Dissenting opinion Judge ad hoc Vinuesa

Document Number
135-20100420-JUD-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
135-20100420-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC VINUESA

1. Although I agree with the first paragraph of the dispositive concern-
ing Uruguay’s breaches of procedural obligations under the 1975 Statute,
I do not share the views of the majority concerning: (1) the relationship
between procedural obligations and substantial obligations; (2) the non-

existence of a “no construction obligation” once the parties to the
1975 Statute failed to reach an agreement under Article 12; and (3) and
the reasoning behind the conclusion that satisfaction is a proper means of
reparation. For the reasons stated below (see paras. 40 to 99), I fully disa-
gree with the second paragraph of the dispositive.

A. ISSUES RELATED TO PROCEDURAL O BLIGATIONS

I. The Relationship between Procedural Obligations
and Substantive Obligations

2. I disagree with the majority in assuming that the dispute concerning
substantive obligations is temporally restricted as to only refer to “whether
Uruguay has complied with its substantive obligations under the

1975 Statute since the commissioning of the Orion (Botnia) mill in November
2007” (Judgment, para. 46). Substantive obligations under the Statute
could have been, and in fact were, breached by Uruguay before the com-
missioning of the Orion (Botnia) mill.

3. The authorization of the location of the ENCE and Orion (Botnia)
mills in a sensitive, vulnerable and environmentally dynamic site is a
breach of the substantive obligations prescribed by the Statute. This vio-
lation, committed before the commissioning of the Orion (Botnia) mill,
breached Uruguay’s substantive obligations independently of Uruguay’s

procedural obligation breaches.
4. I also disagree with the majority’s finding that “the procedural obli-
gations are distinct from substantive obligations laid down in the
1975 Statute . . .” (ibid., para. 271). Instead, I strongly support the idea
that the procedural obligations are directly interrelated with the substan-

tive obligations. The Statute does not distinguish between different legal
effects for each category of obligations. Moreover, the object and pur-
pose of the 1975 Statute concerns the utilization of “the joint machinery
necessary for the optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay”

(Art. 1). The raison d’être of the Statute is to achieve the optimum and
rational utilization of the river through the implementation of procedural

256obligations as established in Articles 1, 7 to 12, and 27. The Statute’s
irrefutable purpose is to prevent unilateral actions in the determination

of the uses of a shared natural resource “which are liable to affect naviga-
tion, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters” (Art. 7). Addi-
tionally, Article 27 provides that:

“The right of each party to use the waters of the river, within its

jurisdiction, for domestic, sanitary, industrial and agricultural pur-
poses shall be exercised without prejudice to the application of the
procedure laid down in Articles 7 to 12 when the use is liable to
affect the régime of the river or the quality of its waters.”

The Court states that it has:

“already dealt with the obligations arising from Articles 7 to 12 of
the 1975 Statute which have to be observed, according to Article 27,
by any party wishing to exercise its right to use the waters of the
river for any of the purposes mentioned therein insofar as such use
may be liable to affect the régime of the river or the quality of its

waters” (Judgment, para. 177).

5. The Court is therefore assuming that the breach of Articles 7 to 12
inexorably implies the breach of Article 27. The Court is also of the
opinion that:

“Article 27 embodies this interconnectedness between equitable and

reasonable utilization of a shared resource and the balance between
economic development and environmental protection that is the
essence of sustainable development” (ibid., para. 177);

which shows that the Court recognizes that by breaching Articles 7 to 12
the balance required by Article 27 has also been breached.
The Court finds that the:

“overall procedure laid down in Articles 7 to 12, which is structured
in such a way that the parties, in association with CARU [the
Administrative Commission of the River Uruguay], are able, at the
end of the process, to fulfil their obligation to prevent any significant
transboundary harm which might be caused by potentially harmful

activities planned by either one of them” (ibid., para. 139).

6. As a consequence of the above, Uruguay has violated not only Arti-
cles 7 to 12, as the Court has asserted, but also Article 27 which is sub-
stantive in nature. Furthermore, the non-observance by Uruguay of the

object and purpose of the Statute itself constitutes a grave substantive
breach of the Statute.

257 II. The “No Construction Obligation” during the Processes
Leading to the Settlement of the Dispute

7. The Court deals with the question of Uruguay’s obligations follow-
ing the end of the negotiation period (Judgment, paras. 151 to 158) con-
cluding:

“that Uruguay did not bear any ‘no construction obligation’ after
the negotiation period provided for in Article 12 expired . . . Con-
sequently the wrongful conduct of Uruguay . . . could not extend

beyond that period.” (Ibid., para. 157.)

I categorically disagree with this finding.
8. It is true that the “no construction obligation” that Uruguay was
supposed to respect between the end of the negotiation period and the
delivery of the final judgment of the Court is not expressly laid down by
the 1975 Statute, a point stated by the Court (ibid., para. 154). On the

contrary, it is wrong to assume, as the Court does, that the above obliga-
tion cannot be derived from the Statute’s provisions.
9. The Statute only allows parties to carry out or authorize the planned
work if the notified party raises no objections or does not respond within
the period established in Article 8. Article 9 provides that “If the notified

Party raises no objections or does not respond within the period estab-
lished in Article 8, the other Party may carry out or authorize the work
planned.” The right to carry on or authorize the planned works could
also result from the Parties’ agreement at the conclusion of the negotia-
tion period designed under Chapter II of the 1975 Statute.

10. The Court’s assertion that “Article 9 only provides for such an
obligation during the performance of the procedure laid down in Arti-
cles 7 to 12 of the Statute” (ibid., para. 154) is misleading and without
legal foundation. Additionally, as I discuss below, the Statute itself links

the negotiation and judicial settlement processes, thereby naturally
extending the no construction obligation until the end of the proceedings
before the Court.
11. In my view, Article 9 is complemented by Article 12 in order to
assure that, if no agreement is reached by the parties during negotiations,

the procedure indicated in Chapter XV shall be followed. The parties
have already assumed the obligation to settle the dispute through the
procedures described in Chapter II, Articles 7 to 12. It follows that the
parties should perform their treaty obligations in good faith and that
they must abstain from embarking on the planned works — the very

object of the dispute — until the Court makes its final decision. As a
result, the no construction obligation, once triggered, extends until the
resolution of the dispute.
12. This interpretation is borne out by the clear language of the Stat-

ute. Article 12 states that “Should the Parties fail to reach agreement
within 180 days following the notification referred to in Article 11, the

258procedure indicated in Chapter XV shall be followed.” Article 60 pro-
vides that “Any dispute concerning the interpretation or application of

the Treaty and the Statute which cannot be settled by direct negotiations
may be submitted by either Party to the International Court of Justice.”
When paired with Article 60, it is clear that Article 12 overrules the per-
missive language of Article 60. Even in the authentic Spanish text, where
Article 12 provides that: “Si las Partes no llegaren a un acuerdo . . . se

observará el procedimiento indicado en el Capítulo XV”, it is clear that
the procedure indicated in Chapter XV requires recourse to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice. A logical reading of the Statute would also
exclude recourse through Article 12 to the additional part of Article 60,

which refers to the conciliation procedure of Chapter XIV and is not
implicated here.

13. The simple textual interpretation of Article 12 through its context
and through the principle of good faith indicates that Article 12 is man-

datory for the parties. It obliges both parties to follow the procedure
indicated in Chapter XV. Article 12 therefore represents a “compromis-
sory arrangement” to settle any dispute stemming from the parties’ fail-
ure to reach an agreement on planned works through submission of the
dispute to the Court.

14. Following general customary international law as codified by Arti-
cle 31 of the Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties of 1969, it is my
view that the Court’s interpretation of Article 12 does not comport with
the clear and precise meaning of the text and its context, as is required by
customary international law and this Court’s jurisprudence. (Sovereignty

over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 645, para. 37; Legal Consequences of the Con-
struction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opin-
ion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 174, para. 94; Competence of the General
Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations, Advisory

Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950 ,p.8; South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South
Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 336; Polish Postal Service in Danzig, Advisory
Opinion, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 11 ,p .9; Arbitral Award of
31 July 1989 (Guinea-Bissau v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1991 ,

pp. 69-70, para. 48 and see dissenting opinion of Judge Weeramantry,
pp. 135-137; Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/
Honduras: Nicaragua intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992 ,
pp. 582-583, paras. 373-374; see also Commentary (Treaties), Yearbook
of the International Law Commission , 1966, Vol. II, p. 220, para. 9.)

The Court’s interpretation also contradicts the very object and purpose
of the 1975 Statute which is “to establish the joint machinery necessary
for the optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay” (Art. 1),

which again contradicts settled rules of treaty interpretation based on the
agreement’s object and purpose (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran

259v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), pp. 812-814, paras. 23, 28; Military and Paramilitary

Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 , pp. 136-137,
paras. 272-273; Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indo-
nesia/Malaysia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , p. 652, para. 51; Rights
of Nationals of the United States of America in Morocco (France v.

United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 , p. 196; Asy-
lum (Colombia/Peru), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1950 , p. 282; Maritime
Delimitation in the Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v.
Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1993 , pp. 50-51, paras. 26-28; Terri-

torial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1994, p. 26, para. 52; Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v.
United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,p .,
para. 85). Such interpretation deprives Article 12 of itseffet utile, vitiating
the Statute’s text and again violating established rules of treaty inter-

pretation (Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1994 , pp. 25-26, paras. 51-52; Lighthouses case
between France and Greece, Judgment, 1934, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 62 ,
p. 27; Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council

Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 ,p .,
para. 66; Aegean Sea Continental Shelf (Greece v. Turkey), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1978, p. 22, para. 52).

15. In my view, the Court fails to recognize: first, that when negotia-

tions came to an end, the “disputed activities” — mentioned at para-
graph 143 of the Judgment — continued to be unsettled; and second,
that recourse to the International Court of Justice as expressed in Arti-
cle 12 was an essential step contained within the procedure considered
necessary by the Parties to ensure the Statute’s object and purpose: the

optimum and rational utilization of the river. The Court also fails to
acknowledge that through Article 12 the Parties have assumed an explicit
obligation, if no agreement is reached, to follow the procedure indicated
in Chapter XV. The reading of this provision by the Court deprives Arti-
cle 12 and Chapter XV of their substance and enforces an illogical read-

ing of the mandates of Article 12 and Chapter XV.

16. The obligation to negotiate — which was accompanied by the no
construction obligation in this case — is just one of the methods for the
peaceful settlement of disputes. The 1975 Statute, as a lex specialis, pro-

vides that if the parties fail to reach an agreement, they must submit to
litigation before the Court. In that sense, the obligation to negotiate is
linked to the obligation to refer the dispute to the International Court of
Justice to form a non-severable course of action. Both treaty obligations

must be performed in good faith, as is required by international law. The
Court has already recognized that:

260 “the mechanism for co-operation between States is governed by the
principle of good faith. Indeed, according to customary interna-

tional law, as reflected in Article 26 of the 1969 Vienna Convention
of the Law of Treaties, ‘[e]very treaty in force is binding upon the
parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith’. That
applies to all obligations established by a treaty, including proce-
dural obligations which are essential to co-operation between States.”

(Judgment, para. 145.)

17. Taking that into account, the Court recognizes that:

“as long as the procedural mechanism for co-operation between the
parties to prevent significant damage to one of them is taking its
course, the State initiating the planned activity is obliged not to
authorize such work and, a fortiori, not to carry it out” (ibid.,

para. 144).

Then the Court concludes in paragraph 147 that Article 12 is within
the joint mechanism provided by the Statute; based on this finding, the
Court then concludes that “[c]onsequently, Uruguay disregarded the
whole of the co-operation mechanism provided for in Articles 7 to 12 of
the 1975 Statute” (ibid., para. 149). It is my view that the Court could not

ignore that the Parties must perform their obligations under Article 12 in
good faith, and that the no construction obligation that was in force dur-
ing the negotiations should have continued until the Court’s judgment.
This conclusion comports with the proper interpretation of these provi-
sions; unfortunately, the Court’s conclusions do not.

18. The Court holds that “One of the basic principles governing the
creation and performance of legal obligations, whatever their source, is
the principle of good faith” (ibid., para. 145) and that “Trust and confi-
dence are inherent in international co-operation”, drawing on the Court’s

decision in the Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France) case (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 268, para. 46). I cannot agree with the Court’s
finding that a party’s obligation to stay construction on the planned
works ends before a final settlement of the dispute is reached by the
Court under Chapter XV (Judgment, paras. 154 and 157). Even more,

there is a bizarre juxtaposition of the Court’s conclusion that “Uruguay
failed to comply with the obligation to negotiate laid down in Article 12
of the Statute” (ibid., para. 149) with the Court’s decision that the no
construction obligation in this case ended along with the negotiations.
This confusing conclusion shows that the Court ignores that Article 12 —

in addition to mandating negotiations — also mandates recourse to the
procedure of Chapter XV of the Statute once negotiations come to an
end.
19. The majority also fails to explain why the obligation to settle the

dispute through recourse to the International Court of Justice, as seen in
Articles 12 and 60, puts an end to the “no construction obligation”. In

261my own view, under Article 12, the obligation to negotiate — when
exhausted — is replaced by the obligation to settle the dispute at the

International Court of Justice. As a result, the no construction obligation
extends until the dispute is settled by the Court.

20. This is supported in part by the Judgment, which finds that during
negotiations the parties are bound by the no construction obligation as a

consequence of their obligation to negotiate in good faith (Judgment,
para. 145). However, the majority fails to explain how the direct effect of
the lack of good faith in negotiations by Uruguay — as was the case
here — results in a right to resume construction of the planned works as

the case awaits a final decision by the International Court of Justice. This
reading is contrary to the text of Article 12, it has no support within its
context and it is opposed to the object and purpose of the 1975 Statute as
expressed in Article 1. As a result, the Court seems to reward parties who
negotiate in bad faith by allowing them to continue construction of the

works even if they have not fulfilled their procedural obligations in good
faith.

21. As a consequence of the above reasoning, I completely disagree
with the Court’s finding that:

“Article 12 does not impose an obligation on the parties to submit
a matter to the Court, but gives them the possibility of doing so, fol-

lowing the end of the negotiation period. Consequently, Article 12
can do nothing to alter the rights and obligations of the party con-
cerned as long as the Court has not ruled finally on them. The Court
considers that those rights include that of implementing the project,
on the sole responsibility of that party, since the period for negotia-

tion has expired.” (Ibid., para. 155.)
22. The Court also contradicts itself when it concludes that:

“while the 1975 Statute gives it jurisdiction to settle any dispute con-
cerning its interpretation or application, it does not however confer

on it the role of deciding in the last resort whether or not to author-
ize the planned activities. Consequently, the State initiating the plan
may, at the end of the negotiation period, proceed with the construc-
tion at its own risk.” (Ibid., para. 154.)

23. Any failure of the parties to agree at the end of the Chapter II pro-
cedures constitutes a dispute concerning the interpretation and applica-
tion of the Statute. The Court cannot ignore its responsibility to resolve

the dispute arising out of the parties’ disagreement on the sole basis that
the Statute does not confer the power to authorize or forbid the planned
activities because that is simply not correct.

24. As a result, the Court must exercise its jurisdiction to settle the dis-
pute arising out of the Chapter II procedures, even if in doing so it will

262also judge the viability of the planned works. That is so, in particular,
taking into account that the Court attributes to itself the role of being

“the ultimate guarantor of [the parties’] compliance with the 1975 Stat-
ute” when deciding on the merits of the dispute (Judgment, para. 156).
25. Even were it accepted, again for the sake of argument, that “the
State initiating the plan may, at the end of the negotiation period, pro-
ceed with construction at its own risk” (ibid., para. 154), it does not fol-

low that either State may commission works which prematurely begin
using the protected shared resource before the dispute is settled. In other
words, even if sovereign rights would allow a riparian State to construct
in its own territory at its own risk, this sovereign right must not be

extended to allow the unilateral use or disposition of a shared natural
resource until the final resolution of the dispute.

26. It is noteworthy that the Court in its Order on Provisional Meas-
ures of 13 July 2006 stated that “in proceeding with the authorization

and construction of the mills, Uruguay necessarily bears all risks relating
to any finding on the merits that the Court might later make” (I.C.J.
Reports 2006, p. 133, para. 78). This Order, while it did not forbid con-
tinued construction of the mill, could not and did not give a green light to
Uruguay to commission the mill which would allow the mill to use the

shared resource of the river.

27. In fact, the Court, after emphasizing that:

“the present case highlights the importance of the need to ensure
environmental protection of shared natural resources while allowing
for sustainable economic development . . . in particular [it is] neces-

sary to bear in mind the reliance of the Parties on the quality of the
water of the River Uruguay for their livelihood and economic devel-
opment” (ibid., p. 133, para. 80),

then proceeded to state that:

“the Parties are required to fulfil their obligations under interna-
tional law; . . . the Court wishes to stress the necessity for Argentina
and Uruguay to implement in good faith the consultation and
co-operation procedures provided for by the 1975 Statute, with

CARU constituting the envisaged forum in this regard; and . . . the
Court further encourages both Parties to refrain from any actions
which might render more difficult the resolution of the present dis-
pute” (ibid., p. 134, para. 82).

28. The commissioning of the plant without CARU’s authoriza-
tion, without consultation of Argentina, without regard for Uruguay’s

international environmental obligations and without any attention to
the exacerbation of the dispute indicates a flouting of the Court’s

263direct request. The Court fails to hold Uruguay accountable for these
actions.

29. This interpretation of Article 12 will validate an “in limbo” situa-
tion, allowing each of the Parties to unilaterally exploit a shared natural
resource as if it were its own exclusive resource while a dispute over this
utilization is pending before the International Court of Justice.

III. Satisfaction as the Proper Means of Reparation of Uruguay’s
Repeated Breaches of the 1975 Statute

30. The Court acknowledges that Argentina requested the Court “to
adjudge and declare that Uruguay must ‘provide adequate guarantees
that it will refrain in future from preventing the 1975 Statute from being

applied’” (Judgment, para. 277).
31. Although I disagree with the Court’s assessment that there are no
“special circumstances in the present case requiring the ordering of a
measure [requiring non-repetition] such as that sought by Argentina”
(ibid., para. 278), I arrive at the Court’s overall conclusion concerning

reparation through different reasoning.
32. On the issue of special circumstances, the Court fails to consider
that Uruguay’s conduct — in preventing the Statute’s joint machinery
from functioning — amounts to a substantive violation of the 1975 Stat-

ute, as embodied in the object and purpose of the Statute as set out in
Article 1. This violation of Article 1, as well as Articles 7 to 12 and 27,
may not in principle be remedied just through the mere recognition of
such a violation. Assuming, for the sake of argument, that the violation
of substantive obligations as described above remains inchoate during

the construction process, including the site selection process, it still means
that after the construction of the mill it is still violative of the Statute for
a riparian State to use the river waters as its own.

33. It is critical to take into account many facts in order to determine
whether the Court should find that special circumstances exist. First, dif-
ferent proposals to establish new mills in the area are constantly under
consideration by Uruguay. Second, Uruguay’s violations of procedural
obligations were the direct consequence of its own will to avoid compli-

ance with the 1975 Statute. Third, Uruguay lacked good faith in the
negotiations. Fourth, there was public recognition by Uruguayan authori-
ties of its lack of interest in complying with the Statute’s procedural
obligations.

In particular as to the fourth point, the former Minister of Foreign
Affairs of Uruguay, when addressing the Senate in November 2003
expressed:

“To recognize that the Commission has specific jurisdiction at this

264 stage of the procedure would amount to accepting the presumption
that Articles 7 and 8 apply. The presumption is that this project will

affect or might affect — I believe the expression used in the Statute
is ‘is liable to’— the quality or navigability of the waters. Given that
these two elements are absent, it is clear that the Government of
Uruguay is not in a position where it is obliged to refer this matter to
the Commission. That would represent a renunciation of its powers

that the Government of the Republic has no intention of making;
nothing could be more simple.” (Minutes, statement by the Minister
for Foreign Affairs, Mr. Didier Opertti, to the Uruguayan Senate
(November 2003).)” [Translation by the Registry.]

From the above facts there is only one conclusion: that Uruguay’s
actions may not be disregarded, as the Court does here. Instead, these
actions represent the special circumstances that justify the imposition of
an obligation of non-repetition in order to ensure that Uruguay will not
take steps to wilfully obstruct the application of the 1975 Statute in the

future.
34. The Court in paragraph 278 recognizes that it has observed:

“‘[w]hile the Court may order, as it has done in the past, a State
responsible for internationally wrongful conduct to provide the
injured State with assurances and guarantees of non-repetition, it

will only do so if the circumstances so warrant, which it is for the
Court to assess.
As a general rule, there is no reason to suppose that a State whose
act or conduct has been declared wrongful by the Court will repeat
that act or conduct in the future, since its good faith must be pre-

sumed (see Factory at Chorzów, Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17 ,p.63;Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 272, para. 60; Nuclear Tests
(New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 477,
para. 63; and Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against

Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction
and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , p. 437, para 101).
There is thus no reason, except in special circumstances . . . to order
[the provision of assurances and guarantees of non-repetition].’
(Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v.

Nicaragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009 , p. 267, para. 150.)”

35. While the Court quotes from its own precedents, as it does here, it
avoids taking into consideration as a special circumstance the fact, rec-
ognized by the Court, that Uruguay has breached its procedural obliga-
tions, in respect to the ENCE project and in respect to the Orion (Botnia)

mill and its adjacent port (see Judgment, paras. 105 to 122). The Court
has the evidence before it that there was already a repetition by Uruguay

265of procedural breaches of identical obligations under the 1975 Statute.
Furthermore, the Court has already concluded that Uruguay has breached

its obligations to negotiate in good faith (see Judgment, para. 149). In
spite of that factual evidence, the Court considers that Uruguay’s good
faith in future applications of the 1975 Statute “must be presumed”. I am
at odds with such reasoning.

36. The evidence on the record and the findings of the Court concern-
ing procedural violations confirm that special circumstances are present
in the present case so as to justify the express imposition in the dispositive
of an obligation of non-repetition upon Uruguay, particularly given the
bad faith conduct of Uruguay in the past.

37. Despite this belief, it is my understanding that the obligation of
non-repetition exists, in the present case, in the Court’s finding:

“that both Parties have the obligation to enable CARU, as the joint
machinery created by the 1975 Statute, to exercise on a continuous
basis the powers conferred on it by the 1975 Statute, including its

function of monitoring the quality of the waters of the river and of
assessing the impact of the operation of the Orion (Botnia) mill on
the aquatic environment. Uruguay, for its part, has the obligation to
continue monitoring the operation of the plant in accordance with

Article 41 of the Statute and to ensure compliance by Botnia with
Uruguayan domestic regulations as well as the standards set by
CARU. The Parties have a legal obligation under the 1975 Statute to
continue their co-operation through CARU and to enable it to
devise the necessary means to promote the equitable utilization of

the river, while protecting its environment.” (Ibid., para. 266.)

38. As the Court has found that Uruguay alone breached its proce-
dural obligations under the 1975 Statute, it is incumbent upon Uruguay
to conform its conduct in order to duly comply with its treaty obligations
and the Court’s recognition of the role of CARU as noted above.

39. In my opinion, the imposition of such obligations of conduct, in
the light of the general rule that a State whose acts or conduct have been
declared wrongful by the Court will not repeat the acts or conducts in the
future — assuming the State’s good faith in following the Court’s deci-

sion — makes a declaration of the obligation of non-repetition by the
Court redundant.

B. SUBSTANTIVE OBLIGATIONS UNDER THE 1975 S TATUTE

40. Whereas in the context of procedural violations, the Court has
before it firm evidence on which to base its conclusions — namely, the
1975 Statute and a record of the steps taken by the Parties — the same

266evidential certainty does not exist in the context of Uruguay’s alleged
substantive violations, thereby severely hampering the Court’s ability to

make appropriate determinations of fact and law based on sound scien-
tific findings.

I. Determination of the Burden of Proof

41. The Judgment notes that Argentina has itself generated much factual
information and it adds that materials produced by Uruguay have been
available at various stages of the proceedings or have been available

in the public domain (Judgment, para. 226). The Court thus finds that
Argentina has not been placed at a disadvantage in terms of the produc-
tion of evidence relating to the discharges of effluent from the mill. How-
ever, such a finding is contradicted by the fact that Argentina was only
able to collect scientific data from the Argentine side of the River Uruguay,

because it was prevented from collecting samples on the Uruguayan side
of the river, particularly where discharges from the Orion (Botnia) mill
occur. Argentina was also banned from collecting samples from the mill
itself. In addition, no evidence was collected in common through CARU.
Therefore Argentina was not in a position to obtain evidence at the

source itself. This critical fact should have been acknowledged in the
Judgment.

42. In terms of the burden of proof, I agree with the finding of the
Court that:

“in accordance with the well-established principle of onus probandi
incumbit actori, it is the duty of the party which asserts certain facts

to establish the existence of such facts. This principle which has been
consistently upheld by the Court . . . applies to the assertions of fact
both by the Applicant and the Respondent.” (Ibid., para. 162.)

I disagree however with the Court’s assessment that: “that there is
nothing in the 1975 Statute itself to indicate that it places the burden of
proof equally on both Parties” (ibid., para. 164).

43. First, Article 12 imposes upon both Parties an obligation to refer
their dispute concerning any lack of agreement on the viability of planned
works to the International Court of Justice. Second, a finding by the
Court that Uruguay has breached its procedural obligations under the
Statute necessarily implies that Uruguay has not complied with its obli-

gations to produce all relevant evidence to CARU and to Argentina so as
to allow for an assessment as to whether or not the planned works are
“liable to affect navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its
waters” (Art. 7). In my view, a direct consequence of Uruguay’s proce-

dural breaches is that Uruguay should have provided the missing evi-
dence to the Court.

267 44. I agree that any breach of Chapter II obligations does not neces-
sarily justify a reversal of the burden of proof, but such a finding does

reaffirm the basic principle stated by the Court in paragraph 162 with
reference to the onus probandi of both the Applicant and the Respondent.
It follows from the Court’s finding that, “while a precautionary approach
may be relevant in the interpretation and application of the provisions of
the Statute”, in interpreting and applying Article 12 an “equal onus to

prove under the 1975 Statute” (Judgment, para. 164) should be binding
upon both Parties. In my view there is a clear contradiction between this
statement and the following assertion by the Court:

“It is of course to be expected that the Applicant should, in the
first instance, submit the relevant evidence to substantiate its claims.

This does not, however, mean that the Respondent should not co-
operate in the provision of such evidence as may be in its possession
that could assist the Court in resolving the dispute submitted to it.”
(Ibid., para. 163.)

It is difficult to follow the Court’s reasoning when, on the one hand, it
states that Uruguay has breached its procedural obligations (among
which is the obligation to produce information) and, on the other hand,

it merely exhorts Uruguay, as the Respondent, to co-operate. The Court
is thus transforming a previous binding obligation to produce evidence
into a mere goodwill gesture to co-operate by providing evidence to the
Court.

II. The Object and Purpose of the 1975 Statute and the Uses
of the Waters

45. Article 1 not only informs the interpretation of the substantive

obligations, as the Court finds at paragraph 173 of its Judgment, but also
lays down specific rights and obligations for the Parties. It is true that
optimum and rational utilization is to be achieved through compliance
with the obligations prescribed by the 1975 Statute for the protection of
the environment and the joint management of the River Uruguay as a

shared resource. However, it is also true that optimum and rational utili-
zation creates specific obligations for both riparian States to prevent any
use liable to affect navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of the
waters. In that context, any planned works and any use of the river must
be analysed jointly to evaluate the potential damage to the river as a

shared resource and any transboundary damage to the other party, par-
ticularly given that the river serves as an important source of water for
the local communities and also sustains a thriving tourism industry.

46. In keeping with earlier comments on the relationship between pro-

268cedural and substantive obligations, under Article 27 of the Statute
the “status” of the River Uruguay as a shared natural resource is

reflected in the fact that national use of the river for domestic,
sanitary, industrial and agricultural purposes is subject to the procedural
obligations laid down in Articles 7 to 12, where such utilization is
significant enough to affect the régime of the river or the quality of its
waters. The right of each State to use the river within its domestic

jurisdiction is subject to the strict co-operation mechanism established
under the 1975 Statute.

47. I strongly believe that Article 1 should be considered as an umbrella

clause establishing joint machinery for the observance of substantial obli-
gations to accomplish the optimum and rational utilization of the river.
Meanwhile, the content of Article 27, considered by the Court as “the
essence of sustainable development” (Judgment, para. 177), constitutes in
itself a substantial obligation.

48. To my understanding, the Court, by declaring that Uruguay has
breached its procedural obligations under Articles 7 to 12 of the 1975 Stat-
ute, has confirmed: (i) the non-observance of the joint machinery pre-
scribed under Article 1 in order to accomplish the optimum and rational

utilization of the river; and (ii) the non-observance of Article 27 under
which the Parties are obliged to apply “the procedure laid down in Arti-
cles 7 to 12 when the use is liable to affect the régime of the river or the
quality of its waters”.
49. In light of the above, the Court should have declared that Uruguay

had breached its substantive obligations under Articles 1 and 27 of the
1975 Statute before proceeding to an evaluation of adequate reparation.
I regret that the Court has not done so.

III. The Obligation to Co-ordinate Measures to Avoid
Changes in the Ecological Balance of the River
and Areas Affected by It (Art. 36)

50. In my view, the Court states incorrectly at paragraph 189 that
“Argentina has not convincingly demonstrated that Uruguay has refused

to engage in such co-ordination as envisaged by Article 36, in breach of
that provision”. It is also stated at paragraph 185 that “the purpose of
Article 36 . . . is to prevent any transboundary pollution liable to change
the ecological balance of the river by co-ordinating, through CARU, the
adoption of the necessary measures”. According to the Court, those

measures were adopted through the promulgation of standards by CARU.

51. But this reading by the Court limits the Statute to CARU stand-
ards. However, CARU standards were agreed upon to control and pre-

vent pollution arising from pre-existing uses of the river waters. As a
result, the Court’s position is at odds with the weight of the evidence. The

269Court’s reading does not allow for pre-emptive regulation of planned
future uses. The CARU Digest itself refers to the joint machinery and

the necessary intervention of CARU resulting from Articles 7 to 12 for
future planned uses of the river waters. It follows that for any planned
uses of the river, the co-ordination envisaged in Article 36 should be
channelled through CARU according to Articles 7 to 12. Any other
interpretation of Article 36 implies that the Parties and CARU would

not have the chance to assess the effects of planned uses of the river
waters but would simply have to wait until the industrial facility
became operational in order to verify at that point whether it polluted
the river or not. This is not the object and purpose of the Statute as

stated in Article 1.

52. That is why I believe that the object and purpose of the Statute has
been violated and this violation has to be sanctioned. Argentina has

clearly proven that Uruguay has refused to engage in such co-ordination
and thus it is apparent that Uruguay has breached Article 36 of the 1975
Statute.

IV. The Obligation to Preserve the Aquatic Environment
and Prevent Its Pollution (Art. 41)

(a) Environmental impact assessments

53. My main points of disagreement with the Court’s findings on Arti-

cle 41 are related to issues concerning environmental impact assessments
and effluent discharges.
Concerning environmental impact assessments, I do believe that there
is sufficient evidence in the record to prove that Uruguay has breached
its obligation to “co-ordinate, through the Commission, the necessary

measures to avoid any change in the ecological balance and to control
pests and other harmful factors in the river and the areas affected by
it” (Art. 36). That lack of co-ordination has negatively influenced the
performance by Uruguay of its obligations under Article 41 (a) of
the Statute to protect and preserve the aquatic environment and, in

particular, to prevent its pollution. Consequently, I disagree with the
Court’s conclusions on Uruguay’s compliance with due diligence
requirements on environmental impact assessments in relation
to: (i) the chosen site for the Orion (Botnia) mill; and (ii) the
consultation of the affected populations. I will address both concerns

in turn.

(i) The siting of the Orion (Botnia) mill at Fray Bentos

54. In its consideration as to whether Uruguay carried out an appro-

270priate assessment prior to the determination of the final site, the Court
should not have satisfied itself with a mere mention in the Final Cumu-

lative Impact Study (hereinafter “CIS”) of the International Finance
Corporation (hereinafter the “IFC”) that Botnia evaluated in 2004 four
locations before choosing Fray Bentos. The CIS dates from Septem-
ber 2006, which is more than a year and a half after the authorization
in February 2005 for the construction of the Orion (Botnia) mill and

came after Argentina’s complaints about the lack of alternative site
assessment and after proceedings had been instituted before the Court.
Secondly, the CIS reference to Botnia’s evaluation is a one page referral
containing a listing of the four sites and a minimum of substance about

the reasons why the alternative sites were discarded.

55. According to the CIS, “logistics” played a key role in the decisions
of both Botnia and ENCE not to proceed with any of the alternative
sites, even though it was also claimed that “environmental and structural

aspects were also important”. No information, however, is given as to
what those environmental aspects were, neither is there evidence — nor,
for that matter, is it claimed — that environmental impact assessments
were conducted in relation to those alternative sites.

56. Particularly striking are the reasons provided by Botnia for its
decision to discard the other three locations: for La Paloma, it was
because of its vicinity to important tourist areas; for Nueva Palmira, it
was because of the presence of culturally important sites (Desembarco de
los 33 Orientales) and the proximity of “high end” residential areas; and

for Paso de los Toros, it was because of the limited amount of water
available. The other reasons listed are purely of an economic nature
related to costs and the availability of fresh water. The “comparative
table” found in pages 2.10 and 2.11 of the CIS shows no information as
to why Fray Bentos was the safest choice to build the mill from an environ-

ment point of view, other than the claim that the nearer the plant
from the eucalyptus plantations the less the ecological harm.

57. The assumption made in the Judgment that, “in accordance with

Articles 36 and 56 of the 1975 Statute, CARU must have taken into
account the receiving capacity and sensitivity of the waters of the river”
(Judgment, para. 214) does not nullify the obligation to assess the
sensitivity and vulnerability of a pre-determined site with reference to a
specific planned use and its particular impact on that site. This is in

accordance with a strict observance of Article 27, Articles 7 to 12 and
Article 1 of the Statute and with the Digest’s referral to Articles 7 to 12
for future planned uses. In that context, the general assumption made
in the Judgment cannot overrule the provisions of the Statute, nor

can it be relied upon to justify non-compliance with obligations derived
from the mandatory implementation of Chapter II of the Statute.

271Moreover, the Court admits that the CARU standards were not exhaus-
tive (Judgment, para. 202).

58. Because of Uruguay’s procedural violations, both CARU and
Argentina were deprived of the possibility to evaluate whether the planned
activity was liable to affect the quality of the waters in that particular site
of the River Uruguay. If procedural obligations had not been violated by
Uruguay, CARU and Argentina would have had the chance to adequately

take into consideration the geomorphological and hydrological charac-
teristics of the river at the site and the capacity — more precisely the
incapacity — of its waters to disperse and dilute different types of dis-
charges from the projected works. Any inadequacy of the site itself, par-

ticularly with respect to certain areas of the river such as Fray Bentos,
could have been detected if the obligations under Chapter II had been
duly complied with.

(ii) Consultation of the affected populations

59. The Court recognizes that “[t]he Parties disagree on the extent to
which the populations likely to be affected by the construction of the
Orion (Botnia) mill, particularly on the Argentine side of the river, were

consulted in the course of the environmental impact assessment” (ibid.,
para. 215). The Parties’ disagreement concerns the results of the consulta-
tion of the affected populations, the extent to which concerns raised were
taken into consideration and whether the consultation was meaningful.
The Court further recognizes that both Parties agreed on such consulta-

tion, although the Court is of the view that “no legal obligation to con-
sult the affected populations arises for the Parties from the instruments
invoked by Argentina” (ibid., para. 216).

60. The Court omits to refer to the unilateral obligation assumed by

Uruguay to comply with established European standards requiring pub-
lic consultation of local populations liable to be affected by transbound-
ary projects in such a way as to guarantee their effective participation at
an early stage (IPPC Directive, 1996).
61. The finding of the Court that the obligation to consult the affected

populations does not arise from the instruments invoked by Argentina
does not detract from the fact that both Parties were in agreement that
consultation of the affected populations should form part of the environ-
mental impact assessment.
62. The Court notes that both before and after the granting of the ini-

tial environmental authorization, Uruguay undertook activities aimed at
consulting the affected populations (Judgment, para. 217) and that
between June and November 2005 further consultations were conducted
by the Consensus Building Institute, a non-governmental organization

contracted by the IFC (ibid., para. 218). The Court also notes that
“[i]n December 2005, the draft CIS and the report prepared by the Con-

272sensus Building Institute were released, and the IFC opened a period of
consultation to receive additional feedback from stakeholders in Argen-

tina and Uruguay” (Judgment, para. 218). In light of the above, the
Court finds, at paragraph 219, “that consultation by Uruguay of the
affected populations did indeed take place”. I disagree with this conclu-
sion.
63. The Court does not answer the issues raised by the Parties. It does

not make any pronouncements on the question of whether or not the
concerns of the Argentine population were taken into account or if con-
sultations were meaningful or not.
64. The consultation referred to by the Court at paragraph 217 of its

Judgment was characterized by the Ombudsperson of the IFC as irrele-
vant and meaningless. The IFC ombudsperson presented her preliminary
report entitled: “Complaint regarding IFC’s proposed investment in
Celulosas de M’Bopicuá and Orion Projects” in which it is stated that the
construction of the cellulose plants was presented as a fait accompli to

those who had supposedly been consulted.

65. In my view, all of the consultations mentioned by the Court at
paragraph 218 of its Judgment took place after environmental authori-
zations had been granted, and therefore are all meaningless. This is sup-

ported by the Court’s acknowledgement that “both Parties agree that
consultation of the affected populations should form part of an environ-
mental impact assessment” (ibid., para. 215). This requires that the con-
sultation must have taken place before the environmental impact assess-
ment was issued. Thus, to my understanding, Uruguay has not complied

with its due diligence obligation to consult the affected populations prior
to the issue of the authorization to build the Orion (Botnia) mill.

66. The permanent protest of the population of Gualeguaychú is addi-
tional evidence of the non-fulfilment by Uruguay of its obligation to

engage in a reasonable and meaningful consultation of the affected popu-
lation on the Argentine side of the river.

(b) Effluent discharges and the Court’s role in evaluating scientific data

that proves violations of substantive obligations

67. With regard to discharges of effluents from the Orion (Botnia)
mill, I disagree with the Court’s conclusions which are based on an inade-
quate evaluation of data. It is also a matter of deep regret to me that the
Court did not address the future cumulative effects of actual pollution

generated by the Orion (Botnia) mill in order to assess future harmful
effects during the 40-year lifespan of the plant.

68. I was particularly troubled by Uruguay’s inability to collect and

produce reliable data. Most of the data that Uruguay submitted in its
pleadings was provided by Botnia to Uruguay’s National Directorate for

273the Environment (DINAMA) which passed it on to the Court. My main
concern is that the Court attempts to draw solid and justified conclusions

on the law — particularly in assessing Uruguay’s substantive viola-
tions — without the weight of incontrovertible scientific evidence to bol-
ster its conclusions. I believe that a judgment based on disputed data as
well as on conclusions which have been reached without any independent
scientific evaluation will not be able to withstand scrutiny, and in par-

ticular will not provide a solution that takes due account of the realities
of the situation on the river.

69. Specific examples of facts that the Court dismisses — and which I

will address in further detail below — include: discrepancies in the
Adsorbable Organic Halogens (AOX) data collected by the two Parties,
including extremely high measurements that were summarily discarded
by DINAMA; an unexplained increase in bacteria associated with the
pulping process after the commissioning of the Orion (Botnia) mill;

discrepancies between data collected on phosphorus in the water; the
February 2009 record of an algal bloom of an exceptionally high
magnitude, intensity and toxicity, an event which occurred only after
the commissioning of the plant; the threefold rise in levels of phenolic
substances after the commissioning of the plant in violation of CARU

standards for water quality for the river; the baffling existence of
nonlyphenols in the water combined with the expert opinion presented
by Argentina, according to which Botnia’s assurances of the non-use
of nonlyphenols at the mill was deeply flawed and inconsistent with
the reality of pulp mill operations; the troubling existence of dioxins

and furans in the air and aquatic environment. With respect to all of
these polluting elements in the water, the Court considers that there
is incomplete or disputed evidence establishing their presence and/or
a link between their presence and the Orion (Botnia) mill. Basing its
legal analysis on this incomplete evidence renders the Judgment itself

incomplete.

70. In various key passages, the Court reaches conclusions on alleged

substantial violations while acknowledging the lack of scientific certainty
underpinning those findings: “Argentina has not convincingly demon-
strated that Uruguay” (Judgment, para. 189); “the Court is not in a
position to conclude that Uruguay” ( ibid., para. 228); it has “not been
established to the satisfaction of the Court” (ibid., para. 250);

“there is insufficient evidence” (ibid., para. 254); “there is no clear
evidence to link” (ibid., para. 259); “a clear relationship has not been
established” (ibid., para. 262); “the record does not show any clear
evidence” (ibid., para. 264).

71. However, despite the lack of specialized expert knowledge, the

274Court sets itself the task of choosing what scientific evidence is best, dis-
carding other evidence, and evaluating and weighing raw data and draw-

ing conclusions. In my view, the specific discrepancies and general incon-
clusiveness of the data itself undermines the legal pronouncements of the
Court. My concerns about the Court’s reliance on this scientific data
encourage my vigorous dissent.

72. In particular, the Court reflects upon the scientific submissions by
the Parties in its discussion of the data. However, throughout this over-
view of the evidence, there is no discussion about the scientific integrity

of the scientific methodologies applied. There is also no discussion about
the scientific integrity of the results. This silence on the important issue of
credibility of the scientific submissions reflects more than just an acciden-
tal oversight. Instead, this silence underscores the Court’s lack of scien-
tific competence and throws doubt on the Court’s ability to determine

whether the data is scientifically viable or credible. The Court does not
have the proper expertise or knowledge to draw the expert conclusions
that it makes, and this Judgment fully reflects that.

73. I will next address what I consider to be the main inconsistencies

of the Court’s evaluation process by reference to (i) adsorbable organic
halogens; (ii) phosphorus; (iii) the algal bloom of February 2009; (iv) phe-
nolic substances; (v) nonylphenols; (vi) dioxins and furans; and (vii) air
pollution.

(i) Adsorbable Organic Halogens (AOX)

74. The Court in paragraph 228 notes that the levels of Adsorbable
Organic Halogens (AOX) exceeded by more than double the acceptable

levels in the river’s water. While the Court notes that the initial environ-
mental authorization from almost two years prior to the commissioning
of the Orion (Botnia) mill did allow for yearly averaging of this
parameter, it does not have the appropriate factual data to draw this
conclusion. As the Court says, there is an “absence of convincing

evidence” (Judgment, para. 228) proving that this is an isolated episode
rather than an enduring problem. However, the Court does not then
point to evidence that the yearly parameters themselves were met, nor
does it suggest that convincing evidence has been provided to show
that this result was just an errant data value. Instead, the Court ignores

the potential danger that could stem from prolonged discharge of this
persistent organic pollutant, and draws a conclusion that this data
value is inconsequential.

275 (ii) Phosphorus

75. The Court turns to phosphorus in paragraph 240. The Court notes

that DINAMA stated clearly that the “effluent in the plant will emit
[amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus] that are the approximate equiva-
lent of the emission of the untreated sewage of a city of 65,000 people”
(Judgment, para. 244). While the Court noted that this amount of the

pollutant was a mere fraction of the total amount of nutrients being put
into the river, it also referred to a section of the DINAMA Report that
required that there be “compensation for any increase over and above the
standard value for any of the critical parameters” (ibid., para. 245).
Despite this clear requirement, the Orion (Botnia) mill was commissioned

and allowed to begin adding its effluent to an already eutrophic river
without providing the “compensation” required by DINAMA. The sew-
age treatment agreement that was concluded between Botnia and Uru-
guay is still at a project stage, even though the plant began to operate
in November 2007. The fact that the river is already eutrophic, meaning

that the addition of nutrients could potentially cause serious damage to
the ecosystem, is critical.

76. The Court acknowledges that the level of concentration of total
phosphorus in the River Uruguay exceeds the very limits established by
Uruguayan legislation in respect of water quality standards (ibid.,
para. 247), standards that become applicable in the absence of CARU
standards (ibid., para. 242). The Court also notes that DINAMA recom-

mended in its Environmental Impact Assessment of 11 February 2005
that in light of the heavy load of nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) in
the river, “it [was] not appropriate to authorize any waste disposal that
would increase any of the parameters that present critical values” (ibid.,
para. 245; emphasis added). In addition, Uruguay pledged to abide

by the regulations of the European Community, among which is the
European Union Water Framework Directive which provides that
in a river that is already eutrophic, no additional discharges of
phosphorus are allowed. It follows that any additional discharges of

phosphorus are contrary to the December 2001 Integrated Pollution
Prevention and Control Reference Document on Best Available
Techniques in the Pulp and Paper Industry of the European Commission
(IPPC-BAT).

(iii) The algal bloom of February 2009

77. Uruguay never contested, nor has the Court addressed the issue,
that the February 2009 scum was a toxic algal bloom of a magnitude,

276intensity and toxicity that has never been recorded in the river before —
1000 times higher than the historic maximum in the river — and that the

bloom occurred after the Orion (Botnia) mill started operating.

78. Though the Court dismisses the possibility that nutrient discharges
equivalent to a city of 65,000 people could truly be the “tipping point”

that leads to toxic algal blooms, this determination is made without a
coherent scientific basis. Even if it were true that the Orion (Botnia) mill
only adds amounts of phosphorus which, as the Court says, is “insignifi-
cant in proportionate terms as compared to the overall total phosphorus

in the river from other sources” (Judgment, para. 247), this does not alter
the fact that the plant was and is adding phosphorus to the river without
proper compensation through removal processes.

79. Claims to the effect that the yearly carnival at Gualeguaychú is the
reason for the increase in phosphorus — an event which has not typically
been accompanied by algal blooms in the past — merely reinforce the
probability that the discharges from the pulp mill had a negative cumu-
lative impact. Therefore, I cannot agree with the Court’s position that

such a link should be rejected without providing a scientific basis. It is
reasonable to consider the likelihood of a link existing between the algal
bloom and the Orion (Botnia) mill given that the operation of the plant
represents a new circumstance. As with other data, the Court would have
benefited greatly from a more detailed and expert evaluation of the sci-

entific facts.

80. I also have difficulty understanding the Court’s conclusion that
the algal bloom episode of 4 February 2009 may not be linked, in light

of the evidence in the record, to nutrient discharges from the Orion
(Botnia) mill. During the proceedings, Argentina presented extensive
data regarding this phenomenon which pointed to the Orion (Botnia)
mill as a significant contributor. The evidence included satellite
images showing the vast extent of the bloom, a river flow modelling

based on actual data that matched precisely the distribution of the
bloom, data indicating the presence in the scum, in addition to algae,
of several effluent products coming directly from the Orion (Botnia)
mill such as wood fibres, bacteria typically associated with wood
pulp, namely, klebsiella, nonylphenol contaminants, and higher

levels of sodium and AOX. The presence of those contaminants
found in the scum provides clear evidence that the mill effluents
contributed to the 4 February 2009 bloom.

277 (iv) Phenolic substances

81. Once again, the question of phenolic substances reveals the great
deal of difficulty that the Court has faced in its attempts to resolve the
scientific issues at stake in this case, including the difficulty of “identify-
ing” and properly evaluating — among the numerous and complex sci-
entific data produced by the Parties — the evidence and arguments in the

record that are relevant.
In dealing with phenolic substances, the Court concluded that “there is
insufficient evidence to attribute the alleged increase” (Judgment,
para. 254) to the operation of the Orion (Botnia) mill. However, the

CARU standard which sets the limit for phenolic substances at one
microgramme per litre has been violated in the immediate vicinity of the
Orion (Botnia) mill. According to the Uruguayan data submitted by
Argentina, in the pre-operational phase of the Orion (Botnia) mill
until November 2007, phenolic substances were below that maximum

level as shown by Uruguay’s State Agency for Sanitary Works (OSE)
measurements in the Fray Bentos water intake, located just 3 km south of
the Orion (Botnia) mill and 70 metres offshore. In contrast, the latest
OSE data, from 13 November 2007 until 13 May 2009, show that since
the Orion (Botnia) mill went into operation the average level of phenolic

substances rose to three microgrammes per litre (the average was three
times higher than CARU standards, with peak levels of 20.7 micro-
grammes per litre, which is 20 times higher than CARU standards). As
phenols are present in the wood lignin, certain amounts of phenols will
necessarily be part of the effluent from the Orion (Botnia) mill. During

the proceedings, Argentina compared and contrasted DINAMA’s data
used by Uruguay, with the data collected by OSE, a government agency
that makes ordinary assessments of water quality for the Fray Bentos
water intake. However, the Judgment only reflects DINAMA’s assess-
ment even though the OSE data seems to be much more relevant to prove

the quality and origin of the Orion (Botnia) mill’s discharges. Had the
Court taken into consideration the OSE data, the Court would have
come to a different conclusion: that there is evidence to attribute an
increase in the level of concentration of phenolic substances in the river
to the operation of the Orion (Botnia) mill.

82. Although the Court hinges its conclusion on the lack of evidence

that the Orion (Botnia) mill was responsible, it does not directly address
the discrepancies in the data or the credibility of the conclusions. But by
determining that some of the Uruguayan data is more reflective of the
realities on the river than others, the Court essentially draws conclu-

sions about the scientific viability of the evidence without any scientific
competence to do so. The Court would have been better served had it

278relied on clearer data and obtained a more convincing analysis of the
evidence.

(v) Nonylphenols

83. In the case of nonylphenols and nonylphenolethoxylates, the Court
again determines that even though the presence of these substances has

been detected in areas most affected by the mill’s discharged effluents,
there is no convincing data that the plant is using these detergents.
84. I find it surprising that the conclusion of the Court is that there is
not enough evidence in the record as to the claim made by Argentina that

the Orion (Botnia) mill emits or has discharged nonylphenols into the
river environment. In its Scientific and Technical Report submitted on
30 June 2009, Argentina presented extensive data showing the presence of
nonylphenols in samples of water, sediments, settling particles, Asiatic
clams and cyanobacteria found in the River Uruguay in the mill’s area of

influence (New Documents submitted by Argentina, Vol. I, Scientific and
Technical Report, p. 41). The samples were taken during the 4 Febru-
ary 2009 algal bloom, but also during other periods, and all the samples
show an increase in the level of nonylphenols. Additionally, during the
oral hearings, Argentina presented an analysis of a pulp sample allegedly

from the Orion (Botnia) mill that showed that the pulp contained nonyl-
phenols. Uruguay never contested or rebutted these assertions by Argentina
as to this sample, and the Court similarly does not address this evidence
in the Judgment.

85. In addition to the affidavit from the Botnia official presented by
Uruguay, Argentina also presented the Court on 19 October 2009, in
response to the same question put forward by a judge, an affidavit pre-

pared by a Canadian expert on pulp mills that confirms Argentina’s
expert team’s findings regarding the use of nonylphenols.

86. The Court gave weight to the self-serving testimony of the Botnia
employee that the mill does not use these detergents over evidence from

Argentina that cleaning processes related to the use of this type of wood
without detergents is almost impossible. Combined with the data that
these detergents have been detected in areas rich with the mill’s efflu-
ent — where they have already begun to affect the river’s fauna — the
Court’s summary conclusion seems, at the very least, unsupported by the

evidence. An independent expert on detergent use in pulp mills could
have easily determined the credibility to be given to each Party’s claims in
this regard, but the Court decided that this amount of certainty was
unnecessary.

279 87. I regret that the Court did not rely on all the relevant data sub-
mitted by the Parties in order to conclude that discharges from the Orion

(Botnia) mill plant included nonylphenols.

(vi) Dioxins and furans

88. With regard to dioxins and furans, the Court again evaluates the

scientific viability of the data of Argentina and Uruguay from a lay per-
spective and without the benefit of an independent expert opinion. The
Court does not have the requisite expertise to ascertain what the appro-
priate method is for measuring dioxins and furans or whether the study

by Botnia followed scientific or industry standards and how to link the
presence of pollutants to the operation of the Orion (Botnia) mill.

(vii) Air pollution

89. The Court, in view of its own findings with respect to water qual-
ity, is of the opinion that “the record does not show any clear evidence
that substances with harmful effects have been introduced into the aquatic

environment of the river through the emissions of the Orion (Botnia) mill
into the air” (Judgment, para. 264).
90. In my view, the Court fails to take due consideration of the fact
that Article 36 of the 1975 Statute establishes the obligation to co-ordi-
nate through CARU the necessary measures to control “harmful factors

in the river and the areas affected by it” and that Article 41 states the
obligation to prevent pollution. Recreational and bathing activities take
place in the river and in areas affected by it. The Digest of the uses of the
River Uruguay, in the Chapter on Pollution, defines “industrial pollu-
tion” as “caused by gas emissions stemming from industrial activities”

(Digest, Theme E3: Pollution, Title 1, Chap. 1, Sec. 2: Definitions,
Art. 1 (b)), while the definition of “harmful effects” includes threats to
health and reductions in recreational activities (Chap. 1, Sec. 2).

91. In my view, the Court fails to recognize that air pollution linked to

the Orion (Botnia) mill may affect not only the River Uruguay but also
the areas affected by it, including human health and recreational activi-
ties. The Court consequently makes no assessment of the potential impact
in this regard.

V. Final Remarks on Substantive Obligations

92. Given the scientific complexity of the case, it is my considered
belief that the Court should have availed itself of the provisions in its

Rules aimed at enabling the Court to gain a clearer understanding of
technical evidence. This approach would have allowed the Court to reach

280its conclusions regarding the substantive obligations of Uruguay with sci-
entific certainty.

93. How is the Court to fulfil its “responsibility . . . to determine which
facts must be considered relevant, to assess their probative value, and to
draw conclusion from them” (Judgment, para. 168) in the face of the vol-
ume and complexity of the factual information submitted to it by the
Parties? The Judgment states that “in keeping with its practice, the Court

will make its own determination of the facts” (ibid.). However, the
Court’s Statute provides that: “The Court may, at any time, entrust any
individual, body, bureau, commission, or other organization that it may
select, with the task of carrying out an enquiry or giving an expert

opinion.” (Art. 50.) The Court has made use of its powers under Arti-
cle 50 twice. In the Corfu Channel case, it first appointed a committee of
three naval experts on a question of fact, contested between the Parties
and relevant for the question of Albania’s responsibility (Corfu Channel
(United Kingdom v. Albania), Order of 17 December 1948, I.C.J. Reports

1947-1948,p.124et seq. ). Once the committee had submitted its report,
the Court decided that it should proceed with an in situ examination and
submit a second report (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949 , p. 151). The Court relied on the
advice of a second committee in order to assess the amount of compensa-

tion owed to the United Kingdom. Moreover, in the Gulf of Maine case,
the Chamber followed a request by the Parties that it appoint a technical
expert in order to assist in the delimitation of the maritime boundary
(Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area
(Canada/United States of America), Appointment of Expert, Order of

30 March 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , pp. 165 et seq. and reference in the
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 265, para. 18). Although the appoint-
ment was made following a request by the Parties, it came within the
scope of Article 50.
94. The PCIJ also decided at the indemnities stage of the Chorzów

Factory case to seek expert advice before fixing the amount of compensa-
tion (Factory at Chorzów, Merits, Order of 13 September 1928, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 17, pp. 99 et seq.).
95. In conclusion, seeking an expert opinion to resolve matters of fact
in the light of the complexity of the evidence would have been entirely

consistent with the practice of the Court. Article 50 of the Statute was
conceived precisely for cases like the current one. The Court could and
should have called for an expert opinion to assess the scientific and fac-
tual evidence presented by the Parties. Whatever delay might have been
caused by the additional investigation would have been outweighed by

the Court’s increased competence to render an effective Judgment. The
Court does itself a disservice by not ensuring that its ruling is based on
factual certainty.
96. In my view, the Court’s own findings raise doubts concerning the

presence or absence of pollutive factors in the river associated with dis-
charges from the Orion (Botnia) mill. The Court’s conclusions, to my

281mind, do not dispel the likelihood of a link between the Orion (Botnia)
mill and the unprecedented algal bloom in February 2009, the presence of

phenolic substances, and the detection of prohibited nonylphenols in
pulp samples and in the aquatic environment, as well as the detection of
dioxins and furans in the aquatic environment of the River Uruguay and
in the air.
97. Even if these factors are not considered individually by the Court

as satisfactorily established, I do strongly believe that if they were taken
into account as a whole these polluted discharges from the mill evidence
Uruguay’s non-compliance with its substantive obligations to ensure the
optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay.

98. I would finally like to express my disappointment with the Court’s
approach when dealing with substantive obligations under the 1975 Stat-
ute. To my understanding the Court should have taken into account not
only the actual impact of the discharges from the Orion (Botnia) mill, but
also the cumulative long-term effects of those discharges in light of the

40-year lifespan of the plant. The discharges from the Orion (Botnia) mill
over its lifetime are not a mere expectation but a certainty to come. In
that context, the Executive Summary of Argentina’s Scientific and Tech-
nical Report submitted to the Court on 30 June 2009 states that “The
main outcome of this study is the detection of changes associated to the

pulp mill activities that could act as an early warning framework to
anticipate future major and more irreversible ecosystem damages.”
(Emphasis in the original.)

99. As the Court has stated in the past: “the environment is not an

abstraction but represents the living space, the quality of life and the very
health of human beings, including generations unborn” (Legality of the
Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (I), p. 241, para. 29); and also that:

“The Court is mindful that, in the field of environmental protec-
tion, vigilance and prevention are required on account of the often
irreversible character of damage to the environment and of the limi-
tations inherent in the very mechanism of reparation of this type of
damage.

Throughout the ages, mankind has, for economic and other rea-
sons, constantly interfered with nature. In the past, this was often
done without consideration of the effects upon the environment.
Owing to new scientific insights and to a growing awareness of the
risks for mankind — for present and future generations — of pursuit

of such interventions at an unconsidered and unabated pace, new
norms and standards have been developed, set forth in a great
number of instruments during the last two decades. Such new norms
have to be taken into consideration, and such new standards given

proper weight, not only when States contemplate new activities but
also when continuing with activities begun in the past. This need to

282 reconcile economic development with protection of the environment

is aptly expressed in the concept of sustainable development.” (Gab-
ˇíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1997, p. 78, para. 140.)

100. In due consideration to these past findings of the Court, I regret

that by not taking into account the long-term effects of the already exist-
ing pollution attributable to the Orion (Botnia) mill, the Court, in my
opinion, pre-empted its opportunity to apply the precautionary principle
to properly prevent pollution and preserve the aquatic environment of

the River Uruguay in conformity with the 1975 Statute and general inter-
national law.

(Signed) Raúl V INUESA .

283

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC VINUESA

1. Although I agree with the first paragraph of the dispositive concern-
ing Uruguay’s breaches of procedural obligations under the 1975 Statute,
I do not share the views of the majority concerning: (1) the relationship
between procedural obligations and substantial obligations; (2) the non-

existence of a “no construction obligation” once the parties to the
1975 Statute failed to reach an agreement under Article 12; and (3) and
the reasoning behind the conclusion that satisfaction is a proper means of
reparation. For the reasons stated below (see paras. 40 to 99), I fully disa-
gree with the second paragraph of the dispositive.

A. ISSUES RELATED TO PROCEDURAL O BLIGATIONS

I. The Relationship between Procedural Obligations
and Substantive Obligations

2. I disagree with the majority in assuming that the dispute concerning
substantive obligations is temporally restricted as to only refer to “whether
Uruguay has complied with its substantive obligations under the

1975 Statute since the commissioning of the Orion (Botnia) mill in November
2007” (Judgment, para. 46). Substantive obligations under the Statute
could have been, and in fact were, breached by Uruguay before the com-
missioning of the Orion (Botnia) mill.

3. The authorization of the location of the ENCE and Orion (Botnia)
mills in a sensitive, vulnerable and environmentally dynamic site is a
breach of the substantive obligations prescribed by the Statute. This vio-
lation, committed before the commissioning of the Orion (Botnia) mill,
breached Uruguay’s substantive obligations independently of Uruguay’s

procedural obligation breaches.
4. I also disagree with the majority’s finding that “the procedural obli-
gations are distinct from substantive obligations laid down in the
1975 Statute . . .” (ibid., para. 271). Instead, I strongly support the idea
that the procedural obligations are directly interrelated with the substan-

tive obligations. The Statute does not distinguish between different legal
effects for each category of obligations. Moreover, the object and pur-
pose of the 1975 Statute concerns the utilization of “the joint machinery
necessary for the optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay”

(Art. 1). The raison d’être of the Statute is to achieve the optimum and
rational utilization of the river through the implementation of procedural

256 OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC VINUESA

[Traduction]

1. Bien que j’approuve le premier paragraphe du dispositif concernant
les manquements de l’Uruguay aux obligations de nature procédurale qui
lui incombaient en vertu du statut de 1975, je ne souscris pas aux vues de
la majorité sur: 1) le lien entre les obligations de nature procédurale et les
obligations de fond, 2) l’inexistence d’une «obligation de non-construc-

tion» (dans le cas où les parties au statut de 1975 n’aboutissent pas à un
accord en vertu de l’article 12), et 3) le raisonnement menant à la conclu-
sion selon laquelle la satisfaction constitue un mode de réparation appro-
prié. Pour les raisons exposées ci-dessous (voir par. 40-99), je me dissocie
entièrement du deuxième paragraphe du dispositif.

A. Q UESTIONS TOUCHANT LES OBLIGATIONS DE NATURE PROCÉDURALE

I. Le lien entre les obligations de nature procédurale

et les obligations de fond

2. Je suis en désaccord avec la présomption de la majorité selon
laquelle le différend concernant les obligations de fond serait strictement
limité ratione temporis à la question de savoir «si l’Uruguay s’est acquitté
des obligations de fond lui incombant en vertu du statut de 1975 depuis
la mise en service de l’usine Orion (Botnia) au mois de novembre 2007»

(arrêt, par. 46). Les obligations de fond imposées par le statut pouvaient
être violées par l’Uruguay dès avant la mise en service de l’usine Orion
(Botnia), et elles l’ont effectivement été.
3. L’autorisation de construire les usines ENCE et Orion (Botnia) sur
un site sensible, vulnérable et écologiquement dynamique constitue une

violation des obligations de fond prévues par le statut. Cette violation,
commise avant la mise en service de l’usine Orion (Botnia), constitue un
manquement de l’Uruguay à ses obligations de fond, indépendamment de
ses manquements aux obligations de nature procédurale.
4. Je me dissocie également de la conclusion de la majorité selon
laquelle «les obligations de nature procédurale sont distinctes des obliga-

tions de fond prévues par le statut de 1975...» (ibid., par. 271). Je défends
au contraire vigoureusement l’idée selon laquelle les obligations procédu-
rales sont en corrélation directe avec les obligations de fond. Le statut ne
fait pas de distinction entre les effets juridiques de chacune de ces caté-
gories d’obligations. De surcroît, l’objet et le but du statut de 1975

concernent l’utilisation des «mécanismes communs nécessaires à l’utilisa-
tion rationnelle et optimale du fleuve Uruguay» (article premier). La rai-
son d’être du statut est d’assurer l’utilisation optimale et rationnelle du

256obligations as established in Articles 1, 7 to 12, and 27. The Statute’s
irrefutable purpose is to prevent unilateral actions in the determination

of the uses of a shared natural resource “which are liable to affect naviga-
tion, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters” (Art. 7). Addi-
tionally, Article 27 provides that:

“The right of each party to use the waters of the river, within its

jurisdiction, for domestic, sanitary, industrial and agricultural pur-
poses shall be exercised without prejudice to the application of the
procedure laid down in Articles 7 to 12 when the use is liable to
affect the régime of the river or the quality of its waters.”

The Court states that it has:

“already dealt with the obligations arising from Articles 7 to 12 of
the 1975 Statute which have to be observed, according to Article 27,
by any party wishing to exercise its right to use the waters of the
river for any of the purposes mentioned therein insofar as such use
may be liable to affect the régime of the river or the quality of its

waters” (Judgment, para. 177).

5. The Court is therefore assuming that the breach of Articles 7 to 12
inexorably implies the breach of Article 27. The Court is also of the
opinion that:

“Article 27 embodies this interconnectedness between equitable and

reasonable utilization of a shared resource and the balance between
economic development and environmental protection that is the
essence of sustainable development” (ibid., para. 177);

which shows that the Court recognizes that by breaching Articles 7 to 12
the balance required by Article 27 has also been breached.
The Court finds that the:

“overall procedure laid down in Articles 7 to 12, which is structured
in such a way that the parties, in association with CARU [the
Administrative Commission of the River Uruguay], are able, at the
end of the process, to fulfil their obligation to prevent any significant
transboundary harm which might be caused by potentially harmful

activities planned by either one of them” (ibid., para. 139).

6. As a consequence of the above, Uruguay has violated not only Arti-
cles 7 to 12, as the Court has asserted, but also Article 27 which is sub-
stantive in nature. Furthermore, the non-observance by Uruguay of the

object and purpose of the Statute itself constitutes a grave substantive
breach of the Statute.

257fleuve par le respect des obligations de nature procédurale instituées par
les articles premier, 7 à 12 et 27. Le statut a incontestablement pour but

d’empêcher les Parties d’agir de manière unilatérale lorsqu’il s’agit de
déterminer des utilisations d’une ressource naturelle partagée «[suscepti-
bles d’]affecter la navigation, le régime du fleuve ou la qualité de ses
eaux» (art. 7). L’article 27 prévoit en outre que:

«[l]e droit de chaque partie d’utiliser les eaux du fleuve, à l’intérieur

de sa juridiction, à des fins ménagères, sanitaires, industrielles et
agricoles, s’exerce sans préjudice de l’application de la procédure
prévue aux articles 7 à 12 lorsque cette utilisation est suffisamment
importante pour affecter le régime du fleuve ou la qualité de ses
eaux».

La Cour déclare qu’elle a

«déjà examiné les obligations découlant des articles 7 à 12 du statut
de 1975 qui, selon l’article 27, doivent être respectées par toute partie
souhaitant exercer son droit d’utiliser les eaux du fleuve pour l’une
quelconque des fins y énoncées dès lors que le régime du fleuve ou
la qualité de ses eaux risque de pâtir de cette utilisation» (arrêt,

par. 177).

5. La Cour estime par conséquent que la violation des articles 7 à 12
implique nécessairement une violation de l’article 27. Elle est également
d’avis que

«l’article 27 traduit ce lien étroit entre l’utilisation équitable et rai-

sonnable d’une ressource partagée et la nécessité de concilier le déve-
loppement économique et la protection de l’environnement qui est
au cŒur du développement durable» (ibid., par. 177),

d’où il ressort qu’elle reconnaît que, du fait de la violation des articles 7
à 12, l’équilibre prescrit par l’article 27 a également été bouleversé.
D’après la Cour,

«l’ensemble de la procédure prévue aux articles 7 à 12 ... est arti-
cul[é] de telle manière que les parties, en relation avec la CARU
[commission administrative du fleuve Uruguay], soient en mesure,
au terme du processus, de s’acquitter de leur obligation de prévenir
tout préjudice sensible transfrontière susceptible d’être généré par

des activités potentiellement nocives projetées par l’une d’elles» (ibid.,
par. 139).

6. Par conséquent, l’Uruguay a violé non seulement les articles 7 à 12,
comme la Cour l’a affirmé, mais également l’article 27, qui contient des
dispositions de fond. En outre, le non-respect par l’Uruguay de l’objet et

du but du statut constitue en soi une violation grave touchant au fond du
statut.

257 II. The “No Construction Obligation” during the Processes
Leading to the Settlement of the Dispute

7. The Court deals with the question of Uruguay’s obligations follow-
ing the end of the negotiation period (Judgment, paras. 151 to 158) con-
cluding:

“that Uruguay did not bear any ‘no construction obligation’ after
the negotiation period provided for in Article 12 expired . . . Con-
sequently the wrongful conduct of Uruguay . . . could not extend

beyond that period.” (Ibid., para. 157.)

I categorically disagree with this finding.
8. It is true that the “no construction obligation” that Uruguay was
supposed to respect between the end of the negotiation period and the
delivery of the final judgment of the Court is not expressly laid down by
the 1975 Statute, a point stated by the Court (ibid., para. 154). On the

contrary, it is wrong to assume, as the Court does, that the above obliga-
tion cannot be derived from the Statute’s provisions.
9. The Statute only allows parties to carry out or authorize the planned
work if the notified party raises no objections or does not respond within
the period established in Article 8. Article 9 provides that “If the notified

Party raises no objections or does not respond within the period estab-
lished in Article 8, the other Party may carry out or authorize the work
planned.” The right to carry on or authorize the planned works could
also result from the Parties’ agreement at the conclusion of the negotia-
tion period designed under Chapter II of the 1975 Statute.

10. The Court’s assertion that “Article 9 only provides for such an
obligation during the performance of the procedure laid down in Arti-
cles 7 to 12 of the Statute” (ibid., para. 154) is misleading and without
legal foundation. Additionally, as I discuss below, the Statute itself links

the negotiation and judicial settlement processes, thereby naturally
extending the no construction obligation until the end of the proceedings
before the Court.
11. In my view, Article 9 is complemented by Article 12 in order to
assure that, if no agreement is reached by the parties during negotiations,

the procedure indicated in Chapter XV shall be followed. The parties
have already assumed the obligation to settle the dispute through the
procedures described in Chapter II, Articles 7 to 12. It follows that the
parties should perform their treaty obligations in good faith and that
they must abstain from embarking on the planned works — the very

object of the dispute — until the Court makes its final decision. As a
result, the no construction obligation, once triggered, extends until the
resolution of the dispute.
12. This interpretation is borne out by the clear language of the Stat-

ute. Article 12 states that “Should the Parties fail to reach agreement
within 180 days following the notification referred to in Article 11, the

258 II. L’obligation de «non-construction» pendant les procédures
conduisant au règlement du différend

7. La Cour tranche la question des obligations de l’Uruguay après la
fin de la période de négociation (arrêt, par. 151 à 158) en concluant

«qu’aucune «obligation de non-construction» ne pesait sur l’Uru-
guay après que la période de négociation prévue par l’article 12 a
expiré ... En conséquence, le comportement illicite de l’Uruguay ... ne

pouvait s’étendre au-delà de cette date.» (Ibid., par. 157.)

Je suis catégoriquement en désaccord avec cette conclusion.
8. Certes, l’obligation de «non-construction» que l’Uruguay était censé
respecter entre la fin de la période de négociation et le prononcé de l’arrêt
définitif de la Cour ne figure pas expressément dans le statut de 1975,
comme la Cour l’a relevé (ibid., par. 154). Il est en revanche incorrect de

considérer, comme le fait la Cour, que cette obligation ne peut être
déduite des dispositions du statut.
9. En vertu du statut, les parties ne peuvent construire ou autoriser la
construction de l’ouvrage projeté que si la partie qui a reçu notification
du projet ne formule pas d’objections ou ne répond pas dans le délai

prévu à l’article 8. L’article 9 prévoit que «[s]i la Partie notifiée ne for-
mule pas d’objections ou ne répond pas dans le délai prévu à l’article 8,
l’autre Partie peut construire ou autoriser la construction de l’ouvrage
projeté». Le droit de construire ou d’autoriser la construction de l’ouvrage
projeté pourrait également résulter de l’accord des Parties après la fin de

la période de négociation prévue au chapitre II du statut de 1975.
10. L’affirmation de la Cour selon laquelle «[l]’article 9 ne prévoit une
telle obligation que pendant la mise en Œuvre de la procédure prévue aux
articles 7 à 12 du statut» (ibid., par. 154) est erronée et dépourvue de fon-
dement juridique. En outre, comme il est exposé ci-dessous, le statut lui-

même établit un lien entre les procédures de négociation et de règlement
juridictionnel, prolongeant naturellement ainsi la durée de l’obligation de
non-construction jusqu’à la fin de la procédure devant la Cour.
11. A mon avis, l’article 12 complète l’article 9 de manière à ce que la
procédure prévue au chapitre XV s’applique dans le cas où les parties

n’aboutissent pas à un accord au cours des négociations. Les parties ont
déjà contracté l’obligation de régler le différend au moyen des procédures
indiquées aux articles 7 à 12 du chapitre II. Il s’ensuit qu’elles devraient
exécuter de bonne foi leurs obligations conventionnelles et s’abstenir de
commencer la construction de l’ouvrage projeté — l’objet même du dif-

férend — en attendant la décision définitive de la Cour. En conséquence,
l’obligation de non-construction, une fois déclenchée, continue d’exister
jusqu’à la solution du différend.
12. Cette interprétation est confirmée par le libellé clair du statut. Aux

termes de l’article 12, «[s]i les Parties n’aboutissent pas à un accord dans
un délai de cent quatre-vingts jours à compter de la communication visée

258procedure indicated in Chapter XV shall be followed.” Article 60 pro-
vides that “Any dispute concerning the interpretation or application of

the Treaty and the Statute which cannot be settled by direct negotiations
may be submitted by either Party to the International Court of Justice.”
When paired with Article 60, it is clear that Article 12 overrules the per-
missive language of Article 60. Even in the authentic Spanish text, where
Article 12 provides that: “Si las Partes no llegaren a un acuerdo . . . se

observará el procedimiento indicado en el Capítulo XV”, it is clear that
the procedure indicated in Chapter XV requires recourse to the Interna-
tional Court of Justice. A logical reading of the Statute would also
exclude recourse through Article 12 to the additional part of Article 60,

which refers to the conciliation procedure of Chapter XIV and is not
implicated here.

13. The simple textual interpretation of Article 12 through its context
and through the principle of good faith indicates that Article 12 is man-

datory for the parties. It obliges both parties to follow the procedure
indicated in Chapter XV. Article 12 therefore represents a “compromis-
sory arrangement” to settle any dispute stemming from the parties’ fail-
ure to reach an agreement on planned works through submission of the
dispute to the Court.

14. Following general customary international law as codified by Arti-
cle 31 of the Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties of 1969, it is my
view that the Court’s interpretation of Article 12 does not comport with
the clear and precise meaning of the text and its context, as is required by
customary international law and this Court’s jurisprudence. (Sovereignty

over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 645, para. 37; Legal Consequences of the Con-
struction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opin-
ion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 174, para. 94; Competence of the General
Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations, Advisory

Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950 ,p.8; South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South
Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 336; Polish Postal Service in Danzig, Advisory
Opinion, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 11 ,p .9; Arbitral Award of
31 July 1989 (Guinea-Bissau v. Senegal), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1991 ,

pp. 69-70, para. 48 and see dissenting opinion of Judge Weeramantry,
pp. 135-137; Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/
Honduras: Nicaragua intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992 ,
pp. 582-583, paras. 373-374; see also Commentary (Treaties), Yearbook
of the International Law Commission , 1966, Vol. II, p. 220, para. 9.)

The Court’s interpretation also contradicts the very object and purpose
of the 1975 Statute which is “to establish the joint machinery necessary
for the optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay” (Art. 1),

which again contradicts settled rules of treaty interpretation based on the
agreement’s object and purpose (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran

259à l’article 11, la procédure indiquée au chapitre XV est applicable».
L’article 60 prévoit que «[t]out différend concernant l’interprétation ou

l’application du traité et du statut qui ne pourrait être réglé par négocia-
tion directe peut être soumis par l’une ou l’autre des Parties à la Cour
internationale de Justice». Lorsqu’on lit l’article 12 conjointement avec
l’article 60, il est évident que le premier l’emporte sur le second, qui est de
caractère permissif seulement. Même dans le texte espagnol qui fait foi, et

où l’article 12 est libellé comme suit: «[s]i las Partes no llegaren a un
acuerdo ... se observará el procedimiento indicado en el Capítulo XV», il
est bien clair que la procédure indiquée au chapitre XV exige la saisine de
la Cour internationale de Justice. Une lecture logique du statut exclurait

également le recours, par le biais de l’article 12, au second volet de l’ar-
ticle 60, qui renvoie à la procédure de conciliation du chapitre XIV et
n’entre pas en ligne de compte ici.
13. Une simple interprétation du texte de l’article 12, s’appuyant sur le
contexte et sur le principe de la bonne foi, indique que cette disposition a

un caractère impératif et oblige les deux parties à suivre la procédure
indiquée au chapitre XV. L’article 12 équivaut donc à une clause
«compromissoire» prévoyant que tout différend découlant de l’absence
d’accord des parties sur l’ouvrage projeté sera porté devant la Cour.

14. En me référant au droit international général coutumier tel qu’il
est codifié par l’article 31 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des trai-
tés de 1969, j’estime que l’interprétation faite par la Cour de l’article 12
ne correspond pas au sens clair et précis du texte et de son contexte,
comme l’exigent le droit coutumier et la jurisprudence de la Cour (Sou-

veraineté sur Pulau Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan (Indonésie/Malaisie),
requête à fin d’intervention, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 , p. 645, par. 37;
Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le territoire pales-
tinien occupé, avis consultatif , C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 174, par. 94;
Compétence de l’Assemblée générale pour l’admission d’un Etat aux

Nations Unies, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950 ,p.8; Sud-Ouest afri-
cain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 , p. 336; Service postal polonais à
Dantzig, avis consultatif, 1925, C.P.J.I. série B n o 11,p.9; Sentence
arbitrale du 31 juillet 1989 (Guinée-Bissau c. Sénégal), arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 1991, p. 69-70, par. 48, et voir l’opinion dissidente de
M. le juge Weeramantry, p. 135-137; Différend frontalier terrestre, insu-
laire et maritime (El Salvador/Honduras; Nicaragua (intervenant)),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992 , p. 582-583, par. 373-374; voir aussi Commen-
taires (Traités), Annuaire de la Commission du droit international , 1966,

vol. II, p. 239, par. 9).
L’interprétation de la Cour se trouve également en contradiction avec
l’objet et le but mêmes du statut de 1975, qui sont d’«établir les méca-
nismes communs nécessaires à l’utilisation rationnelle et optimale du

fleuve Uruguay» (article premier) et elle contrevient donc en cela aussi
aux règles établies d’interprétation des traités fondées sur l’objet et le but

259v. United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), pp. 812-814, paras. 23, 28; Military and Paramilitary

Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 , pp. 136-137,
paras. 272-273; Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indo-
nesia/Malaysia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , p. 652, para. 51; Rights
of Nationals of the United States of America in Morocco (France v.

United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 , p. 196; Asy-
lum (Colombia/Peru), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1950 , p. 282; Maritime
Delimitation in the Area between Greenland and Jan Mayen (Denmark v.
Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1993 , pp. 50-51, paras. 26-28; Terri-

torial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1994, p. 26, para. 52; Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v.
United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,p .,
para. 85). Such interpretation deprives Article 12 of itseffet utile, vitiating
the Statute’s text and again violating established rules of treaty inter-

pretation (Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1994 , pp. 25-26, paras. 51-52; Lighthouses case
between France and Greece, Judgment, 1934, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 62 ,
p. 27; Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council

Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 ,p .,
para. 66; Aegean Sea Continental Shelf (Greece v. Turkey), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1978, p. 22, para. 52).

15. In my view, the Court fails to recognize: first, that when negotia-

tions came to an end, the “disputed activities” — mentioned at para-
graph 143 of the Judgment — continued to be unsettled; and second,
that recourse to the International Court of Justice as expressed in Arti-
cle 12 was an essential step contained within the procedure considered
necessary by the Parties to ensure the Statute’s object and purpose: the

optimum and rational utilization of the river. The Court also fails to
acknowledge that through Article 12 the Parties have assumed an explicit
obligation, if no agreement is reached, to follow the procedure indicated
in Chapter XV. The reading of this provision by the Court deprives Arti-
cle 12 and Chapter XV of their substance and enforces an illogical read-

ing of the mandates of Article 12 and Chapter XV.

16. The obligation to negotiate — which was accompanied by the no
construction obligation in this case — is just one of the methods for the
peaceful settlement of disputes. The 1975 Statute, as a lex specialis, pro-

vides that if the parties fail to reach an agreement, they must submit to
litigation before the Court. In that sense, the obligation to negotiate is
linked to the obligation to refer the dispute to the International Court of
Justice to form a non-severable course of action. Both treaty obligations

must be performed in good faith, as is required by international law. The
Court has already recognized that:

260(Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d’Iran c. Etats-Unis
d’Amérique), exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) ,

p. 812-814, par. 23, 28; Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua
et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 136-137, par. 272-273; Souveraineté sur Pulau
Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan (Indonésie/Malaisie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2002 ,
p. 652, par. 51; Droits des ressortissants des Etats-Unis d’Amérique au

Maroc (France c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1952 ,
p. 196; Droit d’asile (Colombie/Pérou), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1950 , p. 282;
Délimitation maritime dans la région située entre le Groenland et
Jan Mayen (Danemark c. Norvège), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1993 , p. 50-51,

par. 26-28; Différend territorial (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Tchad),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1994 , p. 26, par. 52; Avena et autres ressortissants
mexicains (Mexique c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2004 (I), p. 48, par. 85). Une telle interprétation prive l’article 12 de
son effet utile, en dénaturant le texte du statut et en violant encore une

fois les règles établies en matière d’interprétation des traités ( Différend
territorial (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Tchad), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1994, p. 25-26, par. 51-52; Affaire franco-hellénique des phares, arrêt,
1934, C.P.J.I. série A/B n o62,p.27; Conséquences juridiques pour les
Etats de la présence continue de l’Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-

Ouest africain) nonobstant la résolution 276 (1970) du Conseil de sécu-
rité, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1971 , p. 35, par. 66; Plateau conti-
nental de la mer Egée (Grèce c. Turquie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1978 ,
p. 22, par. 52).
15. A mon avis, la Cour ne reconnaît pas, premièrement, le fait que,

lorsque les négociations ont pris fin, les «activités litigieuses» mention-
nées au paragraphe 143 de l’arrêt n’avaient toujours pas fait l’objet d’un
règlement et, deuxièmement, le fait que la saisine de la Cour prévue à
l’article 12 constitue une étape essentielle de la procédure considérée
comme nécessaire par les Parties pour assurer le respect de l’objet et du

but du statut, à savoir l’utilisation optimale et rationnelle du fleuve. La
Cour ne reconnaît pas non plus qu’en adoptant l’article 12 les Parties ont
contracté l’obligation expresse, dans le cas où elles n’aboutissent pas à un
accord, de suivre la procédure indiquée au chapitre XV. La manière dont
la Cour a interprété cette disposition a pour effet de vider de leur subs-

tance l’article 12 et le chapitre XV et de consacrer une interprétation illo-
gique de leurs prescriptions.
16. L’obligation de négocier — qui, en l’espèce, était assortie de l’obli-
gation de non-construction — ne constitue que l’une des méthodes de
règlement pacifique des différends. Le statut de 1975, en tant que lex spe-

cialis, dispose que, si les parties n’aboutissent pas à un accord, elles doi-
vent porter leur différend devant la Cour. En ce sens, l’obligation de
négocier et l’obligation de saisir la Cour internationale de Justice vont de
pair, formant un tout indivisible. Ces deux obligations créées par le traité

doivent être exécutées de bonne foi, comme l’exige le droit international.
La Cour a déjà reconnu que

260 “the mechanism for co-operation between States is governed by the
principle of good faith. Indeed, according to customary interna-

tional law, as reflected in Article 26 of the 1969 Vienna Convention
of the Law of Treaties, ‘[e]very treaty in force is binding upon the
parties to it and must be performed by them in good faith’. That
applies to all obligations established by a treaty, including proce-
dural obligations which are essential to co-operation between States.”

(Judgment, para. 145.)

17. Taking that into account, the Court recognizes that:

“as long as the procedural mechanism for co-operation between the
parties to prevent significant damage to one of them is taking its
course, the State initiating the planned activity is obliged not to
authorize such work and, a fortiori, not to carry it out” (ibid.,

para. 144).

Then the Court concludes in paragraph 147 that Article 12 is within
the joint mechanism provided by the Statute; based on this finding, the
Court then concludes that “[c]onsequently, Uruguay disregarded the
whole of the co-operation mechanism provided for in Articles 7 to 12 of
the 1975 Statute” (ibid., para. 149). It is my view that the Court could not

ignore that the Parties must perform their obligations under Article 12 in
good faith, and that the no construction obligation that was in force dur-
ing the negotiations should have continued until the Court’s judgment.
This conclusion comports with the proper interpretation of these provi-
sions; unfortunately, the Court’s conclusions do not.

18. The Court holds that “One of the basic principles governing the
creation and performance of legal obligations, whatever their source, is
the principle of good faith” (ibid., para. 145) and that “Trust and confi-
dence are inherent in international co-operation”, drawing on the Court’s

decision in the Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France) case (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 268, para. 46). I cannot agree with the Court’s
finding that a party’s obligation to stay construction on the planned
works ends before a final settlement of the dispute is reached by the
Court under Chapter XV (Judgment, paras. 154 and 157). Even more,

there is a bizarre juxtaposition of the Court’s conclusion that “Uruguay
failed to comply with the obligation to negotiate laid down in Article 12
of the Statute” (ibid., para. 149) with the Court’s decision that the no
construction obligation in this case ended along with the negotiations.
This confusing conclusion shows that the Court ignores that Article 12 —

in addition to mandating negotiations — also mandates recourse to the
procedure of Chapter XV of the Statute once negotiations come to an
end.
19. The majority also fails to explain why the obligation to settle the

dispute through recourse to the International Court of Justice, as seen in
Articles 12 and 60, puts an end to the “no construction obligation”. In

261 «le mécanisme de coopération entre Etats [étai]t régi par le principe
de la bonne foi. En effet, selon le droit international coutumier,

reflété à l’article 26 de la convention de Vienne de 1969 sur le droit
des traités, «[t]out traité en vigueur lie les parties et doit être exécuté
par elles de bonne foi». Cela s’applique à toutes les obligations éta-
blies par un traité, y compris les obligations de nature procédurale,
essentielles à la coopération entre Etats.» (Arrêt, par. 145.)

17. En tenant compte de ce qui précède, la Cour reconnaît que

«tant que se déroule le mécanisme de coopération entre les parties
pour prévenir un préjudice sensible au détriment de l’une d’elles,
l’Etat d’origine de l’activité projetée est tenu de ne pas autoriser sa
construction et a fortiori de ne pas y procéder» (ibid., par. 144).

La Cour conclut ensuite, au paragraphe 147, que l’article 12 fait partie
du mécanisme commun prévu par le statut. En partant de cette consta-
tation, elle conclut alors qu’«[i]l en résulte que l’Uruguay a méconnu
l’ensemble du mécanisme de coopération prévu par les articles 7 à 12 du
statut de 1975» (ibid., par. 149). J’estime que la Cour ne pouvait négliger

le fait que les Parties doivent exécuter de bonne foi les obligations
qui leur incombent en vertu de l’article 12 et que l’obligation de
non-construction, qui existait pendant les négociations, aurait dû se
poursuivre jusqu’au prononcé de l’arrêt de la Cour. Cette conclusion
est conforme à l’interprétation correcte de ces dispositions. Malheureu-

sement, les conclusions de la Cour ne le sont pas.
18. La Cour déclare que «[l]’un des principes de base qui président à la
création et à l’exécution d’obligations juridiques, quelle qu’en soit la
source, est celui de la bonne foi» (ibid., par. 145) et que «[l]a confiance
réciproque est une condition inhérente de la coopération internationale»,

en citant son arrêt rendu dans l’affaire des Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-
Zélande c. France) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 268, par. 46). Je ne puis
me rallier à la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle l’obligation d’une par-
tie de suspendre la construction de l’ouvrage projeté prend fin avant le
règlement définitif du différend par la Cour en vertu du chapitre XV

(arrêt, par. 154 et 157). De surcroît, la juxtaposition entre le constat de la
Cour selon lequel «l’Uruguay n’a pas respecté l’obligation de négocier
prévue à l’article 12 du statut» (ibid., par. 149) et sa décision selon
laquelle l’obligation de non-construction en l’espèce avait pris fin en
même temps que les négociations est singulière. Cette conclusion décon-

certante montre que la Cour méconnaît le fait que — outre qu’il impose
la tenue de négociations — l’article 12 prescrit le recours à la procédure
du chapitre XV du statut après la fin des négociations.
19. La majorité n’explique pas non plus pour quelle raison l’obligation

de régler le différend en saisissant la Cour internationale de Justice,
établie par les articles 12 et 60, mettrait fin à l’«obligation de non-

261my own view, under Article 12, the obligation to negotiate — when
exhausted — is replaced by the obligation to settle the dispute at the

International Court of Justice. As a result, the no construction obligation
extends until the dispute is settled by the Court.

20. This is supported in part by the Judgment, which finds that during
negotiations the parties are bound by the no construction obligation as a

consequence of their obligation to negotiate in good faith (Judgment,
para. 145). However, the majority fails to explain how the direct effect of
the lack of good faith in negotiations by Uruguay — as was the case
here — results in a right to resume construction of the planned works as

the case awaits a final decision by the International Court of Justice. This
reading is contrary to the text of Article 12, it has no support within its
context and it is opposed to the object and purpose of the 1975 Statute as
expressed in Article 1. As a result, the Court seems to reward parties who
negotiate in bad faith by allowing them to continue construction of the

works even if they have not fulfilled their procedural obligations in good
faith.

21. As a consequence of the above reasoning, I completely disagree
with the Court’s finding that:

“Article 12 does not impose an obligation on the parties to submit
a matter to the Court, but gives them the possibility of doing so, fol-

lowing the end of the negotiation period. Consequently, Article 12
can do nothing to alter the rights and obligations of the party con-
cerned as long as the Court has not ruled finally on them. The Court
considers that those rights include that of implementing the project,
on the sole responsibility of that party, since the period for negotia-

tion has expired.” (Ibid., para. 155.)
22. The Court also contradicts itself when it concludes that:

“while the 1975 Statute gives it jurisdiction to settle any dispute con-
cerning its interpretation or application, it does not however confer

on it the role of deciding in the last resort whether or not to author-
ize the planned activities. Consequently, the State initiating the plan
may, at the end of the negotiation period, proceed with the construc-
tion at its own risk.” (Ibid., para. 154.)

23. Any failure of the parties to agree at the end of the Chapter II pro-
cedures constitutes a dispute concerning the interpretation and applica-
tion of the Statute. The Court cannot ignore its responsibility to resolve

the dispute arising out of the parties’ disagreement on the sole basis that
the Statute does not confer the power to authorize or forbid the planned
activities because that is simply not correct.

24. As a result, the Court must exercise its jurisdiction to settle the dis-
pute arising out of the Chapter II procedures, even if in doing so it will

262construction». A mon avis, selon l’article 12, lorsque l’obligation de
négocier est épuisée, elle est remplacée par l’obligation de porter le diffé-

rend devant la Cour internationale de Justice. En conséquence, l’obligation
de non-construction continue d’exister jusqu’à ce que le différend soit
réglé par la Cour.
20. Cette position est corroborée en partie par l’arrêt, qui constate
que, pendant les négociations, les parties sont liées par l’obligation de

non-construction résultant de leur obligation de négocier de bonne foi
(arrêt, par. 145). La majorité n’explique pas cependant comment l’effet
direct de l’absence de bonne foi de l’Uruguay dans les négociations — c’est
le cas en l’espèce — serait de faire naître le droit de reprendre la construc-

tion de l’ouvrage projeté en l’attente d’une décision définitive de la Cour
internationale de Justice. Cette lecture est contraire au texte de l’ar-
ticle 12, elle ne trouve aucun appui dans son contexte et elle est contraire à
l’objet et au but du statut de 1975 tels qu’ils sont définis dans son article
premier. En procédant ainsi, la Cour semble récompenser les parties qui

négocient de mauvaise foi en les autorisant à poursuivre la construction
de l’ouvrage même si elles n’ont pas exécuté de bonne foi leurs obliga-
tions de nature procédurale.
21. Le raisonnement qui précède m’amène à me dissocier entièrement
de la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle

«L’article 12 ne met pas à la charge des parties une obligation de
saisir la Cour mais leur donne plutôt la possibilité de le faire, après

l’expiration de la période de négociation. Ainsi, l’article 12 n’est pas
susceptible de modifier les droits et obligations de la partie intéres-
sée, tant que la Cour n’a pas statué définitivement à leur sujet. Selon
la Cour, parmi ces droits figure celui de mettre en Œuvre le projet,
sous la seule responsabilité de cette partie, dans la mesure où la

période de négociation a expiré.» (Ibid., par. 155.)
22. La Cour se contredit encore lorsqu’elle conclut que

«si le statut de 1975 lui confère compétence pour le règlement de
tout différend relatif à son application et à son interprétation, il ne

l’investit pas pour autant de la fonction d’autoriser ou non en der-
nier ressort les activités projetées. Par conséquent, l’Etat d’origine du
projet peut, à la fin de la période de négociation, procéder à la cons-
truction à ses propres risques.» (Ibid., par. 154.)

23. L’absence d’accord entre les parties à l’issue de la procédure pré-
vue au chapitre II constitue bien un différend relatif à l’interprétation et
à l’application du statut. La Cour ne peut pas se soustraire à sa mission

de régler les différends découlant du désaccord entre les parties unique-
ment en invoquant le fait que le statut ne lui confère pas le pouvoir
d’autoriser ou d’interdire les activités projetées, parce que cela est tout
simplement inexact.

24. En conséquence, la Cour devait exercer sa compétence pour régler
le différend découlant des procédures prévues au chapitre II, même si, ce

262also judge the viability of the planned works. That is so, in particular,
taking into account that the Court attributes to itself the role of being

“the ultimate guarantor of [the parties’] compliance with the 1975 Stat-
ute” when deciding on the merits of the dispute (Judgment, para. 156).
25. Even were it accepted, again for the sake of argument, that “the
State initiating the plan may, at the end of the negotiation period, pro-
ceed with construction at its own risk” (ibid., para. 154), it does not fol-

low that either State may commission works which prematurely begin
using the protected shared resource before the dispute is settled. In other
words, even if sovereign rights would allow a riparian State to construct
in its own territory at its own risk, this sovereign right must not be

extended to allow the unilateral use or disposition of a shared natural
resource until the final resolution of the dispute.

26. It is noteworthy that the Court in its Order on Provisional Meas-
ures of 13 July 2006 stated that “in proceeding with the authorization

and construction of the mills, Uruguay necessarily bears all risks relating
to any finding on the merits that the Court might later make” (I.C.J.
Reports 2006, p. 133, para. 78). This Order, while it did not forbid con-
tinued construction of the mill, could not and did not give a green light to
Uruguay to commission the mill which would allow the mill to use the

shared resource of the river.

27. In fact, the Court, after emphasizing that:

“the present case highlights the importance of the need to ensure
environmental protection of shared natural resources while allowing
for sustainable economic development . . . in particular [it is] neces-

sary to bear in mind the reliance of the Parties on the quality of the
water of the River Uruguay for their livelihood and economic devel-
opment” (ibid., p. 133, para. 80),

then proceeded to state that:

“the Parties are required to fulfil their obligations under interna-
tional law; . . . the Court wishes to stress the necessity for Argentina
and Uruguay to implement in good faith the consultation and
co-operation procedures provided for by the 1975 Statute, with

CARU constituting the envisaged forum in this regard; and . . . the
Court further encourages both Parties to refrain from any actions
which might render more difficult the resolution of the present dis-
pute” (ibid., p. 134, para. 82).

28. The commissioning of the plant without CARU’s authoriza-
tion, without consultation of Argentina, without regard for Uruguay’s

international environmental obligations and without any attention to
the exacerbation of the dispute indicates a flouting of the Court’s

263faisant, elle était amenée à se prononcer également sur la viabilité de
l’ouvrage projeté. Il en est ainsi en particulier compte tenu du fait que la

Cour s’assigne le rôle d’«ultime garant du respect par [les parties] du sta-
tut de 1975» lorsqu’elle statue au fond sur le différend (arrêt, par. 156).
25. Même si l’on en admet aussi, pour les besoins du raisonnement,
que «l’Etat d’origine du projet peut, à la fin de la période de négociation,
procéder à la construction à ses propres risques» (ibid., par. 154), il ne

s’ensuit pas que l’un des Etats puisse mettre en service un ouvrage com-
mençant à utiliser prématurément la ressource partagée protégée avant le
règlement du différend. En d’autres termes, même si les droits souverains
permettaient à un Etat riverain de construire sur son propre territoire à

ses propres risques, ce droit souverain ne devrait pas aller jusqu’à per-
mettre l’utilisation ou la disposition unilatérale d’une ressource naturelle
partagée avant le règlement définitif du différend.
26. Il convient de noter que, dans son ordonnance du 13 juillet 2006
concernant la demande en indication de mesures conservatoires, la Cour

a déclaré que, «en maintenant l’autorisation et en permettant la pour-
suite de la construction des usines, l’Uruguay assume nécessairement
l’ensemble des risques liés à toute décision au fond que la Cour pour-
rait rendre à un stade ultérieur» (C.I.J. Recueil 2006, p. 133, par. 78).
Même si cette ordonnance n’interdisait pas la poursuite de la

construction de l’usine, elle ne donnait pas et elle ne pouvait pas donner
un feu vert à l’Uruguay pour la mise en service de l’usine, permettant
ainsi à celle-ci d’utiliser la ressource partagée qu’est le fleuve.
27. En fait, après avoir souligné

«que la présente affaire met en évidence l’importance d’assurer la
protection, sur le plan de l’environnement, des ressources naturelles
partagées tout en permettant un développement économique du-

rable; qu’il convient notamment de garder à l’esprit la dépendance
des Parties vis-à-vis de la qualité des eaux du fleuve Uruguay en tant
que celui-ci constitue pour elles une source de revenus et de dévelop-
pement économique» (ibid., p. 133, par. 80),

la Cour a ensuite ajouté

«que ... les Parties sont tenues de s’acquitter des obligations qui sont
les leurs en vertu du droit international; que la Cour tient à souli-
gner la nécessité pour l’Argentine et l’Uruguay de mettre en Œuvre
de bonne foi les procédures de consultation et de coopération pré-

vues par le statut de 1975, la CARU constituant l’enceinte prévue à
cet effet; et que la Cour encourage en outre les Parties à s’abstenir de
tout acte qui risquerait de rendre plus difficile le règlement du pré-
sent différend» (ibid., p. 134, par. 82).

28. Le fait que l’usine a été mise en service en l’absence d’autorisation
de la CARU, sans que l’Argentine ait été consultée, au mépris des obli-

gations internationales de l’Uruguay en matière de protection de l’envi-
ronnement et sans égard à l’exacerbation du différend, montre bien que

263direct request. The Court fails to hold Uruguay accountable for these
actions.

29. This interpretation of Article 12 will validate an “in limbo” situa-
tion, allowing each of the Parties to unilaterally exploit a shared natural
resource as if it were its own exclusive resource while a dispute over this
utilization is pending before the International Court of Justice.

III. Satisfaction as the Proper Means of Reparation of Uruguay’s
Repeated Breaches of the 1975 Statute

30. The Court acknowledges that Argentina requested the Court “to
adjudge and declare that Uruguay must ‘provide adequate guarantees
that it will refrain in future from preventing the 1975 Statute from being

applied’” (Judgment, para. 277).
31. Although I disagree with the Court’s assessment that there are no
“special circumstances in the present case requiring the ordering of a
measure [requiring non-repetition] such as that sought by Argentina”
(ibid., para. 278), I arrive at the Court’s overall conclusion concerning

reparation through different reasoning.
32. On the issue of special circumstances, the Court fails to consider
that Uruguay’s conduct — in preventing the Statute’s joint machinery
from functioning — amounts to a substantive violation of the 1975 Stat-

ute, as embodied in the object and purpose of the Statute as set out in
Article 1. This violation of Article 1, as well as Articles 7 to 12 and 27,
may not in principle be remedied just through the mere recognition of
such a violation. Assuming, for the sake of argument, that the violation
of substantive obligations as described above remains inchoate during

the construction process, including the site selection process, it still means
that after the construction of the mill it is still violative of the Statute for
a riparian State to use the river waters as its own.

33. It is critical to take into account many facts in order to determine
whether the Court should find that special circumstances exist. First, dif-
ferent proposals to establish new mills in the area are constantly under
consideration by Uruguay. Second, Uruguay’s violations of procedural
obligations were the direct consequence of its own will to avoid compli-

ance with the 1975 Statute. Third, Uruguay lacked good faith in the
negotiations. Fourth, there was public recognition by Uruguayan authori-
ties of its lack of interest in complying with the Statute’s procedural
obligations.

In particular as to the fourth point, the former Minister of Foreign
Affairs of Uruguay, when addressing the Senate in November 2003
expressed:

“To recognize that the Commission has specific jurisdiction at this

264l’Uruguay a fait fi de la demande directe de la Cour. Or, celle-ci n’a pas
fait porter à l’Uruguay la responsabilité de ces actes.

29. Cette interprétation de l’article 12 aura pour effet de valider une
situation d’incertitude, permettant à chacune des Parties d’exploiter de
manière unilatérale une ressource naturelle partagée comme s’il s’agissait
d’une ressource propre, alors même qu’un différend concernant l’utilisa-
tion de cette ressource est toujours pendant devant la Cour.

III. La satisfaction en tant que mode de réparation approprié
des violations répétées du statut de 1975 par l’Uruguay

30. La Cour reconnaît que l’Argentine lui a demandé «de dire et juger
que l’Uruguay doit «donner des garanties adéquates qu’[il] s’abstiendra à
l’avenir d’empêcher l’application du statut du fleuve Uruguay de 1975...»»

(arrêt, par. 277).
31. Bien que ne souscrivant pas à l’appréciation de la Cour selon la-
quelle il n’existerait pas «en la présente espèce de circonstances spéciales
requérant d’ordonner une mesure telle que celle que réclame l’Argen-
tine» (ibid., par. 278), j’arrive à la même conclusion générale que la Cour

concernant la réparation, mais par un raisonnement différent.
32. Pour ce qui est des circonstances spéciales, la Cour ne tient pas
compte de ce que le comportement de l’Uruguay, entravant le fonction-
nement des mécanismes communs prévus par le statut, constitue une vio-

lation de fond de ce dernier, puisqu’il porte atteinte à son objet et à son
but tels que les définit son article premier. Cette violation de l’article pre-
mier, ainsi que des articles 7 à 12 et 27, ne peut en principe être réparée
par la simple reconnaissance d’une telle violation. Même si l’on admettait
par hypothèse que la violation des obligations de fond exposée ci-dessus

n’était pas consommée tant que duraient les travaux de construction, y
compris le processus concernant le choix de l’emplacement, il reste que,
après la construction de l’usine, le fait pour un Etat riverain d’utiliser les
eaux du fleuve comme si elles étaient les siennes propres constitue tou-
jours une violation du statut.

33. Il est essentiel de tenir compte d’un grand nombre de faits pour
déterminer si la Cour devait conclure à l’existence de circonstances spé-
ciales. Premièrement, l’Uruguay continue toujours d’examiner de nou-
velles propositions portant sur la construction d’usines dans la région.
Deuxièmement, ces violations d’obligations de nature procédurale par

l’Uruguay étaient la conséquence directe de sa volonté de se soustraire au
respect du statut de 1975. Troisièmement, l’Uruguay a manqué de bonne
foi dans les négociations. Quatrièmement, les autorités uruguayennes ont
reconnu publiquement qu’elles ne tenaient pas à respecter les obligations
de nature procédurale prévues par le statut.

En ce qui concerne en particulier le quatrième point, l’ancien ministre
uruguayen des relations extérieures avait déclaré en novembre 2003 devant
le Sénat:

«Le fait de reconnaître à la commission une compétence spéci-

264 stage of the procedure would amount to accepting the presumption
that Articles 7 and 8 apply. The presumption is that this project will

affect or might affect — I believe the expression used in the Statute
is ‘is liable to’— the quality or navigability of the waters. Given that
these two elements are absent, it is clear that the Government of
Uruguay is not in a position where it is obliged to refer this matter to
the Commission. That would represent a renunciation of its powers

that the Government of the Republic has no intention of making;
nothing could be more simple.” (Minutes, statement by the Minister
for Foreign Affairs, Mr. Didier Opertti, to the Uruguayan Senate
(November 2003).)” [Translation by the Registry.]

From the above facts there is only one conclusion: that Uruguay’s
actions may not be disregarded, as the Court does here. Instead, these
actions represent the special circumstances that justify the imposition of
an obligation of non-repetition in order to ensure that Uruguay will not
take steps to wilfully obstruct the application of the 1975 Statute in the

future.
34. The Court in paragraph 278 recognizes that it has observed:

“‘[w]hile the Court may order, as it has done in the past, a State
responsible for internationally wrongful conduct to provide the
injured State with assurances and guarantees of non-repetition, it

will only do so if the circumstances so warrant, which it is for the
Court to assess.
As a general rule, there is no reason to suppose that a State whose
act or conduct has been declared wrongful by the Court will repeat
that act or conduct in the future, since its good faith must be pre-

sumed (see Factory at Chorzów, Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17 ,p.63;Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 272, para. 60; Nuclear Tests
(New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 477,
para. 63; and Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against

Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction
and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , p. 437, para 101).
There is thus no reason, except in special circumstances . . . to order
[the provision of assurances and guarantees of non-repetition].’
(Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v.

Nicaragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009 , p. 267, para. 150.)”

35. While the Court quotes from its own precedents, as it does here, it
avoids taking into consideration as a special circumstance the fact, rec-
ognized by the Court, that Uruguay has breached its procedural obliga-
tions, in respect to the ENCE project and in respect to the Orion (Botnia)

mill and its adjacent port (see Judgment, paras. 105 to 122). The Court
has the evidence before it that there was already a repetition by Uruguay

265 fique dans cette étape de la procédure reviendrait à reconnaître la
présomption de l’application des articles 7 et 8. La présomption est

que cette réalisation portera atteinte ou pourra porter atteinte — je
crois que l’expression de la réglementation est: il y aura un risque
certain — à la qualité et à [sic] la navigabilité des eaux. Etant donné
que ces deux éléments font défaut, il est naturel que le Gouverne-

ment de l’Uruguay ne soit pas en situation d’avoir à placer cette
question sous l’orbite de la commission. Il s’agirait d’une renoncia-
tion à des compétences que le Gouvernement de la République
n’entend pas effectuer; il n’y a rien de plus simple.» (Procès-verbal,
intervention du ministre des relations extérieures, M. Didier Opertti,

au sénat uruguayen (novembre 2003).)

Une seule conclusion peut être tirée de ces faits: il n’est pas possible de
faire abstraction des actes de l’Uruguay, comme le fait la Cour en
l’espèce. Ces actes constituent au contraire les circonstances spéciales jus-
tifiant l’imposition d’une obligation de non-répétition afin de garantir

que l’Uruguay ne prendra pas d’initiatives faisant délibérément obstacle à
l’application du statut de 1975 dans l’avenir.
34. Au paragraphe 278, la Cour reconnaît qu’elle a eu l’occasion de
déclarer ce qui suit:

««[S]i la Cour peut, comme il lui est arrivé de le faire, ordonner à

l’Etat responsable d’un comportement internationalement illicite
d’offrir à l’Etat lésé des assurances et des garanties de non-
répétition, c’est seulement si les circonstances le justifient, ce
qu’il lui appartient d’apprécier.
En règle générale, il n’y a pas lieu de supposer que l’Etat dont un

acte ou un comportement a été déclaré illicite par la Cour répétera à
l’avenir cet acte ou ce comportement, puisque sa bonne foi doit être
présumée (voir Usine de Chorzów, fond, arrêt n o 13, 1928, C.P.J.I.
série A n 17,p.63; Essais nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 272, par. 60; Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-
Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 477, par. 63; et
Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci
(Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), compétence et recevabilité,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984 , p. 437, par. 101). Il n’y a donc pas lieu,

sauf circonstances spéciales ... d’ordonner [que des assurances et des
garanties de non-répétition soient offertes].» (Différend relatif à des
droits de navigation et des droits connexes (Costa Rica c. Nicara-
gua), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009 , p. 267, par. 150.)»

35. Tout en citant ainsi sa propre jurisprudence, la Cour évite de

considérer comme une circonstance spéciale le fait, reconnu par elle, que
l’Uruguay a violé ses obligations procédurales en ce qui concerne tant le
projet ENCE que l’usine Orion (Botnia) et le port adjacent à celle-ci (voir
arrêt, par. 105-122). La Cour a été saisie d’éléments de preuve établissant
que l’Uruguay avait déjà commis à nouveau des manquements à des obli-

265of procedural breaches of identical obligations under the 1975 Statute.
Furthermore, the Court has already concluded that Uruguay has breached

its obligations to negotiate in good faith (see Judgment, para. 149). In
spite of that factual evidence, the Court considers that Uruguay’s good
faith in future applications of the 1975 Statute “must be presumed”. I am
at odds with such reasoning.

36. The evidence on the record and the findings of the Court concern-
ing procedural violations confirm that special circumstances are present
in the present case so as to justify the express imposition in the dispositive
of an obligation of non-repetition upon Uruguay, particularly given the
bad faith conduct of Uruguay in the past.

37. Despite this belief, it is my understanding that the obligation of
non-repetition exists, in the present case, in the Court’s finding:

“that both Parties have the obligation to enable CARU, as the joint
machinery created by the 1975 Statute, to exercise on a continuous
basis the powers conferred on it by the 1975 Statute, including its

function of monitoring the quality of the waters of the river and of
assessing the impact of the operation of the Orion (Botnia) mill on
the aquatic environment. Uruguay, for its part, has the obligation to
continue monitoring the operation of the plant in accordance with

Article 41 of the Statute and to ensure compliance by Botnia with
Uruguayan domestic regulations as well as the standards set by
CARU. The Parties have a legal obligation under the 1975 Statute to
continue their co-operation through CARU and to enable it to
devise the necessary means to promote the equitable utilization of

the river, while protecting its environment.” (Ibid., para. 266.)

38. As the Court has found that Uruguay alone breached its proce-
dural obligations under the 1975 Statute, it is incumbent upon Uruguay
to conform its conduct in order to duly comply with its treaty obligations
and the Court’s recognition of the role of CARU as noted above.

39. In my opinion, the imposition of such obligations of conduct, in
the light of the general rule that a State whose acts or conduct have been
declared wrongful by the Court will not repeat the acts or conducts in the
future — assuming the State’s good faith in following the Court’s deci-

sion — makes a declaration of the obligation of non-repetition by the
Court redundant.

B. SUBSTANTIVE OBLIGATIONS UNDER THE 1975 S TATUTE

40. Whereas in the context of procedural violations, the Court has
before it firm evidence on which to base its conclusions — namely, the
1975 Statute and a record of the steps taken by the Parties — the same

266gations de nature procédurale identiques découlant du statut de 1975. En
outre, la Cour avait conclu auparavant que l’Uruguay avait manqué à

son obligation de négocier de bonne foi (voir arrêt, par. 149). En dépit de
ces éléments de preuve factuels, la Cour estime que la bonne foi de l’Uru-
guay quant à l’application du statut de 1975 dans l’avenir «doit être pré-
sumée». Je ne peux la suivre dans ce raisonnement.
36. Les éléments de preuve versés au dossier et les constatations de la

Cour concernant les violations de nature procédurale confirment l’exis-
tence, dans le cas d’espèce, de circonstances spéciales de nature à justifier
l’imposition expresse, dans le dispositif de l’arrêt, d’une obligation de
non-répétition à l’Uruguay, compte tenu en particulier de la mauvaise foi

dont celui-ci a fait preuve dans le passé.
37. Quoi qu’il en soit, j’estime que l’obligation de non-répétition
découle, en l’espèce, de la constatation de la Cour selon laquelle

«les deux Parties ont l’obligation de veiller à ce que la CARU, en
tant que mécanisme commun créé par le statut de 1975, puisse
continûment exercer les pouvoirs que lui confère le statut, y compris
ses fonctions de surveillance de la qualité des eaux du fleuve et d’éva-

luation de l’impact de l’exploitation de l’usine Orion (Botnia) sur le
milieu aquatique. L’Uruguay, pour sa part, a l’obligation de pour-
suivre le contrôle et le suivi du fonctionnement de l’usine conformé-
ment à l’article 41 du statut et de s’assurer que Botnia respecte la
réglementation interne uruguayenne ainsi que les normes fixées par

la commission. En vertu du statut de 1975, les Parties sont juridique-
ment tenues de poursuivre leur coopération par l’intermédiaire de la
CARU et de permettre à cette dernière de développer les moyens
nécessaires à la promotion de l’utilisation équitable du fleuve, tout
en protégeant le milieu aquatique.» (Ibid., par. 266.)

38. Puisque la Cour a constaté que seul l’Uruguay avait violé les obli-
gations de nature procédurale découlant du statut de 1975, il appartient à

l’Uruguay de modifier son comportement de manière à respecter dûment
ses obligations conventionnelles ainsi que le rôle que la Cour reconnaît à
la CARU, comme il est indiqué ci-dessus.
39. A mon avis, l’imposition de telles obligations de comportement, à
la lumière de la règle générale selon laquelle un Etat dont les actes ou le

comportement ont été déclarés illicites par la Cour ne doit pas les répéter
à l’avenir — étant présumé que l’Etat se conformera de bonne foi à la
décision de la Cour —, rend superflue la déclaration par la Cour de l’exis-
tence de l’obligation de non-répétition.

B. L ES OBLIGATIONS DE FOND DÉCOULANT DU STATUT DE 1975

40. Tandis que, dans le contexte des violations de nature procédurale,

la Cour disposait d’éléments de preuve solides sur lesquels fonder ses
conclusions — à savoir le statut de 1975 et les documents constatant les

266evidential certainty does not exist in the context of Uruguay’s alleged
substantive violations, thereby severely hampering the Court’s ability to

make appropriate determinations of fact and law based on sound scien-
tific findings.

I. Determination of the Burden of Proof

41. The Judgment notes that Argentina has itself generated much factual
information and it adds that materials produced by Uruguay have been
available at various stages of the proceedings or have been available

in the public domain (Judgment, para. 226). The Court thus finds that
Argentina has not been placed at a disadvantage in terms of the produc-
tion of evidence relating to the discharges of effluent from the mill. How-
ever, such a finding is contradicted by the fact that Argentina was only
able to collect scientific data from the Argentine side of the River Uruguay,

because it was prevented from collecting samples on the Uruguayan side
of the river, particularly where discharges from the Orion (Botnia) mill
occur. Argentina was also banned from collecting samples from the mill
itself. In addition, no evidence was collected in common through CARU.
Therefore Argentina was not in a position to obtain evidence at the

source itself. This critical fact should have been acknowledged in the
Judgment.

42. In terms of the burden of proof, I agree with the finding of the
Court that:

“in accordance with the well-established principle of onus probandi
incumbit actori, it is the duty of the party which asserts certain facts

to establish the existence of such facts. This principle which has been
consistently upheld by the Court . . . applies to the assertions of fact
both by the Applicant and the Respondent.” (Ibid., para. 162.)

I disagree however with the Court’s assessment that: “that there is
nothing in the 1975 Statute itself to indicate that it places the burden of
proof equally on both Parties” (ibid., para. 164).

43. First, Article 12 imposes upon both Parties an obligation to refer
their dispute concerning any lack of agreement on the viability of planned
works to the International Court of Justice. Second, a finding by the
Court that Uruguay has breached its procedural obligations under the
Statute necessarily implies that Uruguay has not complied with its obli-

gations to produce all relevant evidence to CARU and to Argentina so as
to allow for an assessment as to whether or not the planned works are
“liable to affect navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its
waters” (Art. 7). In my view, a direct consequence of Uruguay’s proce-

dural breaches is that Uruguay should have provided the missing evi-
dence to the Court.

267mesures prises par les Parties —, la même certitude n’existe pas pour la
preuve des violations de fond alléguées de l’Uruguay, ce qui restreint

considérablement la capacité de la Cour à rendre des conclusions appro-
priées concernant les faits et le droit, sur la base de constatations scien-
tifiques solides.

I. La détermination de la charge de la preuve

41. Dans le texte de l’arrêt, la Cour note que l’Argentine a elle-même
produit un grand nombre d’informations factuelles et que les éléments
soumis par l’Uruguay ou bien lui ont été accessibles à différents stades de

la procédure ou bien se trouvent dans le domaine public (arrêt, par. 226).
Elle estime donc que l’Argentine n’a pas été désavantagée du point de vue
de la communication des éléments de preuve relatifs aux déversements
d’effluents provenant de l’usine de pâte à papier. Cette conclusion est
toutefois contredite par le fait que l’Argentine n’a pu recueillir des don-

nées scientifiques que du côté argentin du fleuve Uruguay parce qu’elle
avait été empêchée de prélever des échantillons du côté uruguayen du
fleuve, en particulier sur le lieu des rejets de l’usine Orion (Botnia). Il lui
a également été interdit de prélever des échantillons provenant de l’usine
elle-même. En outre, aucun élément de preuve n’a été recueilli conjointe-

ment par l’intermédiaire de la CARU. L’Argentine n’a donc pas été en
mesure d’obtenir des éléments de preuve à la source. Ce fait particulière-
ment important aurait dû être constaté dans l’arrêt.
42. En ce qui concerne la charge de la preuve, je souscris à la conclu-
sion de la Cour aux termes de laquelle

«selon le principe bien établi onus probandi incumbit actori , c’est à la
partie qui avance certains faits d’en démontrer l’existence. Ce prin-

cipe, confirmé par la Cour à maintes reprises ... , s’applique aux faits
avancés aussi bien par le demandeur que par le défendeur.» (Ibid.,
par. 162.)

Je ne partage toutefois pas le point de vue de la Cour selon lequel «rien
dans le statut de 1975 lui-même ne permet de conclure que celui-ci ferait
peser la charge de la preuve de façon égale sur les deux Parties» (ibid.,
par. 164).

43. Premièrement, l’article 12 impose aux deux Parties l’obligation de por-
ter devant la Cour internationale de Justice leur différend concernant tout
désaccord sur la viabilité de l’ouvrage projeté. Deuxièmement, la conclusion
de la Cour selon laquelle l’Uruguay a violé les obligations de nature procé-
durale découlant du statut implique nécessairement que l’Uruguay n’a pas

respecté ses obligations de communiquer à la CARU et à l’Argentine tous les
éléments de preuve pertinents pour leur permettre d’apprécier si l’ouvrage
projeté pouvait ou non «affecter la navigation, le régime du fleuve ou la qua-
lité de ses eaux» (art. 7). A mon avis, la conséquence directe des violations de

nature procédurale commises par l’Uruguay est que celui-ci aurait dû pro-
duire devant la Cour les éléments de preuve qui faisaient défaut.

267 44. I agree that any breach of Chapter II obligations does not neces-
sarily justify a reversal of the burden of proof, but such a finding does

reaffirm the basic principle stated by the Court in paragraph 162 with
reference to the onus probandi of both the Applicant and the Respondent.
It follows from the Court’s finding that, “while a precautionary approach
may be relevant in the interpretation and application of the provisions of
the Statute”, in interpreting and applying Article 12 an “equal onus to

prove under the 1975 Statute” (Judgment, para. 164) should be binding
upon both Parties. In my view there is a clear contradiction between this
statement and the following assertion by the Court:

“It is of course to be expected that the Applicant should, in the
first instance, submit the relevant evidence to substantiate its claims.

This does not, however, mean that the Respondent should not co-
operate in the provision of such evidence as may be in its possession
that could assist the Court in resolving the dispute submitted to it.”
(Ibid., para. 163.)

It is difficult to follow the Court’s reasoning when, on the one hand, it
states that Uruguay has breached its procedural obligations (among
which is the obligation to produce information) and, on the other hand,

it merely exhorts Uruguay, as the Respondent, to co-operate. The Court
is thus transforming a previous binding obligation to produce evidence
into a mere goodwill gesture to co-operate by providing evidence to the
Court.

II. The Object and Purpose of the 1975 Statute and the Uses
of the Waters

45. Article 1 not only informs the interpretation of the substantive

obligations, as the Court finds at paragraph 173 of its Judgment, but also
lays down specific rights and obligations for the Parties. It is true that
optimum and rational utilization is to be achieved through compliance
with the obligations prescribed by the 1975 Statute for the protection of
the environment and the joint management of the River Uruguay as a

shared resource. However, it is also true that optimum and rational utili-
zation creates specific obligations for both riparian States to prevent any
use liable to affect navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of the
waters. In that context, any planned works and any use of the river must
be analysed jointly to evaluate the potential damage to the river as a

shared resource and any transboundary damage to the other party, par-
ticularly given that the river serves as an important source of water for
the local communities and also sustains a thriving tourism industry.

46. In keeping with earlier comments on the relationship between pro-

268 44. Je conviens que toute violation des obligations prévues par le cha-
pitre II ne justifie pas nécessairement le renversement de la charge de la

preuve, mais cette conclusion confirme le principe de base énoncé par la
Cour au paragraphe 162 en ce qui concerne la charge de la preuve pesant
tant sur le demandeur que sur le défendeur. Il s’ensuit que «[si] une
approche de précaution ... peut se révéler pertinente pour interpréter et
appliquer les dispositions du statut», «une obligation égale de convaincre

au titre du statut de 1975» (arrêt, par. 164) devrait peser sur les deux
Parties dans le cadre de l’interprétation et de l’application de l’article 12.
A mon avis, il existe une contradiction manifeste entre cette affirmation
et la déclaration suivante de la Cour:

«Le demandeur doit naturellement commencer par soumettre les
éléments de preuve pertinents pour étayer sa thèse. Cela ne signifie

pas pour autant que le défendeur ne devrait pas coopérer en produi-
sant tout élément de preuve en sa possession susceptible d’aider la
Cour à régler le différend dont elle est saisie.» (Ibid., par. 163.)

Il est difficile de suivre le raisonnement de la Cour lorsque, d’une part,
elle déclare que l’Uruguay a violé ses obligations de nature procédurale
(au nombre desquelles figure l’obligation d’informer) mais que, d’autre

part, elle se contente d’exhorter l’Uruguay — le défendeur en l’espèce — à
coopérer. La Cour transforme ainsi ce qui était une obligation contrai-
gnante de produire des éléments d’information en un simple geste de
bonne volonté, consistant à coopérer en produisant des éléments de
preuve devant la Cour.

II. L’objet et le but du statut de 1975 et les utilisations
des eaux

45. Non seulement l’article premier éclaire l’interprétation des obliga-

tions de fond, comme la Cour le fait observer au paragraphe 173 de son
arrêt, mais il confère également des droits et obligations spécifiques aux
Parties. Il est vrai que ces dernières doivent garantir l’utilisation optimale
et rationnelle du fleuve Uruguay en se conformant aux obligations pres-
crites par le statut aux fins de la protection de l’environnement et de la

gestion conjointe de ce fleuve en tant que ressource partagée. Mais il est
vrai aussi que l’utilisation optimale et rationnelle entraîne pour les deux
Etats riverains l’obligation spécifique d’éviter toute utilisation pouvant
affecter la navigation, le régime du fleuve ou la qualité de ses eaux. Dans
ce contexte, ils doivent analyser conjointement tout ouvrage projeté et

toute utilisation du fleuve afin d’évaluer les dommages potentiels pour le
fleuve en tant que ressource partagée et les dommages transfrontières que
pourrait subir l’autre partie, étant donné en particulier que le fleuve cons-
titue une importante source d’eau pour les communautés locales et qu’il

est également le support d’un secteur touristique prospère.
46. Dans le prolongement des observations ci-dessus concernant le lien

268cedural and substantive obligations, under Article 27 of the Statute
the “status” of the River Uruguay as a shared natural resource is

reflected in the fact that national use of the river for domestic,
sanitary, industrial and agricultural purposes is subject to the procedural
obligations laid down in Articles 7 to 12, where such utilization is
significant enough to affect the régime of the river or the quality of its
waters. The right of each State to use the river within its domestic

jurisdiction is subject to the strict co-operation mechanism established
under the 1975 Statute.

47. I strongly believe that Article 1 should be considered as an umbrella

clause establishing joint machinery for the observance of substantial obli-
gations to accomplish the optimum and rational utilization of the river.
Meanwhile, the content of Article 27, considered by the Court as “the
essence of sustainable development” (Judgment, para. 177), constitutes in
itself a substantial obligation.

48. To my understanding, the Court, by declaring that Uruguay has
breached its procedural obligations under Articles 7 to 12 of the 1975 Stat-
ute, has confirmed: (i) the non-observance of the joint machinery pre-
scribed under Article 1 in order to accomplish the optimum and rational

utilization of the river; and (ii) the non-observance of Article 27 under
which the Parties are obliged to apply “the procedure laid down in Arti-
cles 7 to 12 when the use is liable to affect the régime of the river or the
quality of its waters”.
49. In light of the above, the Court should have declared that Uruguay

had breached its substantive obligations under Articles 1 and 27 of the
1975 Statute before proceeding to an evaluation of adequate reparation.
I regret that the Court has not done so.

III. The Obligation to Co-ordinate Measures to Avoid
Changes in the Ecological Balance of the River
and Areas Affected by It (Art. 36)

50. In my view, the Court states incorrectly at paragraph 189 that
“Argentina has not convincingly demonstrated that Uruguay has refused

to engage in such co-ordination as envisaged by Article 36, in breach of
that provision”. It is also stated at paragraph 185 that “the purpose of
Article 36 . . . is to prevent any transboundary pollution liable to change
the ecological balance of the river by co-ordinating, through CARU, the
adoption of the necessary measures”. According to the Court, those

measures were adopted through the promulgation of standards by CARU.

51. But this reading by the Court limits the Statute to CARU stand-
ards. However, CARU standards were agreed upon to control and pre-

vent pollution arising from pre-existing uses of the river waters. As a
result, the Court’s position is at odds with the weight of the evidence. The

269entre les obligations de nature procédurale et les obligations de fond, il
faut noter que, en vertu de l’article 27 du statut, la «qualité» de ressource

naturelle partagée du fleuve Uruguay est reflétée dans le fait que l’utili-
sation nationale du fleuve à des fins ménagères, sanitaires, industrielles et
agricoles est subordonnée aux obligations de nature procédurale définies
aux articles 7 à 12 lorsque cette utilisation est suffisamment importante
pour affecter le régime du fleuve ou la qualité de ses eaux. Le droit

de chacun des Etats d’utiliser le fleuve dans les limites de sa juridiction
est subordonné au mécanisme de coopération strict prévu par le statut
de 1975.
47. Je suis fermement convaincu que l’article premier devrait être

considéré comme une disposition de caractère général («umbrella clause»)
instituant des mécanismes communs visant à assurer le respect des obli-
gations de fond, qui sont de garantir l’utilisation optimale et rationnelle
du fleuve. Dans le même temps, le contenu de l’article 27, considéré par la
Cour comme étant «au cŒur du développement durable» (arrêt, par. 177),

constitue en soi une obligation de fond.
48. A mon sens, en déclarant que l’Uruguay a violé les obligations de
nature procédurale découlant pour lui des articles 7 à 12 et du statut
de 1975, la Cour a confirmé: i) le non-respect des mécanismes communs
prévus par l’article premier en vue d’assurer l’utilisation optimale et

rationnelle du fleuve, et ii) le non-respect de l’article 27, en vertu duquel
les Parties sont tenues d’appliquer «la procédure prévue aux articles 7
à 12 lorsque cette utilisation est suffisamment importante pour affecter le
régime du fleuve ou la qualité de ses eaux».
49. Au vu de ce qui précède, la Cour aurait dû déclarer que l’Uruguay

a violé les obligations de fond qui lui incombaient en vertu des articles
premier et 27 du statut de 1975, avant de procéder à l’évaluation de la
réparation adéquate. Je déplore qu’elle ne l’ait pas fait.

III. L’obligation de coordonner les mesures propres à éviter
une modification de l’équilibre écologique du fleuve
et de ses zones d’influence (art. 36)

50. A mon avis, c’est à tort que la Cour déclare, au paragraphe 189,
que «l’Argentine n’a pas démontré de manière convaincante que l’Uru-

guay a refusé de prendre part aux efforts de coordination prévus par
l’article 36, en violation de celui-ci». La Cour affirme également, au para-
graphe 185, que «l’article 36 ... vise à empêcher toute pollution trans-
frontière susceptible de modifier l’équilibre écologique du fleuve, en
coordonnant l’adoption des mesures nécessaires à cette fin, par l’inter-

médiaire de la CARU». Selon elle, ces mesures ont été adoptées par le
biais de la promulgation de normes dans le cadre de la CARU.
51. Cette interprétation de la Cour limite toutefois le statut aux nor-
mes de la CARU. Or, ces dernières ont été adoptées d’un commun accord

dans le but de contrôler et d’empêcher la pollution découlant d’utilisa-
tions préexistantes des eaux du fleuve. En conséquence, la position de la

269Court’s reading does not allow for pre-emptive regulation of planned
future uses. The CARU Digest itself refers to the joint machinery and

the necessary intervention of CARU resulting from Articles 7 to 12 for
future planned uses of the river waters. It follows that for any planned
uses of the river, the co-ordination envisaged in Article 36 should be
channelled through CARU according to Articles 7 to 12. Any other
interpretation of Article 36 implies that the Parties and CARU would

not have the chance to assess the effects of planned uses of the river
waters but would simply have to wait until the industrial facility
became operational in order to verify at that point whether it polluted
the river or not. This is not the object and purpose of the Statute as

stated in Article 1.

52. That is why I believe that the object and purpose of the Statute has
been violated and this violation has to be sanctioned. Argentina has

clearly proven that Uruguay has refused to engage in such co-ordination
and thus it is apparent that Uruguay has breached Article 36 of the 1975
Statute.

IV. The Obligation to Preserve the Aquatic Environment
and Prevent Its Pollution (Art. 41)

(a) Environmental impact assessments

53. My main points of disagreement with the Court’s findings on Arti-

cle 41 are related to issues concerning environmental impact assessments
and effluent discharges.
Concerning environmental impact assessments, I do believe that there
is sufficient evidence in the record to prove that Uruguay has breached
its obligation to “co-ordinate, through the Commission, the necessary

measures to avoid any change in the ecological balance and to control
pests and other harmful factors in the river and the areas affected by
it” (Art. 36). That lack of co-ordination has negatively influenced the
performance by Uruguay of its obligations under Article 41 (a) of
the Statute to protect and preserve the aquatic environment and, in

particular, to prevent its pollution. Consequently, I disagree with the
Court’s conclusions on Uruguay’s compliance with due diligence
requirements on environmental impact assessments in relation
to: (i) the chosen site for the Orion (Botnia) mill; and (ii) the
consultation of the affected populations. I will address both concerns

in turn.

(i) The siting of the Orion (Botnia) mill at Fray Bentos

54. In its consideration as to whether Uruguay carried out an appro-

270Cour va à l’encontre des éléments de preuve prépondérants. L’interpréta-
tion de la Cour ne fait pas de place à la réglementation préventive des

utilisations futures projetées. Le digeste de la CARU lui-même se réfère
aux mécanismes communs et à l’intervention nécessaire de la CARU en
vertu des articles 7 à 12, pour les projets d’utilisations futures des eaux du
fleuve. Il s’ensuit que, pour tout projet d’utilisation du fleuve, la coordi-
nation prévue à l’article 36 devrait se faire par l’intermédiaire de la

CARU conformément aux articles 7 à 12. Toute autre interprétation de
l’article 36 implique que les Parties et la CARU n’auraient pas la possi-
bilité d’évaluer les effets des utilisations envisagées des eaux du fleuve,
mais seraient tout simplement obligées d’attendre que l’installation indus-

trielle soit mise en service pour vérifier alors si elle a ou non pollué le
fleuve. Cela ne correspond ni à l’objet ni au but du statut, tels que définis
à l’article premier.
52. Pour cette raison, j’estime qu’il a été porté atteinte à l’objet et au
but du statut et que cette violation doit être sanctionnée. L’Argentine a

clairement établi que l’Uruguay avait refusé de participer à une telle
coordination, et il en ressort donc que l’Uruguay a violé l’article 36 du
statut de 1975.

IV. L’obligation de préserver le milieu aquatique
et d’en empêcher la pollution (art. 41)

a) Évaluations de l’impact sur l’environnement

53. Les principaux points sur lesquels je me dissocie des conclusions de

la Cour concernant l’article 41 ont trait aux évaluations de l’impact sur
l’environnement et aux rejets d’effluents.
En ce qui concerne les évaluations de l’impact sur l’environnement,
j’estime que le dossier contient des éléments de preuve suffisants pour éta-
blir que l’Uruguay a violé son obligation de «coordonne[r], par l’inter-

médiaire de la commission, les mesures propres à éviter une modification
de l’équilibre écologique et à contenir les fléaux et autres facteurs nocifs
sur le fleuve et dans ses zones d’influence» (art. 36). Cette absence de
coordination a eu une incidence négative sur l’exécution par l’Uruguay
de ses obligations en vertu de l’alinéa a) de l’article 41 du statut de pro-

téger et de préserver le milieu aquatique et, en particulier, d’en empêcher
la pollution. En conséquence, je ne souscris pas aux conclusions de la
Cour sur le respect par l’Uruguay de l’obligation d’exercer la diligence
requise en matière d’évaluation de l’impact sur l’environnement en ce qui
concerne: i) l’emplacement retenu pour l’usine Orion (Botnia) et ii) la

consultation des populations concernées. J’aborderai ces questions l’une
après l’autre.

i) Le choix du site de Fray Bentos pour l’usine Orion (Botnia)

54. En recherchant si l’Uruguay avait procédé à une évaluation appro-

270priate assessment prior to the determination of the final site, the Court
should not have satisfied itself with a mere mention in the Final Cumu-

lative Impact Study (hereinafter “CIS”) of the International Finance
Corporation (hereinafter the “IFC”) that Botnia evaluated in 2004 four
locations before choosing Fray Bentos. The CIS dates from Septem-
ber 2006, which is more than a year and a half after the authorization
in February 2005 for the construction of the Orion (Botnia) mill and

came after Argentina’s complaints about the lack of alternative site
assessment and after proceedings had been instituted before the Court.
Secondly, the CIS reference to Botnia’s evaluation is a one page referral
containing a listing of the four sites and a minimum of substance about

the reasons why the alternative sites were discarded.

55. According to the CIS, “logistics” played a key role in the decisions
of both Botnia and ENCE not to proceed with any of the alternative
sites, even though it was also claimed that “environmental and structural

aspects were also important”. No information, however, is given as to
what those environmental aspects were, neither is there evidence — nor,
for that matter, is it claimed — that environmental impact assessments
were conducted in relation to those alternative sites.

56. Particularly striking are the reasons provided by Botnia for its
decision to discard the other three locations: for La Paloma, it was
because of its vicinity to important tourist areas; for Nueva Palmira, it
was because of the presence of culturally important sites (Desembarco de
los 33 Orientales) and the proximity of “high end” residential areas; and

for Paso de los Toros, it was because of the limited amount of water
available. The other reasons listed are purely of an economic nature
related to costs and the availability of fresh water. The “comparative
table” found in pages 2.10 and 2.11 of the CIS shows no information as
to why Fray Bentos was the safest choice to build the mill from an environ-

ment point of view, other than the claim that the nearer the plant
from the eucalyptus plantations the less the ecological harm.

57. The assumption made in the Judgment that, “in accordance with

Articles 36 and 56 of the 1975 Statute, CARU must have taken into
account the receiving capacity and sensitivity of the waters of the river”
(Judgment, para. 214) does not nullify the obligation to assess the
sensitivity and vulnerability of a pre-determined site with reference to a
specific planned use and its particular impact on that site. This is in

accordance with a strict observance of Article 27, Articles 7 to 12 and
Article 1 of the Statute and with the Digest’s referral to Articles 7 to 12
for future planned uses. In that context, the general assumption made
in the Judgment cannot overrule the provisions of the Statute, nor

can it be relied upon to justify non-compliance with obligations derived
from the mandatory implementation of Chapter II of the Statute.

271priée avant le choix de l’emplacement définitif, la Cour n’aurait pas dû se
satisfaire d’une simple mention dans l’étude finale d’impact cumulé (ci-

après «CIS», selon l’acronyme anglais de «Cumulative Impact Study»)
réalisée par la Société financière internationale (ci-après «SFI») selon
laquelle Botnia avait, en 2004, évalué quatre emplacements avant de rete-
nir le site de Fray Bentos. La CIS date de septembre 2006, c’est-à-dire
plus d’un an et demi après l’autorisation de construire l’usine Orion (Bot-

nia) qui remonte à février 2005, et elle est postérieure aux plaintes de
l’Argentine concernant l’absence d’étude d’autres sites possibles et à
l’introduction de l’instance devant la Cour. Deuxièmement, le passage de
la CIS concernant l’évaluation effectuée par Botnia tient en une page,

contenant une liste des quatre sites et un exposé sommaire des raisons
pour lesquelles les autres emplacements ont été écartés.
55. D’après la CIS, les considérations «logistiques» ont été un des fac-
teurs principaux dans la décision de Botnia et celle d’ENCE de ne pas
retenir les autres sites, même s’il est avancé aussi que «les aspects envi-

ronnementaux et structurels étaient également importants». Aucune pré-
cision n’est toutefois donnée quant auxdits aspects environnementaux et
rien n’indique — cela n’est d’ailleurs pas affirmé non plus — que des éva-
luations de l’impact sur l’environnement aient été réalisées au sujet de ces
autres sites possibles.

56. Les raisons invoquées par Botnia à l’appui de sa décision d’écarter
les trois autres emplacements sont particulièrement frappantes: le site de
La Paloma a été exclu à cause du voisinage de zones touristiques impor-
tantes, celui de Nueva Palmira, à cause de la présence de zones culturel-
lement importantes (Desembarco de los 33 Orientales) et de la proximité

de zones résidentielles «de haut standing», et celui de Paso de los Toros,
parce que les quantités d’eau y étaient limitées. Les autres raisons énu-
mérées sont de nature purement économique et portent sur le coût ainsi
que sur les quantités d’eau douce disponibles. Le «tableau comparatif»
figurant aux pages 2.10 et 2.11 de la CIS ne donne aucune indication sur

la raison pour laquelle le choix du site de Fray Bentos pour la construc-
tion de l’usine offrait la plus grande sécurité sur le plan écologique, à part
l’affirmation selon laquelle plus l’usine serait proche des plantations
d’eucalyptus, moins il y aurait de dommages à l’environnement.
57. La présomption formulée dans l’arrêt, selon laquelle, «conformé-

ment aux articles 36 et 56 du statut de 1975, la CARU a certainement
tenu compte de la capacité de réception et de la sensibilité des eaux du
fleuve» (arrêt, par. 214), n’annule pas l’obligation d’évaluer la sensibilité
et la vulnérabilité d’un site déterminé à l’avance par rapport à une utilisa-
tion concrète projetée et à l’impact particulier de celle-ci sur le site en

question. Cela est conforme au strict respect de l’article 27, des articles 7
à 12 et de l’article premier du statut, ainsi qu’au fait que le digeste renvoie
aux articles 7 à 12 en ce qui concerne les utilisations futures envisagées.
Dans ce contexte, la présomption générale formulée dans l’arrêt ne sau-

rait écarter les dispositions du statut, et elle ne peut davantage être invo-
quée pour justifier le non-respect d’obligations découlant de l’application

271Moreover, the Court admits that the CARU standards were not exhaus-
tive (Judgment, para. 202).

58. Because of Uruguay’s procedural violations, both CARU and
Argentina were deprived of the possibility to evaluate whether the planned
activity was liable to affect the quality of the waters in that particular site
of the River Uruguay. If procedural obligations had not been violated by
Uruguay, CARU and Argentina would have had the chance to adequately

take into consideration the geomorphological and hydrological charac-
teristics of the river at the site and the capacity — more precisely the
incapacity — of its waters to disperse and dilute different types of dis-
charges from the projected works. Any inadequacy of the site itself, par-

ticularly with respect to certain areas of the river such as Fray Bentos,
could have been detected if the obligations under Chapter II had been
duly complied with.

(ii) Consultation of the affected populations

59. The Court recognizes that “[t]he Parties disagree on the extent to
which the populations likely to be affected by the construction of the
Orion (Botnia) mill, particularly on the Argentine side of the river, were

consulted in the course of the environmental impact assessment” (ibid.,
para. 215). The Parties’ disagreement concerns the results of the consulta-
tion of the affected populations, the extent to which concerns raised were
taken into consideration and whether the consultation was meaningful.
The Court further recognizes that both Parties agreed on such consulta-

tion, although the Court is of the view that “no legal obligation to con-
sult the affected populations arises for the Parties from the instruments
invoked by Argentina” (ibid., para. 216).

60. The Court omits to refer to the unilateral obligation assumed by

Uruguay to comply with established European standards requiring pub-
lic consultation of local populations liable to be affected by transbound-
ary projects in such a way as to guarantee their effective participation at
an early stage (IPPC Directive, 1996).
61. The finding of the Court that the obligation to consult the affected

populations does not arise from the instruments invoked by Argentina
does not detract from the fact that both Parties were in agreement that
consultation of the affected populations should form part of the environ-
mental impact assessment.
62. The Court notes that both before and after the granting of the ini-

tial environmental authorization, Uruguay undertook activities aimed at
consulting the affected populations (Judgment, para. 217) and that
between June and November 2005 further consultations were conducted
by the Consensus Building Institute, a non-governmental organization

contracted by the IFC (ibid., para. 218). The Court also notes that
“[i]n December 2005, the draft CIS and the report prepared by the Con-

272impérative du chapitre II du statut. De surcroît, la Cour reconnaît que les
normes de la CARU n’étaient pas exhaustives (arrêt, par. 202).

58. En raison des violations des obligations procédurales de l’Uru-
guay, tant la CARU que l’Argentine ont été privées de la possibilité de
déterminer si l’activité projetée pouvait affecter la qualité des eaux dans
ce site particulier du fleuve Uruguay. Si les obligations procédurales
n’avaient pas été violées par l’Uruguay, la CARU et l’Argentine auraient

été en mesure de tenir dûment compte des caractéristiques géomorpholo-
giques et hydrologiques du fleuve sur le site ainsi que de la capacité — ou,
plus précisément, de l’incapacité — de ses eaux à disperser et à diluer dif-
férents types de rejets en provenance de l’usine projetée. Toute caracté-

ristique rendant le site lui-même inapproprié, notamment en ce qui
concerne certaines portions du fleuve telles que le tronçon qui borde
Fray Bentos, aurait pu être découverte si les obligations découlant du
chapitre II avaient été dûment respectées.

ii) La consultation des populations concernées

59. La Cour reconnaît que «[l]es Parties sont en désaccord sur la
mesure dans laquelle les populations susceptibles d’être affectées par la
construction de l’usine Orion (Botnia), notamment les riverains en Argen-

tine, ont été consultées au cours de la réalisation de l’évaluation de
l’impact sur l’environnement» (ibid., par. 215). Le désaccord des Parties
porte sur les résultats de la consultation des populations concernées, la
mesure dans laquelle les préoccupations soulevées ont été prises en consi-
dération et la question de savoir si la consultation a été effective. La Cour

reconnaît également que les Parties étaient d’accord sur le principe de
cette consultation, même si elle estime qu’«aucune obligation juridique
de consulter les populations concernées ne découle pour les Parties des
instruments invoqués par l’Argentine» (ibid., par. 216).
60. La Cour omet de mentionner l’obligation unilatérale contractée

par l’Uruguay de respecter les normes européennes établies, qui exigent la
consultation publique des populations locales susceptibles d’être affectées
par les projets transfrontières, de manière à garantir la participation
effective de ces populations à un stade précoce (directive PRIP de 1996).
61. La conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle l’obligation de consulter

les populations concernées ne découle pas des instruments invoqués par
l’Argentine n’enlève rien au fait que les deux Parties étaient convenues
que la consultation des populations concernées devait faire partie de
l’évaluation de l’impact sur l’environnement.
62. La Cour note que, tant avant qu’après l’octroi de l’autorisation

environnementale préalable, l’Uruguay a entrepris des activités visant à
consulter les populations concernées (arrêt, par. 217) et que, entre juin
et novembre 2005, d’autres consultations ont été menées par le Consen-
sus Building Institute, organisation non gouvernementale que la SFI

avait chargée de ce travail (ibid., par. 218). La Cour note également que,
«[e]n décembre 2005, le projet d’étude d’impact cumulé et le rapport du

272sensus Building Institute were released, and the IFC opened a period of
consultation to receive additional feedback from stakeholders in Argen-

tina and Uruguay” (Judgment, para. 218). In light of the above, the
Court finds, at paragraph 219, “that consultation by Uruguay of the
affected populations did indeed take place”. I disagree with this conclu-
sion.
63. The Court does not answer the issues raised by the Parties. It does

not make any pronouncements on the question of whether or not the
concerns of the Argentine population were taken into account or if con-
sultations were meaningful or not.
64. The consultation referred to by the Court at paragraph 217 of its

Judgment was characterized by the Ombudsperson of the IFC as irrele-
vant and meaningless. The IFC ombudsperson presented her preliminary
report entitled: “Complaint regarding IFC’s proposed investment in
Celulosas de M’Bopicuá and Orion Projects” in which it is stated that the
construction of the cellulose plants was presented as a fait accompli to

those who had supposedly been consulted.

65. In my view, all of the consultations mentioned by the Court at
paragraph 218 of its Judgment took place after environmental authori-
zations had been granted, and therefore are all meaningless. This is sup-

ported by the Court’s acknowledgement that “both Parties agree that
consultation of the affected populations should form part of an environ-
mental impact assessment” (ibid., para. 215). This requires that the con-
sultation must have taken place before the environmental impact assess-
ment was issued. Thus, to my understanding, Uruguay has not complied

with its due diligence obligation to consult the affected populations prior
to the issue of the authorization to build the Orion (Botnia) mill.

66. The permanent protest of the population of Gualeguaychú is addi-
tional evidence of the non-fulfilment by Uruguay of its obligation to

engage in a reasonable and meaningful consultation of the affected popu-
lation on the Argentine side of the river.

(b) Effluent discharges and the Court’s role in evaluating scientific data

that proves violations of substantive obligations

67. With regard to discharges of effluents from the Orion (Botnia)
mill, I disagree with the Court’s conclusions which are based on an inade-
quate evaluation of data. It is also a matter of deep regret to me that the
Court did not address the future cumulative effects of actual pollution

generated by the Orion (Botnia) mill in order to assess future harmful
effects during the 40-year lifespan of the plant.

68. I was particularly troubled by Uruguay’s inability to collect and

produce reliable data. Most of the data that Uruguay submitted in its
pleadings was provided by Botnia to Uruguay’s National Directorate for

273Consensus Building Institute ont été publiés, et la SFI a ouvert une
période de consultation afin de recevoir de nouveaux commentaires des

parties prenantes en Argentine et en Uruguay» (arrêt, par. 218). Compte
tenu de ce qui précède, la Cour conclut, au paragraphe 219, «qu’une
consultation par l’Uruguay des populations concernées a bien eu lieu».
Je ne souscris pas à cette conclusion.
63. La Cour ne répond pas aux questions soulevées par les Parties.

Elle ne dit rien sur la question de savoir si les préoccupations de la popu-
lation argentine avaient ou non été prises en compte, ou si la consultation
avait ou non été effective.
64. D’après la médiatrice de la SFI, la consultation visée par la Cour

au paragraphe 217 de son arrêt a été insignifiante et ineffective. Dans son
rapport préliminaire intitulé «Complaint regarding IFC’s proposed
investment in Celulosas de M’Bopicuá and Orion Projects» (plainte
concernant les investissements envisagés de la SFI dans les projets Celu-
losas de M’Bopicuá et Orion), la médiatrice a affirmé que la construction

des usines de pâte à papier avait été présentée comme un fait accompli à
ceux qui étaient censés être consultés.
65. A mon avis, toutes les consultations mentionnées par la Cour au
paragraphe 218 de son arrêt se sont tenues après la délivrance des auto-
risations environnementales et sont donc toutes dépourvues d’effectivité.

C’est ce que confirme la reconnaissance par la Cour du fait que «[l]es
deux Parties conviennent que la consultation des populations concernées
doit faire partie de l’évaluation de l’impact sur l’environnement» (arrêt,
par. 215). Cela suppose que la consultation ait lieu avant la publication
de l’évaluation de l’impact sur l’environnement. J’estime donc que l’Uru-

guay n’a pas fait preuve de la diligence requise pour consulter les popu-
lations concernées avant la délivrance de l’autorisation de construire
l’usine Orion (Botnia).
66. Les protestations permanentes de la population de Gualeguaychú
confirment, elles aussi, que l’Uruguay n’a pas respecté son obligation de

procéder à une consultation raisonnable et effective de la population
concernée du côté argentin du fleuve.

b) Les rejets d’effluents et le rôle de la Cour dans l’évaluation des don-

nées scientifiques établissant des violations des obligations de fond

67. En ce qui concerne les rejets d’effluents de l’usine Orion (Botnia),
je ne souscris pas aux conclusions de la Cour, qui reposent sur une
appréciation inadéquate des données. Je déplore aussi vivement que
la Cour n’ait pas examiné les effets cumulés futurs de la pollution

existante causée par l’usine Orion (Botnia) afin d’évaluer les effets
nocifs futurs pendant la durée de vie de l’usine, qui est de quarante
ans.
68. J’ai été particulièrement gêné par le fait que l’Uruguay n’a pas été

en mesure de recueillir et de produire des données fiables. La plupart des
données présentées par l’Uruguay dans ses écritures ont été communi-

273the Environment (DINAMA) which passed it on to the Court. My main
concern is that the Court attempts to draw solid and justified conclusions

on the law — particularly in assessing Uruguay’s substantive viola-
tions — without the weight of incontrovertible scientific evidence to bol-
ster its conclusions. I believe that a judgment based on disputed data as
well as on conclusions which have been reached without any independent
scientific evaluation will not be able to withstand scrutiny, and in par-

ticular will not provide a solution that takes due account of the realities
of the situation on the river.

69. Specific examples of facts that the Court dismisses — and which I

will address in further detail below — include: discrepancies in the
Adsorbable Organic Halogens (AOX) data collected by the two Parties,
including extremely high measurements that were summarily discarded
by DINAMA; an unexplained increase in bacteria associated with the
pulping process after the commissioning of the Orion (Botnia) mill;

discrepancies between data collected on phosphorus in the water; the
February 2009 record of an algal bloom of an exceptionally high
magnitude, intensity and toxicity, an event which occurred only after
the commissioning of the plant; the threefold rise in levels of phenolic
substances after the commissioning of the plant in violation of CARU

standards for water quality for the river; the baffling existence of
nonlyphenols in the water combined with the expert opinion presented
by Argentina, according to which Botnia’s assurances of the non-use
of nonlyphenols at the mill was deeply flawed and inconsistent with
the reality of pulp mill operations; the troubling existence of dioxins

and furans in the air and aquatic environment. With respect to all of
these polluting elements in the water, the Court considers that there
is incomplete or disputed evidence establishing their presence and/or
a link between their presence and the Orion (Botnia) mill. Basing its
legal analysis on this incomplete evidence renders the Judgment itself

incomplete.

70. In various key passages, the Court reaches conclusions on alleged

substantial violations while acknowledging the lack of scientific certainty
underpinning those findings: “Argentina has not convincingly demon-
strated that Uruguay” (Judgment, para. 189); “the Court is not in a
position to conclude that Uruguay” ( ibid., para. 228); it has “not been
established to the satisfaction of the Court” (ibid., para. 250);

“there is insufficient evidence” (ibid., para. 254); “there is no clear
evidence to link” (ibid., para. 259); “a clear relationship has not been
established” (ibid., para. 262); “the record does not show any clear
evidence” (ibid., para. 264).

71. However, despite the lack of specialized expert knowledge, the

274quées par Botnia à la direction nationale de l’environnement de l’Uru-
guay (DINAMA), qui les a transmises à la Cour. Ce qui m’inquiète

surtout, c’est que la Cour tente de formuler des conclusions fondées et
solides sur le droit — en particulier lorsqu’elle apprécie les violations de
fond commises par l’Uruguay — sans disposer de preuves scientifiques
incontestables à l’appui de ses conclusions. J’estime qu’un arrêt reposant
sur des données contestées ainsi que sur des conclusions formulées en

l’absence de toute évaluation scientifique indépendante ne saurait résister
à l’examen et, en particulier, qu’il n’apportera pas une solution tenant
dûment compte des réalités de la situation sur le fleuve.
69. Voici quelques exemples concrets de faits dont la Cour ne tient pas

compte, et sur lesquels je reviendrai plus en détail ci-dessous: les diver-
gences entre les données concernant les composés organo-halogénés
adsorbables (AOX) recueillies par les deux Parties, y compris des valeurs
extrêmement élevées écartées sommairement par la DINAMA; une hausse
inexpliquée du taux de bactéries associée au processus de production de

la pâte à papier après la mise en service de l’usine Orion (Botnia);
les divergences dans les données recueillies concernant la teneur en
phosphore de l’eau; la prolifération d’algues observée en février 2009,
d’une ampleur, d’une intensité et d’une toxicité exceptionnellement
élevées, qui est survenue seulement après la mise en service de l’usine;

le triplement des taux de substances phénoliques après la mise en service
de l’usine, en violation des normes de la CARU concernant la qualité
des eaux du fleuve; la présence déroutante de nonylphénols dans l’eau,
qui doit être rapprochée du rapport d’expertise produit par l’Argentine
selon lequel les affirmations de Botnia quant à l’absence d’utilisation

de nonylphénols dans l’usine étaient fondamentalement inexactes et ne
correspondaient pas à la réalité du fonctionnement d’une usine de pâte
à papier; la présence alarmante de dioxines et de furanes dans l’atmo-
sphère et dans le milieu aquatique. Pour tous ces polluants de l’eau, la
Cour estime que les éléments de preuve établissant leur présence et/ou

un lien entre leur présence et l’usine Orion (Botnia) sont incomplets
ou contestés. Or, le fait qu’elle fonde son analyse juridique sur ces
éléments de preuve incomplets a pour effet que l’arrêt lui-même est
incomplet.
70. Dans plusieurs passages essentiels, la Cour formule des conclu-

sions concernant des violations de fond alléguées tout en reconnaissant
l’absence de certitude scientifique à l’appui de ces conclusions: «l’Argen-
tine n’a pas démontré de manière convaincante que l’Uruguay ...» (arrêt,
par. 189); «la Cour n’est pas à même de conclure que l’Uruguay ...»
(ibid., para. 228); il «n’a ... pas été établi à la satisfaction de la Cour»

(ibid., par. 250); «les éléments de preuve sont insuffisants» (ibid.,
par. 254); «les éléments de preuve ne permettent pas d’établir clairement
un lien» (ibid., par. 259); «aucun lien n’a pu être clairement établi»
(ibid., par. 262); «les éléments versés au dossier n’établissent pas

clairement...» (ibid., par. 264).
71. Manquant de compétences spécialisées, la Cour se donne néan-

274Court sets itself the task of choosing what scientific evidence is best, dis-
carding other evidence, and evaluating and weighing raw data and draw-

ing conclusions. In my view, the specific discrepancies and general incon-
clusiveness of the data itself undermines the legal pronouncements of the
Court. My concerns about the Court’s reliance on this scientific data
encourage my vigorous dissent.

72. In particular, the Court reflects upon the scientific submissions by
the Parties in its discussion of the data. However, throughout this over-
view of the evidence, there is no discussion about the scientific integrity

of the scientific methodologies applied. There is also no discussion about
the scientific integrity of the results. This silence on the important issue of
credibility of the scientific submissions reflects more than just an acciden-
tal oversight. Instead, this silence underscores the Court’s lack of scien-
tific competence and throws doubt on the Court’s ability to determine

whether the data is scientifically viable or credible. The Court does not
have the proper expertise or knowledge to draw the expert conclusions
that it makes, and this Judgment fully reflects that.

73. I will next address what I consider to be the main inconsistencies

of the Court’s evaluation process by reference to (i) adsorbable organic
halogens; (ii) phosphorus; (iii) the algal bloom of February 2009; (iv) phe-
nolic substances; (v) nonylphenols; (vi) dioxins and furans; and (vii) air
pollution.

(i) Adsorbable Organic Halogens (AOX)

74. The Court in paragraph 228 notes that the levels of Adsorbable
Organic Halogens (AOX) exceeded by more than double the acceptable

levels in the river’s water. While the Court notes that the initial environ-
mental authorization from almost two years prior to the commissioning
of the Orion (Botnia) mill did allow for yearly averaging of this
parameter, it does not have the appropriate factual data to draw this
conclusion. As the Court says, there is an “absence of convincing

evidence” (Judgment, para. 228) proving that this is an isolated episode
rather than an enduring problem. However, the Court does not then
point to evidence that the yearly parameters themselves were met, nor
does it suggest that convincing evidence has been provided to show
that this result was just an errant data value. Instead, the Court ignores

the potential danger that could stem from prolonged discharge of this
persistent organic pollutant, and draws a conclusion that this data
value is inconsequential.

275moins pour tâche de déterminer quels éléments de preuve scientifiques
sont les meilleurs, en écartant les autres, et d’apprécier la valeur des

données brutes pour en tirer des conclusions. A mon avis, les di-
vergences concrètes et le caractère généralement non concluant des don-
nées elles-mêmes affaiblissent les conclusions de la Cour sur les points
de droit. J’estime préoccupant le fait que la Cour se fonde sur ces
données scientifiques, ce qui m’amène à exprimer mon désaccord

énergique.
72. En particulier, la Cour se penche sur les arguments scientifiques
soumis par les Parties dans son analyse des données. Néanmoins, tout au
long de cet examen des éléments de preuve, elle ne s’interroge pas sur

l’intégrité scientifique des méthodologies scientifiques appliquées. Elle ne
s’interroge pas non plus sur l’intégrité scientifique des résultats. Ce silence
sur la question importante de la crédibilité des arguments scientifiques
n’est pas dû à une simple omission. Il fait ressortir au contraire l’absence
de compétences scientifiques de la Cour et jette le doute sur l’aptitude de

celle-ci à déterminer si les données sont scientifiquement viables ou cré-
dibles. La Cour ne possède pas les connaissances ou l’expérience qui lui
seraient nécessaires pour tirer les conclusions expertes qu’elle formule, et
cela ressort à l’évidence du présent arrêt.
73. J’aborderai à présent les principales incohérences caractérisant, à

mon avis, le processus d’appréciation de la Cour en ce qui concerne: i) les
composés organo-halogénés adsorbables; ii) le phosphore; iii) la prolifé-
ration d’algues de février 2009; iv) les substances phénoliques; v) les
nonylphénols; vi) les dioxines et les furanes et vii) la pollution atmosphé-
rique.

i) Les composés organo-halogénés adsorbables (AOX)

74. La Cour relève, au paragraphe 228, que les concentrations de com-
posés organo-halogénés adsorbables (AOX) dans les eaux du fleuve

étaient plus de deux fois supérieures aux valeurs admissibles. Elle
note que l’autorisation environnementale préalable, délivrée près de
deux ans avant la mise en service de l’usine Orion (Botnia), prévoyait la
possibilité de calculer pour ce paramètre une moyenne annuelle, alors
qu’elle ne dispose pas de données de fait suffisantes pour arriver à une

telle conclusion. Elle constate une «absence d’éléments de preuve
établissant de manière convaincante» (arrêt, par. 228) qu’il s’agissait là
d’un épisode isolé et non d’un problème plus durable, mais elle ne
relève pas ensuite des éléments de preuve démontrant que les paramètres
annuels eux-mêmes avaient été respectés, pas plus qu’elle n’indique

que les éléments de preuve produits établissent de manière convaincante
que ce résultat ne constituait qu’une valeur de donnée erronée. Au
contraire, la Cour méconnaît le danger potentiel que pourrait
représenter le déversement sur une longue période de ce polluant

organique persistant et conclut que la valeur de cette donnée est sans
conséquence.

275 (ii) Phosphorus

75. The Court turns to phosphorus in paragraph 240. The Court notes

that DINAMA stated clearly that the “effluent in the plant will emit
[amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus] that are the approximate equiva-
lent of the emission of the untreated sewage of a city of 65,000 people”
(Judgment, para. 244). While the Court noted that this amount of the

pollutant was a mere fraction of the total amount of nutrients being put
into the river, it also referred to a section of the DINAMA Report that
required that there be “compensation for any increase over and above the
standard value for any of the critical parameters” (ibid., para. 245).
Despite this clear requirement, the Orion (Botnia) mill was commissioned

and allowed to begin adding its effluent to an already eutrophic river
without providing the “compensation” required by DINAMA. The sew-
age treatment agreement that was concluded between Botnia and Uru-
guay is still at a project stage, even though the plant began to operate
in November 2007. The fact that the river is already eutrophic, meaning

that the addition of nutrients could potentially cause serious damage to
the ecosystem, is critical.

76. The Court acknowledges that the level of concentration of total
phosphorus in the River Uruguay exceeds the very limits established by
Uruguayan legislation in respect of water quality standards (ibid.,
para. 247), standards that become applicable in the absence of CARU
standards (ibid., para. 242). The Court also notes that DINAMA recom-

mended in its Environmental Impact Assessment of 11 February 2005
that in light of the heavy load of nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) in
the river, “it [was] not appropriate to authorize any waste disposal that
would increase any of the parameters that present critical values” (ibid.,
para. 245; emphasis added). In addition, Uruguay pledged to abide

by the regulations of the European Community, among which is the
European Union Water Framework Directive which provides that
in a river that is already eutrophic, no additional discharges of
phosphorus are allowed. It follows that any additional discharges of

phosphorus are contrary to the December 2001 Integrated Pollution
Prevention and Control Reference Document on Best Available
Techniques in the Pulp and Paper Industry of the European Commission
(IPPC-BAT).

(iii) The algal bloom of February 2009

77. Uruguay never contested, nor has the Court addressed the issue,
that the February 2009 scum was a toxic algal bloom of a magnitude,

276 ii) Le phosphore

75. La Cour passe ensuite, au paragraphe 240, à la question du phos-

phore. Elle relève que la DINAMA a clairement affirmé que «l’usine
rejettera[it] [des quantités d’azote et de phosphore] équivalant approxi-
mativement aux rejets d’une ville de 65 000 habitants dépourvue de sys-
tème de traitement des eaux usées» (arrêt, par. 244). Tout en notant que

cette concentration du polluant ne constituait qu’une fraction de la quan-
tité totale de nutriments rejetés dans le fleuve, la Cour cite également une
section du rapport de la DINAMA dans laquelle celle-ci prescrit de pré-
voir «une compensation en cas d’augmentation provoquant le dépasse-
ment de la valeur standard pour l’un quelconque des paramètres criti-

ques» (ibid., par. 245). En dépit de cette prescription clairement formulée,
l’usine Orion (Botnia) a été mise en service et autorisée à commencer à
rejeter ses effluents dans un fleuve connaissant déjà des phénomènes
d’eutrophisation sans qu’il soit prévu de «compensation» comme l’avait
prescrit la DINAMA. L’accord sur le traitement des eaux usées conclu

entre Botnia et l’Uruguay se trouve toujours à l’état de projet, alors que
l’usine a commencé à fonctionner en novembre 2007. Le fait que le fleuve
connaît déjà des problèmes d’eutrophisation, ce qui signifie que le rejet de
nutriments supplémentaires risquerait de causer des dommages graves à
l’écosystème, est un facteur critique.

76. La Cour reconnaît que la concentration de phosphore total dans le
fleuve Uruguay dépasse les limites fixées par la législation uruguayenne
elle-même en matière de normes de qualité de l’eau (ibid., par. 247), ces
normes étant devenues applicables à défaut de normes de la CARU
(ibid., par. 242). La Cour relève également que, dans son rapport d’éva-

luation de l’impact sur l’environnement du 11 février 2005, la DINAMA
a recommandé que, au vu de la forte teneur en nutriments (phosphore et
azote) dans le fleuve, «il serait contre-indiqué d’autoriser le rejet de
déchets [dans la version anglaise, «any waste disposal», «tout rejet de
déchets»] de nature à accroître la valeur de tout paramètre ayant déjà

atteint un seuil critique» (ibid., par. 245; c’est moi qui souligne). En
outre, l’Uruguay s’est engagé à respecter la réglementation de la Com-
munauté européenne, dont la directive-cadre de l’Union européenne pour
la gestion de l’eau, en vertu de laquelle les rejets supplémentaires de

phosphore ne sont pas autorisés dans un fleuve connaissant déjà des
phénomènes d’eutrophisation. Il s’ensuit que tout rejet supplémentaire
de phosphore est contraire au document de référence de la Commis-
sion européenne de décembre 2001 sur les meilleures techniques
disponibles en matière de prévention et de réduction intégrées de la

pollution dans l’industrie de la pâte à papier (IPPC-BAT).

iii) La prolifération d’algues de février 2009

77. Le fait que l’écume de février 2009 était due à une prolifération
d’algues toxiques d’une ampleur, d’une intensité et d’une toxicité qui

276intensity and toxicity that has never been recorded in the river before —
1000 times higher than the historic maximum in the river — and that the

bloom occurred after the Orion (Botnia) mill started operating.

78. Though the Court dismisses the possibility that nutrient discharges
equivalent to a city of 65,000 people could truly be the “tipping point”

that leads to toxic algal blooms, this determination is made without a
coherent scientific basis. Even if it were true that the Orion (Botnia) mill
only adds amounts of phosphorus which, as the Court says, is “insignifi-
cant in proportionate terms as compared to the overall total phosphorus

in the river from other sources” (Judgment, para. 247), this does not alter
the fact that the plant was and is adding phosphorus to the river without
proper compensation through removal processes.

79. Claims to the effect that the yearly carnival at Gualeguaychú is the
reason for the increase in phosphorus — an event which has not typically
been accompanied by algal blooms in the past — merely reinforce the
probability that the discharges from the pulp mill had a negative cumu-
lative impact. Therefore, I cannot agree with the Court’s position that

such a link should be rejected without providing a scientific basis. It is
reasonable to consider the likelihood of a link existing between the algal
bloom and the Orion (Botnia) mill given that the operation of the plant
represents a new circumstance. As with other data, the Court would have
benefited greatly from a more detailed and expert evaluation of the sci-

entific facts.

80. I also have difficulty understanding the Court’s conclusion that
the algal bloom episode of 4 February 2009 may not be linked, in light

of the evidence in the record, to nutrient discharges from the Orion
(Botnia) mill. During the proceedings, Argentina presented extensive
data regarding this phenomenon which pointed to the Orion (Botnia)
mill as a significant contributor. The evidence included satellite
images showing the vast extent of the bloom, a river flow modelling

based on actual data that matched precisely the distribution of the
bloom, data indicating the presence in the scum, in addition to algae,
of several effluent products coming directly from the Orion (Botnia)
mill such as wood fibres, bacteria typically associated with wood
pulp, namely, klebsiella, nonylphenol contaminants, and higher

levels of sodium and AOX. The presence of those contaminants
found in the scum provides clear evidence that the mill effluents
contributed to the 4 February 2009 bloom.

277n’avaient jamais été mesurées auparavant dans le fleuve — elles étaient
1000 fois supérieures au niveau maximal précédemment observé — et le

fait que cette prolifération a été constatée après que l’usine Orion (Bot-
nia) a commencé à fonctionner n’ont jamais été contestés par l’Uruguay,
et la Cour ne s’y est pas non plus arrêtée.
78. La Cour écarte la possibilité que les rejets de nutriments équivalant
à ceux d’une ville de 65 000 personnes constituent le «point de bascule»

à l’origine de la prolifération d’algues toxiques, mais cette affirmation est
dépourvue de base scientifique cohérente. Même s’il était vrai que le
volume de phosphore rejeté dans le fleuve par l’usine Orion (Botnia) soit,
comme le dit la Cour, «proportionnellement insignifiant, par rapport

à la teneur globale du fleuve en phosphore total provenant d’autres
sources» (arrêt, par. 247), cela ne changerait rien au fait que l’usine
rejetait et continue de rejeter des quantités supplémentaires de phosphore
dans le fleuve sans compensation appropriée au moyen de procédés
d’élimination.

79. Les affirmations selon lesquelles l’augmentation de la teneur en
phosphore serait due au carnaval annuel de Gualeguaychú — événement
qui d’ordinaire ne s’était pas accompagné d’une prolifération
d’algues dans le passé — ne font que renforcer la probabilité d’effets
négatifs cumulés des rejets provenant de l’usine de pâte à papier. Je

ne puis donc suivre la Cour lorsqu’elle conclut que l’existence d’un
tel lien doit être rejetée sans fournir de justification scientifique. Il est
raisonnable d’envisager la probabilité d’un lien entre la proli-
fération d’algues et l’usine Orion (Botnia), étant donné que l’exploi-
tation de l’usine constitue une circonstance nouvelle. De même

que pour les autres données, la Cour aurait grandement profité
d’une évaluation plus détaillée des faits scientifiques par des
experts.
80. Il m’est également difficile de comprendre la conclusion de la
Cour selon laquelle il est possible, au vu des éléments de preuve versés

au dossier, que l’épisode de prolifération d’algues du 4 février 2009
soit sans rapport avec les rejets de nutriments de l’usine Orion (Botnia).
Au cours de la procédure, l’Argentine a produit sur ce phénomène
une grande quantité de données qui mettaient en évidence la contribution
importante de l’usine Orion (Botnia). Ces éléments de preuve compre-

naient des images satellite montrant la grande étendue de la prolifé-
ration, une modélisation du débit du fleuve basée sur des données
réelles correspondant exactement à la répartition de la prolifération,
des données indiquant la présence dans l’écume, en plus des
algues, de plusieurs effluents provenant directement de l’usine Orion

(Botnia), tels que des fibres de bois, des bactéries généralement
associées à la pâte à papier, telles que la klebsiella, des nonylphénols,
ainsi que des concentrations élevées de sodium et d’AOX. La
présence de ces polluants dans l’écume prouve clairement que les

effluents de l’usine ont contribué à la prolifération d’algues du
4 février 2009.

277 (iv) Phenolic substances

81. Once again, the question of phenolic substances reveals the great
deal of difficulty that the Court has faced in its attempts to resolve the
scientific issues at stake in this case, including the difficulty of “identify-
ing” and properly evaluating — among the numerous and complex sci-
entific data produced by the Parties — the evidence and arguments in the

record that are relevant.
In dealing with phenolic substances, the Court concluded that “there is
insufficient evidence to attribute the alleged increase” (Judgment,
para. 254) to the operation of the Orion (Botnia) mill. However, the

CARU standard which sets the limit for phenolic substances at one
microgramme per litre has been violated in the immediate vicinity of the
Orion (Botnia) mill. According to the Uruguayan data submitted by
Argentina, in the pre-operational phase of the Orion (Botnia) mill
until November 2007, phenolic substances were below that maximum

level as shown by Uruguay’s State Agency for Sanitary Works (OSE)
measurements in the Fray Bentos water intake, located just 3 km south of
the Orion (Botnia) mill and 70 metres offshore. In contrast, the latest
OSE data, from 13 November 2007 until 13 May 2009, show that since
the Orion (Botnia) mill went into operation the average level of phenolic

substances rose to three microgrammes per litre (the average was three
times higher than CARU standards, with peak levels of 20.7 micro-
grammes per litre, which is 20 times higher than CARU standards). As
phenols are present in the wood lignin, certain amounts of phenols will
necessarily be part of the effluent from the Orion (Botnia) mill. During

the proceedings, Argentina compared and contrasted DINAMA’s data
used by Uruguay, with the data collected by OSE, a government agency
that makes ordinary assessments of water quality for the Fray Bentos
water intake. However, the Judgment only reflects DINAMA’s assess-
ment even though the OSE data seems to be much more relevant to prove

the quality and origin of the Orion (Botnia) mill’s discharges. Had the
Court taken into consideration the OSE data, the Court would have
come to a different conclusion: that there is evidence to attribute an
increase in the level of concentration of phenolic substances in the river
to the operation of the Orion (Botnia) mill.

82. Although the Court hinges its conclusion on the lack of evidence

that the Orion (Botnia) mill was responsible, it does not directly address
the discrepancies in the data or the credibility of the conclusions. But by
determining that some of the Uruguayan data is more reflective of the
realities on the river than others, the Court essentially draws conclu-

sions about the scientific viability of the evidence without any scientific
competence to do so. The Court would have been better served had it

278 iv) Les substances phénoliques

81. La question des substances phénoliques illustre elle aussi l’ampleur
des difficultés auxquelles la Cour a fait face dans ses efforts pour trancher
les questions scientifiques en cause dans cette affaire, et notamment la
difficulté qu’il y a à «identifier» et apprécier correctement, parmi les don-
nées scientifiques nombreuses et complexes produites par les Parties, les

éléments de preuve et arguments versés au dossier qui sont pertinents.
Au sujet des substances phénoliques, la Cour a conclu que «les élé-
ments de preuve [étaie]nt insuffisants pour attribuer l’augmentation allé-
guée» (arrêt, par. 254) aux activités de l’usine Orion (Botnia). Néan-

moins, la norme de la CARU, fixant le taux maximum des substances
phénoliques à 1 microgramme par litre, a été dépassée à proximité immé-
diate de l’usine Orion (Botnia). D’après les données uruguayennes pro-
duites par l’Argentine, au cours de la phase précédant la mise en service
de l’usine Orion (Botnia), jusqu’en novembre 2007, la concentration des

substances phénoliques était inférieure à ce plafond, comme il ressort des
relevés effectués par l’organisme public uruguayen chargé de l’assainisse-
ment et de la distribution de l’eau (OSE) au niveau de la prise d’eau de
Fray Bentos, située à 3 kilomètres seulement au sud de l’usine Orion
(Botnia) et à 70 mètres de la rive. Par opposition, les données les plus

récentes de l’OSE, concernant la période du 13 novembre 2007 au
13 mai 2009, indiquent que, depuis la mise en service de cette usine, la
concentration moyenne des substances phénoliques a atteint 3 micro-
grammes par litre (la valeur moyenne était trois fois supérieure aux nor-
mes de la CARU, la valeur maximale étant de 20,7 microgrammes par

litre, soit vingt fois plus que les normes de la CARU). Etant donné que la
lignine de bois contient des phénols, une certaine quantité de phénols sera
nécessairement présente dans les effluents de l’usine Orion (Botnia). Au
cours de la procédure, l’Argentine a comparé et opposé les données de la
DINAMA utilisées par l’Uruguay à celles recueillies par l’OSE, orga-

nisme public qui procède à des évaluations régulières de la qualité de
l’eau au niveau de la prise d’eau de Fray Bentos. Or, l’arrêt ne tient
compte que de l’évaluation de la DINAMA, alors même que les données
de l’OSE semblent nettement plus pertinentes pour prouver la qualité et
l’origine des rejets de l’usine Orion (Botnia). Si la Cour avait pris en

considération les données recueillies par l’OSE, elle serait arrivée à une
conclusion différente, à savoir que les éléments de preuve permettent
d’attribuer l’augmentation de la concentration de substances phénoliques
dans le fleuve aux activités de l’usine Orion (Botnia).
82. Bien que la Cour fonde sa conclusion sur l’absence de preuves éta-

blissant la responsabilité de l’usine Orion (Botnia), elle n’examine pas
directement les divergences entre les données ni la crédibilité des conclu-
sions. En décidant que certaines des données fournies par l’Uruguay
reflètent mieux que d’autres les réalités du fleuve, la Cour formule pour-

tant des conclusions concernant la viabilité scientifique des éléments de
preuve sans disposer des compétences scientifiques nécessaires. La Cour

278relied on clearer data and obtained a more convincing analysis of the
evidence.

(v) Nonylphenols

83. In the case of nonylphenols and nonylphenolethoxylates, the Court
again determines that even though the presence of these substances has

been detected in areas most affected by the mill’s discharged effluents,
there is no convincing data that the plant is using these detergents.
84. I find it surprising that the conclusion of the Court is that there is
not enough evidence in the record as to the claim made by Argentina that

the Orion (Botnia) mill emits or has discharged nonylphenols into the
river environment. In its Scientific and Technical Report submitted on
30 June 2009, Argentina presented extensive data showing the presence of
nonylphenols in samples of water, sediments, settling particles, Asiatic
clams and cyanobacteria found in the River Uruguay in the mill’s area of

influence (New Documents submitted by Argentina, Vol. I, Scientific and
Technical Report, p. 41). The samples were taken during the 4 Febru-
ary 2009 algal bloom, but also during other periods, and all the samples
show an increase in the level of nonylphenols. Additionally, during the
oral hearings, Argentina presented an analysis of a pulp sample allegedly

from the Orion (Botnia) mill that showed that the pulp contained nonyl-
phenols. Uruguay never contested or rebutted these assertions by Argentina
as to this sample, and the Court similarly does not address this evidence
in the Judgment.

85. In addition to the affidavit from the Botnia official presented by
Uruguay, Argentina also presented the Court on 19 October 2009, in
response to the same question put forward by a judge, an affidavit pre-

pared by a Canadian expert on pulp mills that confirms Argentina’s
expert team’s findings regarding the use of nonylphenols.

86. The Court gave weight to the self-serving testimony of the Botnia
employee that the mill does not use these detergents over evidence from

Argentina that cleaning processes related to the use of this type of wood
without detergents is almost impossible. Combined with the data that
these detergents have been detected in areas rich with the mill’s efflu-
ent — where they have already begun to affect the river’s fauna — the
Court’s summary conclusion seems, at the very least, unsupported by the

evidence. An independent expert on detergent use in pulp mills could
have easily determined the credibility to be given to each Party’s claims in
this regard, but the Court decided that this amount of certainty was
unnecessary.

279aurait gagné à se fonder sur des données plus claires et à s’assurer une
analyse plus convaincante des éléments de preuve.

v) Les nonylphénols

83. Au sujet des nonylphénols et des éthoxylates de nonylphénol, la
Cour décide une fois de plus que, bien que la présence de ces substances ait

été constatée dans les zones les plus touchées par les rejets de l’usine, il n’y
a pas de données convaincantes établissant que l’usine utilise ces détergents.
84. Il me paraît surprenant que la Cour ait conclu que les éléments de
preuve versés au dossier ne suffisaient pas à étayer l’affirmation de

l’Argentine selon laquelle l’usine Orion (Botnia) rejette, ou a rejeté, des
nonylphénols dans l’environnement du fleuve. Dans son rapport scienti-
fique et technique présenté le 30 juin 2009, l’Argentine a fourni de très
nombreuses informations établissant la présence de nonylphénols dans
des échantillons d’eau, des sédiments, des particules en décantation, des

coquillages asiatiques et des cyanobactéries trouvés dans le fleuve Uru-
guay, dans la zone d’influence de l’usine (nouveaux documents produits
par l’Argentine, vol. I, rapport scientifique et technique, p. 41). Les
échantillons ont été prélevés au moment de la prolifération d’algues du
4 février 2009, mais également pendant d’autres périodes, et ils indiquent

tous une augmentation de la concentration de nonylphénols. En outre, au
cours de la procédure orale, l’Argentine a produit une analyse d’un
échantillon de pâte à papier provenant selon elle de l’usine Orion (Bot-
nia), dont il ressortait que la pâte à papier contenait des nonylphénols.
L’Uruguay n’a jamais contesté ni réfuté ces affirmations de l’Argentine

concernant ledit échantillon, et la Cour ne dit rien non plus de cet élé-
ment de preuve dans son arrêt.
85. Outre la déclaration sous serment du responsable de Botnia pro-
duite par l’Uruguay, l’Argentine a également présenté à la Cour, le
19 octobre 2000, en réponse à la même question posée par l’un des juges,

une déclaration sous serment d’un expert canadien spécialiste des usines
de pâte à papier, qui confirme les conclusions de l’équipe d’experts de
l’Argentine sur l’utilisation de nonylphénols.
86. La Cour a accordé plus de poids au témoignage pro domo de
l’employé de Botnia, selon lequel l’usine n’utilisait pas ces détergents,

qu’aux éléments de preuve produits par l’Argentine et établissant que les
opérations de nettoyage liées à l’utilisation de ce type de bois sont à peu
près impossibles sans détergents. Compte tenu aussi des données qui indi-
quent la présence de ces détergents dans des zones contenant de grandes
quantités d’effluents en provenance de l’usine — où ils ont déjà com-

mencé à affecter la faune du fleuve —, la conclusion sommaire de la Cour
semble, c’est le moins qu’on puisse dire, ne pas être étayée par les élé-
ments de preuve. Un expert indépendant spécialiste de l’utilisation des
détergents dans les usines de pâte à papier aurait facilement pu évaluer la

crédibilité des affirmations de chacune des Parties à cet égard: la Cour
cependant a décidé qu’un tel degré de certitude n’était pas nécessaire.

279 87. I regret that the Court did not rely on all the relevant data sub-
mitted by the Parties in order to conclude that discharges from the Orion

(Botnia) mill plant included nonylphenols.

(vi) Dioxins and furans

88. With regard to dioxins and furans, the Court again evaluates the

scientific viability of the data of Argentina and Uruguay from a lay per-
spective and without the benefit of an independent expert opinion. The
Court does not have the requisite expertise to ascertain what the appro-
priate method is for measuring dioxins and furans or whether the study

by Botnia followed scientific or industry standards and how to link the
presence of pollutants to the operation of the Orion (Botnia) mill.

(vii) Air pollution

89. The Court, in view of its own findings with respect to water qual-
ity, is of the opinion that “the record does not show any clear evidence
that substances with harmful effects have been introduced into the aquatic

environment of the river through the emissions of the Orion (Botnia) mill
into the air” (Judgment, para. 264).
90. In my view, the Court fails to take due consideration of the fact
that Article 36 of the 1975 Statute establishes the obligation to co-ordi-
nate through CARU the necessary measures to control “harmful factors

in the river and the areas affected by it” and that Article 41 states the
obligation to prevent pollution. Recreational and bathing activities take
place in the river and in areas affected by it. The Digest of the uses of the
River Uruguay, in the Chapter on Pollution, defines “industrial pollu-
tion” as “caused by gas emissions stemming from industrial activities”

(Digest, Theme E3: Pollution, Title 1, Chap. 1, Sec. 2: Definitions,
Art. 1 (b)), while the definition of “harmful effects” includes threats to
health and reductions in recreational activities (Chap. 1, Sec. 2).

91. In my view, the Court fails to recognize that air pollution linked to

the Orion (Botnia) mill may affect not only the River Uruguay but also
the areas affected by it, including human health and recreational activi-
ties. The Court consequently makes no assessment of the potential impact
in this regard.

V. Final Remarks on Substantive Obligations

92. Given the scientific complexity of the case, it is my considered
belief that the Court should have availed itself of the provisions in its

Rules aimed at enabling the Court to gain a clearer understanding of
technical evidence. This approach would have allowed the Court to reach

280 87. Je regrette que la Cour ne se soit pas fondée sur toutes les données
pertinentes produites par les Parties afin de conclure que les rejets de

l’usine Orion (Botnia) contenaient des nonylphénols.

vi) Les dioxines et les furanes

88. En ce qui concerne les dioxines et les furanes, la Cour évalue une

fois encore la viabilité scientifique des données produites par l’Argentine
et l’Uruguay en non-spécialiste, sans s’assurer le bénéfice d’un avis
d’expert indépendant. La Cour ne possède pas les compétences techni-
ques qui lui permettraient de décider de la méthode appropriée pour

mesurer le taux de dioxines ou de furanes, ou déterminer si l’étude réali-
sée par Botnia était conforme aux normes scientifiques ou industrielles,
ou encore comment on peut établir un lien entre la présence de polluants
et les activités de l’usine Orion (Botnia).

vii) La pollution atmosphérique

89. Eu égard à ses propres conclusions sur la qualité de l’eau, la Cour
estime que «les éléments versés au dossier n’établissent pas clairement
que des substances toxiques ont été introduites dans le milieu aquatique

en conséquence des rejets atmosphériques de l’usine Orion (Botnia)»
(arrêt, par. 264).
90. A mon avis, la Cour ne tient pas dûment compte du fait que l’ar-
ticle 36 du statut de 1975 prévoit l’obligation de coordonner, par l’inter-
médiaire de la CARU, les mesures nécessaires pour contrôler «les fac-

teurs nocifs sur le fleuve et dans ses zones d’influence» et que l’article 41
institue l’obligation d’empêcher la pollution. Le fleuve et ses zones
d’influence sont utilisés à des fins de récréation et de baignade. Dans son
chapitre consacré à la pollution, le digeste sur les utilisations des eaux du
fleuve Uruguay définit la «pollution industrielle» comme celle «causée

par les émissions de gaz résultant d’activités industrielles» (digeste,
point E3 «Pollution», titre 1, chap. 1, sect. 2 «Définitions», art. 1 b)),
tandis qu’il inclut dans la définition des «effets nocifs» les risques pour la
santé et la réduction des activités de récréation (chap. 1, sect. 2).
91. A mon avis, la Cour ne reconnaît pas que la pollution atmosphé-

rique liée à l’usine Orion (Botnia) peut affecter non seulement le fleuve
Uruguay, mais également ses zones d’influence, y compris la santé
humaine et les activités récréatives. La Cour ne cherche donc pas à appré-
cier les incidences potentielles à cet égard.

V. Observations finales concernant les obligations de fond

92. Etant donné la complexité scientifique de l’affaire, je suis sérieuse-
ment convaincu que la Cour aurait dû appliquer les dispositions de son

Règlement visant à lui permettre de mieux appréhender les éléments de
preuve de nature technique. Cette approche lui aurait permis de conférer

280its conclusions regarding the substantive obligations of Uruguay with sci-
entific certainty.

93. How is the Court to fulfil its “responsibility . . . to determine which
facts must be considered relevant, to assess their probative value, and to
draw conclusion from them” (Judgment, para. 168) in the face of the vol-
ume and complexity of the factual information submitted to it by the
Parties? The Judgment states that “in keeping with its practice, the Court

will make its own determination of the facts” (ibid.). However, the
Court’s Statute provides that: “The Court may, at any time, entrust any
individual, body, bureau, commission, or other organization that it may
select, with the task of carrying out an enquiry or giving an expert

opinion.” (Art. 50.) The Court has made use of its powers under Arti-
cle 50 twice. In the Corfu Channel case, it first appointed a committee of
three naval experts on a question of fact, contested between the Parties
and relevant for the question of Albania’s responsibility (Corfu Channel
(United Kingdom v. Albania), Order of 17 December 1948, I.C.J. Reports

1947-1948,p.124et seq. ). Once the committee had submitted its report,
the Court decided that it should proceed with an in situ examination and
submit a second report (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania),
Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949 , p. 151). The Court relied on the
advice of a second committee in order to assess the amount of compensa-

tion owed to the United Kingdom. Moreover, in the Gulf of Maine case,
the Chamber followed a request by the Parties that it appoint a technical
expert in order to assist in the delimitation of the maritime boundary
(Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area
(Canada/United States of America), Appointment of Expert, Order of

30 March 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , pp. 165 et seq. and reference in the
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984, p. 265, para. 18). Although the appoint-
ment was made following a request by the Parties, it came within the
scope of Article 50.
94. The PCIJ also decided at the indemnities stage of the Chorzów

Factory case to seek expert advice before fixing the amount of compensa-
tion (Factory at Chorzów, Merits, Order of 13 September 1928, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 17, pp. 99 et seq.).
95. In conclusion, seeking an expert opinion to resolve matters of fact
in the light of the complexity of the evidence would have been entirely

consistent with the practice of the Court. Article 50 of the Statute was
conceived precisely for cases like the current one. The Court could and
should have called for an expert opinion to assess the scientific and fac-
tual evidence presented by the Parties. Whatever delay might have been
caused by the additional investigation would have been outweighed by

the Court’s increased competence to render an effective Judgment. The
Court does itself a disservice by not ensuring that its ruling is based on
factual certainty.
96. In my view, the Court’s own findings raise doubts concerning the

presence or absence of pollutive factors in the river associated with dis-
charges from the Orion (Botnia) mill. The Court’s conclusions, to my

281une certitude scientifique à ses conclusions sur les obligations de fond de
l’Uruguay.

93. Comment la Cour doit-elle s’acquitter de la mission qui «lui
incombe ... de déterminer quels faits sont à prendre en considération,
d’en apprécier la force probante et d’en tirer les conclusions appropriées»
(arrêt, par. 168), vu le volume et la complexité des informations factuelles
qui lui ont été soumises par les Parties? Il est dit dans l’arrêt que, «fidèle

à sa pratique, la Cour se prononcera sur les faits» (ibid.). Son statut
cependant prévoit que, «[à] tout moment, la Cour peut confier une
enquête ou une expertise à toute personne, corps, bureau, commission ou
organe de son choix» (art. 50). La Cour a usé à deux reprises de ses pré-

rogatives en vertu de l’article 50. Dans l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou, elle
a d’abord nommé une commission de trois experts navals au sujet d’une
question de fait contestée entre les Parties et importante pour l’apprécia-
tion de la responsabilité de l’Albanie (Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni
c. Albanie), ordonnance du 17 décembre 1948, C.I.J. Recueil 1947-1948 ,

p. 124 et suiv.). Après que la commission eut rendu son rapport, la Cour
a décidé qu’elle devait procéder à une enquête sur les lieux et présenter un
second rapport (Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni c. Albanie), fond,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949 , p. 151). La Cour s’est fondée sur l’avis d’une
seconde commission pour évaluer le montant de l’indemnisation due au

Royaume-Uni. En outre, en l’affaire du Golfe du Maine, la Chambre a
fait droit à la demande des Parties tendant à ce qu’elle nomme un expert
technique pour l’aider dans la délimitation de la frontière maritime
(Délimitation de la frontière maritime dans la région du golfe du Maine
(Canada/Etats-Unis d’Amérique), nomination d’expert, ordonnance

du 30 mars 1984, C.I.J. Recueil 1984 , p. 165 et suiv., ainsi que la
mention dans l’arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 265, par. 18). Bien que
répondant à la demande des Parties, la nomination de l’expert a été
faite dans le cadre de l’article 50.
94. En l’affaire relative à l’Usine de Chorzów, au stade de la demande

en indemnité, la CPJI avait également décidé de recourir à l’expertise
avant de fixer le montant de la réparation (Usine de Chorzów, fond,
ordonnance du 13 septembre 1928, C.P.J.I. série A n o 17, p. 99 et suiv.).
95. En conclusion, eu égard à la complexité des éléments de preuve, le
recours à l’expertise pour trancher des questions de fait aurait été pleine-

ment conforme à la pratique de la Cour. L’article 50 du statut a été prévu
précisément pour des cas comme celui-ci. La Cour aurait pu et aurait dû
demander une expertise pour évaluer les éléments de preuve scientifiques
et factuels produits par les Parties. Le retard qu’auraient pu entraîner les
mesures d’instruction supplémentaires aurait été compensé par le fait que

la Cour aurait été mieux à même de statuer valablement. La Cour se fait
du tort en ne veillant pas à ce que sa décision repose sur des faits certains.

96. A mon avis, les constatations de la Cour suscitent elles-mêmes des

doutes quant à la présence ou à l’absence dans le fleuve de facteurs pol-
luants associés aux rejets provenant de l’usine Orion (Botnia). J’estime

281mind, do not dispel the likelihood of a link between the Orion (Botnia)
mill and the unprecedented algal bloom in February 2009, the presence of

phenolic substances, and the detection of prohibited nonylphenols in
pulp samples and in the aquatic environment, as well as the detection of
dioxins and furans in the aquatic environment of the River Uruguay and
in the air.
97. Even if these factors are not considered individually by the Court

as satisfactorily established, I do strongly believe that if they were taken
into account as a whole these polluted discharges from the mill evidence
Uruguay’s non-compliance with its substantive obligations to ensure the
optimum and rational utilization of the River Uruguay.

98. I would finally like to express my disappointment with the Court’s
approach when dealing with substantive obligations under the 1975 Stat-
ute. To my understanding the Court should have taken into account not
only the actual impact of the discharges from the Orion (Botnia) mill, but
also the cumulative long-term effects of those discharges in light of the

40-year lifespan of the plant. The discharges from the Orion (Botnia) mill
over its lifetime are not a mere expectation but a certainty to come. In
that context, the Executive Summary of Argentina’s Scientific and Tech-
nical Report submitted to the Court on 30 June 2009 states that “The
main outcome of this study is the detection of changes associated to the

pulp mill activities that could act as an early warning framework to
anticipate future major and more irreversible ecosystem damages.”
(Emphasis in the original.)

99. As the Court has stated in the past: “the environment is not an

abstraction but represents the living space, the quality of life and the very
health of human beings, including generations unborn” (Legality of the
Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (I), p. 241, para. 29); and also that:

“The Court is mindful that, in the field of environmental protec-
tion, vigilance and prevention are required on account of the often
irreversible character of damage to the environment and of the limi-
tations inherent in the very mechanism of reparation of this type of
damage.

Throughout the ages, mankind has, for economic and other rea-
sons, constantly interfered with nature. In the past, this was often
done without consideration of the effects upon the environment.
Owing to new scientific insights and to a growing awareness of the
risks for mankind — for present and future generations — of pursuit

of such interventions at an unconsidered and unabated pace, new
norms and standards have been developed, set forth in a great
number of instruments during the last two decades. Such new norms
have to be taken into consideration, and such new standards given

proper weight, not only when States contemplate new activities but
also when continuing with activities begun in the past. This need to

282que les conclusions de la Cour n’écartent pas la probabilité de l’existence
d’un lien entre l’usine Orion (Botnia) et la prolifération d’algues sans pré-

cédent survenue en février 2009, la présence de substances phénoliques et
la détection de nonylphénols interdits dans les échantillons de pâte à
papier et dans le milieu aquatique, ainsi que la détection de dioxines et de
furanes dans le milieu aquatique du fleuve Uruguay et dans l’atmosphère.
97. Même si la Cour estime que l’existence de ces facteurs pris isolé-

ment n’a pas été établie de manière satisfaisante, je suis fermement
convaincu que, considérés ensemble, ces rejets de polluants provenant de
l’usine auraient prouvé le non-respect par l’Uruguay de ses obligations de
fond d’assurer l’utilisation optimale et rationnelle du fleuve Uruguay.

98. Je voudrais enfin exprimer ma déception quant à l’approche adop-
tée par la Cour à l’égard des obligations de fond en vertu du statut
de 1975. A mon sens, la Cour aurait dû prendre en considération non
seulement l’impact réel des rejets en provenance de l’usine Orion (Bot-
nia), mais également leurs effets cumulés à long terme compte tenu de la

durée de vie de l’usine, qui est de quarante ans. Les rejets de l’usine Orion
(Botnia) tout au long de sa durée d’exploitation ne constituent pas une
simple possibilité, mais un fait à venir certain. A cet égard, on lit dans le
résumé analytique du rapport scientifique et technique de l’Argentine
soumis à la Cour le 30 juin 2009: «[l]e principal résultat de cette étude est

la détection de variations résultant des activités de l’usine de pâte à
papier qui pourraient servir de cadre de pré-alerte pour anticiper des alté-
rations futures de l’écosystème importantes et plus irréversibles» (les ita-
liques sont dans l’original).
99. La Cour a déclaré dans le passé que «l’environnement n’est pas

une abstraction, mais bien l’espace où vivent les êtres humains et dont
dépendent la qualité de leur vie et leur santé, y compris pour les généra-
tions à venir» (Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires,
avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I) , p. 241, par. 29); et également:

«La Cour ne perd pas de vue que, dans le domaine de la protec-
tion de l’environnement, la vigilance et la prévention s’imposent en
raison du caractère souvent irréversible des dommages causés à
l’environnement et des limites inhérentes au mécanisme même de
réparation de ce type de dommages.

Au cours des âges, l’homme n’a cessé d’intervenir dans la nature
pour des raisons économiques et autres. Dans le passé, il l’a souvent
fait sans tenir compte des effets sur l’environnement. Grâce aux nou-
velles perspectives qu’offre la science et à une conscience croissante
des risques que la poursuite de ces interventions à un rythme incon-

sidéré et soutenu représenterait pour l’humanité — qu’il s’agisse des
générations actuelles ou futures —, de nouvelles normes et exigences
ont été mises au point, qui ont été énoncées dans un grand nombre
d’instruments au cours des deux dernières décennies. Ces nouvelles

normes doivent être prises en considération et ces exigences nou-
velles convenablement appréciées non seulement lorsque des Etats

282 reconcile economic development with protection of the environment

is aptly expressed in the concept of sustainable development.” (Gab-
ˇíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1997, p. 78, para. 140.)

100. In due consideration to these past findings of the Court, I regret

that by not taking into account the long-term effects of the already exist-
ing pollution attributable to the Orion (Botnia) mill, the Court, in my
opinion, pre-empted its opportunity to apply the precautionary principle
to properly prevent pollution and preserve the aquatic environment of

the River Uruguay in conformity with the 1975 Statute and general inter-
national law.

(Signed) Raúl V INUESA .

283 envisagent de nouvelles activités, mais aussi lorsqu’ils pour-

suivent des activités qu’ils ont engagées dans le passé. Le concept de
développement durable traduit bien cette nécessité de concilier
développement économique et protection de l’environnement.»
(Projet Gabc ˇíkovo-Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J.

Recueil 1997, p. 78, par. 140.)
100. Compte tenu de ces conclusions formulées par la Cour dans le

passé, je regrette que, en ne tenant pas compte des effets à long terme de
la pollution existante imputable à l’usine Orion (Botnia), la Cour n’ait
pas su saisir l’occasion d’appliquer le principe de précaution afin d’empê-
cher efficacement la pollution et de préserver le milieu aquatique du

fleuve Uruguay conformément au statut de 1975 et au droit international
général.

(Signé) Raúl V INUESA .

283

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Document Long Title

Dissenting opinion Judge ad hoc Vinuesa

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