Joint dissenting opinion Judges Al-Khasawneh and Simma

Document Number
135-20100420-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
135-20100420-JUD-01-00-EN
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JOINT DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGES
AL-KHASAWNEH AND SIMMA

The Court has evaluated the scientific evidence before it in a methodologically

flawed manner — We are not in a position to assess the evidence submitted by
either party as to whether there has been a breach of the 1975 Statute — Fact-
intensive cases with a complex scientific component require the Court to go
beyond its traditional methods of fact-finding — The Court should have made
full use of the various possibilities made available to it under the Statute and
Rules — The Court should either have appointed its own experts or had party-
appointed experts subjected to cross-examination — Interaction with experts as
counsel deprives the Court of the ability fully to consider the facts submitted to
it — The use of “experts fantômes” by the Court is not an acceptable practice
in disputes with a complex scientific component — Other international dispute-
settlement bodies have resorted to scientific expertise in a more convincing
manner — The Court has interpreted its role in the present case extremely nar-
rowly, since the 1975 Statute would have allowed it to take a forward-looking,
prospective approach, engage in a comprehensive risk assessment and embrace a
preventive rather than a compensatory logic — This logic has particular cogency
in environmental disputes — The Court has failed to grasp the innovative and

progressive character of the 1975 Statute — Neither has the Court drawn
adequate conclusions from the link between procedural and substantive obliga-
tions — In sum, the Court has missed a golden opportunity to demonstrate its
ability to approach scientifically complex disputes in a state-of-the-art manner.

1. The present dispute between Argentina and Uruguay concerns a
pressing issue in our time, that of the protection of the environment and
human health. It is a remarkable case: 35 years ago two States concluded
a comprehensive treaty, very progressive for that time, in which they

aimed to regulate the management of a complex river ecosystem, includ-
ing obligations to take measures to prevent the pollution of that ecosys-
tem. They undertook specific obligations to co-operate and inform each
other of everything they intended to do which might have an effect upon
the shared natural resource that forms their common boundary: the
River Uruguay. Thirty years later, one of the two States decides to

proceed as if that treaty had never been concluded: in disregard of its
procedural obligations under the 1975 Statute, Uruguay has authorized a
large-scale construction precisely within this river ecosystem. The Judg-
ment of the Court characterizes Uruguay’s breach in the clearest terms,
and we concur without reservation with operative paragraph 1 of the

98Judgment, which adjudged that there was a breach by Uruguay of its

obligations to notify and to inform.

I. A M ISSEDO PPORTUNITY TO COPE WITH SCIENTIFIC
U NCERTAINTY IN A STATE-OF-THE-A RT M ANNER

2. While we agree with the Judgment’s finding of a breach by Uruguay
of its procedural obligations, we cannot endorse operative paragraph 2 of
the Judgment of the Court, and have accordingly voted against it. As we

will explain in the following dissent, the Court has evaluated the scientific
evidence brought before it by the Parties in ways that we consider flawed
methodologically: the Court has not followed the path it ought to have
pursued with regard to disputed scientific facts; it has omitted to resort to

the possibilities provided by its Statute and thus simply has not done
what would have been necessary in order to arrive at a basis for the
application of the law to the facts as scientifically certain as is possible in
a judicial proceeding. Therefore, faced with the results of a deficient

method of scientific fact-finding, we are not in a position to agree “that
the Eastern Republic of Uruguay has not breached its substantive obli-
gations under Articles 35, 36 and 41 of the 1975 Statute of the River Uru-
guay”. The evidence submitted by Uruguay to establish this result has

not been treated lege artis by the Court; the same is valid for the evi-
dence submitted by Argentina in order for the Court to arrive at the
opposite conclusion. Consequently, and logically, we have no other pos-

sibility than to dissent.

3. The exceptionally fact-intensive case before us is unlike most cases
submitted to the Court and raises serious questions as to the role that
scientific evidence can play in an international judicial institution. The
traditional methods of evaluating evidence are deficient in assessing the

relevance of such complex, technical and scientific facts, yet the Court
has laconically explained, at paragraph 168 of its Judgment, that

“it is the responsibility of the Court, after having given careful

consideration to all the evidence placed before it by the Parties, to
determine which facts must be considered relevant, to assess their
probative value, and to draw conclusions from them as appropriate”.

Thus, the Court has clung to the habits it has traditionally followed for
the assessment and evaluation of evidence to arrive at the finding in

operative paragraph 2. It has had before it a case on international envi-

99ronmental law of an exemplary nature — a “textbook example”, so to
speak, of alleged transfrontier pollution — yet, the Court has approached

it in a way that will increase doubts in the international legal community
whether it, as an institution, is well-placed to tackle complex scientific
questions (cf. S. Rosenne, “Fact-Finding before the International Court
of Justice”, in Essays on International Law and Practice , 2007, pp. 235
and 250; A. Riddell and B. Plant,Evidence before the International Court

of Justice, 2009, p. 353; C. M. Schofield and C. H. Carleton, “Technical
Considerations in Law of the Sea Dispute Resolution”, in
A. G. Oude Elferink and D. R. Rothwell (eds.), Oceans Management in
the 21st Century, 2004, pp. 251-252). The adjudication of disputes in
which the assessment of scientific questions by experts is indispensable, as

is the case here, requires an interweaving of legal process with knowledge
and expertise that can only be drawn from experts properly trained to
evaluate the increasingly complex nature of the facts put before the Court
(cf. C. Foster, Science and the Precautionary Principle in International
Courts: Expert Evidence, Burden of Proof and Finality, forthcoming,
2010, Chap. 2). For this reason, in this dissenting opinion, we will

endeavour to explain why we could not follow the Court along this path.

4. The Court on its own is not in a position adequately to assess and

weigh complex scientific evidence of the type presented by the Parties. To
refer to only a few instances pertinent for our case, a court of justice can-
not assess, without the assistance of experts, claims as to whether two or
three-dimensional modelling is the best or even appropriate practice in
evaluating the hydrodynamics of a river, or what role an Acoustic Dop-

pler Current Profiler can play in such an evaluation. Nor is the Court,
indeed any court save a specialized one, well-placed, without expert
assistance, to consider the effects of the breakdown of nonylpheno-
lethoxylates, the binding of sediments to phosphorus, the possible chain
of causation which can lead to an algal bloom, or the implications of

various substances for the health of various organisms which exist in the
River Uruguay. This is surely uncontroversial: the task of a court of jus-
tice is not to give a scientific assessment of what has happened, but to
evaluate the claims of parties before it and whether such claims are suf-
ficiently well-founded so as to constitute evidence of a breach of a legal
obligation.

5. In so doing, however, the Court is called upon “to assess the rel-
evance and the weight of the evidence produced in so far as is necessary
for the determination of the issues which it finds it essential to resolve”

(S. Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court of Justice,
1920-2005, Vol. III, 4th ed., 2006, p. 1039). Thus, it is the method pur-
sued by the Court in this case which is problematic. The Court here has

100been content to hear the arguments of the Parties, ask a few token ques-
tions, and then disappear and deliberate in camera, only to emerge with

terse, formalist replies as to whether there have been violations of the
substantive obligation to prevent pollution embodied in Article 41 of the
1975 Statute. In several paragraphs, the Court variously states that it
“sees no need” or “is not in a position” to arrive at specific conclusions
(paragraphs 213, 228), that “there is no [clear] evidence to support” cer-

tain claims (paragraphs 225, 239, 259), that certain facts have “not . . .
been established to the satisfaction of the Court” (paragraph 250), or that
the evidence “does not substantiate the claims” (paragraph 257) that
Uruguay is in breach of its obligations under the 1975 Statute. In other

words, the Court has used the traditional rules on the burden of proof
and obliged Argentina to substantiate claims on issues which the Court
cannot, as a court of justice, fully comprehend without recourse to expert
assessment. Yet, it is certainly compatible with the Court’s judicial func-
tion to have recourse, when necessary, to experts: as the Court previously

has stated, “the purpose of the expert opinion must be to assist the Court
in giving judgment upon the issues submitted to it for decision” (Applica-
tion for Revision and Interpretation of the Judgment of 24 February 1982
in the Case concerning the Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jama-
hiriya) (Tunisia v. Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1985, p. 228; emphasis added). Although in casu the majority of our col-
leagues did not consider it necessary to do so, we argue strenuously that
it would have been indispensable in the case at hand.

6. We are not convinced by the claim that, in a case like the present
one, scientific expertise can satisfactorily be supplied, and acted upon by
the Court, by experts acting as counsel on behalf of the Parties under
Article 43 of the Statute. On this point, we share the concerns expressed

by the Court in paragraph 168 of the Judgment. But we do not agree with
the Court’s passive approach to the Parties’ conduct here, and there were
several alternatives for the Court.

7. One route for the Court, made available to it under Article 62 of its
Rules, would have been to call upon the Parties to produce evidence or
explanations that it considered necessary for understanding the matters
in issue, or to have them arrange for the attendance of experts under
paragraph 2 of the said Article. This would have triggered Articles 64 (b)

and 65 of the Rules, whereby the experts, and the evidence they gave,
could have been examined by the Parties and the bench, under the con-
trol of the President. These procedural safeguards do not exist for experts
who appear under Article 43 of the Statute, who speak to the Court as

counsel.

101 8. We consider, however, that the Court had another, more compel-
ling alternative, provided in Article 50 of its Statute: “The Court may, at

any time, entrust any individual, body, bureau, commission, or other
organization that it may select, with the task of carrying out an enquiry
or giving an expert opinion.” (Emphasis added.) Article 67 of the Rules
supplements Article 50 of the Statute with various modalities, chief
amongst them the requirement that the parties “shall” be given the

opportunity of commenting on every enquiry or expert opinion commis-
sioned by the Court. Although, unlike the procedure described in
paragraph 7 above, this procedure does not allow for the parties to
cross-examine the Court-appointed experts, it nevertheless grants them a

voice in assessing the opinions that such experts might produce. The Court
is therefore endowed with considerable discretion, and two well-
defined procedures under its Statute and Rules, to have recourse to outside
sources of expertise in handling complex scientific or technical disputes.
However, we consider that with regard to the present case, one of the

most exceptionally fact-intensive cases the Court has been entrusted to
resolve, it would have behoved the Court to have made recourse to at
least one of the sources of external expertise which it is empowered to
consult.
9. It is irrelevant whether such gathering of expertise in the case at

hand would have had to be undertaken through the route prescribed
under Article 62 of the Rules (by calling upon the Parties to produce evi-
dence) or under Article 67 of the Rules and Article 50 of the Statute (by
nominating its own experts); the point we wish to make is simply that the
Court, when handling a dispute with complex scientific or technical

aspects (which will become all the more common as the world will be
faced with more environmental or other challenges), should more readily
avail itself of the tools available to it under its constitutive instrument in
order properly to assess the evidence placed before it. The flexibility in
the wording of Article 50 of the Statute, for example, allows for recourse

thereunder at any moment in the proceedings, which is especially note-
worthy, as it means that the Article 50 procedure can be used from the
very start of a dispute, during the written or oral phases, or even after the
parties have appointed experts and that evidence is deemed unsatisfac-
tory to the Court.

10. It is not exactly as though the Court has never invoked its powers
under this provision. In the Corfu Channel case (United Kingdom v.
Albania) (Order of 17 December 1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948 , pp. 124

et seq.), exercising its powers under Article 50 of the Statute, the Court
commissioned three naval experts to evaluate visibility off the Albanian
coast in order to substantiate the United Kingdom’s claim, based on a
finding of fact, that Albania could have seen various mine-laying opera-

tions occurring off its coast. In Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in
the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United States of America), (Appoint-

102ment of Expert, Order of 30 March 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , p. 165),
the Court, upon a joint request of the Parties, and again using its powers

under Article 50 of the Statute, appointed an expert “in respect of tech-
nical matters and . . . in preparing the description of the maritime bound-
ary and the charts . . .” (ibid., p. 166). That expert’s report was annexed
to the Court’s later Judgment in that dispute (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1984, pp. 347 et seq.).

11. This reliance on experts is all the more unavoidable in cases con-
cerned with highly complex scientific and technological facts; we are

extremely far from Corfu Channel in 2010, assessing as we do the break-
down of nonylphenolethoxylates, the chain of causation for phosphorus
and dioxin/furan pollution in a river ecosystem, and the possible danger
of low levels of dissolved oxygen. As Shabtai Rosenne suggests, techno-
logical evolution has brought to surface the tension that inevitably exists

between the legal conception of “fact” and of evidence on the one hand,
and the conception of facts in the sciences, on the other (Rosenne, “Fact-
Finding”, op. cit., p. 238).

12. Yet, the Court has an unfortunate history of persisting, when
faced with sophisticated scientific and technical evidence in support of
the legal claims made by States before it, in resolving these issues purely
through the application of its traditional legal techniques; and it has
come under considerable criticism in this regard, particularly in very

recent scholarly commentary on its working methods (cf., for instance,
Rosenne, “Fact-Finding”,op. cit., pp. 239-242; Riddell and Plant,op. cit.,
pp. 337-339; M. Benzing, Das Beweisrecht vor internationalen Gerich-
ten und Schiedsgerichten in zwischenstaatlichen Streitigkeiten (“The Law
of Evidence before International Courts and Arbitral Tribunals in Inter-

State Disputes”), 2010, p. 472). In short, in a scientific case such as the
present dispute, the insights to make sound legal decisions necessarily
emanate from experts consulted by the Court, even though it certainly
remains for the Court to discharge the exclusively judicial functions, such
as the interpretation of legal terms, the legal categorization of factual

issues, and the assessment of the burden of proof.

13. Quite aside from academic criticism, so long as the Court persists
in resolving complex scientific disputes without recourse to outside exper-

tise in an appropriate institutional framework such as that offered under
Article 50 of the Statute, it willingly deprives itself of the ability fully to
consider the facts submitted to it and loses several advantages of such
recourse: the interaction with experts in their capacity as experts and not

as counsel (see paragraph 6, supra); the advantage of giving the parties a
voice in establishing the manner in which those experts would have been

103used, a chance for the parties to review the Court’s choice of experts (and
for which subject-matter experts were needed); and the chance for the

parties to comment on any expert conclusions emerging from that proc-
ess. It would also have given the Court the opportunity of combining the
rigour of the scientific community with the requirements of the court-
room — a blend which is indispensable for the application of the interna-
tional rules for the protection of the environment and for other disputes

concerning scientific evidence (Rosenne, “Fact-Finding”,op. cit., p. 245).

14. It would not be sufficient if the Court, in disputes with a complex

scientific component, were to continue having recourse to internal
“experts fantômes”, as appears to have been the case, inter alia, in certain
boundary or maritime delimitation cases: no less an insider than Sir Rob-
ert Jennings, a former President of the Court, has claimed that

“the Court has not infrequently employed cartographers, hydrogra-
phers, geographers, linguists, and even specialised legal experts to

assist in the understanding of the issue in a case before it; and has
not on the whole felt any need to make this public knowledge or
even to apprise the parties” (Sir R. Y. Jennings, “International Law-
yers and the Progressive Development of International Law”, in
J. Makarczyk (ed.), Theory of International Law at the Threshold of

the 21st Century: Essays in Honour of Krzystof Skubiszewski , 1996,
p. 416).

The Court’s Registrar, Philippe Couvreur, has defined the role of experts
retained by the Court for purely internal consultation as that of tempo-
rary Registry staff members, entrusted with the giving of internal scien-
tific opinions under the oath of confidentiality demanded of full-time
Registry staff. As he explains, their conclusions would never be made

public (Ph. Couvreur, “Le règlement juridictionnel”, in SFDI (ed.),
Le processus de délimitation maritime: étude d’un cas fictif. Colloque
international de Monaco du 27 au 29 mars 2003 , 2004, pp. 349 and 384).
While such consultation of “invisible” experts may be pardonable if the
input they provide relates to the scientific margins of a case, the situation

is quite different in complex scientific disputes, as is the case here. Under
circumstances such as in the present case, adopting such a practice would
deprive the Court of the above-mentioned advantages of transparency,
openness, procedural fairness, and the ability for the Parties to comment
upon or otherwise assist the Court in understanding the evidence before

it. These are concerns based not purely on abstract principle, but on the
good administration of justice (C. Tams, “Article 50”, in A. Zimmer-
mann, C. Tomuschat and K. Oellers-Frahm (eds.), The Statute of the
International Court of Justice: A Commentary , 2006, pp. 1109 and 1118).

Transparency and procedural fairness are important because they require
the Court to assume its overall duty for facilitating the production of evi-

104dence and to reach the best representation of the essential facts in a case,
in order best to resolve a dispute.

15. Other international bodies have accepted the reality of the chal-
lenges posed by scientific uncertainty in the judicial process: in Iron

Rhine Railway (Belgium/Netherlands) , Arbitral Award, 24 May 2005
(Reports of International Arbitral Awards (RIAA) , Vol. XXVII, pp. 35-
125), the Tribunal recommended that the parties establish a commit-
tee of independent experts within four months of the date of the award to

determine several facts, inter alia, the costs of reactivating the Iron Rhine
Railway, the costs of alternative autonomous development by the Neth-
erlands, and the quantifiable benefits accruing to the Netherlands by
reason of the reactivation (ibid., p. 120, para. 235). The Tribunal there
considered it more appropriate for experts to “investigate questions of

considerable scientific complexity as to which measures will be sufficient
to achieve compliance with the required levels of environmental protec-
tion” (ibid., p. 120, para. 235). The Iron Rhine Tribunal’s hybrid approach
for appointing experts is thus a positive example which could serve the
Court; we see no reason why it cannot be considered under Article 50 of

the Statute. Moreover, in the Award of the Arbitral Tribunal of 17 Sep-
tember 2007 in the Matter of an Arbitration between Guyana and Suri-
name, the Tribunal appointed an independent hydrographic expert and
directed him as to the specific points of fact he was to examine (Proce-
dural Order No. 6 of the Tribunal, 27 November 2006; Order No. 7 of

the Tribunal, 12 March 2007). The Parties were given the opportunity to
comment on the report of the independent hydrographic expert before it
was adopted by the Tribunal (Order No. 8 of the Tribunal, 21 May 2007).
The findings of the independent hydrographic expert were relied upon by
the Tribunal in addition to the expert evidence submitted by the Parties

in their pleadings, and the Award has been described as “based on a
sound understanding and acknowledgement of the relevant technical
points in the dispute” (Riddell and Plant, op. cit., p. 356).

16. It is perhaps the World Trade Organization, however, which has
most contributed to the development of a best practice of readily con-
sulting outside sources in order better to evaluate the evidence submitted

to it; in fact, it was devised as a response to the needs of the dispute reso-
lution process in cases involving complex scientific questions (Foster, op.
cit., Chap. III). Various WTO panels have heard the experts put forward
by the parties, have made recourse to specialized international organiza-

tions or agencies for information, or have outright heard the views of
experts appointed by the Panel (see, e.g., European Communities —

105Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones), Complaint
by Canada, WT/DS48/R/CAN, WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R (1998),

DSR 1998:II, p. 235; European Communities — Measures Concerning
Meat and Meat Products (Hormones), Complaint by the United States,
WT/DS26/R/USA, WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R (1998), DSR
1998:III, p. 699; European Communities — Measures Affecting the
Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products , WT/DS291/R,

WT/DS292/R, WT/DS293/R (2006) (hereinafter “EC-Biotech”);
Canada — Continued Suspension of Obligations in the EC — Hormones
Dispute, WT/DS321/R, WT/DS321/AB/R (2008); United States — Con-
tinued Suspension of Obligations in the EC — Hormones Dispute,
WT/DS320/R, WT/DS320/AB/R (2008)). The consultation of tribunal-

appointed scientific experts by WTO panels may take place even where
the parties have not so requested (as in United States — Import Prohibi-
tion of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, WT/DS58/R, WT/DS58/
AB/R (1998), DSR 1998:VII, p. 2821 (hereinafter “US-Shrimp”)), and
even if the parties have agreed that such outside consultation is unneces-
sary (as occurred in EC-Biotech, Panel Report, para. 7.16). Between

three and six experts are usually appointed in a two-stage consultation
process, comprising both written and oral phases. During the latter
phase, parties are invited during a “Joint Meeting” to comment on the
expert reports as well as the comments of the opposing party (this pro-
cedure was first used in the WTO US-Shrimp case). This second, oral

phase is particularly interesting because of the opportunity it affords to
the panel and the parties for explanation of the concepts, methods and
principles that underlie scientific arguments, and thus to improve their
overall level of understanding of the science at play in a given case.
Regrettably, a similar course of action was not adopted here.

17. The present dispute has been a wasted opportunity for the Court,
in its “unfettered discretion” to do so (Rosenne, Law and Practice, op.
cit., p. 1333), to avail itself of the procedures in Article 50 of its Statute
and Article 67 of its Rules, and establish itself as a careful, systematic

court which can be entrusted with complex scientific evidence, upon
which the law (or breach thereof) by a party can be established. More-
over, the decision not to employ the procedure available to it under Arti-
cle 50 of the Statute has meant that the evidence has not been treated in
a convincing manner to establish the verity or falsehood of the Parties’

claims. Certainly, experts will be drawn into questions of legal interpreta-
tion through their involvement in the application of legal terms. The con-
clusions of scientific experts might be indispensable in distilling the

106essence of what legal concepts such as “significance” of damage, “suffi-

ciency”, “reasonable threshold” or “necessity” come to mean in a given
case. For this reason, in a case concerning complex scientific evidence
and where, even in the submissions of the Parties, a high degree of sci-
entific uncertainty subsists, it would have been imperative that an expert

consultation, in full public view and with the participation of the Parties,
take place. Therefore, with rue, we dissent from what is otherwise a solid
Judgment.

II. A MISSED OPPORTUNITY TO APPROACH
AN E NVIRONMENTAL D ISPUTE IN AFORWARD -LOOKING
AND PROSPECTIVE M ANNER

18. To move from the issue of the Court’s failure to assess scientific
evidence lege artis to a closely related matter: the Court has concluded
that, while it has jurisdiction to settle disputes concerning the interpreta-
tion or application of the 1975 Statute under Article 60, it “cannot

uphold the interpretation of Article 9 [put forward by Argentina] accord-
ing to which any construction is prohibited until the Court has given its
ruling pursuant to Articles 12 and 60” (Judgment, para. 154). It has
rejected the hypothesis that Article 12 might contain any such “no con-

struction obligation” (ibid., para. 154) and has also determined that the
parties to the Statute have a right to implement the project once that par-
ty’s obligation to negotiate has come to an end (ibid., para. 155).

19. The 1975 Statute provides a dual role for the Court. Article 60 of
the Statute casts the Court in its traditional role, that of interpreting and

applying rights and obligations under the 1975 Statute. It is a wide-
ranging role, but it remains confined to the judicial function generally
exercised by the Court when it is faced with a dispute that has come
before it under a compromissory clause. It typically consists in a retro-

spective evaluation of the case at hand and is geared towards the perspec-
tive of identifying harm to the river ecosystem that has actually occurred
or is impending. This reflects the traditional approach to international

legal dispute settlement as the identification of infringements of obliga-
tions incumbent upon the parties and the reaction to such breaches in the
form of fixing adequate compensation or providing for quintessentially
retrospective remedies.

20. In contrast, Article 12 conceives of a distinct role for the Court: It
provides that, if the parties fail to reach an agreement on whether an
envisaged project “might significantly impair navigation, the régime of
the river or the quality of its waters” (Article 11), “the procedure indi-

cated in Chapter XV shall be followed” (Article 12), i.e., the matter shall

107be submitted to the Court. While this seems to present merely another
avenue leading to the application of Article 60, we would submit that the

special procedure envisaged by Article 12 differs from that under Arti-
cle 60 in so far as it modifies the function of the Court, transforming it
into the primary adjudicator on technical and/or scientific matters when
the parties cannot reach agreement.

21. In our opinion, in essence, under Article 12, the Court is not rel-
egated to the function of adjudging ex post facto whether a breach has
happened and what remedies constitute appropriate reparation for a
claimed breach, but instead, is co-opted by the Parties to assist them

from an early stage in the planning process. The perspective of Article 12
is decisively forward-looking, as under it, the Court is to step in, before a
project is realized, where there is disagreement on whether there are
potentially detrimental effects to the environment. Leaving aside the
question whether this amounts to a “no-construction obligation” pending

the decision of the Court, the very objective of calling upon the interven-
tion of the Court under Article 12 is thus to obtain its authoritative inter-
pretation of what “significant impairment” means in regard to a specific
project and its specific risks and repercussions to the environment of the
River Uruguay. On the basis of this input, the Parties can assess within

the framework of their common management of the river ecosystem,
whether and to what extent the project in question should be realized. As
described above, the implications of the role so described go much
further than the issue whether a so-called “no-construction obligation” is
founded in Article 12, but extend into the manner in which the Court sets

its procedure and handles evidence.

22. For the Court, differently from the standard discharge of its respon-
sibilities under Article 60, the procedure of Article 12 implies that it has
to take a forward-looking, prospective approach, engage in a comprehen-

sive risk assessment and embrace a preventive rather than compensatory
logic when determining what this risk might entail. This logic carries with
it particular cogency in the realm of environmental law. As the Court
itself has proclaimed elsewhere,

“in the field of environmental protection, vigilance and prevention
are required on account of the often irreversible character of damage

to the environment and of the limitations inherent in the very
mechanism of reparation of this type of damage” (Gabc ˇíkovo-
Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1997, p. 78, para. 140).

23. The points regarding scientific expert evidence made before apply
even more forcefully in regard to such a preventive perspective. Given the

multiplicity of the factors involved, the long periods of time and accu-
mulation of effects to be taken into account, the intricate questions of

108causality and interdependence to be considered, all these add up to a
complex matrix of factual issues which can only be transformed into a

sound evidentiary basis for the Court’s reasoning and decision-making if,
and only if, the Court makes use of external scientific and technical
expert input, combined with necessary procedural guarantees. This is
even more so if there exists a situation where the scientific community
itself is divided and the question arises whether, and to what extent, the

precautionary principle should enter the fore.

24. Article 12 is the natural seat of these considerations and concerns
in the 1975 Statute. It is thus, given the time of its conclusion, a truly

remarkable and highly characteristic feature of the Statute and reflects its
innovative and progressive character. In its rejection of the philosophy of
fait accompli, it offers a paramount example of how to entrench prospec-
tive, preventive reasoning at the institutional level in the assessment
of risks from the authorization process onwards. In particular, the

preventive assessment of risk is particularly needed in the crucial and
ever-more important field of environmental protection. Acknowledging
the often “irreversible character of damage to the environment” (see
supra, para. 22) is a first important step to make. Beyond this, the Court
must remain aware, when confronted with challenges of risk of envi-

ronmental pollution and endangerment of ecosystems, of the inherent
weaknesses and flaws of the traditional retrospective judicial process and
its compensatory logic. Article 12 of the 1975 Statute clearly trans-
cends this narrow framework. Nonetheless, the majority seems almost
unanimously to have assumed that the Court is acting under Article 60

of the 1975 Statute, and has decided on that basis.

25. However, the role discharged by the Court even under Article 60,

as is amply evidenced by the Judgment, has been de facto that of an
“expert” or “specialized” court, exercising the functions expected of it
under a dispute referred to it under Article 12. It is therefore even more
regrettable that the Court has failed to grasp the implications for its func-
tion wrought by Article 12. It is our conviction that, with the device of

Article 12 at hand, provided by the 1975 Statute itself, the Court could
and should have engaged in a different kind of reasoning that would have
been more responsive to the prospective and preventive aspects the Stat-
ute ascribes to the role of the Court. Against this background, the Court
would not have had to limit its own role simply to assess ex post facto the

damages that have occurred, but could have looked, in a more compre-
hensive manner, at the risk factors involved and the importance of the
procedural obligations that the Parties have undertaken precisely to mini-
mize that risk. In so doing, it could have also embraced a more flexible

approach to the role that expert evidence could have played in the resolu-
tion of this dispute.

109 III. A M ISSED OPPORTUNITY TO C LARIFY THE INTERRELATION

BETWEEN P ROCEDURAL AND SUBSTANTIVE O BLIGATIONS

26. A final observation: in matters related to the use of shared natural
resources and the possibility of transboundary harm, the most notable

feature that one observes is the extreme elasticity and generality of the
substantive principles involved. Permanent sovereignty over natural
resources, equitable and rational utilization of these resources, the duty
not to cause significant or appreciable harm, the principle of sustainable

development, etc., all reflect this generality. The problem is further com-
pounded by the fact that these principles are frequently, where there is a
dispute, in a state of tension with each other. Clearly in such situations,

respect for procedural obligations assumes considerable importance and
comes to the forefront as being an essential indicator of whether, in a
concrete case, substantive obligations were or were not breached. Thus,
the conclusion whereby non-compliance with the pertinent procedural

obligations has eventually had no effect on compliance with the substan-
tive obligations is a proposition that cannot be easily accepted. For
example, had there been compliance with the steps laid down in Articles 7
to 12 of the 1975 Statute, this could have led to the choice of a more

suitable site for the pulp mills. Conversely, in the absence of such com-
pliance, the situation that was obtained was obviously no different from
a fait accompli.
27. The Court does recognize a functional link between procedural

and substantive obligations laid down by the 1975 Statute (see Judgment,
paragraph 79). However, the Court does not give full weight to this inter-
dependence, neither when assessing whether a breach of Article 41 of the

1975 Statute has occurred nor in determining the appropriate remedies
for the breach of Articles 7 to 12 thereof. According to the Court, as long
as compliance with substantive obligations has been assured (or at least
lack of it not proved), the breach of procedural obligations would not

matter very much and hence a declaration to that effect constitutes
appropriate satisfaction; this is not the proper way to pay due regard to
the interrelation of procedure and substance.
28. In conclusion, we regret that the Court in the present case has

missed what can aptly be called a golden opportunity to demonstrate to
the international community its ability, and preparedness, to approach
scientifically complex disputes in a state-of-the-art manner.

(Signed) Awn Shawkat A L-K HASAWNEH .
(Signed) Bruno S IMMA .

110

Bilingual Content

JOINT DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGES
AL-KHASAWNEH AND SIMMA

The Court has evaluated the scientific evidence before it in a methodologically

flawed manner — We are not in a position to assess the evidence submitted by
either party as to whether there has been a breach of the 1975 Statute — Fact-
intensive cases with a complex scientific component require the Court to go
beyond its traditional methods of fact-finding — The Court should have made
full use of the various possibilities made available to it under the Statute and
Rules — The Court should either have appointed its own experts or had party-
appointed experts subjected to cross-examination — Interaction with experts as
counsel deprives the Court of the ability fully to consider the facts submitted to
it — The use of “experts fantômes” by the Court is not an acceptable practice
in disputes with a complex scientific component — Other international dispute-
settlement bodies have resorted to scientific expertise in a more convincing
manner — The Court has interpreted its role in the present case extremely nar-
rowly, since the 1975 Statute would have allowed it to take a forward-looking,
prospective approach, engage in a comprehensive risk assessment and embrace a
preventive rather than a compensatory logic — This logic has particular cogency
in environmental disputes — The Court has failed to grasp the innovative and

progressive character of the 1975 Statute — Neither has the Court drawn
adequate conclusions from the link between procedural and substantive obliga-
tions — In sum, the Court has missed a golden opportunity to demonstrate its
ability to approach scientifically complex disputes in a state-of-the-art manner.

1. The present dispute between Argentina and Uruguay concerns a
pressing issue in our time, that of the protection of the environment and
human health. It is a remarkable case: 35 years ago two States concluded
a comprehensive treaty, very progressive for that time, in which they

aimed to regulate the management of a complex river ecosystem, includ-
ing obligations to take measures to prevent the pollution of that ecosys-
tem. They undertook specific obligations to co-operate and inform each
other of everything they intended to do which might have an effect upon
the shared natural resource that forms their common boundary: the
River Uruguay. Thirty years later, one of the two States decides to

proceed as if that treaty had never been concluded: in disregard of its
procedural obligations under the 1975 Statute, Uruguay has authorized a
large-scale construction precisely within this river ecosystem. The Judg-
ment of the Court characterizes Uruguay’s breach in the clearest terms,
and we concur without reservation with operative paragraph 1 of the

98 OPINION DISSIDENTE COMMUNE
DE MM. LES JUGES AL-KHASAWNEH ET SIMMA

[Traduction]

La méthode que la Cour a suivie pour apprécier les éléments de preuve scien-

tifiques qui lui ont été présentés est erronée — Nous ne sommes pas en mesure
d’évaluer les éléments de preuve présentés par l’une ou l’autre des Parties quant
à l’existence d’une violation du statut de 1975 — Les affaires dans lesquelles les
données factuelles sont abondantes et qui ont une dimension scientifique com-
plexe exigent que la Cour ne se cantonne pas dans ses méthodes traditionnelles
d’établissement des faits — La Cour aurait dû user pleinement des diverses pos-
sibilités que lui offrent le Statut et le Règlement — La Cour aurait dû soit nom-
mer ses propres experts, soit soumettre à un contre-interrogatoire les experts
désignés par les Parties — L’interaction avec des experts agissant en qualité de
conseils prive la Cour de la possibilité d’examiner pleinement les faits qui lui
sont présentés — Le recours à des «experts fantômes» par la Cour n’est pas une
pratique acceptable dans des différends ayant une dimension scientifique com-
plexe — D’autres organes internationaux de règlement des différends ont eu
recours à l’expertise scientifique d’une manière plus convaincante — La Cour a
interprété son rôle dans la présente espèce de manière extrêmement restrictive,
puisque le statut de 1975 lui aurait permis de suivre une approche prospective,

de se livrer à une évaluation approfondie du risque et d’adopter une logique de
prévention et non de réparation — Cette logique s’impose particulièrement dans
les différends ayant trait à l’environnement — La Cour n’a pas compris le
caractère novateur du statut de 1975 — La Cour n’a pas davantage tiré les
conclusions appropriées du lien entre les obligations de nature procédurale et les
obligations de fond — En résumé, la Cour n’a pas su saisir une occasion excep-
tionnelle de démontrer sa capacité d’aborder les différends scientifiquement
complexes de manière résolument moderne.

1. Le présent différend opposant l’Argentine à l’Uruguay porte sur un
problème pressant de notre époque, à savoir la protection de l’environ-
nement et de la santé humaine. L’affaire est remarquable: il y a trente-
cinq ans, deux Etats conclurent un traité complet et très novateur pour

l’époque, visant à réglementer la gestion de l’écosystème complexe d’un
fleuve, en prévoyant notamment des obligations de prendre des mesures
pour empêcher la pollution de cet écosystème. Ils contractèrent des obli-
gations spécifiques de coopération et d’information réciproque au sujet
de toute activité projetée par eux et pouvant avoir des incidences sur la
ressource naturelle partagée qui constitue leur frontière commune, le

fleuve Uruguay. Or, trente ans plus tard, l’un des deux Etats a décidé
d’agir comme si le traité en cause n’avait jamais été conclu. Au mépris
des obligations procédurales découlant pour lui du statut de 1975, l’Uru-
guay a autorisé la construction d’un ouvrage de grande ampleur situé
précisément au sein de l’écosystème de ce fleuve. L’arrêt de la Cour carac-

98Judgment, which adjudged that there was a breach by Uruguay of its

obligations to notify and to inform.

I. A M ISSEDO PPORTUNITY TO COPE WITH SCIENTIFIC
U NCERTAINTY IN A STATE-OF-THE-A RT M ANNER

2. While we agree with the Judgment’s finding of a breach by Uruguay
of its procedural obligations, we cannot endorse operative paragraph 2 of
the Judgment of the Court, and have accordingly voted against it. As we

will explain in the following dissent, the Court has evaluated the scientific
evidence brought before it by the Parties in ways that we consider flawed
methodologically: the Court has not followed the path it ought to have
pursued with regard to disputed scientific facts; it has omitted to resort to

the possibilities provided by its Statute and thus simply has not done
what would have been necessary in order to arrive at a basis for the
application of the law to the facts as scientifically certain as is possible in
a judicial proceeding. Therefore, faced with the results of a deficient

method of scientific fact-finding, we are not in a position to agree “that
the Eastern Republic of Uruguay has not breached its substantive obli-
gations under Articles 35, 36 and 41 of the 1975 Statute of the River Uru-
guay”. The evidence submitted by Uruguay to establish this result has

not been treated lege artis by the Court; the same is valid for the evi-
dence submitted by Argentina in order for the Court to arrive at the
opposite conclusion. Consequently, and logically, we have no other pos-

sibility than to dissent.

3. The exceptionally fact-intensive case before us is unlike most cases
submitted to the Court and raises serious questions as to the role that
scientific evidence can play in an international judicial institution. The
traditional methods of evaluating evidence are deficient in assessing the

relevance of such complex, technical and scientific facts, yet the Court
has laconically explained, at paragraph 168 of its Judgment, that

“it is the responsibility of the Court, after having given careful

consideration to all the evidence placed before it by the Parties, to
determine which facts must be considered relevant, to assess their
probative value, and to draw conclusions from them as appropriate”.

Thus, the Court has clung to the habits it has traditionally followed for
the assessment and evaluation of evidence to arrive at the finding in

operative paragraph 2. It has had before it a case on international envi-

99térise la violation commise par l’Uruguay dans les termes les plus clairs et

nous adhérons sans réserve au paragraphe 1 du dispositif de son arrêt, où
elle a jugé que l’Uruguay avait manqué à ses obligations de notification et
d’information.

I. U NE OCCASION MANQUÉE D ABORDER L ’INCERTITUDE SCIENTIFIQUE
DE MANIÈRE VÉRITABLEMENT MODERNE

2. Si nous souscrivons à la conclusion figurant dans l’arrêt de la Cour

selon laquelle l’Uruguay a manqué à ses obligations de nature procédu-
rale, nous ne pouvons en revanche nous rallier au paragraphe 2 du dis-
positif de l’arrêt et avons en conséquence voté contre ce texte. Comme
nous l’expliquerons dans la présente opinion dissidente, les méthodes sui-

vies par la Cour pour apprécier les éléments de preuve scientifiques qui
lui ont été présentés par les Parties sont erronées. La Cour n’a pas
emprunté la voie qu’elle aurait dû suivre en présence de faits scientifiques
contestés. Elle s’est abstenue d’user des possibilités prévues par son Sta-

tut et n’a donc pas procédé comme il aurait fallu le faire pour trouver un
fondement lui permettant d’appliquer le droit aux faits avec le maximum
de certitude scientifique possible dans une procédure juridictionnelle.
Pour cette raison, face aux résultats d’une méthode défectueuse d’établis-

sement des faits scientifiques, nous ne pouvons souscrire à l’affirmation
selon laquelle «la République orientale de l’Uruguay n’a pas manqué aux
obligations de fond lui incombant en vertu des articles 35, 36 et 41 du
statut du fleuve Uruguay de 1975». Les éléments de preuve présentés par
l’Uruguay pour parvenir à ce résultat n’ont pas été traités lege artis par la

Cour, pas plus que les éléments de preuve produits par l’Argentine et ten-
dant à ce que la Cour arrive à la conclusion opposée. Dès lors, en toute
logique, nous n’avons d’autre choix que de joindre à l’arrêt une opinion
dissidente.

3. La présente espèce, dans laquelle les données factuelles sont excep-
tionnellement abondantes, diffère de la plupart des affaires portées devant
la Cour et soulève d’importantes questions quant au rôle que les preuves
scientifiques peuvent jouer devant une juridiction internationale. Les

méthodes traditionnelles d’appréciation des preuves sont insuffisantes
pour permettre de se prononcer sur l’importance de faits techniques et
scientifiques d’une telle complexité. Pourtant, la Cour a déclaré de manière
laconique, au paragraphe 168 de son arrêt:

«il ... incombe [à la Cour], au terme d’un examen attentif de l’ensem-
ble des éléments soumis par les Parties, de déterminer quels faits sont

à prendre en considération, d’en apprécier la force probante et d’en
tirer les conclusions appropriées».

La Cour s’en est tenue à ses méthodes traditionnelles d’appréciation et
d’évaluation des éléments de preuve pour arriver à la conclusion énoncée
au paragraphe 2 du dispositif. Elle était saisie d’une affaire portant sur le

99ronmental law of an exemplary nature — a “textbook example”, so to
speak, of alleged transfrontier pollution — yet, the Court has approached

it in a way that will increase doubts in the international legal community
whether it, as an institution, is well-placed to tackle complex scientific
questions (cf. S. Rosenne, “Fact-Finding before the International Court
of Justice”, in Essays on International Law and Practice , 2007, pp. 235
and 250; A. Riddell and B. Plant,Evidence before the International Court

of Justice, 2009, p. 353; C. M. Schofield and C. H. Carleton, “Technical
Considerations in Law of the Sea Dispute Resolution”, in
A. G. Oude Elferink and D. R. Rothwell (eds.), Oceans Management in
the 21st Century, 2004, pp. 251-252). The adjudication of disputes in
which the assessment of scientific questions by experts is indispensable, as

is the case here, requires an interweaving of legal process with knowledge
and expertise that can only be drawn from experts properly trained to
evaluate the increasingly complex nature of the facts put before the Court
(cf. C. Foster, Science and the Precautionary Principle in International
Courts: Expert Evidence, Burden of Proof and Finality, forthcoming,
2010, Chap. 2). For this reason, in this dissenting opinion, we will

endeavour to explain why we could not follow the Court along this path.

4. The Court on its own is not in a position adequately to assess and

weigh complex scientific evidence of the type presented by the Parties. To
refer to only a few instances pertinent for our case, a court of justice can-
not assess, without the assistance of experts, claims as to whether two or
three-dimensional modelling is the best or even appropriate practice in
evaluating the hydrodynamics of a river, or what role an Acoustic Dop-

pler Current Profiler can play in such an evaluation. Nor is the Court,
indeed any court save a specialized one, well-placed, without expert
assistance, to consider the effects of the breakdown of nonylpheno-
lethoxylates, the binding of sediments to phosphorus, the possible chain
of causation which can lead to an algal bloom, or the implications of

various substances for the health of various organisms which exist in the
River Uruguay. This is surely uncontroversial: the task of a court of jus-
tice is not to give a scientific assessment of what has happened, but to
evaluate the claims of parties before it and whether such claims are suf-
ficiently well-founded so as to constitute evidence of a breach of a legal
obligation.

5. In so doing, however, the Court is called upon “to assess the rel-
evance and the weight of the evidence produced in so far as is necessary
for the determination of the issues which it finds it essential to resolve”

(S. Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court of Justice,
1920-2005, Vol. III, 4th ed., 2006, p. 1039). Thus, it is the method pur-
sued by the Court in this case which is problematic. The Court here has

100droit international de l’environnement qui avait un caractère exemplaire
— qui constituait pour ainsi dire un cas d’école de pollution transfron-

tière alléguée. Mais l’approche qu’elle a suivie dans cette affaire ne fera
que renforcer les doutes de la communauté juridique internationale sur sa
capacité, en tant qu’institution, à aborder des questions scientifiques
complexes (cf. S. Rosenne, «Fact-Finding before the International Court
of Justice», dans Essays on International Law and Practice , 2007, p. 235

et 250; A. Riddell et B. Plant, Evidence before the International Court of
Justice, 2009, p. 353; C. M. Schofield et C. H. Carleton, «Technical
Considerations in Law of the Sea Dispute Resolution», dans A. G. Oude
Elferink et D. R. Rothwell (dir. publ.),Oceans Management in the 21st Cen-

tury, 2004, p. 251 et 252). Le règlement de différends dans lesquels
il est indispensable que les questions scientifiques soient examinées par
des experts, comme celui que la Cour devait trancher en l’espèce, sup-
pose une imbrication du processus juridique avec des connaissances et
des compétences techniques ne pouvant émaner que d’experts dûment

formés pour évaluer la nature de plus en plus complexe des faits soumis
à la Cour (cf. C. Foster, Science and the Precautionary Principle in Inter-
national Courts: Expert Evidence, Burden of Proof and Finality , à paraî-
tre, 2010, chap. 2). Pour cette raison, nous nous efforcerons, dans cette
opinion dissidente, d’expliquer les raisons pour lesquelles nous n’avons

pu suivre la Cour sur cette voie.
4. La Cour à elle seule n’est pas en mesure d’apprécier de manière adé-
quate des éléments scientifiques complexes du type de ceux qui lui ont été
présentés par les Parties. Pour ne citer que quelques exemples en rapport
avec la présente espèce, une juridiction n’est pas à même d’apprécier sans

l’assistance d’experts des affirmations portant sur la question de savoir si
l’utilisation d’un modèle bidimensionnel ou tridimensionnel constitue la
meilleure pratique, voire une pratique appropriée, pour l’évaluation de
l’hydrodynamique d’un fleuve, ou sur le rôle qu’un profileur de courant à
effet Doppler peut jouer dans le cadre d’une telle évaluation. De même,

sans le concours d’experts, la Cour, comme n’importe quelle juridiction
non spécialisée, n’est pas en mesure d’examiner les effets de la décomposi-
tion des éthoxylates de nonylphénol, la liaison des sédiments au phos-
phore, les causes possibles d’une prolifération d’algues, ou encore les
incidences de diverses substances sur la santé de divers organismes vivant

dans le fleuve Uruguay. Nul ne contestera sans doute que la mission
d’une juridiction n’est pas de donner une appréciation scientifique des
faits, mais est d’apprécier les prétentions que les parties ont fait valoir
devant elle et de décider si elles sont suffisamment fondées pour établir la
violation d’une obligation juridique.

5. Or, ce faisant, la Cour est appelée à «apprécier la pertinence et le
poids des éléments de preuve présentés dans la mesure où cela est néces-
saire pour statuer sur les questions qu’elle estime essentiel de trancher»
(S. Rosenne, The Law and Practice of the International Court of Justice,
e
1920-2005, vol. III, 4 éd., 2006, p. 1039). Ainsi, c’est la méthode suivie
par la Cour dans la présente affaire qui est problématique. La Cour s’est

100been content to hear the arguments of the Parties, ask a few token ques-
tions, and then disappear and deliberate in camera, only to emerge with

terse, formalist replies as to whether there have been violations of the
substantive obligation to prevent pollution embodied in Article 41 of the
1975 Statute. In several paragraphs, the Court variously states that it
“sees no need” or “is not in a position” to arrive at specific conclusions
(paragraphs 213, 228), that “there is no [clear] evidence to support” cer-

tain claims (paragraphs 225, 239, 259), that certain facts have “not . . .
been established to the satisfaction of the Court” (paragraph 250), or that
the evidence “does not substantiate the claims” (paragraph 257) that
Uruguay is in breach of its obligations under the 1975 Statute. In other

words, the Court has used the traditional rules on the burden of proof
and obliged Argentina to substantiate claims on issues which the Court
cannot, as a court of justice, fully comprehend without recourse to expert
assessment. Yet, it is certainly compatible with the Court’s judicial func-
tion to have recourse, when necessary, to experts: as the Court previously

has stated, “the purpose of the expert opinion must be to assist the Court
in giving judgment upon the issues submitted to it for decision” (Applica-
tion for Revision and Interpretation of the Judgment of 24 February 1982
in the Case concerning the Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jama-
hiriya) (Tunisia v. Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports

1985, p. 228; emphasis added). Although in casu the majority of our col-
leagues did not consider it necessary to do so, we argue strenuously that
it would have been indispensable in the case at hand.

6. We are not convinced by the claim that, in a case like the present
one, scientific expertise can satisfactorily be supplied, and acted upon by
the Court, by experts acting as counsel on behalf of the Parties under
Article 43 of the Statute. On this point, we share the concerns expressed

by the Court in paragraph 168 of the Judgment. But we do not agree with
the Court’s passive approach to the Parties’ conduct here, and there were
several alternatives for the Court.

7. One route for the Court, made available to it under Article 62 of its
Rules, would have been to call upon the Parties to produce evidence or
explanations that it considered necessary for understanding the matters
in issue, or to have them arrange for the attendance of experts under
paragraph 2 of the said Article. This would have triggered Articles 64 (b)

and 65 of the Rules, whereby the experts, and the evidence they gave,
could have been examined by the Parties and the bench, under the con-
trol of the President. These procedural safeguards do not exist for experts
who appear under Article 43 of the Statute, who speak to the Court as

counsel.

101contentée en l’espèce d’entendre les arguments des Parties et de poser
quelques questions de pure forme avant de se retirer pour délibérer en

chambre du conseil, pour n’apporter finalement que des réponses suc-
cinctes et formalistes à la question de savoir s’il y avait eu violation de
l’obligation de fond d’empêcher la pollution, consacrée à l’article 41 du
statut de 1975. Dans plusieurs paragraphes de l’arrêt, la Cour déclare soit
qu’elle «n’estime pas nécessaire» ou qu’elle «n’est pas à même» de tirer

certaines conclusions (par. 213 et 228), soit qu’«aucun élément de preuve
ne vient [clairement] à l’appui de» certaines prétentions (par. 225, 239 et
259), que certains faits «n’[ont] ... pas été établi[s] à la satisfaction de la
Cour» (par. 250) ou que les éléments de preuve «ne viennent pas étayer

les allégations» (par. 257) selon lesquelles l’Uruguay aurait manqué à ses
obligations en vertu du statut de 1975. En d’autres termes, la Cour a
appliqué les règles traditionnelles en matière de charge de la preuve en
obligeant l’Argentine à étayer des thèses relatives à des questions que la
Cour, en tant que juridiction, ne peut pleinement appréhender sans être

assistée par des experts. Et pourtant, le recours à l’expertise, lorsqu’il est
nécessaire, est certainement compatible avec la fonction juridictionnelle
de la Cour. En effet, comme cette dernière l’a affirmé antérieurement, «le
but de l’expertise doit être d’aider la Cour à se prononcer sur les ques-
tions qu’elle est appelée à trancher» (Demande en revision et en interpré-

tation de l’arrêt du 24 février 1982 en l’affaire du Plateau continental
(Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe libyenne)(Tunisie c. Jamahiriya arabe libyenne),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1985 , p. 228; les italiques sont de nous). Bien
qu’en l’espèce la majorité de nos collègues ne l’ait pas estimé nécessaire,
nous soutenons vigoureusement que le recours à l’expertise aurait été

indispensable dans la présente affaire.
6. Nous ne sommes pas convaincus par l’argument selon lequel, dans
une affaire telle que la présente, l’expertise scientifique peut être fournie
de manière satisfaisante par des experts agissant en qualité de conseils des
Parties en vertu de l’article 43 du Statut et la Cour peut statuer de

manière satisfaisante sur la base d’une telle expertise. A cet égard, nous
partageons les préoccupations exprimées par la Cour au paragraphe 168
de l’arrêt. Nous nous dissocions toutefois de l’approche passive adoptée
par la Cour en l’espèce à l’égard du comportement des Parties alors,
pourtant, que plusieurs autres possibilités lui étaient ouvertes.

7. Ainsi, la Cour aurait pu, en application de l’article 62 de son Règle-
ment, inviter les Parties à produire les moyens de preuve ou à donner les
explications qu’elle considérait comme nécessaires à la compréhension
des problèmes en cause, ou ordonner aux Parties de faire déposer des
experts en vertu du paragraphe 2 du même article. Cela aurait déclenché

l’application des articles 64, alinéa b), et 65 du Règlement, en vertu des-
quels les experts auraient pu être interrogés et leur témoignage aurait pu
être examiné par les Parties et par la Cour, sous l’autorité du président.
Ces garanties procédurales n’existent pas lorsque les experts comparais-

sent en vertu de l’article 43 du Statut et s’adressent à la Cour en qualité
de conseils.

101 8. We consider, however, that the Court had another, more compel-
ling alternative, provided in Article 50 of its Statute: “The Court may, at

any time, entrust any individual, body, bureau, commission, or other
organization that it may select, with the task of carrying out an enquiry
or giving an expert opinion.” (Emphasis added.) Article 67 of the Rules
supplements Article 50 of the Statute with various modalities, chief
amongst them the requirement that the parties “shall” be given the

opportunity of commenting on every enquiry or expert opinion commis-
sioned by the Court. Although, unlike the procedure described in
paragraph 7 above, this procedure does not allow for the parties to
cross-examine the Court-appointed experts, it nevertheless grants them a

voice in assessing the opinions that such experts might produce. The Court
is therefore endowed with considerable discretion, and two well-
defined procedures under its Statute and Rules, to have recourse to outside
sources of expertise in handling complex scientific or technical disputes.
However, we consider that with regard to the present case, one of the

most exceptionally fact-intensive cases the Court has been entrusted to
resolve, it would have behoved the Court to have made recourse to at
least one of the sources of external expertise which it is empowered to
consult.
9. It is irrelevant whether such gathering of expertise in the case at

hand would have had to be undertaken through the route prescribed
under Article 62 of the Rules (by calling upon the Parties to produce evi-
dence) or under Article 67 of the Rules and Article 50 of the Statute (by
nominating its own experts); the point we wish to make is simply that the
Court, when handling a dispute with complex scientific or technical

aspects (which will become all the more common as the world will be
faced with more environmental or other challenges), should more readily
avail itself of the tools available to it under its constitutive instrument in
order properly to assess the evidence placed before it. The flexibility in
the wording of Article 50 of the Statute, for example, allows for recourse

thereunder at any moment in the proceedings, which is especially note-
worthy, as it means that the Article 50 procedure can be used from the
very start of a dispute, during the written or oral phases, or even after the
parties have appointed experts and that evidence is deemed unsatisfac-
tory to the Court.

10. It is not exactly as though the Court has never invoked its powers
under this provision. In the Corfu Channel case (United Kingdom v.
Albania) (Order of 17 December 1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948 , pp. 124

et seq.), exercising its powers under Article 50 of the Statute, the Court
commissioned three naval experts to evaluate visibility off the Albanian
coast in order to substantiate the United Kingdom’s claim, based on a
finding of fact, that Albania could have seen various mine-laying opera-

tions occurring off its coast. In Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in
the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United States of America), (Appoint-

102 8. Nous estimons cependant que la Cour disposait d’une autre possi-
bilité, plus intéressante, celle que prévoit l’article 50 de son Statut: «A

tout moment, la Cour peut confier une enquête ou une expertise à toute
personne, corps, bureau, commission ou organe de son choix.» (Les ita-
liques sont de nous.) L’article 67 du Règlement complète l’article 50 du
Statut en prévoyant plusieurs modalités, dont principalement la prescrip-
tion selon laquelle la possibilité «est» offerte aux parties de présenter des

observations sur toute enquête et tout rapport d’expert ordonnés par la
Cour. Bien que, contrairement à la procédure mentionnée au paragra-
phe 7 ci-dessus, celle-ci ne permette pas aux parties de soumettre à un
contre-interrogatoire les experts nommés par la Cour, elle leur permet

néanmoins de se faire entendre dans le cadre de l’appréciation des avis
que ces experts peuvent produire. La Cour dispose donc d’une marge
d’appréciation importante, avec deux procédures bien définies prévues
par son Statut et son Règlement, en ce qui concerne le recours à l’exper-
tise extérieure lorsqu’elle est saisie de différends scientifiques ou techni-

ques complexes. Nous estimons que, pour la présente espèce, qui consti-
tue l’une des affaires les plus riches en éléments factuels qu’elle ait été
appelée à trancher, la Cour aurait dû avoir recours au moins à l’une des
sources d’expertise extérieure qu’elle est habilitée à consulter.
9. Peu importe de savoir si, en l’espèce, la Cour aurait dû recourir à

l’expertise en empruntant la voie de l’article 62 du Règlement (en invitant
les Parties à produire des éléments de preuve) ou celle de l’article 67 du
Règlement et de l’article 50 du Statut (en nommant ses propres experts).
Ce que nous tenons simplement à faire observer, c’est que, lorsque la
Cour est saisie d’un différend comportant des aspects scientifiques et

techniques complexes (ce qui sera de plus en plus souvent le cas à mesure
que le monde devra faire face à des défis plus nombreux, écologiques ou
autres), elle devrait se montrer plus prête à se servir des outils dont elle
dispose en vertu de son texte constitutif afin d’apprécier correctement les
éléments de preuve qui lui sont soumis. La souplesse du libellé de l’ar-

ticle 50 du Statut, par exemple, permet d’utiliser cette disposition en tout
état de la procédure. Cela mérite particulièrement d’être noté, car il
s’ensuit que la procédure de l’article 50 peut être utilisée tant au début
d’un différend qu’au cours de la procédure écrite ou de la procédure
orale, ou même après que les parties ont désigné des experts et que les

éléments de preuve qu’ils ont produits n’ont pas été jugés satisfaisants par
la Cour.
10. Ce n’est pas comme si la Cour n’avait jamais usé de ses préroga-
tives en vertu de cette disposition. Dans l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou
(Royaume-Uni c. Albanie) (ordonnance du 17 décembre 1948, C.I.J.

Recueil 1947-1948, p. 124 et suiv.), exerçant les pouvoirs que lui confère
l’article 50 du Statut, la Cour a confié à trois experts navals la mission
d’évaluer la visibilité depuis la côte albanaise afin de vérifier l’allégation
du Royaume-Uni, reposant sur une constatation de fait, selon laquelle

l’Albanie aurait pu observer diverses opérations de mouillage de mines
effectuées au large de sa côte. En l’affaire de la Délimitation de la fron-

102ment of Expert, Order of 30 March 1984, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , p. 165),
the Court, upon a joint request of the Parties, and again using its powers

under Article 50 of the Statute, appointed an expert “in respect of tech-
nical matters and . . . in preparing the description of the maritime bound-
ary and the charts . . .” (ibid., p. 166). That expert’s report was annexed
to the Court’s later Judgment in that dispute (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1984, pp. 347 et seq.).

11. This reliance on experts is all the more unavoidable in cases con-
cerned with highly complex scientific and technological facts; we are

extremely far from Corfu Channel in 2010, assessing as we do the break-
down of nonylphenolethoxylates, the chain of causation for phosphorus
and dioxin/furan pollution in a river ecosystem, and the possible danger
of low levels of dissolved oxygen. As Shabtai Rosenne suggests, techno-
logical evolution has brought to surface the tension that inevitably exists

between the legal conception of “fact” and of evidence on the one hand,
and the conception of facts in the sciences, on the other (Rosenne, “Fact-
Finding”, op. cit., p. 238).

12. Yet, the Court has an unfortunate history of persisting, when
faced with sophisticated scientific and technical evidence in support of
the legal claims made by States before it, in resolving these issues purely
through the application of its traditional legal techniques; and it has
come under considerable criticism in this regard, particularly in very

recent scholarly commentary on its working methods (cf., for instance,
Rosenne, “Fact-Finding”,op. cit., pp. 239-242; Riddell and Plant,op. cit.,
pp. 337-339; M. Benzing, Das Beweisrecht vor internationalen Gerich-
ten und Schiedsgerichten in zwischenstaatlichen Streitigkeiten (“The Law
of Evidence before International Courts and Arbitral Tribunals in Inter-

State Disputes”), 2010, p. 472). In short, in a scientific case such as the
present dispute, the insights to make sound legal decisions necessarily
emanate from experts consulted by the Court, even though it certainly
remains for the Court to discharge the exclusively judicial functions, such
as the interpretation of legal terms, the legal categorization of factual

issues, and the assessment of the burden of proof.

13. Quite aside from academic criticism, so long as the Court persists
in resolving complex scientific disputes without recourse to outside exper-

tise in an appropriate institutional framework such as that offered under
Article 50 of the Statute, it willingly deprives itself of the ability fully to
consider the facts submitted to it and loses several advantages of such
recourse: the interaction with experts in their capacity as experts and not

as counsel (see paragraph 6, supra); the advantage of giving the parties a
voice in establishing the manner in which those experts would have been

103tière maritime dans la région du golfe du Maine (Canada/Etats-Unis
d’Amérique) (nomination d’expert, ordonnance du 30 mars 1984, C.I.J.

Recueil 1984, p. 165), la Cour, à la demande conjointe des Parties et
usant une fois de plus de ses pouvoirs en vertu de l’article 50 du Statut, a
chargé un expert de «la considération des questions techniques et ... [de]
la préparation de la description de la frontière maritime et des cartes...»
(ibid., p. 166). Le rapport de cet expert a été joint en annexe à l’arrêt

rendu ultérieurement par la Cour dans cette affaire (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1984, p. 347 et suiv.).
11. Ce recours aux experts est a fortiori inévitable dans des affaires
portant sur des faits scientifiques et technologiques d’une grande com-

plexité. En 2010, nous sommes très loin de l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou,
puisque nous sommes appelés à apprécier la décomposition d’éthoxylates
de nonylphénol, la chaîne de causalité de la pollution due au phosphore
ainsi qu’aux dioxines et aux furanes dans l’écosystème d’un fleuve, de
même que les risques potentiels liés à la faible teneur en oxygène dissous.

Comme l’écrit Shabtai Rosenne, l’évolution technologique a mis en évi-
dence l’opposition qui existe inévitablement entre la conception juridique
des «faits» et de la preuve, d’une part, et la conception des faits dans le
domaine des sciences, d’autre part (Rosenne, «Fact-Finding», op. cit.,
p. 238).

12. Et pourtant, la Cour affiche une fâcheuse tendance à persister,
lorsque les Etats qui comparaissent devant elle lui présentent des élé-
ments de preuve scientifiques et techniques complexes à l’appui de leurs
thèses, à régler ces questions en se contentant d’appliquer ses techniques
juridiques traditionnelles, ce qui l’a exposée à de lourdes critiques, en par-

ticulier dans les commentaires doctrinaux les plus récents concernant ses
méthodes de travail (cf., par exemple, Rosenne, «Fact-Finding», op. cit.,
p. 239-242; Riddell et Plant, op. cit., p. 337-339; M. Benzing, Das Beweis-
recht vor internationalen Gerichten und Schiedsgerichten in zwischen-
staatlichen Streitigkeiten («Le droit de la preuve devant les juridictions

internationales et les tribunaux arbitraux internationaux dans les diffé-
rends interétatiques»), 2010, p. 472). En bref, dans une affaire de nature
scientifique telle que la présente espèce, les éclairages nécessaires pour
parvenir à des décisions juridiques solides ne peuvent émaner que
d’experts consultés par la Cour, même si c’est toujours à celle-ci qu’il

incombe d’exercer les fonctions exclusivement judiciaires, telles que l’inter-
prétation de termes juridiques, la qualification juridique des points de fait
et l’appréciation de la charge de la preuve.
13. Critiques doctrinales mises à part, tant que la Cour persistera à
régler des différends scientifiques complexes sans recourir à l’expertise

extérieure dans un cadre institutionnel approprié tel que celui qu’offre
l’article 50 du Statut, elle se privera délibérément de la capacité d’exami-
ner pleinement les faits qui lui sont présentés, ainsi que de plusieurs
autres avantages que lui procurerait ce recours, à savoir: l’interaction avec

des experts agissant en tant que tels et non en qualité de conseils (voir
supra, par. 6); la possibilité pour les parties d’exprimer leur point de vue

103used, a chance for the parties to review the Court’s choice of experts (and
for which subject-matter experts were needed); and the chance for the

parties to comment on any expert conclusions emerging from that proc-
ess. It would also have given the Court the opportunity of combining the
rigour of the scientific community with the requirements of the court-
room — a blend which is indispensable for the application of the interna-
tional rules for the protection of the environment and for other disputes

concerning scientific evidence (Rosenne, “Fact-Finding”,op. cit., p. 245).

14. It would not be sufficient if the Court, in disputes with a complex

scientific component, were to continue having recourse to internal
“experts fantômes”, as appears to have been the case, inter alia, in certain
boundary or maritime delimitation cases: no less an insider than Sir Rob-
ert Jennings, a former President of the Court, has claimed that

“the Court has not infrequently employed cartographers, hydrogra-
phers, geographers, linguists, and even specialised legal experts to

assist in the understanding of the issue in a case before it; and has
not on the whole felt any need to make this public knowledge or
even to apprise the parties” (Sir R. Y. Jennings, “International Law-
yers and the Progressive Development of International Law”, in
J. Makarczyk (ed.), Theory of International Law at the Threshold of

the 21st Century: Essays in Honour of Krzystof Skubiszewski , 1996,
p. 416).

The Court’s Registrar, Philippe Couvreur, has defined the role of experts
retained by the Court for purely internal consultation as that of tempo-
rary Registry staff members, entrusted with the giving of internal scien-
tific opinions under the oath of confidentiality demanded of full-time
Registry staff. As he explains, their conclusions would never be made

public (Ph. Couvreur, “Le règlement juridictionnel”, in SFDI (ed.),
Le processus de délimitation maritime: étude d’un cas fictif. Colloque
international de Monaco du 27 au 29 mars 2003 , 2004, pp. 349 and 384).
While such consultation of “invisible” experts may be pardonable if the
input they provide relates to the scientific margins of a case, the situation

is quite different in complex scientific disputes, as is the case here. Under
circumstances such as in the present case, adopting such a practice would
deprive the Court of the above-mentioned advantages of transparency,
openness, procedural fairness, and the ability for the Parties to comment
upon or otherwise assist the Court in understanding the evidence before

it. These are concerns based not purely on abstract principle, but on the
good administration of justice (C. Tams, “Article 50”, in A. Zimmer-
mann, C. Tomuschat and K. Oellers-Frahm (eds.), The Statute of the
International Court of Justice: A Commentary , 2006, pp. 1109 and 1118).

Transparency and procedural fairness are important because they require
the Court to assume its overall duty for facilitating the production of evi-

104sur la manière dont ces experts auront été utilisés et de se prononcer sur
le choix des experts par la Cour (et sur les questions sur lesquelles la

contribution de ceux-ci serait nécessaire); enfin, la possibilité pour les
parties de commenter les conclusions formulées par les experts dans le
cadre d’un tel processus. Ce recours à l’expertise aurait également donné
à la Cour la possibilité de combiner la rigueur de la communauté scien-
tifique avec les impératifs de l’audience — une association indispensable

pour l’application des règles internationales concernant la protection de
l’environnement ainsi que d’autres différends portant sur des données
scientifiques (Rosenne, «Fact-Finding», op. cit., p. 245).
14. Il ne suffirait pas que, dans des différends ayant une dimension

scientifique complexe, la Cour continue à avoir recours à des «experts
fantômes» internes, comme elle semble l’avoir fait, entre autres, dans cer-
taines affaires de délimitation frontalière ou maritime. A en croire une
personne aussi bien informée que sir Robert Jennings, ancien président
de la Cour,

«il n’est pas rare que la Cour s’adresse à des cartographes, hydro-
graphes, géographes, linguistes, voire à des juristes spécialisés pour

l’aider à comprendre une question donnée dans une affaire dont elle
est saisie, sans, en général, éprouver le besoin de le faire savoir
au public ni même d’en informer les parties» (sir R. Y. Jennings,
«International Lawyers and the Progressive Development of Inter-
national Law», dans J. Makarczyk (dir. publ.), Theory of Inter-

national Law at the Threshold of the 21st Century: Essays in Honour
of Krzystof Skubiszewski , 1996, p. 416).

Le greffier de la Cour, M. Philippe Couvreur, a assimilé le rôle des
experts engagés par la Cour à des fins de consultation interne à celui de
membres temporaires du personnel du Greffe, ayant pour mission de
donner des avis scientifiques internes sous le serment de confidentialité
que doivent prêter les membres permanents du personnel du Greffe.

Comme il l’indique, leurs conclusions ne sont jamais rendues publiques
(Ph. Couvreur, «Le règlement juridictionnel», dans SFDI (dir. publ.), Le
processus de délimitation maritime: étude d’un cas fictif. Colloque inter-
national de Monaco du 27 au 29 mars 2003 , 2004, p. 349 et 384). Si la
consultation d’experts «invisibles» est peut-être excusable lorsque les cla-

rifications qu’ils apportent concernent des questions scientifiques margi-
nales dans une affaire, la situation est tout autre dans des différends
scientifiques complexes tels que celui de la présente espèce. Dans des cir-
constances telles que celles-ci, l’adoption de cette pratique priverait la
Cour des avantages de transparence et d’équité procédurale déjà men-

tionnés, ainsi que de la capacité pour les Parties de commenter les élé-
ments de preuve présentés à la Cour ou de l’aider à comprendre ces
éléments. Ces préoccupations ne reposent pas purement sur des principes
abstraits, mais relèvent de la bonne administration de la justice (C. Tams,

«Article 50», dans A. Zimmermann, C. Tomuschat et K. Oellers-Frahm
(dir. publ.), The Statute of the International Court of Justice: A Com-

104dence and to reach the best representation of the essential facts in a case,
in order best to resolve a dispute.

15. Other international bodies have accepted the reality of the chal-
lenges posed by scientific uncertainty in the judicial process: in Iron

Rhine Railway (Belgium/Netherlands) , Arbitral Award, 24 May 2005
(Reports of International Arbitral Awards (RIAA) , Vol. XXVII, pp. 35-
125), the Tribunal recommended that the parties establish a commit-
tee of independent experts within four months of the date of the award to

determine several facts, inter alia, the costs of reactivating the Iron Rhine
Railway, the costs of alternative autonomous development by the Neth-
erlands, and the quantifiable benefits accruing to the Netherlands by
reason of the reactivation (ibid., p. 120, para. 235). The Tribunal there
considered it more appropriate for experts to “investigate questions of

considerable scientific complexity as to which measures will be sufficient
to achieve compliance with the required levels of environmental protec-
tion” (ibid., p. 120, para. 235). The Iron Rhine Tribunal’s hybrid approach
for appointing experts is thus a positive example which could serve the
Court; we see no reason why it cannot be considered under Article 50 of

the Statute. Moreover, in the Award of the Arbitral Tribunal of 17 Sep-
tember 2007 in the Matter of an Arbitration between Guyana and Suri-
name, the Tribunal appointed an independent hydrographic expert and
directed him as to the specific points of fact he was to examine (Proce-
dural Order No. 6 of the Tribunal, 27 November 2006; Order No. 7 of

the Tribunal, 12 March 2007). The Parties were given the opportunity to
comment on the report of the independent hydrographic expert before it
was adopted by the Tribunal (Order No. 8 of the Tribunal, 21 May 2007).
The findings of the independent hydrographic expert were relied upon by
the Tribunal in addition to the expert evidence submitted by the Parties

in their pleadings, and the Award has been described as “based on a
sound understanding and acknowledgement of the relevant technical
points in the dispute” (Riddell and Plant, op. cit., p. 356).

16. It is perhaps the World Trade Organization, however, which has
most contributed to the development of a best practice of readily con-
sulting outside sources in order better to evaluate the evidence submitted

to it; in fact, it was devised as a response to the needs of the dispute reso-
lution process in cases involving complex scientific questions (Foster, op.
cit., Chap. III). Various WTO panels have heard the experts put forward
by the parties, have made recourse to specialized international organiza-

tions or agencies for information, or have outright heard the views of
experts appointed by the Panel (see, e.g., European Communities —

105mentary, 2006, p. 1109 et 1118). La transparence et l’équité procédurale
sont importantes, car elles obligent la Cour à s’acquitter de sa mission

générale de faciliter la production des éléments de preuve et de faire en
sorte que les faits essentiels d’une affaire soient présentés avec la plus
grande exactitude, afin que le différend puisse être réglé au mieux.
15. D’autres organes internationaux ont accepté la réalité des défis que

pose l’incertitude scientifique dans la procédure judiciaire. Dans le cadre
de l’arbitrage relatif à la ligne du Rhin de fer (Belgique/Pays-Bas) , sen-
tence du 24 mai 2005 (Recueil des sentences arbitrales (RSA), vol. XXVII,
p. 35-125), le Tribunal arbitral a recommandé la constitution par les
parties d’une commission d’experts indépendants, dans les quatre mois

suivant la date de la sentence, qui aurait pour mission de déterminer plu-
sieurs faits, dont le coût de la réactivation de la ligne du «Rhin de fer»,
le coût du projet de développement autonome des Pays-Bas, ainsi que les
avantages quantifiables de la réactivation de la ligne de chemin de fer

pour les Pays-Bas (ibid., p. 120, par. 235). Dans cette affaire, le Tribunal
arbitral a jugé préférable de confier à des experts la mission d’«examiner
des questions d’une grande complexité scientifique portant sur le fait de
savoir si les mesures adoptées seront suffisantes aux fins d’assurer le res-
pect des niveaux prescrits de protection de l’environnement» (ibid.).

L’approche hybride retenue par le Tribunal arbitral dans l’affaire du
Rhin de fer quant au recours à l’expertise constitue donc un exemple
positif dont la Cour pourrait utilement s’inspirer. Nous ne voyons pas
pourquoi cette approche ne serait pas envisagée dans le cadre de l’ar-

ticle 50 du Statut. Par ailleurs, dans la sentence rendue le 17 septembre
2007 dans le cadre de l’Arbitrage entre le Guyana et le Suriname ,e l
Tribunal arbitral a nommé un expert hydrographique indépendant auquel
il a donné des instructions sur les points de fait particuliers à examiner
(ordonnance de procédure n o 6 du Tribunal du 27 novembre 2006;
o
ordonnance n 7 du Tribunal du 12 mars 2007). Les Parties ont été mises
en mesure de présenter des observations sur le rapport de l’expert hydro-
graphique indépendant avant l’adoption dudit rapport par le Tribunal
(ordonnance n 8 du Tribunal du 21 mai 2007). Le Tribunal arbitral s’est

fondé à la fois sur les conclusions de l’expert et sur les expertises présen-
tées par les Parties dans leurs écritures, et la sentence a été décrite comme
«reposant sur une compréhension et une prise en compte approfondies
des aspects techniques pertinents du différend» (Riddell et Plant, op. cit.,
p. 356).

16. Mais c’est peut-être l’Organisation mondiale du commerce (OMC)
qui a le plus contribué au développement d’une bonne pratique en la
matière, en n’hésitant pas à consulter des sources extérieures pour mieux
apprécier les éléments de preuve qui lui sont soumis. En fait, cette pra-

tique est apparue en réponse aux besoins de la procédure de règlement
des différends dans des affaires comportant des questions scientifiques
complexes (Foster, op. cit., chap. III). A plusieurs reprises, des groupes
spéciaux de l’OMC ont entendu les experts désignés par les parties, ont
demandé des informations à des organisations ou organes internationaux

105Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones), Complaint
by Canada, WT/DS48/R/CAN, WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R (1998),

DSR 1998:II, p. 235; European Communities — Measures Concerning
Meat and Meat Products (Hormones), Complaint by the United States,
WT/DS26/R/USA, WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R (1998), DSR
1998:III, p. 699; European Communities — Measures Affecting the
Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products , WT/DS291/R,

WT/DS292/R, WT/DS293/R (2006) (hereinafter “EC-Biotech”);
Canada — Continued Suspension of Obligations in the EC — Hormones
Dispute, WT/DS321/R, WT/DS321/AB/R (2008); United States — Con-
tinued Suspension of Obligations in the EC — Hormones Dispute,
WT/DS320/R, WT/DS320/AB/R (2008)). The consultation of tribunal-

appointed scientific experts by WTO panels may take place even where
the parties have not so requested (as in United States — Import Prohibi-
tion of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, WT/DS58/R, WT/DS58/
AB/R (1998), DSR 1998:VII, p. 2821 (hereinafter “US-Shrimp”)), and
even if the parties have agreed that such outside consultation is unneces-
sary (as occurred in EC-Biotech, Panel Report, para. 7.16). Between

three and six experts are usually appointed in a two-stage consultation
process, comprising both written and oral phases. During the latter
phase, parties are invited during a “Joint Meeting” to comment on the
expert reports as well as the comments of the opposing party (this pro-
cedure was first used in the WTO US-Shrimp case). This second, oral

phase is particularly interesting because of the opportunity it affords to
the panel and the parties for explanation of the concepts, methods and
principles that underlie scientific arguments, and thus to improve their
overall level of understanding of the science at play in a given case.
Regrettably, a similar course of action was not adopted here.

17. The present dispute has been a wasted opportunity for the Court,
in its “unfettered discretion” to do so (Rosenne, Law and Practice, op.
cit., p. 1333), to avail itself of the procedures in Article 50 of its Statute
and Article 67 of its Rules, and establish itself as a careful, systematic

court which can be entrusted with complex scientific evidence, upon
which the law (or breach thereof) by a party can be established. More-
over, the decision not to employ the procedure available to it under Arti-
cle 50 of the Statute has meant that the evidence has not been treated in
a convincing manner to establish the verity or falsehood of the Parties’

claims. Certainly, experts will be drawn into questions of legal interpreta-
tion through their involvement in the application of legal terms. The con-
clusions of scientific experts might be indispensable in distilling the

106spécialisés ou ont directement entendu l’avis d’experts qu’ils avaient
eux-mêmes nommés (voir, par exemple, Communautés européennes —

Mesures concernant les viandes et les produits carnés (Hormones),
Plainte déposée par le Canada , WT/DS48/R/CAN, WT/DS26/AB/R, WT/
DS48/AB/R (1998), DSR 1998:II, p. 235; Communautés européennes —
Mesures concernant les viandes et les produits carnés (Hormones),
Plainte déposée par les Etats-Unis , WT/DS26/R/USA, WT/DS26/

AB/R, WT/DS48/AB/R (1998), DSR 1998:III, p. 699;Communautés euro-
péennes — Mesures affectant l’approbation et la commercialisation des
produits biotechnologiques , WT/DS291/R, WT/DS292/R, WT/DS293/R
(2006) (ci-après «CE — Biotechnologies»);Canada — Maintien de la sus-

pension d’obligations dans le différend CE — Hormones, WT/DS321/R,
WT/DS321/AB/R (2008); Etats-Unis — Maintien de la suspension d’obli-
gations dans le différend CE — Hormones, WT/DS320/R, WT/DS320/
AB/R (2008)). La consultation d’experts scientifiques nommés par les
groupes spéciaux de l’OMC est possible même en l’absence de demande

des parties en ce sens (comme c’était le cas dans le différend Etats-
Unis — Prohibition à l’importation de certaines crevettes et de certains
produits à base de crevettes , WT/DS58/R, WT/DS58/AB/R (1998),
DSR 1998:VII, p. 2821 (ci-après «Etats-Unis — Crevettes»)), et même
si les parties conviennent que l’avis d’experts extérieurs n’est pas né-

cessaire (comme c’était le cas dans le différend CE — Biotechnologies,
rapport du groupe spécial, par. 7.16). Entre trois et six experts sont géné-
ralement nommés dans le cadre d’une procédure de consultation compor-
tant deux phases, l’une écrite et l’autre orale. Lors de cette dernière, les
parties sont invitées, au cours d’une «réunion conjointe», à commenter

les rapports des experts ainsi que les observations de la partie adverse
(cette procédure fut utilisée pour la première fois à l’OMC dans le diffé-
rend Etats-Unis — Crevettes). Cette seconde phase, la procédure orale,
présente un intérêt particulier parce qu’elle offre au groupe spécial et aux
parties la possibilité d’obtenir des précisions sur les concepts, méthodes et

principes sur lesquels reposent les arguments scientifiques et d’améliorer
ainsi leur compréhension générale des questions scientifiques qui se posent
dans une affaire donnée. Il est dommage qu’une telle approche n’ait pas
été adoptée dans la présente affaire.
17. La Cour n’a pas su saisir l’occasion que lui offrait le présent dif-

férend, dans l’exercice de son «pouvoir discrétionnaire absolu» en
la matière (Rosenne, Law and Practice, op. cit. , p. 1333), d’utiliser les
procédures prévues à l’article 50 de son Statut et à l’article 67 de son
Règlement et de s’affirmer comme une juridiction prudente et métho-
dique, à laquelle peuvent être soumis des éléments de preuve scientifiques

complexes permettant d’établir le droit (ou sa violation par une partie).
De surcroît, il s’ensuit de la décision de la Cour de ne pas faire usage de
la procédure offerte par l’article 50 du Statut que les éléments de preuve
n’ont pas été traités d’une manière convaincante pour établir l’exactitude

ou la fausseté des allégations des Parties. Il est certain que les experts
vont être mêlés à des questions d’interprétation juridique, du fait de

106essence of what legal concepts such as “significance” of damage, “suffi-

ciency”, “reasonable threshold” or “necessity” come to mean in a given
case. For this reason, in a case concerning complex scientific evidence
and where, even in the submissions of the Parties, a high degree of sci-
entific uncertainty subsists, it would have been imperative that an expert

consultation, in full public view and with the participation of the Parties,
take place. Therefore, with rue, we dissent from what is otherwise a solid
Judgment.

II. A MISSED OPPORTUNITY TO APPROACH
AN E NVIRONMENTAL D ISPUTE IN AFORWARD -LOOKING
AND PROSPECTIVE M ANNER

18. To move from the issue of the Court’s failure to assess scientific
evidence lege artis to a closely related matter: the Court has concluded
that, while it has jurisdiction to settle disputes concerning the interpreta-
tion or application of the 1975 Statute under Article 60, it “cannot

uphold the interpretation of Article 9 [put forward by Argentina] accord-
ing to which any construction is prohibited until the Court has given its
ruling pursuant to Articles 12 and 60” (Judgment, para. 154). It has
rejected the hypothesis that Article 12 might contain any such “no con-

struction obligation” (ibid., para. 154) and has also determined that the
parties to the Statute have a right to implement the project once that par-
ty’s obligation to negotiate has come to an end (ibid., para. 155).

19. The 1975 Statute provides a dual role for the Court. Article 60 of
the Statute casts the Court in its traditional role, that of interpreting and

applying rights and obligations under the 1975 Statute. It is a wide-
ranging role, but it remains confined to the judicial function generally
exercised by the Court when it is faced with a dispute that has come
before it under a compromissory clause. It typically consists in a retro-

spective evaluation of the case at hand and is geared towards the perspec-
tive of identifying harm to the river ecosystem that has actually occurred
or is impending. This reflects the traditional approach to international

legal dispute settlement as the identification of infringements of obliga-
tions incumbent upon the parties and the reaction to such breaches in the
form of fixing adequate compensation or providing for quintessentially
retrospective remedies.

20. In contrast, Article 12 conceives of a distinct role for the Court: It
provides that, if the parties fail to reach an agreement on whether an
envisaged project “might significantly impair navigation, the régime of
the river or the quality of its waters” (Article 11), “the procedure indi-

cated in Chapter XV shall be followed” (Article 12), i.e., the matter shall

107leur participation à l’application de termes juridiques. Les conclusions

d’experts scientifiques pourraient être indispensables pour distiller le sens
que des concepts juridiques tels que préjudice «sensible», «suffisance»,
«seuil raisonnable» ou «nécessité» peuvent avoir concrètement dans une
espèce donnée. Pour cette raison, dans une affaire qui comporte des élé-

ments de preuve scientifiques complexes et dans laquelle subsiste, même
dans les conclusions des Parties, un degré important d’incertitude scien-
tifique, une consultation d’experts menée publiquement et avec la parti-
cipation des Parties s’imposait. C’est pourquoi, bien qu’avec regret, nous

nous dissocions d’un arrêt par ailleurs solidement fondé.

II. U NE OCCASION MANQUÉE D ’ADOPTER

UNE APPROCHE PROSPECTIVE À L ’ÉGARD D UN DIFFÉREND
AYANT TRAIT À L ’ENVIRONNEMENT

18. Laissons la question du défaut d’appréciation lege artis des élé-

ments de preuve scientifiques par la Cour pour en aborder une autre,
d’ailleurs étroitement liée à la première. La Cour a conclu que, si elle est
compétente pour régler des différends concernant l’interprétation ou
l’application du statut de 1975 conformément à l’article 60, elle ne peut

toutefois «retenir l’interprétation de l’article 9 [avancée par l’Argentine]
selon laquelle toute construction serait interdite jusqu’à ce qu’elle se soit
prononcée en vertu des articles 12 et 60» (arrêt, par. 154). Elle a écarté
l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’article 12 pourrait contenir une telle «obliga-

tion de non-construction» (ibid., par. 154) et a également jugé que les
parties au statut avaient le droit de mettre en Œuvre le projet une fois que
l’obligation de négocier pesant sur la partie en cause avait pris fin (ibid.,
par. 155).

19. Le statut de 1975 assigne à la Cour un double rôle. Son article 60
place la Cour dans son rôle traditionnel, qui est celui d’interpréter et
d’appliquer les droits et obligations prévus par le statut de 1975. C’est
une vaste mission, mais qui ne s’écarte pas de la fonction juridictionnelle

exercée par la Cour de manière générale lorsqu’elle est saisie d’un diffé-
rend en vertu d’une clause compromissoire: il s’agit essentiellement de
procéder à une évaluation rétrospective de l’affaire, axée sur la constata-
tion des préjudices, survenus ou imminents, pour l’écosystème du fleuve.

Cela correspond à l’approche traditionnelle selon laquelle le règlement
international des différends juridiques consiste à établir les violations des
obligations incombant aux parties et à réagir à ces violations en détermi-
nant l’indemnité adéquate ou en prévoyant une réparation de caractère

essentiellement rétrospectif.
20. L’article 12 en revanche assigne à la Cour un rôle différent: il pré-
voit que, si les parties n’aboutissent pas à un accord sur le point de savoir
si un projet envisagé «peut causer un préjudice sensible à la navigation,

au régime du fleuve ou à la qualité de ses eaux» (art. 11), «la procédure
indiquée au chapitre XV est applicable» (art. 12), c’est-à-dire que la ques-

107be submitted to the Court. While this seems to present merely another
avenue leading to the application of Article 60, we would submit that the

special procedure envisaged by Article 12 differs from that under Arti-
cle 60 in so far as it modifies the function of the Court, transforming it
into the primary adjudicator on technical and/or scientific matters when
the parties cannot reach agreement.

21. In our opinion, in essence, under Article 12, the Court is not rel-
egated to the function of adjudging ex post facto whether a breach has
happened and what remedies constitute appropriate reparation for a
claimed breach, but instead, is co-opted by the Parties to assist them

from an early stage in the planning process. The perspective of Article 12
is decisively forward-looking, as under it, the Court is to step in, before a
project is realized, where there is disagreement on whether there are
potentially detrimental effects to the environment. Leaving aside the
question whether this amounts to a “no-construction obligation” pending

the decision of the Court, the very objective of calling upon the interven-
tion of the Court under Article 12 is thus to obtain its authoritative inter-
pretation of what “significant impairment” means in regard to a specific
project and its specific risks and repercussions to the environment of the
River Uruguay. On the basis of this input, the Parties can assess within

the framework of their common management of the river ecosystem,
whether and to what extent the project in question should be realized. As
described above, the implications of the role so described go much
further than the issue whether a so-called “no-construction obligation” is
founded in Article 12, but extend into the manner in which the Court sets

its procedure and handles evidence.

22. For the Court, differently from the standard discharge of its respon-
sibilities under Article 60, the procedure of Article 12 implies that it has
to take a forward-looking, prospective approach, engage in a comprehen-

sive risk assessment and embrace a preventive rather than compensatory
logic when determining what this risk might entail. This logic carries with
it particular cogency in the realm of environmental law. As the Court
itself has proclaimed elsewhere,

“in the field of environmental protection, vigilance and prevention
are required on account of the often irreversible character of damage

to the environment and of the limitations inherent in the very
mechanism of reparation of this type of damage” (Gabc ˇíkovo-
Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1997, p. 78, para. 140).

23. The points regarding scientific expert evidence made before apply
even more forcefully in regard to such a preventive perspective. Given the

multiplicity of the factors involved, the long periods of time and accu-
mulation of effects to be taken into account, the intricate questions of

108tion est portée devant la Cour. Même si cette disposition semble à pre-
mière vue ne constituer qu’une autre voie conduisant à l’application de

l’article 60, selon nous la procédure spéciale prévue à l’article 12 diffère
de celle de l’article 60 en ce qu’elle modifie la fonction de la Cour, qui
devient la principale instance appelée à trancher les questions techniques
et/ou scientifiques lorsque les parties ne parviennent pas à se mettre
d’accord.

21. Nous estimons en substance que, dans le cadre de l’article 12, la
Cour n’a pas pour seule fonction de juger ex post facto de l’existence
d’une violation et des modes de réparation appropriés d’une violation
alléguée, mais est investie conjointement par les Parties de la mission de

les assister dès les premiers stades du processus de planification. L’ar-
ticle 12 est résolument prospectif puisque, en vertu de ce texte, la Cour
doit intervenir, avant la réalisation d’un projet, lorsque les Parties s’oppo-
sent sur l’existence de risques d’effets préjudiciables sur l’environnement.
Indépendamment de la question de savoir s’il faut y voir une «obligation

de non-construction» jusqu’à la décision de la Cour, l’objectif même de
la saisine de la Cour en vertu de l’article 12 est donc d’obtenir son inter-
prétation autorisée du sens de l’expression «préjudice sensible» par rap-
port à un projet concret, aux risques spécifiques qu’il comporte et à ses
répercussions pour l’environnement du fleuve Uruguay. Sur cette base,

les Parties peuvent décider, dans le cadre de leur gestion commune de
l’écosystème du fleuve, si — et dans quelle mesure — le projet en question
doit être réalisé. Comme il est indiqué ci-dessus, les implications du rôle
que nous venons de décrire débordent largement la question de savoir si
l’article 12 consacre une «obligation de non-construction», puisqu’elles

touchent à la manière dont la Cour règle sa procédure et traite les élé-
ments de preuve.
22. Pour la Cour, à la différence de l’exercice traditionnel de ses res-
ponsabilités en vertu de l’article 60, la procédure de l’article 12 implique
qu’elle doit adopter une approche prospective, se livrer à une évaluation

approfondie du risque et adopter une logique de prévention et non de
réparation en déterminant quelle pourrait être la nature de ce risque.
Cette logique s’impose avec une force particulière dans le domaine
du droit de l’environnement. Comme la Cour elle-même l’a déclaré
ailleurs,

«dans le domaine de la protection de l’environnement, la vigilance et
la prévention s’imposent en raison du caractère souvent irréversible

des dommages causés à l’environnement et des limites inhérentes au
mécanisme même de réparation de ce type de dommages» (Projet
Gabcˇíkovo-Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1997, p. 78, par. 140).

23. Les observations que nous avons faites plus haut concernant
l’expertise scientifique valent a fortiori dans une telle perspective de pré-

vention. Etant donné la multiplicité des facteurs en jeu, la longueur des
périodes de temps et le cumul des effets à prendre en compte, et les déli-

108causality and interdependence to be considered, all these add up to a
complex matrix of factual issues which can only be transformed into a

sound evidentiary basis for the Court’s reasoning and decision-making if,
and only if, the Court makes use of external scientific and technical
expert input, combined with necessary procedural guarantees. This is
even more so if there exists a situation where the scientific community
itself is divided and the question arises whether, and to what extent, the

precautionary principle should enter the fore.

24. Article 12 is the natural seat of these considerations and concerns
in the 1975 Statute. It is thus, given the time of its conclusion, a truly

remarkable and highly characteristic feature of the Statute and reflects its
innovative and progressive character. In its rejection of the philosophy of
fait accompli, it offers a paramount example of how to entrench prospec-
tive, preventive reasoning at the institutional level in the assessment
of risks from the authorization process onwards. In particular, the

preventive assessment of risk is particularly needed in the crucial and
ever-more important field of environmental protection. Acknowledging
the often “irreversible character of damage to the environment” (see
supra, para. 22) is a first important step to make. Beyond this, the Court
must remain aware, when confronted with challenges of risk of envi-

ronmental pollution and endangerment of ecosystems, of the inherent
weaknesses and flaws of the traditional retrospective judicial process and
its compensatory logic. Article 12 of the 1975 Statute clearly trans-
cends this narrow framework. Nonetheless, the majority seems almost
unanimously to have assumed that the Court is acting under Article 60

of the 1975 Statute, and has decided on that basis.

25. However, the role discharged by the Court even under Article 60,

as is amply evidenced by the Judgment, has been de facto that of an
“expert” or “specialized” court, exercising the functions expected of it
under a dispute referred to it under Article 12. It is therefore even more
regrettable that the Court has failed to grasp the implications for its func-
tion wrought by Article 12. It is our conviction that, with the device of

Article 12 at hand, provided by the 1975 Statute itself, the Court could
and should have engaged in a different kind of reasoning that would have
been more responsive to the prospective and preventive aspects the Stat-
ute ascribes to the role of the Court. Against this background, the Court
would not have had to limit its own role simply to assess ex post facto the

damages that have occurred, but could have looked, in a more compre-
hensive manner, at the risk factors involved and the importance of the
procedural obligations that the Parties have undertaken precisely to mini-
mize that risk. In so doing, it could have also embraced a more flexible

approach to the role that expert evidence could have played in the resolu-
tion of this dispute.

109cates questions de causalité et d’interdépendance à examiner, on se trouve
face à un ensemble complexe d’éléments de fait qui ne peuvent se trans-

former en éléments de preuve solides susceptibles de fonder le raisonne-
ment et la décision de la Cour que si cette dernière s’assure le concours
d’experts scientifiques et techniques extérieurs, assorti des garanties pro-
cédurales nécessaires. Il en est ainsi à plus forte raison dans une situation
où la communauté scientifique elle-même est divisée et où se pose la ques-

tion de savoir si le principe de précaution devrait entrer en action, et dans
quelle mesure.
24. L’article 12 constitue le cadre naturel de ces considérations et
préoccupations au sein du statut de 1975. Etant donné la date de la

conclusion du traité, cet article est bien un élément remarquable et parti-
culièrement caractéristique du statut, reflétant son caractère novateur
et progressiste. En rejetant la philosophie du fait accompli, il offre une
illustration exemplaire de la manière dont on peut ancrer solidement une
approche prospective et préventive, au niveau institutionnel, dans l’éva-

luation des risques et ce, dès la procédure d’autorisation. Et l’évaluation
préventive des risques est particulièrement nécessaire dans le domaine
crucial et toujours plus important de la protection de l’environnement.
La reconnaissance du «caractère souvent irréversible des dommages cau-
sés à l’environnement» (voir supra, par. 22) constitue un important pre-

mier pas à franchir. Ensuite, lorsqu’elle est confrontée à des défis liés à
des risques de pollution de l’environnement et de mise en danger d’un
écosystème, la Cour ne doit pas perdre de vue les faiblesses et défauts
inhérents à la procédure judiciaire traditionnelle qui est tournée vers le
passé et à la logique de réparation qui la caractérise. L’article 12 du

statut de 1975 déborde manifestement de ce cadre étroit. La majorité
semble néanmoins avoir estimé presque unanimement que la Cour inter-
venait en vertu de l’article 60 du statut de 1975 et elle a statué sur ce
fondement.
25. Néanmoins, comme il ressort abondamment de l’arrêt, la Cour,

même en vertu de l’article 60, s’est comportée comme une juridiction de
juges «experts» ou «spécialistes», s’acquittant des fonctions qui seraient
les siennes dans le cadre d’un différend qui lui aurait été soumis en vertu
de l’article 12. Il est donc d’autant plus regrettable qu’elle n’ait pas saisi
les implications de l’article 12 pour sa fonction. Nous sommes convaincus

que, en usant du mécanisme que le statut de 1975 lui-même prévoit en
son article 12, la Cour aurait pu et dû se livrer à un raisonnement diffé-
rent, tenant davantage compte des aspects prospectifs et préventifs que
prévoit pour elle le statut. Dans ce contexte, la Cour n’aurait pas dû se
borner à évaluer simplement ex post facto les dommages qui se sont pro-

duits, elle aurait pu examiner d’une manière plus détaillée les facteurs de
risque en présence et l’importance des obligations de nature procédurale
contractées par les Parties précisément en vue de réduire au minimum ce
risque. Ce faisant, la Cour aurait également pu adopter une approche

plus flexible à l’égard du rôle que l’expertise aurait pu jouer dans le cadre
du règlement du présent différend.

109 III. A M ISSED OPPORTUNITY TO C LARIFY THE INTERRELATION

BETWEEN P ROCEDURAL AND SUBSTANTIVE O BLIGATIONS

26. A final observation: in matters related to the use of shared natural
resources and the possibility of transboundary harm, the most notable

feature that one observes is the extreme elasticity and generality of the
substantive principles involved. Permanent sovereignty over natural
resources, equitable and rational utilization of these resources, the duty
not to cause significant or appreciable harm, the principle of sustainable

development, etc., all reflect this generality. The problem is further com-
pounded by the fact that these principles are frequently, where there is a
dispute, in a state of tension with each other. Clearly in such situations,

respect for procedural obligations assumes considerable importance and
comes to the forefront as being an essential indicator of whether, in a
concrete case, substantive obligations were or were not breached. Thus,
the conclusion whereby non-compliance with the pertinent procedural

obligations has eventually had no effect on compliance with the substan-
tive obligations is a proposition that cannot be easily accepted. For
example, had there been compliance with the steps laid down in Articles 7
to 12 of the 1975 Statute, this could have led to the choice of a more

suitable site for the pulp mills. Conversely, in the absence of such com-
pliance, the situation that was obtained was obviously no different from
a fait accompli.
27. The Court does recognize a functional link between procedural

and substantive obligations laid down by the 1975 Statute (see Judgment,
paragraph 79). However, the Court does not give full weight to this inter-
dependence, neither when assessing whether a breach of Article 41 of the

1975 Statute has occurred nor in determining the appropriate remedies
for the breach of Articles 7 to 12 thereof. According to the Court, as long
as compliance with substantive obligations has been assured (or at least
lack of it not proved), the breach of procedural obligations would not

matter very much and hence a declaration to that effect constitutes
appropriate satisfaction; this is not the proper way to pay due regard to
the interrelation of procedure and substance.
28. In conclusion, we regret that the Court in the present case has

missed what can aptly be called a golden opportunity to demonstrate to
the international community its ability, and preparedness, to approach
scientifically complex disputes in a state-of-the-art manner.

(Signed) Awn Shawkat A L-K HASAWNEH .
(Signed) Bruno S IMMA .

110 III. U NE OCCASION MANQUÉE DE CLARIFIER LE LIEN ENTRE LES

OBLIGATIONS DE NATURE PROCÉDURALE ET LES OBLIGATIONS DE FOND

26. Une dernière observation en guise de conclusion: dans les cas
d’utilisation de ressources naturelles partagées comportant l’éventualité
de dommages transfrontières, la caractéristique la plus marquante consiste

en l’élasticité et la généralité extrêmes des principes en jeu. La souverai-
neté permanente sur les ressources naturelles, l’utilisation équitable et
rationnelle de ces ressources, l’obligation de ne pas causer de dommages
sensibles ou appréciables, le principe du développement durable, etc.,

reflètent tous cette généralité. Le problème est encore aggravé par le fait
que, en cas de différend, ces principes se trouvent souvent en conflit. Il est
évident que, dans de telles situations, le respect des obligations procédu-
rales revêt une importance considérable et constitue un élément essentiel

aux fins de déterminer si, dans un cas concret, certaines obligations de
fond ont ou non été violées. Aussi est-il difficile de souscrire à la conclu-
sion selon laquelle l’inobservation des obligations procédurales perti-
nentes n’a eu, en définitive, aucune incidence sur le respect des obligations

de fond. Si, par exemple, les procédures prescrites par les articles 7 à 12 du
statut de 1975 avaient été suivies, peut-être un site plus approprié aurait-il
été choisi pour la construction des usines de pâte à papier. Inversement,
ces dispositions n’ayant pas été respectées, il est évident que la situation

avait tout du fait accompli.
27. La Cour reconnaît l’existence d’un lien fonctionnel entre les obli-
gations de nature procédurale et les obligations de fond énoncées par le
statut de 1975 (voir arrêt, par. 79). Néanmoins, elle n’accorde pas à ce
lien toute son importance, ni lorsqu’elle recherche s’il y a eu violation de

l’article 41 du statut de 1975, ni lorsqu’elle détermine les réparations
appropriées pour la violation des articles 7 à 12 dudit statut. Selon la
Cour, dès lors que le respect des obligations de fond a été assuré (ou du
moins que le non-respect de ces obligations n’a pas été prouvé), la viola-

tion d’obligations de nature procédurale n’a guère d’importance et la
constatation par la Cour de cette violation constitue donc une satisfac-
tion appropriée: c’est faire peu de cas du lien entre procédure et fond.
28. En conclusion, nous regrettons que la Cour, en l’espèce, n’ait pas su

saisir cette occasion vraiment exceptionnelle de démontrer à la commu-
nauté internationale qu’elle a la capacité et la volonté d’aborder les diffé-
rends scientifiquement complexes d’une manière résolument moderne.

(Signé) Awn Shawkat A L-K HASAWNEH .
(Signé) Bruno S IMMA .

110

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Joint dissenting opinion Judges Al-Khasawneh and Simma

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