Separate opinion of Judge Greenwood

Document Number
135-20100420-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
135-20100420-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE GREENWOOD

Procedural obligations under the Statute of the River Uruguay — Whether

Uruguay has violated those obligations — Duty to inform CARU of proposed
works — Duty to notify Argentina — Duty to negotiate in good faith —
Whether steps taken or authorized by Uruguay violate those obligations — Evi-
dence before the Court — Burden of proof — Standard of proof — Relationship
between experts, witnesses and counsel — Continuing obligations of the Parties.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs

A. U RUGUAY ’S BREACH OF THE PROCEDURAL O BLIGATIONSUNDER
THE STATUTE 2-23

1. The procedure created by Articles 7 to 12 of the Statute 2-9
2. Uruguay’s failure to comply with Article 7 10-12

3. The absence of any other procedural violation 13-23

B. EVIDENTIALISSUES 24-28
1. Standard of proof 25-26

2. The distinction between experts, witnesses and counsel 27-28

C. THE C ONTINUINGO BLIGATIONS OF THEPARTIES 29

211 1. I agree with most of the Judgment in the present case, in particular,

with its treatment of what I regard as the most important issue before the
Court, namely, whether Uruguay has violated its substantive obligations
under the Statute of the River Uruguay. I agree that, on the evidence
before the Court, Argentina has not established that there has been such

a violation and I concur in the Court’s reasoning on this issue. I also
agree that Uruguay has violated its procedural obligations under the
Statute. Nevertheless, while I have voted for operative paragraph 1 of the
Judgment, I consider that the violation is not as extensive as that set out

in the reasoning of the Court. In this separate opinion, I wish briefly to
explain why I consider that Uruguay’s procedural breach is more limited.
I also wish to add a few remarks concerning the evidence which the
Parties have placed before the Court, the treatment of that evidence by

the Court and the continuing nature of the obligations of the Parties
under the Statute.

A. U RUGUAY S B REACH OF THE PROCEDURAL O BLIGATIONS
UNDER THE STATUTE

1. The Procedure Created by Articles 7 to 12 of the Statute

2. Articles 7 to 12 of the Statute create a machinery of notification and
consultation which must be followed in respect of “any works which are
liable to affect navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its
waters”. That machinery operates in four stages. First, the party propos-

ing to carry out or authorize the works must inform CARU, which has to
take a decision on a preliminary basis as to whether or not the works
might cause significant damage to the other party. If CARU decides that
they will not cause such damage, then it is implicit in Article 7 that the

procedure comes to an end and the party concerned may proceed with
the works. This capacity to give a favourable preliminary decision is the
only sense in which CARU may be said to “authorize” works (although
the Statute does not describe CARU’s role in those terms).

3. Secondly, if CARU does not take a favourable decision under Arti-
cle 7 (either because its preliminary conclusion is that the works might
cause significant damage, or because CARU is unable to reach a decision
at all), then Article 7 (2) requires the party proposing the works to notify

the other party of its plans through CARU. Article 7 (3) stipulates what
information must be supplied. Under Article 8, the other party then has
180 days in which to acquiesce in, or object to, the proposed works. That
period may be extended by CARU. Under Article 9, if the notified party

has not objected by the end of this period, then the notifying party may
carry out or authorize the works planned. On the other hand, if the noti-
fied party does object within this period, then the parties must move to
the third stage of the procedure.

212 4. Thirdly, if the notified party does object within the 180 days allowed
in the second stage of the procedure, then Articles 11 and 12 provide that

the parties have another 180 days in which to try to reach agreement. It
is implicit in the Statute that, during this third stage, each party is under
an obligation to negotiate in good faith in an attempt to reach such an
agreement.

5. Lastly, if the parties fail to reach agreement during the 180 days of
the third stage, Article 12 provides that the “procedure indicated in Chap-
ter XV shall be followed”. This last provision is not entirely straight-
forward. Chapter XV contains only one provision — Article 60 — which

gives jurisdiction to the Court in respect of disputes concerning the inter-
pretation or application of the Statute. It is plain, therefore, that, if the
parties are unable to agree, the matter can be referred to the Court. Arti-
cle 60, however, gives the Court jurisdiction only to resolve disputes
regarding the interpretation or application of the Statute and the earlier

Treaty of 1973. Consequently, where a party commences proceedings
following a failure to agree during the third stage of the procedure, the
Court has to determine whether the proposed works will, if carried out,
contravene any of the substantive obligations in the Statute. It is here
that the procedural obligations under Articles 7 to 12 are clearly linked to

the substantive standards in other provisions (most noticeably Arti-
cle 41 (a)).

6. Two further observations need to be made. The first is that the pro-

cedure is essentially designed to achieve agreement between the two
parties. The role of CARU is secondary. Although CARU supplies the
mechanism through which the notification and provision of information
is to take place, its decision-making role is limited to taking a preliminary
decision under Article 7. If that preliminary decision is negative, then the

second stage of the procedure comes into operation and the matter is one
for bilateral dealings between the parties. In the second stage of the pro-
cedure, CARU’s role is merely to provide a channel for communication
and to take decisions on whether or not to grant an extension of time
under Article 8 (4). Similarly, in the third stage, it is for the parties to

negotiate directly with one another.
7. Only if CARU takes a favourable preliminary decision (i.e., if it
decides that the proposed works will not cause significant damage to the
other party) will its decision have a substantive effect. In such a case,
the effect of the CARU decision is to terminate the procedure and leave

the notifying party free to proceed with the works. Even in that case,
however, it needs to be remembered that CARU works on the basis of a
consensus between the two parties. Under Article 55 of the Statute, each
of the delegations of Argentina and Uruguay has one vote. Since there is

no mechanism for breaking a deadlock, CARU can take a decision only
if the two delegations (and thus the two States) are agreed. It follows that

213CARU cannot take a favourable preliminary decision on a party’s pro-
posed works if the other party objects. The procedure for consent and

negotiation created by Articles 7 to 12 is thus essentially bilateral, rather
than institutional (although other aspects of CARU’s role — in particu-
lar, in relation to monitoring — have more of an institutional character).

8. The second consideration is that the procedural obligations in Arti-
cles 7 to 12 do not give either party a power of veto. If the party wishing
to carry out the works cannot secure the agreement (or, at least, the

acquiescence) of the other party (either through the summary first stage
procedure in Article 7 or at either of the second or third procedural
stages), then it may nevertheless proceed with the works. If it does so, it
will not be violating the procedural provisions, although it runs the risk
that the other party will refer the matter to the Court under Article 60

and that the Court will hold that the works violate the substantive pro-
visions of the Statute and require it either to restore the status quo or to
pay damages.

9. The characterization of these provisions as procedural should not

be taken as in any way minimizing their importance. On the contrary,
they are an important feature of the system for ensuring the optimum
and rational utilization of the resources of the river through co-operation
between the parties. It follows that a breach of these procedural obliga-
tions is a serious matter. Moreover, while the parties can agree to depart

from all or part of the procedures laid down in Articles 7 to 12, it is not
open to either party unilaterally to bypass those procedures or to declare
them inapplicable.

2. Uruguay’s Failure to Comply with Article 7

10. In the present case, I agree with the Court that Uruguay failed to
inform CARU of the proposed works at the time when it was required by
Article 7 (1) of the Statute to do so. In my opinion, a party is obliged to
inform CARU of proposed works once two conditions are met. First,

that party must have in its possession the information necessary to enable
CARU to make the preliminary assessment provided for in Article 7 (1).
That assessment is far more limited than the assessment envisaged in
Article 7 (3). Whereas Article 7 (3) speaks of an assessment of the prob-
able impact of the proposed works, Article 7 (1) envisages only an assess-

ment of whether those works “might cause significant damage to the
other party”, i.e., it is concerned only with the possible impact of the
works. Moreover, the assessment envisaged by Article 7 (1) is to be car-
ried out within a period of only thirty days. Accordingly, less information

is required for the Article 7 (1) assessment than for that under Arti-
cle 7 (3), and it is likely to be available at an earlier stage in the planning

214process. Secondly, a party cannot be under an obligation to notify
CARU of proposed works until that party plans to carry out those

works; in other words it must have formed an intention, however provi-
sional, that the work should proceed beyond the drawing board. Once
those two conditions are met, the party concerned is obliged to inform
CARU of the plans in accordance with Article 7 (1).

11. I agree that that stage was reached in the case of both the CMB
(ENCE) and Orion (Botnia) proposals before there was any agreement
between Argentina and Uruguay to engage in bilateral discussions

and that Uruguay nevertheless did not inform CARU. Uruguay was,
therefore, in breach of its obligations under Article 7 (1) of the
Statute.
12. I also agree that Uruguay was in breach of its obligations to notify
Argentina under Articles 7 (2) and (3). The Judgment concludes, in para-

graph 121, that Uruguay violated these provisions because, in each case,
it issued the initial environmental authorization before it supplied Argen-
tina with the information required by Article 7 (3). In the case of the
Orion (Botnia) mill, the initial environmental authorization was granted
some six months before Uruguay began to transmit the required infor-

mation. The grant of an initial environmental authorization presupposes, if
the State concerned is conscientious in its application of the requirements
of the Statute, that it has at that stage the information necessary to make
an assessment of the probable environmental impact of the proposed
works. The duty to notify the other party is, therefore, applicable no later

than this stage.

3. The Absence of any other Procedural Violation

13. I do not agree, however, with the conclusion, in paragraphs 143 to
150 of the Judgment, that Uruguay violated its obligations under the
Statute by the steps which it took to authorize work on the two mills
before the end of the third, negotiation, stage of the procedure in Arti-

cles 7 to 12. There is no doubt that the Statute limits what steps a party
may lawfully take in respect of proposed works during that stage. First,
Article 9 provides that “[i]f the notified party raises no objections or does
not respond within the period established in Article 8, the other party
may carry out or authorize the work planned”. It is implicit in that provi-

sion that the party may not carry out or authorize the work planned dur-
ing the period established in Article 8 (the second stage) or, if the notified
party does object within that period, during the period reserved for nego-
tiations under Articles 11 and 12 (the third stage). Secondly, as the Court

points out, the parties have a duty to negotiate in good faith during the
third stage of the procedure and for one party to take steps to carry out

215or authorize the carrying out of the proposed works while the negotia-
tions of which those works are the subject are taking place may be con-

trary to that duty. I will consider each of those limitations in turn.

14. In order to understand the scope of the implied prohibition in
Article 9, it is necessary to consider the purpose of the procedures estab-
lished by Articles 8 to 12. These are designed to ensure that one party to
the Statute does not carry out works the probable impact of which will be

to cause significant adverse effects (as defined elsewhere in the Statute)
upon navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters with-
out first engaging in the information and negotiation process prescribed
by the Statute. It would defeat that purpose if that party were to take
steps which themselves had such a probable impact while the process was

still running its course. The implied restriction in Article 9 is designed to
prevent that from occurring. However, engaging in preliminary steps
such as clearing vegetation from a proposed site, levelling the land or pre-
paring foundations is unlikely in itself to have any adverse impact on
navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters and, if it

does not do so, then I cannot see how it would run counter to the pur-
pose of this part of the Statute. Nor would taking such steps naturally be
considered as “carrying out” the proposed works, since that term sug-
gests a far more extensive and complete operation. Of course, the party
which takes such preliminary steps runs the risk that they may prove to

have been wasted if the proposed works are not, in the end, carried out,
but that does not mean that the taking of those steps is itself a violation
of the Statute.
15. The implied requirement not to “authorize the work planned”
must, in my view, be read in the same way. As the history of the Orion

(Botnia) mill demonstrates, the process of authorization will frequently
have many different steps. What Article 9 seems to me to prohibit, during
the second and third stages of the procedure laid down by the Statute, is
granting the authorization actually to carry out the work planned. That,
again, would exclude the authorization of preparatory steps, provided

that those steps did not themselves involve the risk of one or more of the
effects described in the Statute.

16. Secondly, the duty to negotiate in good faith, as paragraphs 145
and 146 of the Judgment point out, is firmly rooted in general interna-

tional law. While that duty does not amount to a requirement that the
negotiations lead to any particular outcome, it does require that the
parties to the negotiations must conduct themselves in such a way that
the negotiations are meaningful (North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal

Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/Nether-
lands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969 , p. 47, para. 85). In the context of

216negotiations under Article 12 of the Statute, I agree with what is said in
paragraph 147 of the Judgment, that

“there would be no point to the co-operation mechanism provided
for by Articles 7 to 12 of the 1975 Statute if the party initiating the

planned activity were to authorize or implement it without waiting
for that mechanism to be brought to a conclusion. Indeed, if that
were the case, the consultations and negotiations between the parties
would no longer have any purpose.”

However, I do not agree that taking preparatory steps, such as clearing
vegetation from the proposed site of a mill, amounts to the “implementa-

tion” of the planned activity. The conclusion, in paragraph 148 of the
Judgment, that such preparatory action constitutes “an integral part of
the construction of the planned mills” and therefore must necessarily be
seen as incompatible with the duty to negotiate in good faith is unjusti-
fied. If both parties are negotiating in good faith, the outcome may well

be an agreement that the proposed works can proceed (albeit, perhaps,
with modifications). Moreover, if the negotiations do not result in agree-
ment within the prescribed 180-day period, then, as paragraphs 151 to
158 of the Judgment make clear, the party which has proposed those
works may proceed subject to the risk that the other party may bring the

matter to the Court which may conclude that the works contravene
the substantive provisions of the Statute. In my opinion, a party can
engage in good faith in negotiations which are meaningful while still
taking preparatory steps to ensure that it is ready to proceed with the
works if the negotiations result in agreement that they may be carried

out, or if no agreement is reached within the prescribed period. To
take such steps is not, in itself, contrary to the duty to negotiate in
good faith. Only if the negotiating record as a whole shows that the
party concerned did not intend to engage in meaningful negotiations
would the Court be justified in concluding that that duty had been

breached.

17. The question, therefore, is whether the steps which Uruguay
authorized before the end of the period for negotiation contravened the
prohibition implicit in Article 9 or the duty to negotiate in good faith. In

my opinion, they did not.
18. In the case of the CMB (ENCE) mill, construction never took
place. Neither the initial environmental authorization, issued on 9 Octo-
ber 2003, nor the environmental management plan approval, granted on
28 November 2005, was an authorization to “carry out” the project. The

initial environmental authorization did not permit construction of the mill.
Further permits were required before that could be done. The lengthy
process followed in the case of the Orion (Botnia) mill, which —
unlike CMB (ENCE) — was completed, is a reminder of how many

further authorizations were required by Uruguay before construction of
the mill itself could begin. The 28 November 2005 approval was limited

217to clearing the ground of vegetation and did not permit construction (as
paragraph 36 of the Judgment makes clear). In my opinion, the steps

authorized by Uruguay were too limited in scope to amount to a breach
of Article 9 or to demonstrate that Uruguay was not negotiating in good
faith.

19. In the case of the Orion (Botnia) mill, the picture is more
complicated. I agree with paragraphs 138 to 141 of the Judgment that the
agreement between Argentina and Uruguay to establish the High-Level
Technical Group, known as the GTAN, was an agreement to create a

mechanism to enable the negotiations required by Article 12 of the Stat-
ute to take place. It follows that the subsequent exchanges within the
GTAN constituted the third stage of the procedure outlined in para-
graph 4 above. I also agree that by establishing this mechanism Argen-
tina neither consented to the construction of the mill nor waived its other

procedural rights under the Statute. However, I do not agree that the
steps which Uruguay took regarding the Orion (Botnia) mill during the
period of negotiations in GTAN amounted to a violation of Article 9 or
the duty to negotiate in good faith under Article 12 of the Statute.

20. The initial environmental authorization for the mill, granted on
14 February 2005, was not an authorization to construct and pre-dated
the establishment of the GTAN. Since Argentina was well aware of this
authorization when it agreed to the establishment of the GTAN, it evi-

dently did not consider that the granting of the authorization precluded
meaningful negotiation. Similarly, the environmental management plan
approval, given on 12 April 2005, was for preliminary work only and
again predated the agreement to establish the GTAN negotiating
mechanism.

21. There followed two more significant steps. On 5 July 2005 Uru-
guay gave authorization for the construction of a port adjacent to the
proposed site of the mill. This step occurred after the establishment of the
GTAN but before the first of the twelve meetings held as part of the

GTAN process took place on 3 August 2005. This action on Uruguay’s
part scarcely provided an auspicious start to the GTAN meetings but it
was the mill, not the port, which was the subject of controversy and I do
not think this step constituted a violation of Article 9 or of the duty to
negotiate in good faith. More important was the approval, on

22 August 2005, of the construction of a chimney and concrete founda-
tions for the mill. This measure permitted Botnia to take an important
step towards the construction of the mill but it still fell far short of
authorization to carry out the works as a whole. Even after everything

approved by this measure was complete, most of the work of construc-
tion remained and several more authorizations still had to be obtained.

218Nor did the actions approved on 22 August 2005 themselves create a risk
of damage to the aquatic environment.

22. Uruguay’s approval for the construction of the mill itself, given
on 18 January 2006, is of an entirely different character and would be
capable of violating Article 9 and the duty to negotiate in good faith

had it occurred while the 180-day period for negotiations had not yet
expired. In fact, it did not do so. It is true that, as Argentina has
argued, the first GTAN meeting occurred only on 3 August 2005, so
that, if the 180-day period prescribed by Article 12 of the Statute
started to run only on that date, it would have ended on 30 January

2006 (the day on which the final GTAN meeting was held). However,
the GTAN process was actually established by the two Foreign
Ministries on 31 May 2005 (following an agreement in principle
between the two Presidents on 3 May 2005). The press release issued

by the foreign ministries on 31 May 2005 recording their agreement
expressly stated that the GTAN was to produce its report within
180 days (the period stipulated in Article 12 of the Statute), which
strongly suggests that the 180-day period was to run from the date of
the agreement, not the (then unknown) date of the first GTAN

meeting. If the 180-day period is measured from the date of the
establishment of GTAN, then it had already come to an end before the
authorization to construct the mill was given. Moreover, even if that
interpretation is incorrect, on 14 December 2005 the Foreign Ministry

of Argentina handed a Diplomatic Note to the Ambassador
of Uruguay in which it stated that the negotiations having failed to
produce an agreement, a dispute existed between the two States,
thus paving the way for the process in Article 60 of the Statute
(i.e., reference to the Court). In the light of this communication, it is

clear that Argentina regarded the negotiations as having reached an
impasse. Uruguay’s authorization of construction on 18 January 2006
cannot, therefore, be seen as undermining a negotiating process
which its negotiating partner had already declared to have been

unsuccessful.

23. In these circumstances, I cannot agree with the Court’s conclusion
(at paragraph 149 of the Judgment) that “by authorizing the construction
of the mills and the port terminal at Fray Bentos before the expiration of

the period of negotiation, Uruguay failed to comply with the obligation
to negotiate laid down by Article 12 of the Statute”.

B. E VIDENTIAL ISSUES

24. I agree with the Court’s finding that the evidence before it does not
establish that Uruguay has violated the substantive provisions of the

219Statute. I also agree with the Court’s reasoning regarding the burden
of proof. The nature of the case and of the obligations under the

Statute does not alter the fundamental principle that, in proceedings
before the Court, the burden of proving any given fact rests on the party
asserting that fact. I am also in full agreement with the Court’s analysis
of the evidence before it and the way in which it went about the assess-
ment of that evidence. On that last matter, I share the views expressed by

Judge Keith in his separate opinion. I want only to add two brief com-
ments regarding evidential issues.

1. Standard of Proof

25. First, while I agree with what the Court has said about the burden
of proof, I think it is also important to have regard to the standard of

proof, i.e., what a party must do in order to discharge the burden of
proof when that burden rests upon it. International courts and tribunals
have avoided the distinction between criminal and civil standards of
proof familiar to common law (which requires proof beyond reasonable
doubt in criminal cases and proof only on a balance of probabilities in

civil cases). The Court has, however, indicated in Application of the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bos-
nia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) (Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2007 (I), pp. 129-130, paras. 208-210) that charges of conduct as
grave as genocide require “proof at a high level of certainty appropriate

to the seriousness of the allegation” (ibid., para. 210). It is implicit in that
statement that a lower standard of proof is acceptable in the case of
other, less grave, allegations.

26. The present case seems to me to fall squarely within the category
of cases which calls for a lower standard of proof. While allegations that
a State has violated environmental obligations under a treaty concerning
a shared watercourse are undoubtedly serious, they are not of the same

character as the allegations in the Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herze-
govina v. Serbia and Montenegro) case. Moreover, the nature of envi-
ronmental disputes is such that the application of the higher standard of
proof would have the effect of making it all but impossible for a State to

discharge the burden of proof. Accordingly, I believe that Argentina was
required to establish the facts which it asserted only on the balance of
probabilities (sometimes described as the balance of the evidence). I
agree, however, that it has not done so.

220 2. The Distinction between Experts, Witnesses and Counsel

27. Secondly, I wish to record my strong agreement with the Court’s
remarks, at paragraph 167 of the Judgment, regarding the practice of
having persons who provide evidence before the Court (based, in this
case, upon their research, observations and scientific expertise) address

the Court as counsel. The distinction between the evidence of a witness or
expert and the advocacy of counsel is fundamental to the proper conduct
of litigation before the Court (as it is before other courts and tribunals).
A witness or expert owes a duty to the Court which is reflected in the
declaration required by Article 64 of the Rules of Court. The duties of

someone appearing as counsel are quite different. Moreover, a person
who testifies, whether as an expert, a witness or in both capacities, can be
questioned by the other party and by the Court. For a person who is
going to speak of facts within his own knowledge or to offer his expert

opinion on scientific data to address the Court as counsel is to circum-
vent these provisions of the Rules and, in the words of the late Sir Arthur
Watts, unacceptably to blur the distinction between evidence and
advocacy (Arthur Watts, “Enhancing the Effectiveness of Procedures of

International Dispute Settlement” in: J. A. Frowein and R. Wolfrum
(eds.), Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law , Vol. 5, 2001,
pp. 29-30). The problem is particularly acute where, as in the present
case, some of those who addressed the Court as counsel had been

actively and closely involved in the preparation of scientific reports
which were part of the evidence before the Court. For those persons
to address the Court as counsel, rather than giving evidence as
witnesses or experts, was both unhelpful to the Court and unfair to the

other Party.

28. In the present case, any unfairness was mitigated by the fact that

both Parties engaged in the same practice. The issue of principle, how-
ever, remains and I am pleased that the Court has unequivocally indi-
cated that such a practice should not be repeated in future cases.

C. T HE C ONTINUING O BLIGATIONS OF THE PARTIES

29. Courts and tribunals are necessarily required to focus for most of
the time upon the events of the past. In the present case, the Court has
concluded that Uruguay’s conduct to date has violated its procedural
obligations under the Statute but has not violated its substantive obliga-
tions and that the declaration of a procedural breach is the only remedy

which it is appropriate for the Court to grant. It should, however, be
clearly understood that the Court is not saying that this is the end of the
matter. The Statute imposes upon both Parties important obligations of a

221continuing character (to which the Court has drawn attention in para-

graph 266 of the Judgment). Uruguay has a continuing obligation, under
Article 41 of the Statute, to prevent pollution in the River Uruguay and
thus to maintain a system of monitoring and strict controls in respect of
any discharges from the Orion (Botnia) plant. Both Parties have a duty

to co-operate, within the framework of CARU, and CARU itself has an
important role to play both in setting standards and in monitoring. The
Statute which the Parties agreed upon in 1975 was a remarkably forward-
looking instrument. In several respects it was ahead of its time and

is a tribute to the determination of the two States to protect an aquatic
environment of great importance to them both. As the Court has
remarked, in paragraph 281 of the Judgment, until the present case the
machinery created by the Statute had worked well without any need to

refer matters to the Court. The Parties have a duty to co-operate to
ensure that that machinery continues to work well in the future.

(Signed) Christopher G REENWOOD .

222

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE GREENWOOD

Procedural obligations under the Statute of the River Uruguay — Whether

Uruguay has violated those obligations — Duty to inform CARU of proposed
works — Duty to notify Argentina — Duty to negotiate in good faith —
Whether steps taken or authorized by Uruguay violate those obligations — Evi-
dence before the Court — Burden of proof — Standard of proof — Relationship
between experts, witnesses and counsel — Continuing obligations of the Parties.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs

A. U RUGUAY ’S BREACH OF THE PROCEDURAL O BLIGATIONSUNDER
THE STATUTE 2-23

1. The procedure created by Articles 7 to 12 of the Statute 2-9
2. Uruguay’s failure to comply with Article 7 10-12

3. The absence of any other procedural violation 13-23

B. EVIDENTIALISSUES 24-28
1. Standard of proof 25-26

2. The distinction between experts, witnesses and counsel 27-28

C. THE C ONTINUINGO BLIGATIONS OF THEPARTIES 29

211 OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE GREENWOOD

[Traduction]

Obligations de nature procédurale en vertu du statut — Question de savoir si
l’Uruguay a violé ces obligations — Devoir d’informer la CARU des ouvrages
projetés — Devoir de négocier de bonne foi — Question de savoir si les initia-
tives prises ou autorisées par l’Uruguay violent ces obligations — Eléments de
preuve soumis à la Cour — Charge de la preuve — Critère d’établissement de la

preuve — Relation entre experts, témoins et conseils — Obligations continues
des Parties.

TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Paragraphes

A. V IOLATION PAR L’URUGUAY DES OBLIGATIONS DE NATURE PROCÉDU -
RALE LUI INCOMBANT EN VERTU DU STATUT 2-23

1. Procédure instituée par les articles 7 à 12 du statut 2-9
2. Non-respect, par l’Uruguay, de l’article 7 10-12
3. Absence de toute autre violation d’obligations de nature procé-
durale 13-23

B. Q UESTIONS RELATIVES À LA PREUVE 24-28

1. Critère d’établissement de la preuve 25-26
2. Distinction entre experts, témoins et conseils 27-28

C. O BLIGATIONS CONTINUES DES PARTIES 29

211 1. I agree with most of the Judgment in the present case, in particular,

with its treatment of what I regard as the most important issue before the
Court, namely, whether Uruguay has violated its substantive obligations
under the Statute of the River Uruguay. I agree that, on the evidence
before the Court, Argentina has not established that there has been such

a violation and I concur in the Court’s reasoning on this issue. I also
agree that Uruguay has violated its procedural obligations under the
Statute. Nevertheless, while I have voted for operative paragraph 1 of the
Judgment, I consider that the violation is not as extensive as that set out

in the reasoning of the Court. In this separate opinion, I wish briefly to
explain why I consider that Uruguay’s procedural breach is more limited.
I also wish to add a few remarks concerning the evidence which the
Parties have placed before the Court, the treatment of that evidence by

the Court and the continuing nature of the obligations of the Parties
under the Statute.

A. U RUGUAY S B REACH OF THE PROCEDURAL O BLIGATIONS
UNDER THE STATUTE

1. The Procedure Created by Articles 7 to 12 of the Statute

2. Articles 7 to 12 of the Statute create a machinery of notification and
consultation which must be followed in respect of “any works which are
liable to affect navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its
waters”. That machinery operates in four stages. First, the party propos-

ing to carry out or authorize the works must inform CARU, which has to
take a decision on a preliminary basis as to whether or not the works
might cause significant damage to the other party. If CARU decides that
they will not cause such damage, then it is implicit in Article 7 that the

procedure comes to an end and the party concerned may proceed with
the works. This capacity to give a favourable preliminary decision is the
only sense in which CARU may be said to “authorize” works (although
the Statute does not describe CARU’s role in those terms).

3. Secondly, if CARU does not take a favourable decision under Arti-
cle 7 (either because its preliminary conclusion is that the works might
cause significant damage, or because CARU is unable to reach a decision
at all), then Article 7 (2) requires the party proposing the works to notify

the other party of its plans through CARU. Article 7 (3) stipulates what
information must be supplied. Under Article 8, the other party then has
180 days in which to acquiesce in, or object to, the proposed works. That
period may be extended by CARU. Under Article 9, if the notified party

has not objected by the end of this period, then the notifying party may
carry out or authorize the works planned. On the other hand, if the noti-
fied party does object within this period, then the parties must move to
the third stage of the procedure.

212 1. Je souscris à l’essentiel de l’arrêt rendu en la présente affaire et, en
particulier, au traitement réservé à ce que je tiens pour la plus importante

question posée à la Cour: celle de savoir si l’Uruguay a violé les obliga-
tions de fond lui incombant en vertu du statut du fleuve Uruguay. Je suis
d’accord pour affirmer que, sur la base des éléments de preuve versés au
dossier, l’Argentine n’a pas établi l’existence d’une telle violation, et

j’adhère au raisonnement développé par la Cour sur ce point. Je conviens
également que l’Uruguay a violé les obligations de nature procédurale lui
incombant en vertu du statut. Cependant, bien qu’ayant voté en faveur
du point 1 du dispositif, j’estime que la violation ainsi commise est plus
circonscrite que ne l’affirme la Cour dans son raisonnement. Dans cette

opinion individuelle, je voudrais m’en expliquer brièvement. Je voudrais
aussi ajouter quelques remarques au sujet des éléments de preuve que les
Parties ont soumis à la Cour, de la manière dont celle-ci les a traités et du
caractère continu des obligations que les Parties tiennent du statut.

A. V IOLATION PAR L ’URUGUAY DES OBLIGATIONS DE NATURE
PROCÉDURALE LUI INCOMBANT EN VERTU DU STATUT

1. Procédure instituée par les articles 7 à 12 du statut

2. Les articles 7 à 12 du statut établissent un mécanisme de notification
et de consultation, applicable dès lors que des «ouvrages [sont] suffisam-
ment importants pour affecter la navigation, le régime du fleuve ou la

qualité de ses eaux». Ce mécanisme opère suivant quatre étapes. Premiè-
rement, la partie qui propose de construire les ouvrages, ou d’en autoriser
la construction, est tenue d’en informer la CARU, laquelle doit détermi-
ner sommairement si ces ouvrages peuvent causer un préjudice sensible à
l’autre partie. Il est implicite, à l’article 7, que si la CARU conclut qu’ils

n’en causeront pas, la procédure sera close et la partie intéressée pourra
procéder aux travaux. C’est seulement au sens où la CARU peut rendre
une décision sommaire favorable que l’on peut affirmer qu’elle «auto-
rise» les travaux (bien que le statut ne décrive pas son rôle en ces termes).

3. Deuxièmement, si la CARU ne rend pas une décision favorable au
titre de l’article 7 (soit parce qu’elle aura déterminé sommairement que
les ouvrages peuvent causer un préjudice sensible, soit parce qu’elle
n’aura pas été en mesure de rendre la moindre décision), l’alinéa 2) de
l’article 7 impose à la partie à l’origine de la proposition de notifier le

projet à l’autre partie par son intermédiaire. L’alinéa 3) de l’article 7 pré-
cise quelles informations doivent être fournies. En vertu de l’article 8,
l’autre partie dispose alors d’un délai de cent quatre-vingts jours pour
consentir, ou s’opposer, aux ouvrages projetés, délai qui peut être pro-

rogé par la CARU. Selon l’article 9, si la partie destinataire de la notifica-
tion n’a pas formulé d’objections passé cette période, l’autre partie peut
procéder à la construction des ouvrages projetés ou autoriser celle-ci;
dans le cas contraire, les parties doivent passer à la troisième étape de la
procédure.

212 4. Thirdly, if the notified party does object within the 180 days allowed
in the second stage of the procedure, then Articles 11 and 12 provide that

the parties have another 180 days in which to try to reach agreement. It
is implicit in the Statute that, during this third stage, each party is under
an obligation to negotiate in good faith in an attempt to reach such an
agreement.

5. Lastly, if the parties fail to reach agreement during the 180 days of
the third stage, Article 12 provides that the “procedure indicated in Chap-
ter XV shall be followed”. This last provision is not entirely straight-
forward. Chapter XV contains only one provision — Article 60 — which

gives jurisdiction to the Court in respect of disputes concerning the inter-
pretation or application of the Statute. It is plain, therefore, that, if the
parties are unable to agree, the matter can be referred to the Court. Arti-
cle 60, however, gives the Court jurisdiction only to resolve disputes
regarding the interpretation or application of the Statute and the earlier

Treaty of 1973. Consequently, where a party commences proceedings
following a failure to agree during the third stage of the procedure, the
Court has to determine whether the proposed works will, if carried out,
contravene any of the substantive obligations in the Statute. It is here
that the procedural obligations under Articles 7 to 12 are clearly linked to

the substantive standards in other provisions (most noticeably Arti-
cle 41 (a)).

6. Two further observations need to be made. The first is that the pro-

cedure is essentially designed to achieve agreement between the two
parties. The role of CARU is secondary. Although CARU supplies the
mechanism through which the notification and provision of information
is to take place, its decision-making role is limited to taking a preliminary
decision under Article 7. If that preliminary decision is negative, then the

second stage of the procedure comes into operation and the matter is one
for bilateral dealings between the parties. In the second stage of the pro-
cedure, CARU’s role is merely to provide a channel for communication
and to take decisions on whether or not to grant an extension of time
under Article 8 (4). Similarly, in the third stage, it is for the parties to

negotiate directly with one another.
7. Only if CARU takes a favourable preliminary decision (i.e., if it
decides that the proposed works will not cause significant damage to the
other party) will its decision have a substantive effect. In such a case,
the effect of the CARU decision is to terminate the procedure and leave

the notifying party free to proceed with the works. Even in that case,
however, it needs to be remembered that CARU works on the basis of a
consensus between the two parties. Under Article 55 of the Statute, each
of the delegations of Argentina and Uruguay has one vote. Since there is

no mechanism for breaking a deadlock, CARU can take a decision only
if the two delegations (and thus the two States) are agreed. It follows that

213 4. Troisièmement, donc, si la partie ayant reçu la notification a objecté
dans les cent quatre-vingts jours qui lui étaient impartis au titre de la

deuxième étape de la procédure, les parties disposent, en vertu des articles
11 et 12, d’un nouveau délai de cent quatre-vingts jours pour parvenir à
un accord. Il est implicite dans le statut que, dans le cadre de cette troi-
sième étape, chacune des parties est tenue de négocier de bonne foi en vue
d’aboutir à un tel accord.

5. Quatrièmement, enfin, l’article 12 stipule que, si les parties n’abou-
tissent pas à un accord dans le délai de cent quatre-vingts jours prévu au
titre de la troisième étape, «la procédure indiquée au chapitre XV est
applicable». Or, cette dernière disposition n’est pas sans certaines impli-

cations. Le chapitre XV, en effet, ne contient qu’une disposition — l’ar-
ticle 60 —, qui confère à la Cour compétence pour connaître de différends
concernant l’interprétation ou l’application du statut: il est donc clair
que, faute d’accord, la question peut être soumise à la Cour. Mais l’ar-
ticle 60 ne donne à la Cour compétence que pour régler les différends

concernant l’interprétation ou l’application du statut et du traité — qui
lui est antérieur — de 1973; dès lors, si une partie introduit une instance
faute d’être parvenue à l’accord visé dans le cadre de la troisième étape de
la procédure, la Cour devra déterminer si les ouvrages projetés contre-
viendront, en cas de réalisation, à l’une quelconque des obligations de

fond prévues par le statut. C’est ici qu’apparaît clairement un lien entre
les obligations de nature procédurale énoncées aux articles 7 à 12 et les
normes relatives au fond contenues dans d’autres dispositions (tout par-
ticulièrement, l’alinéa a) de l’article 41).
6. Deux autres remarques s’imposent. La première est que la procé-

dure est essentiellement conçue pour aboutir à un accord entre les deux
parties. Le rôle de la CARU est secondaire. Si la commission fournit le
mécanisme par lequel s’effectueront la notification et la transmission
d’informations, son rôle en matière décisionnelle se limite à rendre la
décision sommaire prévue à l’article 7. Si cette décision est négative, la

deuxième étape de la procédure entre en jeu, et la question devient l’objet
de négociations bilatérales entre les parties. Lors de cette deuxième phase
de la procédure, la CARU n’a d’autre rôle que de servir de voie de com-
munication et de décider de l’opportunité d’accorder une prorogation de
délai en vertu de l’alinéa 4) de l’article 8. Dans la troisième étape, c’est de

même aux parties qu’il revient de négocier directement entre elles.
7. Ce n’est que si la CARU rend une décision sommaire favorable
(autrement dit, si elle détermine que le projet ne causera pas de préjudice
sensible à l’autre partie) que cette décision pourra avoir un effet quant au
fond. Car la décision de la CARU aura alors pour conséquence de clore

la procédure, laissant l’Etat d’origine du projet libre de procéder aux tra-
vaux. Toutefois, il convient de rappeler que, même à cet égard, la CARU
fonctionne sur la base d’un consensus entre les deux parties. Aux termes
de l’article 55 du statut, les délégations de l’Argentine et de l’Uruguay

disposent chacune d’une voix. En l’absence de mécanisme permettant de
sortir d’une éventuelle impasse, la CARU ne peut prendre de décision

213CARU cannot take a favourable preliminary decision on a party’s pro-
posed works if the other party objects. The procedure for consent and

negotiation created by Articles 7 to 12 is thus essentially bilateral, rather
than institutional (although other aspects of CARU’s role — in particu-
lar, in relation to monitoring — have more of an institutional character).

8. The second consideration is that the procedural obligations in Arti-
cles 7 to 12 do not give either party a power of veto. If the party wishing
to carry out the works cannot secure the agreement (or, at least, the

acquiescence) of the other party (either through the summary first stage
procedure in Article 7 or at either of the second or third procedural
stages), then it may nevertheless proceed with the works. If it does so, it
will not be violating the procedural provisions, although it runs the risk
that the other party will refer the matter to the Court under Article 60

and that the Court will hold that the works violate the substantive pro-
visions of the Statute and require it either to restore the status quo or to
pay damages.

9. The characterization of these provisions as procedural should not

be taken as in any way minimizing their importance. On the contrary,
they are an important feature of the system for ensuring the optimum
and rational utilization of the resources of the river through co-operation
between the parties. It follows that a breach of these procedural obliga-
tions is a serious matter. Moreover, while the parties can agree to depart

from all or part of the procedures laid down in Articles 7 to 12, it is not
open to either party unilaterally to bypass those procedures or to declare
them inapplicable.

2. Uruguay’s Failure to Comply with Article 7

10. In the present case, I agree with the Court that Uruguay failed to
inform CARU of the proposed works at the time when it was required by
Article 7 (1) of the Statute to do so. In my opinion, a party is obliged to
inform CARU of proposed works once two conditions are met. First,

that party must have in its possession the information necessary to enable
CARU to make the preliminary assessment provided for in Article 7 (1).
That assessment is far more limited than the assessment envisaged in
Article 7 (3). Whereas Article 7 (3) speaks of an assessment of the prob-
able impact of the proposed works, Article 7 (1) envisages only an assess-

ment of whether those works “might cause significant damage to the
other party”, i.e., it is concerned only with the possible impact of the
works. Moreover, the assessment envisaged by Article 7 (1) is to be car-
ried out within a period of only thirty days. Accordingly, less information

is required for the Article 7 (1) assessment than for that under Arti-
cle 7 (3), and it is likely to be available at an earlier stage in the planning

214que si les deux délégations (et donc, les deux Etats) sont d’accord. Il
s’ensuit qu’elle ne peut rendre de décision sommaire favorable sur les

ouvrages que se propose d’entreprendre une partie si l’autre partie s’y
oppose. La procédure établie par les articles 7 à 12 en matière de consen-
tement et de négociation est donc fondamentalement plus bilatérale
qu’institutionnelle (même si d’autres aspects du rôle de la CARU — en
particulier en ce qui concerne la surveillance — ont davantage un carac-

tère institutionnel).
8. La seconde considération est que les obligations de nature procédu-
rale énoncées aux articles 7 à 12 ne confèrent à aucune des parties de
droit de veto. Si la partie désireuse de réaliser les ouvrages ne peut obte-

nir l’accord (ou tout au moins l’assentiment) de l’autre partie (que ce soit
au stade de la première étape, dans le cadre de la procédure sommaire
prévue à l’article 7, de la deuxième, ou encore de la troisième étape de la
procédure globale), elle peut néanmoins entreprendre la construction. Ce
faisant, elle n’enfreindra pas les dispositions de nature procédurale, mais

s’exposera au risque de voir l’autre partie saisir la Cour en vertu de l’ar-
ticle 60, et celle-ci conclure que les ouvrages en question violent les dispo-
sitions de fond du statut, en lui imposant soit de rétablir le statu quo soit
de verser des dommages-intérêts.
9. Qualifier ces dispositions de procédurales ne doit pas être interprété

comme revenant d’une quelconque façon à en diminuer l’importance. Au
contraire, ces dispositions constituent un élément important du système
visant à assurer l’utilisation rationnelle et optimale des ressources du
fleuve, par la coopération entre les parties. Une violation de ces obliga-
tions de nature procédurale est donc chose grave. Qui plus est, si les

parties peuvent convenir de déroger à l’intégralité ou à certaines des pro-
cédures spécifiées aux articles 7 à 12, il n’est loisible ni à l’une ni à l’autre
de s’en affranchir unilatéralement ou de les déclarer inapplicables.

2. Non-respect, par l’Uruguay, de l’article 7

10. En l’espèce, je souscris à l’affirmation de la Cour selon laquelle
l’Uruguay n’a pas informé la CARU des ouvrages qu’il se proposait
d’entreprendre au moment où l’alinéa 1) de l’article 7 du statut lui impo-
sait de ce faire. Selon moi, la partie qui se propose de réaliser des ou-

vrages est tenue d’en informer la CARU dès lors que deux conditions
sont remplies. Premièrement, la partie intéressée doit être en possession des
informations requises pour permettre à la CARU de procéder à l’évalua-
tion sommaire prévue à l’alinéa 1) de l’article 7. Cette évaluation est bien
plus limitée que ne l’est celle visée à l’alinéa 3) de ce même article, puis-

que, si cette dernière vise l’effet probable des ouvrages projetés, l’alinéa 1)
prescrit uniquement de déterminer si ceux-ci «peu[vent] causer un préju-
dice sensible à l’autre partie» — et ne concerne, autrement dit, que l’effet
possible des travaux. En outre, l’évaluation prévue à l’alinéa 1) de l’ar-

ticle 7 doit être réalisée dans un délai de trente jours seulement: elle néces-
site donc moins d’informations que celle visée à l’alinéa 3) de l’article 7, et

214process. Secondly, a party cannot be under an obligation to notify
CARU of proposed works until that party plans to carry out those

works; in other words it must have formed an intention, however provi-
sional, that the work should proceed beyond the drawing board. Once
those two conditions are met, the party concerned is obliged to inform
CARU of the plans in accordance with Article 7 (1).

11. I agree that that stage was reached in the case of both the CMB
(ENCE) and Orion (Botnia) proposals before there was any agreement
between Argentina and Uruguay to engage in bilateral discussions

and that Uruguay nevertheless did not inform CARU. Uruguay was,
therefore, in breach of its obligations under Article 7 (1) of the
Statute.
12. I also agree that Uruguay was in breach of its obligations to notify
Argentina under Articles 7 (2) and (3). The Judgment concludes, in para-

graph 121, that Uruguay violated these provisions because, in each case,
it issued the initial environmental authorization before it supplied Argen-
tina with the information required by Article 7 (3). In the case of the
Orion (Botnia) mill, the initial environmental authorization was granted
some six months before Uruguay began to transmit the required infor-

mation. The grant of an initial environmental authorization presupposes, if
the State concerned is conscientious in its application of the requirements
of the Statute, that it has at that stage the information necessary to make
an assessment of the probable environmental impact of the proposed
works. The duty to notify the other party is, therefore, applicable no later

than this stage.

3. The Absence of any other Procedural Violation

13. I do not agree, however, with the conclusion, in paragraphs 143 to
150 of the Judgment, that Uruguay violated its obligations under the
Statute by the steps which it took to authorize work on the two mills
before the end of the third, negotiation, stage of the procedure in Arti-

cles 7 to 12. There is no doubt that the Statute limits what steps a party
may lawfully take in respect of proposed works during that stage. First,
Article 9 provides that “[i]f the notified party raises no objections or does
not respond within the period established in Article 8, the other party
may carry out or authorize the work planned”. It is implicit in that provi-

sion that the party may not carry out or authorize the work planned dur-
ing the period established in Article 8 (the second stage) or, if the notified
party does object within that period, during the period reserved for nego-
tiations under Articles 11 and 12 (the third stage). Secondly, as the Court

points out, the parties have a duty to negotiate in good faith during the
third stage of the procedure and for one party to take steps to carry out

215ces informations, en outre, pourront être disponibles à un stade plus pré-
coce du processus de planification. Deuxièmement, une partie ne saurait

être tenue d’informer la CARU de l’ouvrage qu’elle se propose de cons-
truire tant qu’elle n’a pas prévu de procéder à sa construction; en
d’autres termes, elle doit avoir conçu le dessein, fût-il éphémère, de voir
l’ouvrage dépasser l’état de projet. Une fois ces deux conditions remplies,
cette partie a l’obligation d’informer la CARU des ouvrages projetés

conformément à l’alinéa 1) de l’article 7.
11. Je conviens que ce stade a été atteint dans le cas du projet
CMB (ENCE) comme du projet Orion (Botnia) avant que l’Argentine et
l’Uruguay ne s’accordent à entamer des discussions bilatérales et que,

pour autant, l’Uruguay n’a pas informé la CARU. L’Uruguay a donc
violé les obligations lui incombant en vertu de l’alinéa 1) de l’article 7 du
statut.
12. Je conviens également que l’Uruguay a violé son obligation de
notifier les projets à l’Argentine conformément aux alinéas 2) et 3) de

l’article 7. La Cour conclut, au paragraphe 121 de son arrêt, que l’Uru-
guay a violé ces dispositions parce qu’il a, dans chacun des deux cas,
délivré les autorisations environnementales préalables avant de commu-
niquer à l’Argentine les informations requises en vertu de l’alinéa 3) de
l’article 7. S’agissant de l’usine Orion (Botnia), il a accordé cette autorisa-

tion quelque six mois avant de commencer à transmettre lesdites infor-
mations. Or, l’octroi d’une autorisation environnementale préalable
présuppose — si l’Etat intéressé applique en toute conscience les prescrip-
tions du statut — que l’Etat en question est, au moment où il délivre
cette autorisation, en possession des informations dont il a besoin pour

pouvoir réaliser une évaluation de l’effet probable sur l’environnement
des ouvrages projetés. C’est donc avant ce moment que le devoir de
notifier le projet à l’autre partie trouve à s’appliquer.

3. Absence de toute autre violation d’obligations de nature procédurale

13. Je suis en désaccord, en revanche, avec la conclusion exposée aux
paragraphes 143 à 150 de l’arrêt, selon laquelle l’Uruguay a violé les obli-
gations lui incombant en vertu du statut en prenant certaines mesures
tendant à autoriser des travaux relatifs aux deux usines avant la fin de la

troisième étape — celle des négociations — de la procédure prévue aux
articles 7 à 12. Certes, il ne saurait faire de doute que le statut limite, au
cours de cette étape, les initiatives qu’une partie est en droit de prendre à
l’égard des ouvrages qu’elle se propose de réaliser. Premièrement, l’ar-
ticle 9 stipule que, «[s]i la partie notifiée ne formule pas d’objections ou ne

répond pas dans le délai prévu à l’article 8, l’autre partie peut construire
ou autoriser la construction de l’ouvrage projeté». Il en découle implici-
tement que la partie en question ne peut procéder à la construction de
l’ouvrage projeté, ou autoriser celle-ci, avant l’expiration du délai fixé à

l’article 8 (deuxième étape) ou, si la partie destinataire de la notification
formule des objections dans ce délai, avant la fin de celle réservée aux

215or authorize the carrying out of the proposed works while the negotia-
tions of which those works are the subject are taking place may be con-

trary to that duty. I will consider each of those limitations in turn.

14. In order to understand the scope of the implied prohibition in
Article 9, it is necessary to consider the purpose of the procedures estab-
lished by Articles 8 to 12. These are designed to ensure that one party to
the Statute does not carry out works the probable impact of which will be

to cause significant adverse effects (as defined elsewhere in the Statute)
upon navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters with-
out first engaging in the information and negotiation process prescribed
by the Statute. It would defeat that purpose if that party were to take
steps which themselves had such a probable impact while the process was

still running its course. The implied restriction in Article 9 is designed to
prevent that from occurring. However, engaging in preliminary steps
such as clearing vegetation from a proposed site, levelling the land or pre-
paring foundations is unlikely in itself to have any adverse impact on
navigation, the régime of the river or the quality of its waters and, if it

does not do so, then I cannot see how it would run counter to the pur-
pose of this part of the Statute. Nor would taking such steps naturally be
considered as “carrying out” the proposed works, since that term sug-
gests a far more extensive and complete operation. Of course, the party
which takes such preliminary steps runs the risk that they may prove to

have been wasted if the proposed works are not, in the end, carried out,
but that does not mean that the taking of those steps is itself a violation
of the Statute.
15. The implied requirement not to “authorize the work planned”
must, in my view, be read in the same way. As the history of the Orion

(Botnia) mill demonstrates, the process of authorization will frequently
have many different steps. What Article 9 seems to me to prohibit, during
the second and third stages of the procedure laid down by the Statute, is
granting the authorization actually to carry out the work planned. That,
again, would exclude the authorization of preparatory steps, provided

that those steps did not themselves involve the risk of one or more of the
effects described in the Statute.

16. Secondly, the duty to negotiate in good faith, as paragraphs 145
and 146 of the Judgment point out, is firmly rooted in general interna-

tional law. While that duty does not amount to a requirement that the
negotiations lead to any particular outcome, it does require that the
parties to the negotiations must conduct themselves in such a way that
the negotiations are meaningful (North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal

Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/Nether-
lands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969 , p. 47, para. 85). In the context of

216négociations prévues aux articles 11 et 12 (troisième étape). Deuxième-
ment, comme le relève la Cour, les parties ont le devoir de négocier de

bonne foi pendant la troisième étape de la procédure, et une partie qui
prendrait des initiatives en vue de construire les ouvrages projetés ou d’en
autoriser la construction tandis que les négociations dont ceux-ci font
l’objet sont en cours pourrait se trouver manquer à ce devoir. Je revien-
drai tour à tour sur ces deux limitations.

14. Pour bien comprendre la portée de l’interdiction implicitement
contenue à l’article 9, il est nécessaire de tenir compte de l’objet des pro-
cédures définies aux articles 8 à 12. Celles-ci visent à garantir qu’une par-
tie au statut ne procédera pas à la construction d’ouvrages ayant pour

effet probable de causer un préjudice sensible (notion définie ailleurs dans
le statut) à la navigation, au régime du fleuve ou à la qualité de ses eaux,
sans avoir au préalable suivi le processus d’information et de négociation
prescrit par le statut. Que cette partie prenne des initiatives qui auraient
elles-mêmes un tel effet tandis que le processus suivrait son cours irait à

l’encontre de ce but. La restriction implicitement contenue à l’article 9
vise à empêcher une telle situation. Toutefois, certaines activités préala-
bles — défricher le site retenu, niveler le terrain ou encore préparer les
fondations, par exemple — ne risquent guère, en elles-mêmes, de porter
atteinte à la navigation, au régime du fleuve ou à la qualité de ses eaux et,

dès lors, je ne vois pas en quoi ce serait aller à l’encontre de l’objet de
cette partie du statut que de les entreprendre. Du reste, de telles activités
ne seront naturellement pas assimilées à une «construction» de l’ouvrage
projeté, ce terme de «construction» désignant une opération autrement
plus importante et complète. Si la partie qui les engage court certes le

risque de voir ces activités réalisées en pure perte si les ouvrages qu’elle se
propose de construire ne voient au bout du compte jamais le jour, le fait
de les entreprendre n’est pas, en soi, constitutif d’une violation du statut.
15. L’obligation implicite de ne pas «autoriser la construction de
l’ouvrage projeté» doit, selon moi, se comprendre de la même façon.

Ainsi que le montre l’histoire de l’usine Orion (Botnia), le processus
d’autorisation suppose fréquemment nombre d’étapes différentes. Ce que
l’article 9 me semble interdire, au cours de la deuxième et de la troisième
étape de la procédure définie par le statut, c’est le fait d’autoriser la mise
en chantier effective de l’ouvrage projeté. Cela exclurait, une fois de plus,

l’autorisation de procéder à des travaux préparatoires, dès lors que
ceux-ci n’impliqueraient eux-mêmes aucun risque de voir causés l’un ou
plusieurs des effets visés par le statut.
16. Deuxièmement, le devoir de négocier de bonne foi, comme le sou-
lignent les paragraphes 145 et 146 de l’arrêt, est solidement ancré dans le

droit international général. S’il n’emporte pas l’obligation de voir les
négociations aboutir à une issue donnée, il impose néanmoins aux parties
de se comporter de telle manière que ces négociations aient un sens (Pla-
teau continental de la mer du Nord (République fédérale d’Allemagne/

Danemark; République fédérale d’Allemagne/Pays-Bas), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1969, p. 47, par. 85). A propos des négociations prévues à

216negotiations under Article 12 of the Statute, I agree with what is said in
paragraph 147 of the Judgment, that

“there would be no point to the co-operation mechanism provided
for by Articles 7 to 12 of the 1975 Statute if the party initiating the

planned activity were to authorize or implement it without waiting
for that mechanism to be brought to a conclusion. Indeed, if that
were the case, the consultations and negotiations between the parties
would no longer have any purpose.”

However, I do not agree that taking preparatory steps, such as clearing
vegetation from the proposed site of a mill, amounts to the “implementa-

tion” of the planned activity. The conclusion, in paragraph 148 of the
Judgment, that such preparatory action constitutes “an integral part of
the construction of the planned mills” and therefore must necessarily be
seen as incompatible with the duty to negotiate in good faith is unjusti-
fied. If both parties are negotiating in good faith, the outcome may well

be an agreement that the proposed works can proceed (albeit, perhaps,
with modifications). Moreover, if the negotiations do not result in agree-
ment within the prescribed 180-day period, then, as paragraphs 151 to
158 of the Judgment make clear, the party which has proposed those
works may proceed subject to the risk that the other party may bring the

matter to the Court which may conclude that the works contravene
the substantive provisions of the Statute. In my opinion, a party can
engage in good faith in negotiations which are meaningful while still
taking preparatory steps to ensure that it is ready to proceed with the
works if the negotiations result in agreement that they may be carried

out, or if no agreement is reached within the prescribed period. To
take such steps is not, in itself, contrary to the duty to negotiate in
good faith. Only if the negotiating record as a whole shows that the
party concerned did not intend to engage in meaningful negotiations
would the Court be justified in concluding that that duty had been

breached.

17. The question, therefore, is whether the steps which Uruguay
authorized before the end of the period for negotiation contravened the
prohibition implicit in Article 9 or the duty to negotiate in good faith. In

my opinion, they did not.
18. In the case of the CMB (ENCE) mill, construction never took
place. Neither the initial environmental authorization, issued on 9 Octo-
ber 2003, nor the environmental management plan approval, granted on
28 November 2005, was an authorization to “carry out” the project. The

initial environmental authorization did not permit construction of the mill.
Further permits were required before that could be done. The lengthy
process followed in the case of the Orion (Botnia) mill, which —
unlike CMB (ENCE) — was completed, is a reminder of how many

further authorizations were required by Uruguay before construction of
the mill itself could begin. The 28 November 2005 approval was limited

217l’article 12 du statut, je fais mienne la considération exposée au para-
graphe 147 de l’arrêt, selon laquelle

[l]e mécanisme de coopération prévu par les articles 7 à 12 du statut
de 1975 n’aurait pas de sens ... si la partie d’origine de l’activité pro-

jetée autorisait celle-ci ou la mettait en Œuvre sans attendre que ce
mécanisme soit mené à son terme. En effet, si tel était le cas, les
négociations entre les parties n’auraient plus d’objet.»

Toutefois, je n’admets pas que le fait de procéder à des travaux prépa-
ratoires, comme ceux consistant à défricher le site envisagé pour la cons-

truction d’une usine, revienne à «mettre en Œuvre» l’activité projetée. La
conclusion, au paragraphe 148 de l’arrêt, selon laquelle de tels travaux
font «partie intégrante de la construction des usines projetées», et doi-
vent en conséquence être tenus pour incompatibles avec le devoir de
négocier de bonne foi, est injustifiée. Si les deux parties négocient de

bonne foi, elles pourront, éventuellement, s’accorder sur la construction
des ouvrages projetés (le cas échéant, avec les aménagements requis). En
outre, dans l’hypothèse où les négociations n’aboutiraient pas à un
accord dans le délai prescrit (cent quatre-vingts jours) — et comme il res-
sort clairement des paragraphes 151 à 158 de l’arrêt —, la partie qui a

proposé la construction des ouvrages peut passer à l’acte, étant entendu
qu’elle s’expose alors à voir l’autre partie saisir la Cour et celle-ci conclure
que les ouvrages violent les dispositions de fond du statut. Selon moi, une
partie peut mener de bonne foi des négociations qui ont un sens tout en
prenant, en amont, certaines initiatives afin d’être à même de procéder à

la construction dans l’hypothèse où les négociations aboutiraient à un
accord à cet effet ou, au contraire, ne permettraient pas aux parties de
s’entendre dans le délai imparti. Prendre de telles initiatives n’est pas, en
soi, contraire au devoir de négocier de bonne foi. Ce n’est que dans le cas
où l’ensemble de l’historique de ces négociations révélerait que la partie

intéressée n’avait pas l’intention de mener des négociations qui aient un
sens que la Cour serait fondée à conclure à un manquement à ce devoir.
17. La question est donc de savoir si les activités autorisées par l’Uru-
guay avant la fin de la période de négociation étaient contraires à l’inter-
diction implicitement contenue à l’article 9 ou au devoir de négocier de

bonne foi. Or, selon moi, elles ne l’étaient pas.
18. En ce qui concerne l’usine CMB (ENCE), la construction n’a
jamais eu lieu. Ni l’autorisation environnementale préalable, délivrée le
9 octobre 2003, ni l’approbation du plan de gestion environnementale,
intervenue le 28 novembre 2005, ne constituaient une autorisation de

«construire» l’ouvrage projeté. L’autorisation environnementale préa-
lable n’était pas une autorisation de bâtir l’usine. D’autres permis étaient
requis avant une éventuelle mise en chantier. Le long processus suivi dans
le cas de l’usine Orion (Botnia), projet qui — à la différence de celui de

l’usine CMB (ENCE) — fut mené à terme, illustre bien le nombre d’auto-
risations supplémentaires requises de l’Uruguay avant que la construc-

217to clearing the ground of vegetation and did not permit construction (as
paragraph 36 of the Judgment makes clear). In my opinion, the steps

authorized by Uruguay were too limited in scope to amount to a breach
of Article 9 or to demonstrate that Uruguay was not negotiating in good
faith.

19. In the case of the Orion (Botnia) mill, the picture is more
complicated. I agree with paragraphs 138 to 141 of the Judgment that the
agreement between Argentina and Uruguay to establish the High-Level
Technical Group, known as the GTAN, was an agreement to create a

mechanism to enable the negotiations required by Article 12 of the Stat-
ute to take place. It follows that the subsequent exchanges within the
GTAN constituted the third stage of the procedure outlined in para-
graph 4 above. I also agree that by establishing this mechanism Argen-
tina neither consented to the construction of the mill nor waived its other

procedural rights under the Statute. However, I do not agree that the
steps which Uruguay took regarding the Orion (Botnia) mill during the
period of negotiations in GTAN amounted to a violation of Article 9 or
the duty to negotiate in good faith under Article 12 of the Statute.

20. The initial environmental authorization for the mill, granted on
14 February 2005, was not an authorization to construct and pre-dated
the establishment of the GTAN. Since Argentina was well aware of this
authorization when it agreed to the establishment of the GTAN, it evi-

dently did not consider that the granting of the authorization precluded
meaningful negotiation. Similarly, the environmental management plan
approval, given on 12 April 2005, was for preliminary work only and
again predated the agreement to establish the GTAN negotiating
mechanism.

21. There followed two more significant steps. On 5 July 2005 Uru-
guay gave authorization for the construction of a port adjacent to the
proposed site of the mill. This step occurred after the establishment of the
GTAN but before the first of the twelve meetings held as part of the

GTAN process took place on 3 August 2005. This action on Uruguay’s
part scarcely provided an auspicious start to the GTAN meetings but it
was the mill, not the port, which was the subject of controversy and I do
not think this step constituted a violation of Article 9 or of the duty to
negotiate in good faith. More important was the approval, on

22 August 2005, of the construction of a chimney and concrete founda-
tions for the mill. This measure permitted Botnia to take an important
step towards the construction of the mill but it still fell far short of
authorization to carry out the works as a whole. Even after everything

approved by this measure was complete, most of the work of construc-
tion remained and several more authorizations still had to be obtained.

218tion de l’usine elle-même ne pût commencer. L’approbation donnée le
28 novembre 2005, qui concernait exclusivement le défrichement et le

nivellement du terrain, ne revenait pas (ainsi qu’il ressort clairement du
paragraphe 36 de l’arrêt) à autoriser la construction. Selon moi, les acti-
vités autorisées par l’Uruguay étaient de portée trop restreinte pour cons-
tituer une violation de l’article 9 ou une preuve que l’Uruguay ne menait
pas les négociations de bonne foi.

19. La situation est plus compliquée en ce qui concerne l’usine Orion
(Botnia). Je souscris à l’appréciation exprimée par la Cour aux paragra-
phes 138 à 141 de l’arrêt selon laquelle, en créant d’un commun accord le
Groupe technique de haut niveau (GTAN), l’Argentine et l’Uruguay

visaient à instituer un mécanisme destiné à permettre la tenue des négo-
ciations prescrites à l’article 12 du statut. Les échanges intervenus par la
suite au sein du GTAN relevaient donc de la troisième étape de la pro-
cédure précisée au paragraphe 4 ci-dessus. Je conviens également que, en
établissant ce mécanisme, l’Argentine n’a ni consenti à la construction de

l’usine ni renoncé aux autres droits de nature procédurale qu’elle tenait
du statut. En revanche, je ne suis pas d’accord pour affirmer que les ini-
tiatives prises par l’Uruguay à l’égard de l’usine Orion (Botnia) pendant
le déroulement des négociations au sein du GTAN étaient constitutives
d’une violation de l’article 9 ou du devoir de négocier de bonne foi en

vertu de l’article 12 du statut.
20. L’autorisation environnementale préalable pour l’usine, délivrée le
14 février 2005, n’était pas une autorisation de construire et elle était
antérieure à la création du GTAN. Puisque l’Argentine avait parfaite-
ment connaissance de cette autorisation lorsqu’elle a accepté la création

de ce dernier, il est évident qu’elle ne voyait pas dans sa délivrance un
obstacle à la tenue de négociations qui aient un sens. De même, l’appro-
bation du plan de gestion environnementale, donnée le 12 avril 2005,
ne concernait que des travaux préparatoires et était, là encore, anté-
rieure à l’accord portant création du GTAN en tant que mécanisme de

négociation.
21. L’Uruguay prit ensuite deux initiatives portant davantage à consé-
quence. Le 5 juillet 2005, il autorisa la construction d’un port adjacent au
site envisagé pour celle de l’usine. Cette mesure intervint après la création
du GTAN, mais avant la première des douze réunions tenues dans le

cadre du processus mené sous les auspices de celui-ci, laquelle eut lieu le
3 août 2005. Si elle n’augurait pas forcément bien de l’avenir de ce pro-
cessus, c’est l’usine — et non le port — qui était controversée, et je ne
pense pas que cette mesure ait constitué une violation de l’article 9 ou du
devoir de négocier de bonne foi. Plus notable fut l’approbation, le

22 août 2005, de la construction d’une cheminée et des fondations en
béton de l’usine. Cette mesure, si elle fit faire à Botnia un grand pas en
avant sur la voie de la mise en chantier de l’usine, était toujours loin de
constituer une autorisation de construire l’ouvrage dans son ensemble.

Même une fois achevés tous les travaux approuvés dans ce cadre, l’essen-
tiel de la construction restait à faire, et plusieurs autres autorisations

218Nor did the actions approved on 22 August 2005 themselves create a risk
of damage to the aquatic environment.

22. Uruguay’s approval for the construction of the mill itself, given
on 18 January 2006, is of an entirely different character and would be
capable of violating Article 9 and the duty to negotiate in good faith

had it occurred while the 180-day period for negotiations had not yet
expired. In fact, it did not do so. It is true that, as Argentina has
argued, the first GTAN meeting occurred only on 3 August 2005, so
that, if the 180-day period prescribed by Article 12 of the Statute
started to run only on that date, it would have ended on 30 January

2006 (the day on which the final GTAN meeting was held). However,
the GTAN process was actually established by the two Foreign
Ministries on 31 May 2005 (following an agreement in principle
between the two Presidents on 3 May 2005). The press release issued

by the foreign ministries on 31 May 2005 recording their agreement
expressly stated that the GTAN was to produce its report within
180 days (the period stipulated in Article 12 of the Statute), which
strongly suggests that the 180-day period was to run from the date of
the agreement, not the (then unknown) date of the first GTAN

meeting. If the 180-day period is measured from the date of the
establishment of GTAN, then it had already come to an end before the
authorization to construct the mill was given. Moreover, even if that
interpretation is incorrect, on 14 December 2005 the Foreign Ministry

of Argentina handed a Diplomatic Note to the Ambassador
of Uruguay in which it stated that the negotiations having failed to
produce an agreement, a dispute existed between the two States,
thus paving the way for the process in Article 60 of the Statute
(i.e., reference to the Court). In the light of this communication, it is

clear that Argentina regarded the negotiations as having reached an
impasse. Uruguay’s authorization of construction on 18 January 2006
cannot, therefore, be seen as undermining a negotiating process
which its negotiating partner had already declared to have been

unsuccessful.

23. In these circumstances, I cannot agree with the Court’s conclusion
(at paragraph 149 of the Judgment) that “by authorizing the construction
of the mills and the port terminal at Fray Bentos before the expiration of

the period of negotiation, Uruguay failed to comply with the obligation
to negotiate laid down by Article 12 of the Statute”.

B. E VIDENTIAL ISSUES

24. I agree with the Court’s finding that the evidence before it does not
establish that Uruguay has violated the substantive provisions of the

219restaient à obtenir. Qui plus est, les activités approuvées le 22 août
2005 n’emportaient pas elles-mêmes de risques d’atteinte au milieu

aquatique.
22. L’autorisation de construire l’usine elle-même, accordée par l’Uru-
guay le 18 janvier 2006, est d’une tout autre nature, et aurait pu emporter
violation de l’article 9 et du devoir de négocier de bonne foi si elle avait
été délivrée avant l’expiration du délai de cent quatre-vingts jours prévu

pour les négociations. Or, elle ne l’a pas été. Certes, comme l’a fait valoir
l’Argentine, la première réunion du GTAN n’a eu lieu que le 3 août 2005,
de sorte que, si le délai de cent quatre-vingts jours visé à l’article 12 du
statut n’avait commencé de courir qu’à cette date, il se serait achevé le

30 janvier 2006 (date de la tenue de la dernière réunion du GTAN). Tou-
tefois, le processus du GTAN avait en réalité été mis en place par les deux
ministères des affaires étrangères le 31 mai 2005 (à la suite d’un accord de
principe intervenu entre les deux présidents le 3 mai 2005). Le communi-
qué de presse publié à cette date par les ministères des affaires étrangères,

qui consigne leur accord, précisait expressément que le GTAN devait éta-
blir son rapport dans un délai de cent quatre-vingts jours (soit le laps de
temps prévu à l’article 12 du statut), ce qui tend fortement à indiquer que
ce délai de cent quatre-vingts jours était censé commencer à courir à la
date de l’accord, et non à celle (encore indéterminée) de la première réu-

nion du GTAN. Si l’on se réfère à la date de la création du GTAN,
le délai de cent quatre-vingts jours était venu à terme avant la délivrance
de l’autorisation de construire l’usine. En outre, quand bien même
cette interprétation serait erronée, le 14 décembre 2005, le ministère
argentin des affaires étrangères remit à l’ambassadeur de l’Uruguay

une note diplomatique dans laquelle, en indiquant que les négociations
n’avaient pas permis d’aboutir à un accord et que, dès lors, un diffé-
rend existait entre les deux Etats, il ouvrait la voie au processus prévu à
l’article 60 du statut (autrement dit la saisine de la Cour). A la lumière
de cette communication, il est clair que, pour l’Argentine, les négo-

ciations étaient dans l’impasse. L’autorisation de construire accordée
par l’Uruguay le 18 janvier 2006 ne saurait, dès lors, être réputée avoir
sapé un processus de négociation dont l’autre partie avait déjà conclu
à l’échec.
23. Dans ces circonstances, je ne peux faire mienne la conclusion à

laquelle est parvenue la Cour (au paragraphe 149 de l’arrêt), selon
laquelle, «en autorisant la construction des usines ainsi que du terminal
portuaire de Fray Bentos avant la fin de la période de négociation,
l’Uruguay n’a pas respecté l’obligation de négocier prévue à l’article 12
du statut».

B. Q UESTIONS RELATIVES À LA PREUVE

24. Je souscris à la conclusion de la Cour selon laquelle les éléments de
preuve versés au dossier ne permettent pas d’établir que l’Uruguay a violé

219Statute. I also agree with the Court’s reasoning regarding the burden
of proof. The nature of the case and of the obligations under the

Statute does not alter the fundamental principle that, in proceedings
before the Court, the burden of proving any given fact rests on the party
asserting that fact. I am also in full agreement with the Court’s analysis
of the evidence before it and the way in which it went about the assess-
ment of that evidence. On that last matter, I share the views expressed by

Judge Keith in his separate opinion. I want only to add two brief com-
ments regarding evidential issues.

1. Standard of Proof

25. First, while I agree with what the Court has said about the burden
of proof, I think it is also important to have regard to the standard of

proof, i.e., what a party must do in order to discharge the burden of
proof when that burden rests upon it. International courts and tribunals
have avoided the distinction between criminal and civil standards of
proof familiar to common law (which requires proof beyond reasonable
doubt in criminal cases and proof only on a balance of probabilities in

civil cases). The Court has, however, indicated in Application of the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bos-
nia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) (Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2007 (I), pp. 129-130, paras. 208-210) that charges of conduct as
grave as genocide require “proof at a high level of certainty appropriate

to the seriousness of the allegation” (ibid., para. 210). It is implicit in that
statement that a lower standard of proof is acceptable in the case of
other, less grave, allegations.

26. The present case seems to me to fall squarely within the category
of cases which calls for a lower standard of proof. While allegations that
a State has violated environmental obligations under a treaty concerning
a shared watercourse are undoubtedly serious, they are not of the same

character as the allegations in the Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herze-
govina v. Serbia and Montenegro) case. Moreover, the nature of envi-
ronmental disputes is such that the application of the higher standard of
proof would have the effect of making it all but impossible for a State to

discharge the burden of proof. Accordingly, I believe that Argentina was
required to establish the facts which it asserted only on the balance of
probabilities (sometimes described as the balance of the evidence). I
agree, however, that it has not done so.

220les dispositions de fond du statut. J’adhère de même au raisonnement en
ce qui concerne la charge de la preuve. La nature de la présente affaire et

des obligations prescrites par le statut ne change rien au principe fon-
damental selon lequel, dans une affaire soumise à la Cour, la charge de
prouver tout fait allégué incombe à la partie qui avance ce fait. Je m’asso-
cie en outre pleinement à l’analyse que fait la Cour des éléments de
preuve qui lui ont été soumis et approuve de même la manière dont elle a

procédé à l’appréciation de ces éléments. Sur ce dernier point, je partage
les vues exprimées par le juge Keith dans son opinion individuelle. Je
voudrais simplement ajouter deux brèves remarques à propos de ques-
tions relatives à la preuve.

1. Critère d’établissement de la preuve

25. Premièrement, si je souscris au propos de la Cour en ce qui
concerne la charge de la preuve, il me semble aussi important de prendre

en compte le critère d’établissement de la preuve, c’est-à-dire ce qu’une
partie doit faire pour s’acquitter de la charge de la preuve lorsque cette
charge lui incombe. Les cours et tribunaux internationaux ont, à cet
égard, évité la distinction entre domaines pénal et civil qui existe en com-
mon law (dans le cadre de laquelle la preuve doit être établie au-delà de

tout doute raisonnable en matière pénale, tandis qu’en matière civile l’on
retiendra l’hypothèse paraissant la plus probable après appréciation de
l’ensemble des éléments de preuve). La Cour, toutefois, a indiqué dans
l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et
la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Serbie-et-

Monténégro) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 129-130, par. 208-210) que
des allégations mettant en cause un comportement aussi grave que le
génocide requéraient d’être «prouvé[es] avec un degré élevé de certitude,
à la mesure de [leur] gravité» (ibid., par. 210). Il en ressort, implicitement,
qu’un critère d’établissement de la preuve moins rigoureux peut être

retenu dans le cas d’autres allégations, d’une gravité moindre.
26. La présente affaire me semble précisément être de celles qui appel-
lent un critère d’établissement de la preuve moins strict. Si les allégations
selon lesquelles un Etat a violé des obligations lui incombant en matière
environnementale en vertu d’un traité relatif à un cours d’eau commun

sont indubitablement graves, elles sont d’un autre ordre que celles
avancées dans le cadre de l’affaire relative à l’Application de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Serbie-et-Monténégro) . En outre, la nature
des différends relatifs à l’environnement est telle que l’application

d’un critère d’établissement de la preuve plus élevé aurait pour effet
de placer un Etat dans la quasi-impossibilité de s’acquitter de la charge
de la preuve. En conséquence, j’estime que l’Argentine n’était tenue
d’établir les faits qu’elle avançait qu’en termes de probabilité la plus

forte (on parle parfois de prééminence de la preuve). Je conviens, toute-
fois, qu’elle ne l’a pas fait.

220 2. The Distinction between Experts, Witnesses and Counsel

27. Secondly, I wish to record my strong agreement with the Court’s
remarks, at paragraph 167 of the Judgment, regarding the practice of
having persons who provide evidence before the Court (based, in this
case, upon their research, observations and scientific expertise) address

the Court as counsel. The distinction between the evidence of a witness or
expert and the advocacy of counsel is fundamental to the proper conduct
of litigation before the Court (as it is before other courts and tribunals).
A witness or expert owes a duty to the Court which is reflected in the
declaration required by Article 64 of the Rules of Court. The duties of

someone appearing as counsel are quite different. Moreover, a person
who testifies, whether as an expert, a witness or in both capacities, can be
questioned by the other party and by the Court. For a person who is
going to speak of facts within his own knowledge or to offer his expert

opinion on scientific data to address the Court as counsel is to circum-
vent these provisions of the Rules and, in the words of the late Sir Arthur
Watts, unacceptably to blur the distinction between evidence and
advocacy (Arthur Watts, “Enhancing the Effectiveness of Procedures of

International Dispute Settlement” in: J. A. Frowein and R. Wolfrum
(eds.), Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law , Vol. 5, 2001,
pp. 29-30). The problem is particularly acute where, as in the present
case, some of those who addressed the Court as counsel had been

actively and closely involved in the preparation of scientific reports
which were part of the evidence before the Court. For those persons
to address the Court as counsel, rather than giving evidence as
witnesses or experts, was both unhelpful to the Court and unfair to the

other Party.

28. In the present case, any unfairness was mitigated by the fact that

both Parties engaged in the same practice. The issue of principle, how-
ever, remains and I am pleased that the Court has unequivocally indi-
cated that such a practice should not be repeated in future cases.

C. T HE C ONTINUING O BLIGATIONS OF THE PARTIES

29. Courts and tribunals are necessarily required to focus for most of
the time upon the events of the past. In the present case, the Court has
concluded that Uruguay’s conduct to date has violated its procedural
obligations under the Statute but has not violated its substantive obliga-
tions and that the declaration of a procedural breach is the only remedy

which it is appropriate for the Court to grant. It should, however, be
clearly understood that the Court is not saying that this is the end of the
matter. The Statute imposes upon both Parties important obligations of a

221 2. Distinction entre experts, témoins et conseils

27. Deuxièmement, je voudrais qu’il soit pris note de ce que je souscris
entièrement aux remarques formulées au paragraphe 167 de l’arrêt au
sujet de la pratique qui consiste, pour des personnes déposant devant la
Cour (sur la base, en l’occurrence, de leurs recherches, observations et
connaissances scientifiques), à se présenter à la barre en qualité de conseils.

Cette distinction entre déposition d’un témoin ou expert et plaidoyer d’un
conseil est indispensable au bon déroulement de la procédure conten-
tieuse devant la Cour (de même que devant d’autres cours et tribunaux).
Témoins et experts ont, à l’égard de la Cour, un devoir dont la déclara-

tion prescrite par l’article 64 du Règlement est l’expression. Les obliga-
tions d’une personne intervenant en qualité de conseil sont tout à fait
différentes. En outre, une personne invitée à déposer — que ce soit en
qualité d’expert, de témoin ou à ces deux titres à la fois — peut être inter-
rogée par la partie adverse et par la Cour. Qu’une personne appelée à

traiter de faits relevant de ses connaissances propres ou à exposer son
avis d’expert sur des données scientifiques intervienne devant la Cour en
qualité de conseil revient à contourner ces dispositions du Règlement et,
pour reprendre les mots de sir Arthur Watts, à brouiller de manière inad-

missible la distinction entre déposition et plaidoyer (Arthur Watts,
«Enhancing the Effectiveness of Procedures of International Dispute
Settlement», in J. A. Frowein et R. Wolfrum (dir. publ.), Max Planck
Yearbook of United Nations Law , vol. 5, 2001, p. 29-30). Le problème se
pose avec une acuité toute particulière lorsque, comme c’est le cas en la

présente affaire, certaines des personnes se présentant à la barre en qua-
lité de conseils ont participé activement et de très près à l’établissement de
rapports scientifiques versés au dossier soumis à la Cour. Qu’en l’espèce
de telles personnes se soient exprimées en qualité de conseils, au lieu de

déposer en qualité de témoins ou experts, a été non seulement probléma-
tique pour la Cour mais encore injuste envers la Partie adverse.
28. En la présente affaire, toute injustice a néanmoins été tempérée par
le fait que les deux Parties ont agi de la même façon. La question de prin-
cipe n’en demeure pas moins posée, et je suis heureux que la Cour ait

indiqué sans équivoque que cette pratique ne devait pas se répéter.

C. O BLIGATIONS CONTINUES DES PARTIES

29. Les cours et tribunaux sont forcément appelés la plupart du temps
à s’intéresser à des événements du passé. En la présente affaire, la Cour a
conclu que, par son comportement, jusqu’à ce jour, l’Uruguay avait violé

les obligations de nature procédurale lui incombant en vertu du statut,
mais non ses obligations de fond, et estimé que la constatation de la vio-
lation des obligations de nature procédurale était le seul remède qu’il lui
était indiqué d’accorder. Il faut, toutefois, bien comprendre que la Cour
ne déclare pas, ce faisant, la question close. Le statut impose aux deux

221continuing character (to which the Court has drawn attention in para-

graph 266 of the Judgment). Uruguay has a continuing obligation, under
Article 41 of the Statute, to prevent pollution in the River Uruguay and
thus to maintain a system of monitoring and strict controls in respect of
any discharges from the Orion (Botnia) plant. Both Parties have a duty

to co-operate, within the framework of CARU, and CARU itself has an
important role to play both in setting standards and in monitoring. The
Statute which the Parties agreed upon in 1975 was a remarkably forward-
looking instrument. In several respects it was ahead of its time and

is a tribute to the determination of the two States to protect an aquatic
environment of great importance to them both. As the Court has
remarked, in paragraph 281 of the Judgment, until the present case the
machinery created by the Statute had worked well without any need to

refer matters to the Court. The Parties have a duty to co-operate to
ensure that that machinery continues to work well in the future.

(Signed) Christopher G REENWOOD .

222Parties d’importantes obligations revêtant un caractère continu (sur les-

quelles la Cour a appelé l’attention au paragraphe 266 de son arrêt).
L’Uruguay a l’obligation continue, en vertu de l’article 41 du statut,
d’empêcher la pollution du fleuve Uruguay et, pour ce faire, de maintenir
un système de surveillance et de contrôle strict de tous les effluents rejetés

par l’usine Orion (Botnia). Les deux Parties ont le devoir de coopérer,
dans le cadre de la CARU, laquelle a elle-même un rôle important à jouer
en matière tant de fixation de normes que de surveillance. Le statut
adopté par les Parties en 1975 était un instrument remarquablement pros-

pectif. En avance sur son temps à bien des égards, il témoigne de la déter-
mination des deux Etats à protéger un milieu aquatique revêtant, pour
l’un comme pour l’autre, une très grande importance. Comme l’a fait
remarquer la Cour au paragraphe 281 de son arrêt, jusqu’à l’introduction

de la présente affaire, le mécanisme créé par le statut avait bien fonc-
tionné et sa saisine ne s’était jamais imposée. Les Parties ont le devoir de
coopérer pour veiller à ce que ce mécanisme continue à l’avenir de bien
fonctionner.

(Signé) Christopher G REENWOOD .

222

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Separate opinion of Judge Greenwood

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