fovr the purpose of
prosecution’ to be interpreted ? In your view, are the steps that Senegal alleges to
have taken to date sufficient to fulfil the obligation under Article 7 (1) of the United
Nations Convention against Torture ?”

40
CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 46.

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30. Belgium claimed that the obligation in Article 7 of the CAT “to

submit the case to the competent authorities for the purpose of prosecu -
tion” is carefully worded as it would not seem realistic “to prosecute
whenever allegations are made”. In this regard, Belgium argued that :

“What can be required is that the case is submitted to the
prosecuting authorities for the purpose of prosecution ; and that
those authorities ‘shall take their decision in the same manner as

the case of any ordinary offence of a serious nature’— in paragraph 2
of Article 7, with which paragraph 1 should be read, provides.
What is at issue here, in particular, is the need for the prosecuting
authorities to decide whether the available evidence is sufficient for va
41
prosecution.”

31. Belgium then referred to the negotiating history of Article 7 and
argued that the same language is now found in many of the aut dedere aut
judicare clauses that follow the Hague Convention 42model, including the

CAT. Referring to the travaux préparatoires of the latter, Belgium argued
that it was decided that the language should follow the “well-established
language” of the Hague Convention 4. Belgium also claimed that “the

fact that there is no absolute requirement to prosecute does not mean thvat
the prosecuting authorities have total discretion, and that a State may
simply do nothing”, and contended that, like any other international obli -
gation, it must be performed in good faith.

32. Belgium referred to the object and purpose of the CAT stated in its

concluding preambular paragraph “to make more effective the struggle
against torture” which means, in its view, that the prosecuting authorities
start “a prosecution if there is sufficient evidence, and that they vdo so in a
timely fashion”. After referring to expert writing on the travaux prépara -

toires of the Hague Convention, for guidance in the interpretation of
Article 7 of the CAT 4, Belgium concluded that Senegal is in breach of its
obligation under Article 7 of the CAT, notwithstanding the fact that the

prosecuting authorities acted in the year 2000, without success, which ivn
its view was not sufficient to fulfil its obligations under the CAT.

41CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 46.
42Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, The Haguve,
16 December 1970, United Nations, Treaty Series, Vol. 860, p. 105 (I-12325).
43
44CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, pp. 46-47.
Ibid., pp. 46-48.

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33. Belgium further contended that, since 2000-2001, Senegal has taken
no action to submit any of the allegations against Mr. H. Habré to the

prosecuting authorities, a fact which Belgium submitted to be a

“matter of particular concern given that the allegations against
Mr. H. Habré were renewed in the Belgian extradition request of
2005, and in the further complaint laid in Senegal in 2008, not to

speak of the information now publicly available concerning the crimes
that have been committed when Hissène Habré was in power in Chad,
and for which he allegedly bears responsibility” 45.

3. Responses by Senegal

34. In respect of my first question (supra), Senegal pointed out, as far
as the pertinent provisions of domestic law in force in Senegal are con -

cerned, that the Report of the Chadian Truth Commission “can only be
used for information purposes and is not binding on the investigating
judge who, in the course of his investigations conducted by means of an v
international letter rogatory, may endorse or disregard it”. Senegal vadded

that the Report is not binding on the trial judge examining the merits ovf
the case, and thus the value of the Report is “entirely relative” 46.
35. As to my second question (supra), Senegal argued that, even before

it adhered to the CAT, it had already endeavoured to punish torture, andv
as such it had established its jurisdiction in relation to Article 5 (3) of the
Convention, on the basis of which Mr. Habré was indicted in 2000 by the
senior investigating judge when the competent Senegalese authorities had

been seised with complaints. Senegal further claims that pursuant to
Article 7 (3) of the Convention, Mr. Habré “was able to avail himself
of the means of redress made available by Senegalese law to any indi-
vidual implicated in proceedings before criminal courts, without distinc -
47
tion of nationality, on the same basis as the civil parties” .

36. Senegal also added that, further to the judgment of 20 March 2001

of the Court of Cassation, and the mission of the Committee against Tor -
ture in 2009, Senegal adapted its legislation to the other provisions of the
CAT. Senegal further claimed that the investigating judge, in criminal
proceedings, may be seised either by a complaint with civil-party applicva -

tion or by an application from the public prosecutor to open an investiga-
tion. Concerning the preliminary inquiry, Senegal claimed that its aim
is to establish the basic facts and that it does not necessarily lead to

45 CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 48.
46 CR 2012/7, of 21 March 2012, p. 32.
47 Ibid., pp. 32-33.

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prosecution, as the prosecutor may, upon review of the results of the
inquiry, decide that there are no grounds for further proceedings 48.

37. Senegal further claimed that the CAT does not contain a “general
obligation to combat impunity” as a legal obligation with the effecvt of
requiring universal jurisdiction to be established and that an obligatiovn of

result is not in question, “since the fight against impunity is a pvrocess hav -
ing prosecution or extradition as possible aims under the said Conven -
tion”. Senegal questioned the purpose of establishing universal jurisvdiction
in the case of a State which already has a legal entitlement to exercisev

territorial jurisdiction, which, in its view, is the most obvious princivple in
cases of competing jurisdiction. Senegal recalled that, in 2009, it estavb -
lished its jurisdiction concerning offences covered by the CAT.

38. Senegal further recalled the Court’s Order on the request for provi-
sional measures of 2009 to the effect that the Parties seemed to diffver on
the “time frame within which the obligations provided for in Article 7

must be fulfilled or [on the] circumstances (financial, legal or otvher diffi -
culties)”. Senegal argues that the obligation aut dedere aut judicare
remains an obligation either to extradite or, in the alternative, to
prosecute, given that international law does not appear to “give priovr ity
49
to either alternative course of action”.
39. Senegal contended, moreover, that “[t]he obligation to try, on
account of which Senegal has been brought before the Court, cannot be

conceived as an obligation of result” but rather an obligation of meavns,
where “the requirement of wrongfulness is fulfilled only if the Stavte to
which the source of the obligation is attributable has not deployed all vthe
means or endeavours that could legitimately be expected of it in order tvo

achieve the results expected by the authors of the rule”. Senegal referred
to some international jurisprudence and argued that international law
does not impose obligations of result on member States.
40. Senegal concluded by arguing that the measures it has taken thus

far are largely sufficient and satisfy the obligations laid down in Arti -
cles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of the CAT. Senegal thus argued that once it

“undertook major reforms to allow the trial to be held, including
constitutional reforms, it may be considered to have satisfied its oblvi -
gation of means or of ‘best efforts’, so as not to give the appevarance

of a State heedless and not desirous of implementing its conventional
obligations. It may not have done this to a sufficient extent, but it hvas
made sufficient progress in terms of acting to achieve such a result.”v 50

48 Ibid., p. 33.
49 CR 2012/7, of 21 March 2012, p. 34.
50 Ibid., pp. 35-36.

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4. General Assessment

41. In the light of the aforementioned, it is significant that, for the

arrest warrant against Mr. Habré, the evidence contained in the Report
of the Chadian Truth Commission was taken into account by the Belgian
investigating judge. Furthermore — as also pointed out by Belgium —
that Report can certainly be taken into account as evidence in legal prov -
ceedings against Mr. H. Habré, it being for the trial judge or the tribunal

to rule on its probative value. Senegal itself acknowledged that the Repvort
at issue can be taken into account for information purposes, without
being “binding” on the investigating judge ; it is for the judge (or the tri-
bunal) to rule on it.

42. There thus seems to be a disagreement between Belgium and Sen-
egal as to the consideration of the evidence considered in the Report. In
any case, the Report cannot be simply overlooked or ignored, it cannot

be examined without care. It is to be examined together with all other
pieces of evidence that the investigating judge or the tribunal succeeds in
having produced before him/it, for the purpose of ruling on the matter avt
issue. The present case concerns ultimately a considerable total of victvims,
those murdered, or arbitrarily detained and tortured, during the Habrév

regime in Chad (1982-1990).
43. As to the answers provided by the contending Parties to my ques -
tions addressed to them, whether in their view the steps that Senegal
alleges to have taken to date were sufficient to fulfil its obligatiovns under
Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of the UN Convention against Torture, an assess -

ment of such answers ensues from the consideration of the doctrinal
debate on the dichotomy between alleged obligations of means or con -
duct, and obligations of result. I am of the view that the obligations uvnder
a treaty of the nature of the UN Convention against Torture are not, as
the respondent State argues, simple obligations of means or conduct :

they are obligations of result, as we are here in the domain of peremptovry
norms of international law, of jus cogens. I feel obliged to expand on the
foundations of my personal position on this matter.

V. Peremptory Norms of Intvernational Law
(Jus C ogens ): The Corresponding Obligavtions
of Result, and Not of Simpvle Conduct

44. In my understanding, the State obligations — under Conventions
for the protection of the human person — of prevention, investigation
and sanction of grave violations of human rights and of international
humanitarian law, are not simple obligations of conduct, but rather obliv -

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gations of result . It cannot be otherwise, when we are in face of peremp-

tory norms of international law, safeguarding the fundamental rights of v
the human person. Obligations of simple conduct may prove insufficient ;
they may exhaust themselves, for example, in unsatisfactory legislative v
measures. In the domain of jus cogens, such as the absolute prohibition of

torture, the State obligations are of due diligence and of result. The evxa -
mination of the proposed distinction between obligations of conduct and v
obligations of result has tended to take place at a purely theoretical lvevel,

assuming variations in the conduct of the State, and even a succession ovf
acts on the part of this latter 5, and without taking sufficient and due
account of a situation which causes irreparable harm to the fundamental v
rights of the human person.

45. If the corresponding obligations of the State in such a situation

were not of result, but of mere conduct, the doors would then be left opven
to impunity. The handling of the case of Mr. Hissène Habré to date serves
as a warning in this regard. Over three decades ago, when the then rap -

porteur of the UN International Law Commission (ILC) on the Interna -
tional Responsibility of the State, Roberto Ago, proposed the distinction
between obligations of conduct and of result, some members of the ILC
expressed doubts as to the viability of distinguishing between the two

types of obligation ; after all, in order to achieve a given result, the State
ought to assume a given behaviour 5. In any case, obligations of result
admitted the initial free choice by the State of the means to comply witvh

them, of obtaining the results due.

46. The aforementioned distinction between the two kinds of obliga -
tions introduced a certain hermeticism into the classic doctrine on the v

matter, generating some confusion, and not appearing very helpful in thev
domain of the international protection of human rights. Despite refer -
ences to a couple of human rights treaties, the essence of Roberto Ago’s

reasoning, developed in his dense and substantial Reports on the Interna -
tional Responsibility of the State, had in mind above all the framework vof
essentially inter-State relations. The ILC itself, in the Report of 1977 on
its work, at last reckoned that a State party to a human rights treaty hvas

51
Cf., to this effect : IACtHR, case of the Dismissed Employees of the Congress v. Peru
(interpretation of judgment of 30 November 2007), dissenting opinion of Judge Cançado
Trindade, paras. 13-29 ; IACtHR, case of the Indigenous Community Sawhoyamaxa v.
Paraguay (judgment of 29 March 2006), separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade,
para. 23 ; IACtHR, case Baldeón García v. Peru (judgment of 6 April 2006), separate
opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, paras. 11-12.
52 A. Marchesi, Obblighi di Condotta e Obblighi di Risultato . . ., op. cit. infra note 55,
pp. 50-55 and 128-135.
53 Report reproduced in : Appendix I : « Obligations of Result and Obligations of

Means», I. Brownlie, State Responsibility — Part I, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2001
[reprint], pp. 241-276, esp. pp. 243 and 245.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 172 28/11/13 12:50 507 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

obligations of result, and, if it does not abide by them, it cannot excuse
itself by alleging that it has done all that it could to comply with them,

that it has behaved in the best way to comply with them ; on the contrary,
such State has the duty to attain the result required of it by the conven -
tional obligations of protection of the human person.

47. Such binding obligations of result (under human rights treaties) are
much more common in international law than in domestic law. The con -
fusion generated by the dichotomy of obligations of conduct and of resulvt
has been attributed to the undue transposition into international law ofv a

distinction proper to civil law (droit des obligations); rather than “import -
ing” inadequately distinctions from other branches of law or other
domains of legal theory, in my view one should rather seek to ensure thavt
the behaviour of States is such that it will abide by the required resulvt, of

securing protection to human beings under their respective jurisdictionsv.
Human rights treaties have not had in mind the dichotomy at issue, which
is vague, imprecise, and without practical effect.

48. It is thus not surprising to find that the distinction between so-called
obligations of conduct and of result was discarded from the approved
2001 draft of the ILC on the International Responsibility of States, andv
54
was met with criticism in expert writing . Moreover, it failed to have any
significant impact on international case law. The ECHR, for example,
held in the case of Colozza and Rubinat v. Italy (judgment of 12 February

1985), that the obligation under Article 6 (1) of the European Convention
of Human Rights was one of result. For its part, the ICJ, in the case ofv
the “Hostages” (United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran▯,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980), ordered the respondent State to comply

promptly with its obligations, which were “not merely contractual”v, but
rather imposed by general international law (para. 62) ; the ICJ singled
out “the imperative character of the legal obligations” incumbent vupon
the respondent State (para. 88), and added that

“Wrongfully to deprive human beings of their freedom and to sub-

ject them to physical constraint in conditions of hardship is in itself v
manifestly incompatible with the principles of the Charter of the

54
Cf., e.g., I. Brownlie, State Responsibility — Part I, op. cit. supra note 53, pp. 241,
250-251, 255-259, 262, 269-270 and 276 ; J. Combacau, “Obligations de résultat et obli -
gations de comportement : quelques questions et pas de réponse”, Mélanges offerts à
Paul Reuter — Le droit international: unité et diversité, Paris, Pedone, 1981, pp. 190, 198 and
200-204; P.-M. Dupuy, “Le fait générateur de la responsabilité internationavle des Etats”,
188 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (1984), pp. 47-49; and
cf. also P.-M. Dupuy, “Reviewing the Difficulties of Codification : On Ago’s Classification
of Obligations of Means and Obligations of Result in Relation to State Rvesponsibility”, 10
European Journal of International Law (1999), pp. 376-377.

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United Nations, as well as with the fundamental principles enunciated
in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” (Para. 91.)

49. One of such principles is that of respect of the dignity of the human
person. Thus, in so far as the safeguard of the fundamental rights of thve
human person is concerned, the obligations of the State — conventional

and of general international law — are of result, and not of simple con -
duct, so as to secure the effective protection of those rights. The abvsolute
prohibition of grave violations of human rights (such as torture) entavils
obligations which can only be of result, endowed with a necessarily objec -

tive character, and the whole conceptual universe of the law of the inter -
national responsibility of the State has to be reassessed in the framewovrk
of the international protection of human rights 55, encompassing the ori -
gin as well as the implementation of State responsibility, with the consve -

quent and indispensable duty of reparation.

50. In the framework of the international law of human rights —

wherein the UN Convention against Torture is situated — it is not the
result that is conditioned by the conduct of the State, but, quite on thve
contrary, it is the conduct of the State that is conditioned by the attainment
of the result aimed at by the norms of protection of the human person. The

conduct of the State ought to be the one which is conducive to compli -
ance with the obligations of result (in the cas d’espèce, the proscription of
torture). The State cannot allege that, despite its good conduct, insuffiv -
ciencies or difficulties of domestic law rendered impossible the full cvom -

pliance with its obligation (to outlaw torture and to prosecute perpetrvators
of it) ; and the Court cannot consider a case terminated, given the alleg -
edly “good conduct” of the State concerned.

51. This would be inadmissible ; we are herein before obligations of
result. To argue otherwise would amount to an exercise of legal formal -
ism, devoid of any meaning, that would lead to a juridical absurdity, revn-
dering dead letter the norms of protection of the human person. In sum

and conclusion on this point, the absolute prohibition of torture is, asv
already seen, one of jus cogens ; in an imperative law, conformed by the
corpus juris of the international protection of the fundamental rights
of the human person, the corresponding obligations of the State are

ineluctable, imposing themselves per se, as obligations necessarily of
result.

55A. Marchesi, Obblighi di Condotta e Obblighi di Risultato — Contributo allo Studio
degli Obblighi Internazionali, Milan, Giuffrè Ed., 2003, pp. 166; F. Urioste Braga,
Responsabilidad Internacional de los Estados en los Derechos Humanos, Montevideo, B de
F Colección, 2002, pp. 1-115 and 139-203 ; L. G. Loucaides, Essays on the Developing Law
of Human Rights, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1995, pp. 141-142 and 149, and cf. pp. 145, 150-152
and 156.

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VI. The Everlasting Quest fovr the Realization of Juvstice

in the Present Case

52. With these clarifications in mind, it would be helpful to proceed, at v
this stage, to a brief view of the long-standing endeavours, throughout
several years, to have justice done, in relation to the grave breaches ovf

human rights and international humanitarian law reported to have
occurred during the Habré regime (1982-1990). Those endeavours com -
prise legal actions in domestic courts, requests of extradition (at intver-State
level), some other initiatives at international level, and an initiativve of
entities of the African civil society. The way would then be paved for a

brief review of the initiatives and endeavours to the same effect of the
African Union in particular, given its influence in the orientation ofv the
conduction of international affairs in the African continent.

1. Legal Actions in Domestic Courts

53. On 25-26 January 2000 the first complaints were lodged by Chad -
ian nationals in Dakar, Senegal, against Mr. Hissène Habré, accusing him
of the practice of torture (crimes against humanity). On 3 February 2000

a Senegalese judge, after hearing the victims, indicted Mr. H. Habré, and
placed him under house arrest. But on 4 July 2000 the Dakar Appeals
Court dismissed the indictment, ruling that Senegalese courts had no
jurisdiction to pursue the charges because the crimes were not committedv
in Senegal.

54. On 30 November 2000, new complaints were filed against
Mr. H. Habré, this time in Brussels, by Chadian victims living in Bel -
gium. On 20 March 2001, Senegal’s Appeals Court stood by its view, in
ruling that Mr. H. Habré could not stand trial because the alleged crimes
were not committed in Senegal. In 2002 (26 February to 7 March), a Bel -

gian investigating judge (juge d’instruction), in a visit to Chad, inter -
viewed victims and former accomplices of Mr. H. Habré, visited detention
centres and mass graves, and took custody of DDS documents. At the
end of a four-year investigation, on 19 September 2005, he issued
an international arrest warrant in absentia in respect of Mr. H. Habré.

Senegal, however, refused to extradite him to Belgium.
55. Parallel to new developments — at international level — from the
end of 2005 to date, at domestic level new complaints were filed,
on 16 September 2008, against Mr. H. Habré in Senegal, accusing him
again of the practice of torture (crimes against humanity). Earlier on,

on 31 January 2007, Senegal’s National Assembly adopted a law
allowing Senegalese courts to prosecute cases of genocide, crimes againsvt
humanity, war crimes and torture, even when committed outside of
Senegal (thus removing a previous legal obstacle) ; it later amended its
constitution.

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2. Requests of Extradition

56. To the above initiatives of legal actions at domestic law level, four
requests by Belgium to date, of extradition of Mr. H. Habré, are to be

added. As to the first Belgian request of extradition, of 22 May 2005, the
Dakar Appeals Court decided, on 25 November 2005, that it lacked juris-
diction to deal with it. On 15 March 2011, Belgium presented a second
extradition request, declared inadmissible by the Dakar Appeals Court inv

its decision of 18 August 2011. Later on, a third extradition request by
Belgium, of 5 September 2011, was again declared inadmissible by the
Dakar Appeals Courts in its decision of 10 January 2012. Belgium

promptly lodged a fourth extradition request (same date). To those
requests for extradition, one could add the whole of the diplomatic cor -
respondence exchanged between Belgium and Senegal, reproduced in the
dossier of the present case 56before this Court.

3. Initiatives at International Level

57. On 24 January 2006 the African Union (AU), meeting in Khar -
toum, set up a “Committee of Eminent African Jurists”, to examine vthe

H. Habré case and the options for his trial. In its following session, avfter
hearing the report of that Committee, the AU, on 2 July 2006, asked
Senegal to prosecute H. Habré “on behalf of Africa”. In the meantime,
-
on 18 May 2006, the UN Committee against Torture found, in the Sou 57
leymane Guengueng and al. case (supra) that Senegal violated the CAT
and called on Senegal to prosecute or to extradite Mr. H. Habré. Shortly
after the ICJ’s Order of 28 May 2009 in the present case opposing Bel -

gium to Senegal, the President and another member of the UN Commit -
tee against Torture embarked on an unprecedented visit in situ to Senegal,
from 4 to 7 August 2009, to seek the application of the Committee’s own
decision of May 2006 in the cas d’espèce.

58. In the meantime, on 11 August 2008, a Chadian national residing
in Switzerland (Mr. Michelot Yogogombaye) lodged an application

against Senegal before the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rightsv
(AfCHPR) with a view to suspend the “ongoing proceedings” aimingv to
“charge, try and sentence” Mr. Hissène Habré. On 15 December 2009,
the AfCHPR decided that it had no jurisdiction to entertain the applica -

tion at issue, since Senegal had not made a declaration accepting the juris-
diction of the AfCHPR to hear such applications, pursuant to

56
57Cf. Annexes to Belgium’s Memorial, Vol. II, of 1 July 2010, docs. B.1-26.
This was the first time the Committee found a breach of the duty to prvosecute
(Article 7 of the CAT), in a decision that has been seen as corresponding to “vthe letter,
spirit and purpose of Article 7, namely, to avoid safe havens for tor; M. Nowak,
E. McArthur et al., The United Nations Convention against Torture — A Commentary,
op. cit. supra note 38, p. 363.

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Article 34 (6) of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peo -
ples’ Rights (on the establishment of the AfCHPR).
59. In the period 2008-2010, moreover, given Senegal’s refusal to pre -

pare for the trial of Mr. H. Habré unless it received full funding for it, the
European Union and the AU sent successive delegations to negotiate on
the issue with Senegal. In the meantime, on 18 November 2010, the

ECOWAS Court of Justice ruled that Senegal ought to try Mr. H. Habré
by a special jurisdiction or an ad hoc tribunal, to be created for that pur -
pose. On 24 November 2010, a donors’ international roundtable held in
Dakar secured the full funding to cover all the estimated costs of the pvro -
58
ceedings of the trial of Mr. H. Habré . Shortly afterwards, on 31 Janu -
ary 2011, the AU called for the “expeditious” start of the trial ovf
Mr. H. Habré, on the basis of the ECOWAS Court decision (cf. infra).

60. On 24 November 2011, the rapporteur of the CAT on the follow-up
of communications (or petitions) sent a letter to the Permanent Mission
of Senegal to the United Nations, reminding it of its obligation aut dedere
aut judicare under the Convention, and took note of the fact that, until

then, no proceedings had been initiated by Senegal against Mr. H. Habré.
Earlier on, on 12 January 2011, the same rapporteur had sent another
letter to Senegal’s Permanent Mission to the UN, recalling the State vpar -
ty’s obligation under Article 7 (1) of the CAT, now that the full funding

for the trial of Mr. H. Habré had been secured (supra).

61. For its part, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human

Rights (OHCHR) also expressed its concern with the delays in opening
up the trial of Mr. H. Habré ; on 18 March 2011, the OHCHR urged
Senegal to comply with its duty of prosecution 59. Later on, the OHCHR

requested Senegal not to extradite (as then announced) Mr. H. Habré to
Chad (where he had already been sentenced to death in absentia), ponder -
ing that “[j]ustice and accountability are of paramount importance anvd
must be attained through a fair process and in accordance with human
60
rights law” . Shortly afterwards, the OHCHR warned, on 12 July 2011,
that Mr. H. Habré was

“continuing to live with impunity in Senegal, as he has done for the
past 20 years. It is important that rapid and concrete progress is made v

by Senegal to prosecute or extradite Habré to a country willing to

58
Cf. UNHCR/Refworld, “African Union Calls for ‘Expeditious’ Start tov Habré Trial”,
http://www.refworld.org, doc. of 31 January 2011, p. 2.
59UN/OHCHR, www.ohchr.org/news, of 18 March 2011, p. 1.
60UN/OHCHR, “Senegal Must Review Its Decision to Extradite Hissène Habré to
Chad”, www.ohchr.org/news, of 10 July 2011, p. 1.

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conduct a fair trial. This has been the High Commissioner’s position v

all along. It is also the position of the African Union (AU), as well v
as of much of the rest of the international community. It is a violationv
of international law to shelter a person who has committed torture or

other crimes against humanity, without prosecuting or extraditing
him.” 61

4. Initiative of Entities
of African Civil Society

62. In addition to these three exhortations (of the UN Committee

against Torture itself, the African Union, and the rapporteur of
the CAT), on 21 July 2010, Nobel Peace Prize winners Archbishop
Desmond Tutu and Shirin Ebadi, among others, as well as 117 African

human rights groups from 25 African countries, likewise called upon Sen -
egal to move forward with the trial of Mr. H. Habré, for political killings
and the systematic practice of torture, after more than 20 years of alleged
difficulties to the detriment of the victims 62.

63. In their call for the fair trial of Mr. H. Habré, Archbishop D. Tutu
and the other signatories stated :

“We, the undersigned NGOs and individuals urge Senegal rapidly

to begin legal proceedings against the exiled former Chadian dictator
Hissène Habré, who is accused of thousands of political killings and
systematic torture from 1982 to 1990.

The victims of Mr. Habré’s regime have been working tirelessly for
20 years to bring him to justice, and many of the survivors have
already died. (. . .) Instead of justice, the victims have been treated to
63
an interminable political and legal soap opera (. . .).”

64. After recalling the facts of the victims’ quest for justice, they stavted
that a fair trial for Mr. H. Habré in Senegal “should be a milestone”
in the fight to hold “the perpetrators of atrocities (. . .) accountable for

their crimes”. They added that this would moreover show that “Afrivcan
courts are sovereign and capable of providing justice for African victimvs
for crimes committed in Africa”. They thus urged the authorities “to

choose justice, not im64nity, and to move quickly towards the trial
of Hissène Habré” .

61
UN/OHCHR, www.ohchr.org/news, of 12 July 2011, p. 1.
62 Cf. Human Rights Watch (HRW), “Senegal/Chad : Nobel Winners, African Activ -
ists Seek Progress in Habré Trial”, www.hrw.org/news, of 21 July 2010, p. 1; HRW, “UN:
Senegal Must Prosecute or Extradite Hissène Habré”, www.hrw.org/news, of 18 January
2001, p. 1.
63 FIDH [Fédération internationale des ligues des droits de l’homme], “Appeal [. . .] for
the Fair Trial of Hissène Habré”, www.fidh.org/news, of 21 July 2010, p. 1.
64 Ibid.

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VII. The Search for Justice :
Initiatives and Endeavovurs of the African Uniovn

65. The above review, to be completed, requires closer attention to be
paid to the initiatives and endeavours of the African Union (reflectevd in

the Decisions adopted by its Assembly), in the same search for justice in
the Hissène Habré case. Thus, at its sixth ordinary session, held in Khar -
toum, Sudan, the Assembly of the African Union adopted its Deci -
sion 103 (VI), on 24 January 2006, wherein it decided to establish a

Committee of Eminent African Jurists “to consider all aspects and impvli -
cations of the Hissène Habré case as well as the options available for his
trial”6. It requested the aforementioned Committee to submit a report at
the following Ordinary Session in July 2006.

66. At its seventh ordinary session, held in Banjul, Gambia, the Assem-
bly of the African Union adopted its Decision 127 (VII), on 2 July 2006,
whereby it took note of the report presented by the Committee of Emi -
nent African Jurists. It noted that, pursuant to Articles 3 (h), 4 (h) and

4 (o) of the Constitutive Act of the African Union, “the crimes of which
Hissène Habré is accused fall within the competence of the African
Union”. Furthermore, the Assembly of the African Union mandated the
Republic of Senegal “to prosecute and ensure that Hissène Habré is tried,

on behalf of Africa, by a competent Senegalese court with guarantees forv
fair trial”.
67. At its eighth ordinary session, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, the
Assembly of the African Union adopted Decision 157 (VIII), on 30 Janu -
ary 2007, whereby the African Union commended Senegal for its efforts v

on “the implementation of the Banjul Decision”, encouraged it “to pur -
sue its initiatives to accomplish the mandate entrusted to it”, and avppealed
to the international community to mobilize the financial resources
required for the trial. Two years later, at its twelfth ordinary sessionv, held
again in Addis Ababa, from 1 to 3 February 2009, the Assembly of the

African Union adopted Decision 240 (XII), whereby it called on “all
Member States of the African Union, the European Union and partner
countries and institutions to make their contributions to the budget of vthe
case by paying these contributions directly to the African Union Com -

mission”.

68. At its following thirteenth ordinary session, held in Sirte, Libya,
from 1 to 3 July 2009, the Assembly of the African Union adopted Deci -

sion 246 (XIII), whereby it reiterated its “appeal to all Member States to

65It further took note of the briefing by President Wade of Senegal and vPresident
Obasanjo, the outgoing Chairperson of the African Union, on the Hissène Habré case.

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contribute to the budget of the trial and extend the necessary support tvo
the Government of Senegal in the execution of the AU mandate to
prosecute and try Hissène Habré” 66. Next, at its fourteenth ordinary
session, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, from 31 January to 2 February
2010, the Assembly of the African Union adopted Decision 272 (XIV),

wherein it requested “the Government of Senegal, the Commission and
Partners, particularly the European Union to continue with consultationsv
with the view to ensuring the holding of the Donors Round Table as soon
as possible”. At its fifteenth ordinary session, held in Kampala, Uvganda,
the Assembly of the African Union adopted Decision 297 (XV), on

27 July 2010, to the same effect.

69. At its sixteenth ordinary session, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
on 30-31 January 2011, the Assembly of the African Union adopted Deci -

sion 340 (XVI), whereby it confirmed “the mandate given by the Africanv
Union (AU) to Senegal to try Hissène Habré”. Furthermore, it welcomed
the conclusions of the Donors Round Table concerning the funding of
Mr. Habré’s trial and called on Member States, all partner countries and
relevant institutions to disburse the funds pledged at the Donors Round v

Table. Moreover, the Assembly requested the “Commission to undertake v
consultations with the Government of Senegal in order to finalize the
modalities for the expeditious trial of Hissène Habré through a special
tribunal with an international character”.

70. At its seventeenth ordinary session, held in Malabo, Equatorial
Guinea, the Assembly of the African Union adopted Decision 371 (XVII),
on 1 July 2011, whereby it reiterated its decision (of January 2011) “con -
firming the mandate given to Senegal to try Hissène Habré on behalf of

Africa”. The Assembly of the African Union urged Senegal
“to carry out its legal responsibility in accordance with the United v

Nations Convention against Torture, the decision of the United
Nations (UN) Committee against Torture, as well as the said mandate
to put Hissène Habré on trial expeditiously or extradite him to any
other country willing to put him on trial”.

Next, at its eighteenth ordinary session, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
on 29-30 January 2012, the Assembly of the African Union adopted Deci -

sion 401 (XVIII), whereby it requested the
“Commission to continue consultations with partner countries and

institutions and the Republic of Senegal and subsequently with the
Republic of Rwanda with a view to ensuring the expeditious trial of
Hissène Habre and to consider the practical modalities as well as thev
legal and financial implications of the trial”.

66It also invited the partner countries and institutions to take part in tvhe Donors

Round Table, scheduled to be held in Dakar, Senegal.

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71. As it can be apprehended from the aforementioned decisions, the
African Union has been giving attention to the Hissène Habré case on a
consistent basis, since 2006. Although the African Union does not have
adjudicatory powers, it has felt obliged to assist Senegal in the pursuivt of
its obligation to bring Mr. H. Habré to justice ; it thus appears to give its

own contribution, as an international organization, to the rule of law (vat
national and international levels) and to the corresponding struggle
against impunity. One can note that, as time progressed, the language ofv
the decisions of the Assembly of the African Union has gradually
strengthened.

72. This is evidenced, in particular, by the language utilized in its deci -
sion 371 (XVII), adopted on 1 July 2011, wherein the Assembly of the
African Union reiterated its previous decision “confirming the mandvate
given to Senegal to try Hissène Habré on behalf of Africa”, and urged

Senegal “to carry out its legal responsibility” in accordance with the
UN Convention against Torture, the decision adopted by the UN Com -
mittee against Torture, as well as “the said mandate to put Hissène Habré
on trial expeditiously or extradite him to any other country willing to put
him on trial” 6. The emphasis shifted from the collection of funds for the

projected trial of Mr. H. Habré to the urgency of Senegal’s compliance
with its duty of prosecution, in conformity with the relevant provisionsv of
the UN Convention against Torture.

VIII. Urgency and the Needed Provvisional
Measures of Protectiovn

73. In the period which followed the ICJ decision (Questions relating

to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Order of
28 May 2009, I.C.J. Reports 2009), not to order provisional measures,
Senegal’s pledge before the Court to keep Mr. H. Habré under house
surveillance and not to allow him to leave Senegal pending its
much-awaited trial seemed at times to have been overlooked, if not for -

gotten. First, concrete moves towards the trial were not made, amidst
allegations of lack of full funding (which was secured on 24 November
2010). Next, in early July 2011, Senegal announced that Mr. H. Habré
would be returned to Chad on 11 July 2011 (where he had been sentenced

to death in absentia by a court for allegedly planning to overthrow the
Government).

74. In its Order of 28 May 2009, the ICJ had refrained from indicating
the provisional measures of protection, given Senegal’s assurance thavt it

would not permit Mr. H. Habré to leave the country before the ICJ had
given its final decision on the case (ibid., p. 155, para. 71) ; the ICJ then

67
Emphasis added.

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found that there was not “any urgency” to order provisional measurves in
the present case (I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 155, para. 73). Yet, on 8 July
2011, the then President of Senegal (Mr. A. Wade) wrote to the Govern -
ment of Chad and to the African Union to announce the imminent expul-
sion of Mr. H. Habré back to Chad, scheduled for 11 July 2011 (supra).

On the eve of that date, Senegal officially retracted its decision, on v10 July
2011, given the international outcry that promptly followed, including
from the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights 6.

75. Had the return of Mr. H. Habré to Chad been effected by Senegal

in such circumstances, it would have been carried out in breach of the
principle of good faith (bona fides). The fact that it was seriously consid -
ered, and only cancelled in the last minute under public pressure, is suvffi-
cient reason for serious concern. There is one lesson to be extracted frvom

all that has happened in the present case since the Court’s unfortunavte
Order of 28 May 2009 : I was quite right in casting a solitary and exten -
sive dissenting opinion appended to it, sustaining the need for the ordevr-
ing or indication of provisional measures of protection, given the urgency
of the situation, and the possibility of irreparable harm (which were evvi -

dent to me, already at that time).
76. A promise of a Government (any Government, of any State any -
where in the world) does not suffice to efface the urgency of a situvation,
particularly when fundamental rights of the human person (such as the

right to the realization of justice) are at stake. The ordering of provvisional
measures of protection has the additional effect of dissuading a Statev not
to incur into a breach of treaty. It thus serves the prevalence of the rvule of
law at international level. The present case leaves a lesson : the ordering
of provisional measures of protection, guaranteeing the rule of law, mayv

well dissuade governmental behaviour to avoid further incongruencies
and not to incur what might become additional breaches of international v
law.
77. In my extensive dissenting opinion appended to the Court’s Order
of 28 May 2009, I insisted on the issuance of provisional measures

of protection, given the manifest urgency of the situation affecting
the surviving victims of torture (or their close relatives) during the
Habré regime in Chad (ibid., pp. 183-186, paras. 50-59), and the pro-
bability of irreparable damage ensuing from the breach of the right

to the realization of justice (ibid., pp. 186-188, paras. 60-65). After all,
the present case had been lodged with the Court under the UN Con-
vention against Torture. Ever since, I have never seen any persuasive
argument in support of the decision not to order provisional measures
in the present case. All that has been said so far revolves around an

empty petitio principii : the Court’s decision was the right one, as was

68HRW, “Habré Case: Questions and Answers on Belgium v. Senegal”, www.hrw.org/

news, of 29 March 2012, p. 5.

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taken by a large majority (the traditional argument of authority, the

Diktat).

78. The fact is that majorities, however large they happen to be, at
times also incur mistakes, and this is why I am more inclined to abide bvy
the authority of the argument, rather than vice versa. My position is thvat

the Court should have ordered the provisional measures of protection in v
its decision of 28 May 2009, having thus assumed the role of guarantee of
the relevant norms of the UN Convention against Torture. It should have
gone beyond the short-sighted inter-State outlook, so as to behold the
fundamental rights of the human person that were (and are) at stake inv

the present case, under the UN Convention against Torture.

79. Unilateral acts of States — such as, inter alia, promise — were con-
ceptualized in the traditional framework of the inter-State relations, so as

to extract their legal effects, given the “decentralization” of vthe interna -
tional legal order. Here, in the present case, we are in an entirely disvtinct
context, that of objective obligations established under a normative Con -
vention — one of the most important of the United Nations, in the
domain of the international protection of human rights, embodying an

absolute prohibition of jus cogens —, the UN Convention against Tor -
ture. In the ambit of these obligations, a pledge or promise made in the
course of legal proceedings before the Court does not remove the pre-
requisites (of urgency and of probability of irreparable damage) for the
indication of provisional measures by the Court.

80. This is what I strongly upheld in my aforementioned dissenting
opinion of 28 May 2009 (I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 192, para. 78), and what
successive facts ever since leave as a lesson. When the prerequisites ofv
provisional measures are present — as they in my view already were in

May 2009, as confirmed by the successive facts — such measures are to be
ordered by the Court, to the benefit of the subjects of rights to be pvre -
served and protected (such as the right to the realization of justice)v.
Accordingly, in my dissenting opinion I deemed it fit to ponder that :

“A decision of the ICJ indicating provisional measures in the pres-

ent case, as I herein sustain, would have set up a remarkable precedent v
in the long search for justice in the theory and practice of internationval
law. After all, this is the first case lodged with the ICJ on the basivs of
the 1984 United Nations Convention against Torture.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[T]he prerequisites of urgency and the probability of irreparable
harm were and remain in my view present in this case (. . .), requiring
from the Court the indication of provisional measures. Moreover,

there subsist, at this stage — and without prejudice to the merits of

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the case — uncertainties which surround the matter at issue before
the Court, despite the amendment in February 2007 of the Senegalese
Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure.
Examples are provided by the prolonged delays apparently due to
the alleged high costs of holding the trial of Mr. H. Habré, added to

pre-trial measures still to be taken, and the lack of definition of the
time still to be consumed before that trial takes place (if it does at vall).
Despite all that, as the Court’s majority did not find it necessaryv to
indicate provisional measures, the Court can now only hope for the
best.

This is all the more serious in the light of the nature of the afore -
mentioned obligations of the States parties to the United Nations Con -
vention against Torture.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

This Court should in my view have remained seised of the matter
at stake. It should not have relinquished its jurisdiction in the matterv
of provisional measures, on the ground of its reliance on what may

have appeared the professed intentions of the parties, placing itself inv
a position more akin to that of a conciliator, if not an exspectator.
Had the Court done so, it would have assumed the role of the guar -
antor of the compliance, in the cas d’espèce, of the conventional obli-
gations by the States parties to the UN Convention against Torture

in pursuance of the principle aut dedere aut judicare.” (I.C.J. Reports
2009, pp. 193-195, paras. 80, 82-84 and 88.)

81. This point is not to pass unnoticed here. Fortunately — for the
sake of the realization of justice in the light of the integrity of the vobliga-
tions enshrined into the UN Convention against Torture — Mr. H. Habré
did not escape from his house surveillance in Dakar, nor was he expelledv
from Senegal. The acknowledgment of the urgency of the situation was at v

last made by the ICJ : it underlies its present Judgment on the merits of
the case, which it has just adopted today, 20 July 2012, wherein it deter -
mined that Senegal has breached Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of the UN Con -
vention against Torture, and is under the duty to take “without furthver

delay” the necessary measures to submit the case against Mr. H. Habré to
its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution (Judgment,
para. 121, and resolutory point 6 of the dispositif).

IX. The Absolute Prohibitiovn of Torture
in the Realm of Jus Cogens

82. The victims’ everlasting ordeal in their quest for the realization of
justice in the present case becomes even more regrettable if one bears ivn
mind that the invocation of the relevant provisions of the UN Conven -

tion against Torture (Arts. 5-7) in the present case takes place in connec -

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tion with the absolute prohibition of torture, a prohibition which bringvs
us into the domain of jus cogens. One would have thought that, in face of
such an absolute prohibition, the justiciables would hardly face so many

obstacles in their search for the realization of justice. This would be vso in
a world where justice prevailed, which is not ours. The time of human
justice is not the time of human beings ; ours is a world where one has to
learn soon how to live with the surrounding irrationality, in order per -

haps to live a bit longer.

1. The International Legal Regime against Torture

83. Yet, despite of the difficulties that have arisen in the cas d’espèce,
the truth is that there is today an international legal regime of absoluvte
prohibition of all forms of torture, both physical and psychological, a
prohibition which falls under the domain of jus cogens. Such international

legal regime has found judicial recognition ; thus, in the case of Can -
toral Benavides v. Peru (merits, judgment of 18 August 2000), forexample,
the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) stated
that “a true international legal regime has been established of absolvute

prohibition of all forms of torture” (para. 103).
84. Such absolute prohibition of torture finds expression at both nor -
mative and jurisprudential levels. The basic principle of humanity, rooted
in the human conscience, has arisen and stood against torture. In effevct,

in our times, the jus cogens prohibition of torture emanates ultimately
from the universal juridical conscience, and finds expression in the corpus
juris gentium. Torture is thus clearly prohibited, as a grave violation of
the international law of human rights and of international humanitarian v

law, as well as of international criminal law. There is here a normativev
convergence to this effect ; this is a definitive achievement of civilization,
one that admits no regression.

85. In the domain of the international law of human rights, the inter -
national legal regime of absolute prohibition of torture encompasses thev
United Nations Convention (of 1984, and its Protocol of 2002) and the
Inter-American (1985) and European (1987) Conventions against Torture,

in addition to the Special Rapporteur against Torture (since 1985) of the
former UN Human Rights Commission (HRC) and the Working Group
on Arbitrary Detention (since 1991) also of the former HRC (which pays
special attention to the prevention of torture) 69. The three aforementioned

co-existing Conven70ons to combat torture are basically complementary
ratione materiae . Moreover, in the domain of international criminal

69In addition to these mechanisms, there is the United Nations Voluntary Cvontribu -
tions Fund for Victims of Torture (since 1983).
70Cf., in this regard, A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos
Direitos Humanos, Vol. II, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S.A. Fabris Ed., 1999, pp. 345-352.

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law, Article 7 of the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal
Court (ICC) includes the crime of torture within the ICC’s jurisdicvtion.
Torture is in fact prohibited in any circumstances.

86. As the IACtHR rightly warned, in its judgments in the case of the
Gómez Paquiyauri Brothers v. Peru (of 8 July 2004, paras. 111-112), as
well as of Tibi v. Ecuador (of 7 September 2004, para. 143), and of
Baldeón García v. Peru (of 6 April 2006, para. 117),

“The prohibition of torture is complete and non-revocable, even
under the most difficult circumstances, such as war, ‘the struggle

against terrorism’ and any other crimes, states of siege or of emer -
gency, of civil commotion or domestic conflict, suspension of consti -
tutional guarantees, domestic political instability, or other public
disasters or emergencies.”

The IACtHR was quite clear in asserting, for example, in its judgment
in the case of Maritza Urrutia v. Guatemala (of 27 November 2003,
para. 92), and reiterating in its judgments in the cases of Tibi v. Ecuador

(of 7 September 2004, para. 143), of the Brothers Gómez Paquiyauri
v. Peru (of 8 July 2004, para. 112), and of Baldeón García v. Peru
(of 6 April 2006, para. 117), that

“[t]here exists an international legal regime of absolute prohibition of
all forms of torture, both physical and psychological, a regime which
belongs today to the domain of jus cogens”.

87. Likewise, in the case of Caesar v. Trinidad and Tobago (judgment
of 11 March 2005), the IACtHR found that the conditions of detention to
which the complainant had been subjected (damaging his health — his

physical, psychological and moral integrity) amount to an inhuman and
degrading treatment, in breach of Article 5 (1) and (2) of the American
Convention on Human Rights, which “enshrines precepts of jus cogens”
(para. 100). And later on, in the case of Goiburú et al. v. Paraguay (judg -

ment of 22 September 2006), the IACtHR reasserted the absolute prohi -
bition of torture and enforced disappearance of persons, in the realm ofv
jus cogens, and acknowledged the duty to fight impunity with regard to
those grave violations (with the due investigation of the occurrences), so

as to honour the memory of the victims and to guarantee the non-repeti -
tion of those facts (para. 93).
88. The IACtHR and the ad hoc International Criminal Tribunal for
the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) are the two contemporary international
tribunals which have most contributed so far to the jurisprudential con -

struction of the absolute prohibition of torture, in the realm of jus
cogens 71. For its part, the ICTY, in the same line of reasoning, held, in its

71Cf., recently, A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Jus Cogens : The Determination and the
Gradual Expansion of Its Material Content in Contemporary International Case Law”,
in XXXV Curso de Derecho Internacional Organizado por el Comité Jurídico I▯nter-meri
cano — 2008, Washington D.C., General Secretariat of the OAS, 2009, pp. 3-29.

102

6 CIJ1033.indb 200 28/11/13 12:50 521 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

judgment (Trial Chamber, of 10 December 1998) in the Furundžija case,

that torture is “prohibited by a peremptory norm of international law”, it
is a prohibition of jus cogens (paras. 153 and 155). Likewise, in its judg -
ment (Trial Chamber, of 16 November 1998) in the Delalić et al. case, the
ICTY asserted that the prohibition of torture is of conventional and cusv -
tomary international law, and is a norm of jus cogens (paras. 453-454).

89. This view was reiterated by the ICTY in its judgment (Trial
Chamber, of 22 February 2001) in the Kunarac case, wherein it stated
that

“Torture is prohibited under both conventional and customary
international law and it is prohibited both in times of peace and
during an armed conflict. The prohibition can be said to constitute
a norm of jus cogens.” (Para. 466.)

Other statements of the kind by the ICTY, as to the jus cogens prohibi -
tion of torture, are found in its judgment (Appeals Chamber, of 20 Feb -
ruary 2001) in the Delalić et al. case (para. 172 and 225), as well as in its

judgment (Trial Chamber, of 31 March 2003) in the Naletilić et al. case,
wherein it affirmed that
“Various judgments of the Tribunal have considered charges of

torture as a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions of 1949, a
violation of the laws and customs of war and as a crime against
humanity. The Celebici trial judgment stated that the prohibition
of torture is a norm of customary international law and jus cogens.”
(Para. 336.)

90. The ad hoc International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR),
in turn, contributed to the normative convergence of international humanv
rights law and contemporary international criminal law as to the absolutve

prohibition of torture, in interpreting, in its decision (Chamber I)
of 2 September 1998 in the case of J.-P. Akayesu, the term “torture” as
set forth in Article 3 (f) of its Statute, in accordance with the definition
of torture set forth in Article 1 (1) of the UN Convention against Torture,
namely,

“any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or menv-
tal, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaivn-
ing from him or a third person information or a confession, punishing
him for an act that he or a third person has committed or is suspected

of having committed, or intimidating or coercing him or a third per -
son, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind, when such
pain or suffering is inflicted by or at the instigation of or with tvhe
consent or acquiescence of a public official or other person acting in v
an official capacity” (para. 681).

103

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91. The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), for its part, has
also pronounced on the matter at issue, to the same effect. Thus, in ivts
judgment (Grand Chamber) of 12 November 2008, on the Demir and
Baykara v. Turkey case, it held that the prohibition of torture has “attained

the status of a peremptory norm of international law, or jus cogens”, and
added that this finding was “incorporated into its case law in this sphere”
(para. 73). In a broader context, of prohibition of inhuman and degrading
treatment (encompassing mental suffering), the reasoning developed bvy

the ECHR in its judgment of 2 March 2010, in the Al-Saadoon and
Mufdhiv. United Kingdom case, leaves room to infer an acknowledgment
of a normative hierarchy in international law, giving pride of place to
the norms that safeguard the dignity of the human person.

92. The aforementioned development conducive to the current abso -
lute (jus cogens) prohibition of torture has taken place with the aware -
ness of the horror and the inhumanity of the practice of torture.
Testimonies of victims of torture — as in the proceedings of contempo -

rary international human rights tribunals — give account of that. Even
before the present era, some historical testimonies did the same. One suvch
testimony — a penetrating one — is that of Jean Améry, himself a victim
of torture. In his own words,

“(. . .) torture is the most horrible event a human being can retain

within himself. (. . .) Whoever was tortured, stays tortured. Torture
is ineradicably burned into him, even when no clinically objective
traces can be detected. (. . .) The person who has survived torture and
whose pains are starting to subside (. . .) experiences an ephemeral

peace that is conducive to thinking. (. . .) If from the experience of
torture any knowledge at all remains that goes beyond the plain night -
marish, it is that of a great amazement and a foreignness in the world
that cannot be compensated by any sort of subsequent human com -
munication. (. . .) Whoever has succumbed to torture can no longer

feel at home in the world. (. . .) The shame of destruction cannot be
erased. Trust in the world, which already collapsed in part at the firvst
blow, but in the end, under torture, fully will not be regained. (. . .)
One who was martyred is a defenseless prisoner of fear. It is fear that v

henceforth reigns over him. F72r — and also what is called resent -
ment. They remain (. . .).”

93. The present Judgment of the ICJ in the case concerning Questions
relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite contributes decisively

72Jean Améry, Par-delà le crime et le châtiment, Arles, Babel/Actes Sud, 2005 [reed.],
pp. 61, 83-84, 92 and 94-96. And cf. Jean Améry, At the Mind’s Limits, Bloomington,
Indiana University Press, 1980 [reed.], pp. 22, 34 and 38-40.

104

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to the consolidation of the international legal regime against torture. To

this effect, the Court significantly states that
“In the Court’s opinion, the prohibition of torture is part of cus -

tomary international law and it has become a peremptory norm (jus
cogens).
That prohibition is grounded in a widespread international prac -
tice and on the opinio juris of States. It appears in numerous inter -

national instruments of universal application (in particular the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the protection of war victims, the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966, General Assembly res -
olution 3452/30 of 9 December 1975 on the Protection of All Persons

from Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment), and it has been introduced
into the domestic law of almost all States ; finally, acts of torture
are regularly denounced within national and international fora.”

(Judgment, para. 99.)
94. One of the features of the present-day international legal regime

against torture is the establishment of a mechanism of continuous moni -
toring of a preventive character. This is illustrated by the 2002 Optional
Protocol of the 1984 UN Convention against Torture, as well as the pre -
ventive inspections under the 1987 European Convention for the Preven-
tion of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment

(Art. 2). In this regard, I deemed it fit to point out, in my concurring
opinion in the case of Maritza Urrutia v. Guatemala (IACtHR,
judgment of 27 November 2003), that such development has

“put an end to one of the remaining strongholds of State sovereignty,v
in permitting scrutiny of the sancta sanctorum of the State — its

prisons and detention establishments, police stations, military
prisons, detention centers for foreigners, psychiatric institutions,
among others, — of its administrative practices and legislative
measures, to determine their compatibility or not with the internatio-
nal standards of human rights. This has been achieved in the name

of superior common values, consubstantiated in the prevalence of
the fundamental rights inherent to the human person.” (Para. 11.)

2. Fundamental Human Values Underlying
that Prohibition

95. Human conscience has awoken to the pressing need for decisively
putting an end to the scourges of arbitrary detention and torture. The

general principles of the law, and the fundamental human values underly -

105

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ing them, play a quite significant and crucial role here. Such fundamevntal
values have counted on judicial recognition in our times. Thus, the ECHR,
for example, asserted, in the Soering v. United Kingdom case (judgment
of 7 July 1989), that the absolute prohibition of torture (even in times of

war and other national emergencies) expresses one of the “fundamentavl
values of [contemporary] democratic societies” (para. 88). Subsequently,
in the Kalashnikov v. Russia case (judgment of 15 July 2002), the ECHR
stated that Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights

“enshrines one of the most fundamental values of democratic society.
It prohibits in absolute terms torture or inhuman or degrading treat -

ment or punishment, irrespective of the circumstances and the vic -
tim’s behaviour.” (Para. 95.)

96. In the Selmouni v. France case (judgment of 28 July 1999), the
ECHR categorically reiterated that Article 3 of the European Convention

“enshrines one of the most fundamental values of democratic societiesv.
Even in the most difficult circumstances, such as the fight against tver -
rorism and organized crime, the Convention prohibits in absolute terms
torture and inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Unlike

most of the substantive clauses of the Convention and of Protocols
Nos. 1 and 4, Article 3 makes no provision for exceptions and no dero-
gation from it is permissible under Article 15 (2) even in the event of a
public emergency threatening the life of the nation (. . .).” (Para. 95.)

In that same judgment, the European Court expressed its understand -
ing that “the increasingly high standard being required in the area ovf the

protection of human rights and fundamental liberties correspondingly
and inevitably requires greater firmness in assessing breaches of the vfun -
damental values of democratic societies” (para. 101) 7.
97. Like the ECHR, the IACtHR also singled out the fundamental

human values underlying the absolute prohibition of torture. Thus, in thve
case of Cantoral Benavides v. Peru (merits, judgment of 18 August 2000),
pondered that certain acts which were formerly classified as inhuman ovr
degrading treatment should from now on be classified distinctly, as tovr -

ture, given the “growing demands” for the protection of fundamentavl
human rights (para. 99). This, in the understanding of the IACtHR,
required a more vigorous response in facing “infractions to the basicv val -
ues of democratic societies” (para. 99). In the Cantoral Benavides case, the
IACtHR, with its reasoning, thus purported to address the consequences

of the absolute prohibition of torture.

73In the cas d’espèce, the ECHR found the respondent State responsible for the torture
inflicted on Selmouni (paras. 105-106). A similar line of reasoning can be found, e.g., in the
judgment (of 7 September 2004) of the IACtHR in the case of Tibi v. Ecuador (para. 143),
wherein it likewise found the respondent State responsible for the tortuvre inflicted on the
victim (para. 165).

106

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98. In effect, the practice of torture, in all its perversion, is not limivted
to the physical injuries inflicted on the victim ; it seeks to annihilate the

victim’s identity and integrity. It causes chronic psychological distvur -
bances that continue indefinitely, making the victim unable to continuve
living normally as before. Expert opinions rendered before internationalv
tribunals consistently indicate that torture aggravates the victim’s vulner -

ability, causing nightmares, loss of trust in others, hypertension, and v
depression; a person tortured in prison or detention loses the spatial
dimension and even that of time itself 74.
99. As to the devastating consequences of the (prohibited) practice of

torture, and the irreparable damage caused by it, I pondered, in my sepav -
rate opinion in the case Tibi v. Ecuador (IACtHR, judgment of 7 Septem-
ber 2004), that

“[f]urthermore, the practice of torture (whether to obtain a confessvion
or information or to cause social fear) generates a disintegrating emo -

tional burden that is transmitted to the next of kin of the victim, who v
in turn project it toward the persons they live with. The widespread
practice of torture, even though it takes place within jails, ultimatelyv
contaminates all the social fabric. The practice of torture has sequels

not only for its victims, but also for broad sectors of the social milievu
affected by it. Torture generates psychosocial damage and, under cer -
tain circumstances, it can lead to actual social breakdown. (. . .)

The practice of torture is a hellish threat to civilization itself. One v
of the infallible criteria of civilization is precisely the treatment givven
by public authorities of any country to detainees or incarcerated per -
sons. F. M. Dostoyevsky warned about this in his aforementioned

Memoirs from the House of the Dead (1862) ; for him, the degree of
civilization attained by any social milieu can be assessed by entering
its jails and detention centers 7. Torture is an especially grave viola -
tion of human rights because, in its various forms, its ultimate objec -

tive is to annul the very identity and personality of the victim,
undermining his or her physical or mental resistance ; thus, it treats
the victim as a ‘mere means’ (in general to obtain a confession)v, fla -
grantly violating the basic principle of the dignity of the human per -

son (which expresses the Kantian concept of the human being as an
‘end in himself’), degrading him, in a perverse and cruel manner 76,
and causing him truly irreparable damage.” (Paras. 22 and 24.)

74
IACtHR, case Tibi v. Ecuador (judgment of 7 September 2004), separate opinion of
Jud75 Cançado Trindade, para. 21.
Cf. F. M. Dostoyevsky, Souvenirs de la maison des morts [1862], Paris, Gallimard,
1977 (reed.), pp. 35-416.
76J. L. de la Cuesta Arzamendi, El Delito de Tortura, Barcelona, Bosch, 1990, pp.27-28
and 70.

107

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100. For its part, the ICTY stated, in the aforementioned 1998 judg -
ment in the Furundžija case, that

“Clearly, the jus cogens nature of the prohibition against torture
articulates the notion that the prohibition has now become one of the

most fundamental standards of the international community. Further -
more, this prohibition is designed to produce a deterrent effect, in tvhat
it signals to all members of the international community and the indi -
viduals over whom they wield authority that the prohibition of torture

is an absolute value from which nobody must deviate.” (Para. 154.)

101. Another pertinent decision of the ICTY disclosing the close atten -
tion it dispensed to fundamental human values is its judgment
(Trial Chamber II, of 17 October 2002) in the Simić case, wherein, in
singling out the “substantial gravity” of torture, it pondered thavt

“[t]he right not to be subjected to torture is recognized in customary
and conventional international law and as a norm of jus cogens. It
cannot be tolerated. It is an absolute assault on the personal human
dignity, security and mental being of the victims. As noted in Krno -

jelac, torture ‘constitutes one of the most serious attacks upon a per -
son’s mental or physical integrity. The purpose and the seriousness ovf
the attack upon the victim sets torture apart from other forms of
mistreatment’.” (Para. 34.)

102. One decade ago, within the IACtHR, I upheld the view, which I

reiterate herein, that jus cogens is not a77losed juridical category, but
rather one that evolves and expands . An ineluctable consequence of the
assertion and the very existence of peremptory norms of international law
is their not being limited to the conventional norms, to the law of treavties,

and their encompassing every and any juridical act, and extending them -
selves to general international law. Jus cogens being, in my understand -
ing, an open category, it expands itself in response to the necessity tov
protect the rights inherent to each human being in every and any situa -

tion. The absolute prohibition of the practices of torture, of forced divs-
appearance of persons, and of summary and extra-legal executions, leads
us decidedly into the realm of the international jus cogens 7. It is in the
domain of international responsibility that jus cogens reveals its wide and

profound dimension, encompassing all juridical acts (including the uni-
lateral ones), and having an incidence — even beyond that — on the
very foundations of a truly universal international law 79.

77
IACtHR, advisory opinion No. 18 (of 17 September 2003), on the Juridical Condition
and Rights of Undocumented Migrants, concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade,
paras. 65-73.
78 Ibid., paras. 68-69.
79 Ibid., para. 70.

108

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103. Jurisprudence of distinct international tribunals is, thus, perfectly
clear in stating the reaction of ratione materiae law, regarding absolute

prohibition of torture, in all its forms, under any and all circumstances, a
prohibition that, in our days, falls under international jus cogens, with all
its juridical consequences for the States responsible. In rightly doing vso, it
has remained attentive to the underlying fundamental human values that

have inspired and guided it. This is a development which cannot be over -
looked, and is to continue, in our days.

X. Obligations e rga o mnes P artes under
the UN Convention against Torvture

104. The CAT sets forth the absolute prohibition of torture, belonging
to the domain of jus cogens (supra). Obligations erga omnes partes ensue
therefrom. Significantly, this has been expressly acknowledged by the vtwo
contending Parties, Belgium and Senegal, in the proceedings before the

Court. They have done so in response to a question I put to them, in thev
public sitting of the Court of 8 April 2009, at the earlier stage of provi -
sional measures of protection in the cas d’espèce. The question I deemed
it fit to put to both of them was as follows :

“Dans ces audiences publiques il y a eu des références expressevs de

la part de deux délégations aux droits des Etats ainsi qu’aux dvroits
des individus. J’ai alors une question à poser aux deux Parties. Jve la
poserai en anglais pour maintenir l’équilibre linguistique de la Cvour.
La question est la suivante: For the purposes of a proper understand -

ing of the rights to be preserved (under Article 41 of the Statute of
the Court), are there rights corresponding to the obligations set forthv
in Article 7, paragraph 1, in combination with Article 5, paragraph 2,
of the 1984 United Nations Convention against Torture and, if so,

what are their legal nature, content and effects ? Who are the subjects
of those rights, States having nationals affected, or all States parties
to the aforementioned Convention? Whom are such rights opposable
to, only the States concerned in a concrete case, or any State party to
80
the aforementioned Convention ?” .

105. In response to my question, Belgium began by recalling the obli -
gation to prosecute or extradite, incumbent upon States parties to the
CAT, under Articles 5 (2) and 7 (1), and pointing out that “where there is
an obligation of one State to other States, those States have a correspovnd -
81
ing right to performance of that obligation” .

80CR 2009/11, of 8 April 2009, p. 25.
81Response of Belgium to the Question Put by Judge Cançado Trindade at the End
of the Public Sitting of 8 April 2009, doc. BS 2009/15, of 15 April 2009, p. 2, paras. 4-5.

109

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The obligation set out in Articles 5 (2) and 7 (1) “gives rise to a cor -
relative right” (of States parties) to secure compliance with it 8. This
right, Belgium proceeded, has a “conventional character”, being fovunded
83
on a treaty, and “[t]he rule pacta sunt servanda applies in this respect” .

106. Thus, it went on, all States parties to the CAT are entitled to seek

ensuring compliance with the conventional obligations, in accordance
with the rule pacta sunt servanda, undertaken by each State party in rela -
tion to all other States parties to the CAT 8. Belgium then added :

“In the case Goiburú et al. v. Paraguay [2006], the Inter-American

Court of Human Rights observed that all the States parties to the
American Convention on Human Rights should collaborate in
good faith in the obligation to extradite or prosecute the perpetrators

of crimes relating to human rights ; it is interesting to note that,
in order to illustrate this obligation, the Court refers to the 1984
Convention (. . .) :

‘The Court therefore deems it pertinent to declare that the
States parties to the Convention should collaborate with each

other to eliminate the impunity of the violations committed in this
case, by the prosecution and, if applicable, the punishment of
those responsible. Furthermore, based on these principles, a State

cannot grant direct or indirect protection to those accused of
crimes against human rights by the undue application of legal
mechanisms that jeopardize the pertinent international obliga -

tions. Consequently, the mechanisms of collective guarantee
established in the American Convention, together with the regio -
nal and universal international obligations on this issue, bind the

States of the region to collaborate in good faith in this respect,
either by conceding extradition or prosecuting those responsible
for the facts of this case on their territory.’ ” 85

In sum — as Belgium put it — the rights set forth in the 1984 UN
Convention against Torture “are therefore opposable to all the States
86
parties to that Convention” .

82Response of Belgium to the Question Put by Judge Cançado Trindade at vthe End of
the Public Sitting of 8 April 2009, doc. BS 2009/15, of 15 April 2009, p. 2, para. 7.
83
84Ibid., p. 3, para. 8.
85Ibid., para. 11.
Inter-American Court of Human Rights, judgment of 22 September 2006, para. 132,
and in particular note 87, which provides a full list of the relevant universal instruments,
including the 1984 Convention ; cf. also the separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade,
paras. 67-68.
86Response of Belgium to the Question…, op. cit. supra note 81, p. 5, para. 14.

110

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107. For its part, Senegal began its response to my question by like -
wise recalling the obligation to prosecute or extradite under Articles 5 (2)
and 7 (1) of the CAT 87, and added :

“The nature of the international obligation to prohibit torture has
undergone a major change. From being a conventional obligation of
relative effect, it has had an erga omnes effect attributed to it.” 88

Senegal then expressly acknowledged “the existence of indivisible oblvi-

gations erga omnes”, as restated by the ICJ on a number of occasions
from 1970 onwards 89. Next, Senegal reckoned that States parties to the
CAT have “the right to secure compliance with the obligation” set vforth
90
in Articles 5 (2) and 7 (1) .

108. From the responses given by Belgium and Senegal to my ques -

tion, it is clear that they both share a proper understanding of the nature
of the obligations incumbent upon them under the CAT. Such obliga -
tions grow in importance in face of the gravity of breaches (infra) of the

absolute prohibition of torture. They conform the collective guarantee of
the rights protected thereunder. If those breaches are followed by the pver -
petrators’ impunity, this latter, instead of covering them up, adds further

gravity to the wrongful situation : to the original breaches (the acts of
torture), the subsequent victims’ lack of access to justice (denialv of justice)
constitutes an additional violation of the protected rights. For years,

within the IACtHR, I insisted on the jurisprudential construction of thev
material expansion of jus cogens and the corresponding obligations erga
omnes of protection, in their two dimensions, the horizontal (vis-à-vis tvhe

international community as a whole) as well as the vertical (projectiovn
into the domestic law regulation of relations mainly between the individvu -
als and the public power of the State) ; I now reiterate my position in the
present case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute

or Extradite, decided today by the ICJ.

87
Response of Senegal to the Question Put by Judge Cançado Trindade at
the End of the Public Sitting of 8 April 2009, doc. BS2009/16, of 15 April 2009, p. 1,
para. 1.
88Ibid., p. 1, para. 2.
89Ibid., p. 2, paras. 3-4.
90Ibid., paras. 5-6.
91Cf., in this sense, IACtHR, case La Cantuta v. Peru (judgment of 29 November
2006), separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, paras. 51 and 60.v

111

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XI. The Gravity of the Humanv Rights Violations
and the Compelling Strugvgle against Impunity

1. Human Cruelty at the Threshold of Gravity

109. In effect, in addition to its horizontal expansion, jus cogens also
projects itself on a vertical dimension, i.e., that of the interaction bvetween

the international and national legal systems in the current domain of prvo -
tection (supra). The effect of jus cogens, on this second (vertical) dimen -
sion, is to invalidate any and all legislative, administrative or judicival
measures that, under the States’ domestic law, attempt to authorize ovr
92
tolerate torture . The absolute prohibition of torture, as a reaction of
ratione materiae law as here envisaged, in both the horizontal and the
vertical dimensions, has implications regarding the longstanding struggle
against impunity and the award of reparations due to the victims.

110. As to the first (horizontal) dimension, in my understanding, the
“intérêt pour agir” of States parties to the CAT grows in importance, in

the light of the gravity of the breaches under that Convention. It wouldv
be a mistake to attempt to “bilateralize” contentious matters undevr the
CAT (like in traditional inter-State disputes), which propounds a distinct
outlook of initiatives thereunder, to prevent torture and to struggle

against it. Even in a wider horizon, this trend was already discernible vin
the years following the adoption of the CAT in 1984.

111. Thus, in 1988, the Senegalese jurist Kéba Mbaye, in his thematic
course at the Hague Academy of International Law, rightly observed that
a State’s “intérêt pour agir” goes beyond a simple interest, in that it is a
concept of procedural law. And, in the present stage of evolution of intver -

national law, it is widely reckoned that States can exercise their “intérêt
pour agir” not only in pursuance of their own interests, but also of com -
mon and superior values, and, under some UN Conventions, in pursu -
ance of shared fundamental values by means of an “objective control”v . 93

This is what I refer to as the collective guarantee of human rights treaties,
by the States parties themselves. This is notably the case of the UN Con -
vention against Torture ; the “intérêt pour agir” thereunder is fully justi -
fied given the gravity of the breaches at issue, acts of torture in all its

forms.

92
Cf. E. de Wet, “The Prohibition of Torture as an International Norm of Jus Cogens
and Its Implications for National and Customary Law”, 15 European Journal of Interna -
tional Law (2004), pp. 98-99.
93Kéba Mbaye, “L’intérêt pour agir devant la Cour internationale dev Justice”, 209
Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (1988), pp. 257 and 271.

112

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112. The cruelty of the systematic practice of torture cannot possibly be
forgotten, neither by the victims and their next-of-kin, nor by their social
milieu at large. In this connection, I have already reviewed the findivngs of the
94
1992 Report of the Chadian Commission of Inquiry . The Truth Commis-
sion’s Report gives a sinister account of the methods of torture utilized du-r
ing the Habré regime, with illustrations , in addition to pictures of the mass
96
graves . The findings of the Chadian Truth Commission have been cor -
roborated by humanitarian fact-finding by non-governmental organizations
(NGOs). Although the Association des victimes de crimes et répressions poli -
tiques au Tchad (AVCRP) was established in N’djamena on 12 December

1991, the files of the archives of the “political police” (the vDDS) of the Habré
regime were reported to have been discovered in N’Djamena only one devcade
later, in May 2001, by Human Rights Watch (HRW) 97.

113. In another report, of the same year 2001, Amnesty International
stated that, in addition to the information contained in the Chadian
Truth Commission’s Report (supra), most of the information in its own

possession came from accounts of surviving victims of torture themselvesv,
or from other detainees. According to such sources, the Chadian Govern -
ment of Hissène Habré

“applied a deliberate policy of terror in order to discourage opposi -

tion of any kind. Actual and suspected opponents and their families
were victims of serious violations of their rights. Civilian populationsv
were the victims of extrajudicial executions, committed in retaliation

for armed opposition groups’ actions on the basis of purely ethnic or
geographical criteria. Thousands of people suspected of not support -
ing the Government were arrested and held in secret by the DDS.

Thousands of people died on DDS premises — killed by torture, by
the inhuman conditions in which they were detained or by a lack of
food or medical care.” 98

114. The 2001 report by Amnesty International proceeded that, during

the Hissène Habré regime in Chad,

“the practice of torture was, by all accounts, an ‘institutional pvractice’
used to extract confessions, to punish or to instil fear. (. . .) According
to survivors, Hissein Habré personally gave the order for certain

94 Cf. Section II, supra.
95 Cf. Chadian Ministry of Justice, “Les crimes et détournements de l’vex-président
Habré et de ses complices — Rapport de la Commission d’enquête nationale. . .”, op. cit.

sup96, note 5, pp. 111-123, 137-146 and 148-149.
97Cf. ibid., pp. 150-154.
Cf. UNHCR, “African Union: Press Senegal on Habré Trial”, www.unhcr.org/news,
of 28 January 2009, p. 1; HRW, Chad: The Victims of Hissène Habré Still Awaiting Justice,
Vol. 17, July 2005, No. 10 (A), p. 5; and cf. S. Guengueng, Prisonnier de Hissène Habré. . .,
op. cit. infra note 101, pp. 135 and 153.
98 Amnesty International, [Report] The Habré Legacy, AI Index AFR-20/004/2001, of
October 2001, p. 10, and cf. p. 26.

113

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people to be tortured. Other sources say that he was often present

during torture sessions. (. . .) Political prisoners were interrogated
as a rule by members of the security service at DDS headquarters in
N’Djamena. In some cases, they were interrogated and held at the

presidential palace after being tortured. (. . .)
According to survivors, some of the most common forms of torture
were electric shocks, near-asphyxia, cigarette burns and having gas
squirted into the eyes. Sometimes, the torturers would place the

exhaust pipe of a vehicle in their victim’s mouth, then start the engine.
Some detainees were placed in a room with decomposing bodies,
others suspended by their hands or feet, others bound hand and

foot. Two other common techniques consisted of gripping the victim’s v
head between two small sticks joined by cords, which were twisted
progressively (. . .). Some prisoners were subjected to particularly
brutal beatings during their interrogation. (. . .)” 99

115. In a subsequent report, of 2006, Amnesty International added
that many detainees were held at the prison of the Camp des Martyrs, not
far from the so-called “Piscine” (a former swimming pool that had been
covered over with concrete and divided into several cells below ground

level), wherein they were “subjected to torture”. A form of tortuvre that
became sadly well known as practised in the Habré regime in Chad was
the “arbatachar”, which consisted of “choking the prisoner by tying his
100
wrists to his ankles from behind” 101 , up to a point of stopping the blood
circulation and causing paralysis . Moreover, in the personal account of
a surviving victims — complainant before the UN Committee against
Torture —, very recently published in 2012,

“The DDS took pleasure in creating conditions that would provoke

epidemics and illnesses among the prisoners — such as malaria and
pulmonary oedemas — in order to dispatch large numbers of them
very quickly.
From what I saw in the two years and five months which I had to

spend in the four different DDS prisons, this political police force had
every means of saving the lives of those being held. Since their missionv
was to terrorize and exterminate the Chadian people, they thus did

all they could to dispose of the prisoners.
(. . .) Those in charge, like the DDS officers, showed no humanity
towards the detainees.” 102

99
100Op. cit. supra note 98, pp. 26-27.
Amnesty International, [Report] Chad: Voices of Habré’s Victims, AI Index
AFR-20/009/2006, of August 2006, p. 6.
101Cf. Chadian Ministry of Justice, “Les crimes et détournements de l’vex-président
Habré et de ses complices — Rapport de la Commission d’enquête nationale. . .”, op. cit.
supra, note 5, p. 42; S. Guengueng, Prisonnier de Hissène Habré — L’expérience d’un survi
vant des geôles tchadiennes et sa quête de justice, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2012, p. 121. [Trans -
lation by the Registry.]
102S. Guengueng, op. cit. supra note 101, pp. 79-80. [Translation by the Registry.]

114

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2. The Inadmissibility of Impunity of the Perpetrators

116. It is in no way surprising that the reparations due to victims in
cases of torture have revealed a dimension that is both individual and cvol -

lective or social. Impunity worsens the psychological suffering inflicted
both on the direct victim and on his or her next of kin and other persons
with whom he or she lived. Actually, it causes new psychosocial damage. v
Covering up what happened, or handling with indifference the conse -
quences of criminal acts, constitutes a new aggression against the victivm

and his or her next of kin, disqualifying their suffering. The practicve of
torture, aggravated by the impunity of the perpetrators, contaminates thve
whole social milieu wherein it took place.

117. As I deemed it fit to warn in the IACtHR, in my separate opinion
in the case of the “Street Children” (Villagrán Morales and Others v. Gua -
temala, reparations, judgment of 26 May 2001),

“Human suffering has a dimension which is both personal and
social. Thus, the damage caused to each human being, however

humble he might be, affects the community itself as a whole. As the
present case discloses, the victims are multiplied in the persons
of the surviving close relatives, who, furthermore, are forced to live
with the great pain inflicted by the silence, the indifference and tvhe

oblivion of the others.” (Para. 22.)
118. The realization of justice is, therefore, extremely important for the

rehabilitation of the victims of torture (as a form of reparation), sivnce it
attenuates their suffering, and that of their beloved ones, by recognivzing
what they have suffered. This is still an evolving matter, but the rigvht of
those victims to fair and adequate reparation is addressed today on the v

basis of recognition of the central role of the integrity of said victimvs, of
the human person. Realization of justice, with due reparations, helps to
reorganize human relations and restructure the psyche of victims. Reali-
zation of justice must take place from the standpoint of the integral

nature of the personality of the victims. Reparations at least mitigate vor
soothe the suffering of the victims, in conveying to them the sense of the
realization of justice.

119. Such reparations cannot be disrupted by undue invocations of
State sovereignty or State immunity, as I have pointed out in two recentv
cases adjudicated by this Court 103. Likewise, the struggle against
impunity for grave violations of human rights and of international

humanitarian law cannot be dismantled by undue invocations of State

103Case concerning Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy : Greece
intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), dissenting opinion of Judge Cançado Trin-
dade, pp. 179-290, paras. 1-316; case concerning Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea
v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), separate opinion
of Judge Cançado Trindade, pp. 347-384, paras. 1-101.

115

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sovereignty or State immunity. The hope has been expressed of advances

in this respect :

“(. . .) The idea of exemption from responsibility, under the cover
of sovereignty or immunity, is gradually on the decline, at least in
respect of a series of atrocities now classified as ‘international vcrimes’.
That is a source of great hope for every citizens’ and human rights
104
movement, for all those who have been forgotten.”

120. In the case Bulacio v. Argentina (judgment of 18 September 2003),
the IACtHR held as “inadmissible” any measure of domestic law intended
to hinder the investigation and sanction of those responsible for viola -
tions of human rights (para. 116), thus leading to impunity. In my sepa -

rate opinion in the case Bulacio, I pondered inter alia that

“Reparatio does not put an end to what occurred, to the violation
of human rights. The wrong was already committed 10; reparatio

avoids the aggravation of its consequences (by the indifference of thve
social milieu, by the impunity, by the oblivion). (. . .) Reparatio dis -
poses again, reestablishes order in the life of the surviving victims, bvut
it cannot eliminate the pain that is already ineluctably incorporated

into their daily existence. The loss is, from this angle, rigorously irrvep -
arable. (. . .) Reparatio is a reaction, in the realm of law, to human
cruelty, manifested in the most diverse forms: violence in dealing with

fellow human beings, the impunity of those responsible on the part
of the public power, the indifference and the oblivion of the social
milieu.

This reaction of the breached legal order (the substratum of which
is precisely the observance of human rights) is ultimately moved by
the spirit of human solidarity. This latter, in turn, teaches that the

oblivion is inadmissible, by the absence it implies of any solidarity
whatsoever of the living with their deceased. (. . .) Death has over
centuries been linked to what is supposed to be the revelation of des -
tiny, and it is especially in facing death that each person becomes
106
aware of his or her individuality . (. . .) The rejection of the indif -
ference and the oblivion, and the guarantee of non-repetition of the
violations, are manifestations of the links of solidarity between those v

victimized and potential victims, in the violent world, empty of values,v

104L. Joinet (ed.), Lutter contre l’impunité, Paris, Eds. La Découverte, 2002, p. 125.
[Translation by the Registry.]
105Human capacity to promote good and to commit evil has not ceased to
attract the attention of human thinking throughout the centuries ; cf.F. Alberoni,
Las Razones del Bien y del Mal, Mexico, Gedisa Edit., 1988, pp. 9-196 ;
A.-D. Sertillanges, Le problème du mal, Paris, Aubier, 1949, pp. 5-412.
106
Ph. Ariès, Morir en Occidente — Desde la Edad Media hasta Nuestros Días, Buenos
Aires, A. Hidalgo Ed., 2000, pp. 87, 165, 199, 213, 217, 239 and 251.

116

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wherein we live. It is, ultimately, an eloquent expression of the links
of solidarity that unite the living to their deceased 10. Or, more pre -

cisely, of the links of solidarity that unite the deceased to those who v
survive them (. . .)” (Bulacio, paras. 37-40.)

121. As to the present case before this Court concerning Questions
relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite, the facts speak for
themselves. As I deemed it fit to warn in my earlier dissenting opiniovn in

the Court’s Order of 28 May 2009 (not indicating provisional measures of
protection) in the cas d’espèce,

“The several years of impunity following the pattern of systematic
State-planified crimes, perpetrated— according to the Chadian Truth

Commission — by State agents in Chad in 1982-1990, render the
situation, in my view, endowed with the elements of gravity and
urgency (. . .). The passing of time with impunity renders the gravity

of the situation even greater, and stresses more forcefully the urgency
to make justice prevail.” (I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 187, para. 60.)

122. In the present Judgment on the merits in the case opposing Bel -
gium to Senegal, the Court recalls the ratio legis of the CAT. After recall-
ing the sixth preambular paragraph of the CAT 108, the Court states that

“The States parties to the Convention have a common interest to

ensure, in view of their shared values, that acts of torture are pre -
vented and that, if they occur, their authors do not enjoy impunity.
The obligations of a State party to conduct a preliminary inquiry into

the facts and to submit the case to its competent authorities for
prosecution are triggered by the presence of the alleged offender
in its territory, regardless of the nationality of the offender or thev
victims, or of the place where the alleged offences occurred. All

the other States parties have a common interest in compliance with
these obligations by the State in whose territory the alleged offender
is present.” (Judgment, para. 68.)

123. The Court here captures the rationale of the CAT, with thelatter’s

denationalization of protection, and assertion of the principle of
universal jurisdiction. Yet, in doing so, the Court does not resist the v

107 On these links of solidarity, cf. my separate opinions in the case Bámaca Velásquez
v. Guatemala (IACtHR, judgments on the merits, of 25 November 2000, and on repara -
tions, of 22 February 2002).
108
Which expresses the desire “to make more effective the struggle against torture (. . .)
throughout the world”. Article 2 (1) of the CAT adds that “[e]ach State party shall take
effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other measures to pvrevent acts of torture in
any territory under its jurisdiction”.

117

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temptation to quote itself, rescuing its own language of years or decadevs
ago, such as the invocation of “legal interest” (in the célèbre obiter dictum
in the Barcelona Traction case of 1970), or “common interest” (expres -

sions used in the past in different contexts). In order to reflect vin an
entirely faithful way the rationale of the CAT, the Court, in my under -
standing, should have gone a bit further : more than a “common inter -

est”, States parties to the CAT have a common engagement to give effet
utile to the relevant provisions of the Convention ; they have agreed to
exercise its collective guarantee, in order to put an end to the impunity of
the perpetrators of torture, so as to rid the world of this heinous crimve.

We are here in the domain of obligations, rather than interests. These obli -
gations emanate from the jus cogens prohibition of torture.

124. In sum, as to this particular point, the development, in recent
years — acknowledged also in expert writing — leading to the formation
and consolidation of a true international legal regime against torture

(cf. supra), has contributed to the growing awareness as to the pressing
need and the compelling duty to put an end to impunity. In effect, thev
response to the diversification of sources of human rights violations,v and
109
the struggle against the impunity of its perpetrators , are challenges
which call for the enhancement of the existing mechanisms of protection v
and the devising of new forms of protection. Impunity, besides being an

evil which corrodes the trust in public institutions, remains an obstaclve
which international supervisory organs have not yet succeeded to over -
come fully.

125. However, some of the Truth Commissions, established in recent
years in certain countries, with distinct mandates and varying results ovf

investigat110s, have constituted a positive initiative in the struggle avgainst
that evil . Another positive initiative is represented by the recent endeav-

109Cf. J. A. Carrillo Salcedo, Dignidad frente a Barbarie — La Declaración Universal
de Derechos Humanos Cincuenta Años Después, Madrid, Ed. Trotta, 1999, pp. 105-145 ;

N. Rodley, The Treatment of Prisoners under International Law, Paris/Oxford, Unesco/
Clarendon Press, 1987, pp. 17-143. Cf. also N. Roht-Arriaza (ed.), Impunity and Human
Rights in International Law and Practice, Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 3-381 ;
S. R. Ratner and J. S. Abrams, Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in Interna -
tional Law, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997, pp. 3-303 ; Kai Ambos, Impunidad y Derecho
Penal Internacional, Medellín, Found. K. Adenauer et al., 1997, pp. 25-451 ; Y. Beigbeder,
International Justice against Impunity — Progress and New Challenges, Leiden, Nijhoff,
2005, pp. 45-235 ; [Various Authors,] Prosecuting International Crimes in Africa (eds.
C. Murungu and J. Biegon), Pretoria/South Africa, Pretoria University Law Press (PULP),

2011, pp. 1-330 ; N. S. Rodley, “Impunity and Human Rights”, in Reining in Impunity for
International Crimes and Serious Violations of Fundamental Human Rights (Proceedings of
the Siracusa Conference, September 1998, ed. C. C. Joyner), Ramonville St.-Agne, Erès,
1998, pp. 71-78.
110Cf., inter alia, [Various Authors,] “Humanitarian Debate: Truth and Reconciliation
Commissions”, 88 International Review of the Red Cross (2006), No. 862, pp. 225-373 ;
P. B. Hayner, Unspeakable Truths — Transitional Justice and the Challenge of Truth
Commissions, 2nd ed., N.Y./London, Routledge, 2011, pp. 1-337; A. Bisset, Truth Commis-

118

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ours, within the United Nations, towards the establishment of an internav -
tional penal jurisdiction of permanent character; they have resulted in the

creation (by the UN Security Council), in 1993 and 1994, of the two ad
hoc international criminal tribunals, for ex-Yugoslavia and Rwanda,
respectively — followed by the adoption (by the UN Conference of

Rome) of the 1998 Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC),
and thereafter by the adoption of the first permanent international crvimi -
nal jurisdiction. Attention turns now to the evolving position of the invdi-

vidual victims before the ICC, opening up what appears to be a new
chapter in the longstanding history of restorative justice 111.

3. The Position of Chad against Impunity

126. There is another element to be here taken into account : the
records of the present case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation
to Prosecute or Extradite give account of Chad’s position against impu -

nity. References in this regard include : (a) official pronouncements by
Chad concerning the trial of Mr. H. Habré, in connection with the right
of victims to the realization of justice and the need to fight againstv impu -
112
nity ; (b) Chad’s decision to lift Mr. H. Habré’s immunity in 1993, as
confirmed in 2002 113; (c) claims that Chad joined in efforts to gather the
financial resources for the trial of Mr. H. Habré in Senegal 114; and

(d) Chad’s recent statements in support of the extradition of Mr. H. Habré
to Belgium 115.

127. In this respect, Belgium refers, in its Memorial, to the fact that, in
1993, Chad had, in so far as it was necessary, “lifted the immunitiesv which
116
Mr. Habré may have sought to claim” . In the same vein, Belgium sub -
mitted a letter addressed by the Minister of Justice of Chad to the Belgvian

juge d’instruction, dated 7 October 2002, confirming the lifting of any

sions and Criminal Courts, Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp. 1-199 ; P. B. Hayner,
“Fifteen Truth Commissions — 1974 to 1994 : A Comparative Study”, 16 Human Rights
Quarterly (1994), pp. 598-634 ; [Various Authors,] Truth Commissions : A Compara -
tive Assessment (Seminar of the Harvard Law School, of May 1996), Cambridge/Mass.,
Harvard Law School, 1997, pp. 16-81.
111
112Cf. Section XV, infra.
Cf. CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 25, para. 43 (citing “Communiqué de presse du
ministère des affaires étrangères du Tchad”, of 22 July 2011).
113Cf. Memorial of Belgium, of 1 July 2010, p. 10, para. 1.29, and p. 57, para. 4.44, and
Annex C.5 ; CR 2012/2, of 12 March 2012, p. 23, para. 21 ; and CR 2012/3, of 13 March
2012, p. 21, para. 41.
114CR 2012/2, of 12 March 2012, pp. 47-48.
115
Given its view that a trial of Mr. H. Habré in Africa would seem difficult to realize ;
cf. CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 25, para. 43 (citing “Communiqué de presse du
ministère des affaires étrangères du Tchad”, of 22 July 2011).
116Memorial of Belgium, of 1 July 2010, p. 10, para. 1.29.

119

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immunity of Mr. H. Habré 117. Furthermore, it stems from the records of

the present case that Chad, among other States, reportedly agreed to
assist financially Senegal in the trial of Mr. H. Habré 118. Belgium claims,
in this regard, that,

“despite the gestures of support of the European Union, the African

Union and other States — including Belgium and Chad — in particu -
lar for the funding of the Hissène Habré trial in Senegal, the latter
has not yet performed the obligations incumbent on it under inter-

national law 119respect of the fight against impunity for the crimes
concerned” .

128. Moreover, as to Belgium’s request for extradition, and in light of
Senegal’s failure to prosecute Mr. H. Habré so far, it also appears from
the records of the present case that Chad does not oppose the extraditiovn
120
of Mr. H. Habré to Belgium . In fact, on 22 July 2011, the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, African Integration and International Co-operation of
Chad stated that :

“Despite the many national, continental and international initia -
tives, it appears increasingly unlikely that the former dictator will bev
tried under the circumstances preferred by the AU [the African
Union]. Recent developments confirm this impression.

It seems more difficult than ever to fulfil the conditions, in particvu -
lar the legal conditions, for the trial of Mr. Hissène Habré to be held

on African soil.
In light of this situation, and given the victims’ legitimate right tvo
justice and the principle of rejection of impunity enshrined in the

Constitutive Act of the African Union, the Government of Chad
requests that preference should be given to the option of extraditing
Mr. Habré to Belgium for trial. This option, which was explicitly

considered among others by the121rican Union, is the most suitable
under the circumstances.”

129. In sum and conclusion, as it can be perceived from the aforemen -
tioned, the records of the present case demonstrate that Chad has been
consistently supporting the imperative of the fight against impunity, vin so

far as the case of Mr. H. Habré is concerned. The records of the case
make Chad’s position clear, to the effect that Mr. H. Habré must be
brought to justice, in Senegal or elsewhere 122. Last but not least, the posi-

117 Cf. Memorial of Belgium, Annex C.5.
118 CR 2012/2, of 12 March 2012, p. 47, para. 20.
119Cf. ibid., p. 48, para. 21 (3).
120 CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, pp. 24-25.
121 Ibid., p. 25, para. 43.
122 Ibid.

120

6 CIJ1033.indb 236 28/11/13 12:50 539 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

tion of Chad is further confirmed by its statement before the UN Humanv
Rights Committee, the supervisory organ of the UN Covenant on Civil

and Political Rights, on the occasion of the consideration of Chad’s vini -
tial report on measures undertaken to implement the provisions of the
Covenant. In responding to questions put to it, the delegation of Chad, v

stressing its commitment to the struggle against impunity, declared,
on 17 July 2009, that

“under Hissène Habré’s regime nothing had been done to restovre the rule
of law, since that regime had been a dictatorship . . . The present Gov -
ernment, however, wished to move forward, and in particular to combat

impunity at all levels . . . Efforts to overcome political impunity would
take a long time, but the Government was working actively to that end.
Although Chad’s request for Hissène Habré’s trial had been lvoud
and clear, Senegal, which was responsible for conducting the trial,
123
claimed to have financial difficulties.”

4. The Struggle against Impunity in the Law of the United Nations

130. The final document of the II World Conference o124uman Rights
(Vienna, 1993), of which I keep vivid memories , the Vienna Declara -
tion and Programme of Action, cared to include in its Part II two para -
graphs (60 and 91) on the compelling struggle against impunity (of

perpetrators of torture), which read as follows :

“States should abrogate legislation leading to impunity for those
responsible for grave violations of human rights such as torture, and
prosecute such violations, thereby providing a firm basis for the rulev

of law. (. . .)
The [II] World Conference on Human Rights views with concern
the issue of impunity of perpetrators of human rights violations, and

supports the efforts of the Commission on Human Rights and the
Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of
Minorities to examine all aspects of the issue.”

131. In pursuance to the call of the 1993 World Conference of the

United Nations, the (former) UN Commission on Human Rights, and its
(former) Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human

123UN/Comité des droits de l’homme, 96th Session — 2636th meeting (of 17 July
2009), document CCPR/C/SR.2636, of 25 September 2009, p. 5, paras. 15-16. And cf. also:
UN Human Rights Committee, “Human Rights Committee Considers Report ovf Chad”,

www124og.ch/news, of 17 July 2009, p. 9.
A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos,
2nd ed., Vol. I, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S.A. Fabris Ed., 2003, pp. ; A. A. Cançado
Trindade, “Memória da Conferência Mundial de Direitos Humanos (vViena, 1993)”, 87/90
Boletim da Sociedade Brasileira de Direito Internacional (1993-1994), pp. 9-57.

121

6 CIJ1033.indb 238 28/11/13 12:50 540 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

Rights, engaged themselves in producing, in 1997, a Set of Principles for

the Protection and Promotion of Human Rights through Action to Combat
Impunity (restated by the Commission in 2005) 12. Later on, also in pur -
suance of the aforementioned call of the II World Conference on Human

Rights, the (former) UN Commission on Human Rights adopted its reso -
lution 2003/72, of 25 April 2003, wherein it deemed it fit to emphasize
“the importance of combating impunity to the prevention of violationsv of

international human rights and humanitarian law” as well as “the ivmpor -
tance of taking all necessary and possible steps to hold accountable per -
petrators, including their accomplices, of violations of international
human rights and humanitarian law” (paras. 1-2). The resolution urged

States to “give necessary attention” to the matter (para. 1), and recog -
nized that

“crimes such as genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and

torture are violations of international law, and (. . .) perpetrators of
such crimes should be prosecuted or extradited by States (. . .)”
(para. 10).

The resolution further urged “all States to take effective measuresv to

implement their obligations to prosecute or extradite perpetrators of suvch
crimes” (para. 10).
132. Moreover, the dossier of the present case before the Court con -
tains other pertinent elements which cannot pass unnoticed herein. Bel -

gium’s Memorial, for example, refers to numerous resolutions of the
UN General Assembly and Security Council urging States to combat
impunity in connection with grave violations of human rights 126 — a
127
point reiterated in its oral arguments . The UN Human Rights Com -
mittee (supervisory organ of the UN Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights), in its General Comment No. 31 (of 2004), asserted, in connection

with violations of the Covenant rights, that

“States parties must ensure that those responsible are brought to jus-
tice. As with failure to investigate, failure to bring to justice perpetvr-a

125 Cf. UN document E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/20/Rev.1, Annex II, of 2 October 1997,
pp. 13-25 ; and cf. UN/CHR, resolution 1998/53, of 17 April 1998. Cf., more recently,
UN/CHR, document E/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1, Annex, of 8 February 2005, pp. 5-19. And

cf. also L. Joinet (rapporteur), La Cuestión de la Impunidad de los Autores de Violaciones
de los Derechos Humanos (Derechos Civiles y Políticos) — Informe Final, UN/Commis -
sion on Human Rights, doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/20, of 26 June 1997, pp. 1-34 ; and, for
the economic, social and cultural rights, cf. El Hadji Guissé (special rapporteur), La
Cuestión de la Impunidad de los Autores de Violaciones de los Derecho▯s Humanos (Derechos
Económicos, Sociales y Culturales) — Informe Final, UN/Commission on Human Rights,
doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/8, of 23 June 1997, pp. 1-43.

126Memorial of Belgium, of 1 July 2010, Vol. I, pp. 63-66, paras. 4.69-4.70.
127 CR 2012/3, of 13 March 2012, pp. 24-26.

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tors of such violations could in and of itself give rise to a separate
breach of the Covenant” (Human Rights Committee, General Com -

ment No. 31, para. 18).

133. After singling out, as particularly grave violations, the crimes of
torture, of summary and arbitrary executions, and enforced disappear -
ances of persons, the Human Rights Committee warned that “the prob -

lem of impunity for these violations, a matter of sustained concern by tvhe
Committee, may well be an important contributing element in the recur -
rence of the violations” (ibid., para. 18). The Committee further warned
as to the need “to avoid continuing violations” (ibid., para. 19), and drew

attention to the “special vulnerability of certain categories” of vvictims
(ibid., para. 15).

XII. Obligations under Custovmary International Lavw :
A Precision as to the Covurt’s Jurisdiction

134. I turn now to another issue, dealt with in the present Judgment, in
relation to which my reasoning is distinct from that of the Court. May Iv
begin by recalling the fundamental human values underlying the absolute v

prohibition of torture, which I have already referred to (cf. supra). May I
add, at this stage, that such prohibition is one of both conventional as well
as customary international law. And it could not be otherwise, being a
prohibition of jus cogens. In this sense, the 2005 study on Customary

International Humanitarian Law undertaken by the International Com -
mittee of the Red Cross (ICRC) sustains that : “Torture, cruel or inhu -
man treatment and outrages upon personal dignity, in particular
humiliating and degrading treatment, are prohibited” (Rule 90) 12. And it

goes on to summarize, on the basis of an extensive research, that “Stvate
practice establishes this rule as a norm of customary international law
applicable in both international and non-international armed conflicts” 12.

135. Likewise, in its General Comment No. 2 (of 2008), focused on the
implementation by States parties of Article 2 of the CAT 130, the UN Com-
mittee against Torture acknowledged the Convention’s absolute (jus

cogens) prohibition of torture as being also one of customary interna -
tional law. It ensues from the jus cogens character of this prohibition that
States parties are under the duty to remove any obstacles that impede thve
eradication of torture ; they are bound to take “positive effective mea -

128ICRC, Customary International Humanitarian Law — Vol. I : Rules, Cambridge

Uni129sity Press, 2005 [reprint 2009], p. 315.
Ibid., Vol. I: Rules, p. 315, and cf. pp. 316-319; and cf. also ICRC, Customary Inter-
national Humanitarian Law — Vol. II : Practice — Part 1, Cambridge University Press,
200130pp. 2106-2160.
UN doc. CAT/C/GC/2, of 24 January 2008, pp. 1-8, paras. 1-27.

123

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sures” to ensure that (Committee against Torture, General Comment
No. 2, para. 4), and “no exceptional circumstances whatsoever may be
invoked” by them to attempt to justify acts of torture (ibid., para. 5).
Stressing the CAT’s “overarching aim of preventing torture and illv-treat -

ment” (ibid., para. 11), General Comment No. 2 of the Committee against
Torture further stated that each State party “should prohibit, prevenvt and
redress torture and ill-treatment in all contexts of custody or control”
(ibid., para. 15), and then drew attention to the needed protection for

individuals and groups made vulnerable by discrimination or marginali-
zation (ibid., paras. 20-24).

136. Having voted in favour of the conclusions reached by the Court
in the present Judgment in the case concerning Questions relating to the
Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), I feel, how -
ever, obliged to lay down in the present separate opinion my understand -

ing, distinct from the Court’s reasoning, corresponding to operative v
paragraph (2) of the dispositif of the present Judgment. May I, at first,
recall that, in the cas d’espèce, Belgium requested the Court to declare
that Senegal has breached an obligation under customary international

law for its failure to bring criminal pro131dings against Mr. H. Habré
concerning core international crimes . In this respect, the Court con -
cludes, in paragraph 55, that

“at the time of the filing of the Application, the dispute between vthe
Parties did not relate to breaches of obligations under customary
international law and that it thus has no jurisdiction to decide on

Belgium’s claims related thereto”.
137. The Court then goes on to consider whether it has jurisdiction on

the basis of Article 30 (1) of the Convention against Torture (CAT). In
operative paragraph (2) of the dispositif, the Court finds that “it has no
jurisdiction” to entertain Belgium’s claims relating to Senegal’vs “alleged
breaches” of “obligations under customary international law”. Ivt is

important to be clear as to why the Court has not entertained, in the
present case, Belgium’s claim that Senegal breached certain obligatiovns
under customary international law.

138. The Court first proceeded to determine, on the basis of the facts

of the cas d’espèce, whether there was a dispute between the contending
Parties concerning Senegal’s alleged violations of customary internatvional
law obligations. The question as to whether there is a dispute between tvhe
Parties concerning the corresponding obligations under customary inter -

national law turns on factual considerations. The question pertains to

131Cf. Memorial of Belgium, of 1 July 2010, p. 83, Submission 1; Final Submis-
sions of Belgium, of 19 March 2012, Submission 1 (b).

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whether, on the basis of the factual framework of the present case, a divs-

pute existed between the Parties, at the time of the filing of the Appvlica -
tion, concerning Senegal’s obligation under customary international lvaw
to take action with regard to core international crimes 132.
139. As the Court notes in paragraph 45 of the present Judgment, “the

existence of a dispute is a condition of its jurisdiction under both basves of
jurisdiction invoked by Belgium”. It has long been established that “va
dispute is a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legval
133
views or of interests between two persons” . In this context, the Court’s
jurisprudence constante, as recalled in the present Judgment, is to the
effect that the Court’s determination of the existence of a disputev “must
turn on an examination of the facts” (Judgment, para. 46) 134.

140. In the present case, the Court considered the facts, as they were
presented to it, in order to decide whether there was a dispute between vthe
contending Parties concerning the claims that Senegal had breached obligva -

tions under customary international law. The Court found that the diplo -
matic exchanges between the Parties, prior to Belgium’s institution ovf the
present proceedings, disclosed that Belgium did not refer to Senegal’vs alleged

obligations under customary international law to take action against
Mr. H. Habré for core international crimes. It followed that there could notv
have existed a disagreement (or a difference of opinion) between thev Parties,
as to Senegal’s alleged obligations under customary international lawv in

relation to the prosecution of Mr. H. Habré for the commission of core
international crimes, at the time when Belgium filed the Application.
141. It is clear that, in the present case, the Court’s determination of

whether there was a dispute on this question rested on purely factual
considerations of the case at issue. This is, in my view, distinct from an
examination by the Court of whether there is a legal basis of jurisdicti▯on
over claims of alleged breaches of customary international law obliga -

tions. The Court’s consideration of Belgium’s claim that Senegal allegedly
breached obligations under customary international law, as well as its
conclusion thereon, stand in stark contrast to its examination of whethevr

it has jurisdiction under the terms of Article 30 (1) of the CAT. As to the
latter, the Court considers the legal conditions pursuant to Article 30 (1)
of the Convention in order to assess whether there is a legal basis of juris -
diction according to the terms of that provision.

132Its determination is based upon the consideration of the circumstances ovf the present
case (and particularly on the fact that, in the diplomatic correspondenvce between the
Parties, Belgium did not refer to its claim that Senegal has an obligativon under customary
international law to prosecute those accused of the perpetration of corev international
crimes).
133Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2,
p. 11.
134
The Court considers whether there is a dispute by examining the positionv of the
contending Parties (including their exchanges), as disclosed in the revcords of the case.

125

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142. Contrastingly, with regard to the claim of alleged breaches of cus-
tomary international law obligations, the Court’s analysis hinges on vfac-
tual considerations of the present case (Judgment, para. 55). In my
perception, paragraph 55 and operative paragraph (2) of the dispositif of

the present Judgment are not to be understood as meaning that the Court v
lacks jurisdiction to entertain claims of breaches of a State’s alleged obli -
gations under customary international law (e.g., to prosecute perpetrators
of core international crimes, such as raised in this case). As in the cvircum -

stances of the cas d’espèce the dispute between the Parties at the time of
the filing of the Application did not include claims of alleged breachves by
Senegal of obligations under customary international law, the Court
improperly stated that it did not have jurisdiction to dwell upon those v
alleged breaches.

143. The Court, in my view, did not express itself well. The proper
understanding of paragraph 55, in combination with operative para -

graph (2) of the dispositif of the present Judgment, is, in my understand -
ing, that the determination that the facts of the present case do not disclose
a dispute between the Parties as to Senegal’s alleged breach of obligvations
under customary international law is not the same as the finding that vthe

Court presumably does not have jurisdiction to entertain the claims of
alleged breaches of obligations under customary international law.
144. What the Court really wished to say, in my perception, is that
there was no material object for the exercise of its jurisdiction in respect of
obligations under customary international law, rather than a lack of its
135
own jurisdiction per se . The finding that, in the circumstances of the
present case, a dispute did not exist between the contending Parties as vto
the matter at issue, does not necessarily mean that, as a matter of law, the
Court would automatically lack jurisdiction, to be exercised in relation to

the determination of the existence of a dispute concerning breaches of
alleged obligations under customary international law.

XIII. A Recurring Issue : The Time of Human Justicve
and the Time of Human Beivngs

1. An Unfortunate Décalage to Be Bridged

145. Already in my earlier dissenting opinion in the Court’s Order
of 28 May 2009 (not indicating provisional measures of protection) in

135As already pointed out, the Court’s finding concerning Belgium’sv claim that Senegal
breached certain obligations under customary international law is based von the specific
factual background of the present case, and particularly on the fact thavt Belgium did not
refer, in its diplomatic correspondence or otherwise, to such obligationvs.

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the present case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Pros -
ecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), I deemed it fit to address the
décalage to be bridged between the brief time of human beings (vita

brevis) and the often prolonged time of human justice (I.C.J. Reports
2009, pp. 182-188, paras. 46-64). I stressed the crucial importance of the
incidence of the time element — to the effect of avoiding undue delays —
for the realization of justice in the present case (ibid., pp. 191-194,

paras. 74-84). In this respect, in that dissenting opinion I deemed it fit to
warn that

“(. . .) As to the obligations corresponding to that right to be
preserved, the segment aut judicare of the enunciation of the principle
of universal jurisdiction, aut dedere aut judicare, forbids undue
delays in the realization of justice. Such undue delays bring about an

irreparable damage to those who seek justice in vain ; furthermore,
they frustrate and obstruct the fulfilment of the object and purpose
of the United Nations Convention against Torture, to the point of
conforming a breach of this latter. 136

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
It is the gravity of human rights violations, of the crimes perpe -
trated, that admits no prolonged extension in time of the impunity of

the perpetrators, so as to honour the memory of the fatal victims and
to bring relief to the surviving ones and their relatives. In my under -
standing, even more significant than retribution is the judicial recogv-
nition of human suffering 137, and only the realization of justice can

alleviate the suffering of the victims caused by the irreparable damage
of torture.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

With the persistence of impunity in the present case concerning
Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite, the pass -
ing of time will continue hurting people, much more than it normally
does, in particular those victimized by the absence of human justice.

The time of this latter is not the time of human beings.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
This is all the more serious in the light of the nature of the afore -

mentioned obligations of the States parties to the United Nations
Convention against Torture.” (Ibid., pp. 187, 191, 192 and 194,
paras. 63, 75, 77 and 84).

146. The often prolonged delays in the operation of human justice
seem to disclose an indifference to the brevity of human existence, tov the
time of human beings. But this is not the only means whereby the admin -

istration of human justice, in its handling of the time factor, seems tov

136Cf., to this effect, A. Boulesbaa, The UN Convention on Torture and the Prospects for
Enforcement, The Hague, Nijhoff, 1999, p. 227.
137The right to be herein preserved, the right to justice, is inextricably vlinked to (non-
pecuniary) reparation.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 250 28/11/13 12:50 546 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

operate against the expectation of justice on the part of human beings.
One example is found in the undue invocation of non-retroactivity in

relation to continuing wrongful situations of obstruction of access to jus -
tice extending themselves in time (cf. infra). Another example is afforded
by the undue invocation of prescription in situations of the kind. Whethver
we look forth, or else back in time, we are faced with injustice in the v

handling of the time factor, making abstraction of the gravity of the
breaches of law, to the detriment of victimized human beings.

147. In the present case concerning Mr. H. Habré, prescription has

already been duly discarded by the 2006 Report of the AU Committee of
Eminent African Jurists (para. 14). And, in my view, the invocation is
likewise to be discarded in the present case, for the reasons that I layv
down in Section XIV, infra, of the present separate opinion. One cannot

lose sight of the fact that those who claim to have been victimized by tvhe
reported atrocities of the Habré regime in Chad (1982-1990) have been
waiting for justice for over two decades, and it would add further injusv -
tice to them to prolong further their ordeal by raising new obstacles tov be
138
surmounted . One has to bridge the unfortunate décalage between the
time of human justice and the time of human beings.

148. The time factor cannot be handled in a way that leads to injustice.

Certain conceptions, which took shape a long time ago in a historical
context entirely distinct from the one with which we are confronted in the
present case, cannot be mechanically applied herein. It should, moreoverv,

be kept in mind that the passing of time does not heal the profound scarvs
in human dignity inflicted by torture. Such scars can even be transmitvted
from one generation to another. Victims of such a grave breach of their v
inherent rights (as torture), who furthermore have no access to justicve

(lato sensu, i.e., no realization of justice), are victims also of a continuing
violation (denial of justice), to be taken into account as a whole, wivthout
the imposition of time-limits decharacterizing the continuing breach 13,
until that violation ceases.

149. The passing of time cannot lead to subsequent impunity either ;
oblivion cannot be imposed, even less so in face of such a grave breach vof

human rights and of international humanitarian law as torture. The
imperative of the preservation of the integrity of human dignity stands
well above pleas of non-retroactivity and/or prescription. It is high time

138
HRW, The Trial of Hissène Habré : Time is Running Out for the Victims, Vol. 19,
Jan139y 2007, No. 2, pp. 1, 14 and 19.
On the notion of “continuing situation” in international legal thivnking, cf. case
concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy), Counter-Claim,
Order of 6 July 2010, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), dissenting opinion of Judge Cançado Trin -
dade, pp. 352-366, paras. 55-94.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 252 28/11/13 12:50 547 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

to bridge the unfortunate décalage between the time of human justice and
the time of human beings. Articles 5 (2), 6 (2) and 7 (1) — interrelated as
they are — of the CAT forbid undue delays ; if, despite the requirements

contained therein, undue delays occur, there are breaches of those provi -
sions of the CAT. This is clearly what has happened in the present case,v
in so far as Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of the CAT are concerned, as rightly
upheld by this Court 140.

150. It has already been pointed out that, in its decision of 19 May
2006 in the Souleymane Guengueng and al. v. Senegal case, the UN Com -
mittee against Torture found that the “reasonable time-frame” for the

State concerned to take the necessary measures, in pursuance of the prinv -
ciple of universal jurisdiction, under Article 5 (2) of the CAT, had been,
already by then, “considerably exceeded”. With such a prolonged devlay,
the same applied in respect of Article 6 (2) of the CAT, which expressly
141
determines that the State party concerned “shall immediately make a
preliminary inquiry into the facts”. This has not been done to date. And
the same also applies to the measure — submission of the case to the v
competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution — also in pursuance

of the principle of universal jurisdiction, under Article 7 (1) of the CAT.
This has not been done to date either.

151. Although the breach of Article 5 (2) ceased in 2007, with the
adoption by Senegal of legislative reforms to bring its domestic law into
conformity with Article 5 (2) of the CAT, the other continuing breaches
of Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of the CAT persist to date. These provisions of

the CAT are meant, as I perceive them, to bridge the unfortunate gap
between the time of human justice and the time of human beings, by pur -
porting to avoid, and not to allow, undue delays. Non-compliance with
such provisions, as in the present case so far, perpetuates the unfortunvate

gap between the time of human justice and the time of human beings.
152. This is even more regrettable, bearing in mind that everyone lives
within time — the existential time of each one. The irreversible passing of
time not only leaves its marks in the aging body, but also marks its flow

in one’s conscience. Each person is ineluctably linked more to her owvn
existential time (which cannot be changed) than to the space where shev
lives (which can be changed). Each person lives inevitably within her vown
time, conscious that it will come to an end. If one’s life-time is marked by

injustice and impunity, one is left with the impression, after the occurv -
rence of all the atrocities, that nothing seems to have happened at all 14.

140
141Operative paragraphs (4) and (5) of the dispositif of the present Judgment.
Emphasis added.
142Cf. Jean Améry, Levantar la Mano sobre Uno Mismo — Discurso sobre la Muerte
Voluntaria [Hand an sich legen — Diskurs über den Freitod, 1976], Valencia, Pre-Textos,
2005 (repub.), pp. 67, 91-92 and 143.

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153. To live within time can thus at times be particularly painful, the
more one is conscious of the brevity of one’s lifetime. Even if nothivng

wrongful had happened, to live within one’s time, and to accept the evffect
of its implacable passing upon oneself, up to the end of one’s existevnce, is
already difficult. To feel the existential time pass with injustice prevvailing,

and surrounded by indifference, is all the more painful ; the passing of
time in such circumstances is on the verge of becoming truly unbearable.v
Prolonged and definitive injustice may lead — and not seldom has led —
victims of grave violations of human rights into despair. The graver the

violation, the greater the likelihood of this to happen. Impunity is an v
additional violation of human rights.

2. Making Time Work Pro Victima

154. In the domain of the international law of human rights, which is
essentially victim-oriented, the time factor is to be made to operate pro

victima. As to the principle aut dedere aut judicare set forth in Article 7 (1),
it has already been indicated that aut judicare is ineluctably associated
with the requirement of absence of undue delays. For its part, extraditivon,
largely dependent upon the existence of treaties and the interpretation v

given to them in the circumstances of each case, is bound to remain
largely discretionary. What comes promptly into the fore in the cas
d’espèce is the requirement of expeditious inquiry into the facts for the

purpose of prosecution, a duty incumbent upon States parties to the
CAT. The duty of prosecution is further singled out by the requirement, v
under Article 4 of the CAT, of criminalization of all acts of torture under
domestic law, taking into account “their grave nature”. Extradition comes

into the picture only in case of the absence of prosecution.

155. In this connection, the recent judgment (of 2010) of the Court of
Justice of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS
Court of Justice) cannot be seen as an obstacle to Senegal’s compliavnce

with its obligations under Ar143le 7 of the CAT. In fact, it can at first be
argued, as Belgium does , that Senegal has been in non-compliance
with its obligations under the CAT (such as those under Article 7) for
years, well before the judgment of the ECOWAS Court was delivered
144
in 2010 . In this connection, I find Senegal’s reiterated contentions

143CR 2012/3, of 13 March 2012, p. 17.
144Thus, from the start it does not seem reasonable to rely on this recent vECOWAS

judgment to attempt to justify that continuing non-compliance, largely pvredating the
latter judgment. Moreover, Senegal’s continuing non-compliance with the obligation aut
dedere aut judicare, enshrined in Article 7 of the CAT, has created a situation whereby
Mr. H. Habré has been under house surveillance for an extended period of timve —
according to the pleadings of the Parties since 2000; cf. CR 2012/4, of 15 March 2012, p. 21,

130

6 CIJ1033.indb 256 28/11/13 12:50 549 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

(in its Counter-Memorial 145and oral arguments 146) of alleged difficulties

ensuing from the judgment of the ECOWAS Court of Justice of 2010
unpersuasive. They do not — cannot — bear an impact on compliance
with its obligations under the CAT.

156. Likewise, they cannot be invoked in a way that generates further
delays in the realization of justice. A supervening decision of an intervna -

tional tribunal (the ECOWAS Court of Justice) cannot encroach upon
the current exercise of the judicial function of another international tvribu -

nal (the ICJ), performing its duty to pronounce on the interpretation vand
application of the CAT — one of the “core Conventions” of the United
Nations in the domain of human rights —, in order to make sure that

justice is done. As the ICJ rightly stated in the present Judgment, “vThe
Court considers that Senegal’s duty to comply with its obligations unvder
the Convention cannot be affected by the decision of the ECOWAS Court v

of Justice” (para. 111).

157. It is my view that co-existing international tribunals perform a
common mission of imparting justice, of contributing to the common goal
of the realization of justice. The decision of any international tribunal is

to be properly regarded as contributing to that goal, and not as dissemiv -
nating discord 147. There is here a convergence, rather than a divergence,

para. 7. Cf. also Counter-Memorial of Senegal, p. 3. It may thus be argued that the delay
in prosecuting (or extraditing) him, while still keeping him under houvse surveillance

(amounting to a preventive detention), is contrary to his right to be vtried without undue
delay; furthermore, at present this calls into question whether Senegal has tvruly intended
so far to prosecute Mr. H. Habré. In addition, arguments as to the question of non-retro -
activity seem hardly convincing ; for criticisms, cf., e.g., V. Spiga, “Non-Retroactivity of
Criminal Law : A New Chapter in the Hissène Habré Saga”, 9 Journal of International
Criminal Justice (2011), pp. 5-23 ; A. D. Olinga, “Les droits de l’homme peuvent-ils sous -

traire un ex-dictateur à la justice ? L’affaire Hissène Habré devant la Cour de Justice de
la CEDEAO”, 22 Revue trimestrielle des droits de l’homme (2011), No. 87, pp. 735-746 ;
K. Neldjingaye, “The Trial of Hissène Habré in Senegal and Its Contribution to Inter -
national Criminal Law”, in Prosecuting International Crimes in Africa (eds. C. Murungu
and J. Biegon), Pretoria/South Africa, Pretoria University Law Press (PULP), 2011,
pp. 185-196.

14Counter-Memorial of Senegal, Vol. I, paras. 67-70, 77, 85, 115-119, 176 and 241.
146CR 2012/4, of 15 March 2012, paras. 22, 42-43, 47, 51-53, 55-56, 58-59, 65, 69
and 71 ; CR 2012/5, of 16 March 2012, paras. 12.22, 16.16-18 and 20-21, and 27.11-12 ;
CR 2012/7, of 21 March 2012, paras. 14.26, 17.8 and 24.25-26.
147Accordingly, it should not pass unnoticed, in this connection, that Mr. H. Habré

has been in custody (under house surveillance) for some years (CR 201v2/5, of 16 March
2012, p. 21). The submission of the case for purpose of prosecution without unduve delay
would thus avoid what amounts to a preventive detention for an excessivevly prolonged
period of time, without trial ; A. Boulesbaa, The UN Convention on Torture. . ., op. cit.
supra note 136, p. 225, and cf. pp. 226-227, on the question of pre-trial detention and its
impact on the rights of the accused. In the present case, the undue delay in submitting the

case to prosecution has thus also caused unreasonable delay in Mr. H. Habré’s preventive

131

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of the corpus juris of the international law of human rights and interna -
tional criminal law, for the correct interpretation and application by
international tribunals.

XIV. The Time Factor : A Rebuttal of a Regressivve Interpretation

of the Convention agaivnst Torture

158. Paragraph 99 of the present Judgment, wherein the ICJ expressly
acknowledges that “the prohibition of torture is part of customary invter -

national law and it has become a peremptory norm (jus cogens)”, is in
my view one of the most significant passages of the present Judgment. vMy
satisfaction would have been greater if the Court dwelt further upon it,v
and developed its reasoning on this particular issue, as it could and

should, thus fostering the progressive development of international law.
The Court, however, promptly turned around in the following paragraph,
and started treading on troubled waters, embarking — to my regret — on
a regressive interpretation of the relevant provision (Article 7 (1)) of the

CAT.

159. In any case, up to now, the Court has not shown much familiarity
with, nor strong disposition to, elaborate on jus cogens ; it has taken more
than six decades for it to acknowledge its existence tout court, in spite of

its being one of the central features of contemporary international law. In
effect, immediately after identifying the manifestation of jus cogens in the
customary international law prohibition of torture (Judgment, para. 99),
the Court has indulged into a consideration, sponte sua, of non-retro-

activity of treaty provisions. The Court has done so (ibid., paras. 100 to
104) adding an unnecessary — if not contradictory — element ofconfusion
to its own reasoning.

160. It has done so, sponte sua, without having been asked topronounce
itself on this point — alien to the CAT — neither by Belgium nor by
Senegal. It has done so despite the fact that the CAT, unlike othertreaties,
does not provide for, nor contain, any temporal limitation or express

indication on non-retroactivity. It did so by picking out one older

detention, and that is contrary to basic postulates proper to the internvational law of human
rights; cf., e.g., Article 14 (3) of the UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, providing
for the right “to be tried without undue delay”. Moreover, the privnciple aut dedere aut judi
care (in particular the obligation aut judicare), set forth in Article 7 (1) of the CAT, forbids
undue delays, which would militate against the object and purpose of thev Conven;ion
cf., to this effect, J. H. Burgers and H. Danelius, The United Nations Convention against
Torture, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1988, p. 137, and cf. also note 136, supra.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 260 28/11/13 12:50 551 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

decision (of 1989) of the UN Committee against Torture that suited its

argument, and at the same time overlooking or not properly valuing more v
recent decisions of the Committee a contrario sensu, wherein the
Committee overruled its previous decision relied upon by the Court in itvs
reasoning.

161. The Court has referred approvingly to (Judgment, para. 101) an
earlier decision of the Committee against Torture (of 23 November 1989)
in the case O. R. and al. v. Argentina, whereby the Committee found that

the CAT did not apply to acts of torture allegedly committed before the v
entry into force of the Convention in Argentina 14. Yet, the Committee
has, ever since, adopted a different approach, as illustrated in two svubse -

quent cases. Thus, in 2003, in the case of Bouabdallah Ltaief v. Tunisia,
the Committee considered allegations of acts of torture allegedly commitv -
ted in 1987, notwithstanding the fact that the Convention entered into
force for Tunisia in 1988 149. In other words, the Committee did not dis -

tinguish between acts allegedly committed before the entry into force ofv
the CAT for Tunisia and those allegedly perpetrated thereafter.

162. Similarly, more recently, in 2006, in the case of Souleymane Guen -
gueng and al. v. Senegal 15, which pertains to a similar factual background
as the present case before this Court, the Committee again did not make v

any distinction between the facts that are reported to have taken place v
before the entry into force of the Convention for Senegal and those
alleged to have occurred afterwards. Thus, it can be considered that the

more recent approach of the Committee, as illustrated by these two deci -
sions of 2003 and 2006, has been to apply the CAT without distinguishingv
between acts alleged to have occurred before the Convention entered into
force for the respondent State, and those alleged to have occurred there -

after.
163. The fact is that the more recent decisions of the Committee
against Torture provide no support to the reasoning of the Court on thisv

particular point. Moreover, the Court has overlooked, or not valued
properly, the responses given by the contending Parties to a question puvt
to them from the bench, in a public sitting of the Court. In its response,
Belgium recalled the object and purpose of the CAT and the two more

148
CAT, case O. R. et al. v. Argentina, communications Nos. 1/1988, 2/1988 and
3/1988, decision of 23 November 1989, para. 7.3, Official Records of the General Assembly,
45th Session, Supplement No. 44 (doc. A/45/44), Annex V, p. 108, paras. 7.2-7.4 and 8.

149CAT, case Bouabdallah Ltaief v. Tunisia, communication No. 189/2001, decision
of 14 November 2003, Official Records of the General Assembly, 59th Session, Supplement
No. 44 (doc. A/59/44), Annex VII, p. 207, paras. 1.2, 2.1 and 10.1-10.9.

150CAT, case Souleymane Guengueng and al. v. Senegal, communication No. 181/2001,

UN Convention against Torture (doc. C/36/D/181/2001), decision of 19 May 2006. And
cf. Section III, supra.

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recent cases decided by the Committee against Torture (in the Bouabdal -

lah Ltaief and the Souleymane Guengueng and al. cases, supra), and con-
tended, as to the procedural obligations under Article 7 of the CAT, that

“[t]here is nothing unusual in applying such procedural obligations tvo
crimes that occurred before the procedural provisions came into

effect. There is nothing in the text of the Convention, or in the rulevs
of treaty interpretation, that would require that Article 7 not apply
to alleged offenders who are present in the territory of a State partyv

after the entry into force of the Convention for that State, simply
because the offences took place before that date. Such an interpreta -
tion would run counter to the object and purpose of the Convention.
(. . .) [T]he procedural obligations owed by Senegal are not condi -

tioned ratione temporis by the date of the alleged acts of torture. (. . .)
That does not involve a retroactive application of the Convention to
the omissions of Senegal. All these omissions took place after both

States, Belgium and Senegal, became parties to the Convention and
became mutually bound by the procedural obligations contained
therein.” 151

164. Likewise, in its response, Senegal, much to its credit, acknowl -

edged the importance of the obligations, “binding on all States”, vpertain-
ing to the “punishment of serious crimes under international humanitavrian
law”, such as those in breach of the prohibition of torture. Turning vto the

procedural obligations under Article 7 (1) of the CAT, Senegal added
that

“it does not deny that the obligation provided for in the Convention v
can be applied to the offences allegedly committed before 26 June 1987,
when the Convention entered into force for Senegal” 152.

165. The Court, notwithstanding, has proceeded to impose a temporal
limitation contra legem to the obligation to prosecute under Article 7 (1)
of the CAT (Judgment, para. 100, in fine). There were other points over -
looked by the Court in this respect. For example, it has not taken into v

account that occurrences of systematic practice of torture conform con -
tinuing situations in breach of the CAT 15, to be considered as a whole,

151 Questions Put to the Parties by Members of the Court at the Close of the Public
Hearing Held on 16 March 2012 : Compilation of the Oral and Written Replies and the
Written Comments on those Replies, doc. BS-2012/39, of 17 April 2012, pp. 50-52paras. 49
and 52.
152 Ibid., p. 52.
153 On the notion of continuing situation in international legal thinking, case
concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy), Counter-Claim,

Order of 6 July 2010, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), dissenting opinion of Judge Cançado Trin -
dade, pp. 354-366, paras. 60-94.

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without temporal limitations decharacterizing it, until they cease. Nor vhas

it taken into account the distinct approaches of domestic criminal law
and contemporary international criminal law, with regard to pleas of
non-retroactivity.

166. And nor has the Court taken into account that such pleas of
non-retroactivity become a moot question wherever the crimes of torture
had already been prohibited by customary international law (as in the
present case) at the time of their repeated or systematic commission. Uvlti -
mately — and summing up — the Court has pursued, on this particular

issue, a characteristic voluntarist reasoning, focused on the will of Stvates
within the confines of the strict and static inter-State dimension. Buvt it so
happens that the CAT (the applicable law in the cas d’espèce) is rather
focused on the victimized human beings, who stand in need of protection.v
It is further concerned to guarantee the non-repetition of crimes of tor -

ture, and to that end it enhances the struggle against impunity. Human
conscience stands above the will of States.

167. The Court has pursued a negative or self-restricted approach to
its jurisdiction. In respect of Article 5 (2) of the CAT, what does not exist

here is the object of a dispute over which to exercise its jurisdiction ; the
Court, in my understanding, remains endowed with jurisdiction, with its v
authority or aptitude to say what the law is (to do justice), to pronovunce
on the CAT, and to determine, inter alia, that the dispute concerning
Article 5 (2) has ceased, but it will nevertheless take into account — as it

has done (Judgment, para. 48) — its effects in relation to its determina -
tion of the breaches by the respondent State of Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of
the CAT. The three aforementioned provisions of the CAT are ineluc-
tably interrelated. By the same token, the Court retains its jurisdictiovn
to pronounce upon the corresponding customary international law pro-

hibition of torture. This is a point which requires clarification.

168. Accordingly, it would seem inconsistent with the object and pur -
pose of the CAT if alleged perpetrators of torture could escape its applvi-

cation when found in a State in respect of which the Convention entered v
into force only after the alleged criminal acts occurred (as a result of the
temporal limitation which the Court regrettably beheld in Article 7 (1)).
Worse still, although the present Judgment rightly recognizes that the
prohibition of torture has attained the status of jus cogens norm (ibid.,

para. 99), it promptly afterwards fails to draw the necessary consequences
of its own finding, in unduly limiting the temporal scope of applicativon of
the CAT. The Court has insisted on overlooking or ignoring the persis -
tence of a continuing situation in breach of jus cogens.

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XV. A New Chapter in Restoratvive Justice?

169. This brings me to my remaining line of considerations in the pres -

ent separate opinion. In our days, there is a growing awareness of, and va
growing attention shifted to, the sufferings of victims of grave breacvhes of
the rights inherent to them, as well as to the corresponding duty to pro -
vide reparation to them. This has become, in our days, a legitimate con -

cern of the international community, envisaging the individual victims avs
members of humankind as a whole. The international law of human
rights has much contributed to this growing consciousness. And contem -
porary international criminal law also draws further attention to the duty

to provide reparation for those sufferings in the quest for the realizvation
of justice.

170. Much has been written on restorative justice, and it is not my

intention to review the distinct trends of opinion on the matter within vthe
confines of the present separate opinion. Yet, the issue cannot pass uvnno -
ticed here, and there is in my view one point to be made. In historical v
perspective, there are traces of restorative justice in the presence, frvom

ancient to modern legal and cultural traditions, of the provision of comv -
pensation due to victims of wrongful acts, attentive to their rehabilitation
but also to avoid reprisals or private revenge. As administration of jusvtice
was gradually brought under centralized State control (during the
Middle Ages), there was a gradual shift from the provision of compen-

sation into retributive justice, a tendency which came to prevail in thev
eighteenth century, with the multiplication of criminal law codes,
turning attention to the punishment of offenders rather than the redress
to individual victims 154.

171. By then, restorative justice may have faded, but did not vanish.
By the mid-twentieth century (from the sixties onwards), with the emer -
gence of victimology 15, restorative justice began again to attract greater

attention and to gain in importance. Throughout the second half of the
twentieth century, the considerable evolution of the corpus juris of the
international law of human rights, being essentially victim-oriented,
fostered the new stream of restorative justice, attentive to the needed

rehabilitation of the victims (of torture). Its unprecedented projectivon
nowadays into the domain of international criminal justice — in cases of
core international crimes — makes us wonder whether we would be in
face of the conformation of a new chapter in restorative justice.

154I. Bottigliero, Redress for Victims of Crimes under International Law, Leiden,
Nijhoff, 2004, pp. 13-24, and cf. pp. 25, 27 and 35-38.
155Cf. IACtHR, case Tibiv. Ecuador (judgment of 7 September 2004), separate opinion
of Judge A. A. Cançado Trindade, paras. 16-17.

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172. If so, given the gravity of those core international crimes such as
the one of torture, one would likely be facing, nowadays, a co-existencev
of elements proper to both restorative and retributive justice, in reactvion
to particularly grave and systematic violations of their rights sufferved by

the victims. The realization of justice appears, after all, as a form ofv repa -
ration itself, rehabilitating — to the extent possible — victims (of tor -
ture). May I just point out that I do not conceive restorative justice vas
necessarily linked to reconciliation ; this latter can hardly be imposed
156
upon victims of torture, it can only come spontaneously from them ,
and each of them has a unique psyche, reacting differently from othersv.
There is no room here for generalizations. I consider restorative justicve as
necessarily centred on the rehabilitation of the victims of torture, so vas to
render it possible to them to find bearable to keep on relating with fvellow

human beings, and, ultimately, to keep on living in this world.

173. Restorative justice grows in importance in cases of grave and sys -

tematic violations of human rights, of the integrity of human beings, such
as the abominable practice of torture. Reparation to the victims naturalvly
envisages their rehabilitation. The (former) UN Commission on Human
Rights itself recognized, in its resolution 2003/72 (of 25 April 2003), that,

for the victims of grave violations of human rights, “public knowledgve of
their suffering and the truth about the perpetrators” (including tvheir
accomplices) of those violations, are “essential steps” towards tvheir reha -
bilitation (para. 8).

174. It should be kept in mind that the restorative nature of redress to
victims is nowadays acknowledged in the domain not only of the interna -
tional law of human rights, but also of contemporary international crimi -

nal law (the Rome Statute of the ICC). Yet, the matter at issue is
susceptible of further development, bearing in mind the vulnerability ofv
the victims and the gravity of the harm they suffered. In so far as thve
present case before this Court is concerned, the central position is thavt

of the human person, the victimized one, rather than of the State.

XVI. Epilogue: Concluding Reflectionvs

175. The factual background of the present case discloses a consider -
able total of victims, according to the fact-finding already undertaken,
among those murdered, or arbitrarily detained and tortured, during the

156A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial Internacional — Memo-
rias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, Belo Horizonte/Brazil, Ed. Del Rey,
2011, Annex II : “Responsabilidad, Perdón y Justicia como Manifestaciones de la
Conciencia Jurídica Universal”, pp. 267-288.

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Habré regime in Chad (1982-1990). The absolute prohibition of torture
being one of jus cogens — as reckoned by the ICJ itself in the present

Judgment — the obligations under a “core human rights Convention” of
the United Nations such as the Convention against Torture are not
simple obligations of means or conduct : they are, in my understanding,
obligations necessarily of result, as we are here in the domain of peremvp -

tory norms of international law, of jus cogens, generating obligations
erga omnes partes under the Convention against Torture.

176. To the original grave violations of human rights, there follows an

additional violation : the continuing situation of the alleged victims’ lack
of access to justice and the impunity of the perpetrators of torture (avnd
their accomplices). This wrongful continuing situation is in breach of the
UN Convention against Torture as well as of the customary international

law prohibition of torture. I dare to nourish the hope that the present v
Judgment of the ICJ, establishing violations of Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of
the Convention against Torture, and asserting the duty of prosecution
thereunder, will contribute to bridge the unfortunate gap between the

time of human justice and the time of human beings. It is about time thavt
this should happen. Time is to be made to work pro persona humana, pro
victima.
177. In this second decade of the twenty-first century — after far too

long a history —, the principle of universal jurisdiction, as set forth in the
CAT (Arts. 5 (2) and 7 (1)), appears nourished by the ideal of a universal
justice, without limits in time (past or future) or in space (being tvransfron -

tier). Furthermore, it transcends the inter-State dimension, as it purports
to safeguard not the interests of individual States, but rather the fundva -
mental values shared by the international community as a whole. There isv
nothing extraordinary in this, if we keep in mind that, in historical pevr -

spective, international law itself precedes the inter-State dimension, avnd
even the States themselves. What stands above all is the imperative of
universal justice. This is in line with jusnaturalist thinking 157. The con -
temporary understanding of the principle of universal jurisdiction dis -

closes a new, wider horizon.

178. In it, we can behold the universalist international law, the new
158
universal jus gentium of our times — remindful of the totus orbis of
Francisco de Vitoria and the societas generis humani of Hugo Grotius.

157
On the influence of natural law doctrines, cf., inter alia, e.g., M. Henzelin, Le prin -
cipe de l’universalité en droit pénal international — Droit et obligation pour les Etats de pour-
suivre et juger selon de principe de l’universalité, Basle/Geneva/Munich/Brussels, Helbing &
Lichtenhahn/Faculté de droit de Genève/Bruylant, 2000, pp. 81-119, 349-350 and 450.

158Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “International Law for Humankind : Towards a New
Jus Gentium — General Course on Public International Law — Part I”, 316 Recueil des
cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (2005), pp. 432-439.

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Jus cogens marks its presence therein, in the absolute prohibition of tor -
ture. It is imperative to prosecute and judge cases of international

crimes — like torture — that shock the conscience of mankind. Torture
is, after all, reckoned in our times as a grave breach of international v
human rights law and international humanitarian law, prohibited by con -
ventional and customary international law ; when systematically prac -
tised, it is a crime against humanity. This transcends the old paradigm vof

State sovereignty : individual victims are kept in mind as belonging to
humankind; this latter reacts, shocked by the perversity and inhumanity
of torture.

179. The advent of the international law of human rights has fostered
the expansion of international legal personality and responsibility, andv

the evolution of the domain of reparations (in their distinct forms) dvue to
the victims of human rights violations. I have addressed this significvant
development — which I refer to herein — in my recent separate opinion
appended to the Court’s Advisory Opinion on Judgment No. 2867 of the
Administrative Tribunal of the International Labour Organization upon a ▯

Complaint Filed against the International Fund for Agricultural Develop -
ment (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 51-93, paras. 1-118). This development
has a direct bearing on reparations due to victims of torture.
180. Here, the suffering and the needs of those victims are to be kept in
mind. Rehabilitation of victims plays an important role here, bringing to

the fore a renewed vision of restorative justice. In effect, restorative jus -
tice, with its ancient roots (going back in time for some millennia, anvd
having manifested itself in earlier legal and cultural traditions aroundv the
world), seems to have flourished again in our times. This is due, in vmy
perception, to the recognition that : (a) a crime such as torture, syste-
matically practised, has profound effects not only on the victims and vtheir

next-of-kin, but also on the social milieu concerned ; (b) punishment of
the perpetrators cannot be dissociated from rehabilitation of the victimvs;
(c) it becomes of the utmost importance to seek to heal the damage done
to the victims ; (d) in the hierarchy of values, making good the harm
done stands above punishment alone ; and (e) the central place in the

juridical process is occupied by the victim, the human person, rather thvan
by the State (with its monopoly of sanction).
181. We look here beyond the traditional inter-State outlook, ascrib -
ing a central position to the individual victims, rather than to their States.
Had the inter-State dimension not been surmounted, not much develop -

ment would have taken place in the present domain. The struggle against v
impunity is accompanied by the endeavours towards the rehabilitation of v
the victims. The realization of justice, with the judicial recognition ovf the
sufferings of the victims, is a form of the reparation due to them. Thvis is
imperative, we have here moved from jus dispositivum to jus cogens.
182. Identified with general principles of law enshrining common and

superior values shared by the international community as a whole, jus
cogens ascribes an ethical content to the new jus gentium, the interna -

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tional law for humankind. In prohibiting torture in any circumstances
whatsoever, jus cogens exists indeed to the benefit of human beings, and
ultimately of humankind. Torture is absolutely prohibited in all its forvms,
whichever misleading and deleterious neologisms are invented and

resorted to, to attempt to circumvent this prohibition.

183. In the aforementioned move from jus dispositivum to jus cogens,
this absolute prohibition knows no limits in time or space : it contains no

temporal limitations (being a prohibition also of customary international
law), and it ensues from a peremptory norm of a universalist international
law. Jus cogens flourished and asserted itself, and has had its material
content expanded, due to the awakening of the universal juridical con -
science, and the firm support it has received from a lucid trend of invterna -

tional legal thinking. This latter has promptly discarded the limitationvs
and shortsightedness (in space and time) of legal positivism, and has v
further dismissed the myopia and fallacy of so-called “realism”.

184. Last but not least, the emancipation of the individual from his
own State is, in my understanding, the greatest legacy of the consolida -
tion of the international law of human rights — and indeed of interna -
tional legal thinking — in the second half of the twentieth century,

amounting to a true and reassuring juridical revolution. Contemporary
international criminal law takes that emancipation into account, focusinvg
attention on the individuals (victimizers and their victims). Not onlyv indi -
vidual rights, but also the corresponding State duties (of protection, v
investigation, prosecution, sanction and reparation) emanate directly

from international law. Of capital importance here are the prima principia
(the general principles of law), amongst which the principles of humanvity,
and of respect for the inherent dignity of the human person. This latterv is
recalled by the UN Convention against Torture 15. An ethical content is

thus rescued and at last ascribed to the jus gentium of our times.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

159Second preambular paragraph.

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Bilingual Content

487

SEPARATE OPINION

OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. Prolegomena 1-4

II. The Factual Background ovf the Present Case : The Regime
Habré in Chad (1982-1990) in the Findings of thve Chadian
Commission of Inquiryv (Report of 1992) 5-15

1. The organs of repression of the regime Habré in Chad

(1982-1990) 9-10
2. The systematic practice of torture of persons arbitrarily
detained 11-12

3. Extra-judicial or summary executions and massacres 13

4. The intentionality of extermination of those who allegedly
opposed the regime 14-15

III. The Decision of May 2006 ofv the UN Committee againsvt

Torture 16-21

IV. The Case before the ICJ : Responses to Questionvs Put to
the Contending Partiesv 22-43

1. Questions put to both Parties 22
2. Reponses by Belgium 23-33

3. Responses by Senegal 34-40
4. General assessment 41-43

V. Peremptory Norms of Intvernational Law (J us C ogens ) :

The Corresponding Obligations of Result, and Not of
Simple Conduct 44-51

VI. The Everlasting Quest fovr the Realization of Juvstice in

the Present Case 52-64
1. Legal actions in domestic courts 53-55

2. Requests of extradition 56
3. Initiatives at international level 57-61

4. Initiative of entities of African civil society 62-64

69

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OPINION INDIVIDUELLE
DE M. LE JUGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

[Traduction]

table des matières

Paragraphes

I. Prolégomènes 1-4

II. Le contexte factuel dev la présente affair:ele régime Habré

au Tchad (1982-1990) tel qu’il revssort des conclusions de
la commission d’enquvête tchadienne (rapporvt de 1992) 5-15

1. Les organes de répression du régime mis en place par Hissène
Habré au Tchad (1982-1990) 9-10

2. La pratique systématique de la torture à l’encontre de per-
sonnes arbitrairement détenues 11-12
3. Les exécutions extrajudiciaires ou sommaires, et les massa -

cres 13
4. L’intention d’exterminer tous les opposants supposés au
régime 14-15

III. La décision rendue au mois de mai 2006 par le Comité des
Nations Unies contre lva torture 16-21

IV. L’affaire soumise à lva Cour: réponses aux questiovns posées
aux Parties 22-43

1. Questions posées aux deux Parties 22

2. Réponses de la Belgique 23-33
3. Réponses du Sénégal 34-40
4. Appréciation générale 41-43

V. Normes impératives de dvroit international ( Jus Cogens ) :
les obligations de résvulta—t et non simplement de mvoye— n
correspondantes 44-51

VI. La recherche incessanvte de la réalisation dve la justice

dans la présente affaivre 52-64

1. Les procédures introduites devant les juridictions nationales 53-55
2. Les demandes d’extradition 56
3. Les démarches entreprises au niveau international 57-61

4. L’action menée à l’initiative de certaines entités de la vsociété
civile africaine 62-64

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VII. The Search for Justice : Initiatives and Endeavovurs of the
African Union 65-72

VIII. Urgency and the Needed Provvisional Measures of Prvotec -

tion 73-81

IX. The Absolute Prohibitiovn of Torture in the Realvm of Jus
Cogens 82-103

1. The international legal regime against torture 83-94

2. Fundamental human values underlying that prohibition 95-103

X. Obligations erga omnes P artes under the UN Conven -
tion against Torture 104-108

XI. The Gravity of the Human Rights Violationsv and the
Compelling Struggle agaivnst Impunity 109-133

1. Human cruelty at the threshold of gravity 109-115
2. The inadmissibility of impunity of the perpetrators 116-125
3. The position of Chad against impunity 126-129

4. The struggle against impunity in the law of the United
Nations 130-133

XII. Obligations under Custovmary International Lavw : A Pre-

cision as to the Courtv’s Jurisdiction 134-144

XIII. A Recurring Issue : The Time of Human Justicve and the
Time of Human Beings 145-157

1. An unfortunate décalage to be bridged 145-153
2. Making time work pro victima 154-157

XIV. The Time Factor : A Rebuttal of a Regressivve Interpreta -
tion of the Conventionv against Torture 158-168

XV. A New Chapter in Restoratvive Justice? 169-174

XVI. Epilogue: Concluding Reflectionvs 175-184

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VII. La recherche de la justvice : les démarches et intevrventions
de l’Union africaine 65-72

VIII. L’urgence et la nécessvité de mesures conservvatoires 73-81

IX. L’interdiction absoluve de la torture dans lev cadre du Jus
Cogens 82-103

1. Le régime juridique international de lutte contre la torture 83-94
2. Les valeurs humaines fondamentales qui sous-tendent ladite

interdiction 95-103

X. Les obligations erga omnes Partes au regard de la conven-
tion des Nations Unies contre la tortuvre 104-108

XI. La gravité des violatiovns des droits de l’hommve et la néces-

sité impérieuse de lutvter contre l’impunitvé 109-133
1. La cruauté humaine à l’aune du critère de gravité 109-115

2. Le caractère inadmissible de l’impunité des auteurs 116-125
3. La position du Tchad sur la question de l’impunité 126-129
4. La lutte contre l’impunité dans le droit des Nations Unies 130-133

XII. Obligations au titre du droit internationavl coutumier :
une précision quant àv la compétence de la Couvr 134-144

XIII. Une question récurrenvte : le temps de la justicev des hommes

et le temps des êtres hvumains 145-157

1. Un décalage regrettable auquel il convient de remédier 145-153
2. Faire en sorte que le temps œuvre pro victima 154-157

XIV. L’élément temporel: réfutation de l’intevrprétation régres -
sive de la convention cvontre la torture 158-168

XV. Un nouveau chapitre env matière de justice révparatric?e 169-174

XVI. Épilogue: réflexions finales 175-184

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6 CIJ1033.indb 137 28/11/13 12:50 489 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

I.P rolegomena

1. I have voted in favour of the adoption of the present Judgment in
the case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or
Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), whereby the International Court of Jus -
tice (ICJ) has established violations of Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of the
1
1984 United Nations Convention against Torture , has asserted the need
to take immediately measures to comply with the duty of prosecution
under that Convention 2, and has rightly acknowledged that the absolute
prohibition of torture is one of jus cogens 3. Although I have agreed with

the Court’s majority as to most of the findings of the Court in its present
Judgment, there are two points of its reasoning which I do not find savtis -
factory or consistent with its own conclusions, and on which I have a
distinct reasoning, namely, the Court’s jurisdiction in respect of obliga -

tions under customary international law, and the handling of the time
factor under the UN Convention against Torture. I feel thus obliged
to dwell upon them in the present separate opinion, so as to clarify the
matter dealt with by the Court, and to present the foundations of my

personal position thereon.
2. My reflections, developed in the present separate opinion, pertain to v
considerations at factual, conceptual and epistemological levels, on dis -
tinct points in relation to which I do not find the reasoning of the Cvourt

entirely satisfactory or complete. At the factual level, I shall dwell upon :
(a) the factual background of the present case: the regime Habré in Chad
(1982-1990) in the findings of the Chadian Commission of Inquiry

(Report of 1992); (b) the significance of the decision of 2006 of the
UN Committee against Torture ; ( c) the clarifications on the case before
the ICJ, in the responses to questions put to the contending Parties in vthe
course of the legal proceedings; and (d) the everlasting quest for the real -

ization of justice in the present case.
3. At the conceptual and epistemological levels, my reflections in the
present separate opinion will focus on : (a) urgency and the needed pro -
visional measures of protection in the cas d’espèce ; (b) the acknowledg-

ment of the absolute prohibition of torture in the realm of jus cogens ;
(c) the obligations erga omnes partes under the UN Convention against
Torture ; (d) the gravity of the human rights violations and the compel -
ling struggle against impunity (within the law of the United Nations

itself) ;(e) the obligations under customary international law; and (f) the
décalage between the time of human justice and the time of human beings
revisited (and the need to make time work pro victima).

1 Judgment, resolutory points 4 and 5 of dispositif.
2 Ibid., point 6 of dispositif.
3 Ibid., para. 99.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 138 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 489

I. Prolégomènes

1. J’ai voté en faveur du présent arrêt rendu en l’affairev relative à des

Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique
c. Sénégal), par lequel la Cour internationale de Justice a établi l’exis -
tence de violations de l’article 6, paragraphe 2, et de l’article 7, para -
graphe 1, de la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture 1, affirmé

la nécessité de prendre des mesures urgentes pour assurer l’e2écution de
l’obligation de poursuivre prévue par la convention , et reconnu à juste
titre que l’interdiction absolue de la torture relevait du jus cogens . Bien
que m’étant associé à la majorité en ce qui concerne la pvlupart des conclu -

sions formulées par la Cour dans le présent arrêt, je ne souscrvis pas à
deux points de l’exposé des motifs, qui me paraissent insatisfaisavnts ou
peu cohérents par rapport auxdites conclusions, à savoir : la compétence
de la Cour relativement aux obligations découlant du droit internatiovnal
coutumier et le traitement de l’élément temporel au regard de lva conven -

tion contre la torture. J’estime donc devoir approfondir ces points dvans la
présente opinion individuelle, afin de clarifier la question tranvchée par la
Cour, et exposer les fondements de ma position à cet égard.
2. Les réflexions développées dans la présente opinion indivivduelle ont

trait à des considérations d’ordre factuel, conceptuel et épvistémologique
relatives à différents points sur lesquels le raisonnement de lav Cour ne me
semble ni totalement satisfaisant ni exhaustif. Pour ce qui est des consvidé -
rations de fait, je reviendrai sur : a) le contexte factuel de la présente

affaire: le régime Habré au Tchad (1982-1990) tel qu’il ressort des vconclu -
sions de la commission d’enquête tchadienne (rapport de 1992) ; b) la
portée de la décision du Comité des Nations Unies contre la torvture de
2006 ;c) les précisions apportées par les Parties en réponse aux questiovns

qui leur ont été posées dans le cadre de l’instance devant lva Cour; et d) la
quête incessante de la réalisation de la justice en la présentev espèce.
3. S’agissant des considérations conceptuelles et épistémologiqvues, je
m’attacherai plus particulièrement : a) au caractère d’urgence et à la

nécessité d’indiquer des mesures conservatoires en la présente espèce ;
b) à la reconnaissance de l’interdiction absolue de la torture dans lve cadre
du jus cogens ; c) aux obligations erga omnes partes au regard de la
convention des Nations Unies contre la torture ; d) à la gravité des viola -

tions des droits de l’homme et à la nécessité impérieuse vde lutter contre
l’impunité (dans le cadre même du droit des Nations Unies) ; e) aux obli -
gations découlant du droit international coutumier ; et f) à un réexamen
du décalage entre le temps de la justice des hommes et le temps des êtres

humains (ainsi qu’à la nécessité de faire en sorte que le tvemps œuvre
pro victima).

1 Arrêt, points 4 et 5 du dispositif.
2 Ibid., point 6 du dispositif.
3 Ibid., par. 99.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 139 28/11/13 12:50 490 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

4. In sequence, I will proceed to : (a) a rebuttal of a regressive inter -

pretation of the UN Convention against Torture (CAT) ; and (b) the
identification of the possible emergence of a new chapter in restorativve
justice. As to the reassuring assertion by the Court that the absolute

prohibition of torture is one of jus cogens (Judgment, para. 99) — which
I strongly support — I go further than the Court, as to what I perceive as
the pressing need to extract the legal consequences therefrom, which the

Court has failed to do. The way will then be paved, in the epilogue, for
the presentation of my concluding reflections on the matter dealt with in
the present Judgment of the Court.

II. The Factual Background ovf the Present Case: The Regime
Habré in Chad (1982-1990) in the Findings of thve Chadian

Commission of Inquiryv (Report of 1992)

5. In the written and oral phases of the proceedings before this Court,

both Belgium and Senegal referred to the Report of the National Com -
mission of Inquiry of the Chadian Ministry of Justice, concluded and
adopted in May 1992. Thus, already in its Application Instituting

Proceedings (of 19 February 2009), Belgium referred repeatedly to the
findings of the 1992 Report of the Truth Commission of the Chadian
Ministry of Justice, giving account of grave violations of human rights
and of international humanitarian law during the Habré regime (1982-
4
1990) in Chad . Subsequently, in its Memorial (of 1 July 2010), in dwel-
ling upon Chad under the regime of Mr. H. Habré, Belgium recalled that,

“[a]ccording to an assessment published in 1993 by the National Com -
mission of Inquiry of the Chadian Ministry of Justice, Mr. Habré’s

presidency produced tens of thousands of victims. The Commission
gives the following figures : ‘more than 40,000 victims ; more than
80,000 orphans; more than 30,000widows; more than 200,000people
5
left with no moral or material support as a result of this repression’v.”
(Para. 1.10.)

6. The aforementioned Report was also referred to in the course of the
oral arguments at the provisional measures phase 6. Subsequently, Bel -
gium referred repeatedly to the Report, from the very start of its oral v
7
arguments on the merits of the case . For its part, in its oral argument

4
5 Application instituting proceedings, pp. 13, 39, 57, 89 and 93.
Chadian Ministry of Justice, «Les crimes et détournements de l’ex-président Habré et
de ses complices — Rapport de la commission d’enquête nationale du ministère vtchadien de
la justice »[«The Crimes and Misappropriations Committed by ex-President Habré and His
Accomplices — Report by the National Commission of Inquiry of the Chadian Ministrvy of
Justice »], Paris, L’Harmattan, 1993, pp. 3-266. For the English translation, (erdi.t)z,. K
Transitional Justice, Vol. III, Washington D.C., U.S. Institute of Peace Press, 1995, pp. 51-93.
6 CR 2009/08, of 6 April 2009, pp. 18-19.
7 CR 2012/2, of 12 March 2012, pp. 12 and 23.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 140 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 490

4. J’entreprendrai successivement :a) de réfuter une interprétation

régressive de la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture ; et b) de
décrire la possible ouverture d’un nouveau chapitre dans l’histvoire de la
justice réparatrice. Quant à l’affirmation de la Cour selon lavquelle l’inter -
diction absolue de la torture relève dujus cogens (arrêt, par.99) — affirma-

tion rassurante à laquelle je souscris résolument —, j’irai au-delà du
raisonnement qui la sous-tend pour exposer ce qui, selon moi, constitue vune
nécessité impérieuse, à savoir celle d’en tirer les consévquences juridiques, ce

que la Cour n’a pas fait. J’en arriverai ainsi, en conclusion, àv la présenta -
tion de mes observations finales sur la question traitée dans le prvésent arrêt.

II. Le contexte factuel vde la présente affaire:vle régime
Habré au Tchad (1982-1990) tel qvu’il ressort des concvlusions
de la commission d’enqvuête tchadienne (rappovrt de 1992)

5. Dans les écritures et plaidoiries qu’ils ont présentées àv la Cour, tant
la Belgique que le Sénégal se sont référés au rapport de vla commission

d’enquête nationale du ministère tchadien de la justice, achevév et adopté
en mai 1992. Ainsi, dès sa requête introductive d’instance (duv 19 février
2009), la Belgique a mentionné les conclusions du rapport de la commvis -
sion tchadienne pour la vérité, qui faisait état de violations vgraves des

droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire commises sous le
régime de Hissène Habré (1982-1990) au Tchad 4. Revenant sur la situa -
tion du Tchad sous le régime de Hissène Habré dans son mémoire (du
er
1 juillet 2010), elle a rappelé que,
«[s]elon un bilan publié, en 1993, par la commission d’enquête natio-

nale du ministère tchadien de la justice, la présidence de M. Habré
aurait fait des dizaines de milliers de victimes. La commission cite lesv
chiffres suivants: «plus de 40 000 victimes; plus de 80 000 orphelins;

plus de 30 000 veuves; plus de 200 000 personnes se trouvant, du fait
de cette répression, sans soutien moral et matériel ».» 5 (Par. 1.10.)

6. Le rapport précité a également été mentionné à l’vaudience, lors de la
phase de l’examen des mesures conservatoires 6. Par la suite, la Belgique
7
s’y est référée à plusieurs reprises, dès le début vde ses plaidoiries au fond .
Quant au Sénégal, il a lui aussi fait référence à ces mêvmes conclusions

4 Requête introductive d’instance, p. 13, 39, 57, 89 et 93.
5 Ministère tchadien de la justice, «Les crimes et détournements de l’ex-président Habré
et de ses complices — Rapport de la commission d’enquête nationale du ministère tchadien
de la justice », Paris, L’Harmattan, 1993, p. 3-266.

6
7 CR 2009/08, 6 avril 2009, p. 18-19.
CR 2012/2, 12 mars 2012, p. 12 et 23.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 141 28/11/13 12:50 491 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

of 16 March 2012 before the Court, Senegal also referred to those find8 -
ings of the Chadian Truth Commission, as evoked by Belgium . Those
findings were not controverted.
7. In my understanding, those findings ought to be taken into account
in addressing the questions lodged with the Court in the present case,

under the CAT, one of the “core Conventions” on human rights of thve
United Nations. (This is of course without prejudice to the determination
of facts by the competent criminal tribunal that eventually becomes
entrusted with the trial of Mr. H. Habré.) After all, the exercise of juris -
diction — particularly in pursuance to the principle aut dedere aut judi -

care — by any of the States parties to the CAT (Arts. 5-7) is prompted by
the gravity of the breaches perpetrated to the detriment of human beings,
of concern to the members of the international community as a whole.

8. Bearing this in mind, the main findings set forth in the Report of thev
Chadian Truth Commission may here be briefly recalled, for the purposevs
of the consideration of the cas d’espèce. They pertain to : (a) the organs
of repression of the regime Habré in Chad (1982-1990) ; (b) arbitrary
detentions and torture ; (c) the systematic nature of the practice of tor -

ture of detained persons ; (d) extra-judicial or summary executions, and
massacres. The corresponding passages of the Report, published in 1993,
can be summarized as follows.

1. The Organs of Repression of the Regime Habré
in Chad (1982-1990)

9. According to the aforementioned Report of the Chadian Truth Com-
mission, the machinery of repression of the Habré regime in Chad (19v82-

1990) was erected on the creation and function of four organs of his
dictatorship, namely : the Directorate of Documentation and Security
(Direction de la documentation et de la sécurité — DDS) or the “political
police”, the Service of Presidential Investigation (Service d’investigation pré

sidentielle — SIP), the General Information [Unit] (Renseignements
généraux — RG) and the State party (parti-Etat), called the Union natio -
nale pour l’indépendance et la révolution — UNIR). And the Report added:

“All these organs had the mission of controlling the people, keeping
them under surveillance, watching their actions and attitudes even in
the smallest matters, in order to flush out so-called enemies of the

nation and neutralize them permanently.
The DDS is the principal organ of repression and terror. Among
all the oppressive institutions of the Habré regime, the DDS distin -
guished itself by its cruelty and its contempt for human life. It fully

8
CR 2012/5, of 16 March 2012, p. 31.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 142 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 491

de la 8ommission tchadienne pour la vérité dans sa plaidoirie du 16 mars
2012 . Celles-ci n’ont fait l’objet d’aucune controverse.

7. Selon moi, il convient de tenir compte de ces conclusions en examinant
les questions dont la Cour a été saisie en la présente affaire sur la base de la

convention contre la torture, c’est-à-dire l’une des «conventions fondamen -
tales» des Nations Unies en matière de droits de l’homme. (Cela, bien évi-
demment, sous réserve de l’établissement des faits par la juridviction pénale
compétente qui sera finalement chargée du procès de M. Hissène Habré.)
L’exercice de la compétence — notamment en vertu du principe aut dedere

aut judicare — par tout Etat partie à la convention contre la torture (art. 5-7)
n’est-il pas, somme toute, induit par la gravité des violations commises au
détriment des êtres humains, source de préoccupations pour l’ensemble des
membres de la communauté internationale?

8. Dès lors, les principales conclusions figurant dans le rapport de lva
commission tchadienne pour la vérité peuvent être brièvementv rappelées
ici, aux fins de l’examen de la présente espèce. Ces conclusions ont trait :
a) aux organes de répression du régime mis en place par Hissène Habré
au Tchad (1982-1990) ; b) aux détentions arbitraires et à la torture ; c) au

caractère systématique de la pratique de la torture à l’encovntre des per -
sonnes détenues ; d) aux exécutions extrajudiciaires ou sommaires, et
aux massacres. Les passages correspondants du rapport, publié en 1993,
peuvent être résumés comme suit.

1. Les organes de répression du régime mis en place
par Hissène Habré au Tchad (1982-1990)

9. D’après le rapport de la commission tchadienne pour la véritév, l’ap-
pareil répressif du régime Habré au Tchad (1982-1990) reposaivt sur la

mise en place et l’action de quatre organes de la dictature, à savvoir : la
Direction de la documentation et de la sécurité (DDS) ou « police poli-
tique», le Service d’investigation présidentielle (SIP), les Rensevignements
généraux (RG) et le parti-Etat, appelé Union nationale pour l’indépen -

dance et la révolution (UNIR). Et le rapport d’ajouter :

«Tous ces organes avaient pour mission de quadriller le peuple, de
le surveiller dans ses moindres gestes et attitudes afin de débusquver
les prétendus ennemis de la nation et de les neutraliser définitvive -

ment.
La DDS est l’organe principal de la répression et de la terreur. Dve
toutes les institutions oppressives du régime Habré, la DDS s’evst dis -
tinguée par sa cruauté et son mépris de la vie humaine. Elle a vpleine-

8
CR 2012/5, 16 mars 2012, p. 31.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 143 28/11/13 12:50 492 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

carried out its mission, which was to terrorize the population to make
them better slaves.
Habré laid all the foundations for his future political police in thev

first days after he seized power. Initially it existed in embryonic fovrm
as the ‘Documentation and Intelligence Service’ (. . .). The DDS as it
is known today was created by Decree No. 005/PR of 26 January
9
1983.”

10. The “territorial competence” of the DDS extended over “the wholve
national territory” and even abroad. No sector, public or private, esvcaped
its supervision :

“Agents were everywhere in the country, beginning with the pre -

fectures, the subprefectures, the cantons and even the villages. It had
a branch in every electoral borough. To oversee its territory, it
recruited local agents as spies and informers. Each branch was com -
10
posed of a chief and a deputy.”

Promotions were given in exchange for information 11. The DDS aimed
also at those who opposed the regime and were based in neighbouring

countries, whereto it sent its agents to perpetrate murder or kidnap -
pings . The DDS was directly linked and subordinated to the Presidence
of the Republic, as set forth by the decree which instituted the DDS ;

given the “confidential character” of its activities, there was vno intermedi -
ary between President H. Habré and the DDS 13.

2. The Systematic Practice of Torture of Persons
Arbitrarily Detained

11. The same Report adds that, in the period of the Habré regime,
most victims were arbitrarily detained by the DDS, without knowing the
charges against them. They were systematically tortured, either for
14
“intimidation” or else as “reprisal” . And the Report added that

“Torture was an institutional practice in the DDS. Arrestees were
systematically tortured, then kept in tiny cells under terrible and inhuv -

mane conditions. (. . .) [T]he DDS elevated torture virtually to

9 Chadian Ministry of Justice, “Report by the National Commission of Invquiry of
the Chadian Ministry of Justice on ‘The Crimes and Misappropriations vCommitted by
ex-President Habré and His Accomplices’ ”, op. cit. supra note 5.
10Ibid.
11
12Ibid., pp. 61-62.
13Ibid.
He gave all the orders, and the DDS reported to him daily ; ibid. This was how,
during his eight years in power, he imposed a regime of terror in Chad.

14Ibid., p. 69.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 144 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 492

ment accompli sa mission, qui consiste à terroriser les populations
pour mieux les asservir.
Habré a jeté les bases de sa future police politique dès les prvemiers

jours de sa prise de pouvoir. Au début, elle n’était qu’un embryon
appelé «Service de documentation et de renseignements »… Quant à
la DDS telle qu’elle est connue aujourd’hui, elle a été crévée par le
o 9
décret n 005/PR du 26 janvier 1983. »

10. La «compétence territoriale» de la DDS s’étendait à « tout le terri-
toire national », et allait même au-delà. Aucun secteur, public ou privé,
n’échappait à son contrôle :

«Des agents ont été disséminés partout à travers le territvoire, à

commencer par les préfectures, les sous-préfectures, les cantons et
même les villages. Il a été implanté une antenne par circonsvcription.
Celle-ci, pour superviser son territoire, recrute des agents locaux à

titre d’indicateur ou informateur. Chaque antenne est composée d’un
chef et d’un adjoint… » 10

Des promotions étaient octroyées en échange d’informations 11. La DDS
surveillait également les opposants au régime établis dans les vpays voisins,

dans lesquels elle envoyait ses agents pour qu’ils s’y livrent àv des assassi -
nats et à des enlèvements 1. Aux termes du décret portant création de la
DDS, celle-ci était directement rattachée et subordonnée à la présidence de

la République; en raison du «caractère confidentiel» de ses activités, il n’y
avait aucun intermédiaire entre le président Hissène Habré et la DDS 13.

2. La pratique systématique de la torture à l’encontre
de personnes arbitrairement détenues

11. Dans ce même rapport, il est indiqué que, durant le régime Habrvé,
la plupart des victimes étaient détenues arbitrairement par la DDSv sans
être informées des accusations portées contre elles. Ces personnes étaient

systématiquement torturées, par mesure d’« intimidation» ou de « repré -
sailles » . A cet égard, le rapport précise ce qui suit :

«La torture est une pratique institutionnalisée au sein des services
de la DDS. Ainsi les personnes arrêtées sont systématiquement tvortu -

rées puis détenues dans les cellules exiguës, dont les conditiovns de vie

9Ministère tchadien de la justice, «Les crimes et détournements de l’ex-président Habré
et de ses complices — Rapport de la commission d’enquête nationvale du ministère tchadien
de la justice», op. cit. supra note 5, p. 20-21.
10Ibid.
11
12Ibid., p. 22.
13Ibid.
Tous les ordres émanaient d’Hissène Habré, et la DDS lui rendait compte au jour le
jour ; ibid. C’est ainsi que, durant ses huit ans de règne, il a imposé un régvime de terreur
au Tchad.
14Ibid., p. 38.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 145 28/11/13 12:50 493 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

the status of a standard procedure, and almost all detainees were
subjected to it one way or another, regardless of sex or age.” 15

12. And the Chadian Truth Commission proceeded in its account of
the facts it found :

“Everyone arrested by the DDS, in N’Djamena or in the provinces,
was systematically subjected to at least one interrogation session, fol -
lowing which an interrogation report was prepared. Torture being the

tool of choice during interrogation, DDS agents resorted to it syste-
matically.
A number of former DDS detainees told the Commission of Inquiry
about the torture and abuse to which they were subjected during their

detention. Scars from these tortures and medical examinations have
corroborated their testimony.” 16

3. Extra-Judicial or Summary Executions
and Massacres

13. The Report of the Chadian Truth Commission also acknowledged
cases of extra-judicial or summary executions, and of massacres :

“During his eight-year reign Hissein Habré created a regime where v

adherence to any political opinions contrary to his own could mean
physical liquidation. Thus, from the time he came to power in June
1982 through November 1990 when he fled, a large number of Chad -
ians were persecuted for their efforts to modify his autocratic policives.

That is why entire families were arrested and imprisoned with no trial
of any kind, or simply hunted down and wiped out. (. . .)

Individuals arrested by DDS had very little chance of coming out
alive. This sad reality was known to all Chadians. Detainees died in
one of two ways : either slowly, following days or months of impris -
onment, or quickly, in the first few days after arrest, at the hands ovf

Hissein Habré’s executioners. (. . .)

Testimony from former political prisoners has provided ample evi-
dence about the ways their comrades died in prison. Some died of

physical exhaustion due to inhuman prison conditions (. . .). Others
died from asphyxiation. Packed into minuscule cells (. . .), prisoners
died one after another.

15
Neil J. Kritz (ed.), Transitional Justice, op. cit. supra note 5, p. 38. Su-h prac
tice was conducted pursuant to superior orders, in the hierarchy of powev; cf. ibid.,
pp. 69-70.
16Ibid., pp. 70-71.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 146 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 493

sont épouvantables et inhumaines… [L]a DDS a pratiquement érigév la
torture en système de travail et la presque totalité de ses détvenus y sont
soumis d’une façon ou d’une autre, sans aucune distinction de svexe ou
15
d’âge. »
12. La commission tchadienne pour la vérité poursuit ainsi son exposév :

«Toute personne arrêtée par la DDS, que ce soit à N’Djamena ovu
en province, est systématiquement soumise au moins à une séancev
d’interrogatoire à l’issue de laquelle un procès-verbal d’vaudition est
établi. La torture étant l’outil de préférence lors des interrogatoires,

les agents de la DDS y recourent de façon systématique.
Plusieurs anciens détenus de la DDS ont fait état à la commissivon
d’enquête de la torture et des mauvais traitements auxquels ils onvt
été soumis pendant leur détention. Des traces de ces tortures et des
16
examens médicaux ont corroboré leurs témoignages. »

3. Les exécutions extrajudiciaires ou sommaires,
et les massacres

13. Dans le rapport de la commission tchadienne pour la vérité, il estv
également fait état de cas d’exécutions extrajudiciaires ou vsommaires,
ainsi que de massacres :

«Durant huit années de règne, Hissein Habré avait instauré un
régime où toute opinion politique contraire à la sienne pouvaitv entraî -
ner la liquidation physique de ses auteurs. Ainsi, depuis son arrivéev

au pouvoir en juin 1982 jusqu’en novembre 1990, date de sa fuite, un
grand nombre de Tchadiens étaient persécutés pour leur prise dev posi -
tion tendant à modifier sa politique autocratique. C’est pourquovi des
familles entières ont été interpellées et détenues sans avucune forme de

procès, ou tout simplement traquées et exterminées…
Les personnes arrêtées par la DDS ont très peu de chances de sor -
tir vivantes. Cette triste réalité est connue de tous les Tchadienvs.
Aussi, les détenus meurent généralement de deux façons : soit la mort

lente qui survient après quelques jours ou quelques mois, soit la morvt
expéditive donnée par les bourreaux de Hissein Habré dès les pre -
miers jours suivant l’arrestation…
L’audition d’anciens détenus politiques a démontré avec force détails

à l’appui les genres de mort de leurs camarades en détention. Cvertains
meurent d’épuisement physique dû aux conditions inhumaines de déten -
tion… D’autres par contre meurent par asphyxie. Entassés dans dve
minuscules cellules…, les détenus s’éteignent les uns aprèvs les autres…

15« Les crimes et détournements de l’ex-président Habré et de sevs complices », op. cit.
supra note 5, p. 38. Cette pratique répondait aux instructions des supérieurs hiérvarchiques ;
voir ibid., p. 38-39.
16Ibid., p. 39.

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Removals at night and extra-judiciary executions are practiced
regularly by DDS agents on detainees. These are generally the most
bloodthirsty agents (. . .) who proceed in the selection of prisoners
destined for the abattoir located near N’Djamena. These odious
17
and barbarous and acts target a certain category of detainees.”

4. The Intentionality of Extermination of Those Who

Allegedly Opposed the Regime

14. In its remaining parts, the Report of the Chadian Truth Commis -
sion addressed aggravating circumstances of the oppression of the regimev
Habré, mainly the intentionality of the atrocities perpetrated. In its own
words,

“The Hissein Habré regime was a veritable hecatomb for the Chad -
ian people; thousands of people died, thousands of others suffered in

mind and body and continue to suffer.

Throughout this dark reign, in N’Djamena and everywhere else in
the country, systematic repression was the rule for all opponents or

suspected opponents of the regime.
The possessions of persons arrested or hunted were pillaged and
their relatives persecuted. Entire families were decimated.
In the interior, villages were completely burned down and their
populations massacred. Nothing was immune to this murderous mad -

ness, and the entire country was in a state of terror. (. . .)
Never in the history of Chad have there been so many deaths, never
have there been so many innocent victims. When the Commission of
Inquiry began its work, it believed that at worst it would be dealing

with massacres, but the further it proceeded in its investigations, the
larger loomed the dimensions of the disaster, until finally it was a
question of extermination. No ethnic group, no tribe, no family was
spared, except the Goranes and their allies. The killing machine made
no distinction between men, women and children. The mildest protest

was equated with revolt and triggered horrible reprisals. The silenced
and submissive population watched powerless its own gradual asphyx -
iation. Starting in 1982, political prisons sprang up all over Chad, andv
they were not emptied until the fall of the regime in 1990. In

N’Djamena as well as the provinces, arrests were made at a frenetic
pace. People were arrested on any pretext, even without any pretext.
A slip of the tongue, an old grudge never forgiven by a Gorane or
DDS agent, even an incident fabricated of whole cloth was enough
for one to find himself in the grim dungeons of the DDS.

17 Neil J. Kritz (ed.), Transitional Justice, op. cit. s5, pp. 54 and 75.

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Les enlèvements de nuit et les exécutions extrajudiciaires sont prva-
tiqués régulièrement par les agents de la DDS sur les détenuvs. Ce
sont généralement les agents les plus sanguinaires … qui procèvdent
aux sélections des prisonniers destinés à l’abattoir situé aux alentours
de N’Djamena. Ces actes odieux et barbares visent une certaine catév -
17
gorie de détenus. »

4. L’intention d’exterminer tous les opposants
supposés au régime

14. Les autres parties du rapport de la commission tchadienne pour la

vérité ont trait aux circonstances aggravantes de l’oppression vexercée par
le régime Habré et, principalement, au caractère intentionnel dves atrocités
perpétrées. Pour reprendre les termes employés dans le rapport,v

«Le régime de Hissein Habré a été une véritable hécatombe pour
le peuple tchadien ; des milliers de personnes ont trouvé la mort, des
milliers d’autres ont souffert dans leur âme et dans leur corps vet
continuent d’en souffrir.

Tout au long de ce sombre règne, à N’Djamena comme dans le
reste du pays, la répression systématique était la règle pouvr tous les
opposants ou supposés opposants au régime.
Les biens des personnes arrêtées ou recherchées étaient pillvés et leurs

parents persécutés. Des familles entières avaient été ainvsi décimées.
A l’intérieur du pays, des villages ont été complètement brûlés et
leurs populations massacrées. Rien n’échappait à cette foliev meur -
trière et le pays tout entier était soumis à la terreur…
Jamais dans l’histoire du Tchad il n’y a eu autant de morts. Jamais il

n’y a eu autant de victimes innocentes. Au début de ses travaux, lva
commission d’enquête pensait avoir affaire au pire des cas à vdes mas -
sacres, mais plus elle avançait dans ses investigations, plus l’évtendue du
désastre s’agrandissait pour aboutir finalement au constat qu’vil s’agis -
sait plutôt d’une extermination. Aucun groupe ethnique, aucune trivbu,

aucune famille n’a été épargnée, excepté les Goranes evt leurs alliés. La
machine à tuer ne faisait aucune différence entre hommes, femmesv et
enfants. La moindre protestation était assimilée à une révolvte et entraî -
nait de terribles représailles. Le peuple bâillonné et soumis avssistait
donc impuissant à son asphyxie progressive. Dès 1982, les prisons poli -

tiques ont proliféré au Tchad et n’ont pas désempli jusqu’và la chute du
régime, en 1990. A N’Djamena comme en province, les arrestations
étaient effectuées à un rythme frénétique. L’on évtait arrêté pour n’im -
porte quel motif et même sans aucun motif. Il suffisait d’un mot vmal
placé, d’une vieille rancune non digérée par un Gorane ou n’importe

quel agent de la DDS, voire d’un scénario monté de toutes pièvces, pour
se retrouver dans les sombres cachots de la DDS.

17« Les crimes et détournements de l’ex-président Habré et de sevs complices », op. cit.

supra note 5, p. 51 et 54.

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In these dungeons, a very large number of people died. The number
of political prisoners counted by the Commission of Inquiry for the

period 1982-1990 and the number who died during the same period
boggle the imagination.” 18

15. The Report of the Chadian Truth Commission, published in 1993,
was in fact concluded on 7 May 1992, with a series of recommendations 19.
Its over-all assessment was quite sombre. In its own words,

“The record of Habré’s eight-year reign is terrifying. The Commvis -

sion still wonders how a citizen, a child of the country, could have
committed so much evil, so much cruelty, against his own people. The
stereotype of the hard-core revolutionary idealist quickly gave way to
that of a shabby and sanguinary tyrant.

Recapitulating the evils he has wrought on his fellow citizens, the
toll is heavy and the record grim :

— more than 40,000 victims ;
— more than 80,000 orphans ;

— more than 30,000 widows ;
— more than 200,000 people left with no moral or material sup -
port as the result of this repression.

Add to that the movable and immovable goods plundered and
confiscated from peaceful citizens — an amount estimated at ONE

BILLION CFA FRANCS each year.
Eight years of rule, eight years of tyranny (. . .). Why so much evil,
so much hatred of his own people? Was it worth the pain of struggling
for a whole decade to win power, just to do that ? For what ideal and

to what end was Habré fighting ? (. . .)
The Habré regime and what became of it should serve as a lesson
to all Chadians, and in particular to the country’s rulers. A wise mavn
20
once said: ‘Power is like a shadow, and shadows are never eternal.’”

III. The Decision of May 2006

of the UN Committee agaivnst Torture

16. On 18 April 2001, a group of persons who claimed to be victims
of torture during the regime Habré in Chad lodged a complaint with

the UN Committee against Torture, supervisory organ of the
UN Convention against Torture (CAT). They did so under Article 22
of the CAT, in the exercise of the right of individual complaint or peti -

18
Neil J. Kritz (ed.), Transitional Justice, op. cit. s5, pp. 79-80.
19
20f. ibid., pp. 92-93.
Ibid., p. 97.

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Dans ces cachots, il mourait un nombre impressionnant de détenus.
Les chiffres des détenus politiques recensés par la commission dv’en -

quête pour la période de 1982 à 1990 ainsi que ceux des personnes 18
mortes pendant la même période défient toute imagination.»

15. Le rapport de la commission tchadienne pour la vérité, publié evn
1993, a, en fait, été achevé le 7 mai 1992, et ce, par la formulation d’une
série de recommandations 19. Ses conclusions générales étaient fort sombre:s

«Le bilan de huit ans de règne qu’a laissé Habré est terrifivant. La
commission ne cesse de se demander comment un citoyen, un enfant

du pays a pu faire tant de mal, tant de cruauté à son peuple. L’image
empruntée du « révolutionnaire pur et dur » a vite cédé la place à
celle d’un tyran minable et sanguinaire.
En récapitulant le mal qu’il a fait contre ses concitoyens, le bilvan

est lourd et bien sombre ; il se chiffre à :

— plus de 40 000 victimes;
— plus de 80 000 orphelins;
— plus de 30 000 veuves;
— plus de 200 000 personnes se trouvant, du fait de cette répres -

sion, sans soutien moral et matériel.

Ajouter à cela les biens meubles et immeubles pillés et confisquvés
chez de paisibles citoyens, évalués à UN MILLIARD DE
FRANCS CFA chaque année.
Huit ans de règne, huit ans de tyrannie… Pourquoi tant de mal,

tant de haine à l’égard de son propre peuple ? Valait-il la peine de
lutter toute une décennie pour conquérir le pouvoir et en arriver là ?
Pour quel idéal et dans quel but Habré s’était-il battu ? …
Que le régime de Habré et ce qui lui est arrivé servent de leçvon à tous

les Tchadiens, et en particulier aux gouvernants. Un sage disait : « Le
pouvoir, c’est comme une ombre, et l’ombre n’est jamais étervnel» le.20

III. La décision rendue au mvois de mai 2006
par le Comité des NationvsUnies contre la tortuvre

16. Le 18 avril 2001, un groupe de personnes prétendant avoir été vic -
times de tortures durant le régime Habré au Tchad a déposé une plainte
devant le Comité des Nations Unies contre la torture, l’organe de surveilv -
lance de l’application de la convention contre la torture. Ces personvnes

agissaient sur la base de l’article 22 de cet instrument, en exerçant leur

18
« Les crimes et détournements de l’ex-président Habré et de sevs complices », op. cit.
supra note 5, p. 68-69.
19Voir ibid., p. 98-99.
20Ibid., p. 97.

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21
tion . The Committee then proceeded to the examination of the case
of Souleymane Guengueng and al. v. Senegal . It should not pass
unnoticed, at this stage, that the Committee was enabled to pronounce

on this matter due to the exercise, by the individuals concerned, of their
right of complaint or petition at international level.
17. Half a decade later, on 19 May 2006, the Committee against Tor -

ture adopted a decision, under Article 22 of the CAT, on the case Souley -
mane Guengueng and al., concerning the complaints of Chadian nationals
living in Chad, who claimed to be victims of a breach by Senegal of
Articles 5 (2) and 7 of the CAT 22. The Committee did so taking into

account the submissions of the complainants and of the respondent State,v
bearing in mind the factual background of the case as contained in the
Report (of May 1992) of the National Commission of Inquiry of
23
the Chadian Ministry of Justice . In their complaint lodged with
the UN Committee against Torture, the complainants claimed, as to the
facts, that, between 1982 and 1990, they were tortured by agents of Chad

who answered directly to Mr. H. Habré, the then President of Chad
during the period at issue.
18. The Committee referred to the aforementioned Report by the

National Commission of Inquiry established by the Chadian Ministry of
Justice (cf. supra), giving account of 40,000 “political murders” and “sys -
tematic acts of torture” allegedly committed during the H. Habré regime.

The Committee recalled that, after being ousted by Mr. Idriss Déby in
December 1990, Mr. H. Habré took refuge in Senegal, where he has been
living ever since. The Committee further recalled the initiatives of legal

action (from 2000 onwards) against Mr. H. Habré, in Senegal and in
Belgium. The Committee then found the communication admissible
and considered that the principle of universal jurisdiction enunciated in

Articles 5 (2) and 7 of the CAT implies that the jurisdiction of States
parties “must extend to potential complainants in circumstances similar
to the complainants” 2.

19. As to the merits of the communication in the case Souleymane Guen -

21 Article 22 of the CAT has been accepted by both Senegal (on 16 October 1996) and
Belgium (on 25 July 1999). To date, 64 of the 150 States parties to the CAT have accepvted
this optional clause of recognition of the competence of the UN Committee against
Torture. For an updated digest of the consideration of complaints under vArticle 22 of the
CAT, cf. UN, Report of the Committee against Torture, 45th-46th Sessions (2010-2011),
UN doc. A/66/44, pp. 150-203.

22
CAT, paras. 1.1-1.3. The Committee (acting under Article 108 (9) of its Rules of
Procedure) requested Senegal, as an interim measure, not to expel Mr. H. Habré and to
take all necessary measures to prevent him from leaving the country (otvher than an extradi
tion) — a request to which Senegal acceded.

23 Ibid., para. 2.1.
24 Ibid., para. 6.4, and cf. paras. 6.1-6.5.

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21
droit de plainte ou de pétition individuel , ce qui a donné lieu à l’exa -
men, par le Comité, de l’affaire Souleymane Guengueng et autres c. Séné -
gal. Il convient de relever, à ce stade, que le Comité était habilvité à se

prononcer sur la question car les intéressés avaient exercé leuvr droit de
plainte ou de pétition au niveau international.
17. Cinq ans plus tard, le 19 mai 2006, le Comité contre la torture a, en

application de l’article 22 de la convention contre la torture, rendu une
décision en l’affaire Souleymane Guengueng et autres, relativement aux
plaintes de nationaux tchadiens résidant au Tchad qui prétendaientv avoir
été victimes d’une violation par le Sénégal de l’articvle 5, paragraphe 2, et
22
de l’article 7 de la convention contre la torture . Le Comité est parvenu
à cette décision au vu des arguments présentés par les requévrants et l’Etat
défendeur, à la lumière du contexte factuel de l’affaire tvel que décrit dans

le rapport (de mai 1992) de la commission d’enquête nationale du minis -
tère tchadien de la justice 2. Dans leur plainte déposée devant le Comité,
les requérants affirmaient, d’un point de vue factuel, avoir évté torturés

entre 1982 et 1990 par des agents tchadiens relevant de l’autorité directe
de Hissène Habré, alors président du Tchad.
18. Le Comité s’est référé au rapport précité de la comvmission d’en -

quête nationale établie par le ministère tchadien de la justicev (voir supra),
lequel faisait état de 40 000 «assassinats politiques» et d’«actes de torture
systématiques» qui auraient été commis durant le régime de His -

sène Habré. Il a rappelé que, après son éviction par M. Idriss Déby en
décembre 1990, M. Hissène Habré avait trouvé refuge au Sénégal, où il
résidait depuis lors. Il a par ailleurs rappelé les actions en jusvtice intro -

duites à partir de 2000 à l’encontre de M. Hissène Habré, au Sénégal
comme en Belgique. Le Comité a ensuite déclaré la communicationv rece -
vable et estimé que le principe de la compétence universelle, évnoncé à

l’article 5, paragraphe 2, et à l’article 7 de la convention contre la torture,
impliquait «l’élargissement de la juridiction des Etats parties à des requé -
rants potentiels se trouvant dans des situations similaires à celles des
requérants » 2.

19. En ce qui concerne le fond de la communication présentée en l’avf -

21 L’article 22 de la convention contre la torture a été accepté par le Sénégal (le
16 octobre 1996) et par la Belgique (le 25 juillet 1999). A ce jour, 64 des 150 Etats parties à
la convention contre la torture ont accepté cette clause facultative vde reconnaissance de la
compétence du Comité des Nations Unies contre la torture. Pour un résumé mis à jour de
l’examen des plaintes introduites en vertu de l’article 22 de la convention contre la torture,
voir Nations Unies, Rapport du Comité contre la torture, 45eet 46 sessions (2010-2011),

doc22A/66/44, p. 150-203.
Convention contre la torture, par. 1.11.3. Le Comité (agissant conformément à
l’article 108/9) de son règlement intérieur) a demandé au Sénégal, à titre de mesure
conservatoire, de ne pas expulser M. Hissène Habré et de prendre toutes les mesures
nécessaires (autres qu’une extradition) afin de l’empêcher de quitter le pays — demande à
laquelle le Sénégal a accédé.
23 Ibid., par. 2.1.
24 Ibid., par. 6.4, et voir par. 6.1-6.5.

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gueng and Others, the Committee, after reviewing the arguments of the
parties as to the alleged violations of the relevant provisions of the CvAT,
noted that Senegal had not contested the fact that it had not taken “vsuch

measures as may be necessary” under Article 5 (2). The Committee found 25
that Senegal had not fulfilled its obligations under that provision . In
reaching this decision, the Committee deemed it fit to warn, in its devcision

of 19 May 2006, that
“the reasonable time-frame within which the State party should have

complied with this obligation [under Article 5 (2) of the CAT] has
been considerably exceeded” 26.

20. As to the alleged breach of Article 7 of the CAT, the Committee
noted that “the obligation to prosecute the alleged perpetrator of acvts of

torture does not depend on the prior existence of a request for his extrvadi -
tion”; it further observed that the objective of Article 7 is “to prevent any
act of torture from going unpunished” 27. The Committee also pondered

that Senegal or any other State party “cannot invoke the complexity ovf its
judicial proceedings or other reasons stemming from domestic law to jus -
tify its failure to comply with [its] obligations under the Convention”v 28.

The Committee found that Senegal was under an obligation to prosecute
Mr. H. Habré for alleged acts of torture, unless it could demonstrate that
there was not sufficient evidence to prosecute (at the time of the comv -

plainants’ submission of their original complaint of January 2000).

21. The Committee recalled that the decision of March 2001 by the

Court of Cassation had put an end to any possibility of prosecuting
Mr. H. Habré in Senegal, and added that since Belgium’s request of
extradition of September 2005, Senegal also had the choice to extradite

Mr. H. Habré. As Senegal decided neither to prosecute nor to extradite
him, the Committee found that it had failed to perform its obligations
under Article 7 of the CAT 29. The Committee then concluded that Sen-
egal had violated Articles 5 (2) and 7 of the CAT; it added that itsdecision

in no way influenced the possibility of “the complainants’ obtaivning com -
pensation through the domestic courts for the State party’s failure to
comply with its obligations under the Convention” 3. This decision of the

Committee against Torture is, in my view, of particular relevance to thev
present case before this Court 31.

25
26CAT, paras. 9.1-9.6.
Ibid., para. 9.5.
27Ibid., para. 9.7.
28Ibid., para. 9.8.
29Ibid., paras. 9.7-9.12.
30Ibid., paras. 9.12 and 10.
31Cf. also Section XV, infra.

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faire Souleymane Guengueng et autres, le Comité a constaté, après avoir
examiné les arguments des parties relatifs aux violations supposéevs des
dispositions pertinentes de la convention contre la torture, que le Sévnégal

n’avait pas contesté n’avoir pas pris « les mesures nécessaires » visées par
l’article 5, paragraphe 2. Il a conclu que le Sénégal n’avait pas satisfait à
ses obligations au titre de cette disposition 2. Ce faisant, le Comité a jugé

utile de préciser, dans sa décision du 19 mai 2006, que
«le délai raisonnable dans lequel l’Etat partie aurait dû remplivr cette

obligation [au titre de l’article 5, paragraphe 2, de la convention
contre la torture était] largement dépassé » 26.

20. S’agissant de la violation supposée de l’article 7 de la convention
contre la torture, le Comité a relevé que « l’obligation de poursuivre l’au -

teur présumé d’actes de torture ne dépend[ait] pas de l’evxistence préalable
d’une demande d’extradition à son encontre»; il a également fait observer
que l’objectif de l’article 7 était «d’éviter l’impunité pour tout acte de tor -
27
ture » . Le Comité a en outre considéré que le Sénégal ou tout avutre Etat
partie «ne p[ouvait] invoquer la complexité de sa procédure judiciaire ou v
d’autres raisons dérivées de son droit interne pour justifierv le manque de
28
respect à ses obligations en vertu de la convention » , estimant que le
Sénégal avait l’obligation de poursuivre M. Hissène Habré pour les faits
de torture allégués, à moins de pouvoir démontrer qu’il nve disposait pas

d’éléments suffisants pour ce faire (au moment de l’introduction de la
plainte initiale par les requérants, en janvier 2000).
21. Le Comité a rappelé que, par sa décision du mois de mars 2001, la

Cour de cassation avait exclu toute possibilité que soient dorénavant
engagées des poursuites à l’encontre de M. Hissène Habré au Sénégal,
ajoutant que, depuis la demande d’extradition formulée par la Belgvique

en septembre 2005, le Sénégal avait également la possibilité d’extradevr
l’intéressé. Le Sénégal n’ayant décidé ni de pouvrsuivre ni d’extrader
celui-ci, le Comité a estimé qu’il avait manqué aux obligativons que lui
imposait l’article 7 de la convention contre la torture 29. Il a ainsi conclu

que le Sénégal avait violé les articles 5, paragraphe 2, et 7 de la conven -
tion contre la torture, ajoutant que sa décision n’avait aucune invcidence
sur la possibilité pour « les requérants d’obtenir une compensation devant

les organes internes de l’Etat partie en raison de l’absence de mivse en
œuvre de ses obligations conformément à la convention » 30. Cette déci -
sion du Comité contre la torture revêt, à mon sens, une pertinence parti -
31
culière aux fins de la présente espèce .

25
26Convention contre la torture, par. 9.1-9.6.
Ibid., par. 9.5.
27Ibid., par. 9.7.
28Ibid., par. 9.8.
29Ibid., par. 9.7-9.12.
30Ibid., par. 9.12 et 10.
31Voir également la section XV infra.

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IV. The Case before the ICJ :
Responses to Questionsv Put to the Contending Pavrties

1. Questions Put to Both Parties

22. At the end of the public hearings before this Court, I deemed it fit

to put to the two contending Parties, on 16 March 2012, the following
questions :

“(. . .) First question :

1. As to the facts which lie at the historical origins of this case, taking
into account the alleged or eventual projected costs of the trial of
Mr. Habré in Senegal, what in your view would be the probatory

value of the Report of the National Commission of Inquiry of the
Chadian Ministry of Justice ?

Second question :

2. As to the law :

— (a) Pursuant to Article 7 (1) of the United Nations Convention
against Torture, how is the obligation to ‘submit the case to its
competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution’ to be inter-

preted? In your view, are the steps that Senegal alleges to have
taken to date sufficient to fulfil the obligation under Article 7 (1)
of the United Nations Convention against Torture ?

— (b) According to Article 6 (2) of the United Nations Convention
against Torture, a State party wherein a person alleged to have
committed an offence (pursuant to Article 4) is present ‘shall

immediately make a preliminary inquiry into the facts’. How is
this obligation to be interpreted ? In your view, are the steps that
Senegal alleges to have taken to date sufficient to fulfil its obli-
gation under this provision of the United Nations Convention
32
against Torture? ”

2. Reponses by Belgium

23. Concerning the first question I posed 3, Belgium gave its response
on the basis of the relevant rules of Belgian law, and invited Senegal to

elaborate on the rules applicable under Senegalese law. Belgium contended

32
33CR 2012/5, of 16 March 2012, pp. 42-43.
Namely : “As to the facts which lie at the historical origins of this case, taking into
account the alleged or eventual projected costs of the trial of Mr. Habré in Senegal, what
in your view would be the probatory value of the Report of the National vCommission of
Inquiry of the Chadian Ministry of Justice ? ”

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IV. L’affaire soumise à vla Cour:
réponses aux questiovns posées aux Parties

1. Questions posées aux deux Parties

22. A la fin de l’audience publique du 16 mars 2012, j’ai jugé utile de
poser les questions suivantes aux deux Parties :

« … Première question :

1. En ce qui concerne les faits à l’origine de la présente affaire, quelle
serait selon vous, en tenant compte du coût estimatif allégué ovu éven -
tuel que représenterait l’organisation du procès de M. Habré au
Sénégal, la valeur probante du rapport de la commission d’enquêvte

nationale du ministère tchadien de la justice ?

Deuxième question :
2. En ce qui concerne le droit :

— a) Comment doit être interprétée l’obligation de « soumet[tre]

l’affaire [aux] autorités [nationales] compétentes pour l’vexercice
de l’action pénale» énoncée au paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la
convention des Nations Unies contre la torture ? Les mesures
que le Sénégal soutient avoir prises à ce jour suffisent-ellesv,

selon vous, pour considérer qu’il a été satisfait à l’vobligation
énoncée audit paragraphe ?
— b) En vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 6 de la convention des

Nations Unies contre la torture, tout Etat partie sur le ter-
ritoire duquel se trouve une personne soupçonnée d’avoir
commis une infraction (visée à l’article 4) doit « proc[é]de[r]
immédiatement à une enquête préliminaire en vue d’étabvlir les

faits». Comment cette obligation doit-elle être interprétée ? Les
mesures que le Sénégal soutient avoir prises à ce jour suf -
fisent-elles, selon vous, pour considérer qu’il a été sativsfait à
l’obligation lui incombant en vertu de cette disposition de la
32
convention des Nations Unies contre la torture ?»

2. Réponses de la Belgique

23. Concernant la première question que j’ai posée , la Belgique a fondé

sa réponse sur les règles pertinentes du droit belge, et invitév le Sénégal à
exposer les règles applicables en droit sénégalais. Elle a faitv valoir que le droit

32
33CR 2012/5, 16 mars 2012, p. 42-43.
A savoir : « En ce qui concerne les faits à l’origine de la présente affaire, quelle serait
selon vous, en tenant compte du coût estimatif allégué ou évventuel que représenterait l’or-
ganisation du procès de M. Habré au Sénégal, la valeur probante du rapport de la commis-
sion d’enquête nationale du ministère tchadien de la justice ? »

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6 CIJ1033.indb 157 28/11/13 12:50 499 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

that Belgian law espouses the principle of “liberté de la preuve” in criminal
contexts, which, according to Belgium, entails, first, the free choicev of evi -

dence and, secondly, allows the trial judge to have discretion to assessv its
probative value. Belgium pointed out that the Belgian Court of Cassation
has upheld this principle many times 34. Belgium further argued that the
corollary of the principle of “liberté de la preuve” is that of firm conviction,

whereby the judge can only uphold the charges in case all the evidence
submitted to him by the prosecutor warrants the firm conviction that tvhe
individual has committed the offence he is charged with.
24. Belgium contended, in addition, that, essentially, any type of evi -

dence is thus admissible, as long as it is rational and recognized, by rveason
and experience, as capable of convincing the judge. Belgium also allegedv
that, in accordance with the general legal principle of respect for the vrights
of the defence, any evidence taken into account by the judge in a criminval

case must be subjected to adversarial argument. Belgium contended that
the judge in a criminal case may take into consideration all the evidencve
which has been gathered abroad and which has been transmitted to the
Belgian authorities, such as, a copy of the Report of the National Com -

mission of Inquiry of the Chadian Ministry of Justice (hereinafter : “the
Report”), as long as that evidence does not violate the right to a fvair trial.
Belgium further argued that the judge will determine the legality of thev
evidence obtained abroad based on the following considerations : whether

the foreign law allows the evidence used ; whether or not this evidence is
consistent with the rules of international law directly applicable in the
domestic courts and with Belgian public policy rules ; and, whether the

evidence was obtained in compliance with the foreign law, in35o far as the
judge has been seised of a dispute in this connection .
25. Belgium further claimed that when the international arrest warrant
against Mr. Habré was issued, the Belgian investigating judge took

account, in particular, of the evidence contained in the Report. Thus —
to conclude — Belgium argued that, while keeping in mind that it is
for the trial judge to rule on the probative value of the Report at issue,
it could certainly be used as evidence in proceedings against Mr. Habré.

Belgium added that the use of the Report could save a considerable
amount of time and money in pursuit of the obligation to prosecute, evenv
if — and Belgium referred to Senegal’s arguments in this regard — it is
not possible to point to “lack of funds or difficulties in establishving a

special budget as exonerating factors” concerning the responsibility vof
the State which is obliged to prosecute or, failing that, to extradite 3.

34
CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 21. Belgium argues that the Court of Cassation has
found that “in respect of criminal law, when the law does not lay dowvn a particular method
of proof, the trial judge in fact assesses the probative value of the evvidence, submitted in
due form, on which he bases his opinion”, Belgian Court of Cassation,v 27 February 2002,
Pas., 2002, p. 598 [translation by the Registry].
35 CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 21.
36 Ibid., p. 22.

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belge consacrait le principe de la «liberté de la preuve» en matière pénale, ce
qui, selon elle, impliquait, d’une part, le libre choix des moyens dev preuve et,

d’autre part, la libre appréciation de la valeur probante par le jvuge du fond.
La Belgique a précisé que ce principe avait été maintes foisv réaffirmé par la
Cour de cassation belge 3. Elle a également indiqué que le principe de la

«liberté de la preuve» avait pour corollaire celui de l’intime conviction, sui -
vant lequel le juge ne peut déclarer une prévention établie quev si l’ensemble
des éléments qui lui sont soumis par la partie poursuivante entraîvne son
intime conviction que l’intéressé a commis l’infraction dontv il est prévenu.

24. La Belgique a en outre fait valoir que, à peu de chose près, tout vélé -
ment de preuve était donc admis, pourvu qu’il soit rationnel et revconnu par
la raison et l’expérience comme pouvant emporter la conviction du vjuge.
Elle a par ailleurs indiqué que, conformément au principe génévral de droit

du respect des droits de la défense, tout élément de preuve privs en compte
par le juge pénal devait être soumis à un débat contradictoivre. Selon la
Belgique, le juge pénal peut prendre en considération tous les éléments de

preuve recueillis à l’étranger et transmis aux autorités belvges, comme une
copie du rapport de la commission d’enquête nationale du ministèvre tcha -
dien de la Justice (ci-après, le «rapport»), pour autant que ces éléments ne
contreviennent pas au droit à un procès équitable. De plus, la vBelgique a

précisé que le juge apprécierait la légalité de la preuvev obtenue à l’étranger
en recherchant: si la loi étrangère autorise le moyen de preuve utilisé; si ce
moyen n’est contraire ni aux règles de droit international directevment appli -
cables dans l’ordre juridique interne ni aux règles d’ordre pubvlic belge;set

si la preuve a été obtenue conformément au droit étranger, pour autant que
le juge ait été saisi d’une contestation à ce sujet 3.

25. La Belgique a encore affirmé que, lors de la délivrance du mandat
d’arrêt international à l’encontre de Hissène Habré, le juge d’instruction
belge avait notamment pris en considération les éléments figuvrant dans le
rapport. Et la Belgique de conclure, tout en rappelant qu’il appartievnt au

juge du fond de se prononcer sur la valeur probante dudit rapport, que ce
document pourrait certainement constituer un des éléments de preuvve dans
le cadre des poursuites à l’encontre de Hissène Habré. Selon elle, l’utilisa -
tion de ce rapportreprésenterait en outre un gain non négligeable de temps

et d’argent dans le cadre de l’exécution de l’obligation de vpoursuivre, même
si — et la Belgique s’est à cet égard référée aux arguvments du Sénégal —
«l’insuffisance de moyens financiers ou les contraintes de la constvitution

d’un budget spécial [ne] constituent [pas] des facteurs exonéravtoire» 36 s de la
responsabilité de l’Etat tenu de poursuivre, à défaut d’evxtrader .

34CR 2012/6, 19 mars 2012, p. 21. La Belgique a précisé que, selon la Cour de cas-a
tion, «en matière répressive, lorsque la loi n’établit pas un mode spécial de preuve, le juge

du fond apprécie en fait la valeur probante des éléments sur levsquels il fonde sa conviction,
qui lui sont régulièrement soumis », Cour de cassation belge, 27 février 2002, Pas., 2002,
p. 358.
36CR 2012/6, 19 mars 2012, p. 21.
Ibid., p. 22.

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26. As to the second question I posed 37, Belgium argued that there are
three steps to be taken pursuant to Article 6 of the Convention against

Torture (CAT) :

“first, to secure the offender’s presence ; second, to conduct, immedi -
ately, a preliminary inquiry; and,third, to notify, immediately, certain
States what is going on, including in particular reporting to them its
findings following the preliminary inquiry and indicating whether it

intends to exercise jurisdiction”.

As to the first requirement of Article 6, Belgium argued that it never con -
tested that Senegal fulfilled this first step, even though, from timve to time,

Belgium has had serious concerns about Senegal’s continuing commit -
ment to this obligation, given certain statements by high-level officials of
Senegal.

27. As concerns Article 6 (2), Belgium argued that Senegal’s counsel
did not make arguments in this regard during the oral hearings. Belgium v
claimed that Article 6 is a common provision in Conventions containing
aut dedere aut judicare clauses (as, e.g., in the Hague and Montreal Con -

ventions concerning civil aviation), and referred to the United Nationsv
Study of such clauses, to the effect that the preliminary steps set out in the
Conventions, including “measures (. . .) to investigate relevant facts”, are
indispensable to allow the proper operation of the mechanism for the

punishment of offenders in the relevant Conventions. Belgium went on tvo
argue that the nature of the investigation required by Article 6 (2)
depended to some extent on the legal system concerned, and the circum -

stances of the particular case. It contended, however, that from the strvuc-
ture of the aut dedere aut judicare provisions of the Convention against
Torture, the reference to a preliminary inquiry in Article 6 (2) is of the
kind of preliminary investigation which precedes the submission of the

matter to the prosecuting authorities.

28. Belgium claimed that Article 6 (4) makes it clear that the prelimi -
nary inquiry should lead to findings, and that the main purpose of thev
inquiry is to enable the State in whose territory the alleged offenderv is

37
Namely :
“According to Article 6 (2) of the United Nations Convention against
Torture, a State party wherein a person alleged to have committed an offvence

(pursuant to Article 4) is present ‘shall immediately make a preliminary inquiry
into the facts’. How is this obligation to be interpret? In your view, are the
steps that Senegal alleges to have taken to date sufficient to fulfilv its obliga
tion under this provision of the United Nations Convention against Tortuvre ?”

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37
26. S’agissant de la deuxième question que j’ai posée , la Belgique a
précisé que l’article 6 de la convention contre la torture prescrivait les
trois mesures suivantes :

«premièrement, l’Etat sur le territoire duquel se trouve une personne

ayant commis une infraction doit assurer la présence de cette per -
sonne ;deuxièmement, il doit procéder immédiatement à une enquête
préliminaire ; et,troisièmement, il doit aviser immédiatement certains
Etats de la situation, notamment en leur communiquant les conclu -

sions auxquelles il est parvenu à la suite de l’enquête prélviminaire et
en leur indiquant s’il entend exercer sa compétence ».

Au sujet de la première prescription de l’article 6, la Belgique a indiqué
n’avoir jamais contesté que le Sénégal y avait satisfait, mêvme si elle a par -
fois eu de sérieux doutes quant à la volonté de celui-ci de convtinuer de
respecter cette obligation, compte tenu de certaines déclarations évmanant

de représentants de haut rang.
27. En ce qui concerne l’article 6, paragraphe 2, la Belgique a indiqué
que les conseils du Sénégal n’avaient pas dit un mot à ce propos à
l’audience. Elle a fait valoir que l’article 6 était une disposition courante

dans les conventions qui contiennent des clauses prescrivant l’obligav-
tion aut dedere aut judicare (par exemple, dans les conventions de La
Haye et de Montréal relatives à l’aviation civile), et s’esvt référée à un
passage de l’étude réalisée par l’Organisation des Nationvs Unies sur

lesdites clauses dans lequel il est précisé que les mesures préliminaires
énoncées dans les conventions, notamment les « mesures nécessaires
pour … enquêter sur les faits pertinents », sont indispensables au bon
fonctionnement du mécanisme prévu dans la convention considéréve

pour unir les auteurs. En outre, selon la Belgique, la nature de l’en quête
prescrite au paragraphe 2 de l’article 6 dépendra, dans une certaine
mesure, du système juridique concerné, mais également des circovnstances
propres à l’affaire en cause. Elle a cependant soutenu qu’il découlait de la

structure des dispositions de la convention contre la torture qui se
rapportent à l’obligation aut dedere aut judicare que le paragraphe 2
de l’article 6 renvoie au type d’enquête préliminaire qui précède la
transmission de l’affaire aux autorités chargées d’engagerv les poursuites.

28. Selon la Belgique, il ressort clairement du paragraphe 4 de ce même
article que cette enquête préliminaire devrait aboutir à des covnclusions et
que l’un de ses principaux objectifs est de permettre à l’Etat vsur le terri -

37A savoir :

«En vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article 6 de la convention des Nations Unies contre
la torture, tout Etat partie sur le territoire duquel se trouve une persvonne soupçonnée
d’avoir commis une infraction (visée à l’article 4) doit « proc[é]de[r] immédiatement à
une enquête préliminaire en vue d’établir les faits». Comment cette obligation doit-elle
être interprétée? Les mesures que le Sénégal soutient avoir prises à ce jour suvffisent-
elles, selon vous, pour considérer qu’il a été satisfait àv l’obligation lui incombant en
vertu de cette disposition de la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture?»

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6 CIJ1033.indb 161 28/11/13 12:50 501 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

present to take a decision on whether it intends to take jurisdiction, avnd
to report its findings to other interested States so that they may take a

decision whether or not to seek extradition. In Belgium’s submission,v

“[t]he preliminary inquiry referred to in Article 6, paragraph 2, thus
requires the gathering of first pieces of evidence and information,
sufficient to permit an informed decision by the competent authorities v

of the territorial State whether a person should be charged with a
serious criminal offence and brought to justice” 3.

Belgium concluded by claiming that there is no information before the

Court speaking to any preliminary inquiry on the part of Senegal.

39
29. As to my question concerning the interpretation of Article 7 , Bel-
gium first argued that the obligation under Article 7 (1) is closely related
to the obligations under Articles 5 (2), and 6 (2) of the CAT — which in

its view Senegal has also violated — and Belgium further claimed in this
regard that “the breach of Article 7 flowed from the breach of the other
two provisions”. Belgium explained that

“[t]he absence of the necessary legislation, in clear breach of Articvle 5,
paragraph 2, until 2007/2008 meant that Senegal’s prosecutorial

efforts were doomed to failure. So the prosecutorial efforts under -
taken in 2000 and 2001 cannot be seen as fulfilling the obligation laivd
down in Article 7, paragraph 1, of the Convention.” 40

38
CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, pp. 42-44. Belgium also cites the Commentary, by
Nowak and McArthur, in this sense :
“[s]uch criminal investigation is based on the information made availvable by the

victims and other sources as indicated in Article 6 (1) and includes active measures of
gathering evidence, such as interrogation of the alleged torturer, takinvg witness testi
monies, inquiries on the spot, searching for documentary evidence, et; M. Nowak,
E. McArthur et al., The United Nations Convention against Torture — A Commen -
tary, Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 340.

39 Namely :

“Pursuant to Article 7 (1) of the United Nations Convention against Torture, how
is the obligation to ‘submit the case to its competent authorities fovr the purpose of
prosecution’ to be interpreted ? In your view, are the steps that Senegal alleges to
have taken to date sufficient to fulfil the obligation under Article 7 (1) of the United
Nations Convention against Torture ?”

40
CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 46.

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toire duquel se trouve la personne soupçonnée d’avoir commis une infrac-
tion de décider s’il entend exercer sa compétence et d’avisevr les autres

Etats intéressés des conclusions de l’enquête, de façon àv leur permettre de
décider de l’opportunité ou non de demander l’extradition de la personne
en question. Selon la Belgique,

«[l’]enquête préliminaire mentionnée au paragraphe 2 de l’article 6

exige que soient rassemblés des premiers éléments de preuve et vd’in -
formation qui soient suffisants pour permettre aux autorités compév-
tentes de l’Etat sur le territoire duquel se trouve l’intéressév de décider

en toute connaissance de cause s’il convient de l’inculper d’unve
infraction pénale grave et de le traduire en justice » 38.

Et la Belgique de conclure qu’aucune information présentée àv la
Cour n’indique qu’une enquête préliminaire ait été menéev par le

Sénégal.
29. Quant à ma question relative à l’interprétation de l’article 7 39, la
Belgique a commencé par faire valoir que l’obligation figurant avu para -

graphe 1 de l’article 7 était étroitement liée à celles qui sont énoncées auv
paragraphe 2 de l’article 5 et au paragraphe 2 de l’article 6 de la conven -
tion — dispositions que, selon elle, le Sénégal a également violées —, sou-

tenant à cet égard que «la violation de l’article 7 découl[ait] de celle de ces
deux autres dispositions ». La Belgique a précisé que,

«le Sénégal ne disposant pas de la législation nécessaire jusvqu’en
2007-2008, ce qui était contraire au paragraphe 2 de l’article 5 de la

convention, les efforts qu’il avait entrepris pour engager des pourv -
suites étaient voués à l’échec. Aussi les efforts entrevpris en 2000

et 2001 ne constituaient pas une exécution de l’obligat40n énoncéve au
paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la convention. »

38 CR 2012/6, 19 mars 2012, p. 42-44. La Belgique s’appuie aussi sur le commentaire de
Nowak et McArthur :

«[c]ette enquête pénale s’appuie sur les informations fournies pvar les victimes et
par d’autres sources, tel qu’indiqué au paragraphe 1 de l’article 6, et comprend
des mesures concrètes visant à réunir des preuves, telles que lv’interrogatoire de la
personne soupçonnée d’avoir commis des actes de torture, l’evnregistrement des dépo
sitions de témoins, la réalisation d’enquêtes sur le terrain, la recherche d’éléments de
preuve documentaires, etc. »; M. Nowak, E. McArthur et al., The United Nations

Convention against Torture — A Commentary, Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 340.
39 A savoir :

«Comment doit être interprétée l’obligation de « soumet[tre] l’affaire [aux]
autorités compétentes pour l’exercice de l’action pénale » énoncée au para -
graphe 1 de l’article 7 de la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture ?
Les mesures que le Sénégal soutient avoir prises à ce jour suffivsent-elles, selon

vous, pour considérer qu’il a été satisfait à l’obligavtion énoncée au para -
graphe 1 de l’article 7 de la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture ?»

40 CR 2012/6, 19 mars 2012, p. 46.

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30. Belgium claimed that the obligation in Article 7 of the CAT “to

submit the case to the competent authorities for the purpose of prosecu -
tion” is carefully worded as it would not seem realistic “to prosecute
whenever allegations are made”. In this regard, Belgium argued that :

“What can be required is that the case is submitted to the
prosecuting authorities for the purpose of prosecution ; and that
those authorities ‘shall take their decision in the same manner as

the case of any ordinary offence of a serious nature’— in paragraph 2
of Article 7, with which paragraph 1 should be read, provides.
What is at issue here, in particular, is the need for the prosecuting
authorities to decide whether the available evidence is sufficient for va
41
prosecution.”

31. Belgium then referred to the negotiating history of Article 7 and
argued that the same language is now found in many of the aut dedere aut
judicare clauses that follow the Hague Convention 42model, including the

CAT. Referring to the travaux préparatoires of the latter, Belgium argued
that it was decided that the language should follow the “well-established
language” of the Hague Convention 4. Belgium also claimed that “the

fact that there is no absolute requirement to prosecute does not mean thvat
the prosecuting authorities have total discretion, and that a State may
simply do nothing”, and contended that, like any other international obli -
gation, it must be performed in good faith.

32. Belgium referred to the object and purpose of the CAT stated in its

concluding preambular paragraph “to make more effective the struggle
against torture” which means, in its view, that the prosecuting authorities
start “a prosecution if there is sufficient evidence, and that they vdo so in a
timely fashion”. After referring to expert writing on the travaux prépara -

toires of the Hague Convention, for guidance in the interpretation of
Article 7 of the CAT 4, Belgium concluded that Senegal is in breach of its
obligation under Article 7 of the CAT, notwithstanding the fact that the

prosecuting authorities acted in the year 2000, without success, which ivn
its view was not sufficient to fulfil its obligations under the CAT.

41CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 46.
42Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, The Haguve,
16 December 1970, United Nations, Treaty Series, Vol. 860, p. 105 (I-12325).
43
44CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, pp. 46-47.
Ibid., pp. 46-48.

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30. Selon la Belgique, l’obligation, énoncée à l’article 7 de la conven -
tion contre la torture, de « soumet[tre] l’affaire [aux] autorités compétentes

pour l’exercice de l’action pénale » a été rédigée avec soin, étant donné
qu’il ne serait pas réaliste « d’engager des poursuites chaque fois que des
allégations sont formulées ». A cet égard, la Belgique a fait valoir ce qui

suit :
«Ce qui peut être requis, c’est que l’affaire soit soumise auxv autorités

compétentes pour l’exercice de l’action pénale, et que cellevs-p ci«nnent
leur décision dans les mêmes conditions que pour toute infraction vde
droit commun de caractère grave» — comme le prévoit le paragraphe 2

de l’article 7, qui devrait être rapproché du paragraphe1. La question
qui se pose plus particulièrement ici est celle de la nécessitév pour les
autorités chargées des poursuites de décider si les élémevnts de preuve
disponibles suffisent pour engager une action pénale» . 41

31. La Belgique s’est ensuite référée à l’histoire rédavctionnelle de l’ar -

ticle 7 et a indiqué que l’on retrouvait aujourd’hui la même formuvlation
dans de nombreuses clauses aut dedere aut judicare qui suivent le modèle
de la convention de La Haye 42, y compris la convention contre la torture.
Se référant aux travaux préparatoires de cet instrument, elle a précisé

qu’il avait été décidé que la formulation suivrait « celle, bien établie »,
de la convention de La Haye 43. La Belgique a également avancé que
«l’absence d’obligation absolue de poursuivre ne signifi[ait] pasv que les
autorités compétentes en la matière jouissent d’un pouvoir tvotale-

ment discrétionnaire, et qu’un Etat [puisse] se contenter de ne riven faire»,
et que, à l’instar de toute autre obligation internationale, cettev obligation
devait être exécutée de bonne foi.

32. Se référant à l’objet et au but de la convention contre la tvorture,
énoncés dans le dernier alinéa du préambule de cet instrument — «ac-
croître l’efficacité de la lutte contre la torture » —, la Belgique a précisé
que cela signifiait, selon elle, que les autorités compétentes étaient tenues

d’engager « une action pénale s’il exist[ait] suffisamment d’éléments de
preuve, et de le faire dans les meilleurs délais ». Après s’être appuyée sur
certains écrits d’experts relatifs aux travaux préparatoires dev la conven -
tion de La Haye, qui apportent un éclairage sur l’interprétation de l’avr -
44
ticle 7 de la convention contre la torture , elle a conclu que le Sénégal
manquait à l’obligation qui lui incombait aux termes de cette disposition,
et ce, bien que les autorités compétentes pour l’exercice de l’vaction pénale

aient pris certaines mesures en 2000, sans succès ; selon la Belgique, cela
n’était pas suffisant pour que le Sénégal satisfasse à sves obligations au
regard de la convention contre la torture.

41
42 CR 2012/6, 19 mars 2012, p. 46.
Convention pour la répression de la capture illicite d’aéronefs, La Haye,
16 43cembre 1970, Recueil des traités des Nations Unies, vol. 860, p. 105 (I-12325).
44 CR 2012/6, 19 mars 2012, p. 46-47.
Ibid., p. 46-48.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 165 28/11/13 12:50 503 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

33. Belgium further contended that, since 2000-2001, Senegal has taken
no action to submit any of the allegations against Mr. H. Habré to the

prosecuting authorities, a fact which Belgium submitted to be a

“matter of particular concern given that the allegations against
Mr. H. Habré were renewed in the Belgian extradition request of
2005, and in the further complaint laid in Senegal in 2008, not to

speak of the information now publicly available concerning the crimes
that have been committed when Hissène Habré was in power in Chad,
and for which he allegedly bears responsibility” 45.

3. Responses by Senegal

34. In respect of my first question (supra), Senegal pointed out, as far
as the pertinent provisions of domestic law in force in Senegal are con -

cerned, that the Report of the Chadian Truth Commission “can only be
used for information purposes and is not binding on the investigating
judge who, in the course of his investigations conducted by means of an v
international letter rogatory, may endorse or disregard it”. Senegal vadded

that the Report is not binding on the trial judge examining the merits ovf
the case, and thus the value of the Report is “entirely relative” 46.
35. As to my second question (supra), Senegal argued that, even before

it adhered to the CAT, it had already endeavoured to punish torture, andv
as such it had established its jurisdiction in relation to Article 5 (3) of the
Convention, on the basis of which Mr. Habré was indicted in 2000 by the
senior investigating judge when the competent Senegalese authorities had

been seised with complaints. Senegal further claims that pursuant to
Article 7 (3) of the Convention, Mr. Habré “was able to avail himself
of the means of redress made available by Senegalese law to any indi-
vidual implicated in proceedings before criminal courts, without distinc -
47
tion of nationality, on the same basis as the civil parties” .

36. Senegal also added that, further to the judgment of 20 March 2001

of the Court of Cassation, and the mission of the Committee against Tor -
ture in 2009, Senegal adapted its legislation to the other provisions of the
CAT. Senegal further claimed that the investigating judge, in criminal
proceedings, may be seised either by a complaint with civil-party applicva -

tion or by an application from the public prosecutor to open an investiga-
tion. Concerning the preliminary inquiry, Senegal claimed that its aim
is to establish the basic facts and that it does not necessarily lead to

45 CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 48.
46 CR 2012/7, of 21 March 2012, p. 32.
47 Ibid., pp. 32-33.

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33. La Belgique a en outre soutenu que, depuis 2000-2001, le Sénégal
n’avait pris aucune mesure pour soumettre l’une quelconque des alléga -

tions formulées contre M. Hissène Habré à ses autorités compétentes, ce
qu’elle a jugé

«particulièrement préoccupant si l’on considère que les allévgations
contre l’intéressé ont été réitérées dans la demvande d’extradition
présentée par [elle] en 2005, ainsi que dans la nouvelle plainte
déposée au Sénégal en 2008, sans parler de toutes les informvations

aujourd’hui accessibles au public concernant les crimes commis au
Tchad sous la présidence d’Hissène Habré, et dont celui-ci se serait
rendu responsable » 4.

3. Réponses du Sénégal

34. En ce qui concerne ma première question (supra), le Sénégal a
indiqué que, au regard des dispositions pertinentes du droit interne en

vigueur au Sénégal, le rapport de la commission tchadienne pour lav vérité
«ne saurait servir qu’à titre de simple renseignement et ne li[ait]v pas le
juge d’instruction, qui peut, durant ses investigations menées au travers
d’une commission rogatoire internationale, les conforter ou les écarter »,

ajoutant que ce rapport ne liait pas non plus le juge du fond amené àv
trancher le litige, et que sa valeur était donc « toute relative» 46.
35. S’agissant de ma deuxième question (supra), le Sénégal a précisé
que, avant même son adhésion à la convention contre la torture,v il

s’était évertué à sanctionner les actes de torture et avavit ainsi établi sa
compétence au regard des dispositions de l’article 5, paragraphe 3, de cet
instrument, sur la base desquelles M. Hissène Habré avait été inculpé
en 2000 par le doyen des juges d’instruction lorsque les autorités covmpé -

tentes sénégalaises avaient été saisies de plaintes. Le Sénégal a encore fait
valoir que, en application de l’article 7, paragraphe 3, de la convention,
M. Habré « a[vait] pu user des voies de recours que les lois sénégalaises

ont prévues pour tout individu mis en cause devant les juridictions
pénales, sans distinction de nationalité, au même titre que lesv parties
civiles »47.
36. Le Sénégal a ajouté que, faisant suite à l’arrêt de lav Cour de cassa -

tion du 20 mars 2001 et à la mission effectuée par le Comité contre la
torture en 2009, il avait adapté sa législation aux autres disposivtions de la
convention contre la torture. Il a également précisé que, en mavtière
pénale, le juge d’instruction pouvait être saisi soit par une plainte avec

constitution de partie civile, soit par le réquisitoire introductif du procu -
reur de la République. Concernant l’enquête préliminaire, lev Sénégal a
fait valoir que celle-ci visait à permettre l’établissement privmaire des faits

45 CR 2012/6, 19 mars 2012, p. 48.
46 CR 2012/7, 21 mars 2012, p. 32.
47 Ibid., p. 32-33.

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prosecution, as the prosecutor may, upon review of the results of the
inquiry, decide that there are no grounds for further proceedings 48.

37. Senegal further claimed that the CAT does not contain a “general
obligation to combat impunity” as a legal obligation with the effecvt of
requiring universal jurisdiction to be established and that an obligatiovn of

result is not in question, “since the fight against impunity is a pvrocess hav -
ing prosecution or extradition as possible aims under the said Conven -
tion”. Senegal questioned the purpose of establishing universal jurisvdiction
in the case of a State which already has a legal entitlement to exercisev

territorial jurisdiction, which, in its view, is the most obvious princivple in
cases of competing jurisdiction. Senegal recalled that, in 2009, it estavb -
lished its jurisdiction concerning offences covered by the CAT.

38. Senegal further recalled the Court’s Order on the request for provi-
sional measures of 2009 to the effect that the Parties seemed to diffver on
the “time frame within which the obligations provided for in Article 7

must be fulfilled or [on the] circumstances (financial, legal or otvher diffi -
culties)”. Senegal argues that the obligation aut dedere aut judicare
remains an obligation either to extradite or, in the alternative, to
prosecute, given that international law does not appear to “give priovr ity
49
to either alternative course of action”.
39. Senegal contended, moreover, that “[t]he obligation to try, on
account of which Senegal has been brought before the Court, cannot be

conceived as an obligation of result” but rather an obligation of meavns,
where “the requirement of wrongfulness is fulfilled only if the Stavte to
which the source of the obligation is attributable has not deployed all vthe
means or endeavours that could legitimately be expected of it in order tvo

achieve the results expected by the authors of the rule”. Senegal referred
to some international jurisprudence and argued that international law
does not impose obligations of result on member States.
40. Senegal concluded by arguing that the measures it has taken thus

far are largely sufficient and satisfy the obligations laid down in Arti -
cles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of the CAT. Senegal thus argued that once it

“undertook major reforms to allow the trial to be held, including
constitutional reforms, it may be considered to have satisfied its oblvi -
gation of means or of ‘best efforts’, so as not to give the appevarance

of a State heedless and not desirous of implementing its conventional
obligations. It may not have done this to a sufficient extent, but it hvas
made sufficient progress in terms of acting to achieve such a result.”v 50

48 Ibid., p. 33.
49 CR 2012/7, of 21 March 2012, p. 34.
50 Ibid., pp. 35-36.

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et qu’elle ne débouchait pas forcément sur des poursuites, le pvrocureur
pouvant, au vu des résultats de ladite enquête, considérer qu’vil n’y a pas
48
lieu de poursuivre .
37. Le Sénégal a par ailleurs soutenu que la convention des Nations
Unies contre la torture n’énonçait pas « d’obligation générale de lutter
contre l’impunité» au sens d’une obligation juridique ayant pour effet de

contraindre à établir une compétence universelle, et qu’une vobligation de
résultat était exclue, « puisque la lutte contre l’impunité est un processus
dont les objets possibles sont, au regard de ladite convention, la poursvuite
ou l’extradition ». Il a contesté le bien-fondé de l’établissement d’unve

compétence universelle dans le cas d’un Etat ayant déjà un tvitre juridique
de compétence territoriale, lequel, selon lui, est le plus évidentv en cas de
compétences concurrentes. En outre, le Sénégal a rappelé quev, en 2009, il
avait établi sa compétence pour connaître des infractions viséves par la

convention contre la torture.
38. Le Sénégal a également rappelé l’ordonnance de la Cour suvr la
demande en indication de mesures conservatoires de 2009, aux termes de
laquelle les Parties semblaient s’opposer sur le « délai dans lequel les obli -

gations prévues à l’article 7 d[evaient] être remplies ou [sur les] circons -
tances (difficultés d’ordre financier, juridique ou autre) ». Il a estimé que
l’obligation aut dedere aut judicare n’en restait pas moins une obligation
alternative imposant soit d’extrader soit de poursuivre, le droit intvernatio -
49
nal ne semblant « privilégie[r] aucune de ces deux lignes de conduite ».
39. Le Sénégal a en outre soutenu que « [l]’obligation de juger, au nom
de laquelle [il] se trouv[ait] attrait devant la Cour, ne saurait être conçue

comme une obligation de résultat » mais plutôt comme une obligation de
moyen, dont «la condition d’illicéité n’est réalisée que si l’Etvat auquel le fait
générateur est imputable n’a pas déployé tous les moyens vou tous les efforts
qu’on pourrait légitimement attendre de lui en vue d’atteindre vles résultats

espérés par les auteurs de la norme ». A cet égard, le Sénégal s’est référé à
certains éléments tirés de la jurisprudence internationale et av indiqué que le
droit international n’imposait pas aux Etats des obligations de révsultat.
40. Le Sénégal a conclu en affirmant que les mesures qu’il avait pvrises

étaient largement suffisantes et satisfaisaient aux obligations prescrites par
les articles 6, paragraphe 2, et 7, paragraphe 1, de la convention contre
la torture. Il a ainsi fait valoir qu’à partir du moment où il

«a[vait] procédé à des réformes importantes pour permettre lav tenue
du procès, y compris des réformes constitutionnelles, on p[ouvait]
considérer qu’il a[vait] satisfait à son obligation de moyen povur ne

pas apparaître comme un Etat non soucieux et non désireux d’appvli -
quer ses obligations conventionnelles. S’il ne l’a[vait] pas fait vavec
suffisance, il aura[it] suffisamment progressé dans la voie d’agvir pour
atteindre un tel résultat. » 50

48 Ibid., p. 33.
49 CR 2012/7, 21 mars 2012, p. 34.
50 Ibid., p. 35-36.

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4. General Assessment

41. In the light of the aforementioned, it is significant that, for the

arrest warrant against Mr. Habré, the evidence contained in the Report
of the Chadian Truth Commission was taken into account by the Belgian
investigating judge. Furthermore — as also pointed out by Belgium —
that Report can certainly be taken into account as evidence in legal prov -
ceedings against Mr. H. Habré, it being for the trial judge or the tribunal

to rule on its probative value. Senegal itself acknowledged that the Repvort
at issue can be taken into account for information purposes, without
being “binding” on the investigating judge ; it is for the judge (or the tri-
bunal) to rule on it.

42. There thus seems to be a disagreement between Belgium and Sen-
egal as to the consideration of the evidence considered in the Report. In
any case, the Report cannot be simply overlooked or ignored, it cannot

be examined without care. It is to be examined together with all other
pieces of evidence that the investigating judge or the tribunal succeeds in
having produced before him/it, for the purpose of ruling on the matter avt
issue. The present case concerns ultimately a considerable total of victvims,
those murdered, or arbitrarily detained and tortured, during the Habrév

regime in Chad (1982-1990).
43. As to the answers provided by the contending Parties to my ques -
tions addressed to them, whether in their view the steps that Senegal
alleges to have taken to date were sufficient to fulfil its obligatiovns under
Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of the UN Convention against Torture, an assess -

ment of such answers ensues from the consideration of the doctrinal
debate on the dichotomy between alleged obligations of means or con -
duct, and obligations of result. I am of the view that the obligations uvnder
a treaty of the nature of the UN Convention against Torture are not, as
the respondent State argues, simple obligations of means or conduct :

they are obligations of result, as we are here in the domain of peremptovry
norms of international law, of jus cogens. I feel obliged to expand on the
foundations of my personal position on this matter.

V. Peremptory Norms of Intvernational Law
(Jus C ogens ): The Corresponding Obligavtions
of Result, and Not of Simpvle Conduct

44. In my understanding, the State obligations — under Conventions
for the protection of the human person — of prevention, investigation
and sanction of grave violations of human rights and of international
humanitarian law, are not simple obligations of conduct, but rather obliv -

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4. Appréciation générale

41. A la lumière de ce qui précède, il convient de relever que, auxv fins

de la délivrance du mandat d’arrêt à l’encontre de M. Hissène Habré, le
juge d’instruction belge a pris en considération les élémentvs de preuve
figurant dans le rapport de la commission tchadienne pour la vérité. De
plus — comme la Belgique l’a, elle aussi, souligné —, ce rapport peut
assurément être pris en considération en tant qu’élémevnt de preuve dans

le cadre de poursuites judiciaires contre Hissène Habré, sachant qu’il
appartient au juge du fond de se prononcer sur sa valeur probante. Le
Sénégal lui-même a reconnu qu’il pouvait être tenu compte du rapport en
question à titre d’information sans que celui-ci ne « lie» le juge d’instruc -

tion; c’est au juge (ou au tribunal) qu’il appartient de se prononcevr sur
ledit rapport.
42. Une divergence semble donc opposer la Belgique et le Sénégal
quant à la prise en considération des éléments de preuve convtenus dans le
rapport. En tout état de cause, celui-ci ne saurait être simplemenvt ignoré

ou négligé. Il doit être examiné avec attention, conjointemevnt avec tous
les autres éléments de preuve que le juge d’instruction ou le tvribunal
auront pu se voir soumettre, aux fins de trancher l’affaire en quvestion. La
présente affaire concerne en définitive un nombre total considvérable de
victimes, assassinées ou détenues arbitrairement et torturées dvurant le

régime de Hissène Habré au Tchad (1982-1990).
43. En ce qui concerne les réponses des Parties aux questions que je
leur ai posées en vue de déterminer si, selon elles, les mesures qvue le Séné -
gal soutient avoir prises à ce jour ont suffi pour considérer qu’vil avait
satisfait à l’obligation qui lui incombe aux termes du paragraphe 2 de

l’article 6 et du paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la convention des
Nations Unies contre la torture, leur appréciation procède d’un examen v
du débat doctrinal relatif à la dichotomie entre les supposées vobligations
de moyen et les obligations de résultat. Selon moi, les obligations décou -
lant d’un traité tel que la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture

ne sont pas, contrairement à ce que le défendeur allègue, de sivmples obli -
gations de moyen, mais des obligations de résultat, étant donnév que nous
nous trouvons dans le domaine des normes impératives de droit interna -
tional, c’est-à-dire du jus cogens. Je me sens donc tenu d’exposer en détail
le fondement de ma position en l’espèce.

V. Normes impératives de dvroit international
(Jus Cogens ): les obligations de résvultat —et non simplement
de moyen — correspondantes

44. Je suis d’avis que les obligations mises à la charge des Etats — par
les conventions relatives à la protection des droits de l’homme — en
matière de prévention, d’enquête et de sanction en cas de vivolations graves
des droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire ne sont pvas

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6 CIJ1033.indb 171 28/11/13 12:50 506 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

gations of result . It cannot be otherwise, when we are in face of peremp-

tory norms of international law, safeguarding the fundamental rights of v
the human person. Obligations of simple conduct may prove insufficient ;
they may exhaust themselves, for example, in unsatisfactory legislative v
measures. In the domain of jus cogens, such as the absolute prohibition of

torture, the State obligations are of due diligence and of result. The evxa -
mination of the proposed distinction between obligations of conduct and v
obligations of result has tended to take place at a purely theoretical lvevel,

assuming variations in the conduct of the State, and even a succession ovf
acts on the part of this latter 5, and without taking sufficient and due
account of a situation which causes irreparable harm to the fundamental v
rights of the human person.

45. If the corresponding obligations of the State in such a situation

were not of result, but of mere conduct, the doors would then be left opven
to impunity. The handling of the case of Mr. Hissène Habré to date serves
as a warning in this regard. Over three decades ago, when the then rap -

porteur of the UN International Law Commission (ILC) on the Interna -
tional Responsibility of the State, Roberto Ago, proposed the distinction
between obligations of conduct and of result, some members of the ILC
expressed doubts as to the viability of distinguishing between the two

types of obligation ; after all, in order to achieve a given result, the State
ought to assume a given behaviour 5. In any case, obligations of result
admitted the initial free choice by the State of the means to comply witvh

them, of obtaining the results due.

46. The aforementioned distinction between the two kinds of obliga -
tions introduced a certain hermeticism into the classic doctrine on the v

matter, generating some confusion, and not appearing very helpful in thev
domain of the international protection of human rights. Despite refer -
ences to a couple of human rights treaties, the essence of Roberto Ago’s

reasoning, developed in his dense and substantial Reports on the Interna -
tional Responsibility of the State, had in mind above all the framework vof
essentially inter-State relations. The ILC itself, in the Report of 1977 on
its work, at last reckoned that a State party to a human rights treaty hvas

51
Cf., to this effect : IACtHR, case of the Dismissed Employees of the Congress v. Peru
(interpretation of judgment of 30 November 2007), dissenting opinion of Judge Cançado
Trindade, paras. 13-29 ; IACtHR, case of the Indigenous Community Sawhoyamaxa v.
Paraguay (judgment of 29 March 2006), separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade,
para. 23 ; IACtHR, case Baldeón García v. Peru (judgment of 6 April 2006), separate
opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, paras. 11-12.
52 A. Marchesi, Obblighi di Condotta e Obblighi di Risultato . . ., op. cit. infra note 55,
pp. 50-55 and 128-135.
53 Report reproduced in : Appendix I : « Obligations of Result and Obligations of

Means», I. Brownlie, State Responsibility — Part I, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2001
[reprint], pp. 241-276, esp. pp. 243 and 245.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 172 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 506

de simples obligations de moyen, mais des obligations de résultat 5. Il ne

saurait en être autrement, dès lors que l’on est en présencev de normes
impératives de droit international, préservant les droits fondamentaux de
la personne humaine. De simples obligations de moyen risquent en effetv
de se révéler insuffisantes ; par exemple, des mesures législatives insatisfai -

santes peuvent se trouver vidées de leur substance. Dans le domaine dvu
jus cogens, dont relève l’interdiction absolue de la torture, les obligationvs
des Etats s’analysent comme des obligations de diligence due et de révsul -

tat. La distinction avancée entre obligations de moyen et obligationsv de
résultat est souvent examinée d’un point de vue purement thévorique, en
supposant que le comportement de l’Etat varie, voire en attribuant àv
celui-ci une succession d’actes particuliers 52, et ce, sans tenir suffisamment

et dûment compte d’une situation qui cause un dommage irréparabvle aux
droits fondamentaux de la personne humaine.
45. Si les obligations correspondantes de l’Etat en pareille situation

n’étaient pas des obligations de résultat, mais simplement des vobligations
de moyen, ce serait la porte ouverte à l’impunité. La manièrve dont le cas
de M. Hissène Habré a été traité jusqu’à maintenant doit, à cet évgard, ser -

vir de leçon. Il y a plus de trente ans, lorsque Roberto Ago, alors rappor -
teur de la Commission du droit international (CDI) des Nations Unies sur
la responsabilité internationale des Etats, a proposé de distinguevr entre
obligations de moyen et obligations de résultat, certains membres de vladite

commission ont exprimé des doutes quant à la viabilité de cettev distinc -
tion, au motif que, tout bien considéré, afin de parvenir à uvn résultat
donné, un Etat se doit d’adopter un certain comportement 53. Quoi qu’il en

soit, les obligations de résultat laissent à l’Etat le libre chvoix initial des
moyens pour s’y conformer, c’est-à-dire obtenir les résultatvs attendus.
46. La distinction entre ces deux types d’obligations a été à l’vorigine
d’un certain hermétisme dans la doctrine classique en la matièrve, a créé

une certaine confusion et ne semble guère utile dans le domaine de lav
protection internationale des droits de l’homme. Nonobstant quelques v
références faites à certains traités relatifs aux droits de vl’homme, le raison -

nement que R. Ago a exposé dans ses denses et volumineux rapports sur
la responsabilité internationale des Etats portait avant tout, et pouvr l’es -
sentiel, sur les relations interétatiques. La CDI elle-même, dans vson rap -
port de 1977, a fini par admettre qu’un Etat partie à un traitév relatif aux

51
Voir, à cet effet : CIADH, Travailleurs licenciés du Congrès c. Pérou, interprétation
de l’arrêt du 30 novembre 2007, opinion dissidente du juge Cançado Trindade, par. 13-29 ;
CIADH, Communauté autochtone Sawhoyamaxa c. Paraguay, arrêt du 29 mars 2006,
opinion individuelle du juge Cançado Trindade, par. 23 ;CIADH, Baldeón García c. Pérou,
arrêt du 6 avril 2006, opinion individuelle du juge Cançado Trindade, par. 11-12.

52 A. Marchesi, Obblighi di Condotta e Obblighi di Risultato…op. cit. infra note 55,
p. 50-55 et 128-135.
53 Rapport reproduit dans Annexe I : «Obligations of Result and Obligations of

Means », dans I. Brownlie, State Responsibility — Part I, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 2001
(rééd.), p. 241-276, en particulier p. 243 et 245.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 173 28/11/13 12:50 507 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

obligations of result, and, if it does not abide by them, it cannot excuse
itself by alleging that it has done all that it could to comply with them,

that it has behaved in the best way to comply with them ; on the contrary,
such State has the duty to attain the result required of it by the conven -
tional obligations of protection of the human person.

47. Such binding obligations of result (under human rights treaties) are
much more common in international law than in domestic law. The con -
fusion generated by the dichotomy of obligations of conduct and of resulvt
has been attributed to the undue transposition into international law ofv a

distinction proper to civil law (droit des obligations); rather than “import -
ing” inadequately distinctions from other branches of law or other
domains of legal theory, in my view one should rather seek to ensure thavt
the behaviour of States is such that it will abide by the required resulvt, of

securing protection to human beings under their respective jurisdictionsv.
Human rights treaties have not had in mind the dichotomy at issue, which
is vague, imprecise, and without practical effect.

48. It is thus not surprising to find that the distinction between so-called
obligations of conduct and of result was discarded from the approved
2001 draft of the ILC on the International Responsibility of States, andv
54
was met with criticism in expert writing . Moreover, it failed to have any
significant impact on international case law. The ECHR, for example,
held in the case of Colozza and Rubinat v. Italy (judgment of 12 February

1985), that the obligation under Article 6 (1) of the European Convention
of Human Rights was one of result. For its part, the ICJ, in the case ofv
the “Hostages” (United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran▯,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980), ordered the respondent State to comply

promptly with its obligations, which were “not merely contractual”v, but
rather imposed by general international law (para. 62) ; the ICJ singled
out “the imperative character of the legal obligations” incumbent vupon
the respondent State (para. 88), and added that

“Wrongfully to deprive human beings of their freedom and to sub-

ject them to physical constraint in conditions of hardship is in itself v
manifestly incompatible with the principles of the Charter of the

54
Cf., e.g., I. Brownlie, State Responsibility — Part I, op. cit. supra note 53, pp. 241,
250-251, 255-259, 262, 269-270 and 276 ; J. Combacau, “Obligations de résultat et obli -
gations de comportement : quelques questions et pas de réponse”, Mélanges offerts à
Paul Reuter — Le droit international: unité et diversité, Paris, Pedone, 1981, pp. 190, 198 and
200-204; P.-M. Dupuy, “Le fait générateur de la responsabilité internationavle des Etats”,
188 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (1984), pp. 47-49; and
cf. also P.-M. Dupuy, “Reviewing the Difficulties of Codification : On Ago’s Classification
of Obligations of Means and Obligations of Result in Relation to State Rvesponsibility”, 10
European Journal of International Law (1999), pp. 376-377.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 174 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 507

droits de l’homme avait des obligations de résultat, et que, s’il ne s’y
conformait pas, il ne saurait se disculper en alléguant avoir fait tovut ce
qu’il pouvait et s’être comporté de la meilleure façon povur y satisfaire ;

l’Etat en question a en réalité le devoir d’atteindre le résultat attendu que
lui imposent les obligations conventionnelles en matière de protectiovn de
la personne humaine.
47. Pareilles obligations de résultat (qui découlent de dispositions

contraignantes énoncées dans les traités relatifs aux droits dev l’homme)
sont bien plus fréquentes en droit international qu’en droit national. La
confusion créée par la dichotomie entre obligations de moyen et obvliga -
tions de résultat est attribuée à la transposition abusive en dvroit inter-

national d’une distinction propre au droit civil (droit des obligations) ;
plutôt que d’« importer» de manière inappropriée certaines distinctions
provenant d’autres branches du droit ou d’autres domaines de la
théorie juridique, il conviendrait, selon moi, de s’assurer que lev com-

portement des Etats leur permettra d’atteindre le résultat requis,v à savoir
garantir la protection des êtres humains qui relèvent de leur jurivdtic ion. La
dichotomie en question — qui est vague, imprécise et dénuée d’effet pra -
tique — n’est pas sous-jacente aux traités relatifs aux droits de l’homvme.

48. Il n’est donc pas surprenant que la distinction entre obligations
dites de moyen et obligations de résultat ait été supprimée vdu projet
d’articles de 2001 sur la responsabilité internationale des Etats,v tel qu’ap -
prouvé par la CDI, et qu’elle ait suscité des critiques dans levs écrits d’ex -
perts . En outre, elle n’a eu aucune incidence réelle sur la jurisprudenvce

internationale. Ainsi, en l’affaire Colozza et Rubinat c. Italie (arrêt du
12 février 1985), la CEDH a jugé que l’obligation visée à l’articlev 6, para -
graphe 1, de la convention européenne des droits de l’homme était une
obligation de résultat. La Cour, quant à elle, dans l’affairev des « Otages »

(Personnel diplomatique et consulaire des Etats-Unis à Téhéran,▯ arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1980), a enjoint l’Etat défendeur de s’acquitter prompte -
ment de ses obligations, qui « ne sont pas simplement des obligations
contractuelles» mais sont des obligations imposées par le droit interna-

tional général (par. 62); elle a souligné le « caractère impératif des obliga -
tions juridiques» incombant à l’Etat défendeur (par. 88), ajoutant que

«Le fait de priver abusivement de leur liberté des êtres humains etv
de les soumettre dans des conditions pénibles à une contrainte phyv -
sique [était] manifestement incompatible avec les principes de la

54
Voir, par exemple, I. Brownlie, State Responsibility — Part I, op. cit. supra note 53,
p. 241, 250-251, 255-259, 262, 269-270 et 276 ; J. Combacau, « Obligations de résultat et
obligations de comportement : quelques questions et pas de réponse »,Mélanges offerts
à P. Reuter — Le droit international : unité et diversité, Paris, Pedone, 1981, p. 190, 198
et 200-204 ; P.-M. Dupuy, « Le fait générateur de la responsabilité internationale des
Etats », Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, vol. 188 (1984),
p. 47-49 ; voir également P.-M. Dupuy, « Reviewing the Difficulties of Codification : On
Ago’s Classification of Obligations of Means and Obligations of Result in vRelation to
State Responsibility », European Journal of International Law, vol. 10 (1999), p. 376-377.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 175 28/11/13 12:50 508 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

United Nations, as well as with the fundamental principles enunciated
in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” (Para. 91.)

49. One of such principles is that of respect of the dignity of the human
person. Thus, in so far as the safeguard of the fundamental rights of thve
human person is concerned, the obligations of the State — conventional

and of general international law — are of result, and not of simple con -
duct, so as to secure the effective protection of those rights. The abvsolute
prohibition of grave violations of human rights (such as torture) entavils
obligations which can only be of result, endowed with a necessarily objec -

tive character, and the whole conceptual universe of the law of the inter -
national responsibility of the State has to be reassessed in the framewovrk
of the international protection of human rights 55, encompassing the ori -
gin as well as the implementation of State responsibility, with the consve -

quent and indispensable duty of reparation.

50. In the framework of the international law of human rights —

wherein the UN Convention against Torture is situated — it is not the
result that is conditioned by the conduct of the State, but, quite on thve
contrary, it is the conduct of the State that is conditioned by the attainment
of the result aimed at by the norms of protection of the human person. The

conduct of the State ought to be the one which is conducive to compli -
ance with the obligations of result (in the cas d’espèce, the proscription of
torture). The State cannot allege that, despite its good conduct, insuffiv -
ciencies or difficulties of domestic law rendered impossible the full cvom -

pliance with its obligation (to outlaw torture and to prosecute perpetrvators
of it) ; and the Court cannot consider a case terminated, given the alleg -
edly “good conduct” of the State concerned.

51. This would be inadmissible ; we are herein before obligations of
result. To argue otherwise would amount to an exercise of legal formal -
ism, devoid of any meaning, that would lead to a juridical absurdity, revn-
dering dead letter the norms of protection of the human person. In sum

and conclusion on this point, the absolute prohibition of torture is, asv
already seen, one of jus cogens ; in an imperative law, conformed by the
corpus juris of the international protection of the fundamental rights
of the human person, the corresponding obligations of the State are

ineluctable, imposing themselves per se, as obligations necessarily of
result.

55A. Marchesi, Obblighi di Condotta e Obblighi di Risultato — Contributo allo Studio
degli Obblighi Internazionali, Milan, Giuffrè Ed., 2003, pp. 166; F. Urioste Braga,
Responsabilidad Internacional de los Estados en los Derechos Humanos, Montevideo, B de
F Colección, 2002, pp. 1-115 and 139-203 ; L. G. Loucaides, Essays on the Developing Law
of Human Rights, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1995, pp. 141-142 and 149, and cf. pp. 145, 150-152
and 156.

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Charte des Nations Unies et avec les droits fondamentaux énoncés
dans la Déclaration universelle des droits de l’homme. » (Par. 91.)

49. L’un de ces principes est celui du respect de la dignité de la per -
sonne humaine. Par conséquent, en ce qui concerne la protection des
droits fondamentaux de la personne humaine, les obligations de l’Etat

— qu’elles soient conventionnelles ou relèvent du droit internationavl
général — sont des obligations de résultat, et non de simples obligations
de moyen, de sorte que soit garantie la protection effective des droitvs en
question. L’interdiction absolue des violations graves des droits de v

l’homme (telles que la torture) crée des obligations qui ne peuvvent être
que des obligations de résultat, et revêtent un caractère nécessairement
objectif. A cet égard, c’est par conséquent tout l’univers conceptuel du
droit de la responsabilité internationale de l’Etat qui, du point vde vue de
55
la protection internationale des droits de l’homme , doit être réexaminé,
y compris l’origine et également la mise en œuvre de ladite respovnsabilité,
ainsi que l’indispensable obligation de réparation qui en résulvte.
50. Dans le cadre du droit international des droits de l’homme — dans

lequel s’inscrit la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture —, ce
n’est pas le résultat qui est conditionné par le comportement de l’Etat,
mais, à l’inverse, c’est le comportement de l’Etat qui est conditionné par
l’accomplissement du résultat recherché à travers les normes régissant la

protection de la personne humaine. Ce comportement doit être propre à
favoriser le respect des obligations de résultat (dans le cas d’evspèce, l’in -
terdiction de la torture). L’Etat ne saurait aucunement prétendrev que, en
dépit de sa bonne conduite, des insuffisances ou des difficultésv relevant du

droit national ne lui ont pas permis de satisfaire pleine ment à ses obliga -
tions (d’interdire la torture et de poursuivre les auteurs de telles pra -
tiques); la Cour, quant à elle, ne saurait considérer qu’une affairev est close
au seul motif que l’Etat en cause se serait « bien comporté».

51. Pareille décision serait inadmissible, dès lors que nous nous trouv -
vons, en l’occurrence, face à des obligations de résultat. Affirmer le
contraire reviendrait à se livrer à un exercice de formalisme jurivdique, qui
déboucherait sur une absurdité puisque cela priverait d’effetv les normes

régissant la protection de la personne humaine. En résumé, et pvour
conclure sur ce point, l’interdiction absolue de la torture relèvev, comme je
l’ai déjà précisé, du jus cogens; en droit impératif, c’est-à-dire, en l’espèce,
le corpus juris de la protection internationale des droits fondamentaux de

la personne humaine, les obligations correspondantes de l’Etat sont ivné -
luctables, s’imposant per se et nécessairement comme des obligations de
résultat.

55 A. Marchesi, Obblighi di Condotta e Obblighi di Risultato — Contributo allo Studio
degli Obblighi Internazionali, Milano, Giuffrè Ed., 2003, p. 166; F. Urioste Braga,
Responsabilidad Internacional de los Estados en los Derechos Humanos, Montevideo, B
de F Collection, 2002, p. 1-1-15 et 139-2; L. G. Loucaides, Essays on the Developing
Law of Human Rights, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1995, p. 141-142 et 149, et voir p. 145, 150-152
et 156.

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VI. The Everlasting Quest fovr the Realization of Juvstice

in the Present Case

52. With these clarifications in mind, it would be helpful to proceed, at v
this stage, to a brief view of the long-standing endeavours, throughout
several years, to have justice done, in relation to the grave breaches ovf

human rights and international humanitarian law reported to have
occurred during the Habré regime (1982-1990). Those endeavours com -
prise legal actions in domestic courts, requests of extradition (at intver-State
level), some other initiatives at international level, and an initiativve of
entities of the African civil society. The way would then be paved for a

brief review of the initiatives and endeavours to the same effect of the
African Union in particular, given its influence in the orientation ofv the
conduction of international affairs in the African continent.

1. Legal Actions in Domestic Courts

53. On 25-26 January 2000 the first complaints were lodged by Chad -
ian nationals in Dakar, Senegal, against Mr. Hissène Habré, accusing him
of the practice of torture (crimes against humanity). On 3 February 2000

a Senegalese judge, after hearing the victims, indicted Mr. H. Habré, and
placed him under house arrest. But on 4 July 2000 the Dakar Appeals
Court dismissed the indictment, ruling that Senegalese courts had no
jurisdiction to pursue the charges because the crimes were not committedv
in Senegal.

54. On 30 November 2000, new complaints were filed against
Mr. H. Habré, this time in Brussels, by Chadian victims living in Bel -
gium. On 20 March 2001, Senegal’s Appeals Court stood by its view, in
ruling that Mr. H. Habré could not stand trial because the alleged crimes
were not committed in Senegal. In 2002 (26 February to 7 March), a Bel -

gian investigating judge (juge d’instruction), in a visit to Chad, inter -
viewed victims and former accomplices of Mr. H. Habré, visited detention
centres and mass graves, and took custody of DDS documents. At the
end of a four-year investigation, on 19 September 2005, he issued
an international arrest warrant in absentia in respect of Mr. H. Habré.

Senegal, however, refused to extradite him to Belgium.
55. Parallel to new developments — at international level — from the
end of 2005 to date, at domestic level new complaints were filed,
on 16 September 2008, against Mr. H. Habré in Senegal, accusing him
again of the practice of torture (crimes against humanity). Earlier on,

on 31 January 2007, Senegal’s National Assembly adopted a law
allowing Senegalese courts to prosecute cases of genocide, crimes againsvt
humanity, war crimes and torture, even when committed outside of
Senegal (thus removing a previous legal obstacle) ; it later amended its
constitution.

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VI. La recherche incessanvte de la réalisation
de la justice dans la prvésente affaire

52. Ces points étant clarifiés, il semble utile, à ce stade, de passer briè -
vement en revue les efforts menés de longue date, plusieurs annéves durant,
pour que justice soit faite en ce qui concerne les violations graves desv
droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire qui auraient vété

commises sous le régime de Hissène Habré (1982-1990). Ces initiatives
comprennent des procédures introduites devant des juridictions natio -
nales, des demandes d’extradition (au niveau interétatique), d’vautres ini-
tiatives prises au niveau international ainsi qu’une action conduite vpar
certaines entités de la société civile africaine. J’en arrivverai ainsi, plus spé-

cifiquement, à un examen succinct des démarches et interventions à cette
même fin faites par l’Union africaine, eu égard à l’inflvuence que celle-ci
exerce sur la conduite des affaires internationales sur le continent africain.

1. Les procédures introduites devant les juridictions nationales

53. Les 25 et 26 janvier 2000, les premières plaintes ont été déposées par
des ressortissants tchadiens à Dakar, au Sénégal, à l’encvontre de M. His-
sèneHabré, l’accusant de pratiques de torture (crimes contre l’humanité). Le
3 février 2000, un juge sénégalais, après avoir entendu les victimes, a ivnculpé
M. Hissène Habré et l’a placé en résidence surveillée. Le 4 juillet 2000, la
cour d’appel de Dakar a cependant rejeté cette inculpation, au motvif que les

juridictions sénégalaises ne pouvaient pas connaître des faits vreprochés à
l’intéressé étant donné qu’ils n’avaient pas étév commis au Sénégal.
54. Le 30 novembre 2000, de nouvelles plaintes ont été déposées contre
M. Habré, cette fois à Bruxelles, par des victimes tchadiennes vivantv en
Belgique. Le 20 mars 2001, la cour d’appel sénégalaise a confirmé sa po-

sition en réaffirmant que l’intéressé ne pouvait être povursuivi puisque
les crimes allégués n’avaient pas été commis au Sénégalv. En 2002 (du
26 février au 7 mars), un juge d’instruction belge en mission au Tchad a
entendu des victimes et d’anciens complices de M. Hissène Habré, visité
des centres de détention et des charniers, et saisi les documents de vla

DDS. Après quatre ans d’enquête, le 19 septembre 2005, il a décerné un
mandat d’arrêt international in absentia à l’encontre de M. Hissène
Habré, que le Sénégal a toutefois refusé d’extrader vers vla Belgique.
55. Tandis que l’on assistait, à partir de 2005, à de nouveaux dévvelop-
pements sur le plan international, de nouvelles plaintes ont été dvéposées

au niveau national, le 16 septembre 2008, à l’encontre de M. His-
sène Habré au Sénégal, accusant l’intéressé d’actes de tvorture (crimes
contre l’humanité). Quelque temps auparavant, le 31 janvier 2007, l’As -
semblée nationale sénégalaise avait adopté une loi établivssant la compé -
tence des juridictions sénégalaises à l’égard des actes dve génocide, des
crimes contre l’humanité et des crimes de guerre, même commis evn dehors

du territoire sénégalais (levant ainsi l’obstacle juridique antérieur), et la
Constitution du Sénégal avait été amendée.

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2. Requests of Extradition

56. To the above initiatives of legal actions at domestic law level, four
requests by Belgium to date, of extradition of Mr. H. Habré, are to be

added. As to the first Belgian request of extradition, of 22 May 2005, the
Dakar Appeals Court decided, on 25 November 2005, that it lacked juris-
diction to deal with it. On 15 March 2011, Belgium presented a second
extradition request, declared inadmissible by the Dakar Appeals Court inv

its decision of 18 August 2011. Later on, a third extradition request by
Belgium, of 5 September 2011, was again declared inadmissible by the
Dakar Appeals Courts in its decision of 10 January 2012. Belgium

promptly lodged a fourth extradition request (same date). To those
requests for extradition, one could add the whole of the diplomatic cor -
respondence exchanged between Belgium and Senegal, reproduced in the
dossier of the present case 56before this Court.

3. Initiatives at International Level

57. On 24 January 2006 the African Union (AU), meeting in Khar -
toum, set up a “Committee of Eminent African Jurists”, to examine vthe

H. Habré case and the options for his trial. In its following session, avfter
hearing the report of that Committee, the AU, on 2 July 2006, asked
Senegal to prosecute H. Habré “on behalf of Africa”. In the meantime,
-
on 18 May 2006, the UN Committee against Torture found, in the Sou 57
leymane Guengueng and al. case (supra) that Senegal violated the CAT
and called on Senegal to prosecute or to extradite Mr. H. Habré. Shortly
after the ICJ’s Order of 28 May 2009 in the present case opposing Bel -

gium to Senegal, the President and another member of the UN Commit -
tee against Torture embarked on an unprecedented visit in situ to Senegal,
from 4 to 7 August 2009, to seek the application of the Committee’s own
decision of May 2006 in the cas d’espèce.

58. In the meantime, on 11 August 2008, a Chadian national residing
in Switzerland (Mr. Michelot Yogogombaye) lodged an application

against Senegal before the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rightsv
(AfCHPR) with a view to suspend the “ongoing proceedings” aimingv to
“charge, try and sentence” Mr. Hissène Habré. On 15 December 2009,
the AfCHPR decided that it had no jurisdiction to entertain the applica -

tion at issue, since Senegal had not made a declaration accepting the juris-
diction of the AfCHPR to hear such applications, pursuant to

56
57Cf. Annexes to Belgium’s Memorial, Vol. II, of 1 July 2010, docs. B.1-26.
This was the first time the Committee found a breach of the duty to prvosecute
(Article 7 of the CAT), in a decision that has been seen as corresponding to “vthe letter,
spirit and purpose of Article 7, namely, to avoid safe havens for tor; M. Nowak,
E. McArthur et al., The United Nations Convention against Torture — A Commentary,
op. cit. supra note 38, p. 363.

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2. Les demandes d’extradition

56. A ces actions en justice introduites sur la base du droit national, il
convient d’ajouter les quatre demandes d’extradition de M. Hissène Habré

formulées à ce jour par la Belgique. S’agissant de la premièvre, qui date du
22 mai 2005, la cour d’appel de Dakar s’est, le 25 novembre 2005, décla -
rée incompétente pour en connaître. Le 15 mars 2011, la Belgique a pré -
senté une deuxième demande d’extradition, déclarée irrecevvable par la

cour d’appel de Dakar dans sa décision du 18 août 2011. Une troisième
demande d’extradition, formulée par la Belgique le 5 septembre 2011,
devait également être déclarée irrecevable par la cour d’vappel de Dakar

dans sa décision du 10 janvier 2012, la Belgique en ayant aussitôt (à la
même date) présenté une quatrième. A ces demandes d’extradition, l’on
pourrait ajouter toute la correspondance diplomatique échangée entvre la
Belgique et le Sénégal, et reproduite dans le dossier de la prévsente espèce 56.

3. Les démarches entreprises au niveau international

57. Le 24 janvier 2006, l’Union africaine, réunie à Khartoum, a créé un
«comité d’éminents juristes africains » afin d’examiner le dossier d’His -

sène Habré et les possibilités de juger l’intéressé. Lors de sva session sui -
vante, après avoir entendu le rapport dudit comité, l’Union afrvicaine a
demandé au Sénégal, le 2 juillet 2006, d’engager des poursuites contre
M. Hissène Habré «au nom de l’Afrique». Dans l’intervalle, le 18 mai 2006,

le Comité des Nations Unies contre la torture avait estimé, dans lv’affaire
Souleymane Guengueng et autres (supra), que le Sénégal avait violé la
convention contre la torture 57et l’avait enjoint de poursuivre ou d’extra -

der M. Hissène Habré. Peu après l’ordonnance rendue par la Cour
le 28 mai 2009 en la présente affaire, le président et un autre membre
du Comité des Nations Unies contre la torture ont effectué une mvission
in situ sans précédent au Sénégal, du 4 au 7 août 2009, afin de demander

l’application de la décision rendue en mai 2006 par le Comité dvans le
cas d’espèce.
58. Pendant ce temps, le 11 août 2008, un national tchadien résidant en
Suisse (M. Michelot Yogogombaye) avait déposé une requête contre le

Sénégal devant la Cour africaine des droits de l’homme et des pveuples
dans le but d’obtenir le retrait de la « procédure actuellement diligentée »
en vue d’« inculper, juger et condamner » M. Hissène Habré. Le
15 décembre 2009, la Cour africaine a jugé qu’elle n’était pas compétvente

pour connaître de cette requête, étant donné que le Sénévgal n’avait pas
fait de déclaration acceptant pareille compétence, conformémentv à l’ar -

56 er
57Voir annexes du mémoire du Royaume de Belgique, livre II1, juillet 2010, doc. B.1-26.
Le Comité constatait ainsi pour la première fois un manquement àv l’obligation de
poursuivre (article 7 de la convention contre la torture), dans une décision considéréve
comme correspondant «à la lettre, à l’esprit et au but de l’article 7, à savoir d’interdire tout
refuge aux tortionnaires » ; M.Nowak, E. McArthur et al., The United Nations Convention
against Torture — A Commentary, op. cit. supra note 38, p. 363.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 181 28/11/13 12:50 511 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

Article 34 (6) of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peo -
ples’ Rights (on the establishment of the AfCHPR).
59. In the period 2008-2010, moreover, given Senegal’s refusal to pre -

pare for the trial of Mr. H. Habré unless it received full funding for it, the
European Union and the AU sent successive delegations to negotiate on
the issue with Senegal. In the meantime, on 18 November 2010, the

ECOWAS Court of Justice ruled that Senegal ought to try Mr. H. Habré
by a special jurisdiction or an ad hoc tribunal, to be created for that pur -
pose. On 24 November 2010, a donors’ international roundtable held in
Dakar secured the full funding to cover all the estimated costs of the pvro -
58
ceedings of the trial of Mr. H. Habré . Shortly afterwards, on 31 Janu -
ary 2011, the AU called for the “expeditious” start of the trial ovf
Mr. H. Habré, on the basis of the ECOWAS Court decision (cf. infra).

60. On 24 November 2011, the rapporteur of the CAT on the follow-up
of communications (or petitions) sent a letter to the Permanent Mission
of Senegal to the United Nations, reminding it of its obligation aut dedere
aut judicare under the Convention, and took note of the fact that, until

then, no proceedings had been initiated by Senegal against Mr. H. Habré.
Earlier on, on 12 January 2011, the same rapporteur had sent another
letter to Senegal’s Permanent Mission to the UN, recalling the State vpar -
ty’s obligation under Article 7 (1) of the CAT, now that the full funding

for the trial of Mr. H. Habré had been secured (supra).

61. For its part, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human

Rights (OHCHR) also expressed its concern with the delays in opening
up the trial of Mr. H. Habré ; on 18 March 2011, the OHCHR urged
Senegal to comply with its duty of prosecution 59. Later on, the OHCHR

requested Senegal not to extradite (as then announced) Mr. H. Habré to
Chad (where he had already been sentenced to death in absentia), ponder -
ing that “[j]ustice and accountability are of paramount importance anvd
must be attained through a fair process and in accordance with human
60
rights law” . Shortly afterwards, the OHCHR warned, on 12 July 2011,
that Mr. H. Habré was

“continuing to live with impunity in Senegal, as he has done for the
past 20 years. It is important that rapid and concrete progress is made v

by Senegal to prosecute or extradite Habré to a country willing to

58
Cf. UNHCR/Refworld, “African Union Calls for ‘Expeditious’ Start tov Habré Trial”,
http://www.refworld.org, doc. of 31 January 2011, p. 2.
59UN/OHCHR, www.ohchr.org/news, of 18 March 2011, p. 1.
60UN/OHCHR, “Senegal Must Review Its Decision to Extradite Hissène Habré to
Chad”, www.ohchr.org/news, of 10 July 2011, p. 1.

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ticle 34, paragraphe 6, du protocole relatif à la Charte africaine des droits
de l’homme et des peuples (portant création de la Cour).

59. Par ailleurs, entre 2008 et 2010, le Sénégal ayant refusé de préparer
le procès de M. Hissène Habré à moins d’en obtenir le financement inté -
gral, l’Union européenne et l’Union africaine y ont successivement envoyé
des délégations pour négocier sur cette question. Dans le mêvme temps, le

18 novembre 2010, la Cour de justice de la CEDEAO a considéré que le
Sénégal devait faire juger M. Hissène Habré par une juridiction spéciale
ou un tribunal ad hoc, devant être créé à cette fin. Le 24 novembre 2010,
une table ronde des donateurs organisée à Dakar a permis de garantir le
58
financement intégral du budget estimatif du procès de M. Hissène Habré .
Peu de temps après, le 31 janvier 2011, l’Union africaine a appelé à une
organisation « rapide» du procès de M. Hissène Habré, conformément à
la décision de la Cour de justice de la CEDEAO (infra).

60. Le 24 novembre 2011, le rapporteurde la convention contre la torture
chargé du suivi des communications (ou plaintes) a adressé une lettre à
la mission permanente du Sénégal auprès de l’Organisation des Nvations
Unies, rappelant au Sénégal l’obligation aut dedere aut judicare que lui

impose la convention, et pris note du fait que, jusque-là, celui-ci n’avait pas
engagé de poursuites contre M. Hissène Habré. Quelque temps aupara -
vant, le 12 janvier 2011, le même rapporteur avait adressé une autre lettre
à la mission permanente du Sénégal auprès de l’Organisativon des Nations

Unies, rappelant l’obligation incombant à l’Etat partie en applvication
de l’article 7, paragraphe 1, de la convention contre la torture, dès lors que
le financement intégral du procès de M. Habré avait été garanti (supra).

61. Le Bureau du Haut-Commissariat des Nations Unies aux droits de
l’homme (BHCDH) s’est lui aussi dit préoccupé par le retarvd pris pour
l’ouverture du procès de M. Hissène Habré ; le 18 mars 2011, il a ainsi
vivement recommandé au Sénégal de satisfaire à son obligatiovn de pour -
59
suivre . Par la suite, il a demandé au Sénégal de ne pas extrader (covmme
cela avait alors été annoncé) M. Hissène Habré vers le Tchad (où l’inté -
ressé avait déjà été condamné à mort in absentia), estimant que la
«[j]ustice et l’obligation de rendre compte de ses actes revêtent uvne im-

portance cruciale et doivent être mises en œuvre par le biais d’un procès 60
équitable et conformément au droit relatif aux droits de l’hommve » .
Peu de temps après, le 12 juillet 2011, le BHCDH a relevé que
M. Hissène Habré

«continuait de vivre en toute impunité au Sénégal, comme il le

fai[sait] depuis ces vingt dernières années. Il est important que des
progrès rapides et concrets soient réalisés par le Sénégavl en vue de

58
Voir UNHCR, Refworld, « African Union Calls for « Expeditious » Start to Habré
Trial », www.refworld.org, 31 janvier 2011, p. 2.
59Nations Unies/BHCDH, www.ohchr.org/news, 18 mars 2011, p. 1.
60Nations Unies/BHCDH, « Senegal Must Review Its Decision to Extradite
Hissène Habré to Tchad », www.ohchr.org/news, 10 juillet 2011, p. 1.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 183 28/11/13 12:50 512 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

conduct a fair trial. This has been the High Commissioner’s position v

all along. It is also the position of the African Union (AU), as well v
as of much of the rest of the international community. It is a violationv
of international law to shelter a person who has committed torture or

other crimes against humanity, without prosecuting or extraditing
him.” 61

4. Initiative of Entities
of African Civil Society

62. In addition to these three exhortations (of the UN Committee

against Torture itself, the African Union, and the rapporteur of
the CAT), on 21 July 2010, Nobel Peace Prize winners Archbishop
Desmond Tutu and Shirin Ebadi, among others, as well as 117 African

human rights groups from 25 African countries, likewise called upon Sen -
egal to move forward with the trial of Mr. H. Habré, for political killings
and the systematic practice of torture, after more than 20 years of alleged
difficulties to the detriment of the victims 62.

63. In their call for the fair trial of Mr. H. Habré, Archbishop D. Tutu
and the other signatories stated :

“We, the undersigned NGOs and individuals urge Senegal rapidly

to begin legal proceedings against the exiled former Chadian dictator
Hissène Habré, who is accused of thousands of political killings and
systematic torture from 1982 to 1990.

The victims of Mr. Habré’s regime have been working tirelessly for
20 years to bring him to justice, and many of the survivors have
already died. (. . .) Instead of justice, the victims have been treated to
63
an interminable political and legal soap opera (. . .).”

64. After recalling the facts of the victims’ quest for justice, they stavted
that a fair trial for Mr. H. Habré in Senegal “should be a milestone”
in the fight to hold “the perpetrators of atrocities (. . .) accountable for

their crimes”. They added that this would moreover show that “Afrivcan
courts are sovereign and capable of providing justice for African victimvs
for crimes committed in Africa”. They thus urged the authorities “to

choose justice, not im64nity, and to move quickly towards the trial
of Hissène Habré” .

61
UN/OHCHR, www.ohchr.org/news, of 12 July 2011, p. 1.
62 Cf. Human Rights Watch (HRW), “Senegal/Chad : Nobel Winners, African Activ -
ists Seek Progress in Habré Trial”, www.hrw.org/news, of 21 July 2010, p. 1; HRW, “UN:
Senegal Must Prosecute or Extradite Hissène Habré”, www.hrw.org/news, of 18 January
2001, p. 1.
63 FIDH [Fédération internationale des ligues des droits de l’homme], “Appeal [. . .] for
the Fair Trial of Hissène Habré”, www.fidh.org/news, of 21 July 2010, p. 1.
64 Ibid.

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juger ou d’extrader Habré vers un pays disposé à organiser uvn procès

équitable. Cette position a toujours été celle du Haut-Commissavriat.
C’est également la position de l’Union africaine et de la majorvité de la
communauté internationale. Le fait d’abriter une personne ayant covm -
mis des actes de torture ou d’autres crimes contre l’humanité svans la
61
juger ou l’extrader constitue une violation du droit international.»

4. L’action menée à l’initiative de certaines entités

de la société civile africaine

62. Outre ces trois exhortations (celle du Comité des Nations Unies
contre la torture lui-même, de l’Union africaine et du rapporteur de la

convention contre la torture), le 21 juillet 2010, les lauréats du prix Nobel
de la paix Desmond Tutu et Shirin Ebadi, parmi d’autres, ainsi que
117 organisations africaines de défense des droits de l’homme, issues vde
25 pays d’Afrique, ont appelé le Sénégal à progresser rapidevment dans

l’organisation du procès de M. Hissène Habré pour assassinats politiques
et pratique systématique de la torture, après avoir, pendant plus de
vingt ans, invoqué des difficultés au détriment des victimes 62.

63. Dans leur appel à un procès équitable de M. Hissène Habré, l’ar -
chevêque Desmond Tutu et les autres signataires ont déclaré ce qui suit :

«Nous, organisations de la société civile, ONG et personnalités
signataires de la présente pétition, appelons le Sénégal à ouvrir dans
les meilleurs délais l’instruction judiciaire de l’ancien dictateur du

Tchad Hissène Habré, accusé de milliers d’assassinats politiques et
de tortures systématiques de 1982 à 1990.
Les victimes du régime d’Hissène Habré luttent sans relâche depuis

vingt ans pour que justice leur soit rendue et de nombreux survivants
sont déjà décédés… Au lieu de voir leur cause entenduev, les victimes
ont eu droit à un interminable feuilleton politico-judiciaire. » 63

64. Après avoir rappelé les éléments factuels ayant trait à lva recherche de la
justice par les victimes, les signataires de la pétition ont précivsé qu’un procès

équitable de Hissène Habré au Sénégal[« était] une étape importante » dans la
lutte contre «l’impunité des dirigeants accusés de crimes », ajoutant que cela
démontrerait en outre que « les tribunaux africains sont souverains et capables

de rendre justice aux victimes africaines pour des crimes commis en Afriv»q .ue
Ils ont donc appelé les autoritésà«faire le choix de la justice, pas de l’impunité,
et à ouvrir sans délais la procédure judiciaire contre Hissèvne Hab »ré.

61 Nations Unies/BHCDH, www.ohchr.org/news, 12 juillet 2011, p. 1.
62 Voir Human Rights Watch (HRW), « Sénégal/Tchad : [d]es Prix Nobel de la paix
appellent le Sénégal à progresser dans l’organisation du procès Habré », www.hrw.org/
news, 21 juillet 2010, p1 ; HRW, « Nations Unies : [l]e Sénégal doit juger ou extrader
Hissène Habré », www.hrw.org/news, 18 janvier 2001, p. 1.
63 FIDH (Fédération internationale des ligues des droits de l’homme), « Appel… à un

pro64s équitable de M. Hissène Habré », www.fidh.org/news, 21 juillet 2010, p. 1.
Ibid.

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VII. The Search for Justice :
Initiatives and Endeavovurs of the African Uniovn

65. The above review, to be completed, requires closer attention to be
paid to the initiatives and endeavours of the African Union (reflectevd in

the Decisions adopted by its Assembly), in the same search for justice in
the Hissène Habré case. Thus, at its sixth ordinary session, held in Khar -
toum, Sudan, the Assembly of the African Union adopted its Deci -
sion 103 (VI), on 24 January 2006, wherein it decided to establish a

Committee of Eminent African Jurists “to consider all aspects and impvli -
cations of the Hissène Habré case as well as the options available for his
trial”6. It requested the aforementioned Committee to submit a report at
the following Ordinary Session in July 2006.

66. At its seventh ordinary session, held in Banjul, Gambia, the Assem-
bly of the African Union adopted its Decision 127 (VII), on 2 July 2006,
whereby it took note of the report presented by the Committee of Emi -
nent African Jurists. It noted that, pursuant to Articles 3 (h), 4 (h) and

4 (o) of the Constitutive Act of the African Union, “the crimes of which
Hissène Habré is accused fall within the competence of the African
Union”. Furthermore, the Assembly of the African Union mandated the
Republic of Senegal “to prosecute and ensure that Hissène Habré is tried,

on behalf of Africa, by a competent Senegalese court with guarantees forv
fair trial”.
67. At its eighth ordinary session, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, the
Assembly of the African Union adopted Decision 157 (VIII), on 30 Janu -
ary 2007, whereby the African Union commended Senegal for its efforts v

on “the implementation of the Banjul Decision”, encouraged it “to pur -
sue its initiatives to accomplish the mandate entrusted to it”, and avppealed
to the international community to mobilize the financial resources
required for the trial. Two years later, at its twelfth ordinary sessionv, held
again in Addis Ababa, from 1 to 3 February 2009, the Assembly of the

African Union adopted Decision 240 (XII), whereby it called on “all
Member States of the African Union, the European Union and partner
countries and institutions to make their contributions to the budget of vthe
case by paying these contributions directly to the African Union Com -

mission”.

68. At its following thirteenth ordinary session, held in Sirte, Libya,
from 1 to 3 July 2009, the Assembly of the African Union adopted Deci -

sion 246 (XIII), whereby it reiterated its “appeal to all Member States to

65It further took note of the briefing by President Wade of Senegal and vPresident
Obasanjo, the outgoing Chairperson of the African Union, on the Hissène Habré case.

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VII. La recherche de la juvstice:
les démarches et intevrventions de l’Union avfricaine

65. Dans ce même cadre de la recherche de la justice en l’affaire His -

sène Habré — et pour compléter l’examen qui précède —, il convient de
s’attacher plus particulièrement aux démarches et interventions de l’Union
africaine (telles que reflétées dans les décisions adoptées par son Assem -
blée). Ainsi, lors de sa sixième session ordinaire, qui s’est tenue à Khar -

toum (Soudan), l’Assemblée de l’Union africaine a, le 24 janvier 2006,
adopté sa décision 103 (VI), par laquelle elle décidait de mettre en place
un comité d’éminents juristes africains afin « d’examiner tous les aspects
et toutes les implications du procès de Hissène Habré ainsi que les options
disponibles pour son jugement » 65. Elle a chargé le comité précité de sou -

mettre un rapport à la prochaine session ordinaire de l’Union africaine en
juillet 2006.
66. Lors de sa septième session ordinaire, qui s’est tenue à Banjul
(Gambie), l’Assemblée de l’Union africaine a, le 2 juillet 2006, adopté sa

décision 127 (VII), par laquelle elle prenait note du rapport présenté pavr
le Comité d’éminents juristes africains. Elle a relevé que, aux termes des
articles 3 h), 4 h) et 4 o) de l’acte constitutif de l’Union africaine, « les
crimes reprochés à Hissène Habré [étaient] pleinement de la compétence

de l’Union africaine ». De surcroît, l’Assemblée de l’Union africaine a
mandaté la République du Sénégal pour « poursuivre et faire juger, au
nom de l’Afrique, Hissène Habré, par une juridiction sénégalaise compé -
tente avec les garanties d’un procès juste ».
67. Lors de sa huitième session ordinaire, qui s’est tenue à Addis-

Abeba (Ethiopie), l’Assemblée de l’Union africaine a, le 30 janvier 2007,
adopté la décision 157 (VIII), par laquelle l’Union africaine félicitait le
Sénégal pour les efforts qu’il avait déjà déployévs « en vue d’accélérer la
mise en œuvre de la décision prise à Banjul », l’encourageait « à pour -

suivre son travail pour l’accomplissement du mandat qui lui a étév confié »,
et lançait un appel à la communauté internationale pour la mobivlisation
des ressources financières nécessaires au procès. Deux ans plus tard, lors
de sa douzième session ordinaire, qui s’est à nouveau tenue à Addis-
er
Abeba, du 1 au 3 février 2009, l’Assemblée de l’Union africaine a adopté
la décision 240 (XII), par laquelle elle lançait un appel à « tous les Etats
membres de l’Union africaine, à l’Union européenne et aux pavys et insti -
tutions partenaires, pour qu’ils apportent leurs contributions au budvget
du procès en versant directement ces contributions à la Commission de

l’Union africaine ».
68. Lors de sa session ordinaire suivante, la treizième, qui s’est tenvue à
Syrte (Libye) du 1 erau 3 juillet 2009, l’Assemblée de l’Union africaine a
adopté la décision 246 (XIII), par laquelle elle réitérait son « appel à tous

65Elle a également pris note des informations fournies par le présidvent Wade du
Sénégal et le président Obasanjo, président sortant de l’Union africaine, relatives à l’affaire
Hissène Habré.

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contribute to the budget of the trial and extend the necessary support tvo
the Government of Senegal in the execution of the AU mandate to
prosecute and try Hissène Habré” 66. Next, at its fourteenth ordinary
session, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, from 31 January to 2 February
2010, the Assembly of the African Union adopted Decision 272 (XIV),

wherein it requested “the Government of Senegal, the Commission and
Partners, particularly the European Union to continue with consultationsv
with the view to ensuring the holding of the Donors Round Table as soon
as possible”. At its fifteenth ordinary session, held in Kampala, Uvganda,
the Assembly of the African Union adopted Decision 297 (XV), on

27 July 2010, to the same effect.

69. At its sixteenth ordinary session, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
on 30-31 January 2011, the Assembly of the African Union adopted Deci -

sion 340 (XVI), whereby it confirmed “the mandate given by the Africanv
Union (AU) to Senegal to try Hissène Habré”. Furthermore, it welcomed
the conclusions of the Donors Round Table concerning the funding of
Mr. Habré’s trial and called on Member States, all partner countries and
relevant institutions to disburse the funds pledged at the Donors Round v

Table. Moreover, the Assembly requested the “Commission to undertake v
consultations with the Government of Senegal in order to finalize the
modalities for the expeditious trial of Hissène Habré through a special
tribunal with an international character”.

70. At its seventeenth ordinary session, held in Malabo, Equatorial
Guinea, the Assembly of the African Union adopted Decision 371 (XVII),
on 1 July 2011, whereby it reiterated its decision (of January 2011) “con -
firming the mandate given to Senegal to try Hissène Habré on behalf of

Africa”. The Assembly of the African Union urged Senegal
“to carry out its legal responsibility in accordance with the United v

Nations Convention against Torture, the decision of the United
Nations (UN) Committee against Torture, as well as the said mandate
to put Hissène Habré on trial expeditiously or extradite him to any
other country willing to put him on trial”.

Next, at its eighteenth ordinary session, held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia,
on 29-30 January 2012, the Assembly of the African Union adopted Deci -

sion 401 (XVIII), whereby it requested the
“Commission to continue consultations with partner countries and

institutions and the Republic of Senegal and subsequently with the
Republic of Rwanda with a view to ensuring the expeditious trial of
Hissène Habre and to consider the practical modalities as well as thev
legal and financial implications of the trial”.

66It also invited the partner countries and institutions to take part in tvhe Donors

Round Table, scheduled to be held in Dakar, Senegal.

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les Etats membres … pour qu’ils apportent leurs contributions au bvudget
du procès et accorde[nt] leur soutien au Gouvernement de la République
du Sénégal dans l’exécution du mandat de l’Union africainve d’inculper et
de juger Hissène Habré » 6. Ensuite, lors de sa quatorzième session ordi -
naire, qui s’est tenue à Addis-Abeba (Ethiopie) du 31 janvier au

2 février 2010, l’Assemblée de l’Union africaine a adopté la décisivon 272
(XIV), par laquelle elle invitait « le Gouvernement sénégalais, la Commis -
sion et les partenaires, notamment l’Union européenne, [à] poursuivre les
consultations dans la perspective d’organiser, le plus tôt possiblve, la table
ronde des donateurs ». Lors de sa quinzième session ordinaire, qui s’est

tenue à Kampala (Ouganda), l’Assemblée de l’Union africainve a, le
27 juillet 2010, adopté la décision 297 (XV), au même effet.
69. Lors de sa seizième session ordinaire, qui s’est tenue à Addis-Abeba
(Ethiopie) les 30 et 31 janvier 2011, l’Assemblée de l’Union africaine a

adopté la décision 340 (XVI), par laquelle elle confirmait « le mandat
donné par l’Union africaine (UA) au Sénégal de juger Hissèvne Habré ».
Par ailleurs, elle se félicitait des conclusions de la table ronde des dona -
teurs relatives au financement du procès de Hissène Habré et invitait les
Etats membres, tous les pays et les institutions partenaires concernévs à

procéder au versement des contributions annoncées dans ce cadre. Evn
outre, l’Assemblée demandait à la « Commission d’entreprendre des
consultations avec le Gouvernement du Sénégal afin de finalisevr les
modalités pour l’organisation rapide du procès de Hissène Habré par un

tribunal spécial à caractère international ».
70. Lors de sa dix-septième session ordinaire, qui s’est tenue à Malabo
(Guinée équatoriale), l’Assemblée de l’Union africaine a, le 1 erjuillet 2011,
adopté la décision 371 (XVII), par laquelle elle rappelait sa décision de jan -
vier 2011 «confirmant le mandat confié au Sénégal de juger Hissène Habré

au nom de l’Afrique». L’Assemblée demandait instamment au Sénégal
«d’assumer sa responsabilité juridique conformément à la conven -

tion des Nations Unies contre la torture, à la décision du Comité des
Nations Unies (NU) contre la torture ainsi qu’audit mandat visant à
juger rapidement M. Hissène Habré ou à l’extrader vers tout autre
pays susceptible de le juger ».

Par la suite, lors de sa dix-huitième session ordinaire, qui s’est tenue à
Addis-Abeba (Ethiopie) les 29 et 30 janvier 2012, l’Assemblée de l’Union

africaine a adopté la décision 401 (XVIII), par laquelle elle demandait à la
«Commission de poursuivre les consultations avec les pays et institu -

tions partenaires, et la République du Sénégal, ainsi qu’avevc la Rép- u
blique du Rwanda, en vue d’assurer l’organisation rapide du procèvs
de Hissène Habré, et d’examiner les modalités pratiques ainsi que les
implications juridiques et financières du procès ».

66Elle a également invité les pays et les institutions partenaires àv participer à la table

ronde des donateurs, qui devait se tenir à Dakar (Sénégal).

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71. As it can be apprehended from the aforementioned decisions, the
African Union has been giving attention to the Hissène Habré case on a
consistent basis, since 2006. Although the African Union does not have
adjudicatory powers, it has felt obliged to assist Senegal in the pursuivt of
its obligation to bring Mr. H. Habré to justice ; it thus appears to give its

own contribution, as an international organization, to the rule of law (vat
national and international levels) and to the corresponding struggle
against impunity. One can note that, as time progressed, the language ofv
the decisions of the Assembly of the African Union has gradually
strengthened.

72. This is evidenced, in particular, by the language utilized in its deci -
sion 371 (XVII), adopted on 1 July 2011, wherein the Assembly of the
African Union reiterated its previous decision “confirming the mandvate
given to Senegal to try Hissène Habré on behalf of Africa”, and urged

Senegal “to carry out its legal responsibility” in accordance with the
UN Convention against Torture, the decision adopted by the UN Com -
mittee against Torture, as well as “the said mandate to put Hissène Habré
on trial expeditiously or extradite him to any other country willing to put
him on trial” 6. The emphasis shifted from the collection of funds for the

projected trial of Mr. H. Habré to the urgency of Senegal’s compliance
with its duty of prosecution, in conformity with the relevant provisionsv of
the UN Convention against Torture.

VIII. Urgency and the Needed Provvisional
Measures of Protectiovn

73. In the period which followed the ICJ decision (Questions relating

to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), Order of
28 May 2009, I.C.J. Reports 2009), not to order provisional measures,
Senegal’s pledge before the Court to keep Mr. H. Habré under house
surveillance and not to allow him to leave Senegal pending its
much-awaited trial seemed at times to have been overlooked, if not for -

gotten. First, concrete moves towards the trial were not made, amidst
allegations of lack of full funding (which was secured on 24 November
2010). Next, in early July 2011, Senegal announced that Mr. H. Habré
would be returned to Chad on 11 July 2011 (where he had been sentenced

to death in absentia by a court for allegedly planning to overthrow the
Government).

74. In its Order of 28 May 2009, the ICJ had refrained from indicating
the provisional measures of protection, given Senegal’s assurance thavt it

would not permit Mr. H. Habré to leave the country before the ICJ had
given its final decision on the case (ibid., p. 155, para. 71) ; the ICJ then

67
Emphasis added.

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71. Ainsi que l’attestent les décisions précitées, l’Union afvricaine n’a
cessé, depuis 2006, d’accorder toute son attention à l’affaire Hissène
Habré. Bien qu’elle ne dispose pas de pouvoirs juridictionnels, elle s’vest
sentie tenue de venir en aide au Sénégal dans la poursuite de son vobliga -
tion de faire juger M. Hissène Habré ; il apparaît donc qu’elle a apporté

sa propre contribution, en tant qu’organisation internationale, à vla
primauté du droit (aux niveaux national et international) et à lva lutte
contre l’impunité qui en découle. On relèvera que, au fil du temps, le
libellé des décisions adoptées par l’Assemblée de l’Unvion africaine est
devenu de plus en plus ferme.

72. En témoignent, notamment, les termes employés par l’Assembléve de
l’Union africaine dans sa décision 371 (XVII), adoptée le 1 erjuillet 2011, par
laquelle elle rappelait sa précédente décision «confirmant le mandat confié
au Sénégal de juger Hissène Habré au nom de l’Afrique», et demandait ins -

tamment au Sénégal «d’assumer sa responsabilité juridique» conformément
à la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture, à la décision du Comité
des Nations Unies contre la torture ainsi qu’« audit mandat visant à juger
rapidement M. Hissène Habré ou à l’extrader vers tout autre pays susceptible
de le juger »67. L’accent n’était plus mis sur la collecte de fonds pour le

procès prévu de M. Hissène Habré mais sur l’urgence, pour le Sénégal, de
satisfaire à son obligation de poursuivre, conformément aux dispositions
pertinentes de la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture.

VIII. L’urgence et la nécessvité
de mesures conservatovires

73. Dans la période qui a suivi la décision de la Cour de ne pas indi -

quer de mesures conservatoires (Questions concernant l’obligation de
poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), ordonnance du▯ 28 mai
2009, C.I.J. Recueil 2009), le Sénégal semble avoir ignoré, sinon oublié,
l’engagement qu’il avait pris devant elle de maintenir M. Hissène Habré
en résidence surveillée et de lui interdire de quitter le territoivre sénégalais

dans l’attente de son procès tant attendu. Tout d’abord, aucunev démarche
concrète n’a été entreprise en vue du procès, au motif quve le financement
intégral n’en était pas assuré (ce qui a été le cas lve 24 novembre 2010).
Ensuite, début juillet 2011, le Sénégal a annoncé que M. Hissène Habré

serait renvoyé au Tchad le 11 juillet 2011 (pays où il avait été condamné
à mort in absentia pour avoir prétendument fomenté un complot visant à
renverser le gouvernement).
74. Or, si la Cour, dans son ordonnance du 28 mai 2009, n’avait pas
indiqué de mesures conservatoires, c’était en raison de l’asvsurance donnée

par le Sénégal qu’il ne permettrait pas à M. Habré de quitter son territoire
avant qu’elle ait rendu sa décision définitive en l’affaire (ibid., p. 155,

67
Les italiques sont de moi.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 191 28/11/13 12:50 516 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

found that there was not “any urgency” to order provisional measurves in
the present case (I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 155, para. 73). Yet, on 8 July
2011, the then President of Senegal (Mr. A. Wade) wrote to the Govern -
ment of Chad and to the African Union to announce the imminent expul-
sion of Mr. H. Habré back to Chad, scheduled for 11 July 2011 (supra).

On the eve of that date, Senegal officially retracted its decision, on v10 July
2011, given the international outcry that promptly followed, including
from the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights 6.

75. Had the return of Mr. H. Habré to Chad been effected by Senegal

in such circumstances, it would have been carried out in breach of the
principle of good faith (bona fides). The fact that it was seriously consid -
ered, and only cancelled in the last minute under public pressure, is suvffi-
cient reason for serious concern. There is one lesson to be extracted frvom

all that has happened in the present case since the Court’s unfortunavte
Order of 28 May 2009 : I was quite right in casting a solitary and exten -
sive dissenting opinion appended to it, sustaining the need for the ordevr-
ing or indication of provisional measures of protection, given the urgency
of the situation, and the possibility of irreparable harm (which were evvi -

dent to me, already at that time).
76. A promise of a Government (any Government, of any State any -
where in the world) does not suffice to efface the urgency of a situvation,
particularly when fundamental rights of the human person (such as the

right to the realization of justice) are at stake. The ordering of provvisional
measures of protection has the additional effect of dissuading a Statev not
to incur into a breach of treaty. It thus serves the prevalence of the rvule of
law at international level. The present case leaves a lesson : the ordering
of provisional measures of protection, guaranteeing the rule of law, mayv

well dissuade governmental behaviour to avoid further incongruencies
and not to incur what might become additional breaches of international v
law.
77. In my extensive dissenting opinion appended to the Court’s Order
of 28 May 2009, I insisted on the issuance of provisional measures

of protection, given the manifest urgency of the situation affecting
the surviving victims of torture (or their close relatives) during the
Habré regime in Chad (ibid., pp. 183-186, paras. 50-59), and the pro-
bability of irreparable damage ensuing from the breach of the right

to the realization of justice (ibid., pp. 186-188, paras. 60-65). After all,
the present case had been lodged with the Court under the UN Con-
vention against Torture. Ever since, I have never seen any persuasive
argument in support of the decision not to order provisional measures
in the present case. All that has been said so far revolves around an

empty petitio principii : the Court’s decision was the right one, as was

68HRW, “Habré Case: Questions and Answers on Belgium v. Senegal”, www.hrw.org/

news, of 29 March 2012, p. 5.

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par. 71); la Cour avait donc jugé qu’il n’existait « aucune urgence» justi-
fiant d’ordonner des mesures conservatoires en la présente espèvce (C.I.J.
Recueil 2009, p.155, par.73). Ce nonobstant, le 8juillet 2011, M. A. Wade,
alors président du Sénégal, a écrit au Gouvernement tchadienv et à l’Union
africaine pour annoncer l’expulsion imminente de M. Habré vers le Tchad,

prévue le 11 juillet 2011 (supra). Ce n’est que la veille de cette date, le
10 juillet 2011, que le Sénégal est officiellement revenu sur sa décisionv, en
raison du tollé international provoqué par cette annonce, le Haut-vCommis -
sariat des Nations Unies aux droits de l’homme ayant lui aussi protesté . 68
75. Si le Sénégal avait effectivement renvoyé M. Hissène Habré au Tchad

dans de telles circonstances, il l’aurait fait en violation du princivpe de bonne
foi (bona fides). Le fait que cette possibilité ait été sérieusement envisagvée et
qu’il n’y ait été renoncé qu’à la dernière minutve, sous la pression de l’opinion
publique, est un sérieux motif d’inquiétude. La leçon qui doit être tirée de

l’ensemble des événements qui se sont déroulés en la prévsente affaire depuis
la regrettable décision de la Cour du 28 mai 2009, c’est que l’opinion dissi -
dente fort détaillée que j’ai, seul, jointe à ladite ordonnavnce — opinion dans
laquelle je me prononçais en faveur de l’indication de mesures convservatoires
étant donné l’urgence de la situation et le risque de préjudice irréparable (qui,

à ce moment déjà, m’apparaissaient clairement) — était tout à fait fondée.
76. Une promesse faite par un gouvernement (n’importe quel gouver -
nement, de n’importe quel Etat du monde) ne suffit pas à supprimver l’ur-
gence d’une situation, surtout lorsque sont en jeu des droits fondamentaux

de la personne humaine (notamment le droit à la réalisation de lav justice).
L’indication de mesures conservatoires a par ailleurs pour effet de dissua -
der un Etat de violer un traité. Ainsi, pareilles mesures jouent un rvôle
pour garantir la primauté du droit au niveau international. Un enseigvne -
ment peut donc être tiré de la présente affaire : l’indication de mesures

conservatoires, qui garantit la primauté du droit, peut fort bien disvsuader
des gouvernements d’adopter certains comportements déplacés, etv, par -
tant, de commettre de nouvelles violations du droit international.
77. Dans l’opinion dissidente fort approfondie que j’ai jointe à l’vor -
donnance de la Cour du 28 mai 2009, j’ai ainsi insisté sur la nécessité d’in-

diquer des mesures conservatoires, compte tenu de l’urgence manifestev de
la situation touchant les victimes ayant survécu aux actes de torturev (ou
leurs proches) durant le régime Habré au Tchad (ibid., pp. 183-186,
par. 50-59), et de la probabilité que soit causé un préjudice irréparable en

raison de la violation du droit à la réalisation de la justice (ibid., pp. 186-
188, par. 60-65). Après tout, c’est en vertu de la convention des
Nations Unies contre la torture que la présente affaire a été introduvite
devant la Cour et, depuis lors, je n’ai jamais entendu d’argument vconvain -
cant à l’appui de la décision consistant à ne pas indiquer dve mesures

conservatoires. Tout ce qui a été dit sur ce point jusqu’à pvrésent procède,

68HRW, « Affaire Habré :questions et réponses sur «Belgique c. Sénégal » », www.hrw.

org/news, 29 mars 2012, p. 5.

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taken by a large majority (the traditional argument of authority, the

Diktat).

78. The fact is that majorities, however large they happen to be, at
times also incur mistakes, and this is why I am more inclined to abide bvy
the authority of the argument, rather than vice versa. My position is thvat

the Court should have ordered the provisional measures of protection in v
its decision of 28 May 2009, having thus assumed the role of guarantee of
the relevant norms of the UN Convention against Torture. It should have
gone beyond the short-sighted inter-State outlook, so as to behold the
fundamental rights of the human person that were (and are) at stake inv

the present case, under the UN Convention against Torture.

79. Unilateral acts of States — such as, inter alia, promise — were con-
ceptualized in the traditional framework of the inter-State relations, so as

to extract their legal effects, given the “decentralization” of vthe interna -
tional legal order. Here, in the present case, we are in an entirely disvtinct
context, that of objective obligations established under a normative Con -
vention — one of the most important of the United Nations, in the
domain of the international protection of human rights, embodying an

absolute prohibition of jus cogens —, the UN Convention against Tor -
ture. In the ambit of these obligations, a pledge or promise made in the
course of legal proceedings before the Court does not remove the pre-
requisites (of urgency and of probability of irreparable damage) for the
indication of provisional measures by the Court.

80. This is what I strongly upheld in my aforementioned dissenting
opinion of 28 May 2009 (I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 192, para. 78), and what
successive facts ever since leave as a lesson. When the prerequisites ofv
provisional measures are present — as they in my view already were in

May 2009, as confirmed by the successive facts — such measures are to be
ordered by the Court, to the benefit of the subjects of rights to be pvre -
served and protected (such as the right to the realization of justice)v.
Accordingly, in my dissenting opinion I deemed it fit to ponder that :

“A decision of the ICJ indicating provisional measures in the pres-

ent case, as I herein sustain, would have set up a remarkable precedent v
in the long search for justice in the theory and practice of internationval
law. After all, this is the first case lodged with the ICJ on the basivs of
the 1984 United Nations Convention against Torture.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[T]he prerequisites of urgency and the probability of irreparable
harm were and remain in my view present in this case (. . .), requiring
from the Court the indication of provisional measures. Moreover,

there subsist, at this stage — and without prejudice to the merits of

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de près ou de loin, d’une pétition de principe vide de sens : la décision de
la Cour était la bonne dès lors qu’elle a été adoptée par une large majorité

(l’habituel argument d’autorité, le diktat).
78. Or, le fait est que les majorités, si larges soient-elles, commettent
aussi parfois des erreurs, et c’est la raison pour laquelle je suis dve plus en
plus enclin à me conformer à l’autorité de l’argument pluvtôt qu’à celle du
nombre. Selon moi, la Cour aurait dû, dans sa décision du 28 mai 2009,

indiquer les mesures conservatoires sollicitées, se posant ainsi en garante
des normes pertinentes énoncées par la convention des Nations Unies
contre la torture. Elle aurait dû dépasser la perspective interétatique à
courte vue, ce qui lui aurait permis d’appréhender les droits fondvamen -
taux de la personne humaine qui étaient (et sont) en jeu dans la prvésente

affaire, au regard de la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture.
79. Compte tenu de la « décentralisation» de l’ordre juridique inter-
national, c’est dans le cadre traditionnel des relations interétatiques qu’ont
été conceptualisés les actes unilatéraux des Etats — tels que les pro -
messes — et qu’en ont été dégagés les effets juridiques. Or, le contexte de

la présente espèce est tout à fait différent, puisque sont ven cause des obliga -
tions objectives, établies en application d’une convention normative — l’une
des plus importantes du système des Nations Unies en matière de protec -
tion internationale des droits de l’homme, qui consacre une interdiction
absolue relevant du jus cogens —, à savoir la convention contre la torture.

Au regard de ces obligations, un engagement ou une promesse formulé
dans le cadre d’une instance devant la Cour ne fait pas disparaître les
conditions requises (relatives au caractère d’urgence et au risque de dom -
mages irréparables) pour l’indication de mesures conservatoires.
80. Telle est la position que j’ai fermement défendue dans mon opinionv

dissidente précitée du 28 mai 2009 (C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 192, par. 78), et
tel est bien ce que les faits qui se sont produits depuis lors nous ensevignent.
Lorsque les conditions requises pour l’indication de mesures conservav -
toires sont réunies — comme c’était, selon moi, déjà le cas en mai 2009, ce
qui a été confirmé par les faits —, la Cour doit prendre pareilles mesures,

et ce, dans l’intérêt des sujets de droits qu’il convient de préserver et de
protéger (notamment le droit à la réalisation de la justice).v C’est pourquoi
j’ai jugé utile, dans mon opinion dissidente, de préciser ce quvi suit:

«Si elle avait décidé d’indiquer des mesures conservatoires dansv la
présente affaire, comme je le soutiens ici, la Cour aurait créév un pré -
cédent remarquable dans cette longue quête de justice, du point dev
vue de la théorie et de la pratique du droit international. Après vtout,
c’est ici la première fois qu’elle est saisie d’une affairve sur le fonde -

ment de la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture de 1984.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
[L]es conditions requises — l’urgence et l’existence d’un risque de
préjudice irréparable — étaient et demeurent réunies dans la présente

affaire … exigeant des mesures conservatoires de sa part. En outre, il
subsiste à ce stade — et sans préjuger l’affaire au fond — certaines

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6 CIJ1033.indb 195 28/11/13 12:50 518 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

the case — uncertainties which surround the matter at issue before
the Court, despite the amendment in February 2007 of the Senegalese
Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure.
Examples are provided by the prolonged delays apparently due to
the alleged high costs of holding the trial of Mr. H. Habré, added to

pre-trial measures still to be taken, and the lack of definition of the
time still to be consumed before that trial takes place (if it does at vall).
Despite all that, as the Court’s majority did not find it necessaryv to
indicate provisional measures, the Court can now only hope for the
best.

This is all the more serious in the light of the nature of the afore -
mentioned obligations of the States parties to the United Nations Con -
vention against Torture.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

This Court should in my view have remained seised of the matter
at stake. It should not have relinquished its jurisdiction in the matterv
of provisional measures, on the ground of its reliance on what may

have appeared the professed intentions of the parties, placing itself inv
a position more akin to that of a conciliator, if not an exspectator.
Had the Court done so, it would have assumed the role of the guar -
antor of the compliance, in the cas d’espèce, of the conventional obli-
gations by the States parties to the UN Convention against Torture

in pursuance of the principle aut dedere aut judicare.” (I.C.J. Reports
2009, pp. 193-195, paras. 80, 82-84 and 88.)

81. This point is not to pass unnoticed here. Fortunately — for the
sake of the realization of justice in the light of the integrity of the vobliga-
tions enshrined into the UN Convention against Torture — Mr. H. Habré
did not escape from his house surveillance in Dakar, nor was he expelledv
from Senegal. The acknowledgment of the urgency of the situation was at v

last made by the ICJ : it underlies its present Judgment on the merits of
the case, which it has just adopted today, 20 July 2012, wherein it deter -
mined that Senegal has breached Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of the UN Con -
vention against Torture, and is under the duty to take “without furthver

delay” the necessary measures to submit the case against Mr. H. Habré to
its competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution (Judgment,
para. 121, and resolutory point 6 of the dispositif).

IX. The Absolute Prohibitiovn of Torture
in the Realm of Jus Cogens

82. The victims’ everlasting ordeal in their quest for the realization of
justice in the present case becomes even more regrettable if one bears ivn
mind that the invocation of the relevant provisions of the UN Conven -

tion against Torture (Arts. 5-7) in the present case takes place in connec -

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6 CIJ1033.indb 196 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 518

incertitudes autour de la question dont la Cour est saisie, en dépit vde

la modification apportée par le Sénégal en février 2007 à son Code
pénal et à son Code de procédure pénale.
Je songe par exemple aux délais prolongés apparemment dus aux
frais importants qu’entraînerait la tenue du procès de M. Habré,
auxquels s’ajoutent les mesures restant à prendre avant le procès, et

l’incertitude quant au temps à attendre encore avant l’ouverturve du
procès (si tant est que celui-ci ait jamais lieu). En dépit de tvout cela,
la majorité n’ayant pas cru bon d’indiquer des mesures conservav -
toires, la Cour en est désormais réduite à espérer que les évvénements
prendront un tour heureux.

La situation est d’autant plus alarmante lorsque l’on considèrev la
nature des obligations susmentionnées qui sont à la charge des Etats
parties à la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

La Cour aurait dû selon moi rester saisie de la question qui est en
jeu. Elle n’aurait pas dû renoncer à exercer sa compétence dvans le
domaine des mesures conservatoires en s’en remettant aux intentions
que les Parties ont pu sembler afficher, jouant ainsi un rôle plus svem-
blable à celui d’un médiateur, si ce n’est d’un spectateuvr dans l’expe-c

tative. Si elle était restée saisie de la question, la Cour se servait posée
en garante du respect, en l’espèce, des obligations conventionnellves
incombant aux Etats parties à la convention des Nations Unies
contre la torture, conformément au principe aut dedere aut judicare. »
(C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 193-195, par. 80, 82-84 et 88.)

81. Cela mérite d’être rappelé ici. Fort heureusement — du point de
vue de la réalisation de la justice à l’aune du respect des oblvigations
consacrées dans la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture —,

Hissène Habré ne s’est pas enfui de sa résidence surveillée à Dakvar, et n’a
pas davantage été expulsé du Sénégal. La Cour, quant àv elle, a enfin
reconnu l’urgence de la situation, puisque cette reconnaissance sous-vtend
les conclusions énoncées dans le présent arrêt, selon lesquevlles le Sénégal
a violé l’article 6, paragraphe 2, et l’article 7, paragraphe 1, de la conven -

tion des Nations Unies contre la torture et est tenu de prendre, « sans
autre délai», les mesures nécessaires en vue de soumettre le cas de M. His-
sène Habré à ses autorités compétentes pour l’exercice de l’vaction pénale
(arrêt, par. 121 et point 6 du dispositif).

IX. L’interdiction absoluve de la torture

dans le cadre du Jus Cogens

82. L’interminable calvaire enduré par les victimes dans leur quêtev de
réalisation de la justice en la présente espèce apparaît encvore plus regret-
table si l’on considère que les dispositions de la convention des v

Nations Unies contre la torture pertinentes en la présente espèce

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6 CIJ1033.indb 197 28/11/13 12:50 519 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

tion with the absolute prohibition of torture, a prohibition which bringvs
us into the domain of jus cogens. One would have thought that, in face of
such an absolute prohibition, the justiciables would hardly face so many

obstacles in their search for the realization of justice. This would be vso in
a world where justice prevailed, which is not ours. The time of human
justice is not the time of human beings ; ours is a world where one has to
learn soon how to live with the surrounding irrationality, in order per -

haps to live a bit longer.

1. The International Legal Regime against Torture

83. Yet, despite of the difficulties that have arisen in the cas d’espèce,
the truth is that there is today an international legal regime of absoluvte
prohibition of all forms of torture, both physical and psychological, a
prohibition which falls under the domain of jus cogens. Such international

legal regime has found judicial recognition ; thus, in the case of Can -
toral Benavides v. Peru (merits, judgment of 18 August 2000), forexample,
the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR) stated
that “a true international legal regime has been established of absolvute

prohibition of all forms of torture” (para. 103).
84. Such absolute prohibition of torture finds expression at both nor -
mative and jurisprudential levels. The basic principle of humanity, rooted
in the human conscience, has arisen and stood against torture. In effevct,

in our times, the jus cogens prohibition of torture emanates ultimately
from the universal juridical conscience, and finds expression in the corpus
juris gentium. Torture is thus clearly prohibited, as a grave violation of
the international law of human rights and of international humanitarian v

law, as well as of international criminal law. There is here a normativev
convergence to this effect ; this is a definitive achievement of civilization,
one that admits no regression.

85. In the domain of the international law of human rights, the inter -
national legal regime of absolute prohibition of torture encompasses thev
United Nations Convention (of 1984, and its Protocol of 2002) and the
Inter-American (1985) and European (1987) Conventions against Torture,

in addition to the Special Rapporteur against Torture (since 1985) of the
former UN Human Rights Commission (HRC) and the Working Group
on Arbitrary Detention (since 1991) also of the former HRC (which pays
special attention to the prevention of torture) 69. The three aforementioned

co-existing Conven70ons to combat torture are basically complementary
ratione materiae . Moreover, in the domain of international criminal

69In addition to these mechanisms, there is the United Nations Voluntary Cvontribu -
tions Fund for Victims of Torture (since 1983).
70Cf., in this regard, A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos
Direitos Humanos, Vol. II, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S.A. Fabris Ed., 1999, pp. 345-352.

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(articles 5-7) ont trait à l’interdiction absolue de la torture, interdictivon
qui nous fait entrer dans le domaine du jus cogens. On aurait pu penser
que, face à pareille interdiction, les justiciables ne devraient pas vavoir à

faire face à tant d’obstacles dans leur quête de réalisationv de la justice. Il
en irait ainsi dans un monde où la justice prévaudrait, mais tel nv’est pas
celui dans lequel nous vivons. Le temps de la justice des hommes n’esvt pas
le temps des êtres humains ; dans le monde qui est le nôtre, chacun se voit

très vite contraint de s’accommoder de l’irrationalité qui yv prévaut, dans
l’espoir d’y prolonger quelque peu son passage.

1. Le régime juridique international de lutte contre la torture

83. En dépit des difficultés survenues dans le cas d’espèce, lev fait est
qu’il existe aujourd’hui un régime juridique international d’vinterdiction
absolue de toutes les formes de torture, tant physiques que psychiques, v
interdiction qui relève du domaine du jus cogens. Ce régime juridique

international a été consacré sur le plan judiciaire ; ainsi, en l’affaire Can -
toral Benavides c. Pérou (arrêt au fond du 18 août 2000), la Cour inter-
américaine des droits de l’homme (CIADH) a déclaré qu’«v un véritable
régime juridique international d’interdiction de toutes les formes de tor -

ture a[vait] été établi » (par. 103).
84. Cette interdiction absolue de la torture trouve son expression sur
les plans tant normatif que jurisprudentiel. C’est le principe fondamental
d’humanité, tel qu’enraciné dans la conscience humaine, qui s’est fait jour

et s’est élevé contre la torture. De fait, l’interdiction dev la torture, en tant
que jus cogens, émane aujourd’hui, en dernière analyse, de la conscience
juridique universelle et trouve son expression dans le corpus juris gentium.
La torture est donc clairement interdite en tant que violation grave du

droit international des droits de l’homme et du droit international hvuma -
nitaire, ainsi que du droit pénal international. Il existe, en la matvière, une
convergence normative ; il s’agit donc d’une avancée définitive de notre
civilisation, qui ne souffre aucun retour en arrière.

85. Dans le domaine du droit international des droits de l’homme, le
régime juridique international de l’interdiction absolue de la torvture com -
prend la convention des Nations Unies (de 1984, et son protocole de 2002)
ainsi que les conventions interaméricaine (1985) et européenne (1987)

contre la torture, auxquelles s’ajoutent le rapporteur spécial surv la torture
(depuis 1985) de l’ancienne Commission des droits de l’homme des
Nations Unies (CDH) et le Groupe de travail sur la détention arbitraire
(depuis 1991), lui aussi de l’ancienne CDH (qui s’attache particulièrvement
69
à la prévention de la torture) . Les trois conventions précitées de lutte 70
contre la torture sont foncièrement complémentaires ratione materiae .

69 A ce dispositif s’ajoute le Fonds de contributions volontaires des Navtions Unies pour
les victimes de la torture (depuis 1983).
70 Voir, sur ce point, A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos
Direitos Humanos, vol. II, Porto Alegre/Brésil, S.A. Fabris Ed., 1999, p. 345-352.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 199 28/11/13 12:50 520 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

law, Article 7 of the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal
Court (ICC) includes the crime of torture within the ICC’s jurisdicvtion.
Torture is in fact prohibited in any circumstances.

86. As the IACtHR rightly warned, in its judgments in the case of the
Gómez Paquiyauri Brothers v. Peru (of 8 July 2004, paras. 111-112), as
well as of Tibi v. Ecuador (of 7 September 2004, para. 143), and of
Baldeón García v. Peru (of 6 April 2006, para. 117),

“The prohibition of torture is complete and non-revocable, even
under the most difficult circumstances, such as war, ‘the struggle

against terrorism’ and any other crimes, states of siege or of emer -
gency, of civil commotion or domestic conflict, suspension of consti -
tutional guarantees, domestic political instability, or other public
disasters or emergencies.”

The IACtHR was quite clear in asserting, for example, in its judgment
in the case of Maritza Urrutia v. Guatemala (of 27 November 2003,
para. 92), and reiterating in its judgments in the cases of Tibi v. Ecuador

(of 7 September 2004, para. 143), of the Brothers Gómez Paquiyauri
v. Peru (of 8 July 2004, para. 112), and of Baldeón García v. Peru
(of 6 April 2006, para. 117), that

“[t]here exists an international legal regime of absolute prohibition of
all forms of torture, both physical and psychological, a regime which
belongs today to the domain of jus cogens”.

87. Likewise, in the case of Caesar v. Trinidad and Tobago (judgment
of 11 March 2005), the IACtHR found that the conditions of detention to
which the complainant had been subjected (damaging his health — his

physical, psychological and moral integrity) amount to an inhuman and
degrading treatment, in breach of Article 5 (1) and (2) of the American
Convention on Human Rights, which “enshrines precepts of jus cogens”
(para. 100). And later on, in the case of Goiburú et al. v. Paraguay (judg -

ment of 22 September 2006), the IACtHR reasserted the absolute prohi -
bition of torture and enforced disappearance of persons, in the realm ofv
jus cogens, and acknowledged the duty to fight impunity with regard to
those grave violations (with the due investigation of the occurrences), so

as to honour the memory of the victims and to guarantee the non-repeti -
tion of those facts (para. 93).
88. The IACtHR and the ad hoc International Criminal Tribunal for
the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) are the two contemporary international
tribunals which have most contributed so far to the jurisprudential con -

struction of the absolute prohibition of torture, in the realm of jus
cogens 71. For its part, the ICTY, in the same line of reasoning, held, in its

71Cf., recently, A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Jus Cogens : The Determination and the
Gradual Expansion of Its Material Content in Contemporary International Case Law”,
in XXXV Curso de Derecho Internacional Organizado por el Comité Jurídico I▯nter-meri
cano — 2008, Washington D.C., General Secretariat of the OAS, 2009, pp. 3-29.

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En outre, dans le domaine du droit pénal international, l’article 7 du Sta -
tut de Rome de 1998 de la Cour pénale internationale (CPI) prévovit que
le crime de torture relève de la compétence de ladite Cour. La torture est,
de fait, interdite en toutes circonstances.

86. Ainsi que la CIADH l’a rappelé à juste titre dans les décisivons
qu’elle a rendues dans les affaires Frères Gómez Paquiyauri c. Pérou (arrêt
du 8 juillet 2004, par. 111-112), Tibi c. Equateur (arrêt du 7 septembre 2004,
par. 143) et Baldeón García c. Pérou (arrêt du 6 avril 2006, par. 117),

«L’interdiction de la torture est totale et irrévocable, y compris
dans les circonstances les plus délicates telles que la guerre, « la lutte

contre le terrorisme » ou tout autre crime, l’état de siège ou l’état
d’urgence, les désordres civils ou les conflits intérieurs, lva suspension
des garanties constitutionnelles, l’instabilité politique interne vou
d’autres dangers pesant sur l’ordre public. »

La CIADH s’est prononcée de manière tout à fait claire en affivrmant, par
exemple dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en l’affaire Maritza Urrutia c. Guatemala
(en date du 27 novembre 2003, par. 92), et en le réitérant dans les arrêts qu’elle

a rendus dans les affaires Tibi c. Equateur (en date du 7 septembre 2004,
par. 143), Frères Gómez Paquiyauri c. Pérou (en date du 8 juillet 2004,
par. 112) et Baldeón García c. Pérou (en date du 6 avril 2006, par. 117), que

«il exist[ait] un régime juridique international d’interdiction absvolue
de toutes les formes de torture, tant physiques que psychiques, régimve
qui relev[ait] désormais du domaine du jus cogens ».

87. De même, dans l’affaire Caesar c. Trinité-et-Tobago (arrêt du 11 mars
2005), la CIADH a estimé que les conditions de détention auxquellves avait
été soumis le plaignant (qui avaient nui à sa santé, c’evst-à-dire à son intégrité

physique, psychique et morale) constituaient un traitement inhumain et
dégradant, en violation de l’article 5, paragraphes 1 et 2, de la convention
américaine relative aux droits de l’homme, qui c «onsacre les préceptes du jus
cogens» (par. 100). Par la suite, dans l’affaire Goiburú et autres c. Paraguay

(arrêt du 22 septembre2006), la CIADH a réaffirmé l’interdiction absolue de
la torture et des disparitions forcées de personnes, comme relevant dvu jus
cogens, et reconnu l’obligation de lutter contre l’impunité en ce qui concerne
ces violations graves (obligation assortie de l’enquête requise evn vue de l’éta-

blissement des faits), de sorte à honorer la mémoire des victimesv et de ga- ran
tir la non-répétition de pareils faits (par. 93).
88. La CIADH et le Tribunal pénal international ad hoc pour l’ex-
Yougoslavie (TPIY) sont les deux juridictions internationales contempov -
raines qui, à ce jour, ont le plus contribué à élaborer une vjurisprudence

relative à l’interdiction absolue de la torture en tant que règvle de
jus cogens 71. Le TPIY a ainsi considéré, dans le jugement qu’il a rendu

71Voir, récemment, A. A. Cançado Trindade, « Jus Cogens : The Determination and
the Gradual Expansion of Its Material Content in Contemporary Internatiovnal Case
Law », dans XXXV Curso de Derecho Internacional Organizado por el Comité Jurídico I▯nte-
ramericano — 2008, Washington D.C., Secrétariat général de l’OEA, 2009, p. 3-29.

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judgment (Trial Chamber, of 10 December 1998) in the Furundžija case,

that torture is “prohibited by a peremptory norm of international law”, it
is a prohibition of jus cogens (paras. 153 and 155). Likewise, in its judg -
ment (Trial Chamber, of 16 November 1998) in the Delalić et al. case, the
ICTY asserted that the prohibition of torture is of conventional and cusv -
tomary international law, and is a norm of jus cogens (paras. 453-454).

89. This view was reiterated by the ICTY in its judgment (Trial
Chamber, of 22 February 2001) in the Kunarac case, wherein it stated
that

“Torture is prohibited under both conventional and customary
international law and it is prohibited both in times of peace and
during an armed conflict. The prohibition can be said to constitute
a norm of jus cogens.” (Para. 466.)

Other statements of the kind by the ICTY, as to the jus cogens prohibi -
tion of torture, are found in its judgment (Appeals Chamber, of 20 Feb -
ruary 2001) in the Delalić et al. case (para. 172 and 225), as well as in its

judgment (Trial Chamber, of 31 March 2003) in the Naletilić et al. case,
wherein it affirmed that
“Various judgments of the Tribunal have considered charges of

torture as a grave breach of the Geneva Conventions of 1949, a
violation of the laws and customs of war and as a crime against
humanity. The Celebici trial judgment stated that the prohibition
of torture is a norm of customary international law and jus cogens.”
(Para. 336.)

90. The ad hoc International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR),
in turn, contributed to the normative convergence of international humanv
rights law and contemporary international criminal law as to the absolutve

prohibition of torture, in interpreting, in its decision (Chamber I)
of 2 September 1998 in the case of J.-P. Akayesu, the term “torture” as
set forth in Article 3 (f) of its Statute, in accordance with the definition
of torture set forth in Article 1 (1) of the UN Convention against Torture,
namely,

“any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or menv-
tal, is intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaivn-
ing from him or a third person information or a confession, punishing
him for an act that he or a third person has committed or is suspected

of having committed, or intimidating or coercing him or a third per -
son, or for any reason based on discrimination of any kind, when such
pain or suffering is inflicted by or at the instigation of or with tvhe
consent or acquiescence of a public official or other person acting in v
an official capacity” (para. 681).

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en l’affaire Furundžija (Chambre de première instance, 10 décembre 1998),
que la torture était « prohibée par une norme impérative du droit inter-

national», et qu’il s’agissait donc d’une interdiction de jus cogens
(par. 153 et 155). De même, dans son jugement en l’affaire Dela -
lić et autres (Chambre de première instance, 16 novembre 1998), il a pré -
cisé que l’interdiction de la torture était une règle de drovit international
conventionnel et coutumier, et qu’elle constituait aussi une norme de jus
cogens (par. 453-454).

89. Le TPIY a réaffirmé ces points dans le jugement qu’il a rendu ven
l’affaire Kunarac (Chambre de première instance, 22 février 2001), dans
lequel il a affirmé ce qui suit :

«Le droit international, tant conventionnel que coutumier, inter -
dit la torture en temps de paix comme de conflit armé. On peut direv
que cette prohibition a valeur de jus cogens. » (Par. 466.)

D’autres prononcés similaires du TPIY concernant l’interdictionv de la
torture en tant que règle de jus cogens figurent dans l’arrêt qu’il a rendu
en l’affaire Delalić et autres (Chambre d’appel, 20 février 2001, par. 172
et 225), ainsi que dans son jugement en l’affaire Naletilić et autres
(Chambre de première instance, 31 mars 2003) :

«Dans plusieurs jugements, le Tribunal a eu à se prononcer sur
des accusations de tortures assimilables à une infraction grave aux
conventions de Genève de 1949, à une violation des lois ou coutumevs
de la guerre et à un crime contre l’humanité. Dans le jugement

Celebici, la Chambre de première instance déclarait que l’interdiction v
de la torture était une norme du droit international coutumier et du v
jus cogens.» (Par. 336.)

90. Le Tribunal pénal international ad hoc pour le Rwanda (TPIR) a,
lui aussi, contribué à la convergence normative du droit internativonal des
droits de l’homme et du droit pénal international contemporain en vce
qui concerne l’interdiction absolue de la torture, en interprétant comvme
suit, dans sa décision (Chambre I) du 2 septembre 1998 en l’affaire
J. P. Akayesu, le terme « torture» tel qu’il est mentionné à l’article 3 f) de

son statut, au regard de la définition de la torture, consacrée và l’article 1,
paragraphe 1, de la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture :
«tout acte par lequel une douleur ou des souffrances aiguës, phy -
siques ou mentales, sont intentionnellement infligées à une personne

aux fins notamment d’obtenir d’elle ou d’une tierce personne vdes ren -
seignements ou des aveux, de la punir d’un acte qu’elle ou une tievrce
personne a commis ou est soupçonnée d’avoir commis, de l’intvimider
ou de faire pression sur elle ou d’intimider ou de faire pression surv
une tierce personne, ou pour tout autre motif fondé sur une forme de v
discrimination quelle qu’elle soit, lorsqu’une telle douleur ou dev telles

souffrances sont infligées par un agent de la fonction publique ou
toute autre personne agissant à titre officiel ou à son instigativon ou
avec son consentement exprès ou tacite » (par. 681).

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91. The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), for its part, has
also pronounced on the matter at issue, to the same effect. Thus, in ivts
judgment (Grand Chamber) of 12 November 2008, on the Demir and
Baykara v. Turkey case, it held that the prohibition of torture has “attained

the status of a peremptory norm of international law, or jus cogens”, and
added that this finding was “incorporated into its case law in this sphere”
(para. 73). In a broader context, of prohibition of inhuman and degrading
treatment (encompassing mental suffering), the reasoning developed bvy

the ECHR in its judgment of 2 March 2010, in the Al-Saadoon and
Mufdhiv. United Kingdom case, leaves room to infer an acknowledgment
of a normative hierarchy in international law, giving pride of place to
the norms that safeguard the dignity of the human person.

92. The aforementioned development conducive to the current abso -
lute (jus cogens) prohibition of torture has taken place with the aware -
ness of the horror and the inhumanity of the practice of torture.
Testimonies of victims of torture — as in the proceedings of contempo -

rary international human rights tribunals — give account of that. Even
before the present era, some historical testimonies did the same. One suvch
testimony — a penetrating one — is that of Jean Améry, himself a victim
of torture. In his own words,

“(. . .) torture is the most horrible event a human being can retain

within himself. (. . .) Whoever was tortured, stays tortured. Torture
is ineradicably burned into him, even when no clinically objective
traces can be detected. (. . .) The person who has survived torture and
whose pains are starting to subside (. . .) experiences an ephemeral

peace that is conducive to thinking. (. . .) If from the experience of
torture any knowledge at all remains that goes beyond the plain night -
marish, it is that of a great amazement and a foreignness in the world
that cannot be compensated by any sort of subsequent human com -
munication. (. . .) Whoever has succumbed to torture can no longer

feel at home in the world. (. . .) The shame of destruction cannot be
erased. Trust in the world, which already collapsed in part at the firvst
blow, but in the end, under torture, fully will not be regained. (. . .)
One who was martyred is a defenseless prisoner of fear. It is fear that v

henceforth reigns over him. F72r — and also what is called resent -
ment. They remain (. . .).”

93. The present Judgment of the ICJ in the case concerning Questions
relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite contributes decisively

72Jean Améry, Par-delà le crime et le châtiment, Arles, Babel/Actes Sud, 2005 [reed.],
pp. 61, 83-84, 92 and 94-96. And cf. Jean Améry, At the Mind’s Limits, Bloomington,
Indiana University Press, 1980 [reed.], pp. 22, 34 and 38-40.

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91. La Cour européenne des droits de l’homme (CEDH) s’est elle auvssi
prononcée dans le même sens sur cette question. Ainsi, dans l’avrrêt
(Grande Chambre) du 12 novembre 2008 qu’elle a rendu en l’affaire
Demir et Baykara c. Turquie, elle a constaté, en ce qui concerne l’interdic -
tion de la torture, « l’existence d’une norme impérative de droit interna -

tional ou jus cogens », et ajouté que cette constatation était « incorporée à
sa jurisprudence dans ce domaine» (par. 73). Dans un contexte plus large,
celui de l’interdiction des traitements inhumains et dégradants (vqui com -
prend la souffrance psychique), le raisonnement exposé par la CEDH
dans son arrêt du 2 mars 2010 en l’affaire Al-Saadoon et Mufdhi c.

Royaume-Uni permet de conclure à la reconnaissance d’une hiérarchie
normative en droit international, qui confère la primauté aux normves pré -
servant la dignité de la personne humaine.
92. L’évolution susmentionnée, qui a conduit à l’interdiction absolue

(jus cogens) de la torture, s’est produite en même temps que la prise de
conscience de l’horreur et du caractère inhumain de la pratique dev la tor -
ture. Les dépositions des victimes, telles qu’elles ont notamment été pré -
sentées devant les instances internationales contemporaines en matière de
droits de l’homme, sont là pour en témoigner. Par le passé, vcertains

témoignages avaient déjà joué le même rôle. L’un d’ventre eux — particu -
lièrement fort — nous est livré par Jean Améry, lui-même victime de tor -
ture. Selon ses propres termes,

«la torture est l’événement le plus effroyable qu’un homme vpuisse
garder au fond de soi… Celui qui a été torturé reste un tortvuré. La
torture est marquée dans sa chair au fer rouge, même lorsque aucunve

trace cliniquement objective n’y est plus repérable. [C]elui qui vvient
de réchapper de la torture et dont la douleur se calme … se sent
gagné par une sorte de paix éphémère, propice à la réflvexion… Si ce
qui reste de l’expérience de la torture ne peut jamais être autvre chose
qu’une impression de cauchemar, alors c’est un immense étonne -

ment, et c’est aussi le sentiment d’être devenu étranger au vmonde,
état profond qu’aucune forme de communication ultérieure avec lves
hommes ne pourra compenser… Celui qui a été soumis à la tortvure
est désormais incapable de se sentir chez soi dans le monde. L’ou -

trage de l’anéantissement est indélébile. La confiance danvs le monde
qu’ébranle déjà le premier coup reçu et que la torture fivnit d’éteindre
complètement est irrécupérable… Celui qui a été martyrvisé est livré
sans défense à l’angoisse. C’est elle qui dorénavant le mvènera à la
baguette de son sceptre. Elle — mais aussi ce qu’on appelle les res -
72
sentiments. Car ils demeurent. »
93. Le présent arrêt rendu par la Cour en l’affaire relative àv des Ques-

tions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader apporte une contr-i

72Jean Améry, Par-delà le crime et le châtiment, Arles, Babel/Actes Sud, 2005 (rééd.),
p. 61, 83-84, 92 et 94-96. Voir également Jean Améry, At the Mind´s Limits, Bloomington,

Indiana University Press, 1980 (rééd.), p. 22, 34 et 38-40.

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to the consolidation of the international legal regime against torture. To

this effect, the Court significantly states that
“In the Court’s opinion, the prohibition of torture is part of cus -

tomary international law and it has become a peremptory norm (jus
cogens).
That prohibition is grounded in a widespread international prac -
tice and on the opinio juris of States. It appears in numerous inter -

national instruments of universal application (in particular the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, the 1949 Geneva
Conventions for the protection of war victims, the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 1966, General Assembly res -
olution 3452/30 of 9 December 1975 on the Protection of All Persons

from Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment), and it has been introduced
into the domestic law of almost all States ; finally, acts of torture
are regularly denounced within national and international fora.”

(Judgment, para. 99.)
94. One of the features of the present-day international legal regime

against torture is the establishment of a mechanism of continuous moni -
toring of a preventive character. This is illustrated by the 2002 Optional
Protocol of the 1984 UN Convention against Torture, as well as the pre -
ventive inspections under the 1987 European Convention for the Preven-
tion of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment

(Art. 2). In this regard, I deemed it fit to point out, in my concurring
opinion in the case of Maritza Urrutia v. Guatemala (IACtHR,
judgment of 27 November 2003), that such development has

“put an end to one of the remaining strongholds of State sovereignty,v
in permitting scrutiny of the sancta sanctorum of the State — its

prisons and detention establishments, police stations, military
prisons, detention centers for foreigners, psychiatric institutions,
among others, — of its administrative practices and legislative
measures, to determine their compatibility or not with the internatio-
nal standards of human rights. This has been achieved in the name

of superior common values, consubstantiated in the prevalence of
the fundamental rights inherent to the human person.” (Para. 11.)

2. Fundamental Human Values Underlying
that Prohibition

95. Human conscience has awoken to the pressing need for decisively
putting an end to the scourges of arbitrary detention and torture. The

general principles of the law, and the fundamental human values underly -

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bution décisive à la consolidation du régime juridique internatvional de
lutte contre la torture. A cet égard, la Cour affirme avec force ce vqui suit:

«Selon la Cour, l’interdiction de la torture relève du droit inter-
national coutumier et elle a acquis le caractère de norme impérativve

(jus cogens).
Cette interdiction repose sur une pratique internationale élargie et
sur l’opinio juris des Etats. Elle figure dans de nombreux instruments
internationaux à vocation universelle (notamment la Déclaration uvni-
verselle des droits de l’homme de 1948 ; les conventions de Genève

pour la protection des victimes de guerre de 1949 ; le Pacte inter-
national relatif aux droits civils et politiques de 1966 ; la résolu -
tion 3452/30 de l’Assemblée générale sur la protection de toutes vles
personnes contre la torture et autres peines ou traitements cruels,

inhumains ou dégradants, en date du 9 décembre 1975), et elle a été
introduite dans le droit interne de la quasi-totalité des Etats ; enfin,
les actes de torture sont dénoncés régulièrement au sein desv instances
nationales et internationales. » (Arrêt, par. 99.)

94. L’une des caractéristiques de l’actuel régime juridique intevrnational
de lutte contre la torture est l’établissement d’un mécanismve permanent
de surveillance de type préventif. Celui-ci trouve son expression dans le

protocole facultatif de 2002 à la convention des Nations Unies contre la
torture de 1984, ainsi que dans les inspections préventives menéesv en
application de la convention européenne de 1987 pour la prévention de la
torture et des peines ou traitements inhumains ou dégradants (art. 2). A
cet égard, j’ai jugé utile, dans mon opinion individuelle en l’affaire

Maritza Urrutia c. Guatemala (CIADH, arrêt du 27 novembre 2003), de
préciser que cette évolution avait

«éliminé l’un des derniers bastions de la souveraineté étavtique, en
permettant la surveillance des sanctuaires de l’Etat — notamment ses
prisons et établissements pénitentiaires, postes de police, prisonvs
militaires, centres de rétention pour étrangers et institutions psychia -
triques —, ainsi que de ses pratiques administratives et mesures légis-

latives, aux fins d’apprécier leur compatibilité avec les norvmes
internationales en matière de droits de l’homme. Ce progrès a évté
réalisé au nom de valeurs communes supérieures, qui coexistent vdans
la prévalence des droits fondamentaux inhérents à la personne
humaine.» (Par. 11.)

2. Les valeurs humaines fondamentales qui sous-tendent
ladite interdiction

95. La conscience humaine s’est éveillée à l’impérieuse névcessité de mettre

définitivement fin aux fléaux que sont la détention arbitvraire et la torture.
Les principes généraux du droit, ainsi que les valeurs humaines fondamen -

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6 CIJ1033.indb 207 28/11/13 12:50 524 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

ing them, play a quite significant and crucial role here. Such fundamevntal
values have counted on judicial recognition in our times. Thus, the ECHR,
for example, asserted, in the Soering v. United Kingdom case (judgment
of 7 July 1989), that the absolute prohibition of torture (even in times of

war and other national emergencies) expresses one of the “fundamentavl
values of [contemporary] democratic societies” (para. 88). Subsequently,
in the Kalashnikov v. Russia case (judgment of 15 July 2002), the ECHR
stated that Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights

“enshrines one of the most fundamental values of democratic society.
It prohibits in absolute terms torture or inhuman or degrading treat -

ment or punishment, irrespective of the circumstances and the vic -
tim’s behaviour.” (Para. 95.)

96. In the Selmouni v. France case (judgment of 28 July 1999), the
ECHR categorically reiterated that Article 3 of the European Convention

“enshrines one of the most fundamental values of democratic societiesv.
Even in the most difficult circumstances, such as the fight against tver -
rorism and organized crime, the Convention prohibits in absolute terms
torture and inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Unlike

most of the substantive clauses of the Convention and of Protocols
Nos. 1 and 4, Article 3 makes no provision for exceptions and no dero-
gation from it is permissible under Article 15 (2) even in the event of a
public emergency threatening the life of the nation (. . .).” (Para. 95.)

In that same judgment, the European Court expressed its understand -
ing that “the increasingly high standard being required in the area ovf the

protection of human rights and fundamental liberties correspondingly
and inevitably requires greater firmness in assessing breaches of the vfun -
damental values of democratic societies” (para. 101) 7.
97. Like the ECHR, the IACtHR also singled out the fundamental

human values underlying the absolute prohibition of torture. Thus, in thve
case of Cantoral Benavides v. Peru (merits, judgment of 18 August 2000),
pondered that certain acts which were formerly classified as inhuman ovr
degrading treatment should from now on be classified distinctly, as tovr -

ture, given the “growing demands” for the protection of fundamentavl
human rights (para. 99). This, in the understanding of the IACtHR,
required a more vigorous response in facing “infractions to the basicv val -
ues of democratic societies” (para. 99). In the Cantoral Benavides case, the
IACtHR, with its reasoning, thus purported to address the consequences

of the absolute prohibition of torture.

73In the cas d’espèce, the ECHR found the respondent State responsible for the torture
inflicted on Selmouni (paras. 105-106). A similar line of reasoning can be found, e.g., in the
judgment (of 7 September 2004) of the IACtHR in the case of Tibi v. Ecuador (para. 143),
wherein it likewise found the respondent State responsible for the tortuvre inflicted on the
victim (para. 165).

106

6 CIJ1033.indb 208 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 524

tales qui les sous-tendent, jouent un rôle tout à fait crucial en vla matière. Ces
valeurs se sont récemment vu consacrer d’un point de vue juridique. Ainsi,
la CEDH a indiqué, dans l’affaire Soering c. Royaume-Uni (arrêt du 7 juil-

let 1989), que l’interdiction absolue de la torture (même en temps de guerre
et en cas d’autre danger national) consacrait l’une des «valeurs fondamen -
tales des sociétés démocratiques [contemporaines]» (par. 88). Par la suite,
dans l’affaire Kalachnikov c. Russie (arrêt du 15 juillet 2002), la CEDH a

déclaré que l’article 3 de la convention européenne des droits de l’homme
«consacr[ait] l’une des valeurs fondamentales des sociétés dévmocra -

tiques. Il prohibe en termes absolus la torture et les peines ou traite -
ments inhumains ou dégradants, quels que soient les circonstances
ou les agissements de la victime. » (Par. 95.)

96. Dans l’affaire Selmouni c. France (arrêt du 28 juillet 1999), la CEDH
a catégoriquement réaffirmé que l’article 3 de la convention européenne

«consacr[ait] l’une des valeurs fondamentales des sociétés dévmocra -
tiques. Même dans les circonstances les plus difficiles, telle la luvtte contre

le terrorisme et le crime organisé, la convention prohibe en termes avbso -
lus la torture et les peines ou traitements inhumains ou dégradants.
L’article 3 ne prévoit pas de restrictions, en quoi il contraste avec la
majorité des clauses normatives de la convention et des protocoles n os 1

et 4, et d’après l’article 15, paragraphe 2, il ne souffre nulle dérogation,
même en cas de danger public menaçant la vie de la nation.» (Par. 95.)

Dans ce même arrêt, la Cour européenne a dit estimer que « le niveau
d’exigence croissant en matière de protection des droits de l’hvomme et des
libertés fondamentales impliqu[ait], parallèlement et inéluctabvlement, une
plus grande fermeté dans l’appréciation des atteintes aux valeuvrs fonda -
73
mentales des sociétés démocratiques » (par. 101) .
97. A l’instar de la CEDH, la CIADH a elle aussi mis l’accent sur les v
valeurs humaines fondamentales qui sous-tendent l’interdiction absoluve
de la torture. Ainsi, dans l’affaire Cantoral Benavides c. Pérou (fond, arrêt

du 18 août 2000), elle a jugé que certains actes auparavant qualifiés de
traitement inhumain ou dégradant devaient dorénavant être qualivfiés
d’actes de torture à part entière, et ce, en raison des « exigences crois -
santes» en matière de protection des droits fondamentaux de la personne v

(par. 99). Selon la CIADH, cela exigeait une plus grande fermeté dans la
réponse apportée aux « atteintes aux valeurs fondamentales des sociétés
démocratiques» (par. 99). Dans ladite affaire, la CIADH a donc, par son
raisonnement, entendu s’attacher aux conséquences de l’interdicvtion

absolue de la torture.

73Dans cette affaire, la CEDH a jugé que l’Etat défendeur était responsable des
actes de torture infligés à Selmouni (par. 105-106). Un raisonnement semblable ressort,
par exemple, de l’arrêt du 7 septembre 2004 de la CIADH en l’affairTibi c. Equateur
(par. 143), dans lequel la Cour a, de la même manière, considéré vque l’Etat défendeur était
responsable des actes de torture infligés à la victime (par. 165).

106

6 CIJ1033.indb 209 28/11/13 12:50 525 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

98. In effect, the practice of torture, in all its perversion, is not limivted
to the physical injuries inflicted on the victim ; it seeks to annihilate the

victim’s identity and integrity. It causes chronic psychological distvur -
bances that continue indefinitely, making the victim unable to continuve
living normally as before. Expert opinions rendered before internationalv
tribunals consistently indicate that torture aggravates the victim’s vulner -

ability, causing nightmares, loss of trust in others, hypertension, and v
depression; a person tortured in prison or detention loses the spatial
dimension and even that of time itself 74.
99. As to the devastating consequences of the (prohibited) practice of

torture, and the irreparable damage caused by it, I pondered, in my sepav -
rate opinion in the case Tibi v. Ecuador (IACtHR, judgment of 7 Septem-
ber 2004), that

“[f]urthermore, the practice of torture (whether to obtain a confessvion
or information or to cause social fear) generates a disintegrating emo -

tional burden that is transmitted to the next of kin of the victim, who v
in turn project it toward the persons they live with. The widespread
practice of torture, even though it takes place within jails, ultimatelyv
contaminates all the social fabric. The practice of torture has sequels

not only for its victims, but also for broad sectors of the social milievu
affected by it. Torture generates psychosocial damage and, under cer -
tain circumstances, it can lead to actual social breakdown. (. . .)

The practice of torture is a hellish threat to civilization itself. One v
of the infallible criteria of civilization is precisely the treatment givven
by public authorities of any country to detainees or incarcerated per -
sons. F. M. Dostoyevsky warned about this in his aforementioned

Memoirs from the House of the Dead (1862) ; for him, the degree of
civilization attained by any social milieu can be assessed by entering
its jails and detention centers 7. Torture is an especially grave viola -
tion of human rights because, in its various forms, its ultimate objec -

tive is to annul the very identity and personality of the victim,
undermining his or her physical or mental resistance ; thus, it treats
the victim as a ‘mere means’ (in general to obtain a confession)v, fla -
grantly violating the basic principle of the dignity of the human per -

son (which expresses the Kantian concept of the human being as an
‘end in himself’), degrading him, in a perverse and cruel manner 76,
and causing him truly irreparable damage.” (Paras. 22 and 24.)

74
IACtHR, case Tibi v. Ecuador (judgment of 7 September 2004), separate opinion of
Jud75 Cançado Trindade, para. 21.
Cf. F. M. Dostoyevsky, Souvenirs de la maison des morts [1862], Paris, Gallimard,
1977 (reed.), pp. 35-416.
76J. L. de la Cuesta Arzamendi, El Delito de Tortura, Barcelona, Bosch, 1990, pp.27-28
and 70.

107

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98. De fait, la pratique de la torture, dans toute sa perversion, ne se limivte
pas aux blessures physiques infligées à la victime ; elle vise également à anni-

hiler l’identité et l’intégrité de celle-ci. Elle cause dves troubles psychologiques
chroniques irrémédiables, qui rendent la victime incapable de reprvendre une
vie normale. Tous les experts ayant déposé devant les tribunaux invter-
nationaux ont précisé que la torture aggravait la vulnérabilitév de la victime

en provoquant cauchemars, perte de confiance en autrui, hypertension evt
dépression; une personne ayant subi la torture en prison ou dans d’autres
lieux de détention perd le sens de l’espace, voire la notion du tevmps 7.
99. Au sujet des conséquences dévastatrices de la pratique (interdite)

de la torture, et du préjudice irréparable que celle-ci entraînve, j’ai indiqué,
dans mon opinion individuelle en l’affaire Tibi c. Equateur (CIADH, arrêt
du 7 septembre 2004), que,

«de surcroît, la pratique de la torture (que ce soit pour obtenir desv aveux
ou des renseignements ou pour susciter la phobie sociale) gén[éravit] une

charge émotionnelle destructrice, laquelle se transmet aux proches dev la
victime qui, à leur tour, la projettent sur les personnes avec lesquevlles ils
vivent. La pratique répandue de la torture, même si elle se dérvoule en
milieu carcéral, contamine, à terme, le tissu social dans son ensevmble.

Elle laisse des séquelles non seulement chez les victimes, mais marque
également des pans entiers du milieu social dans lequel elle s’estv dérou -
lée. La torture entraîne des dommages psycho-sociaux et, dans certvaines
circonstances, peut entraîner une véritable fracture sociale…

La pratique de la torture constitue une menace épouvantable pour
la civilisation elle-même. En ce sens, la manière dont les pouvoirvs
publics de tous les pays traitent les détenus ou les personnes incarcé -
rées est précisément l’un des critères infaillibles permevttant de mesurer

le degré de civilisation. Fedor Mikhaïlovitch Dostoïevski l’a d’ailleurs
souligné dans son ouvrage précité, Souvenirs de la maison des
morts (1862); selon lui, on peut juger du degré de civilisation de tout
milieu social en visitant ses prisons et centres de détention 75. La tor-

ture constitue une violation particulièrement grave des droits de
l’homme car, sous ses diverses formes, elle a pour objectif ultime d’van -
nuler l’identité et la personnalité mêmes de la victime, en vsapant sa
résistance physique ou mentale ; la victime est donc traitée comme

un «simple moyen» (d’obtenir des aveux, généralement), en violation
flagrante du principe fondamental de la dignité de la personne humavine
(qui exprime la notion kantienne de l’être humain comme une «fin en
76
soi»), dégradant cette personne de manière perverse et cruelle , et lui
causant un préjudice réellement irréparable.» (Par. 22 et 24.)

74
CIADH, affaire Tibi c. Equateur, arrêt du 7 septembre 2004, opinion individuelle du
jug75Cançado Trindade, par. 21.
Voir F. M. Dostoïevski, Souvenirs de la maison des morts [1862], Paris, Gallimard,
1977 (rééd.), p. 35-416.
76 J. L. de la Cuesta Arzamendi, El Delito de Tortura, Barcelone, Bosch, 1990, p. 27-28
et 70.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 211 28/11/13 12:50 526 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

100. For its part, the ICTY stated, in the aforementioned 1998 judg -
ment in the Furundžija case, that

“Clearly, the jus cogens nature of the prohibition against torture
articulates the notion that the prohibition has now become one of the

most fundamental standards of the international community. Further -
more, this prohibition is designed to produce a deterrent effect, in tvhat
it signals to all members of the international community and the indi -
viduals over whom they wield authority that the prohibition of torture

is an absolute value from which nobody must deviate.” (Para. 154.)

101. Another pertinent decision of the ICTY disclosing the close atten -
tion it dispensed to fundamental human values is its judgment
(Trial Chamber II, of 17 October 2002) in the Simić case, wherein, in
singling out the “substantial gravity” of torture, it pondered thavt

“[t]he right not to be subjected to torture is recognized in customary
and conventional international law and as a norm of jus cogens. It
cannot be tolerated. It is an absolute assault on the personal human
dignity, security and mental being of the victims. As noted in Krno -

jelac, torture ‘constitutes one of the most serious attacks upon a per -
son’s mental or physical integrity. The purpose and the seriousness ovf
the attack upon the victim sets torture apart from other forms of
mistreatment’.” (Para. 34.)

102. One decade ago, within the IACtHR, I upheld the view, which I

reiterate herein, that jus cogens is not a77losed juridical category, but
rather one that evolves and expands . An ineluctable consequence of the
assertion and the very existence of peremptory norms of international law
is their not being limited to the conventional norms, to the law of treavties,

and their encompassing every and any juridical act, and extending them -
selves to general international law. Jus cogens being, in my understand -
ing, an open category, it expands itself in response to the necessity tov
protect the rights inherent to each human being in every and any situa -

tion. The absolute prohibition of the practices of torture, of forced divs-
appearance of persons, and of summary and extra-legal executions, leads
us decidedly into the realm of the international jus cogens 7. It is in the
domain of international responsibility that jus cogens reveals its wide and

profound dimension, encompassing all juridical acts (including the uni-
lateral ones), and having an incidence — even beyond that — on the
very foundations of a truly universal international law 79.

77
IACtHR, advisory opinion No. 18 (of 17 September 2003), on the Juridical Condition
and Rights of Undocumented Migrants, concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade,
paras. 65-73.
78 Ibid., paras. 68-69.
79 Ibid., para. 70.

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100. Dans son jugement précité de 1998 en l’affaire Furundžija, le TPIY
a, quant à lui, affirmé ce qui suit :

«Clairement, la valeur de jus cogens de l’interdiction de la torture
rend compte de l’idée que celle-ci est désormais l’une des nvormes les

plus fondamentales de la communauté internationale. En outre, cette
interdiction doit avoir un effet de dissuasion en ce sens qu’elle rvap -
pelle à tous les membres de la communauté internationale et aux
individus sur lesquels ils ont autorité qu’il s’agit là d’vune valeur abso -

lue que nul ne peut transgresser. » (Par. 154.)

101. Le jugement rendu par le TPIY (Chambre de première ins -
tance II, 17 octobre 2002) dans l’affaire Simić constitue une autre décision
pertinente à cet égard, puisqu’il révèle l’attention particulière que le tribu -
nal a accordée aux valeurs humaines fondamentales. Soulignant le caravc-

tère «très grave» de la torture, celui-ci a ainsi précisé que

«[l]e droit de ne pas subir des tortures [était] reconnu par le droit inter -
national coutumier ou conventionnel, où il a valeur de jus cogens. La
torture ne peut être tolérée. Elle constitue une atteinte fondavmentale à
la dignité humaine, à la sécurité, et à l’intégritév mentale des victimes.

Comme il a été dit dans Krnojelac, la torture « constitue l’une des
atteintes les plus graves à l’intégrité physique ou mentale vd’une personne.
Le but et la gravité de l’atteinte portée à l’intégritvé de la personne dis -
tinguent la torture des autres formes de mauvais traitemen ».» (Par. 34.)

102. Dix ans auparavant, au sein de la CIADH, j’avais défendu la

position, que je réitère dans la présente opinion, selon laquelvle le jus cogens
constitue non pas une catégorie juridique fermée mais, au contraire, une
catégorie qui évolue et s’étend 77. De l’affirmation et de l’existence même
de normes impératives de droit international découle nécessairement que

celles-ci ne se limitent pas aux normes conventionnelles, au droit des tvrai -
tés, mais englobent tout acte juridique, quel qu’il soit, et s’vétendent au
droit international général. Le jus cogens constituant, à mon sens, une
catégorie ouverte, il ne cesse de croître en réponse à la névcessité de proté -

ger les droits inhérents à chaque être humain, et ce, en toute vsituation.
L’interdiction absolue des pratiques de torture ou de disparition forvcée de
personnes, ainsi que des exécutions sommaires ou extrajudiciaires, novus
fait résolument entrer dans le domaine du jus cogens 78international. C’est

sous l’angle de la responsabilité internationale que le jus cogens révèle sa
vaste et profonde dimension, qui englobe l’ensemble des actes juridiqvues
(y compris les actes unilatéraux) et, de surcroît, a une incidenvce sur les
fondements mêmes d’un droit international réellement universel 79.

77
o CIADH, Le statut juridique et les droits des migrants sans papiers, avis consultatif
n 18 du 17 septembre 2003, opinion individuelle du juge Cançado Trindade, par. 65-73.

78 Ibid., par. 68-69.
79 Ibid., par. 70.

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103. Jurisprudence of distinct international tribunals is, thus, perfectly
clear in stating the reaction of ratione materiae law, regarding absolute

prohibition of torture, in all its forms, under any and all circumstances, a
prohibition that, in our days, falls under international jus cogens, with all
its juridical consequences for the States responsible. In rightly doing vso, it
has remained attentive to the underlying fundamental human values that

have inspired and guided it. This is a development which cannot be over -
looked, and is to continue, in our days.

X. Obligations e rga o mnes P artes under
the UN Convention against Torvture

104. The CAT sets forth the absolute prohibition of torture, belonging
to the domain of jus cogens (supra). Obligations erga omnes partes ensue
therefrom. Significantly, this has been expressly acknowledged by the vtwo
contending Parties, Belgium and Senegal, in the proceedings before the

Court. They have done so in response to a question I put to them, in thev
public sitting of the Court of 8 April 2009, at the earlier stage of provi -
sional measures of protection in the cas d’espèce. The question I deemed
it fit to put to both of them was as follows :

“Dans ces audiences publiques il y a eu des références expressevs de

la part de deux délégations aux droits des Etats ainsi qu’aux dvroits
des individus. J’ai alors une question à poser aux deux Parties. Jve la
poserai en anglais pour maintenir l’équilibre linguistique de la Cvour.
La question est la suivante: For the purposes of a proper understand -

ing of the rights to be preserved (under Article 41 of the Statute of
the Court), are there rights corresponding to the obligations set forthv
in Article 7, paragraph 1, in combination with Article 5, paragraph 2,
of the 1984 United Nations Convention against Torture and, if so,

what are their legal nature, content and effects ? Who are the subjects
of those rights, States having nationals affected, or all States parties
to the aforementioned Convention? Whom are such rights opposable
to, only the States concerned in a concrete case, or any State party to
80
the aforementioned Convention ?” .

105. In response to my question, Belgium began by recalling the obli -
gation to prosecute or extradite, incumbent upon States parties to the
CAT, under Articles 5 (2) and 7 (1), and pointing out that “where there is
an obligation of one State to other States, those States have a correspovnd -
81
ing right to performance of that obligation” .

80CR 2009/11, of 8 April 2009, p. 25.
81Response of Belgium to the Question Put by Judge Cançado Trindade at the End
of the Public Sitting of 8 April 2009, doc. BS 2009/15, of 15 April 2009, p. 2, paras. 4-5.

109

6 CIJ1033.indb 214 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 527

103. Les différentes juridictions internationales ont donc très clairve -
ment précisé, par leurs décisions, l’évolution ratione materiae du droit en
ce qui concerne l’interdiction absolue de la torture, sous toutes sesv formes

et en toutes circonstances, interdiction qui, désormais, relève duv jus cogens
international, avec toutes les conséquences juridiques qui en découlent
pour les Etats responsables. En agissant ainsi, à juste titre, ces juvridictions
sont restées attentives aux valeurs humaines fondamentales sous-jacenvtes,

qui les ont inspirées et guidées. Il s’agit là d’une évolution qu’on ne sau -
rait ignorer, et qui est appelée à se poursuivre.

X. Les obligations erga omnes Partes au regard
de la convention des NatvionsUnies contre la tortuvre

104. La convention contre la torture consacre l’interdiction absolue de

cette pratique, interdiction qui relève du domaine du jus cogens (supra).
De cette interdiction découlent des obligations erga omnes partes. Chose
notable, les deux Parties — la Belgique et le Sénégal — l’ont expressé -
ment reconnu devant la Cour. Elles l’ont fait en réponse à une vquestion

que je leur ai posée lors de l’audience publique du 8 avril 2009, au stade
de l’examen des mesures conservatoires en l’espèce. La questionv que j’ai
jugé utile de poser aux deux Parties était la suivante :

«Dans ces audiences publiques, il y a eu des références expresses
de la part de deux délégations aux droits des Etats ainsi qu’aux droits
des individus. J’ai alors une question à poser aux deux Parties. Jve la

poserai en anglais pour maintenir l’équilibre linguistique de la Cvour.
La question est la suivante : Afin de mieux cerner les droits qui
doivent être préservés (aux termes de l’article 41 du Statut), y a-t-il
des droits qui correspondent aux obligations énoncées à l’arvticle 7,

paragraphe 1, lu conjointement avec l’article 5, paragraphe 2, de la
convention des Nations Unies contre la torture de 1984 et, si tel est
le cas, quels sont leur nature juridique, leur contenu et leurs effets ?
Quels sont les titulaires de ces droits — les Etats dont les nationaux

sont concernés, ou tous les Etats parties à la convention précivtée? A
qui ces droits sont-ils opposables — seulement aux Etats concernés
par une affaire concrète, ou à tout Etat partie à la conventivon?» 80

105. En réponse à ma question, la Belgique a commencé par rappeler
l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader, qui incombe aux Etats parties à
la convention contre la torture, en application des articles 5, paragraphe 2,

et 7, paragraphe 1, dudit instrument, soulignant qu’« à l’obligation d’un
Etat envers d’autres Etats correspond[ait] le droit de ces Etats au rvespect
de cette obligation » 81.

80CR 2009/11, 8 avril 2009, p. 25.
81Réponse de la Belgique à la question posée par M. le juge Cançado Trindade au
terme de l’audience du 8 avril 2009, BS 2009/15, 15 avril 2009, p. 2, par. 4-5.

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The obligation set out in Articles 5 (2) and 7 (1) “gives rise to a cor -
relative right” (of States parties) to secure compliance with it 8. This
right, Belgium proceeded, has a “conventional character”, being fovunded
83
on a treaty, and “[t]he rule pacta sunt servanda applies in this respect” .

106. Thus, it went on, all States parties to the CAT are entitled to seek

ensuring compliance with the conventional obligations, in accordance
with the rule pacta sunt servanda, undertaken by each State party in rela -
tion to all other States parties to the CAT 8. Belgium then added :

“In the case Goiburú et al. v. Paraguay [2006], the Inter-American

Court of Human Rights observed that all the States parties to the
American Convention on Human Rights should collaborate in
good faith in the obligation to extradite or prosecute the perpetrators

of crimes relating to human rights ; it is interesting to note that,
in order to illustrate this obligation, the Court refers to the 1984
Convention (. . .) :

‘The Court therefore deems it pertinent to declare that the
States parties to the Convention should collaborate with each

other to eliminate the impunity of the violations committed in this
case, by the prosecution and, if applicable, the punishment of
those responsible. Furthermore, based on these principles, a State

cannot grant direct or indirect protection to those accused of
crimes against human rights by the undue application of legal
mechanisms that jeopardize the pertinent international obliga -

tions. Consequently, the mechanisms of collective guarantee
established in the American Convention, together with the regio -
nal and universal international obligations on this issue, bind the

States of the region to collaborate in good faith in this respect,
either by conceding extradition or prosecuting those responsible
for the facts of this case on their territory.’ ” 85

In sum — as Belgium put it — the rights set forth in the 1984 UN
Convention against Torture “are therefore opposable to all the States
86
parties to that Convention” .

82Response of Belgium to the Question Put by Judge Cançado Trindade at vthe End of
the Public Sitting of 8 April 2009, doc. BS 2009/15, of 15 April 2009, p. 2, para. 7.
83
84Ibid., p. 3, para. 8.
85Ibid., para. 11.
Inter-American Court of Human Rights, judgment of 22 September 2006, para. 132,
and in particular note 87, which provides a full list of the relevant universal instruments,
including the 1984 Convention ; cf. also the separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade,
paras. 67-68.
86Response of Belgium to the Question…, op. cit. supra note 81, p. 5, para. 14.

110

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L’obligation énoncée aux articles 5, paragraphe 2, et 7, paragraphe 1,
«engendre un droit corrélatif » (des Etats parties) d’en garantir le res -
pect . Ce droit, a poursuivi la Belgique, revêt un « caractère convention-

nel», puisqu83l est fondé sur un traité, et « [l]a règle pacta sunt servanda s’y
applique » .
106. Dès lors, selon la Belgique, tous les Etats parties à la conventiovn

contre la torture sont fondés à veiller au respect des obligations conven -
tionnelles — conformément à la règle pacta sunt servanda —, auxquelles
chacun d’entre eux s’est engagé à satisfaire, à l’évgard de tous les autres 8.
Et la Belgique d’ajouter :

« Dans l’affaire Goiburú et autres c. Paraguay [2006], la Cour

interaméricaine des droits de l’homme a observé que tous les Etvats
parties à la convention américaine des droits de l’homme devraivent
collaborer de bonne foi à l’obligation d’extrader ou de poursuivvre les

auteurs de crimes portant sur les droits de l’homme ; il est intéressant
de constater que, pour illustrer cette obligation, la Cour se réfère à la
convention de 1984 :

«Par conséquent, la Cour juge utile de préciser que les Etats
parties devraient collaborer pour mettre fin à l’impunité en ce qui

concerne les violations commises en l’espèce, en poursuivant et, lve
cas échéant, en punissant les responsables. Partant de ce principev,
un Etat ne saurait protéger, directement ou indirectement, des

personnes accusées de violations des droits de l’homme en appli -
quant de manière indue des mécanismes juridiques qui vont à l’ven -
contre des obligations internationales pertinentes. Les mécanismes

de garantie collective établis par la convention américaine,
conjointement avec les obligations internationales régionales et
universelles en la matière, imposent donc aux Etats de la région dve

collaborer de bonne foi, soit en acceptant d’extrader, soit en pour -
suivant sur leur territoire les auteurs des faits mis en cause dans la
présente affaire. » » 85

En somme — comme la Belgique l’a affirmé —, les droits énoncés dans la
convention des Nations Unies contre la torture de 1984 « sont donc oppo -
86
sables à tous les Etats parties à cette convention » .

82Réponse de la Belgique à la question posée par M. le juge Cançvado Trindade au

ter83 de l’audience du 8 avril 2009, BS 2009/15, 15 avril 2009, p. 2, par. 7.
84Ibid., p. 3, par. 8.
Ibid., par. 11.
85Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme, arrêt du 22 septembre 2006, par. 132, et
en particulier la note n 87, dans laquelle figure une liste exhaustive des instruments univer-
sels pertinents, y compris la convention de 1984 ; voir également l’opinion individuelle du
juge Cançado Trindade, par. 67-68.
86Réponse de la Belgique à la question…, op. cit. supra note 81, p. 5, par. 14.

110

6 CIJ1033.indb 217 28/11/13 12:50 529 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

107. For its part, Senegal began its response to my question by like -
wise recalling the obligation to prosecute or extradite under Articles 5 (2)
and 7 (1) of the CAT 87, and added :

“The nature of the international obligation to prohibit torture has
undergone a major change. From being a conventional obligation of
relative effect, it has had an erga omnes effect attributed to it.” 88

Senegal then expressly acknowledged “the existence of indivisible oblvi-

gations erga omnes”, as restated by the ICJ on a number of occasions
from 1970 onwards 89. Next, Senegal reckoned that States parties to the
CAT have “the right to secure compliance with the obligation” set vforth
90
in Articles 5 (2) and 7 (1) .

108. From the responses given by Belgium and Senegal to my ques -

tion, it is clear that they both share a proper understanding of the nature
of the obligations incumbent upon them under the CAT. Such obliga -
tions grow in importance in face of the gravity of breaches (infra) of the

absolute prohibition of torture. They conform the collective guarantee of
the rights protected thereunder. If those breaches are followed by the pver -
petrators’ impunity, this latter, instead of covering them up, adds further

gravity to the wrongful situation : to the original breaches (the acts of
torture), the subsequent victims’ lack of access to justice (denialv of justice)
constitutes an additional violation of the protected rights. For years,

within the IACtHR, I insisted on the jurisprudential construction of thev
material expansion of jus cogens and the corresponding obligations erga
omnes of protection, in their two dimensions, the horizontal (vis-à-vis tvhe

international community as a whole) as well as the vertical (projectiovn
into the domestic law regulation of relations mainly between the individvu -
als and the public power of the State) ; I now reiterate my position in the
present case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute

or Extradite, decided today by the ICJ.

87
Response of Senegal to the Question Put by Judge Cançado Trindade at
the End of the Public Sitting of 8 April 2009, doc. BS2009/16, of 15 April 2009, p. 1,
para. 1.
88Ibid., p. 1, para. 2.
89Ibid., p. 2, paras. 3-4.
90Ibid., paras. 5-6.
91Cf., in this sense, IACtHR, case La Cantuta v. Peru (judgment of 29 November
2006), separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, paras. 51 and 60.v

111

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107. Le Sénégal, quant à lui, a commencé par répondre à ma vques -

tion en rappelant, à son tour, l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’vextrader,
en application des articles 5, paragraphe 2, et 7, paragraphe 1, de la
convention contre la torture 8, et a ajouté ce qui suit :

« La nature de l’obligation internationale d’interdiction de la tor -
ture a connu une mutation importante. D’une nature convention -

nelle à effet relatif, l’obligation s’est vu attacher un effvet erga
omnes. » 88

Le Sénégal a ensuite expressément reconnu « [l’]existence d’obli-
gations indivisibles erga omnes », ainsi que la Cour l’a réaffirmé à
maintes reprises depuis 1970 89, reconnaissant en outre que les Etats

parties à la convention contre la torture disposaient du « droit de faire
respecter l’obligation » énoncée aux articles 5, paragraphe 2, et 7,
para graphe1 9.

108. Au vu des réponses que la Belgique et le Sénégal ont apportéves
à ma question, il apparaît clairement que les deux Etats comprennevnt
fort bien la nature des obligations qui leur incombent au titre de la

convention contre la torture. L’importance de ces obligations s’acvcroît
en fonction de la gravité des violations de l’interdiction absolue de la
torture (voir infra). Ce sont ces obligations qui forment la garantie col -
lective des droits protégés par ladite convention. Si les auteurs de man -

quements à ces obligations demeurent impunis, cette impunité non
seulement ne couvre pas lesdits manquements, mais accroît la gravitév de
la situation illicite : le défaut d’accès des victimes à la justice (déni de

justice) qui résulte de pareille impunité constitue une violationv supplé -
mentaire des droits protégés, laquelle vient s’ajouter aux violvations ini -
tiales (les actes de torture). Pendant des années, au sein de la CIvADH,
j’ai ainsi insisté sur la concrétisation jurisprudentielle du dvéveloppement

matériel du jus cogens et des obligations erga omnes de protection cor -
respondantes, et ce, dans leurs deux dimensions, horizontale (vis-à-vis
de la communauté internationale dans son ensemble) et verticale (pavr

transposition dans le droit interne régissant pour91’essentiel lesv relations
entre les individus et les pouvoirs publics) . La présente affaire relative
à des Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader, en
laquelle la Cour s’est prononcée, est pour moi l’occasion de révaffirmer

ma position.

87 Réponse du Sénégal à la question posée par M. le juge Cançado Trindade au terme
de l’audience du 8 avril 2009, BS 2009/16, 15 avril 2009, p. 1, par. 1.

88 Ibid., p. 1, par. 2.
89 Ibid., p. 2, par. 3-4.
90 Ibid., par. 5-6.
91
Voir en ce sens CIADH, La Cantuta c. Pérou, arrêt du 29 novembre 2006, opinion
individuelle du juge Cançado Trindade, par. 51 et 60.

111

6 CIJ1033.indb 219 28/11/13 12:50 530 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

XI. The Gravity of the Humanv Rights Violations
and the Compelling Strugvgle against Impunity

1. Human Cruelty at the Threshold of Gravity

109. In effect, in addition to its horizontal expansion, jus cogens also
projects itself on a vertical dimension, i.e., that of the interaction bvetween

the international and national legal systems in the current domain of prvo -
tection (supra). The effect of jus cogens, on this second (vertical) dimen -
sion, is to invalidate any and all legislative, administrative or judicival
measures that, under the States’ domestic law, attempt to authorize ovr
92
tolerate torture . The absolute prohibition of torture, as a reaction of
ratione materiae law as here envisaged, in both the horizontal and the
vertical dimensions, has implications regarding the longstanding struggle
against impunity and the award of reparations due to the victims.

110. As to the first (horizontal) dimension, in my understanding, the
“intérêt pour agir” of States parties to the CAT grows in importance, in

the light of the gravity of the breaches under that Convention. It wouldv
be a mistake to attempt to “bilateralize” contentious matters undevr the
CAT (like in traditional inter-State disputes), which propounds a distinct
outlook of initiatives thereunder, to prevent torture and to struggle

against it. Even in a wider horizon, this trend was already discernible vin
the years following the adoption of the CAT in 1984.

111. Thus, in 1988, the Senegalese jurist Kéba Mbaye, in his thematic
course at the Hague Academy of International Law, rightly observed that
a State’s “intérêt pour agir” goes beyond a simple interest, in that it is a
concept of procedural law. And, in the present stage of evolution of intver -

national law, it is widely reckoned that States can exercise their “intérêt
pour agir” not only in pursuance of their own interests, but also of com -
mon and superior values, and, under some UN Conventions, in pursu -
ance of shared fundamental values by means of an “objective control”v . 93

This is what I refer to as the collective guarantee of human rights treaties,
by the States parties themselves. This is notably the case of the UN Con -
vention against Torture ; the “intérêt pour agir” thereunder is fully justi -
fied given the gravity of the breaches at issue, acts of torture in all its

forms.

92
Cf. E. de Wet, “The Prohibition of Torture as an International Norm of Jus Cogens
and Its Implications for National and Customary Law”, 15 European Journal of Interna -
tional Law (2004), pp. 98-99.
93Kéba Mbaye, “L’intérêt pour agir devant la Cour internationale dev Justice”, 209
Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (1988), pp. 257 and 271.

112

6 CIJ1033.indb 220 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 530

XI. La gravité des violatiovns des droits de l’hommve
et la nécessité impérvieuse de lutter contrve l’impunité

1. La cruauté humaine à l’aune du critère de gravité

109. De fait, outre son développement horizontal, le jus cogens se déve-
loppe aussi de manière verticale, et ce, par l’interaction entre les systèmes
juridiques internationaux et nationaux dans le domaine de protection des

droits en cause (supra). Vu sous ce second angle (vertical), le jus cogens a
pour effet d’invalider toute mesure législative, administrative vou judiciaire
tendant à autoriser ou à tolérer la torture sur le plan de l’vordre juridique
interne des Etats 92. L’interdiction absolue de la torture, en tant que réac -

tion de droit ratione materiae telle que considérée dans la présente opi -
nion, entraîne, dans ses dimensions tant horizontale que verticale, dves
conséquences du point de vue de la lutte menée de longue date contvre
l’impunité et de l’octroi des réparations dues aux victimes.v

110. S’agissant de la première dimension (horizontale), je suis d’vavis
que l’« intérêt pour agir » des Etats parties à la convention contre la tor -
ture s’accroît en fonction de la gravité des violations de ladivte convention.
Ce serait une erreur que de chercher à « bilatéraliser» des questions liti -

gieuses au regard de la convention contre la torture (en les réduisavnt à des
différends interétatiques traditionnels), puisque cet instrumenvt offre la
possibilité de prendre des initiatives obéissant à une logique vdifférente afin
de prévenir et de combattre la torture. D’une manière plus gévnérale, cette

tendance était d’ailleurs déjà perceptible dans les années qui ont suivi
l’adoption de la convention contre la torture en 1984.
111. Ainsi, en 1988, le juriste sénégalais Kéba Mbaye a, dans le cadre du
cours thématique qu’il a dispensé à l’Académie de droivt international de

La Haye, fait observer à juste titre que l’«intérêt pour agir» d’un Etat allait
au-delà d’un simple intérêt en ce qu’il s’agissait d’vune notion de droit pro -
cédural. De plus, au stade actuel de l’évolution du droit intervnational, il est
généralement admis que les Etats peuvent exercer leur « intérêt pour agir»

non seulement en poursuivant leurs propres intérêts, mais égalevment au
nom de valeurs communes et supérieures et, dans le cadre de certainesv
conventions des Nations Unies, dans le dessein de sauvegarder certaines
valeurs fondamentales communes au moyen d’un « contrôle objectif» 93.

C’est ce que je qualifie de garantie collective des traités relatifs aux droits de
l’homme assurée par les Etats parties eux-mêmes. Tel est notammvent le cas
de la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture; l’«intérêt pour agir»
au regard de cet instrument est totalement justifié, compte tenu de la gravité

des violations en cause, c’est-à-dire des actes de torture de toutve nature.

92 Voir E. de Wet, «The Prohibition of Torture as an International Norm of Jus Cogens
and Its Implications for National and Customary Law »,European Journal of International
Law, vol. 15 (2004), p. 98-99.
93 Kéba Mbaye, «L’intérêt pour agir devant la Cour internationale de Justice »,Recueil
des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, vol. 209 (1988), p. 257 et 271.

112

6 CIJ1033.indb 221 28/11/13 12:50 531 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

112. The cruelty of the systematic practice of torture cannot possibly be
forgotten, neither by the victims and their next-of-kin, nor by their social
milieu at large. In this connection, I have already reviewed the findivngs of the
94
1992 Report of the Chadian Commission of Inquiry . The Truth Commis-
sion’s Report gives a sinister account of the methods of torture utilized du-r
ing the Habré regime, with illustrations , in addition to pictures of the mass
96
graves . The findings of the Chadian Truth Commission have been cor -
roborated by humanitarian fact-finding by non-governmental organizations
(NGOs). Although the Association des victimes de crimes et répressions poli -
tiques au Tchad (AVCRP) was established in N’djamena on 12 December

1991, the files of the archives of the “political police” (the vDDS) of the Habré
regime were reported to have been discovered in N’Djamena only one devcade
later, in May 2001, by Human Rights Watch (HRW) 97.

113. In another report, of the same year 2001, Amnesty International
stated that, in addition to the information contained in the Chadian
Truth Commission’s Report (supra), most of the information in its own

possession came from accounts of surviving victims of torture themselvesv,
or from other detainees. According to such sources, the Chadian Govern -
ment of Hissène Habré

“applied a deliberate policy of terror in order to discourage opposi -

tion of any kind. Actual and suspected opponents and their families
were victims of serious violations of their rights. Civilian populationsv
were the victims of extrajudicial executions, committed in retaliation

for armed opposition groups’ actions on the basis of purely ethnic or
geographical criteria. Thousands of people suspected of not support -
ing the Government were arrested and held in secret by the DDS.

Thousands of people died on DDS premises — killed by torture, by
the inhuman conditions in which they were detained or by a lack of
food or medical care.” 98

114. The 2001 report by Amnesty International proceeded that, during

the Hissène Habré regime in Chad,

“the practice of torture was, by all accounts, an ‘institutional pvractice’
used to extract confessions, to punish or to instil fear. (. . .) According
to survivors, Hissein Habré personally gave the order for certain

94 Cf. Section II, supra.
95 Cf. Chadian Ministry of Justice, “Les crimes et détournements de l’vex-président
Habré et de ses complices — Rapport de la Commission d’enquête nationale. . .”, op. cit.

sup96, note 5, pp. 111-123, 137-146 and 148-149.
97Cf. ibid., pp. 150-154.
Cf. UNHCR, “African Union: Press Senegal on Habré Trial”, www.unhcr.org/news,
of 28 January 2009, p. 1; HRW, Chad: The Victims of Hissène Habré Still Awaiting Justice,
Vol. 17, July 2005, No. 10 (A), p. 5; and cf. S. Guengueng, Prisonnier de Hissène Habré. . .,
op. cit. infra note 101, pp. 135 and 153.
98 Amnesty International, [Report] The Habré Legacy, AI Index AFR-20/004/2001, of
October 2001, p. 10, and cf. p. 26.

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112. La cruauté de la pratique systématique de la torture ne peut tout
simplement être oubliée, ni par les victimes et leurs parents procvhes, ni par
leur milieu social au sens large. A cet égard, j’ai déjà pasvsé en revue les
94
conclusions du rapportde la commission d’enquête tchadienne de 1992 . Ce
rapport fait un funeste compte rendu des méthodes de torture utiliséves durant
le régime de Hissène Habré, assorti d’illustrations 95qui s’ajoutent aux images
96
des charniers . Les constatations de la commission tchadienne pour la vérité
ont été corroborées par les travaux d’établissement des fvaits effectués par
certaines organisations non gouvernementales (ONG). Bien que l’Associa -
tion des victimes de crimes et répressions politiques au Tchad (AVCRvP) ait

été créée à N’Djamena dès le 12 décembre 1991, les archives de la « police
politique» (la DDS) du régime Habré n’auraient été découvevrtes dans cette
ville que dix ans plus tard, en mai 2001, par Human Rights Watch (HRW) 9.

113. Dans un autre rapport, de la même année (2001), Amnesty Inter -
national a précisé que, outre les informations contenues dans le rapport
de la commission tchadienne pour la vérité (supra), la plupart des infor -

mations dont l’organisation disposait provenaient des récits des victimes
ayant survécu aux tortures elles-mêmes, ou d’autres détenus.v Selon ces
sources, le Gouvernement tchadien de Hissène Habré

«a appliqué une politique délibérée de terreur, afin de dévcourager

toute forme d’opposition. Des opposants, réels et soupçonnésv, et
leurs familles ont été victimes de graves violations de leurs droivts. Les
populations civiles ont été victimes d’exécutions extrajudicviaires,

commises en représailles contre des actions de groupes d’oppositiovn
armés, en fonction de critères purement ethniques ou géographiques.
Des milliers de personnes, soupçonnées de ne pas soutenir le gouver -

nement, furent arrêtées et détenues secrètement par la DDS. vDes
milliers de personnes sont mortes dans les locaux de celle-ci — tuées
par la torture, par des conditions inhumaines de détention ou par
98
manque de nourriture ou de soins médicaux. »
114. Ce rapport d’Amnesty International poursuit en indiquant que,

durant le régime Habré au Tchad,

«la pratique de la torture était de toute évidence une «pratique institu -
tionnelle» employée pour extorquer des aveux, ou encore pour punir ou
faire peur… Selon des survivants, HissènH e abré aurait personnellement

94 Voir section II supra.
95 Voir ministère tchadien de la justice, « Les crimes et détournements de l’ex-président
Habré et de ses complices — Rapport de la Commission d’enquêvte nationale… », op. cit.

sup96 note 5, p. 111-123, 137-146 et 148-149.
97Voir ibid., p. 150-154.
Voir UNHCR, « African Union : Press Senegal on Habré Trial », www.unhcr.org/
news, 28 janvier 2009, p.1 ; HRW, Chad : The Victims of Hissène Habré Still Awaiting
Justice, vol. 17, juillet 2005, n(A), p. 5 ; et voir S. Guengueng, Prisonnier de Hissène
Habré…, op. cit. infra note 101, p. 135 et 153.
98 Amnesty International, [Rapport] L’héritage Habré, AI Index AFR-20/004/2001,
octobre 2001, p. 10, et voir p. 26.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 223 28/11/13 12:50 532 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

people to be tortured. Other sources say that he was often present

during torture sessions. (. . .) Political prisoners were interrogated
as a rule by members of the security service at DDS headquarters in
N’Djamena. In some cases, they were interrogated and held at the

presidential palace after being tortured. (. . .)
According to survivors, some of the most common forms of torture
were electric shocks, near-asphyxia, cigarette burns and having gas
squirted into the eyes. Sometimes, the torturers would place the

exhaust pipe of a vehicle in their victim’s mouth, then start the engine.
Some detainees were placed in a room with decomposing bodies,
others suspended by their hands or feet, others bound hand and

foot. Two other common techniques consisted of gripping the victim’s v
head between two small sticks joined by cords, which were twisted
progressively (. . .). Some prisoners were subjected to particularly
brutal beatings during their interrogation. (. . .)” 99

115. In a subsequent report, of 2006, Amnesty International added
that many detainees were held at the prison of the Camp des Martyrs, not
far from the so-called “Piscine” (a former swimming pool that had been
covered over with concrete and divided into several cells below ground

level), wherein they were “subjected to torture”. A form of tortuvre that
became sadly well known as practised in the Habré regime in Chad was
the “arbatachar”, which consisted of “choking the prisoner by tying his
100
wrists to his ankles from behind” 101 , up to a point of stopping the blood
circulation and causing paralysis . Moreover, in the personal account of
a surviving victims — complainant before the UN Committee against
Torture —, very recently published in 2012,

“The DDS took pleasure in creating conditions that would provoke

epidemics and illnesses among the prisoners — such as malaria and
pulmonary oedemas — in order to dispatch large numbers of them
very quickly.
From what I saw in the two years and five months which I had to

spend in the four different DDS prisons, this political police force had
every means of saving the lives of those being held. Since their missionv
was to terrorize and exterminate the Chadian people, they thus did

all they could to dispose of the prisoners.
(. . .) Those in charge, like the DDS officers, showed no humanity
towards the detainees.” 102

99
100Op. cit. supra note 98, pp. 26-27.
Amnesty International, [Report] Chad: Voices of Habré’s Victims, AI Index
AFR-20/009/2006, of August 2006, p. 6.
101Cf. Chadian Ministry of Justice, “Les crimes et détournements de l’vex-président
Habré et de ses complices — Rapport de la Commission d’enquête nationale. . .”, op. cit.
supra, note 5, p. 42; S. Guengueng, Prisonnier de Hissène Habré — L’expérience d’un survi
vant des geôles tchadiennes et sa quête de justice, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2012, p. 121. [Trans -
lation by the Registry.]
102S. Guengueng, op. cit. supra note 101, pp. 79-80. [Translation by the Registry.]

114

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donné l’ordre de soumettre à la torture certaines personnes. D’vautres

sources affirment qu’il assistait parfois aux séances de torture…v Les pri -
sonniers politiques ont généralement été interrogés par dves membres du
service de sécurité au siège de la DDS, à N’Djamena. Dansv certains cas,

ils ont été interrogés et détenus à la Présidence aprèvs avoir été torturés…
D’après les témoignages des survivants, parmi les techniques levs
plus courantes on peut citer : décharges électriques, quasi-asphyxie,
brûlures de cigarette et jets de gaz dans les yeux. Parfois, les tortion -

naires plaçaient le tuyau d’échappement d’un véhicule danvs la bouche
de leur victime, puis mettai[en]t le moteur en marche. Certains déte -
nus furent enfermés au milieu de cadavres en décomposition, d’avutres

suspendus par les mains ou par les pieds, d’autres ligotés. Deux
autres techniques courantes consistaient à serrer la tête de la vivctime
entre deux petits bâtons reliés par des cordelettes, que l’on tordait
progressivement… Certains prisonniers ont été tabassés d’vune
99
manière particulièrement sauvage pendant leurs interrogatoires…v»

115. Dans un rapport ultérieur, datant de 2006, Amnesty International
a précisé que de nombreuses personnes étaient maintenues en dévtention
dans la prison du Camp des Martyrs, non loin de laP «iscine» (une ancienne
piscine qui avait été recouverte d’une chape de béton et divvisée en plusieurs

cellules en sous-sol), où elles étaient «soumises à la torture». Une forme de
torture pratiquée sous le régime Habré au Tchad — et devenue tristement
célèbre — était l’« arbatachar». Cette pratique consistait à « à étouffer le
100
prisonnier en lui attachant dans le dos les poignets aux c101ille»s , jusqu’à
stopper la circulation sanguine et causer la paralysie . En outre, d’après le
récit d’une victime survivante — plaignante devant le Comité des Nations
Unies contre la torture —, qui a été rendu public très récemment, en 2012,

«La DDS prenait plaisir à créer des situations pour rendre les pri -

sonniers malades ou pour provoquer l’épidémie comme la malaria,v
l’œdème pulmonaire, etc., afin de faire mourir très vite evt à la fois
beaucoup de prisonniers.
Selon mes constats, pendant les deux ans et cinq mois que j’ai eu àv

vivre dans les quatre différentes prisons de la DDS, cette police pvoli-
tique avait tous les moyens de sauver la vie aux détenus. Comme leur v
mission était de terroriser et d’exterminer le peuple tchadien, ils fai -

saient donc tout pour faire mourir les prisonniers.
… Les responsables tout comme les agents de la DDS n’éprou -
vaient aucun sentiment humanitaire vis-à-vis des détenus. » 102

99
100Op. cit. supra note 98, p. 26-27.
Amnesty International, [Rapport :] Tchad : les voix des victimes de Hissène Habré,
AI Index AFR-20/009/2006, août 2006, p. 6.
101Voir ministère tchadien de la justice, «Les crimes et détournements de l’ex-président
Habré et de ses complices — Rapport de la Commission d’enquête nationale… », op. cit.
supra, note 5, p. 42 ; S. Guengueng, Prisonnier de Hissène Habré— L’expérience d’un survi
vant des geôles tchadiennes et sa quête de justice, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2012, p. 121.

102S. Guengueng, op. cit. supra note 101, p. 79-80.

114

6 CIJ1033.indb 225 28/11/13 12:50 533 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

2. The Inadmissibility of Impunity of the Perpetrators

116. It is in no way surprising that the reparations due to victims in
cases of torture have revealed a dimension that is both individual and cvol -

lective or social. Impunity worsens the psychological suffering inflicted
both on the direct victim and on his or her next of kin and other persons
with whom he or she lived. Actually, it causes new psychosocial damage. v
Covering up what happened, or handling with indifference the conse -
quences of criminal acts, constitutes a new aggression against the victivm

and his or her next of kin, disqualifying their suffering. The practicve of
torture, aggravated by the impunity of the perpetrators, contaminates thve
whole social milieu wherein it took place.

117. As I deemed it fit to warn in the IACtHR, in my separate opinion
in the case of the “Street Children” (Villagrán Morales and Others v. Gua -
temala, reparations, judgment of 26 May 2001),

“Human suffering has a dimension which is both personal and
social. Thus, the damage caused to each human being, however

humble he might be, affects the community itself as a whole. As the
present case discloses, the victims are multiplied in the persons
of the surviving close relatives, who, furthermore, are forced to live
with the great pain inflicted by the silence, the indifference and tvhe

oblivion of the others.” (Para. 22.)
118. The realization of justice is, therefore, extremely important for the

rehabilitation of the victims of torture (as a form of reparation), sivnce it
attenuates their suffering, and that of their beloved ones, by recognivzing
what they have suffered. This is still an evolving matter, but the rigvht of
those victims to fair and adequate reparation is addressed today on the v

basis of recognition of the central role of the integrity of said victimvs, of
the human person. Realization of justice, with due reparations, helps to
reorganize human relations and restructure the psyche of victims. Reali-
zation of justice must take place from the standpoint of the integral

nature of the personality of the victims. Reparations at least mitigate vor
soothe the suffering of the victims, in conveying to them the sense of the
realization of justice.

119. Such reparations cannot be disrupted by undue invocations of
State sovereignty or State immunity, as I have pointed out in two recentv
cases adjudicated by this Court 103. Likewise, the struggle against
impunity for grave violations of human rights and of international

humanitarian law cannot be dismantled by undue invocations of State

103Case concerning Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy : Greece
intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), dissenting opinion of Judge Cançado Trin-
dade, pp. 179-290, paras. 1-316; case concerning Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea
v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), separate opinion
of Judge Cançado Trindade, pp. 347-384, paras. 1-101.

115

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2. Le caractère inadmissible de l’impunité des auteurs

116. Il n’y a rien d’étonnant à ce que les réparations dues aux victimes
dans des cas d’actes de torture revêtent une dimension tant indivivduelle
que collective ou sociale. L’impunité aggrave les souffrances psvycholo -

giques infligées à la victime directe ainsi qu’à ses parenvts proches et aux
autres personnes avec qui elle vivait, causant en réalité un nouvevau dom -
mage psycho-social. Couvrir les faits commis ou traiter avec indiffévrence
les conséquences d’actes criminels constitue une nouvelle agression à l’en -
contre de la victime et de ses parents proches en ce que pareille attituvde

constitue une négation de leurs souffrances. La pratique de la tortvure,
aggravée par l’impunité des auteurs des actes en question, contvamine le
milieu social au sein duquel elle s’est déroulée dans son ensemvble.
117. Ainsi que j’ai jugé utile de le préciser à la CIADH, dans movn opi -

nion individuelle en l’affaire des « Enfants des rues » (Villagrán Morales et
autres c. Guatemala, arrêt du 26 mai 2001 (réparations)),

«La souffrance humaine revêt une dimension tant personnelle que
sociale. Le dommage causé à chaque être humain, si faible soit-vil, a
ainsi une incidence sur la communauté elle-même, dans son ensemblev.
Comme cela ressort de la présente affaire, au nombre des victimes

elles-mêmes s’ajoute celui des parents proches des survivants, quiv, de
surcroît, sont contraints de vivre avec la douleur profonde infligéve
par le silence, l’indifférence et l’oubli des autres. » (Par. 22.)

118. La réalisation de la justice revêt, par conséquent, une importavnce
cruciale pour la réadaptation des victimes de torture (en tant que forme
de réparation), étant donné qu’elle atténue leurs souffvrances et celles de

leurs proches, en reconnaissant les épreuves qu’ils ont enduréevs. Bien qu’il
s’agisse d’un domaine en constante évolution, le droit des victimes d’ob -
tenir une réparation équitable et appropriée procède désormais de la
reconnaissance du rôle central de l’intégrité desdites victivmes, de l’inté -

grité de la personne humaine. La réalisation de la justice, assortvie de
justes réparations, contribue ainsi à réorganiser les relationsv humaines et
à restructurer le psychisme des victimes. Justice doit être faite ven prenant
en compte la personnalité des victimes dans son intégralité. Levs répara -
tions permettent à tout le moins d’atténuer ou d’apaiser les souffrances

des victimes, en leur donnant le sentiment que justice a été renduve.
119. Ainsi que je l’ai souligné dans deux affaires récentes en lesvquelles
la présente Cour a statué 10, pareilles réparations ne sauraient être com -
promises par des invocations indues de la souveraineté ou de l’immvunité

des Etats. De même, la lutte contre l’impunité, lorsque sont env cause de
graves violations des droits de l’homme et du droit international humvani -

103Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie ;Grèce (intervenant)), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), opinion dissidente de M. le juge Cançado Trindade, p. 179-290,
par. 1-316 ; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démocratique du
Congo), indemnisation, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), opinion individuelle de M. le juge
Cançado Trindade, p. 347-384, par. 1-101.

115

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sovereignty or State immunity. The hope has been expressed of advances

in this respect :

“(. . .) The idea of exemption from responsibility, under the cover
of sovereignty or immunity, is gradually on the decline, at least in
respect of a series of atrocities now classified as ‘international vcrimes’.
That is a source of great hope for every citizens’ and human rights
104
movement, for all those who have been forgotten.”

120. In the case Bulacio v. Argentina (judgment of 18 September 2003),
the IACtHR held as “inadmissible” any measure of domestic law intended
to hinder the investigation and sanction of those responsible for viola -
tions of human rights (para. 116), thus leading to impunity. In my sepa -

rate opinion in the case Bulacio, I pondered inter alia that

“Reparatio does not put an end to what occurred, to the violation
of human rights. The wrong was already committed 10; reparatio

avoids the aggravation of its consequences (by the indifference of thve
social milieu, by the impunity, by the oblivion). (. . .) Reparatio dis -
poses again, reestablishes order in the life of the surviving victims, bvut
it cannot eliminate the pain that is already ineluctably incorporated

into their daily existence. The loss is, from this angle, rigorously irrvep -
arable. (. . .) Reparatio is a reaction, in the realm of law, to human
cruelty, manifested in the most diverse forms: violence in dealing with

fellow human beings, the impunity of those responsible on the part
of the public power, the indifference and the oblivion of the social
milieu.

This reaction of the breached legal order (the substratum of which
is precisely the observance of human rights) is ultimately moved by
the spirit of human solidarity. This latter, in turn, teaches that the

oblivion is inadmissible, by the absence it implies of any solidarity
whatsoever of the living with their deceased. (. . .) Death has over
centuries been linked to what is supposed to be the revelation of des -
tiny, and it is especially in facing death that each person becomes
106
aware of his or her individuality . (. . .) The rejection of the indif -
ference and the oblivion, and the guarantee of non-repetition of the
violations, are manifestations of the links of solidarity between those v

victimized and potential victims, in the violent world, empty of values,v

104L. Joinet (ed.), Lutter contre l’impunité, Paris, Eds. La Découverte, 2002, p. 125.
[Translation by the Registry.]
105Human capacity to promote good and to commit evil has not ceased to
attract the attention of human thinking throughout the centuries ; cf.F. Alberoni,
Las Razones del Bien y del Mal, Mexico, Gedisa Edit., 1988, pp. 9-196 ;
A.-D. Sertillanges, Le problème du mal, Paris, Aubier, 1949, pp. 5-412.
106
Ph. Ariès, Morir en Occidente — Desde la Edad Media hasta Nuestros Días, Buenos
Aires, A. Hidalgo Ed., 2000, pp. 87, 165, 199, 213, 217, 239 and 251.

116

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taire, ne saurait être mise à bas par de telles invocations. A cet égard, des
espoirs d’avancées ont été exprimés :

«… Progressivement, l’idée d’irresponsabilité, sous couvervt de sou -

veraineté ou d’immunité, recule, tout au moins pour une série d’actes
atroces désormais qualifiés de «crimes internationaux». Cela constitue
une source d’espoir considérable pour tous les mouvements citoyensv et
de défense des droits humains, pour tous les oubliés de la Terre.» 104

120. Dans l’affaire Bulacio c. Argentine (arrêt du 18 septembre 2003),

la CIADH a jugé « inadmissible» toute mesure de droit interne visant à
entraver l’enquête et les sanctions à l’encontre des responsvables de viola -
tions des droits de l’homme (par. 116) et débouchant sur l’impunité. Dans
mon opinion individuelle en l’affaire Bulacio, j’ai notamment exposé ce

qui suit :

« La réparation(reparatio) ne met pas fin à ce qui s’est produit, à
la violation des droits de l’homme. Le mal a déjà été faivt 105; la répa-
ration évite l’aggravation des conséquences qui en découlent (en rvai-
son de l’indifférence du milieu social, de l’impunité, de vl’oubli)… La

réparation rétablit les choses, remet de l’ordre dans la vie des vic -
times qui ont survécu, mais ne peut supprimer la douleur qui fait
désormais inéluctablement partie intégrante de leur existence qvuoti -

dienne. Vu sous cet angle, le préjudice se révèle rigoureusemenvt irré-
parable… La réparation est une réaction, relevant du droit, à la
cruauté humaine qui se manifeste sous les formes les plus diverses :
violence dans les agissements envers autrui, impunité des respon -

sables du côté des pouvoirs publics, indifférence et oubli duv milieu
social.
Cette réaction de l’ordre juridique violé (dont le substrat esvt préci -
sément le respect des droits de l’homme) est, en définitive,v suscitée

par l’esprit de solidarité humaine. Celui-ci veut que l’oubli svoit inad -
missible en ce qu’il implique l’absence de toute solidarité entvre les
survivants et les morts… A travers les siècles, un lien a été établi

entre la mort et ce qui est supposé être la révélation du devstin indivi -
duel; c’est précisément face à la mort que chaque personne prendv
conscience de son individualité 106… Le rejet de l’indifférence et de
l’oubli ainsi que la garantie de non-répétition des violations vsont des

manifestations des liens de solidarité entre les personnes persécutées
et les victimes potentielles, au sein du monde violent, dépourvu de

104L. Joinet (dir. publ.), Lutter contre l’impunité, Paris, Ed. La Découverte, 2002,
p. 125.
105La capacité des hommes d’encourager le bien et de faire le mal n’a jamais cessé

d’être au cœur de la réflexion humaine au cours des siècles ; voir F. Alberoni, Las Razones
del Bien y del Mal, Mexico, Gedisa Edit., 1988, p. 9-196 ; A.-D. Sertillanges, Le problème
du 106, Paris, Aubier, 1949, p. 5-412.
Ph. Ariès, Morir en Occidente — Desde la Edad Media hasta Nuestros Días,
Buenos Aires, A. Hidalgo Ed., 2000, p. 87, 165, 199, 213, 217, 239 et 251.

116

6 CIJ1033.indb 229 28/11/13 12:50 535 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

wherein we live. It is, ultimately, an eloquent expression of the links
of solidarity that unite the living to their deceased 10. Or, more pre -

cisely, of the links of solidarity that unite the deceased to those who v
survive them (. . .)” (Bulacio, paras. 37-40.)

121. As to the present case before this Court concerning Questions
relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite, the facts speak for
themselves. As I deemed it fit to warn in my earlier dissenting opiniovn in

the Court’s Order of 28 May 2009 (not indicating provisional measures of
protection) in the cas d’espèce,

“The several years of impunity following the pattern of systematic
State-planified crimes, perpetrated— according to the Chadian Truth

Commission — by State agents in Chad in 1982-1990, render the
situation, in my view, endowed with the elements of gravity and
urgency (. . .). The passing of time with impunity renders the gravity

of the situation even greater, and stresses more forcefully the urgency
to make justice prevail.” (I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 187, para. 60.)

122. In the present Judgment on the merits in the case opposing Bel -
gium to Senegal, the Court recalls the ratio legis of the CAT. After recall-
ing the sixth preambular paragraph of the CAT 108, the Court states that

“The States parties to the Convention have a common interest to

ensure, in view of their shared values, that acts of torture are pre -
vented and that, if they occur, their authors do not enjoy impunity.
The obligations of a State party to conduct a preliminary inquiry into

the facts and to submit the case to its competent authorities for
prosecution are triggered by the presence of the alleged offender
in its territory, regardless of the nationality of the offender or thev
victims, or of the place where the alleged offences occurred. All

the other States parties have a common interest in compliance with
these obligations by the State in whose territory the alleged offender
is present.” (Judgment, para. 68.)

123. The Court here captures the rationale of the CAT, with thelatter’s

denationalization of protection, and assertion of the principle of
universal jurisdiction. Yet, in doing so, the Court does not resist the v

107 On these links of solidarity, cf. my separate opinions in the case Bámaca Velásquez
v. Guatemala (IACtHR, judgments on the merits, of 25 November 2000, and on repara -
tions, of 22 February 2002).
108
Which expresses the desire “to make more effective the struggle against torture (. . .)
throughout the world”. Article 2 (1) of the CAT adds that “[e]ach State party shall take
effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other measures to pvrevent acts of torture in
any territory under its jurisdiction”.

117

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valeurs, dans lequel nous vivons. Il s’agit, en dernière analyse, vd’une
expression claire des liens de solidarité qui unissent les vivants àv leurs
107
défunts , ou, plus précisément, des liens de solidarité qui unissent
les défunts à ceux qui leur survivent. » (Bulacio, par. 37-40.)

121. En ce qui concerne la présente affaire relative à des Questions
concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader, les faits parlent d’eux-
mêmes. Ainsi que j’ai jugé utile de le préciser dans l’exvposé de ma précé -

dente opinion dissidente jointe à l’ordonnance rendue par la Cour v
le 28 mai 2009 (qui n’indiquait pas de mesures conservatoires), en la pré -
sente affaire,

«Les années d’impunité qui ont suivi la vague de crimes systévma-
tiques planifiés par l’Etat et — selon la commission tchadienne pour

la vérité — perpétrés par des agents de ce dernier au Tchad de 1982
à 1990 me semblent imprimer à la situation la gravité et l’urgencve…
Le règne de l’impunité au fil des ans ne fait qu’aggraver la situation,

et ne rend le besoin de justice que plus criant. » (C.I.J. Recueil 2009,
p. 187, par. 60.)

122. Dans le présent arrêt rendu au fond dans l’affaire opposant la
Belgique au Sénégal, la Cour rappelle la ratio legis de la convention contre
la torture. Après avoir renvoyé au sixième alinéa du préavmbule de cet
108
instrument , elle précise ce qui suit :
«En raison des valeurs qu’ils partagent, les Etats parties à cet invs-

trument ont un intérêt commun à assurer la prévention des acvtes de
torture et, si de tels actes sont commis, à veiller à ce que leursv auteurs
ne bénéficient pas de l’impunité. Les obligations qui incovmbent à un

Etat partie de procéder à une enquête préliminaire en vue d’vétablir les
faits et de soumettre l’affaire à ses autorités compétentevs pour l’exer -
cice de l’action pénale s’appliquent du fait de la présence vde l’auteur
présumé sur son territoire, quelle que soit la nationalité de l’in téressé

ou celle des victimes, et quel que soit le lieu où les infractions allé -
guées ont été commises. Tous les autres Etats parties à la convention
ont un intérêt commun à ce que l’Etat sur le territoire duquel se
trouve l’auteur présumé respecte ces obligations.» (Arrêt, par. 68.)

123. La Cour expose ainsi la raison d’être de la convention contre la

torture: dénationalisation de la protection des droits qui y sont visés evt
affirmation du principe de la compétence universelle. Ce faisant, elvle ne

107 Concernant ces liens de solidarité, voir mes opinions individuelles evnreámacaiB
Velásquez c. Guatemala (CIADH, arrêts du 25 novembre 2000 (fond) et du 22 février 2002
(réparations)).
108
Dans lequel est exprimé le souhait « d’accroître l’efficacité de la lutte contre la
torture … dans le monde entier ». L’article 2, paragraphe 1, de la convention contre la
torture ajoute que « [t]out Etat partie prend des mesures législatives, administratives, jvudi
ciaires et autres mesures efficaces pour empêcher que des actes de tvorture soient commis
dans tout territoire sous sa juridiction ».

117

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temptation to quote itself, rescuing its own language of years or decadevs
ago, such as the invocation of “legal interest” (in the célèbre obiter dictum
in the Barcelona Traction case of 1970), or “common interest” (expres -

sions used in the past in different contexts). In order to reflect vin an
entirely faithful way the rationale of the CAT, the Court, in my under -
standing, should have gone a bit further : more than a “common inter -

est”, States parties to the CAT have a common engagement to give effet
utile to the relevant provisions of the Convention ; they have agreed to
exercise its collective guarantee, in order to put an end to the impunity of
the perpetrators of torture, so as to rid the world of this heinous crimve.

We are here in the domain of obligations, rather than interests. These obli -
gations emanate from the jus cogens prohibition of torture.

124. In sum, as to this particular point, the development, in recent
years — acknowledged also in expert writing — leading to the formation
and consolidation of a true international legal regime against torture

(cf. supra), has contributed to the growing awareness as to the pressing
need and the compelling duty to put an end to impunity. In effect, thev
response to the diversification of sources of human rights violations,v and
109
the struggle against the impunity of its perpetrators , are challenges
which call for the enhancement of the existing mechanisms of protection v
and the devising of new forms of protection. Impunity, besides being an

evil which corrodes the trust in public institutions, remains an obstaclve
which international supervisory organs have not yet succeeded to over -
come fully.

125. However, some of the Truth Commissions, established in recent
years in certain countries, with distinct mandates and varying results ovf

investigat110s, have constituted a positive initiative in the struggle avgainst
that evil . Another positive initiative is represented by the recent endeav-

109Cf. J. A. Carrillo Salcedo, Dignidad frente a Barbarie — La Declaración Universal
de Derechos Humanos Cincuenta Años Después, Madrid, Ed. Trotta, 1999, pp. 105-145 ;

N. Rodley, The Treatment of Prisoners under International Law, Paris/Oxford, Unesco/
Clarendon Press, 1987, pp. 17-143. Cf. also N. Roht-Arriaza (ed.), Impunity and Human
Rights in International Law and Practice, Oxford University Press, 1995, pp. 3-381 ;
S. R. Ratner and J. S. Abrams, Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in Interna -
tional Law, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997, pp. 3-303 ; Kai Ambos, Impunidad y Derecho
Penal Internacional, Medellín, Found. K. Adenauer et al., 1997, pp. 25-451 ; Y. Beigbeder,
International Justice against Impunity — Progress and New Challenges, Leiden, Nijhoff,
2005, pp. 45-235 ; [Various Authors,] Prosecuting International Crimes in Africa (eds.
C. Murungu and J. Biegon), Pretoria/South Africa, Pretoria University Law Press (PULP),

2011, pp. 1-330 ; N. S. Rodley, “Impunity and Human Rights”, in Reining in Impunity for
International Crimes and Serious Violations of Fundamental Human Rights (Proceedings of
the Siracusa Conference, September 1998, ed. C. C. Joyner), Ramonville St.-Agne, Erès,
1998, pp. 71-78.
110Cf., inter alia, [Various Authors,] “Humanitarian Debate: Truth and Reconciliation
Commissions”, 88 International Review of the Red Cross (2006), No. 862, pp. 225-373 ;
P. B. Hayner, Unspeakable Truths — Transitional Justice and the Challenge of Truth
Commissions, 2nd ed., N.Y./London, Routledge, 2011, pp. 1-337; A. Bisset, Truth Commis-

118

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résiste cependant pas à la tentation de se citer elle-même, repvrenant des
termes employés des années ou des décennies auparavant, tels quve «inté-

rêt juridique» (le célèbre obiter dictum formulé dans l’affaire de la Barce -
lona Traction en 1970) ou « intérêt commun» (expressions utilisées par le
passé dans différents contextes). Or, pour exprimer fidèlevment la raison

d’être de la convention contre la torture, la Cour aurait dû, selon moi,
aller un peu plus loin: plus qu’un «intérêt commun», c’est un engagement
commun visant à donner un effet utile aux dispositions pertinentes de la

convention que partagent les Etats parties ; ceux-ci sont convenus d’en
exercer la garantie collective pour mettre fin à l’impunité des auteurs
d’actes de torture, afin que le monde soit débarrassé de ce cvrime odieux.

Il s’agit donc ici d’obligations, et non d’intérêts. Ces obligations découlent
de l’interdiction de la torture, qui relève du jus cogens.
124. En somme, sur ce point particulier, l’évolution qui a conduit, cesv

dernières années, à la formation et à la consolidation d’vun véritable
régime juridique international de lutte contre la torture (voir supra)
— évolution qui a été reconnue dans certaines contributions écrites d’ex -

perts — a participé de la prise de conscience grandissante de l’urgenvte
nécessité et de l’obligation impérieuse de mettre fin àv l’impunité. Répondre

à la diversification des sources de violatio109des droits de l’hvomme et lut -
ter contre l’impunité de leurs auteurs constituent en effet des défis qui
requièrent le renforcement des mécanismes de protection existants vainsi

que l’élaboration de nouvelles formes de protection. L’impunitév, outre
qu’elle est un mal qui sape la confiance dans les institutions publviques,
demeure un obstacle que les organes internationaux de surveillance n’vont

pas encore réussi à surmonter entièrement.
125. L’établissement, ces dernières années, de commissions pour lva
vérité dans certains pays, avec des mandats différents et desv résultats

variables, a néanmoins constitué une initiative positive dans la lvutte
contre ce fléau 110. Une autre initiative positive réside dans les efforts

109
Voir J. A. Carrillo Salcedo, Dignidad frente a Barbarie — La Declaración Universal
de Derechos Humanos Cincuenta Años Después, Madrid, Ed. Trotta, 1999, p. 105-145 ;
N. Rodley, The Treatment of Prisoners under International Law, Paris/Oxford, Unesco/
Clarendon Press, 1987, p. 17-143. Voir également N. Roht-Arriaza (dir. publ.), Impu -
nity and Human Rights in International Law and Practice, Oxford University Press, 1995,
p. 3-381; S. R. Ratner et J. S. Abrams, Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in Inter-
national Law, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1997, p. 3-303 ; Kai Ambos, Impunidad y Derecho
Penal Internacional, Medellín, Found. K. Adenauer et al., 1997, p. 25-451 ; Y. Beigbeder,

International Justice against Impunity — Progress and New Challenges, Leyde, Nijhoff,
2005, p. 45-235 ; [divers auteurs], Prosecuting International Crimes in Africa (dir. publ.,
C. Murungu et J. Biegon), Pretoria/Afrique du Sud, Pretoria University Law Press (PULP),
2011, p. 1-330 ; N. S. Rodley, « Impunity and Human Rights », dans Reining in Impunity
for International Crimes and Serious Violations of Fundamental Human Rig▯hts (actes de la
conférence de Syracuse, septembre 1998, dir. publ., C. C. Joyner), Ramonville-Saint-Agne,
Erès, 1998, p. 71-78.
110
Voir notamment [divers auteurs], « Humanitarian Debate : Truth ano Recon -
ciliation Commissions », Revue internationale de la Croix-Rouge,vol. 88, n 862 (2006),
p. 225-373 ; P. B. Hayner, Unspeakable Truths — Transitional Justice and the Challenge
of Truth Commissions, 2 eéd., New York/Londres, Routledge, 2011, p. 1-337 ; A. Bisset,

118

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ours, within the United Nations, towards the establishment of an internav -
tional penal jurisdiction of permanent character; they have resulted in the

creation (by the UN Security Council), in 1993 and 1994, of the two ad
hoc international criminal tribunals, for ex-Yugoslavia and Rwanda,
respectively — followed by the adoption (by the UN Conference of

Rome) of the 1998 Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC),
and thereafter by the adoption of the first permanent international crvimi -
nal jurisdiction. Attention turns now to the evolving position of the invdi-

vidual victims before the ICC, opening up what appears to be a new
chapter in the longstanding history of restorative justice 111.

3. The Position of Chad against Impunity

126. There is another element to be here taken into account : the
records of the present case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation
to Prosecute or Extradite give account of Chad’s position against impu -

nity. References in this regard include : (a) official pronouncements by
Chad concerning the trial of Mr. H. Habré, in connection with the right
of victims to the realization of justice and the need to fight againstv impu -
112
nity ; (b) Chad’s decision to lift Mr. H. Habré’s immunity in 1993, as
confirmed in 2002 113; (c) claims that Chad joined in efforts to gather the
financial resources for the trial of Mr. H. Habré in Senegal 114; and

(d) Chad’s recent statements in support of the extradition of Mr. H. Habré
to Belgium 115.

127. In this respect, Belgium refers, in its Memorial, to the fact that, in
1993, Chad had, in so far as it was necessary, “lifted the immunitiesv which
116
Mr. Habré may have sought to claim” . In the same vein, Belgium sub -
mitted a letter addressed by the Minister of Justice of Chad to the Belgvian

juge d’instruction, dated 7 October 2002, confirming the lifting of any

sions and Criminal Courts, Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp. 1-199 ; P. B. Hayner,
“Fifteen Truth Commissions — 1974 to 1994 : A Comparative Study”, 16 Human Rights
Quarterly (1994), pp. 598-634 ; [Various Authors,] Truth Commissions : A Compara -
tive Assessment (Seminar of the Harvard Law School, of May 1996), Cambridge/Mass.,
Harvard Law School, 1997, pp. 16-81.
111
112Cf. Section XV, infra.
Cf. CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 25, para. 43 (citing “Communiqué de presse du
ministère des affaires étrangères du Tchad”, of 22 July 2011).
113Cf. Memorial of Belgium, of 1 July 2010, p. 10, para. 1.29, and p. 57, para. 4.44, and
Annex C.5 ; CR 2012/2, of 12 March 2012, p. 23, para. 21 ; and CR 2012/3, of 13 March
2012, p. 21, para. 41.
114CR 2012/2, of 12 March 2012, pp. 47-48.
115
Given its view that a trial of Mr. H. Habré in Africa would seem difficult to realize ;
cf. CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, p. 25, para. 43 (citing “Communiqué de presse du
ministère des affaires étrangères du Tchad”, of 22 July 2011).
116Memorial of Belgium, of 1 July 2010, p. 10, para. 1.29.

119

6 CIJ1033.indb 234 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 537

récemment menés au sein de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en vue
d’établir une juridiction pénale internationale à caractèvre permanent; ces

efforts se sont traduits par la création (par le Conseil de sécvurité de l’Or -
ganisation), en 1993 et 1994, des deux tribunaux pénaux internationaux

ad hoc pour l’ex-Yougoslavie et pour le Rwanda, puis par l’adoption (pavr
la Conférence des Nations Unies, tenue à Rome) du Statut de la Cour
pénale internationale (CPI) de 1998, elle-même suivie par la création de la

première juridiction pénale internationale permanente. L’attentvion se
porte désormais sur l’évolution de la position des victimes indvividuelles
devant la CPI, ce qui semble ouvrir un nouveau chapitre dans la longue
111
histoire de la justice réparatrice .

3. La position du Tchad sur la question de l’impunité

126. Un autre élément doit être pris en compte, à savoir le fait que,
ainsi qu’il ressort du dossier de la présente affaire relative àv des Questions

concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader, le Tchad s’est pro -
noncé contre l’impunité. A cet égard, on se référera nvotamment : a) aux
prises de position officielles du Tchad relativement au procès de M. His -

sène Habré, du point de vue du droit des victimes à la réalisation dve la
justice et de la nécessité de lutter contre l’impunité 112; b) à la décision
prise par le Tchad de lever l’immunité de M. Hissène Habré en 1993, telle
113
que confirmée en 2002 ; c) aux déclarations selon lesquelles le Tchad
a contribué aux efforts visant à collecter les ressources financvières aux
114
fins du procès de M. Hissène Habré au Sénégal ; et d) aux récentes
déclarations du Tchad appuyant l’extradition de M. Hissène Habré vers
la Belgique 115.

127. La Belgique s’est, dans son mémoire, référée au fait qu’ven 1993 le
Tchad avait, pour autant que de besoin, « levé les immunités dont
M. Habré pourrait souhaiter se prévaloir » 11. Dans le même ordre

d’idées, elle a soumis une lettre, datée du 7 octobre 2002, adressée par le
ministre de la justice tchadien au juge d’instruction belge, confirmant la

Truth Commissions and Criminal Courts, Cambridge University Press, 2012, p. 1-199 ;
P. B. Hayner, « Fifteen Truth Commissions — 1974 to 1994 : A Comparative Study »,
Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 16 (1994), p. 598-634; [divers auteurs,] Truth Commissions :
A Comparative Assessment (séminaire de la Harvard Law School, mai 1996), Cambridge/
Mass., Harvard Law School, 1997, p. 16-81.
111Voir la section XV infra.
112Voir CR 2012/6, 19 mars 2012, p. 25, par. 43 (citant le « communiqué de presse du

min113ère des affaires étrangères du Tchad » der22 juillet 2011).
Voir mémoire du Royaume de Belgique, 1 juillet 2010, p. 19-20, par. 1.29, et p. 87,
par. 4.44, ainsi que l’annexe C.5 ; CR 2012/2, 12 mars 2012, p. 23, par. 21 ; et CR 2012/3,
13 mars 2012, p. 21, par. 41.
114CR 2012/2, 12 mars 2012, p. 47-48.
115Etant donné qu’il considère que le procès de M. Hissène Habré semblerait difficile à
réaliser en Afrique ; voir CR 2012/6, 19 mars 2012, p. 25, par. 43 (citant le « communiqué

de 116sse du ministère des affaires étrangeres du Tchad » du 22 juillet 2011).
Mémoire du Royaume de Belgique, 1 juillet 2010, p. 19-20, par. 1.29.

119

6 CIJ1033.indb 235 28/11/13 12:50 538 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

immunity of Mr. H. Habré 117. Furthermore, it stems from the records of

the present case that Chad, among other States, reportedly agreed to
assist financially Senegal in the trial of Mr. H. Habré 118. Belgium claims,
in this regard, that,

“despite the gestures of support of the European Union, the African

Union and other States — including Belgium and Chad — in particu -
lar for the funding of the Hissène Habré trial in Senegal, the latter
has not yet performed the obligations incumbent on it under inter-

national law 119respect of the fight against impunity for the crimes
concerned” .

128. Moreover, as to Belgium’s request for extradition, and in light of
Senegal’s failure to prosecute Mr. H. Habré so far, it also appears from
the records of the present case that Chad does not oppose the extraditiovn
120
of Mr. H. Habré to Belgium . In fact, on 22 July 2011, the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs, African Integration and International Co-operation of
Chad stated that :

“Despite the many national, continental and international initia -
tives, it appears increasingly unlikely that the former dictator will bev
tried under the circumstances preferred by the AU [the African
Union]. Recent developments confirm this impression.

It seems more difficult than ever to fulfil the conditions, in particvu -
lar the legal conditions, for the trial of Mr. Hissène Habré to be held

on African soil.
In light of this situation, and given the victims’ legitimate right tvo
justice and the principle of rejection of impunity enshrined in the

Constitutive Act of the African Union, the Government of Chad
requests that preference should be given to the option of extraditing
Mr. Habré to Belgium for trial. This option, which was explicitly

considered among others by the121rican Union, is the most suitable
under the circumstances.”

129. In sum and conclusion, as it can be perceived from the aforemen -
tioned, the records of the present case demonstrate that Chad has been
consistently supporting the imperative of the fight against impunity, vin so

far as the case of Mr. H. Habré is concerned. The records of the case
make Chad’s position clear, to the effect that Mr. H. Habré must be
brought to justice, in Senegal or elsewhere 122. Last but not least, the posi-

117 Cf. Memorial of Belgium, Annex C.5.
118 CR 2012/2, of 12 March 2012, p. 47, para. 20.
119Cf. ibid., p. 48, para. 21 (3).
120 CR 2012/6, of 19 March 2012, pp. 24-25.
121 Ibid., p. 25, para. 43.
122 Ibid.

120

6 CIJ1033.indb 236 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 538

levée de toutes les immunités de M. Hissène Habré 117. Le dossier de la

présente espèce révèle en outre que le Tchad a, parmi d’avutres Etats,
accepté d’apporter une aide financière au Sénégal pour vl’organisation du
procès de Hissène Habré 11. Sur ce point, la Belgique considère que,

«malgré les gestes de soutien de l’Union européenne, de l’Union afri-
caine et d’autres Etats — dont la Belgique et le Tchad —, notam -

ment pour le financement du procès Hissène Habré au Sénégal, le
Sénégal n’a toujours pas rempli les obligations que lui impose le
droit international en matière de lutte contre l’impunité des cvrimes en
119
cause » .
128. Par ailleurs, s’agissant de la demande d’extradition de la Belgiquve,

et compte tenu de l’absence de poursuites engagées jusqu’ici pavr le Séné -
gal à l’encontre de M. Hissène Habré, il ressort également du dossier de
l’affaire que le Tchad ne s’oppose pas à ce que l’intérvessé soit extradé vers
120
la Belgique . De fait, le 22 juillet 2011, le ministère des affaires étran -
gères, de l’intégration africaine et de la coopération internationale a
déclaré ce qui suit :

«Malgré les nombreuses initiatives à l’échelle nationale, convtinen -
tale et internationale, il semble de plus en plus hypothétique qu’vun

procès de l’ancien dictateur puisse se tenir suivant le schéma vprivilé -
gié par l’UA [l’Union africaine]. Les récents développemevnts de l’af-
faire viennent conforter ce sentiment.

Plus que jamais, les conditions, notamment juridiques, d’un procèsv
de M. Hissène Habré sur le sol africain paraissent difficilement réa-
lisables.
Eu égard à cette situation, le droit légitime des victimes àv la justice

et le principe de rejet de l’impunité consacré par l’Acte covnstitutif de
l’Union africaine conduisent le Gouvernement du Tchad à demander
que soit privilégiée l’option de l’extradition de M. Hissène Habré

vers la Belgique pour qu’il y soit jugé. Cette option explicitemenvt
envisagée parmi d’autres par l’Union africaine est la mieux adavptée à
la situation. » 121

129. Au vu de ce qui précède, et pour conclure sur ce point, le dossierv
de l’affaire montre que le Tchad a toujours soutenu la nécessitév impé -

rieuse de lutter contre l’impunité dans le cas de M. Hissène Habré. Il
apparaît clairement que la position du Tchad est que l’intéressvé doit être
traduit en justice, au Sénégal ou ailleurs 122. Enfin, et ce n’est pas le moins

important, le Tchad a confirmé sa position par la déclaration qu’il a pro -

11Voir mémoire du Royaume de Belgique, annexe C.5.
118CR 2012/2, 12 mars 2012, p. 47, par. 20.
11Voir ibid., p. 48, par. 21 3).
120CR 2012/6, 19 mars 2012, p. 24-25.
121
122Ibid., p. 25, par. 43.
Ibid.

120

6 CIJ1033.indb 237 28/11/13 12:50 539 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

tion of Chad is further confirmed by its statement before the UN Humanv
Rights Committee, the supervisory organ of the UN Covenant on Civil

and Political Rights, on the occasion of the consideration of Chad’s vini -
tial report on measures undertaken to implement the provisions of the
Covenant. In responding to questions put to it, the delegation of Chad, v

stressing its commitment to the struggle against impunity, declared,
on 17 July 2009, that

“under Hissène Habré’s regime nothing had been done to restovre the rule
of law, since that regime had been a dictatorship . . . The present Gov -
ernment, however, wished to move forward, and in particular to combat

impunity at all levels . . . Efforts to overcome political impunity would
take a long time, but the Government was working actively to that end.
Although Chad’s request for Hissène Habré’s trial had been lvoud
and clear, Senegal, which was responsible for conducting the trial,
123
claimed to have financial difficulties.”

4. The Struggle against Impunity in the Law of the United Nations

130. The final document of the II World Conference o124uman Rights
(Vienna, 1993), of which I keep vivid memories , the Vienna Declara -
tion and Programme of Action, cared to include in its Part II two para -
graphs (60 and 91) on the compelling struggle against impunity (of

perpetrators of torture), which read as follows :

“States should abrogate legislation leading to impunity for those
responsible for grave violations of human rights such as torture, and
prosecute such violations, thereby providing a firm basis for the rulev

of law. (. . .)
The [II] World Conference on Human Rights views with concern
the issue of impunity of perpetrators of human rights violations, and

supports the efforts of the Commission on Human Rights and the
Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of
Minorities to examine all aspects of the issue.”

131. In pursuance to the call of the 1993 World Conference of the

United Nations, the (former) UN Commission on Human Rights, and its
(former) Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human

123UN/Comité des droits de l’homme, 96th Session — 2636th meeting (of 17 July
2009), document CCPR/C/SR.2636, of 25 September 2009, p. 5, paras. 15-16. And cf. also:
UN Human Rights Committee, “Human Rights Committee Considers Report ovf Chad”,

www124og.ch/news, of 17 July 2009, p. 9.
A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos,
2nd ed., Vol. I, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S.A. Fabris Ed., 2003, pp. ; A. A. Cançado
Trindade, “Memória da Conferência Mundial de Direitos Humanos (vViena, 1993)”, 87/90
Boletim da Sociedade Brasileira de Direito Internacional (1993-1994), pp. 9-57.

121

6 CIJ1033.indb 238 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 539

noncée devant le Comité des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies — l’or-
gane de surveillance du Pacte international des Nations Unies relatif aux
droits civils et politiques — à l’occasion de l’examen de son rapport initial

concernant les mesures prises afin de mettre en œuvre les dispositivons
dudit instrument. Dans les réponses qu’elle a fournies aux questiovns qui
lui étaient adressées, la délégation tchadienne, soulignant vson engagement

à lutter contre l’impunité, a, le 17 juillet 2009, déclaré ce qui suit :
«sous le régime de HissèneHabré, rien n’a été fait pour rétablir l’état du

droit, puisque c’était une dictature… Toutefois, le gouvernemenvt actuel
veut faire avancer les choses, et surtout combattre l’impunité, àv tous les
niveaux… Lutter contre l’impunité politique est une entreprise vde longue

haleine, mais le gouvernement travaille activement dans ce sens.
Le Tchad demande haut et fort que Hissène Habré soit jugé,
mais le Sénégal, à qui incombe cette tâche, invoque des diffivcultés
123
financières…»

4. La lutte contre l’impunité dans le droit des Nations Unies
e
130. Le document final de la II Conférence mondiale sur les droits
de l’homme (Vienne, 1993) — connu sous le nom de Déclaration et
Programme d’action de Vienne, et qui reste bien présent dans ma
124
mémoire — a veillé à inclure, dans sa partie II, deux paragraphes (60
et 91) relatifs à la nécessité impérieuse de la lutte contre lv’impunité (des
auteurs d’actes de torture). Ces paragraphes sont ainsi libellés :

«Les Etats devraient abroger les lois qui assurent, en fait, l’impunitvé

aux personnes responsables de violations graves des droits de l’hommev
telles que les actes de torture, et ils devraient poursuivre les auteursv de
ces violations, asseyant ainsi la légalité sur des bases solides…v
e
La [II ] Conférence mondiale sur les droits de l’homme s’inquiète
de la question de l’impunité des auteurs de violations des droits vde
l’homme et appuie les efforts que déploient la Commission des drvoits

de l’homme et la sous-commission de la lutte contre les mesures dis -
criminatoires et de la protection des minorités pour examiner tous les
aspects de ce problème. »

131. Comme suite à l’appel lancé lors de la Conférence mondiale des

Nations Unies de 1993, les (anciennes) Commission des droits de l’homme et
sous-commission de la promotion et de la protection des droits de l’hvomme

123 e e
Comité des droits de l’homme, 96 session, 2636 séance (17 juillet 2009),
Nations Unies, doc. CCPR/C/SR.2636, 25 septembre 2009, p. 5, par. 15-16. Voir également
Comité des droits de l’homme, « Le Comité des droits de l’homme examine le rapport du
Tchad », www.unog.ch/news, 17 juillet 2009, p. 9.
124 A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos,
2 éd., vol. I, Porto Alegre/Brésil, S.A. Fabris Ed., 2003, p. 1; A. A. Cançado Trin -
dade, «Memória da Conferência Mundial de Direitos Humanos (Viena, 1993) »,Boletim da
Sociedade Brasileira de Direito Internacional, n 87/90 (1993-1994), p. 9-57.

121

6 CIJ1033.indb 239 28/11/13 12:50 540 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

Rights, engaged themselves in producing, in 1997, a Set of Principles for

the Protection and Promotion of Human Rights through Action to Combat
Impunity (restated by the Commission in 2005) 12. Later on, also in pur -
suance of the aforementioned call of the II World Conference on Human

Rights, the (former) UN Commission on Human Rights adopted its reso -
lution 2003/72, of 25 April 2003, wherein it deemed it fit to emphasize
“the importance of combating impunity to the prevention of violationsv of

international human rights and humanitarian law” as well as “the ivmpor -
tance of taking all necessary and possible steps to hold accountable per -
petrators, including their accomplices, of violations of international
human rights and humanitarian law” (paras. 1-2). The resolution urged

States to “give necessary attention” to the matter (para. 1), and recog -
nized that

“crimes such as genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and

torture are violations of international law, and (. . .) perpetrators of
such crimes should be prosecuted or extradited by States (. . .)”
(para. 10).

The resolution further urged “all States to take effective measuresv to

implement their obligations to prosecute or extradite perpetrators of suvch
crimes” (para. 10).
132. Moreover, the dossier of the present case before the Court con -
tains other pertinent elements which cannot pass unnoticed herein. Bel -

gium’s Memorial, for example, refers to numerous resolutions of the
UN General Assembly and Security Council urging States to combat
impunity in connection with grave violations of human rights 126 — a
127
point reiterated in its oral arguments . The UN Human Rights Com -
mittee (supervisory organ of the UN Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights), in its General Comment No. 31 (of 2004), asserted, in connection

with violations of the Covenant rights, that

“States parties must ensure that those responsible are brought to jus-
tice. As with failure to investigate, failure to bring to justice perpetvr-a

125 Cf. UN document E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/20/Rev.1, Annex II, of 2 October 1997,
pp. 13-25 ; and cf. UN/CHR, resolution 1998/53, of 17 April 1998. Cf., more recently,
UN/CHR, document E/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1, Annex, of 8 February 2005, pp. 5-19. And

cf. also L. Joinet (rapporteur), La Cuestión de la Impunidad de los Autores de Violaciones
de los Derechos Humanos (Derechos Civiles y Políticos) — Informe Final, UN/Commis -
sion on Human Rights, doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/20, of 26 June 1997, pp. 1-34 ; and, for
the economic, social and cultural rights, cf. El Hadji Guissé (special rapporteur), La
Cuestión de la Impunidad de los Autores de Violaciones de los Derecho▯s Humanos (Derechos
Económicos, Sociales y Culturales) — Informe Final, UN/Commission on Human Rights,
doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/8, of 23 June 1997, pp. 1-43.

126Memorial of Belgium, of 1 July 2010, Vol. I, pp. 63-66, paras. 4.69-4.70.
127 CR 2012/3, of 13 March 2012, pp. 24-26.

122

6 CIJ1033.indb 240 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 540

se sont engagées en présentant notamment, en 1997, un Ensemble de principes

pour la protection et la promotion des droits de l’homme par la lutte▯ contre
l’impunité (que la Commission a réaffirmé en 2005) 125. Plus tard, comme
suite, là encore, à l’appel précité de la II eConférence mondiale sur les droits

de l’homme, l’(ancienne) Commission des droits de l’homme a avdopté sa
résolution 2003/72 du 25 avril 2003, dans laquelle elle a jugé utile de souligner
«l’importance du combat à mener contre l’impunité pour prévvenir les viola -

tions du droit international relatif aux droits de l’homme et du droivt inter-
national humanitaire», ajoutant « qu’il import[ait] de prendre toutes les
mesures nécessaires et possibles pour que les auteurs de violations dvu droit
international relatif aux droits de l’homme et du droit international humani -

taire, ainsi que leurs complices, aient à rendre compte de leurs a» ct(vsr. 1-2).
Dans cette résolution, la Commission invitait instamment les Etats àa vc«cor-
der l’attention voulue» à la question de l’impunité (par. 1), et convenait que

«des crimes tels que le génocide, les crimes contre l’humanité, vles

crimes de guerre et les actes de torture constitu[ai]ent des violations v
du droit international et que leurs auteurs d[evaient] être traduits ven
justice ou extradés par les Etats… » (par. 10).

La résolution invitait en outre instamment « tous les Etats à prendre des

mesures concrètes pour s’acquitter de leurs obligations à ce suvjet »
(par. 10).
132. Le dossier de la présente espèce contient d’autres élémenvts pertinents
qui ne sauraient être passés sous silence. Dans le mémoire du Rvoyaume de

Belgique, par exemple, il est fait référence à de nombreuses révsolutions de
l’Assemblée générale et du Conseil de sécurité des Natvions Unies invitant
instamment les Etats à lutter contre l’impunité lorsque sont env cause de
126
graves violations des droits de l’homme ; ce point a été rappelé par la
Belgique à l’audience 12. Dans son observation générale n 31 (de 2004), le
Comité des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies (organe de surveillance du

Pacte international relatif aux droits civils et politiques) a affirmév que, en cas
de violation de certains droits reconnus dans le Pacte,

«les Etats parties d[evaient] veiller à ce que les responsables soientv
traduits en justice. Comme dans le cas où un Etat partie s’abstienvt de

125 Voir Nations Unies, doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/20/Rev.1, annexe II, 2 octobre 1997,
p. 13-25 ; et voir Nations Unies/CDH, résolution 1998/53 du 17 avril 1998. Voir, plus
récemment, Nations Unies/CDH, doc. E/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1, annexe, 8 février 2005,

p. 5-19. Et voir également L. Joinet (rapporteur), La Cuestión de la Impunidad de los
Autores de Violaciones de los Derechos Humanos (Derechos Civiles y Polí▯ticos) — Informe
Final, Nations Unies/Commission des droits de l’homme, doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/20,
26 juin 1997, p. 1-34; et, en ce qui concerne les droits économiques, sociaux et culturels, vvoir
El Hadji Guissé (rapporteur spécial), La Cuestión de la Impunidad de los Autores de Viola -
ciones de los Derechos Humanos (Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Cult▯urales) — Informe
Final, Nations Unies/Commission des droits de l’homme, doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/8,
23 juin 1997, p. 1-43.
126 Mémoire du Royaume de Belgique, 1 erjuillet 2010, vol. I, p. 96-99, par. 4.69-4.70.
127 CR 2012/3, 13 mars 2012, p. 24-26.

122

6 CIJ1033.indb 241 28/11/13 12:50 541 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

tors of such violations could in and of itself give rise to a separate
breach of the Covenant” (Human Rights Committee, General Com -

ment No. 31, para. 18).

133. After singling out, as particularly grave violations, the crimes of
torture, of summary and arbitrary executions, and enforced disappear -
ances of persons, the Human Rights Committee warned that “the prob -

lem of impunity for these violations, a matter of sustained concern by tvhe
Committee, may well be an important contributing element in the recur -
rence of the violations” (ibid., para. 18). The Committee further warned
as to the need “to avoid continuing violations” (ibid., para. 19), and drew

attention to the “special vulnerability of certain categories” of vvictims
(ibid., para. 15).

XII. Obligations under Custovmary International Lavw :
A Precision as to the Covurt’s Jurisdiction

134. I turn now to another issue, dealt with in the present Judgment, in
relation to which my reasoning is distinct from that of the Court. May Iv
begin by recalling the fundamental human values underlying the absolute v

prohibition of torture, which I have already referred to (cf. supra). May I
add, at this stage, that such prohibition is one of both conventional as well
as customary international law. And it could not be otherwise, being a
prohibition of jus cogens. In this sense, the 2005 study on Customary

International Humanitarian Law undertaken by the International Com -
mittee of the Red Cross (ICRC) sustains that : “Torture, cruel or inhu -
man treatment and outrages upon personal dignity, in particular
humiliating and degrading treatment, are prohibited” (Rule 90) 12. And it

goes on to summarize, on the basis of an extensive research, that “Stvate
practice establishes this rule as a norm of customary international law
applicable in both international and non-international armed conflicts” 12.

135. Likewise, in its General Comment No. 2 (of 2008), focused on the
implementation by States parties of Article 2 of the CAT 130, the UN Com-
mittee against Torture acknowledged the Convention’s absolute (jus

cogens) prohibition of torture as being also one of customary interna -
tional law. It ensues from the jus cogens character of this prohibition that
States parties are under the duty to remove any obstacles that impede thve
eradication of torture ; they are bound to take “positive effective mea -

128ICRC, Customary International Humanitarian Law — Vol. I : Rules, Cambridge

Uni129sity Press, 2005 [reprint 2009], p. 315.
Ibid., Vol. I: Rules, p. 315, and cf. pp. 316-319; and cf. also ICRC, Customary Inter-
national Humanitarian Law — Vol. II : Practice — Part 1, Cambridge University Press,
200130pp. 2106-2160.
UN doc. CAT/C/GC/2, of 24 January 2008, pp. 1-8, paras. 1-27.

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mener une enquête, le fait de ne pas traduire en justice les auteurs vde
telles violations pourrait en soi donner lieu à une violation distincte

du Pacte » (Comité des droits de l’homme, observation générale
n o 31, par. 18).

133. Après avoir rappelé que les crimes tels que la torture, les exévcu -
tions sommaires et arbitraires et les disparitions forcées constituaivent des
violations particulièrement graves, le Comité des droits de l’homme a pré -

cisé que « le problème de l’impunité des auteurs de ces violations, ques -
tion qui ne cess[ait] de préoccuper le Comité, p[ouvait] bien êvtre un facteur
important qui contribu[ait] à la répétition des violations » (ibid., par. 18).

Le Comité a en outre mis l’accent sur la nécessité « d’éviter la poursuite
des violations » (ibid., par. 19), et appelé l’attention sur les « faiblesses
particulières de certaines catégories » de victimes (ibid., par. 15).

XII. Obligations au titrev du droit internationavl coutumie:r
une précision quant àv la compétence de la Couvr

134. J’en viens maintenant à une autre question, abordée dans le prévsent
arrêt, sur laquelle mon raisonnement diffère de celui de la Courv. Je souhai -
terais commencer par rappeler les valeurs humaines fondamentales qui

sous-tendent l’interdiction absolue de la torture, auxquelles je me svuis déjà
référé (voir supra). J’ajouterai, à ce stade, que cette interdiction relève du
droit international à la fois conventionnel et coutumier. Il ne pourrait d’ail -
leurs en être autrement, puisqu’il s’agit d’une interdiction qui fait partie du

jus cogens. De fait, dans son étude de 2005 intitulée Droit international
humanitaire coutumier, le Comité international de la Croix-Rouge (CICR)
confirme que « [l]a torture, les traitements cruels ou inhumains et les
atteintes à la dignité de la personne, notamment les traitements hvumiliants
128
et dégradants, sont interdits» (règle 90) . Et le Comité de résumer comme
suit son étude approfondie: «Selon la pratique des Etats, cette règle consti -
tue une norme de droit international coutumier applicable dans les conflvits
129
armés tant internationaux que non internationaux.» o
135. De même, dans son observation générale n 2 (de 2008), axée sur
la mise en œuvre de l’article 2 de la convention contre la torture 130par les
Etats parties, le Comité des Nations Unies contre la torture a reconnu

que l’interdiction absolue (relevant du jus cogens) de la torture consacrée
par ledit instrument relevait également du droit international coutumvier.
Il découle de la nature de règle de jus cogens de cette interdiction que

les Etats parties sont tenus de supprimer tous les obstacles qui empêchenvt

128CICR, Droit international humanitaire coutumier — vol. I : Règles, Cambridge

Uni129sity Press, 2005 (rééd. 2009), p. 315.
Ibid., vol. I :Règles, p. 315, et voir p. 316-319 ; voir également CICR, Droit interna-
tional humanitaire coutumier — vol. II : Pratique — partie 1, Cambridge University Press,
200130p. 2106-2160.
Nations Unies, doc. CAT/C/GC/2, 24 janvier 2008, p. 1-8, par. 1-27.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 243 28/11/13 12:50 542 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

sures” to ensure that (Committee against Torture, General Comment
No. 2, para. 4), and “no exceptional circumstances whatsoever may be
invoked” by them to attempt to justify acts of torture (ibid., para. 5).
Stressing the CAT’s “overarching aim of preventing torture and illv-treat -

ment” (ibid., para. 11), General Comment No. 2 of the Committee against
Torture further stated that each State party “should prohibit, prevenvt and
redress torture and ill-treatment in all contexts of custody or control”
(ibid., para. 15), and then drew attention to the needed protection for

individuals and groups made vulnerable by discrimination or marginali-
zation (ibid., paras. 20-24).

136. Having voted in favour of the conclusions reached by the Court
in the present Judgment in the case concerning Questions relating to the
Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), I feel, how -
ever, obliged to lay down in the present separate opinion my understand -

ing, distinct from the Court’s reasoning, corresponding to operative v
paragraph (2) of the dispositif of the present Judgment. May I, at first,
recall that, in the cas d’espèce, Belgium requested the Court to declare
that Senegal has breached an obligation under customary international

law for its failure to bring criminal pro131dings against Mr. H. Habré
concerning core international crimes . In this respect, the Court con -
cludes, in paragraph 55, that

“at the time of the filing of the Application, the dispute between vthe
Parties did not relate to breaches of obligations under customary
international law and that it thus has no jurisdiction to decide on

Belgium’s claims related thereto”.
137. The Court then goes on to consider whether it has jurisdiction on

the basis of Article 30 (1) of the Convention against Torture (CAT). In
operative paragraph (2) of the dispositif, the Court finds that “it has no
jurisdiction” to entertain Belgium’s claims relating to Senegal’vs “alleged
breaches” of “obligations under customary international law”. Ivt is

important to be clear as to why the Court has not entertained, in the
present case, Belgium’s claim that Senegal breached certain obligatiovns
under customary international law.

138. The Court first proceeded to determine, on the basis of the facts

of the cas d’espèce, whether there was a dispute between the contending
Parties concerning Senegal’s alleged violations of customary internatvional
law obligations. The question as to whether there is a dispute between tvhe
Parties concerning the corresponding obligations under customary inter -

national law turns on factual considerations. The question pertains to

131Cf. Memorial of Belgium, of 1 July 2010, p. 83, Submission 1; Final Submis-
sions of Belgium, of 19 March 2012, Submission 1 (b).

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l’élimination de la torture ; ils sont contraints de prendre des « mesures
positives effectives» pour s’en assurer (Comité contre la torture, observa -
tion générale n 2, par. 4), et « aucune circonstance exceptionnelle, quelle
qu’elle soit, ne peut être invoquée » par un Etat partie pour tenter de jus -

tifier des actes de torture (ibid., par. 5). Soulignant l’« objectif général de
la convention contre la torture qui consiste à prévenir la torture et les
mauvais traitements» (ibid., par. 11), le Comité des Nations Unies contre
la torture a, dans son observation générale n o 2, affirmé en outre que

chaque Etat partie « [devait] interdire, prévenir et réparer les actes de tor -
ture et mauvais traitements dans toutes les situations de garde ou de suvr-
veillance » (ibid., par. 15), avant d’appeler l’attention sur la nécessaire
protection des individus et des groupes rendus vulnérables par la discrimi -
nation ou la marginalisation (ibid., par. 20-24).

136. Bien qu’ayant voté en faveur des conclusions auxquelles la Cour
est parvenue en la présente affaire relative à des Questions concernant
l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), je me sens
toutefois tenu, dans la présente opinion individuelle, de préciser en quoi je

diffère du raisonnement de la Cour en ce qui concerne le deuxièmve point
du dispositif du présent arrêt. Je rappellerai tout d’abord que, dans le cas
d’espèce, la Belgique a prié la Cour de dire et juger que le Sévnégal avait
violé une obligation que lui impose le droit international coutumier en

n’engageant pas de poursuites pénales à l’encontre de M. Hissène Habré 131
en ce qui concerne des crimes internationaux fondamentaux . A cet
égard, la Cour conclut, dans le paragraphe 55 de son arrêt, que,

«au moment du dépôt de la requête, le différend qui opposaivt les
Parties n’était pas relatif à des manquements à des obligativons rele -
vant du droit international coutumier, et qu’elle n’a donc pas compé-

tence pour statuer sur les demandes de la Belgique qui s’y rapporten» t.
137. La Cour se penche ensuite sur la question de savoir si elle a com -

pétence sur la base du paragraphe 1 de l’article 30 de la convention contre
la torture. Dans le deuxième point du dispositif, elle conclut qu’« elle n’a
pas compétence» pour connaître des demandes de la Belgique relatives à
des « manquements allégués » par le Sénégal « à des obligations relevant

du droit international coutumier ». Il est important d’indiquer clairement
pourquoi la Cour ne s’est pas, en la présente espèce, prononcée sur la
réclamation de la Belgique suivant laquelle le Sénégal a manquév à cer -
taines obligations relevant du droit international coutumier.
138. La Cour a d’abord cherché à déterminer, sur la base des faitvs de

l’espèce, s’il existait un différend entre les Parties concernant le manque -
ment, par le Sénégal, à certaines obligations de droit internatvional coutu-
mier. La question de savoir si un différend relatif à pareilles vobligations
existe entre les Parties repose sur des considérations d’ordre factuel. Elle

consiste à savoir si, au vu du contexte factuel de la présente espvèce, un

131Voir mémoire du Royaume de Belgique, 1 erjuillet 2010, p. 83, conclusion 1 b) ;
conclusions finales de la Belgique, 19 mars 2012, conclusion 1 b).

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6 CIJ1033.indb 245 28/11/13 12:50 543 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

whether, on the basis of the factual framework of the present case, a divs-

pute existed between the Parties, at the time of the filing of the Appvlica -
tion, concerning Senegal’s obligation under customary international lvaw
to take action with regard to core international crimes 132.
139. As the Court notes in paragraph 45 of the present Judgment, “the

existence of a dispute is a condition of its jurisdiction under both basves of
jurisdiction invoked by Belgium”. It has long been established that “va
dispute is a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legval
133
views or of interests between two persons” . In this context, the Court’s
jurisprudence constante, as recalled in the present Judgment, is to the
effect that the Court’s determination of the existence of a disputev “must
turn on an examination of the facts” (Judgment, para. 46) 134.

140. In the present case, the Court considered the facts, as they were
presented to it, in order to decide whether there was a dispute between vthe
contending Parties concerning the claims that Senegal had breached obligva -

tions under customary international law. The Court found that the diplo -
matic exchanges between the Parties, prior to Belgium’s institution ovf the
present proceedings, disclosed that Belgium did not refer to Senegal’vs alleged

obligations under customary international law to take action against
Mr. H. Habré for core international crimes. It followed that there could notv
have existed a disagreement (or a difference of opinion) between thev Parties,
as to Senegal’s alleged obligations under customary international lawv in

relation to the prosecution of Mr. H. Habré for the commission of core
international crimes, at the time when Belgium filed the Application.
141. It is clear that, in the present case, the Court’s determination of

whether there was a dispute on this question rested on purely factual
considerations of the case at issue. This is, in my view, distinct from an
examination by the Court of whether there is a legal basis of jurisdicti▯on
over claims of alleged breaches of customary international law obliga -

tions. The Court’s consideration of Belgium’s claim that Senegal allegedly
breached obligations under customary international law, as well as its
conclusion thereon, stand in stark contrast to its examination of whethevr

it has jurisdiction under the terms of Article 30 (1) of the CAT. As to the
latter, the Court considers the legal conditions pursuant to Article 30 (1)
of the Convention in order to assess whether there is a legal basis of juris -
diction according to the terms of that provision.

132Its determination is based upon the consideration of the circumstances ovf the present
case (and particularly on the fact that, in the diplomatic correspondenvce between the
Parties, Belgium did not refer to its claim that Senegal has an obligativon under customary
international law to prosecute those accused of the perpetration of corev international
crimes).
133Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2,
p. 11.
134
The Court considers whether there is a dispute by examining the positionv of the
contending Parties (including their exchanges), as disclosed in the revcords of the case.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 246 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 543

différend opposait les Parties au moment du dépôt de la requêvte au sujet

de l’obligation d’engager une action relative aux crimes internativonaux les
plus graves 132, que le droit international coutumier impose au Sénégal.

139. Comme la Cour le relève au paragraphe 45 du présent arrêt, « l’exis-
tence d’un différend est une condition énoncée dans les devux bases de com -
pétence que la Belgique a invoquées». Il est établi de longue date qu’« [u]n

différend est un désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, unev133position
de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts entre deux personnes» . A cet égard, il
ressort de la jurisprudence constante de laCour — comme cela est rappelé
dans le présent arrêt — que, lorsque celle-ci cherche à déterminer l’existence
134
d’un différend, elle «doit s’attacher aux faits» (arrêt, par. 46) .
140. Dans la présente affaire, la Cour a examiné les faits tels qu’vils lui
avaient été présentés afin de déterminer s’il existavit un différend entre les

Parties concernant les demandes relatives au fait que le Sénégal avurait
manqué à ses obligations au regard du droit international coutumier. Au
vu des échanges diplomatiques entre les Parties antérieurs à l’vintroduction

de la présente instance par la Belgique, elle a jugé que celle-ci vne s’était
pas référée aux obligations d’engager des poursuites à l’vencontre de
M. Hissène Habré pour les crimes internationaux les plus graves que le

droit international coutumier imposerait au Sénégal. Dès lors, vaucun
désaccord (ou aucune divergence d’opinion) quant aux obligations allé -
guées du Sénégal en la matière ne pouvait exister entre les vParties au
moment où la Belgique a déposé sa requête.

141. Il apparaît clairement que, en la présente espèce, la Cour s’vest atta -
chée à des considérations purement factuelles aux fins de dévterminer l’ex-is
tence d’un différend relatif à cette question. Selon moi, parveille approche

diffère d’un examen par la Cour de la question de savoir s’il ex ▯ iste une base
juridique de compétence quant aux demandes relatives aux violations allé -
guées d’obligations relevant du droit international coutumier. La vmanière

dont la Cour a considéré la réclamation de la Belgique selon lavquelle le
Sénégal aurait manqué à certaines obligations lui incombant vau regard du
droit international coutumier, ainsi que les conclusions qu’elle a fovrmulées à
cet égard, contrastent radicalement avec l’examen qu’elle fait de la question

de savoir si elle est compétente au titre du paragraphe 1 de l’artvicle 30 de la
convention contre la torture. S’agissant de cette disposition, la Couvr exa -
mine en effet les conditions juridiques qui y sont énoncées afin de déterminer

s’il existe, aux termes de cette disposition, une base juridique de compétence.

132
Cette détermination repose sur les circonstances de la présente esvpèce (et particuliè-
rement sur le fait que, dans la correspondance diplomatique qu’ont échangée les Parties,
la Belgique n’ait pas fait mention de sa réclamation selon laquelle le droit internvational
coutumier fait obligation au Sénégal de poursuivre les personnes avccusées d’avoir commis
les crimes internationaux les plus graves).
133Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt n o2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A n o 2,
p. 11.
134C’est en examinant la position des Parties (y compris leurs échanges)v, telle qu’elle
est exprimée dans le dossier de l’affaire, que la Cour recherche l’existence d’un différend.

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142. Contrastingly, with regard to the claim of alleged breaches of cus-
tomary international law obligations, the Court’s analysis hinges on vfac-
tual considerations of the present case (Judgment, para. 55). In my
perception, paragraph 55 and operative paragraph (2) of the dispositif of

the present Judgment are not to be understood as meaning that the Court v
lacks jurisdiction to entertain claims of breaches of a State’s alleged obli -
gations under customary international law (e.g., to prosecute perpetrators
of core international crimes, such as raised in this case). As in the cvircum -

stances of the cas d’espèce the dispute between the Parties at the time of
the filing of the Application did not include claims of alleged breachves by
Senegal of obligations under customary international law, the Court
improperly stated that it did not have jurisdiction to dwell upon those v
alleged breaches.

143. The Court, in my view, did not express itself well. The proper
understanding of paragraph 55, in combination with operative para -

graph (2) of the dispositif of the present Judgment, is, in my understand -
ing, that the determination that the facts of the present case do not disclose
a dispute between the Parties as to Senegal’s alleged breach of obligvations
under customary international law is not the same as the finding that vthe

Court presumably does not have jurisdiction to entertain the claims of
alleged breaches of obligations under customary international law.
144. What the Court really wished to say, in my perception, is that
there was no material object for the exercise of its jurisdiction in respect of
obligations under customary international law, rather than a lack of its
135
own jurisdiction per se . The finding that, in the circumstances of the
present case, a dispute did not exist between the contending Parties as vto
the matter at issue, does not necessarily mean that, as a matter of law, the
Court would automatically lack jurisdiction, to be exercised in relation to

the determination of the existence of a dispute concerning breaches of
alleged obligations under customary international law.

XIII. A Recurring Issue : The Time of Human Justicve
and the Time of Human Beivngs

1. An Unfortunate Décalage to Be Bridged

145. Already in my earlier dissenting opinion in the Court’s Order
of 28 May 2009 (not indicating provisional measures of protection) in

135As already pointed out, the Court’s finding concerning Belgium’sv claim that Senegal
breached certain obligations under customary international law is based von the specific
factual background of the present case, and particularly on the fact thavt Belgium did not
refer, in its diplomatic correspondence or otherwise, to such obligationvs.

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142. En revanche, s’agissant de la demande relative aux violations allév -
guées d’obligations relevant du droit international coutumier, l’vexamen
de la Cour repose sur des considérations factuelles de la présente espèce
(arrêt, par. 55). A mon sens, le paragraphe 55 ainsi que le deuxième point

du dispositif du présent arrêt ne doivent pas être compris comme signi -
fiant que la Cour n’a pas compétence pour connaître de demandves rela -
tives à des violations, par un Etat, d’obligations qui lui incombevraient au
regard du droit international coutumier (par exemple, l’obligation dve

poursuivre les auteurs des crimes internationaux les plus graves, tels qvue
ceux dont il est question en l’espèce). Etant donné que, dans vles circons -
tances du cas d’espèce, le différend entre les Parties n’ivncluait pas, au
moment du dépôt de la requête, de demandes relatives au fait quve le Séné -
gal aurait manqué à des obligations que lui impose le droit internvational

coutumier, la Cour s’est, à tort, déclarée incompétente pvour connaître de
ces manquements allégués.
143. Selon moi, la Cour ne s’est pas bien exprimée ; le paragraphe 55,
lu conjointement avec le deuxième point du dispositif du présent arrêt,

doit être interprété comme signifiant que la conclusion suivavnt laquelle les
faits de la présente espèce ne révèlent pas de différenvd entre les Parties en
ce qui concerne le manquement allégué du Sénégal à des obvligations qui
lui incombent au regard du droit international coutumier diffère dev la

conclusion selon laquelle la Cour n’a, semble-t-il, pas compétencev pour
connaître de pareilles demandes.
144. Ce que la Cour a réellement voulu dire, à mon sens, c’est qu’vil n’y
avait pas d’objet matériel pour qu’elle exerce sa compétence▯ relativement
aux obligations découlant du droit international coutumier, et non qu’elle
135
n’était pas compétente per se . La conclusion selon laquelle, dans les
circonstances de l’espèce, il n’existait pas de différend ventre les Parties à
ce sujet ne signifie pas nécessairement que, d’un point de vue juridique, l▯a
Cour serait forcément incompétente pour déterminer l’existence d’un diffé -

rend relatif à des violations d’obligations découlant du droit vinternational
coutumier.

XIII. Une question récurrenvte : le temps de la justicev
des hommes et le tempsv des êtres humains

1. Un décalage regrettable auquel il convient de remédier

145. Dans ma précédente opinion dissidente, dont l’exposé étaivt joint à
l’ordonnance (n’indiquant pas de mesures conservatoires) rendue vpar la

135Comme cela a déjà été indiqué, la conclusion de la Cour cvoncernant la demande de
la Belgique selon laquelle le Sénégal aurait manqué à certaines obligations au regard du
droit international coutumier est fondée sur le contexte factuel spévcifique de la présente
espèce et, plus particulièrement, sur le fait que la Belgique n’a pas fait référence à pareilles
obligations dans sa correspondance diplomatique, ou de toute autre manièvre.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 249 28/11/13 12:50 545 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

the present case concerning Questions relating to the Obligation to Pros -
ecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), I deemed it fit to address the
décalage to be bridged between the brief time of human beings (vita

brevis) and the often prolonged time of human justice (I.C.J. Reports
2009, pp. 182-188, paras. 46-64). I stressed the crucial importance of the
incidence of the time element — to the effect of avoiding undue delays —
for the realization of justice in the present case (ibid., pp. 191-194,

paras. 74-84). In this respect, in that dissenting opinion I deemed it fit to
warn that

“(. . .) As to the obligations corresponding to that right to be
preserved, the segment aut judicare of the enunciation of the principle
of universal jurisdiction, aut dedere aut judicare, forbids undue
delays in the realization of justice. Such undue delays bring about an

irreparable damage to those who seek justice in vain ; furthermore,
they frustrate and obstruct the fulfilment of the object and purpose
of the United Nations Convention against Torture, to the point of
conforming a breach of this latter. 136

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
It is the gravity of human rights violations, of the crimes perpe -
trated, that admits no prolonged extension in time of the impunity of

the perpetrators, so as to honour the memory of the fatal victims and
to bring relief to the surviving ones and their relatives. In my under -
standing, even more significant than retribution is the judicial recogv-
nition of human suffering 137, and only the realization of justice can

alleviate the suffering of the victims caused by the irreparable damage
of torture.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

With the persistence of impunity in the present case concerning
Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite, the pass -
ing of time will continue hurting people, much more than it normally
does, in particular those victimized by the absence of human justice.

The time of this latter is not the time of human beings.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
This is all the more serious in the light of the nature of the afore -

mentioned obligations of the States parties to the United Nations
Convention against Torture.” (Ibid., pp. 187, 191, 192 and 194,
paras. 63, 75, 77 and 84).

146. The often prolonged delays in the operation of human justice
seem to disclose an indifference to the brevity of human existence, tov the
time of human beings. But this is not the only means whereby the admin -

istration of human justice, in its handling of the time factor, seems tov

136Cf., to this effect, A. Boulesbaa, The UN Convention on Torture and the Prospects for
Enforcement, The Hague, Nijhoff, 1999, p. 227.
137The right to be herein preserved, the right to justice, is inextricably vlinked to (non-
pecuniary) reparation.

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Cour le 28 mai 2009 en la présente affaire relative à des Questions concer -
nant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), j’avais
déjà jugé utile de me pencher sur le décalage — auquel il convient de

remédier — entre le temps compté des êtres humains (vita brevis) et le
temps souvent long de la justice des hommes (C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 182-
188, par. 46-64). A cet égard, j’ai souligné l’importance cruciale quve revêt
l’élément temporel — afin d’éviter des retards injustifiés — pour la réali -

sation de la justice en la présente espèce (ibid., p. 191-194, par. 74-84),
précisant que,

«… En ce qui concerne les obligations correspondant à ce droit à
sauvegarder, le segment aut judicare de la formule résumant le principe
de la compétence universelle, aut dedere aut judicare, interdit tout
retard excessif dans l’accomplissement de la justice. Tarder ainsi àv

rendre la justice, c’est causer un préjudice irréparable à cveux qui luttent
en vain pour l’obtenir ; en outre, cela va à l’encontre de l’objet et du
but de la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture et fait obsta -
cle à leur réalisation, au point d’emporter violation de celle-vci. 136

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C’est la gravité des violations des droits de l’homme, des crimves
perpétrés, qui interdit de laisser durer l’impunité des exacvteurs, afin

d’honorer la mémoire de ceux qui y ont laissé la vie et d’apporter
réparation à ceux qui y ont survécu ainsi qu’à leurs procvhes. A mes
yeux, le châtiment n’importe pas tant que la reconnaissance des souf -
frances humaines par la justice 13, et seule la réalisation de la justice

peut permettre d’atténuer les souffrances des victimes irrémédiable -
ment marquées par la torture.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tant que perdurera l’impunité dans la présente affaire relativve à
des Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader, le
temps qui passe restera douloureux, bien plus que d’ordinaire, en
particulier pour ceux qui pâtissent de l’absence de justice humainve.

L’heure de cette dernière n’est pas celle des victimes.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
La situation est d’autant plus alarmante lorsque l’on considèrev la

nature des obligations susmentionnées qui sont à la charge des Etats
parties à la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture… » (Ibid.,
p. 187, 191, 192 et 194, par. 63, 75, 77 et 84.)

146. Les délais, souvent fort longs, dans le fonctionnement de la justice
humaine semblent traduire une indifférence face à la brièvetév de la vie
humaine, au temps des êtres humains. Telle n’est cependant pas, sevmble-

t-il, la seule manière dont l’administration de la justice humainev, dans son

136Voir, en ce sens, A. Boulesbaa, The UN Convention on Torture and the Prospects for
Enforcement, La Haye, Nijhoff, 1999, p. 227.
137Le droit qu’il convient de préserver ici — le droit à la justice — est indissociablement
lié à la réparation (non pécuniaire).

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6 CIJ1033.indb 251 28/11/13 12:50 546 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

operate against the expectation of justice on the part of human beings.
One example is found in the undue invocation of non-retroactivity in

relation to continuing wrongful situations of obstruction of access to jus -
tice extending themselves in time (cf. infra). Another example is afforded
by the undue invocation of prescription in situations of the kind. Whethver
we look forth, or else back in time, we are faced with injustice in the v

handling of the time factor, making abstraction of the gravity of the
breaches of law, to the detriment of victimized human beings.

147. In the present case concerning Mr. H. Habré, prescription has

already been duly discarded by the 2006 Report of the AU Committee of
Eminent African Jurists (para. 14). And, in my view, the invocation is
likewise to be discarded in the present case, for the reasons that I layv
down in Section XIV, infra, of the present separate opinion. One cannot

lose sight of the fact that those who claim to have been victimized by tvhe
reported atrocities of the Habré regime in Chad (1982-1990) have been
waiting for justice for over two decades, and it would add further injusv -
tice to them to prolong further their ordeal by raising new obstacles tov be
138
surmounted . One has to bridge the unfortunate décalage between the
time of human justice and the time of human beings.

148. The time factor cannot be handled in a way that leads to injustice.

Certain conceptions, which took shape a long time ago in a historical
context entirely distinct from the one with which we are confronted in the
present case, cannot be mechanically applied herein. It should, moreoverv,

be kept in mind that the passing of time does not heal the profound scarvs
in human dignity inflicted by torture. Such scars can even be transmitvted
from one generation to another. Victims of such a grave breach of their v
inherent rights (as torture), who furthermore have no access to justicve

(lato sensu, i.e., no realization of justice), are victims also of a continuing
violation (denial of justice), to be taken into account as a whole, wivthout
the imposition of time-limits decharacterizing the continuing breach 13,
until that violation ceases.

149. The passing of time cannot lead to subsequent impunity either ;
oblivion cannot be imposed, even less so in face of such a grave breach vof

human rights and of international humanitarian law as torture. The
imperative of the preservation of the integrity of human dignity stands
well above pleas of non-retroactivity and/or prescription. It is high time

138
HRW, The Trial of Hissène Habré : Time is Running Out for the Victims, Vol. 19,
Jan139y 2007, No. 2, pp. 1, 14 and 19.
On the notion of “continuing situation” in international legal thivnking, cf. case
concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy), Counter-Claim,
Order of 6 July 2010, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), dissenting opinion of Judge Cançado Trin -
dade, pp. 352-366, paras. 55-94.

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traitement de l’élément temporel, s’effectue à rebours vdes attentes des êtres
humains. L’invocation indue de la non-rétroactivité en ce qui cvoncerne

certaines situations illégales continues faisant obstacle à l’accès à la justice
(voir infra) en est une illustration. Un autre exemple est celui de l’invoca -
tion indue de la prescription dans des situations du même type. Que cve soit
en amont ou en aval du processus, on se trouve ainsi confronté à uvne

injustice dans le traitement de l’élément temporel, sans qu’vil soit tenu
compte de la gravité des violations du droit qui ont été commises ; cette
injustice s’exerce au détriment des êtres humains victimes.
147. En ce qui concerne M. Hissène Habré, la prescription a déjà, à

juste titre, été écartée dans le rapport de 2006 du Comité d’éminents
juristes africains (Union africaine) (par. 14). Selon moi, pareille invoca -
tion doit aussi être écartée en la présente espèce, pour les raisons que
j’exposerai dans la section XIV infra de la présente opinion individuelle.

En effet, il ne faut pas perdre de vue le fait que les personnes qui dvisent
avoir été victimes des atrocités perpétrées par le régvime de M. Habré au
Tchad (1982-1990) attendent que justice soit rendue depuis plus de
vingt ans, et que, pour elles, il serait plus injuste encore de prolonger
138
davantage leur calvaire en créant de nouveaux obstacles à surmontevr .
Il convient de remédier au regrettable décalage qui existe entre le temps
de la justice des hommes et le temps des êtres humains.
148. L’élément temporel ne saurait être traité d’une manièvre qui

engendre l’injustice. Certaines conceptions, qui se sont fait jour ilv y a fort
longtemps, dans un contexte historique radicalement différent de cevlui de
la présente affaire, ne peuvent y être transposées mécaniqvuement. Il

convient en outre de garder à l’esprit que le temps qui passe ne fvera pas
disparaître les profondes blessures que la torture a infligées àv la dignité
humaine. Pareilles blessures peuvent même se transmettre d’une gévnéra -
tion à l’autre. Les victimes d’une violation aussi grave de leuvrs droits

naturels (que l’est la torture), qui se voient, de surcroît, refvuser l’accès à la
justice (lato sensu, c’est-à-dire que justice n’est pas rendue), se trouvent
également victimes d’une violation continue (le déni de justice) dont il
convient de tenir compte dans son ensemble (sans l’assortir de limites
139
temporelles qui vident son caractère continu de sa substance ), jusqu’à
ce que ladite violation cesse.
149. Le temps qui passe ne peut pas non plus entraîner l’impunit;él’oubli
ne saurait être imposé, et ce, d’autant moins qu’est en causve une violation

des droits de l’homme et du droit international humanitaire aussi gravve que
l’est la torture. L’impératif du respect de la dignité humaivne l’emporte très
largement sur les arguments de non-rétroactivité ou de prescription. Il est

138
HRW, Le ougement de Hissène Habré : Le temps presse pour les victimes,vol. 19,
jan139r 2007, n 2, p. 1, 14 et 19.
Sur la notion de « situation continue » dans la pensée juridique internationale, voir
l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de (Allemagne c. Italie), demande
reconventionnelle, ordonnance du 6 juillet 2010, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (I), opinion dissidente
de M. le juge Cançado Trindade, p. 352-366, par. 55-94.

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to bridge the unfortunate décalage between the time of human justice and
the time of human beings. Articles 5 (2), 6 (2) and 7 (1) — interrelated as
they are — of the CAT forbid undue delays ; if, despite the requirements

contained therein, undue delays occur, there are breaches of those provi -
sions of the CAT. This is clearly what has happened in the present case,v
in so far as Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of the CAT are concerned, as rightly
upheld by this Court 140.

150. It has already been pointed out that, in its decision of 19 May
2006 in the Souleymane Guengueng and al. v. Senegal case, the UN Com -
mittee against Torture found that the “reasonable time-frame” for the

State concerned to take the necessary measures, in pursuance of the prinv -
ciple of universal jurisdiction, under Article 5 (2) of the CAT, had been,
already by then, “considerably exceeded”. With such a prolonged devlay,
the same applied in respect of Article 6 (2) of the CAT, which expressly
141
determines that the State party concerned “shall immediately make a
preliminary inquiry into the facts”. This has not been done to date. And
the same also applies to the measure — submission of the case to the v
competent authorities for the purpose of prosecution — also in pursuance

of the principle of universal jurisdiction, under Article 7 (1) of the CAT.
This has not been done to date either.

151. Although the breach of Article 5 (2) ceased in 2007, with the
adoption by Senegal of legislative reforms to bring its domestic law into
conformity with Article 5 (2) of the CAT, the other continuing breaches
of Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of the CAT persist to date. These provisions of

the CAT are meant, as I perceive them, to bridge the unfortunate gap
between the time of human justice and the time of human beings, by pur -
porting to avoid, and not to allow, undue delays. Non-compliance with
such provisions, as in the present case so far, perpetuates the unfortunvate

gap between the time of human justice and the time of human beings.
152. This is even more regrettable, bearing in mind that everyone lives
within time — the existential time of each one. The irreversible passing of
time not only leaves its marks in the aging body, but also marks its flow

in one’s conscience. Each person is ineluctably linked more to her owvn
existential time (which cannot be changed) than to the space where shev
lives (which can be changed). Each person lives inevitably within her vown
time, conscious that it will come to an end. If one’s life-time is marked by

injustice and impunity, one is left with the impression, after the occurv -
rence of all the atrocities, that nothing seems to have happened at all 14.

140
141Operative paragraphs (4) and (5) of the dispositif of the present Judgment.
Emphasis added.
142Cf. Jean Améry, Levantar la Mano sobre Uno Mismo — Discurso sobre la Muerte
Voluntaria [Hand an sich legen — Diskurs über den Freitod, 1976], Valencia, Pre-Textos,
2005 (repub.), pp. 67, 91-92 and 143.

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grand temps de remédier au regrettabledécalage qui existe entre le temps de
la justice des hommes et le temps des êtres humains. A cet égard, vles articles 5,
paragraphe 2, 6, paragraphe 2, et 7, paragraphe 1, de la convention contre

la torture — qui sont étroitement liés — excluent tout retard injustifié ; si,
malgré ces prescriptions, pareils retards se produisent, cela constitvue une
violation desdites dispositions. Or, ainsi que la Cour l’a estimé và juste titre,
c’est manifestement ce qui s’est produit en l’espèce en ce qvui concerne les
140
articles 6, paragraphe 2, et 7, paragraphe 1, de la convention .
150. Il a déjà été indiqué que, dans sa décision du 19 mai 2006 en l’af -
faire Souleymane Guengueng et autres c. Sénégal, le Comité des Nations
Unies contre la torture avait considéré que le « délai raisonnable » dans

lequel l’Etat concerné aurait dû prendre les mesures nécessaires, en appli -
cation du principe de la compétence universelle énoncé à l’varticle 5, para-
graphe 2, de la convention contre la torture, était, à ce moment déjàv,
«largement dépassé ». Compte tenu de ce retard prolongé, il en va de

même concernant l’article 6, paragraphe 2, de la convention contre la tor -
ture, qui dispose expressément que l’Etat partie concerné « procède immé-
diatement 141à une enquête préliminaire en vue d’établir les faits». Or, à ce
jour, cette enquête n’a pas été effectuée. Il en va ausvsi de même en ce qui

concerne la mesure — consistant à soumettre l’affaire aux autorités com -
pétentes pour l’exercice de l’action pénale —, là encore en vertu du prin -
cipe de compétence universelle, en application de l’article 7, paragraphe 1,
dudit instrument. A ce jour, cela non plus n’a pas été effectvué.

151. Quoique la violation de l’article 5, paragraphe 2, ait cessé en 2007
avec l’adoption par le Sénégal de réformes législatives visant à mettre
son droit interne en conformité avec cette disposition, la violation des v
articles 6, paragraphe 2, et 7, paragraphe 1, de ladite convention perdure.

Telles que je les conçois, ces dispositions ont pour objet de remédier au
regrettable décalage qui existe entre le temps de la justice des homm▯es et le
temps des êtres humains, et sont censées prévenir et interdire tout retard
injustifié. Le fait de ne pas se conformer à ces dispositions, cvomme c’est le

cas en l’espèce jusqu’à présent, perpétue ce regrettabvle décalage.
152. Cela est d’autant plus regrettable que l’existence de tout un cha -
cun est circonscrite par le temps, le temps existentiel. L’implacablev pas -
sage du temps laisse son empreinte non seulement sur notre corps

vieillissant, mais aussi sur notre conscience. Fatalement, chacun d’entre
nous est davantage lié à son temps existentiel (qui ne peut pas être modi -
fié) qu’à l’espace où il vit (qui, lui, peut l’êvtre) ; fatalement, nous vivons
tous dans les limites de notre temps propre, conscients que celui-ci pren -

dra fin. Si l’existence d’une personne est marquée par l’injustice dont elle
est victime et l’impunité des auteurs, elle aura l’impression, vmalgré toutes
ces atrocités, que rien ne s’est passé aux yeux du monde 142.

140
141Arrêt, points 4 et 5 du dispositif.
Les italiques sont de moi.
142 Voir Jean Améry, Levantar la Mano sobre Uno Mismo — Discurso sobre la Muerte
Voluntaria [Hand an sich legen — Diskurs über den Freitod, 1976], Valence, Pre-Textos,
2005 (rééd.), p. 67, 91-92 et 143.

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153. To live within time can thus at times be particularly painful, the
more one is conscious of the brevity of one’s lifetime. Even if nothivng

wrongful had happened, to live within one’s time, and to accept the evffect
of its implacable passing upon oneself, up to the end of one’s existevnce, is
already difficult. To feel the existential time pass with injustice prevvailing,

and surrounded by indifference, is all the more painful ; the passing of
time in such circumstances is on the verge of becoming truly unbearable.v
Prolonged and definitive injustice may lead — and not seldom has led —
victims of grave violations of human rights into despair. The graver the

violation, the greater the likelihood of this to happen. Impunity is an v
additional violation of human rights.

2. Making Time Work Pro Victima

154. In the domain of the international law of human rights, which is
essentially victim-oriented, the time factor is to be made to operate pro

victima. As to the principle aut dedere aut judicare set forth in Article 7 (1),
it has already been indicated that aut judicare is ineluctably associated
with the requirement of absence of undue delays. For its part, extraditivon,
largely dependent upon the existence of treaties and the interpretation v

given to them in the circumstances of each case, is bound to remain
largely discretionary. What comes promptly into the fore in the cas
d’espèce is the requirement of expeditious inquiry into the facts for the

purpose of prosecution, a duty incumbent upon States parties to the
CAT. The duty of prosecution is further singled out by the requirement, v
under Article 4 of the CAT, of criminalization of all acts of torture under
domestic law, taking into account “their grave nature”. Extradition comes

into the picture only in case of the absence of prosecution.

155. In this connection, the recent judgment (of 2010) of the Court of
Justice of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS
Court of Justice) cannot be seen as an obstacle to Senegal’s compliavnce

with its obligations under Ar143le 7 of the CAT. In fact, it can at first be
argued, as Belgium does , that Senegal has been in non-compliance
with its obligations under the CAT (such as those under Article 7) for
years, well before the judgment of the ECOWAS Court was delivered
144
in 2010 . In this connection, I find Senegal’s reiterated contentions

143CR 2012/3, of 13 March 2012, p. 17.
144Thus, from the start it does not seem reasonable to rely on this recent vECOWAS

judgment to attempt to justify that continuing non-compliance, largely pvredating the
latter judgment. Moreover, Senegal’s continuing non-compliance with the obligation aut
dedere aut judicare, enshrined in Article 7 of the CAT, has created a situation whereby
Mr. H. Habré has been under house surveillance for an extended period of timve —
according to the pleadings of the Parties since 2000; cf. CR 2012/4, of 15 March 2012, p. 21,

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153. Vivre dans les limites de son temps propre peut donc se révéler
particulièrement douloureux si l’on est conscient de la brièvetvé de l’exis -

tence. Même lorsque aucun tort n’a été causé, il est diffivcile de vivre dans
le temps limité qui nous est accordé et d’accepter l’effetv de ce temps qui
passe, implacablement, jusqu’au crépuscule de notre existence. Danvs un

contexte d’injustice et d’indifférence, la conscience de l’vécoulement du
temps existentiel est donc d’autant plus douloureuse ; en pareilles circons -
tances, la fuite du temps n’est pas loin de devenir proprement insuppvor -
table. Une situation d’injustice prolongée et définitive peutv ainsi — et ce

n’est pas rare — conduire les victimes de violations graves des droits de
l’homme au désespoir. Plus la violation est grave, plus ce risque vest grand.
L’impunité constitue une violation supplémentaire des droits dev l’homme.

2. Faire en sorte que le temps œuvre pro victima

154. Dans le domaine du droit international des droits de l’homme, qui
est essentiellement orienté vers les victimes, l’élément temvporel doit servir

à œuvrer pro victima. S’agissant du principe aut dedere aut judicare,
énoncé à l’article 7, paragraphe 1, de la convention contre la torture, le
volet aut judicare s’accompagne nécessairement, ainsi que cela a déjà étév
indiqué, de l’exigence qu’il n’y ait pas de retard injustifié. L’extradition,

quant à elle, qui repose en grande partie sur l’existence d’insvtruments
conventionnels et l’interprétation qui en est donnée selon les vcirconstances
de chaque affaire, est vouée à demeurer largement discrétionnvaire. Ce qui

apparaît très vite comme étant au cœur du cas d’espècev, c’est l’exigence
d’une enquête immédiate en vue d’établir les faits aux fivns de l’exercice de
l’action pénale, obligation qui incombe à l’ensemble des Etavts parties à la
convention contre la torture. L’obligation de poursuivre est également

mise en évidence par l’exigence d’incrimination en droit internve, énoncée
à l’article 4 de la convention contre la torture, de tous les actes de torture,
en prenant en considération leur « gravité». L’extradition n’est envisagée

qu’en cas d’absence de poursuites.
155. A cet égard, l’arrêt qu’a récemment rendu la Cour de justvice de la
CEDEAO (en 2010) ne peut être considéré comme faisant obstacle au
respect, par le Sénégal, des obligations qui lui incombent aux termes de

l’article 7 de la convention contre la tor143e. De fait, on peut d’abord
affirmer, comme le fait la Belgique , que cela fait des années que le
Sénégal ne respecte pas les obligations que lui impose cet instrumvent
(comme celles qui sont énoncées à l’article 7), et que tel était le cas bien
144
avant que l’arrêt de la Cour de la CEDEAO ne soit prononcé, en 2010 .

143CR 2012/3, 13 mars 2012, p. 17.
144Il apparaît donc d’emblée qu’il n’est guère raisonnable de se prévaloir de ce

récent arrêt de la Cour de justice de la CEDEAO pour tenter de justifier ce manque -
ment persistant, d’ailleurs bien antérieur à ladite décision. De surcroît, le mvanquement
persistant du Sénégal à l’obligatioaut dedere aut judicare, consacréel’article 7 de la
convention contre la torture, a entraîné le placement prolongé vde M. Habré en résidence
surveillée depuis 2000, selon les Parties ; voir CR 2012/4, 15 mars 2012, p. 21, par. 7. Voir

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(in its Counter-Memorial 145and oral arguments 146) of alleged difficulties

ensuing from the judgment of the ECOWAS Court of Justice of 2010
unpersuasive. They do not — cannot — bear an impact on compliance
with its obligations under the CAT.

156. Likewise, they cannot be invoked in a way that generates further
delays in the realization of justice. A supervening decision of an intervna -

tional tribunal (the ECOWAS Court of Justice) cannot encroach upon
the current exercise of the judicial function of another international tvribu -

nal (the ICJ), performing its duty to pronounce on the interpretation vand
application of the CAT — one of the “core Conventions” of the United
Nations in the domain of human rights —, in order to make sure that

justice is done. As the ICJ rightly stated in the present Judgment, “vThe
Court considers that Senegal’s duty to comply with its obligations unvder
the Convention cannot be affected by the decision of the ECOWAS Court v

of Justice” (para. 111).

157. It is my view that co-existing international tribunals perform a
common mission of imparting justice, of contributing to the common goal
of the realization of justice. The decision of any international tribunal is

to be properly regarded as contributing to that goal, and not as dissemiv -
nating discord 147. There is here a convergence, rather than a divergence,

para. 7. Cf. also Counter-Memorial of Senegal, p. 3. It may thus be argued that the delay
in prosecuting (or extraditing) him, while still keeping him under houvse surveillance

(amounting to a preventive detention), is contrary to his right to be vtried without undue
delay; furthermore, at present this calls into question whether Senegal has tvruly intended
so far to prosecute Mr. H. Habré. In addition, arguments as to the question of non-retro -
activity seem hardly convincing ; for criticisms, cf., e.g., V. Spiga, “Non-Retroactivity of
Criminal Law : A New Chapter in the Hissène Habré Saga”, 9 Journal of International
Criminal Justice (2011), pp. 5-23 ; A. D. Olinga, “Les droits de l’homme peuvent-ils sous -

traire un ex-dictateur à la justice ? L’affaire Hissène Habré devant la Cour de Justice de
la CEDEAO”, 22 Revue trimestrielle des droits de l’homme (2011), No. 87, pp. 735-746 ;
K. Neldjingaye, “The Trial of Hissène Habré in Senegal and Its Contribution to Inter -
national Criminal Law”, in Prosecuting International Crimes in Africa (eds. C. Murungu
and J. Biegon), Pretoria/South Africa, Pretoria University Law Press (PULP), 2011,
pp. 185-196.

14Counter-Memorial of Senegal, Vol. I, paras. 67-70, 77, 85, 115-119, 176 and 241.
146CR 2012/4, of 15 March 2012, paras. 22, 42-43, 47, 51-53, 55-56, 58-59, 65, 69
and 71 ; CR 2012/5, of 16 March 2012, paras. 12.22, 16.16-18 and 20-21, and 27.11-12 ;
CR 2012/7, of 21 March 2012, paras. 14.26, 17.8 and 24.25-26.
147Accordingly, it should not pass unnoticed, in this connection, that Mr. H. Habré

has been in custody (under house surveillance) for some years (CR 201v2/5, of 16 March
2012, p. 21). The submission of the case for purpose of prosecution without unduve delay
would thus avoid what amounts to a preventive detention for an excessivevly prolonged
period of time, without trial ; A. Boulesbaa, The UN Convention on Torture. . ., op. cit.
supra note 136, p. 225, and cf. pp. 226-227, on the question of pre-trial detention and its
impact on the rights of the accused. In the present case, the undue delay in submitting the

case to prosecution has thus also caused unreasonable delay in Mr. H. Habré’s preventive

131

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A cet égard, je juge peu convaincante l’invocation réitéréve par le Sénégal
145 146
(dans son contre-mémoire et à l’audience ) de prétendues difficultés
résultant de cette décision de la Cour de justice de la CEDEAO. Cevla n’a

pas — et ne saurait avoir — d’incidence sur le respect des obligations
incombant au Sénégal au titre de la convention contre la torture.
156. De même, l’invocation de pareilles difficultés ne saurait àv son tour

engendrer de nouveaux retards dans la réalisation de la justice. Une vdéci -
sion rendue par une juridiction internationale (la Cour de justice de lva
CEDEAO) ne saurait empiéter sur l’exercice de la fonction judiciavire

d’une autre juridiction internationale (la présente Cour), qui sv’acquitte de
sa tâche consistant à se prononcer sur l’interprétation et lv’application de

la convention contre la torture — l’une des « conventions fondamentales»
des Nations Unies en matière de droits de l’homme —, et ce, afin de veil -
ler à ce que justice soit faite. Comme elle l’a affirmé à jvuste titre dans le

présent arrêt, « [l]a Cour considère que les obligations qui incombent au
Sénégal au titre de la convention ne sauraient être affectéves par la décision

de la Cour de justice de la CEDEAO » (par. 111).
157. Je suis d’avis que les juridictions internationales coexistantes
ont pour mission commune de rendre la justice et de contribuer à l’ob-

jectif commun de réalisation de la justice. La décision d’une de ces juri-
dictions, quelle qu’elle soit, doit être considérée comme apvportant sa
147
pierre à cet édifice commun, et non comme semant la discorde . En

également contre-mémoire du Sénégal, p. 3. Il est donc permis de penser que le retard pris
dans les poursuites (ou l’extradition) de M. Hissène Habré, tout en maintenant l’intéressé
en résidence surveillée (ce qui équivaut à une détentionv préventive), est contraire au droit
de celui-ci d’être jugé dans un délai raisonnable ; cela pose en outre aujourd’hui la ques -
tion de savoir si le Sénégal a jusqu’ici vraiment eu l’intention de poursuivre M. Hissène

Habré. Par ailleurs, les arguments relatifs à la question de la non-rétroactivité semblent
peu convaincants ; pour une critique de ces arguments, voir par exemple V. Spiga,
«Non-Retroactivity of Criminal Law : A New Chapter in the Hissène Habré Saga »,
Journal of International Criminal Justice, vol. 9 (2011), p. 5-23 ; A. D. Olinga, « Les
droits de l’homme peuvent-ils soustraire un ex-dictateur à la justice ? L’affaire Hissène

Habré devant la Couo de Justice de la CEDEAO », Revue trimestrielle des droits de
l´homme, vol. 22, n 87 (2011), p. 735-746 ; K. Neldjingaye, « The Trial of Hissène Habré
in Senegal and Its Contribution to International Criminal Law », Prosecuting International
Crimes in Africa (dir.publ., C. Murungu et J. Biegon), Pretoria/Afrique du Sud, Pretoria
University Law Press (PULP), 2011, p. 185-196.
145 Contre-mémoire du Sénégal, vol. I, par. 67-70, 77, 85, 115-119, 176 et 241.
146
CR 2012/4, 15 mars 2012, par. 22, 42-43, 47, 51-53, 55-56, 58-59, 65, 69 et 71 ;
CR 2012/5, 16 mars 2012, par. 12.22, 16.16-18 et 20-21, et 27.11-12 ;CR 2012/7, 21 mars
2012, par. 14.26, 17.8 et 24.25-26.
147 Aussi convient-il de ne pas passer sous silence le fait que M. Hissène Habré est
en détention (en résidence surveillée) depuis un certain nombre d’années (CR 2012/5,
16 mars 2012, p. 21). La soumission de l’affaire aux autorités compétentes aux fins de

l’exercice de l’action pénale sans retard injustifié aurait ainsi permis d’éviter une situation
qui équivaut à une détention préventive pour une période vextrêmement prolongée, sans
procès; A. Boulesbaa, The UN Convention on Torture…, op. cit. supra note 136, p. 225, et
voir p. 226-227, sur la question de la détention préventive et de ses conséquevnces sur les
droits de l’accusé. En l’espèce, le retard injustifié dans la soumission de l’affaire aux auto -
rités compétentes aux fins de l’exercice de l’action pénale a par conséquent aussi entraîné

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of the corpus juris of the international law of human rights and interna -
tional criminal law, for the correct interpretation and application by
international tribunals.

XIV. The Time Factor : A Rebuttal of a Regressivve Interpretation

of the Convention agaivnst Torture

158. Paragraph 99 of the present Judgment, wherein the ICJ expressly
acknowledges that “the prohibition of torture is part of customary invter -

national law and it has become a peremptory norm (jus cogens)”, is in
my view one of the most significant passages of the present Judgment. vMy
satisfaction would have been greater if the Court dwelt further upon it,v
and developed its reasoning on this particular issue, as it could and

should, thus fostering the progressive development of international law.
The Court, however, promptly turned around in the following paragraph,
and started treading on troubled waters, embarking — to my regret — on
a regressive interpretation of the relevant provision (Article 7 (1)) of the

CAT.

159. In any case, up to now, the Court has not shown much familiarity
with, nor strong disposition to, elaborate on jus cogens ; it has taken more
than six decades for it to acknowledge its existence tout court, in spite of

its being one of the central features of contemporary international law. In
effect, immediately after identifying the manifestation of jus cogens in the
customary international law prohibition of torture (Judgment, para. 99),
the Court has indulged into a consideration, sponte sua, of non-retro-

activity of treaty provisions. The Court has done so (ibid., paras. 100 to
104) adding an unnecessary — if not contradictory — element ofconfusion
to its own reasoning.

160. It has done so, sponte sua, without having been asked topronounce
itself on this point — alien to the CAT — neither by Belgium nor by
Senegal. It has done so despite the fact that the CAT, unlike othertreaties,
does not provide for, nor contain, any temporal limitation or express

indication on non-retroactivity. It did so by picking out one older

detention, and that is contrary to basic postulates proper to the internvational law of human
rights; cf., e.g., Article 14 (3) of the UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, providing
for the right “to be tried without undue delay”. Moreover, the privnciple aut dedere aut judi
care (in particular the obligation aut judicare), set forth in Article 7 (1) of the CAT, forbids
undue delays, which would militate against the object and purpose of thev Conven;ion
cf., to this effect, J. H. Burgers and H. Danelius, The United Nations Convention against
Torture, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1988, p. 137, and cf. also note 136, supra.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 260 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 550

l’occurrence, il existe une convergence, et non une divergence, du cor-
pus juris du droit international des droits de l’homme et du droit pénal
international, qui permet aux juridictions internationales de parvenir àv

une interprétation et à une application appropriées de la convevntion.

XIV. L’élément temporel : réfutation de l’intevrprétation

régressive de la convenvtion contre la torturve

158. Selon moi, le paragraphe 99 du présent arrêt, dans lequel la Cour
reconnaît expressément que « l’interdiction de la torture relève du droit

international coutumier et [qu’]elle a acquis le caractère de normve impéra -
tive (jus cogens)», constitue l’un des passages les plus importants de cette
décision. Ma satisfaction aurait toutefois été plus grande si lva Cour
s’était davantage attardée sur le sujet et avait développév son raisonnement

sur ce point particulier, comme elle pouvait et devait le faire, contribvuant
ainsi au développement progressif du droit international. Dès le
paragraphe suivant, la Cour a cependant fait volte-face pour s’avancevr
en eaux troubles et se livrer — ce que je déplore — à une interprétation

régressive de l’article 7, paragraphe 1, de la convention contre la
torture.
159. En tout état de cause, la Cour ne s’est pas, jusqu’à présvent, mon -
trée très au fait du jus cogens, et elle n’a guère semblé disposée à approfon-
dir le sujet ; il a fallu plus de soixante ans pour qu’elle reconnaisse

simplement son existence, alors même qu’il s’agit d’une des caractvéris -
tiques principales du droit international contemporain. De fait, aussitôt
après avoir déterminé que l’interdiction de la torture dévcoulant du droit
international coutumier était une expression du jus cogens (arrêt, par. 99),

la Cour s’est lancée, sponte sua, dans une réflexion sur la non-rétroactivité
des dispositions conventionnelles. Ce faisant (ibid., par. 100-104), elle a
introduit une confusion inutile — voire une contradiction — dans son
propre raisonnement.

160. La Cour a agi ainsi sponte sua, sans qu’il lui ait été demandé, ni
par la Belgique, ni par le Sénégal, de se prononcer sur ce point, vqui ne
figure d’ailleurs pas dans la convention contre la torture. Elle a vagi ainsi
en dépit du fait que la convention contre la torture, contrairement àv

d’autres traités, ne prévoit ni ne comporte de limite temporellve ou d’indi -
cation expresse de non-rétroactivité. Elle l’a fait en choisissvant de se réfé-

une prolongation déraisonnable de la détention préventive de MHissène Habré, ce qui
est contraire à certains postulats fondamentaux propres au droit intevrnational des droits
de l’homme ; voir par exemple l’article 14, paragraphe 3, du Pacte international relatif aux
droits civils et politiques, qui prévoit le droit d’« être jugé sans retard excessif ». De plus,
le principe aut dedere aut judicare (particulièrement l’obligaut judicare), énoncé à
l’article 7, paragraphe 1, de la convention contre la torture, interdit tout retard injustifiév,
qui serait contraire à l’objet et à la finalité de la convention ; voir à cet effet J. H. Burgers
et H. Danelius, The United Nations Convention against Torture, Dordrecht, Nijhoff, 1988,
p. 137, et voir également note 136 supra.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 261 28/11/13 12:50 551 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

decision (of 1989) of the UN Committee against Torture that suited its

argument, and at the same time overlooking or not properly valuing more v
recent decisions of the Committee a contrario sensu, wherein the
Committee overruled its previous decision relied upon by the Court in itvs
reasoning.

161. The Court has referred approvingly to (Judgment, para. 101) an
earlier decision of the Committee against Torture (of 23 November 1989)
in the case O. R. and al. v. Argentina, whereby the Committee found that

the CAT did not apply to acts of torture allegedly committed before the v
entry into force of the Convention in Argentina 14. Yet, the Committee
has, ever since, adopted a different approach, as illustrated in two svubse -

quent cases. Thus, in 2003, in the case of Bouabdallah Ltaief v. Tunisia,
the Committee considered allegations of acts of torture allegedly commitv -
ted in 1987, notwithstanding the fact that the Convention entered into
force for Tunisia in 1988 149. In other words, the Committee did not dis -

tinguish between acts allegedly committed before the entry into force ofv
the CAT for Tunisia and those allegedly perpetrated thereafter.

162. Similarly, more recently, in 2006, in the case of Souleymane Guen -
gueng and al. v. Senegal 15, which pertains to a similar factual background
as the present case before this Court, the Committee again did not make v

any distinction between the facts that are reported to have taken place v
before the entry into force of the Convention for Senegal and those
alleged to have occurred afterwards. Thus, it can be considered that the

more recent approach of the Committee, as illustrated by these two deci -
sions of 2003 and 2006, has been to apply the CAT without distinguishingv
between acts alleged to have occurred before the Convention entered into
force for the respondent State, and those alleged to have occurred there -

after.
163. The fact is that the more recent decisions of the Committee
against Torture provide no support to the reasoning of the Court on thisv

particular point. Moreover, the Court has overlooked, or not valued
properly, the responses given by the contending Parties to a question puvt
to them from the bench, in a public sitting of the Court. In its response,
Belgium recalled the object and purpose of the CAT and the two more

148
CAT, case O. R. et al. v. Argentina, communications Nos. 1/1988, 2/1988 and
3/1988, decision of 23 November 1989, para. 7.3, Official Records of the General Assembly,
45th Session, Supplement No. 44 (doc. A/45/44), Annex V, p. 108, paras. 7.2-7.4 and 8.

149CAT, case Bouabdallah Ltaief v. Tunisia, communication No. 189/2001, decision
of 14 November 2003, Official Records of the General Assembly, 59th Session, Supplement
No. 44 (doc. A/59/44), Annex VII, p. 207, paras. 1.2, 2.1 and 10.1-10.9.

150CAT, case Souleymane Guengueng and al. v. Senegal, communication No. 181/2001,

UN Convention against Torture (doc. C/36/D/181/2001), decision of 19 May 2006. And
cf. Section III, supra.

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rer à une décision ancienne (datant de 1989) du Comité des Nations Unies
contre la torture qui correspondait à son raisonnement, tout en névgli -

geant ou en n’appréciant pas à leur juste valeur certaines dévcisions ren -
dues plus récemment par le Comité a contrario sensu, dans lesquelles
celui-ci infirmait sa décision antérieure.

161. La Cour s’est ainsi référée — en y souscrivant — (arrêt, par. 101)
à une décision ancienne rendue par le Comité des Nations Unies contre la
torture (du 23 novembre 1989) en l’affaire O. R. et autres c. Argentine,

dans laquelle le Comité avait estimé que la convention contre la tvorture
ne trouvait pas à s’appliquer à des actes de torture qui auraient été com -
mis avant son entrée en vigueur à l’égard de l’Argentine 148. Or, le Comité

a, depuis lors, toujours adopté une approche différente, ainsi qvue l’illus-
trent deux affaires plus récentes. Ainsi, en 2003, dans l’affaire Bouab-
dallah Ltaief c. Tunisie, il a pris en considération des allégations d’actes

de torture qui auraient été commis en 1987, et ce, bien que la convvention
ne soit entrée en vigueur à l’égard de la Tunisie qu’en 1v988 14. Autrement
dit, il n’a pas établi de distinction entre les actes qui auraientv été commis

avant l’entrée en vigueur de cet instrument à l’égard de vla Tunisie et les
faits qui auraient été commis après cette date.

162. De même, plus r150mment, dans l’affaire Souleymane Guengueng
et autres c. Sénégal de 2006 — dont le contexte factuel était similaire à
celui de la présente espèce —, le Comité n’a, là encore, fait aucune distinc -

tion entre les faits qui auraient eu lieu avant l’entrée en vigueur de la
convention à l’égard du Sénégal et ceux qui se seraient dvéroulés après. Il
est donc permis de considérer que l’approche plus récente du Covmité,

qu’illustrent ces deux décisions de 2003 et de 2006, a consisté à appliquer
la convention contre la torture sans établir de distinction entre desv actes
qui se seraient déroulés avant l’entrée en vigueur de la convention à

l’égard de l’Etat défendeur et des actes qui se seraient dévroulés aprèscette
date.
163. Le fait est que les décisions plus récentes du Comité contre lav tor -

ture ne viennent pas étayer le raisonnement de la Cour sur ce point svpéci-
fique. En outre, celle-ci a négligé les réponses données pvar les Parties à
une question qui leur avait été adressée par la Cour en audiencve publique,

ou ne leur a pas accordé le poids qu’il convenait. Dans sa répovnse, la
Belgique a en effet rappelé l’objet et le but de la convention cvontre la tor -

148
os Comité contre la torture, affaire O. R. et autres c. Argentine, communications
n 1/1988, 2/1988 et 3/1988, décision du 23 novembre 1989, par. 7.3, Documents officiels
de l’Assemblée générale, 45 session, supplément n o44 (Nations Unies, doc. A/45/44),
annexe V, p. 108, par. 7.2-7.4 et 8.
149Comité contre la torture, affaire Bouabdallah Ltaief c. Tunisie, communication
no189/2001, décision du 14 novembre 2003, Documents officiels de l’Assemblée générale,
59 session, supplément n 44 (Nations Unies, doc. A/59/44), annexe VII, p. 207, par. 1.2,

2.1150 10.1-10.9.
Comité contoe la torture, affaire Souleymane Guengueng et autres c. Sénégal,
com munication n 181/2001, convention des Nations Unies contre la torture (Nations
Unies, doc. C/36/D/181/2001), décision du 19 mai 2006. Et voir section III supra.

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recent cases decided by the Committee against Torture (in the Bouabdal -

lah Ltaief and the Souleymane Guengueng and al. cases, supra), and con-
tended, as to the procedural obligations under Article 7 of the CAT, that

“[t]here is nothing unusual in applying such procedural obligations tvo
crimes that occurred before the procedural provisions came into

effect. There is nothing in the text of the Convention, or in the rulevs
of treaty interpretation, that would require that Article 7 not apply
to alleged offenders who are present in the territory of a State partyv

after the entry into force of the Convention for that State, simply
because the offences took place before that date. Such an interpreta -
tion would run counter to the object and purpose of the Convention.
(. . .) [T]he procedural obligations owed by Senegal are not condi -

tioned ratione temporis by the date of the alleged acts of torture. (. . .)
That does not involve a retroactive application of the Convention to
the omissions of Senegal. All these omissions took place after both

States, Belgium and Senegal, became parties to the Convention and
became mutually bound by the procedural obligations contained
therein.” 151

164. Likewise, in its response, Senegal, much to its credit, acknowl -

edged the importance of the obligations, “binding on all States”, vpertain-
ing to the “punishment of serious crimes under international humanitavrian
law”, such as those in breach of the prohibition of torture. Turning vto the

procedural obligations under Article 7 (1) of the CAT, Senegal added
that

“it does not deny that the obligation provided for in the Convention v
can be applied to the offences allegedly committed before 26 June 1987,
when the Convention entered into force for Senegal” 152.

165. The Court, notwithstanding, has proceeded to impose a temporal
limitation contra legem to the obligation to prosecute under Article 7 (1)
of the CAT (Judgment, para. 100, in fine). There were other points over -
looked by the Court in this respect. For example, it has not taken into v

account that occurrences of systematic practice of torture conform con -
tinuing situations in breach of the CAT 15, to be considered as a whole,

151 Questions Put to the Parties by Members of the Court at the Close of the Public
Hearing Held on 16 March 2012 : Compilation of the Oral and Written Replies and the
Written Comments on those Replies, doc. BS-2012/39, of 17 April 2012, pp. 50-52paras. 49
and 52.
152 Ibid., p. 52.
153 On the notion of continuing situation in international legal thinking, case
concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy), Counter-Claim,

Order of 6 July 2010, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), dissenting opinion of Judge Cançado Trin -
dade, pp. 354-366, paras. 60-94.

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ture, ainsi que les deux affaires plus récemment tranchées par lve Comité

(les affaires Bouabdallah Ltaief et Souleymane Guengueng, voir supra), et
soutenu, quant aux obligations procédurales, énoncées à l’varticle 7 de la
convention contre la torture, que

«[i]l n’y a[vait] rien d’inhabituel à ce que ces obligations de vprocé -
dure soient appliquées à des crimes commis avant l’entrée env vigueur

des dispositions en question. Rien dans le texte de la convention, ni
dans les règles relatives à l’interprétation des traités,v n’exclut que
l’article 7 s’applique aux auteurs présumés d’infractions se trouvant v

sur le territoire d’un Etat partie après l’entrée en vigueurv dudit ins -
trument à l’égard de cet Etat, au seul motif que les infractionvs en
cause ont été commises avant cette date. Pareille interprétatiovn serait
contraire à l’objet et au but de la convention … [L]es obligations

procédurales qui incombent au Sénégal ne sont pas conditionnéves
ratione temporis par la date des actes de torture allégués… Cela ne
revient pas à appliquer rétroactivement la convention aux omissionvs

du Sénégal. L’ensemble de ces omissions a en effet eu lieu apvrès que
les deux Etats, la Belgique et le Sénégal, sont devenus parties à cet
instrument, se trouvant ainsi réciproquement liés par les obligativons
procédurales qui y sont énoncées. » 151

164. De même, dans sa réponse, le Sénégal — ce qui est tout à son

honneur — a reconnu l’importance des obligations « devant s’imposer à
tous les Etats » en matière de « répression de crimes graves du droit inter -
national», tels que ceux commis en violation de l’interdiction de la

torture. S’agissant des obligations procédurales au titre de l’varticle 7,
paragraphe 1, de la convention contre la torture, le Sénégal a ajouté que

«[i]l ne ni[ait] pas, au demeurant, que l’obligation prévue à lavdite
convention puisse s’appliquer aux infractions prétendument com -
mises avant le 26 juin 1987, date d’entrée en vigueur, pour le Sénégal,
152
de la convention » .

165. Ce nonobstant, la Cour a imposé une limitation temporelle contra
legem à l’obligation de poursuivre énoncée à l’article 7, paragraphe 1, de
la convention contre la torture (arrêt, par. 100, in fine), négligeant à cet
égard d’autres éléments encore. Ainsi n’a-t-elle pas tenu compte de ce

que les cas de pratique systématique de la torture correspondaient àv des
situations continues de violation de la convention contre la torture 153,

151Questions posées aux Parties par des membres de la Cour au terme de l’audience
du 16 mars 2012 : compilation des réponses orales et écrites et des observations évcrites sur
lesdites réponses, BS-2012/39, 17 avril 2012, p. 50-52, par. 49 et 52.

152Ibid., p. 52.
153Au sujet de la notion de « situation continue » dans la pensée juridique internatio -
nale, voir l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de(Allemagne c. Italie),

demande reconventionnelle, ordonnance du 6 juillet 201C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (I), opinion
dissidente du juge Cançado Trindade, p. 354-366, par. 60-94.

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without temporal limitations decharacterizing it, until they cease. Nor vhas

it taken into account the distinct approaches of domestic criminal law
and contemporary international criminal law, with regard to pleas of
non-retroactivity.

166. And nor has the Court taken into account that such pleas of
non-retroactivity become a moot question wherever the crimes of torture
had already been prohibited by customary international law (as in the
present case) at the time of their repeated or systematic commission. Uvlti -
mately — and summing up — the Court has pursued, on this particular

issue, a characteristic voluntarist reasoning, focused on the will of Stvates
within the confines of the strict and static inter-State dimension. Buvt it so
happens that the CAT (the applicable law in the cas d’espèce) is rather
focused on the victimized human beings, who stand in need of protection.v
It is further concerned to guarantee the non-repetition of crimes of tor -

ture, and to that end it enhances the struggle against impunity. Human
conscience stands above the will of States.

167. The Court has pursued a negative or self-restricted approach to
its jurisdiction. In respect of Article 5 (2) of the CAT, what does not exist

here is the object of a dispute over which to exercise its jurisdiction ; the
Court, in my understanding, remains endowed with jurisdiction, with its v
authority or aptitude to say what the law is (to do justice), to pronovunce
on the CAT, and to determine, inter alia, that the dispute concerning
Article 5 (2) has ceased, but it will nevertheless take into account — as it

has done (Judgment, para. 48) — its effects in relation to its determina -
tion of the breaches by the respondent State of Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of
the CAT. The three aforementioned provisions of the CAT are ineluc-
tably interrelated. By the same token, the Court retains its jurisdictiovn
to pronounce upon the corresponding customary international law pro-

hibition of torture. This is a point which requires clarification.

168. Accordingly, it would seem inconsistent with the object and pur -
pose of the CAT if alleged perpetrators of torture could escape its applvi-

cation when found in a State in respect of which the Convention entered v
into force only after the alleged criminal acts occurred (as a result of the
temporal limitation which the Court regrettably beheld in Article 7 (1)).
Worse still, although the present Judgment rightly recognizes that the
prohibition of torture has attained the status of jus cogens norm (ibid.,

para. 99), it promptly afterwards fails to draw the necessary consequences
of its own finding, in unduly limiting the temporal scope of applicativon of
the CAT. The Court has insisted on overlooking or ignoring the persis -
tence of a continuing situation in breach of jus cogens.

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qui doivent être considérées comme un ensemble, sans être assortvies de
limites temporelles qui vident le caractère continu de sa substance, vet ce,

jusqu’à ce qu’elles cessent. La Cour n’a pas non plus tenu cvompte de ce
que les approches en matière de non-rétroactivité n’étaievnt pas tout à
fait les mêmes en droit pénal interne et en droit pénal internationavl
contemporain.
166. La Cour n’a pas davantage tenu compte du fait que l’argument de

la non-rétroactivité devient sans objet dès lors que les crimesv de torture
n’étaient déjà interdits par le droit international coutumievr (comme c’est
le cas en l’espèce) au moment où ils ont été commis de fvaçon répétée ou
systématique. Enfin — et pour résumer — elle a suivi, sur ce point parti -
culier, un raisonnement typiquement volontariste, centré sur la volonté
des Etats, dans les strictes et statiques limites de la dimension interévta -

tique. Or, il se trouve que la convention contre la torture (le droit avppli -
cable en l’espèce) est davantage centrée sur les êtres humains persécutés,
qui ont besoin de protection. Cet instrument se caractérise égalemvent par
le souci de garantir la non-répétition des crimes de torture et, àv cette fin,
met l’accent sur la lutte contre l’impunité. La conscience humavine prévaut

sur la volonté des Etats.
167. En ce qui concerne sa compétence, la Cour a adopté une approche
négative ou restrictive. S’agissant de l’article 5, paragraphe 2, de la
convention contre la torture, l’élément qui fait ici défaut vest l’objet du
différend sur lequel cette compétence pourrait être exercéve; selon moi, la

Cour conserve néanmoins la compétence, autrement dit le pouvoir ouv la
faculté de dire le droit (de rendre la justice), de se prononcer suvr la
convention contre la torture en déterminant, notamment, que le différend
relatif à l’article 5, paragraphe 2, a cessé, mais en tenant compte — comme
elle l’a fait (arrêt, par. 48) — des conséquences de ce différend dans le
cadre de son examen des violations, par l’Etat défendeur, des artivcles 6,

paragraphe 2, et 7, paragraphe 1, de la convention contre la torture. Il est
en effet incontestable que les trois dispositions précitées sontv étroitement
liées. De même, la Cour demeure compétente pour se prononcer suvr l’in -
terdiction de la torture en droit international coutumier, qui en est le
corollaire. Ce point doit être clarifié.

168. En conséquence, il ne serait pas conforme à l’objet et au but dve la
convention contre la torture que les auteurs présumés de pareils actes
puissent se soustraire à l’application dudit instrument lorsqu’ils se
trouvent dans un Etat à l’égard duquel celui-ci n’est entrév en vigueur
qu’après la perpétration des crimes allégués (du fait de la limite temvpo -

relle que la Cour a, malheureusement, discernée à l’article 7, para -
graphe 1). Pire encore, bien qu’il soit à juste titre reconnu dans le prvésent
arrêt que l’interdiction de la torture a acquis le caractère dev norme de
jus cogens (ibid., par. 99), la Cour omet, aussitôt après, de tirer les consé -
quences qui en découlent nécessairement, en limitant indûment lve champ
d’application temporel de la convention contre la torture. Ce faisantv, elle

persiste à négliger ou à ignorer le caractère continu d’une situation consti -
tutive d’une violation du jus cogens.

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XV. A New Chapter in Restoratvive Justice?

169. This brings me to my remaining line of considerations in the pres -

ent separate opinion. In our days, there is a growing awareness of, and va
growing attention shifted to, the sufferings of victims of grave breacvhes of
the rights inherent to them, as well as to the corresponding duty to pro -
vide reparation to them. This has become, in our days, a legitimate con -

cern of the international community, envisaging the individual victims avs
members of humankind as a whole. The international law of human
rights has much contributed to this growing consciousness. And contem -
porary international criminal law also draws further attention to the duty

to provide reparation for those sufferings in the quest for the realizvation
of justice.

170. Much has been written on restorative justice, and it is not my

intention to review the distinct trends of opinion on the matter within vthe
confines of the present separate opinion. Yet, the issue cannot pass uvnno -
ticed here, and there is in my view one point to be made. In historical v
perspective, there are traces of restorative justice in the presence, frvom

ancient to modern legal and cultural traditions, of the provision of comv -
pensation due to victims of wrongful acts, attentive to their rehabilitation
but also to avoid reprisals or private revenge. As administration of jusvtice
was gradually brought under centralized State control (during the
Middle Ages), there was a gradual shift from the provision of compen-

sation into retributive justice, a tendency which came to prevail in thev
eighteenth century, with the multiplication of criminal law codes,
turning attention to the punishment of offenders rather than the redress
to individual victims 154.

171. By then, restorative justice may have faded, but did not vanish.
By the mid-twentieth century (from the sixties onwards), with the emer -
gence of victimology 15, restorative justice began again to attract greater

attention and to gain in importance. Throughout the second half of the
twentieth century, the considerable evolution of the corpus juris of the
international law of human rights, being essentially victim-oriented,
fostered the new stream of restorative justice, attentive to the needed

rehabilitation of the victims (of torture). Its unprecedented projectivon
nowadays into the domain of international criminal justice — in cases of
core international crimes — makes us wonder whether we would be in
face of the conformation of a new chapter in restorative justice.

154I. Bottigliero, Redress for Victims of Crimes under International Law, Leiden,
Nijhoff, 2004, pp. 13-24, and cf. pp. 25, 27 and 35-38.
155Cf. IACtHR, case Tibiv. Ecuador (judgment of 7 September 2004), separate opinion
of Judge A. A. Cançado Trindade, paras. 16-17.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 268 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 554

XV. Un nouveau chapitre env matière de justice révparatric?e

169. Ces développements me conduisent au dernier thème que j’abor -
derai dans la présente opinion individuelle. De nos jours, on assistev à une
prise de conscience grandissante de la souffrance des victimes de violva -
tions graves de leurs droits naturels ; une attention croissante y est portée,

ainsi qu’au devoir de réparation corrélatif, ce qui démontrev que cette
question dans son ensemble est aujourd’hui devenue une préoccupativon
légitime de la communauté internationale, les victimes individuelles étant
considérées comme des membres de l’humanité tout entière.v Le droit

international des droits de l’homme a grandement contribué à cevtte prise
de conscience. Le droit pénal international contemporain appelle lui vaussi
l’attention sur le devoir de réparation envers les personnes qui svouffrent
dans leur quête de réalisation de la justice.

170. Beaucoup a été écrit sur la justice réparatrice, et je n’vai pas l’inten -
tion, dans la présente opinion individuelle, de passer en revue les dviffé -
rents courants de pensée en la matière. La question ne saurait cepvendant
être passée sous silence et une observation mérite, selon moi, vd’être for -

mulée. D’un point de vue historique, on trouve des éléments vde justice
réparatrice dans la présence, depuis les traditions juridiques et vculturelles
les plus anciennes jusqu’à l’époque moderne, de la réparavtion due aux
victimes d’actes illégaux, en vue de permettre leur réadaptation mais aussi

de prévenir les représailles ou la vengeance personnelle. Tandis qvue l’ad -
ministration de la justice était progressivement placée sous le covntrôle de
l’Etat central (au Moyen Age), la réparation a progressivement fait place
e
à la justice rétributive, tendance qui a prévalu au XVIII siècle avec la
multiplication des codes de droit pénal, dans lesquels l’accent évtait mis sur
la sanction des auteurs plutôt que sur la réparation à accorderv aux vic -
times individuelles 154.

171. La justice réparatrice s’est alers peut-être affaiblie, mais velle n’a
pas disparu. Vers le milieu du XX siècle (à partir des années 1960), avec
l’émergence de la victimologie 155, elle a en effet recommencé à attirer l’at -
tention et à gagner en importance. Tout au long de la seconde moitiév du
e
XX siècle, l’évolution considérable du corpus juris du droit international
des droits de l’homme, essentiellement centré sur les victimes, a favorisé
l’émergence du nouveau courant de justice réparatrice, attentifv à la néces -
saire réadaptation des victimes (de torture). L’essor sans prévcédent qu’a

connu ce courant dans le domaine de la justice pénale internationale v
— en ce qui concerne les crimes internationaux les plus graves — incite à
se demander si l’on assiste à l’écriture d’un nouveau chavpitre en matière
de justice réparatrice.

154
I. Bottigliero, Redress for Victims of Crimes under International Law, Leyde,
Nijhoff, 2004, p. 13-24, et voir p. 25, 27 et 35-38.
155CIADH, affaire Tibi c. Equateur, arrêt du 7 septembre 2004, opinion individuelle de
M. le juge A. A. Cançado Trindade, par. 16-17.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 269 28/11/13 12:50 555 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

172. If so, given the gravity of those core international crimes such as
the one of torture, one would likely be facing, nowadays, a co-existencev
of elements proper to both restorative and retributive justice, in reactvion
to particularly grave and systematic violations of their rights sufferved by

the victims. The realization of justice appears, after all, as a form ofv repa -
ration itself, rehabilitating — to the extent possible — victims (of tor -
ture). May I just point out that I do not conceive restorative justice vas
necessarily linked to reconciliation ; this latter can hardly be imposed
156
upon victims of torture, it can only come spontaneously from them ,
and each of them has a unique psyche, reacting differently from othersv.
There is no room here for generalizations. I consider restorative justicve as
necessarily centred on the rehabilitation of the victims of torture, so vas to
render it possible to them to find bearable to keep on relating with fvellow

human beings, and, ultimately, to keep on living in this world.

173. Restorative justice grows in importance in cases of grave and sys -

tematic violations of human rights, of the integrity of human beings, such
as the abominable practice of torture. Reparation to the victims naturalvly
envisages their rehabilitation. The (former) UN Commission on Human
Rights itself recognized, in its resolution 2003/72 (of 25 April 2003), that,

for the victims of grave violations of human rights, “public knowledgve of
their suffering and the truth about the perpetrators” (including tvheir
accomplices) of those violations, are “essential steps” towards tvheir reha -
bilitation (para. 8).

174. It should be kept in mind that the restorative nature of redress to
victims is nowadays acknowledged in the domain not only of the interna -
tional law of human rights, but also of contemporary international crimi -

nal law (the Rome Statute of the ICC). Yet, the matter at issue is
susceptible of further development, bearing in mind the vulnerability ofv
the victims and the gravity of the harm they suffered. In so far as thve
present case before this Court is concerned, the central position is thavt

of the human person, the victimized one, rather than of the State.

XVI. Epilogue: Concluding Reflectionvs

175. The factual background of the present case discloses a consider -
able total of victims, according to the fact-finding already undertaken,
among those murdered, or arbitrarily detained and tortured, during the

156A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial Internacional — Memo-
rias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, Belo Horizonte/Brazil, Ed. Del Rey,
2011, Annex II : “Responsabilidad, Perdón y Justicia como Manifestaciones de la
Conciencia Jurídica Universal”, pp. 267-288.

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172. Si tel était le cas, compte tenu de la gravité desdits crimes internatio-
naux, tels que le crime de torture, l’on assisterait probablement aujvourd’hui
à la coexistence d’éléments propres à la justice réparvatrice et à la justice
rétributive, en réaction aux violations particulièrement gravesv et systéma -

tiques des droits des victimes. La réalisation de la justice apparaîvt, somme
toute, comme une forme de la réparation en tant que telle, permettant
— dans la mesure du possible — la réadaptation des victimes (de torture).
A cet égard, je préciserai simplement que je ne conçois pas la vjustice répara -

trice comme étant nécessairement liée à la réconciliation ; cette dernière peut
difficilement être imposée aux victimes d’actes de torture, mais ne peut venir
que de ces victimes elles-mêmes 156, spontanément, chacune d’elles ayant un
psychisme unique et des réactions différentes des autres. L’ovn ne saurait, en
la matière, faire de généralisations. Selon moi, la justice révparatrice doit

nécessairement être centrée sur la réadaptation des victimesv de torture, de
sorte qu’il leur devienne supportable d’entretenir des relations avvec leurs
semblables et, en définitive, de continuer à vivre en ce monde.
173. L’importance de la justice réparatrice se trouve accrue dans les

cas de violations graves et systématiques des droits de l’homme et de l’in -
tégrité des êtres humains, telles que cette pratique abominable qu’est la
torture. La réparation accordée aux victimes prévoit naturellemvent leur
réadaptation. L’(ancienne) Commission des droits de l’homme dves

Nations Unies a ainsi elle-même reconnu, dans sa résolution 2003/72
(du 25 avril 2003), que, en cas de graves violations des droits de l’homme,
«la divulgation des souffrances des victimes de violations des droits dve
l’homme et l’établissement de la vérité sur les auteurs de ces violations »
(ainsi que leurs complices) étaient des « mesures essentielles» pour la réa -

daptation des victimes (par. 8).
174. Il convient de garder à l’esprit que le caractère réparateurv de la
compensation due aux victimes est désormais reconnu non seulement danvs
le droit international des droits de l’homme, mais aussi en droit pévnal

international contemporain (voir le Statut de Rome de la CPI). La quesv -
tion à l’examen pourrait cependant connaître de nouveaux dévveloppe -
ments, étant donné la vulnérabilité des victimes et la gravité des souffrances
qui leur sont infligées. En ce qui concerne la présente espècve, c’est l’être

humain, la personne persécutée, qui occupe la place centrale, et nvon l’Etat.

XVI. Épilogue: réflexions finales

175. Il ressort des faits établis en la présente espèce que le révgime de
M. Hissène Habré au Tchad (1982-1990) a fait un nombre considérable
de victimes, qu’elles aient été assassinées ou détenues arbitrairement et

156A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial Internacional — Memo-
rias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, Belo Horizonte/Brésil, Ed. Del Rey,
2011, annexe II : « Responsabilidad, Perdón y Justicia como Manifestaciones de la
Conciencia Jurídica Universal », p. 267-288.

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Habré regime in Chad (1982-1990). The absolute prohibition of torture
being one of jus cogens — as reckoned by the ICJ itself in the present

Judgment — the obligations under a “core human rights Convention” of
the United Nations such as the Convention against Torture are not
simple obligations of means or conduct : they are, in my understanding,
obligations necessarily of result, as we are here in the domain of peremvp -

tory norms of international law, of jus cogens, generating obligations
erga omnes partes under the Convention against Torture.

176. To the original grave violations of human rights, there follows an

additional violation : the continuing situation of the alleged victims’ lack
of access to justice and the impunity of the perpetrators of torture (avnd
their accomplices). This wrongful continuing situation is in breach of the
UN Convention against Torture as well as of the customary international

law prohibition of torture. I dare to nourish the hope that the present v
Judgment of the ICJ, establishing violations of Articles 6 (2) and 7 (1) of
the Convention against Torture, and asserting the duty of prosecution
thereunder, will contribute to bridge the unfortunate gap between the

time of human justice and the time of human beings. It is about time thavt
this should happen. Time is to be made to work pro persona humana, pro
victima.
177. In this second decade of the twenty-first century — after far too

long a history —, the principle of universal jurisdiction, as set forth in the
CAT (Arts. 5 (2) and 7 (1)), appears nourished by the ideal of a universal
justice, without limits in time (past or future) or in space (being tvransfron -

tier). Furthermore, it transcends the inter-State dimension, as it purports
to safeguard not the interests of individual States, but rather the fundva -
mental values shared by the international community as a whole. There isv
nothing extraordinary in this, if we keep in mind that, in historical pevr -

spective, international law itself precedes the inter-State dimension, avnd
even the States themselves. What stands above all is the imperative of
universal justice. This is in line with jusnaturalist thinking 157. The con -
temporary understanding of the principle of universal jurisdiction dis -

closes a new, wider horizon.

178. In it, we can behold the universalist international law, the new
158
universal jus gentium of our times — remindful of the totus orbis of
Francisco de Vitoria and the societas generis humani of Hugo Grotius.

157
On the influence of natural law doctrines, cf., inter alia, e.g., M. Henzelin, Le prin -
cipe de l’universalité en droit pénal international — Droit et obligation pour les Etats de pour-
suivre et juger selon de principe de l’universalité, Basle/Geneva/Munich/Brussels, Helbing &
Lichtenhahn/Faculté de droit de Genève/Bruylant, 2000, pp. 81-119, 349-350 and 450.

158Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “International Law for Humankind : Towards a New
Jus Gentium — General Course on Public International Law — Part I”, 316 Recueil des
cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye (2005), pp. 432-439.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 272 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 556

torturées. L’interdiction absolue de la torture — qui relève du jus cogens,
ainsi que la Cour elle-même l’a reconnu dans le présent arrêvt — et les

obligations découlant d’une « convention fondamentale des droits de
l’homme» des Nations Unies telle que la convention contre la torture ne
sont pas de simples obligations de moyen ou de comportement ; selon
moi, elles ne peuvent être que des obligations de résultat, étavnt donné que

nous nous trouvons ici dans le domaine des normes impératives de droivt
international, du jus cogens, qui génère des obligations erga omnes partes
au titre de la convention contre la torture.
176. Aux graves violations initiales des droits de l’homme s’ajoute une

violation supplémentaire : le caractère continu du défaut d’accès à la jus -
tice des victimes et de l’impunité des auteurs des actes de torturve (ainsi
que de leurs complices). Cette situation illicite continue constitue unve vio -
lation de la convention des Nations Unies contre la torture et de l’inter -

diction de la torture en droit international coutumier. Puisse le prévsent
arrêt, dans lequel sont établies les violations des articles 6, paragraphe 2,
et 7, paragraphe 1, de la convention contre la torture, et est confirmée
l’obligation de poursuivre qui y est prescrite, contribuer à combler le

regrettable décalage qui existe entre le temps de la justice des hommves et
le temps des êtres humains. Il serait temps que cela advienne. Le temps
doit servir à œuvrer pro persona humana, pro victima.
177. En cette deuxième décennie du XXI esiècle — et après un temps

bien trop long —, le principe de la compétence universelle, tel qu’énoncév
dans la convention contre la torture (art. 5, par. 2, et art. 7, par. 1), appa -
raît pétri de l’idéal d’une justice universelle, sans limvites dans le temps (ni

dans un sens ni dans l’autre) ou dans l’espace (ce principe ignovrant les
frontières). De surcroît, il transcende la dimension interétatvique, puisqu’il
vise à garantir non pas les intérêts des Etats pris individuellvement, mais
les valeurs fondamentales partagées par la communauté internationavle

dans son ensemble. Pareille évolution n’a rien d’extraordinairev si l’on se
rappelle que, d’un point de vue historique, le droit international luvi-même
précède la dimension interétatique, ainsi, d’ailleurs, que lves Etats eux-
mêmes. Ce qui doit l’emporter, c’est l’impératif de justivce universelle, qui
157
s’inscrit dans le droit-fil de la pensée naturaliste . Le principe de compé-
tence universelle, tel qu’il est entendu aujourd’hui, dévoile dve nouveaux et
plus vastes horizons.
178. Nous y retrouvons le droit international universaliste, le jus gen -
158
tium de notre époque , qui n’est pas sans rappeler le totus orbis de Fran-
cisco de Vitoria et lesocietas generis humani d’Hugo Grotius. Le jus cogens

157
Au sujet de l’influence des doctrines de droit naturel, voir notammvent,par exemple,
M. Henzelin, Le principe de l’universalité en droit pénal international — Droit et obligation
pour les Etats de poursuivre et juger selon de principe de l´universa▯lité, Bâle/Genève/Munich/
Bruxelles, Helbing & Lichtenhahn/Faculté de droit de Genève/Bruylavnt, 2000, p. 81-119,
349-350 et 450.
158Voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, « International Law for Humankind : Towards a
New Jus Gentium — General Course on Public International Law — Part I », Recueil des
cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, vol. 316 (2005), p. 432-439.

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Jus cogens marks its presence therein, in the absolute prohibition of tor -
ture. It is imperative to prosecute and judge cases of international

crimes — like torture — that shock the conscience of mankind. Torture
is, after all, reckoned in our times as a grave breach of international v
human rights law and international humanitarian law, prohibited by con -
ventional and customary international law ; when systematically prac -
tised, it is a crime against humanity. This transcends the old paradigm vof

State sovereignty : individual victims are kept in mind as belonging to
humankind; this latter reacts, shocked by the perversity and inhumanity
of torture.

179. The advent of the international law of human rights has fostered
the expansion of international legal personality and responsibility, andv

the evolution of the domain of reparations (in their distinct forms) dvue to
the victims of human rights violations. I have addressed this significvant
development — which I refer to herein — in my recent separate opinion
appended to the Court’s Advisory Opinion on Judgment No. 2867 of the
Administrative Tribunal of the International Labour Organization upon a ▯

Complaint Filed against the International Fund for Agricultural Develop -
ment (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 51-93, paras. 1-118). This development
has a direct bearing on reparations due to victims of torture.
180. Here, the suffering and the needs of those victims are to be kept in
mind. Rehabilitation of victims plays an important role here, bringing to

the fore a renewed vision of restorative justice. In effect, restorative jus -
tice, with its ancient roots (going back in time for some millennia, anvd
having manifested itself in earlier legal and cultural traditions aroundv the
world), seems to have flourished again in our times. This is due, in vmy
perception, to the recognition that : (a) a crime such as torture, syste-
matically practised, has profound effects not only on the victims and vtheir

next-of-kin, but also on the social milieu concerned ; (b) punishment of
the perpetrators cannot be dissociated from rehabilitation of the victimvs;
(c) it becomes of the utmost importance to seek to heal the damage done
to the victims ; (d) in the hierarchy of values, making good the harm
done stands above punishment alone ; and (e) the central place in the

juridical process is occupied by the victim, the human person, rather thvan
by the State (with its monopoly of sanction).
181. We look here beyond the traditional inter-State outlook, ascrib -
ing a central position to the individual victims, rather than to their States.
Had the inter-State dimension not been surmounted, not much develop -

ment would have taken place in the present domain. The struggle against v
impunity is accompanied by the endeavours towards the rehabilitation of v
the victims. The realization of justice, with the judicial recognition ovf the
sufferings of the victims, is a form of the reparation due to them. Thvis is
imperative, we have here moved from jus dispositivum to jus cogens.
182. Identified with general principles of law enshrining common and

superior values shared by the international community as a whole, jus
cogens ascribes an ethical content to the new jus gentium, the interna -

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s’y affirme dans l’interdiction absolue de la torture, et il est vimpératif de

poursuivre et de juger les crimes internationaux — tels que la tor -
ture — qui heurtent la conscience de l’humanité. En dernière analyse, vla
torture est reconnue aujourd’hui comme étant une grave violation dvu
droit international des droits de l’homme et du droit pénal internvational,
interdite par le droit international conventionnel et coutumier ; lorsqu’elle

est pratiquée de façon systématique, il s’agit d’un crimev contre l’huma -
nité. Voilà qui transcende le vieux paradigme de la souveraineté des Etats:
les victimes individuelles sont désormais prises en compte en ce qu’velles
appartiennent au genre humain, lequel s’élève, choqué par lev caractère
pervers et inhumain de la torture.

179. L’avènement du droit international des droits de l’homme a favovrisé
le développement de la personnalité et de la responsabilité jurvidiques inter -
nationales, ainsi que l’évolution des réparations (sous leurs vformes diverses)
dues aux victimes de violations des droits de l’homme. J’ai abordév cet impor -
tant développement — auquel je fais référence ici — dans l’opinion indivi-

duelle que joai récemment jointe à l’avis consultatif de la Cour sur le
Jugement n 2867 du Tribunal administratif de l’Organisation internationale
du Travail sur requête contre le Fonds international de développeme ▯ nt agricole
(C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 51-93, par. 1-118). Ce développement a une inci -
dence directe sur les réparations dues aux victimes de torture.

180. En la présente espèce, il convient de garder à l’esprit la svouffrance
et les besoins de ces victimes. Leur réadaptation joue ici un rôlev important
en faisant émerger une conception nouvelle de la justice réparatrice. Cette
notion, dont les racines sont anciennes (puisqu’elle remonte à plvusieurs
millénaires et a très tôt trouvé son expression dans les travditions cultu -

relles et juridiques à travers le monde), semble en effet connaîvtre
aujourd’hui un nouvel essor, dû à la reconnaissance des faits svuivants :
a) un crime tel que la torture, pratiqué de façon systématique, a vde pro -
fondes conséquences non seulement sur les victimes et leurs proches, vmais
aussi sur le milieu social concerné ;b) la sanction des auteurs ne peut être

dissociée de la réadaptation des victimes ; c) il devient capital de tenter
d’apaiser les souffrances infligées aux victimes; d) sur l’échelle des valeurs,
la réparation du mal qui a été causé est plus importante quev la seule sanc -
tion ; ete) c’est la victime, l’être humain, qui est au centre du processusv
juridique, et non l’Etat (détenteur du monopole des sanctions).

181. De par l’attribution d’une place centrale aux victimes indivi -
duelles, et non à leur Etat, la perspective interétatique traditiovnnelle se
trouve dépassée. Si tel n’était pas le cas, le domaine à vl’examen n’aurait
guère évolué. La lutte contre l’impunité s’accompagne vd’efforts en vue de
la réadaptation des victimes. La réalisation de la justice, assortvie de la

reconnaissance judiciaire des souffrances infligées aux victimes,v constitue
une forme de réparation à laquelle celles-ci ont droit. Il s’agit là d’un
impératif, qui nous fait passer du jus dispositivum au jus cogens.
182. Associé aux principes généraux du droit qui consacrent des
valeurs communes et supérieures partagées par la communauté intver-

nationale dans son ensemble, le jus cogens confère une dimension éthique

139

6 CIJ1033.indb 275 28/11/13 12:50 558 obligation to prosecuvte or extradite (sep. opv. cançado trindade)

tional law for humankind. In prohibiting torture in any circumstances
whatsoever, jus cogens exists indeed to the benefit of human beings, and
ultimately of humankind. Torture is absolutely prohibited in all its forvms,
whichever misleading and deleterious neologisms are invented and

resorted to, to attempt to circumvent this prohibition.

183. In the aforementioned move from jus dispositivum to jus cogens,
this absolute prohibition knows no limits in time or space : it contains no

temporal limitations (being a prohibition also of customary international
law), and it ensues from a peremptory norm of a universalist international
law. Jus cogens flourished and asserted itself, and has had its material
content expanded, due to the awakening of the universal juridical con -
science, and the firm support it has received from a lucid trend of invterna -

tional legal thinking. This latter has promptly discarded the limitationvs
and shortsightedness (in space and time) of legal positivism, and has v
further dismissed the myopia and fallacy of so-called “realism”.

184. Last but not least, the emancipation of the individual from his
own State is, in my understanding, the greatest legacy of the consolida -
tion of the international law of human rights — and indeed of interna -
tional legal thinking — in the second half of the twentieth century,

amounting to a true and reassuring juridical revolution. Contemporary
international criminal law takes that emancipation into account, focusinvg
attention on the individuals (victimizers and their victims). Not onlyv indi -
vidual rights, but also the corresponding State duties (of protection, v
investigation, prosecution, sanction and reparation) emanate directly

from international law. Of capital importance here are the prima principia
(the general principles of law), amongst which the principles of humanvity,
and of respect for the inherent dignity of the human person. This latterv is
recalled by the UN Convention against Torture 15. An ethical content is

thus rescued and at last ascribed to the jus gentium of our times.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

159Second preambular paragraph.

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6 CIJ1033.indb 276 28/11/13 12:50 obligation de poursuivvre ou d’extrader (op. invd. cançado trindade) 558

au nouveau jus gentium, le droit international de l’humanité. En interdi -
sant la torture en toutes circonstances, le jus cogens existe bel et bien pour
bénéficier aux êtres humains et, en définitive, à l’vhumanité tout entière. La
torture est totalement interdite, sous toutes ses formes, quels que soievnt

les néologismes trompeurs et délétères inventés et utilisés pour tenter de
tourner cette interdiction.
183. Dans le contexte susmentionné du passage du jus dispositivum au
jus cogens, l’interdiction absolue de la torture ne souffre aucune limitation

dans le temps ou dans l’espace : elle n’est assortie d’aucune limite tempo -
relle (puisqu’elle relève également du droit international couvtumier) et
découle d’une norme impérative de droit international universaliste. Le
jus cogens s’est développé et affirmé. Il a en outre vu s’étendrve son contenu
matériel, grâce à la sensibilisation de la conscience juridiquev universelle et

au soutien résolu d’un courant clairvoyant de la théorie juridivque inter-
nationale, qui n’a pas tardé à écarter les limitations et l’vaveuglement (spa -
tial et temporel) du positivisme juridique, tout en se débarrassant de la
myopie et de l’illusion du prétendu « réalisme».

184. Enfin, et ce n’est pas le moins important, l’émancipation de vl’indi -
vidu par rapport à son Etat constitue, à mon sens, l’héritagve essentiel de
la consolidation du droit international des droits de l’homme — et, d’ail -
leurs, de la pensée juridique internationale — dans la seconde moitié du
e
XX siècle ; il s’agit là d’une authentique et rassurante révolution juvri -
dique. Le droit pénal international contemporain, en faisant porter svon
attention sur les individus (les tortionnaires et leurs victimes), tievnt compte
de cette émancipation. Les droits individuels, mais aussi les devoirsv corré -
latifs des Etats (de protection, d’enquête, de poursuite, de sancvtion et de

réparation), émanent directement du droit international. A cet évgard, les
prima principia (les principes généraux de droit), parmi lesquels les prin -
cipes d’humanité et de respect de la dignité inhérente à vla personne
humaine, revêtent une importance cruciale. Celle-ci est rappelée dans la
159
convention contre la torture des Nations Unies . Ainsi, une composante
éthique a pu être préservée et, enfin, intégrée au jus gentium de notre
époque.

(Signé) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

159Deuxième alinéa du préambule.

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Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

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