Dissenting opinion of Judge ad hoc Kreća

Document Number
118-20081118-JUD-01-10-EN
Parent Document Number
118-20081118-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

556

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC KREC uA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

I. GENERAL ISSUES 557
1. The consistency as a purported principle of the majority reason-
ing 557

2. What is the possible backing of the inconsistency? 566
3. Nature of the issue of jurisdiction 574
II. SPECIFICISSUESIN C ASU 579

1. Jus standi of the Respondent 579
(a) General approach of the majority to the jus standi require-

ment 579
(b) Nature and characteristics of the jus standi requirement 581
(c) Majority’s decision-making framework 583
(d) The Mavrommatis rule, as a purported legal basis for recon-
ciliation 585
(e) The substantial incapability of the Mavrommatis rule to pro-
duce the desired effects in casu 586
(f) Sound administration of justice as a purported basis for the
establishment of the desired exception to the general rule 589
(g) Compétence de la compétence as an improper modus oper-

andi 592
(h) Effects of seisin of the Court 593
(i) If valid, why was not the alleged exception applied in the
Legality of Use of Force cases? 595

2. Jurisdiction ratione materiae 599
(a) General approach of the majority 599
(b) Whether the 1992 declaration could be considered a unilat-
eral legal act in terms of international law? 602
(c) The issue of intention 604
(d) Whether the “intention of the FRY” is separable from the

continuity condition? 606
(e) The effects of the 1992 declaration 608
(f) Could the 1992 declaration be considered a notification of
succession? 608
(g) Could the Respondent be considered a party to the Genocide
Convention on the basis of the 1992 declaration and its con-
duct? 619
(h) Legal effects of the admission of the FRY/Serbia to the
United Nations as a new State 622

148557 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

(i) The relevance of the Secretary-General’s/Secretariat’s action
in the exercise of the depositary function 624

3. Preliminary objection to the jurisdiction of the Court, and to
admissibility ratione temporis 632
4. Preliminary objection to the admissibility of claims relating to the
submission of certain persons to trial, provision of information

on missing Croatian citizens, and return of cultural property 635

*

I. G ENERAL ISSUES

1. The consistency as a purported principle of the majority reasoning

1. It seems that the principle of judicial consistency understood as
“consistency with its own past case law. . . especially. . . in different

phases of the same case or with regard to closely related cases” (Legality
of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 330, para. 3; joint
declaration of Vice-President Ranjeva, Judges Guillaume, Higgins, Kooij-

mans, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal and Elaraby) should have been the
essence of the majority reasoning in the present case. Even for the stand-
ards of the Court itself in whose jurisprudence the principle of consist-
ency has a prominent place, there is a conspicuous reference to the course
“not. . . to depart from previous findings, particularly when similar issues

were dealt with in the earlier decisions, as in the current case” (Judgment,
para. 104) or similarly couched (exempli causa, ibid., paras. 53, 54, 71,
76, 141).

2. The consistency as such may in concreto be evaluated at three lev-
els:

(a) consistency in casu (horizontal consistency);
(b) limited vertical consistency, i.e., consistency in cases in which the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY)/Serbia was involved as a

party; and
(c) general vertical consistency in terms of the consistency of decisions
taken by the Court in cases in which the FRY/Serbia was involved,
in the light of the general jurisprudence of the Court on relevant
issues.

3. It appears that the application of the principle of consistency in casu
was a difficult task, as regards the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia even an
impossible mission, due to heterogeneous decisions taken by the Court in

149558 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

the earlier cases in that respect as well as in respect of the status of the
FRY/Serbia vis-à-vis the United Nations as its determinative.

4. In that regard, the decisions of the Court in the earlier cases may be
divided into three groups:

(a) decisions based on avoiding or ignoring the position as regards the
jus standi of the FRY/Serbia;
(b) decisions involving some elements or indicae of the jus standi of the
FRY/Serbia; and
(c) decisions based on substantive assessment, whether positive or nega-

tive, of the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia.
5. The explicit avoidance position was taken by the Court in its Orders

of 8 April 1993 in the Bosnia case and 2 June 1999 in the Legality of Use
of Force cases. In its Order of 8 April 1993 the Court found, inter alia,
that in resolution 47/1 “the solution. . . is not free from legal difficulties”
(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the

Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and
Montenegro)), Provisional Measures, Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J.
Reports 1993, p. 14, para. 18), but decided that the question is one which
“the Court does not need to determine definitively at the present stage of
the proceedings” (ibid.).

Since the FRY/Serbia could have the status of a party in the Court
only on the basis of its membership in the United Nations, the meaning
of the finding regarding the jus standi of the FRY is that it, as such, “is
not free of legal difficulties”. That position was slightly modified in its
Order of 2 June 1999 by stating that it “need not consider this question

for the purpose of deciding whether or not it can indicate provisional
measures in the present case” (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v.
Belgium), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports
1999 (I), p. 136, para. 33).

6. In the Judgment on Preliminary Objections in the Bosnia case,
which would have been the proper place for the decision as to whether
the fundamental condition of jus standi (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia
and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.

Reports 2004 (I), pp. 298-299, para. 46) had been fulfilled, the Court put
the issue of the jus standi of the FRY under the carpet. It satisfied itself
by the finding that “Yugoslavia was bound by the provisions of the Con-
vention on the date of the filing of the Application” (Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), p. 610, para. 17) and since Bosnia and Herzegovina
“became a Member of the United Nations. . . on 22 May 1992” (ibid.,
p. 611, para. 19) and as such “could become a party to the Convention
through the mechanism of State succession” (ibid., p. 611, para. 20), it

came to the conclusion that “all the conditions are now fulfilled to found

150559 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

the jurisdiction of the Court ratione personae”( Application of the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bos-

nia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), p. 613, para. 26). The approach could be called the
implicit avoiding position or, perhaps more properly, the ignoring posi-
tion as regards the jus standi of the FRY. (The implicit avoiding position

is basically the substance of the joint declaration of seven judges on the
Legality of Use of Force cases also ((Serbia and Montenegro v. Bel-
gium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
pp. 330-334.) For, if the Court would consider itself not competent on

considerations ratione temporis and ratione materiae, as was argued in
the joint declaration, then the question of the jus standi of the FRY
would be set aside, and would be substantially disqualified as an anteced-
ent condition of the jurisdiction of the Court.)

7. In the decisions of the Court involving some elements or indicae of
substantive assessment of the jus standi of the FRY, one could include
the Order of 8 April 1993 in the case concerning Application of the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and

the 2003 Judgment in the Application for Revision case.
The Order of 8 April 1993, apart from the finding that the solution
adopted by General Assembly resolution 47/1 “is not free from legal dif-
ficulties”, adduced another consideration namely, that

“proceedings may validly be instituted by a State against a State
which is a party to. . . a special provision in a treaty in force, but is

not party to the Statute, and independently of the conditions laid
down by the Security Council in its resolution 9 of 1946 (cf. S.S.
“Wimbledon”, 1923, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 1 , p. 6)” (para. 19 of the
Order) .

In its Judgment in the Application for Revision case (Application for
Revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning Applica-

tion of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objec-
tions (Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2003, p. 7), the Court entered into the assessment of both the jus standi of

the FRY and its determinative — the status of the FRY vis-à-vis the
United Nations. As regards the status of the FRY vis-à-vis the United
Nations a notion sui generis of membership was constructed.
8. The Court, considering General Assembly resolution 55/12 of 1
November 2000 by which FRY/Serbia was admitted to the United

Nations as a new Member, points out, inter alia, that it

1The consideration proved to be erroneous in the light of the eight Judgments of the
Court in the Legality of Use of Force cases ((Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), I.C.J.
Reports 2004 (I), pp. 323-324, paras. 113-114).

151560 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

“cannot have changed retroactively the sui generis position which
the FRY found itself in vis-à-vis the United Nations over the period
1992 to 2000, or its position in relation to the Statute of the Court

and the Genocide Convention. Furthermore, the letter of the Legal
Counsel of the United Nations dated 8 December 2000, cannot have
affected the FRY’s position in relation to treaties.” (Application for
Revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia),
Preliminary Objections (Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003 , p. 31, para. 71.)

(Apart from the substantive validity of the position taken, two obser-

vations seem to be of interest. First, the assessment of the status of the
FRY took place almost a decade after Bosnia and Herzegovina submit-
ted its Application to the Court, and over four years since the admission
of the FRY to the United Nations as a new Member. Second, the assess-

ment is, by its nature, an obiter dictum exceeding the competence of the
Court in the revision procedure which, in the sense of Article 61 of the
Statute, should have confined itself to the issue whether the admission of
the FRY to the United Nations as such is a “new fact”.)

Regarding the jus standi of the FRY, the Court noted that: “Resolu-
tion 47/1 did not inter alia affect the FRY’s right to appear before the
Court. . . under the conditions laid down by the Statute. Nor did it affect
the position of the FRY in relation to the Genocide Convention.” (Ibid.,

p. 31, para. 70.)
9. The Court performed substantial assessment of jus standi in two
cases: in the Legality of Use of Force cases, the Court found that the
FRY was deprived of the right to appear before it due to the fact that in
the period 1992-2000 Serbia and Montenegro was not a Member of the

United Nations and, consequently, “did not. . . have access to the Court
under either paragraph 1 or paragraph 2 of Article 35 of the Statute”
(Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Prelimi-
nary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 327, para. 127),

while in the 2007 Judgment in the case concerning Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide it
found, through the form of decision by “necessary implication”, that Ser-
bia did have access to the Court (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 98-99,
para. 132).

10. In the jurisprudence of the Court, taken as a whole, the cases in
which the issue of access was status versiae et controversiae are rare
because of the practically universal nature of the United Nations and
because of the equality sign between the membership in the Organization

and the jus standi before the Court. Along with the cases in which the

152561 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

FRY/Serbia was involved, the list of relevant cases included the Mon-
etary Gold and Fisheries cases. In all these cases the Court followed a
uniform pattern in its reasoning. Exempli causa,inthe Fisheries Jurisdic-

tion (Federal Republic of Germany v. Iceland) case, the Court stated
inter alia :

“the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Iceland seemed to suggest that
the timing of the declaration of the Federal Republic of Germany of
29 October 1971, deposited with the Registrar on 22 November
1971, may have had some effect on the binding force of the agree-

ment contained in the Exchange of Notes of 19 July 1961 or on the
right of access to the Court of the Federal Republic of Germany .As
to the first point, it is clear that the binding force of the agreement
between the two Governments, which is to be examined in the
present Judgment, bears no relation to the date on which the declara-

tion required by the Security Council resolution of 15 October 1946
was deposited with the Registrar: the former is designed to establish
the jurisdiction of the Court over a particular kind of dispute; the
latter provides for access to the Court of States which are not parties

to the Statute. As to the second point (i.e., the question of the Fed-
eral Republic’s right of access to the Court), according to the Secu-
rity Council resolution, a declaration, which may be either particular
or general, must be filed by the State which is not a party to the Stat-
ute, previously to its appearance before the Court. This was done.”

(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973 , p. 53, para. 11; emphasis added.)

11. It comes out that in the series of decisions taken by the Court as
regards the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia, the Judgments on the Legality
of Use of Force cases are the only ones in conformity with the general
jurisprudence of the Court in the matter. In its reasoning part, the Judg-

ment substantiates the basic elements of the jus standi as defined by Arti-
cle 35 of the Statute in terms of an autonomous processual condition of
antecedent and mandatory nature distinguishable from jurisdiction of the
Court stricto sensu. The Court found, inter alia, that

“the question whether Serbia and Montenegro was or was not a

party to the Statute of the Court at the time of the institution of the
present proceedings is fundamental; for if it were not such a party,
the Court would not be open to it under Article 35, paragraph 1, of
the Statute. In that situation, subject to any application of para-
graph 2 of that Article, Serbia and Montenegro could not have

properly seised the Court, whatever title of jurisdiction it might have
invoked, for the simple reason that Serbia and Montenegro did not
have the right to appear before the Court.
The Court can exercise its judicial function only in respect of those
States which have access to it under Article 35 of the Statute. And

only those States which have access to the Court can confer jurisdic-

153562 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

tion upon it.” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v.
Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
pp. 298-299, para. 46; see also pp. 292-293, para. 29.)

12. In addition, the finding that “at the time of filing of its Application
to institute the present proceedings before the Court on 29 April 1999,
the Applicant. . . was not a Member of the United Nations” (ibid., p. 314,

para. 91) was, as time has shown, of far-reaching importance. The Court
accepted it in the Judgment of 2007 in the case concerning Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide and in the present Judgment after more than one decade of

wandering between the Scylla of avoiding position, and the Haribda of
sui generis position, a sort of tertium quid between membership and
non-membership of the FRY in the United Nations.

13. However, it should be noted that stricti juris even the 2004 Judg-

ment is not free from inconsistency. It regards the disharmony between
the dispositif of the Judgment with its ratio decidendi. While the reason-
ing part of the Judgment is strictly formulated in terms of the right of the
FRY to access to the Court under Article 35, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the
Statute (ibid., p. 298, paras. 46; pp. 310-311, para. 79; pp. 314-315, para. 91

and p. 327, para. 126), its dispositif concerns exclusively the “jurisdiction
to entertain the claims” (ibid., p. 328, para. 129; emphasis added). The
inconsistency between the dispositif and the ratio decidendi is even greater,
because the Court did not deal with the issue of jurisdiction stricto sensu,
sticking to the basic assumption that it must determine whether the FRY

meets the conditions laid down in Article 35 of the Statute before exam-
ining the conditions in Articles 36 and 37 of the Statute. Therefore, the
Court concluded that the fact that

“Serbia and Montenegro did not, at the time of the institution of the
present proceedings, have access to the Court. . . makes it unneces-
sary for the Court to consider the other preliminary objections filed

by the Respondents to the jurisdiction of the Court”( ibid., pp. 327-
328, para. 127; emphasis added).
14. It appears that the jurisdiction of the Court, in the cases in which

the FRY/Serbia was involved as a party, is far from consistent at all three
levels of its evaluation. The very fact that the Court, in dealing with an
identical issue in the different phases of the same case, or in closely
related cases, applied the three basic, mutually exclusive modus faciendi,

is, if not by itself an answer to the question whether the Court acted in a
consistent manner or not, at the very least represents a strong indiciae in
that regard.
It is difficult to discuss in terms of substantial consistency the decisions
of the Court based on the avoiding position. For, the decisions regarding

the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia, taken sub silentio, either by accepting
the factual presumptions (praesumptio facti vel homine) about the con-

154563 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

tinuity and legal identity (1996 Judgment in the case concerning Applica-
tion of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide) or by the constructions which keep them indirectly in force

(2007 Judgment in the same case) do not give real answers to the question
which is cardinal for the legality of the Court’s judicial activity. Decisions
based on the substantial assessment of jus standi, although in contrast to
those based on avoidance, represent the expression of a proper judicial
action, are diametrically opposed in the determination of the jus standi of

the FRY/Serbia. Indiciae or elements of the substantial assessment of jus
standi, since they are not, by themselves, decisions and, moreover, were
not an element of the proper decisions on the issue, demonstrate the
scope of the inconsistency in the legal reasoning.

15. The conclusion follows that the only consistency of the decisions
of the Court regarding jus standi of the FRY/Serbia is found in the
inconsistency of the decisions per se and in its ratio decidendi. And, if the
purpose of consistency is, inter alia, to “provide predictability” (joint

declaration of Vice-President Ranjeva, Judges Guillaume, Higgins, Kooij-
mans, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal and Elaraby, Legality of Use of Force
(Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 330, para. 3) “in different phases of the same
case or with regard to closely related cases” (ibid.), it is not clear what

that predictability would consist of in those cases in which the FRY/Ser-
bia was a party, except, perhaps, that the FRY/Serbia has jus standi as a
respondent, and that it is deprived of it as an applicant.

16. The jurisdiction of the Court regarding the status of the FRY/Ser-
bia as a Contracting Party to the Genocide Convention is seemingly con-
sistent. In the different phases of the case concerning Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia) as well as in the provisional

measures phase of the Legality of Use of Force cases, the Court basically
adopted the finding that the FRY/Serbia may be considered as bound by
the Genocide Convention on the basis of intention, as expressed in the
declaration adopted on 27 April 1992

“to remain bound by the international treaties to which the former
Yugoslavia was party. . . confirmed in an official Note of 27 April
1992 from the Permanent Mission of Yugoslavia to the United

Nations” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugo-
slavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,
p. 610, para. 17; see also Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v.
United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999,

I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) , p. 838, para. 32).

155564 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

The finding acquired, in the merits phase of the case concerning Applica-
tion of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, the res indicata status and is in part reaffirmed in the present

Judgment, too (para. 11). So, in terms of horizontal as well as limited
vertical consistency, it seems that the Court acted almost semper idem.
The precedental authority of the finding is, however, in doubt in terms of
substantive consistency.
First of all, the qualification of the 1992 declaration as a unilateral

legal act capable of producing the proper effects per se, seems to be
inconsistent with the relevant rules of international law as expressed in
the jurisprudence of the Court (paras. 121-128 below).
Even if ex hypothesis the 1992 declaration may be considered as such
an act, well-settled rules in the jurisprudence of the Court regarding the

interpretation of unilateral acts could hardly lead to the conclusion
reached by the Court (para. 132 below).

17. Two additional considerations are of interest also.

Although in the present Judgment as well, the majority reaffirms the
dispositif of the decisions of the Court adopted in the earlier cases related
to the Genocide Convention, its legal reasoning is not consistent in that
regard. While in the earlier cases, or its relevant phases, the majority,
clearly and unequivocally, gave to the 1992 declaration a constitutive

character, the present Judgment considers Serbia a Contracting Party by
a combined action of the declaration and some additional, explicit or
implicit, considerations (paras. 160-167 below). In that way, the majority
perception of the declaration is blurred, for it is not clear enough whether
it sees it as a constitutive or declarative act or as a mixture of the two.

18. The jurisdictional treatment of the declaration is different as well.
In the earlier cases, the 1992 declaration was treated as a proper basis for
the jurisdiction of the Court ratione personae (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,
pp. 610-613, paras. 17-26), while in the present case the 1992 declaration

is treated as an issue of jurisdiction ratione materiae (Judgment,
paras. 93-119).

The position of the Court in the 1996 Judgment was clear and designed

in accordance with the standard practice of the Court. The jurisdiction
ratione personae was determined in terms of whether Bosnia and Herze-
govina and the FRY may be considered as parties to the Genocide Con-
vention. Finding that the Parties to the dispute are Contracting Parties to
the Genocide Convention — the FRY on the basis of the 1992 declara-

tion (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 610, para. 17) and Bosnia and Herze-
govina through the mechanism of State succession (ibid., p. 611,
para. 20) —, the Court concluded:

“For the purposes of determining its jurisdiction in this case, the

Court has no need to settle the question of what the effects of a situ-

156565 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

ation of non-recognition may be on the contractual ties between
parties to a multilateral treaty. It need only note that, even if it were
to be assumed that the Genocide Convention did not enter into force

between the Parties until the signature of the Dayton-Paris Agree-
ment, all the conditions are now fulfilled to found the jurisdiction of
the Court ratione personae .” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 613,
para. 26; emphasis added.)

The Court assessed its jurisdiction ratione materiae in the following
terms:

“whether there is a dispute between the Parties that falls within the
scope of that provision [Art. IX of the Convention].
.............................

It is jurisdiction ratione materiae , as so defined, to which Yugosla-
via’s fifth objection relates.” (Ibid., p. 614, para. 27; emphasis added.)

19. In the present Judgment, the majority treats the jurisdiction of the
Court ratione materiae exclusively as the issue of whether Serbia could be
considered a Contracting Party to the Genocide Convention in the rele-

vant period of time (Judgment, paras. 93-119). In its conclusion, the
majority finds that:

“In sum, in the present case the Court, taking into account both
the text of the declaration and Note of 27 April 1992, and the con-
sistent conduct of the FRY at the time of its making and throughout
the years 1992-2001, considers that it should attribute to those docu-

ments precisely the effect that they were, in the view of the Court,
intended to have on the face of their terms: namely, that from that
date onwards the FRY would be bound by the obligations of a party
in respect of all the multilateral conventions to which the SFRY had
been a party at the time of its dissolution. . .” (Ibid., para. 117.)

20. A turn in the jurisdictional treatment of the 1992 declaration took

place in the majority reasoning in the 2007 Judgment because of the spe-
cific needs as regards the construction of the decision by “necessary
implication” on the jus standi of the FRY in the 1996 Judgment. The dic-
tum reads:

“In the view of the Court, the express finding in the 1996 Judg-
ment that the Court had jurisdiction in the case ratione materiae,on

the basis of Article IX of the Genocide Convention, seen in its con-
text, is a finding which is only consistent, in law and logic, with the
proposition that, in relation to both parties, it had jurisdiction
ratione personae in its comprehensive sense, that is to say, that the
status of each of them was such to comply with the provisions of the

Statute concerning the capacity of States to be parties before the

157566 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

Court.” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia
and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I) ,.p 99

para. 133.)
21. Apart from its meaning in terms of judicial consistency, the differ-
ent treatment of the 1992 declaration seen in this context is highly sig-

nificant for at least three reasons:
(a) the manner in which the majority reads the relevant earlier deci-
sions;

(b) the majority perception of the res judicata effects of the 1996 Judg-
ment; and
(c) the majority perception of the precedental authority of the 1996
Judgment.

22. The judicial consistency is rather the result, the picture of the
coherency of the decisions and the reasons making a logical and legal
union, based on the proper application of legal rules which should bind
any court of law in its judicial activity, and not a matter for itself or by

itself. It represents the intrinsic, organic quality of the judicial reasoning
in the different phases of a case, or different cases, which regard identical
or similar issues. As such, it cannot be built up in terms of ex post har-
monization of heterogeneous decisions on identical or substantially iden-
tical issues. Deliberate actions in that regard may have for result the

formal consistency only, which exhausts itself in the strengthening of the
formal authority of the court of law.

In a situation where two diametrically opposed decisions existed as

regards the issue of jus standi — the Bosnia and Herzegovina case (2007)
and the Legality of Use of Force cases (2004) — it seems impossible to
achieve the quality of substantive consistency, either legally or logically.
Even by using a measure of judicial engineering.

2. What is the possible backing of the inconsistency?

23. It is difficult to explain the heterogeneous decisions of the Court as
regards the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia by reasonable differences in the
legal reasoning, unavoidable in every bigger collegium of judges. They
are rather the expression of different views of a proper judicial policy in
that regard, for the differences in legal reasoning as such have their limits

which were well surpassed in the cases where the FRY/Serbia was
involved.

It would seem that Judge Higgins in her separate opinion appended to

the Judgment in the Legality of Use of Force cases gave succinctly the
real explanation of the matter by saying:

“The Court, in purporting to find an ex post facto clarification of

158567 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

the situation as it was in 1992-2000, notwithstanding that the General
Assembly and Security Council had in all deliberation felt the objec-
tives of the United Nations were best met by legal ambiguity, seems

to have ignored that wise dictum.”( (Serbia and Montenegro v. Bel-
gium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
p. 342, para. 20; emphasis added.)

24. The explanation given in the separate opinion of Judge Higgins
was confirmed in a number of pronouncements of the Court.
In the Legality of Use of Force cases (2004) the Court pointed out
expressis verbis that

“in its Judgment on Preliminary Objections of 11 July 1996. . . [t]he
question of the status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in rela-
tion to Article 35 of the Statute was not raised and the Court saw no

reason to examine it”( ibid., p. 311, para. 82; emphasis added).
In addition, it admitted that:

“The Court did not commit itself to a definitive position on the
issue of the legal status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in
relation to the Charter and the Statute in its pronouncements in inci-

dental proceedings, in the cases [one of them being the present one]
involving this issue which came before the Court during this anoma-
lous [1992-2000] period.” (Ibid., p. 309, para. 74.)

25. This seems to be a perception of the judicial policy of the Court, of
which it could not be said that it perfectly fits in the functional parallel-
ism as a governing principle of the relations between the principal politi-
cal organs of the United Nations, the General Assembly and the Security

Council, on the one hand, and the International Court of Justice as its
principal judicial organ, on the other, as well as judicial independence
and impartiality. It seems rather like an action in concert with the prin-
cipal political organs, implying that the Court follows the legal ambiguity
which “has been anomalous in extreme” (R. Higgins, “The new United

Nations and former Yugoslavia”, International Affairs, Vol. 69,
No. 3, July 1993, p. 479).
26. Of special relevance in that regard is the pronouncement of the
Court in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Pre-

vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide , made, moreover, in the
merits phase, that “in 1999 — and even more so in 1996 — it was by no
means so clear as the Court found it to be in 2004 that the Respondent
was not a Member of the United Nations at the relevant time” (Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I) , p. 98, para. 131; emphasis added).

(This pronouncement opens a very unpleasant question as to the activ-
ity of the Court over a considerable period of time in the light of the prin-
ciple bona fidei which, as a peremptory one, is at least equally valid for
the Court as it is for States. If, for more than a decade, it was so clear

that the Respondent was not a Member of the United Nations, and the

159568 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

quality of being a Member of the United Nations was the only basis on
which the Respondent could have been considered a party to the Statute
of the Court, it follows that the Court deliberately avoided recognizing

the jurisdictional fact affecting the very legality of the totality of its
actions in the cases in which the FRY/Serbia was involved as a party.
Such an attitude of the Court could be termed judicial arbitrariness, close
to, or in the zone of, abuse of judicial power rather than judicial caution
resulting in judicial indecision. The explicit admission by the Court that

“in 1999 — and even more so in 1996 — it was by no means clear . . . that
the FRY was not a Member of the United Nations at the relevant time”
being, in fact, tantamount to the admission that the Court acted sine
vires, represents a sufficient and sound basis for revision of the 1996
Judgment proprio motu. It would be the proper way of action of the

Court in such circumstances to preserve its judicial integrity. For, in the
light of international law, the fact that the Court acted sine vires auto-
matically deprives the 1996 Judgment of validity, both in formal and in
substantive terms. Standing in the way of the application of the law in

that regard is only the comfortable position of the Court in the judicial
environment of the international community which does not know the
appellate procedure or the appellate court.)
27. The action in concert with the political organs of the World
Organization was familiar or, even, inherent to the spirit prevailing at the

Hague Peace Conference that judicial settlement as such may play the
role of an instrument for diminishing the danger of, and, moreover, sub-
stitute to the resort of arms. The situation is quite different now. The idea
that

“‘an international Court should play an important role in the new
Organization of nations for peace and security’, is illusory. Indeed,
there is evidence, in the records of the various organs of the United

Nations, that the Court is regarded as something different from
other United Nations organs, and its procedures something inde-
pendent from customary United Nations procedures.” (S. Rosenne,
The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-2005, Vol. I,
The Court and the United Nations, pp. 189-190; footnote omitted.)

28. In the framework of the United Nations “the International Court

of Justice stood as the judicial apex, while the Security Council was the
new Praetorian guard for the political consensus and its enforcement”
(M. Cohen, “Impartiality, Realism and International Process”, Interna-
tional Law at a Time of Perplexity: Essays in Honour of Shabtai

Rosenne, p. 96).
So,
“Much more than the establishment of peace, the development of

international law is the essential function of judicial settlement . . .
The gradual elaboration of the law through the accumulation of a

160569 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

body of homogeneous decisions is a condition of order and stability .”
(C. De Visscher, Theory and Reality in Public International Law ,
rev. ed., 1968, p. 390; emphasis added.)

29. The principle of functional parallelism gives to the ICJ an impor-

tant, substantially broader scope for judicial activity in terms of the
impartial determination of disputes on the basis of law. By its very nature
the principle runs counter to crypto-political decisions clad in legal garb,
which may bring any court of law dangerously close to the well-known
chambres de réunion. The principle gives each organ involved the possi-

bility to act in its own space, fulfilling its original role, and regards the
court that is to declare the law.

30. Deliberate concerted activity with political organs leaves hard con-
sequences on any court of law. Legal reasoning and reasoning based on

political considerations and expediency are in unsolvable conflict both in
terms of substance and in terms of time. This is clearly demonstrated, as
far as judicial consistency is concerned, in the cases before the Court
involving the FRY/Serbia as a party.

31. It appears that during some 15 years the Court, in terms of judicial
policy, acted in several capacities in the cases in which the FRY/Serbia
was involved as a party.
32. Since the institution of proceedings in the case concerning Applica-

tion of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide in 1993, until the admission of the FRY to the United Nations
in 2000, the Court, in respect of the jurisdictional issues involved, basi-
cally acted as a guardian of the ambiguous policy of the principal politi-
cal organs of the United Nations in regard to the status of the FRY in

the Organization. In the proceedings on the indication of provisional
measures of 1993 and in the Judgment on preliminary objections of 1996,
it relied tacitly on the factual presumption (praesumptio facti vel homine)
of the legal identity and continuity of the FRY with the SFRY, acting in
concert with the General Assembly as author of the legally vague and

controversial resolution 47/1, which allowed pro et contra interpretation
of the status of the FRY vis-à-vis the United Nations.

33. So, as became clear tractu temporis, it choose the weakest possi-

bility in the light of the principle that “[t]he Court must however always
be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, and must if necessary go into that
matter proprio motu”( Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO
Council (India v. Pakistan), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 ,p .,
para. 13), especially with respect to the jus standi requirement as the

principal condition for the legality of the Court’s judicial action in casu.
The Court had two more, much better, possibilities at its disposal:
(a) to ask for an authentic interpretation of resolution 47/1 from the

General Assembly; or

161570 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

(b) to make its own explicit interim determination of the matter in a
proper form.

34. In contrast to the legal presumption (praesumptio juris et de jure) ,
the factual presumption bears an unavoidable limitation in terms of time.
In the context of the matter, it was obvious that the factual presumption

of continuity of the FRY may be valid only until the moment when the
competent political organs of the United Nations adopted the final deci-
sion on the status of the FRY/Serbia in the United Nations, unfounded
on the continuity premise. That is what happened in November 2000,
when, by decision of the competent organs of the United Nations, the

FRY was admitted to its membership as a new Member.

35. This fact demonstrated dramatically the ontological irreconcil-
ability of the legal reasoning, on the one side, and the reasoning based on
pragmatic considerations and expedience, on the other.

Since the admission to the membership in the United Nations is a mat-
ter of exclusive competence of the two principal political organs — the
Security Council and the General Assembly — and their decision is bind-

ing upon the United Nations structure as a whole, it might be expected
from the Court, in the spirit of functional parallelism, to adapt in a
proper form its determination of the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia to that
fact, being, in the circumstances surrounding the case, determinative of
its jus standi.

The Court, however, opted for a different treatment of the FRY/Serbia
in that regard, depending on the cases before it, thus demonstrating not
only its inconsistency but throwing a shadow on the application of the
fundamental principle of the equality of States before the Court also.
36. In the Legality of Use of Force cases the Court designed its deter-

mination of the jus standi of Serbia/Montenegro in the spirit of the prin-
ciple of functional parallelism, finding, inter alia, that

“at the time of filing of its Application to institute the present pro-
ceedings before the Court on 29 April 1999. . ., Serbia and Montene-
gro, was not a Member of the United Nations, and, consequently,

wasnot...aStatepartytotheStatuteoftheInternationalCourtof
Justice” ((Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 314, para. 91).

So, in the eight Legality of Use of Force cases the Court in fact acted as
a guardian of legality, both in the formal and in the substantive terms,

respecting the division of competences between the principal political
organs of the United Nations and the International Court of Justice as
expressed in the functional parallelism principle.

37. In its Judgment in the Bosnia case (2007) the majority de facto

stuck to the continuity presumption using technical, legal explanations in

162571 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

the form of specific interpretation of the res indicata rule, relying on the
understanding of judicial power in terms of unqualified power, which
implies that:

“Subject only to this possibility of revision, the applicable princi-
ple is res judicata pro veritate habetur, that is to say that the findings

of a judgment are, for the purposes of the case and between the
parties, to be taken as correct, and may not be reopened on the basis
of claims that doubt has been thrown on them by subsequent events .”
(I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 93, para. 120; emphasis added.)

38. In that Judgment the Court in fact acted as a guardian of its past
decision embodied in the 1996 Judgment. Acting in that way, the Court

persisted on its own judicial truth, completely divorced from the reality
as established in the United Nations by resolution 55/12 and thus pro-
ducing a judicium illusorum.
In that way the position of the Court took a highly interesting turn.

While the 1996 Judgment in the Bosnia case was adopted with the pur-
pose of acting in harmony with the principal political organs of the
United Nations, the insistence on the validity of the premises on which it
was based following the adoption of General Assembly resolution 55/12,
brought the Court in harsh disharmony with the whole United Nations

structure which implemented the resolution strictly.
As a matter of illustration, the objective meaning of the factual pre-
sumption on which the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia was based in the
1996 Judgment, and accepted in the 2007 Judgment, is that in the context
of the dispute before the Court, the FRY/Serbia was considered, at least

tacitly, to have been a Member in the period 1992-2000 as far as the
Court and the Applicants are concerned, whereas for the United Nations
itself it was not a Member, nor even for the Applicants, in respect of any
other matter than the cases before the Court. In addition, in the eyes of
the Court, the FRY/Serbia was considered a Member of the United

Nations in the Bosnia case, and is in the present case, and was considered
a non-Member in the eight Legality of Use of Force cases.

39. The Judgment in the Application for Revision case (I.C.J. Reports

2003, p. 7) is specific in this particular context (paras. 7-8 above). It pos-
sesses two basic meanings. On the one hand, by the construction of the
sui generis position of the FRY vis-à-vis the United Nations, the Judg-
ment tended, in essence, to substitute the tacit presumption on the con-
tinuity with a substantive ground of jus standi. For, by admission of the

FRY to the United Nations, the presumption of the continuity became
devoid of any substance. On the other hand, articulated well after the
admission of the FRY to the United Nations, the sui generis construction
amounted to a revision of the decision taken by the General Assembly
which, being binding and conclusive, cannot be reversed by the Court

(Northern Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary

163572 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963 , p. 33). The construction is a
demonstration of the late reaction of the Court, for terminus ad quem for
the Court’s interpretation of the substance of General Assembly resolu-

tion 47/1, which as such was a part of its judicial function, in terms other
than those of resolution 55/12 of 1 November 2000, elapsed by the admis-
sion of the FRY to the United Nations as a new Member.

40. In the present Judgment, the majority makes an effort to reconcile

the basic premises of the 2004 Judgments and the 2007 Judgment. To
that effect, the majority proceeds from the finding contained in the 2004
Judgment that the FRY/Serbia, being a Member of the United Nations
from 1 November 2000, cannot be considered a party to the Statute prior
to that date (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Bel-

gium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 310,
para. 76). Accordingly, on the date of the institution of the present pro-
ceedings it did not possess the right to appear before the Court. However,
the majority is not ready to accept the necessary consequences of the fact

which it took as the starting point of its legal reasoning, but rather
resorts to a broadened interpretation of the so-called Mavrommatis rule
in an effort to prove that, at a certain point in time, all requirements
under Articles 35 and 36 of the Statute for the competence of the Court
in casu were fulfilled.

However, this is not so, either as regards the date of the institution of
the proceedings, a date relevant on the basis of the generally accepted
rule, or as regards the date of the rendering of the Judgment allegedly as
an exception to the general rule, but it is rather an unspecified date in the
period of time between the date of the admission of the FRY to United

Nations membership — on 1 November 2000 — and the date when the
FRY, as a new, successor State, expressed its consent to be bound by the
Genocide Convention in the form of accession — on 6 March 2001.

41. Two basic inconsistencies exist in this regard.

First, it transpired that, in the same period of time, the FRY/Serbia, at
least as regards its status as a Contracting Party to the Genocide Conven-
tion, was both a continuator and a successor State. The present Judg-
ment, true implicite, treats the FRY/Serbia as a continuator State as

regards the Genocide Convention until 12 March 2001, because it con-
siders it bound by the provisions of the Convention until that date on the
basis of the 1992 declaration adopted on behalf of the State “continuing
the state, international legal and political personality of the SFRY”
(para. 1 of the declaration). From 12 March 2001 pro futuro, the FRY/

Serbia is a successor State which, acting upon the reminder of the Secretary-
General (paras. 176-177 below) expressed its consent to be bound by
the Genocide Convention.

Second, if, arguendo, it is accepted that the majority interpretation of

the Mavrommatis rule is correct, the relevant date for assessment as to

164573 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

whether the necessary requirements for the competence of the Court are
met, should be the date of the rendering of the Judgment. This seems to
transpire clearly from the Mavrommatis Judgment:

“Even, therefore, if the application were premature because the
Treaty of Lausanne had not yet been ratified, this circumstance
would now be covered by the subsequent deposit of the necessary

ratifications.” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2,
1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 34; emphasis added.)

42. In its 1996 Judgment in the case concerning Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide ,
the Court stated inter alia :

“even if it were to be assumed that the Genocide Convention did not
enter into force between the Parties until the signature of the Dayton-
Paris Agreement, all the conditions are now fulfilled to found the
jurisdiction of the Court” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 613, para. 26;
emphasis added).

And, it seems obvious that on that date the requirement under Article 36,
paragraph 1, of the Statute was not fulfilled as regards the basis of the

jurisdiction of the Court, because the FRY, when acceding to the Geno-
cide Convention, expressed its reservation regarding Article IX of the
Convention.
43. It appears that the idea underlying functional parallelism — each
has its own — is the most appropriate and productive as regards the

Court, in an uninstitutionalized, eminently political community. As the
Court stated in the Nicaragua case:
“The [Security] Council has functions of a political nature assigned

to it, whereas the Court exercises purely judicial functions. Both
organs can therefore perform their separate but complementary func-
tions with respect to the same events.” (Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of

America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1984, p. 435, para. 95; emphasis added.)
In such society, the assurance of the autonomy of the Court from the

political organs is the crucial element of its judicial integrity. The cases in
which the FRY/Serbia was involved as a party demonstrate that the judi-
cial consistency, and especially the proper exercise of judicial power as its
substance and determinative, should be best safeguarded by objective
rules as a guide in determining the applicable law. This principle, which is

axiomatic, should be followed in particular by international courts and
tribunals, pursuing their activities in a judicial environment that knows
no appellate court or procedure.
44. In sum, it appears that the jurisprudence of the Court, as regards

the issue of jus standi of the FRY/Serbia as well as its status as Contract-
ing Party to the Genocide Convention, not only is not consistent, but
there are also departures from earlier decisions, often sub silentio, with-

165574 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

out adducing reasons for departing or, at least, without clear and con-
vincing reasons.
45. The legal ambiguity which the political organs of the United

Nations abided by from the beginning to the very end of the Yugoslav
crisis may be understandable from the standpoint of pragmatic political
considerations and expediency, but not from the standpoint of judicial
consideration of the matter. (For instance, recognition of the legal iden-
tity and continuity of the FRY with the SFRY, for which there existed

strong legal reasons, would automatically open the question of legality,
both in its formal and in its substantive terms of the actions and omis-
sions vis-à-vis that State from the very beginning of the Yugoslav crisis.)

3. Nature of the issue of jurisdiction

46. In a number of points, the majority justifies the failure of the
Court to deal properly, in its earlier decisions, with specific jurisdictional

issues pertaining both to jurisdiction lato sensu and stricto sensu prop-
erly, by referring to the absence of the party or parties concerned. Exem-
pli causa, it is stated that “[w]hile at the time objection was taken to the
claim of the FRY to be the continuator of the SFRY, it was not then
suggested that that claim was not advanced by the appropriate representa-

tive body of the FRY” (Judgment, para. 107; emphasis added). Or, that
“the FRY, while questioning whether the applicant State was a party to
the Genocide Convention at the relevant dates, did not challenge the
claim that it was itself a party ”( ibid., para. 114; emphasis added; see
also para. 115). This is surprising in the light of the importance of the

issue of jurisdiction, especially jurisdiction lato sensu, and its legal nature
as well.

47. In view of the fact that “the establishment or otherwise of jurisdic-
tion is not a matter for the parties but for the Court itself”, the dispute of

the parties regarding the jurisdiction in the preliminary objection phase is
not a necessary condition for the Court to address the issue of jurisdic-
tion. (Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 450, para. 37; see also the individual

opinion of President McNair in the jurisdiction phase of the case con-
cerning Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. in which he stated that “[a]n international
tribunal cannot regard a question of jurisdiction solely as a question inter
partes”( Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (United Kingdom v. Iran), Preliminary
Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 , p. 116).)

48. Preliminary objections raised by a party are only a tool, a proce-
durally designed weapon, for the establishment of the jurisdiction of the
Court, suo nomine et suo vigore, for it is under an obligation to do so ex

officio. The legal meaning of the proceedings on preliminary objections

166575 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

has been defined by the Court in the case concerning Rights of Minorities
in Upper Silesia (Minority Schools) (hereinafter referred to as “Minority
Schools”) as follows:

“the raising of an objection by one Party merely draws the attention
of the Court to an objection to the jurisdiction which it must ex offi-

cio consider”( Rights of Minorities in Upper Silesia (Minority
Schools), Judgment No. 12, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 ,p.23;
emphasis added).

Or, as stated by the Court in the case concerning Application of the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide :

“The Court must, in each case submitted to it, verify whether it
has jurisdiction to deal with the case . . . and such objections as are
raised by the Respondent may be useful to clarify the legal situa-
tion.” (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,

p. 622, para. 46; emphasis added.)

Accordingly, the jurisdiction established by the Court in casu is not
necessarily linked with the dispute as to jurisdiction. If the duty of the
Court to verify its jurisdiction in each particular case exists regardless of
the preliminary objection as such, then the pleadings of the parties in the

proceedings are not a fortiori of decisive importance in that sense.
49. The dictum of the Court in the case concerning Appeal Relating to
the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council (hereinafter referred to as “ICAO
Council”) could represent a synthesis of that practice: “[t]he Court must
however always be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, and must if necessary

go into that matter proprio motu”( Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 ,p.52,
para. 13). This is also reflected in the opinions of Judges. (In the case
concerning Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions , Judge Moore, in his dis-
senting opinion, stated that “even though the Parties be silent, the tribu-
nal, if it finds that competence is lacking, is bound of its own motion to

dismiss the case” (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 ,
p. 58); in theMinority Schoolscase, Judge Huber, in his dissenting opinion,
found that the Court “must ex officio ascertain on what legal foundation
it is to base its judgment upon the claims of the Parties” (Judgment

No. 12, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 , p. 54); and in the case concern-
ing Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex , Judge Kellogg
pointed out in his observations attached to the Order of 6 December 1930
that it was not necessary that the question of jurisdiction be raised by one
of the parties, since “[i]t may and should be raised by the Court on its

own initiative, as was done in the Eastern Carelia case” (Order of
6 December 1930, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 24 , p. 43).)
50. The question of the jurisdiction of the Court bears two dominant
features: (a) the question of jurisdiction of the Court is a questio juris ;
and (b) the question of jurisdiction of the Court is a matter of interna-

tional public order.

167576 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. KRECu )

2
51. As a questio juris the jurisdiction of the Court is within the scope
of the principle jura novit curia. In the case concerning Territorial Juris-
diction of the International Commission of the River Oder (hereinafter
referred to as “River Oder”) the Polish Government did not contend that

the Barcelona Convention had not been ratified by Poland until the oral
proceedings. The six respondents asked the Court to reject the Polish
contention a limine, for having been submitted at such an advanced stage
of the proceedings. The Court dismissed the objection as untenable for

“[t]he fact that Poland has not ratified the Barcelona Convention not
being contested, it is evident that the matter is purely one of law such as
the Court. . . should examine ex officio”( Judgment No. 16, 1929,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 23 , p. 19).

52. Being bound by law, the Court is not bound by the arguments of
the parties. This follows clearly from the principle jura novit curia
addressed by the Court in its Judgments in the cases concerning Fisheries

Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland) and Fisheries Jurisdiction (Fed-
eral Republic of Germany v. Iceland):

“The Court. . . as an international judicial organ, is deemed to
take judicial notice of international law, and is therefore required in
a case falling under Article 53 of the Statute, as in any other case,to

consider on its own initiative all rules of international law which
may be relevant to the settlement of the dispute. . . for the law lies
within the judicial knowledge of the Court.” (Merits, Judgment,

I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 9, para. 17; ibid., p. 181, para. 18; emphasis
added.)

The principle has also been confirmed in the Nicaragua case by a dictum
that

“[f]or the purpose of deciding whether the claim is well founded in
law, the principle jura novit curia signifies that the Court is not solely
dependent on the argument of the parties before it with respect to

the applicable law (cf. “Lotus”, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 10, p. 31)”
(Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua
(Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1986, p. 24, para. 29).

53. Consequently, the rule according to which a party seeking to assert

2
“The existence of jurisdiction of the Court in a given case is ... not a question of fact,
but a question of law to be resolved in the light of the relevant facts.” (Border and Trans-
border Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1988 , p. 76, para. 16.) The question of the Court’s jurisdiction is
“necessarily an antecedent and independent one — an objective question of law — which
cannot be governed by preclusive considerations capable of being so expressed as to tell
against either Party — or both Parties” (Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO
Council, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 , p. 54, para. 16 (c)).

168577 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

a fact must bear the burden of proving that it “has no relevance for the
establishment of the Court’s jurisdiction” (Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain
v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,

p. 450, para. 37).
The disposition of the parties, although being the dominant principle
in the proceedings before the Court, suffers limitations. These limitations
derive from the objective rules of the Statute and the Rules of Court
defining the nature and limits of the Court’s judicial action. As constitu-

tional norms (R. Monaco, “Observations sur la hierarchie des sources du
droit international”, Festschrift für Hermann Mosler , 1983, pp. 607-608)
or as règles préceptives (intervention of Judge M. Yovanovitch, Prelimi-
nary Session of the Court, P.C.I.J., Series D, No. 2 , p. 59), these rules
transcend the disposition of the parties and pertain to the international

public order.
54. As a matter of international public order superior to the will of the
parties, the question of jurisdiction need not necessarily be raised by the
parties themselves but the Court can and should examine it ex officio.

(Cf. Territorial Jurisdiction of the International Commission of the River
Oder, Judgment No. 16, 1929, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 23, pp. 18-19; Fish-
eries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Jurisdiction of the Court,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973 , p. 7, para. 12; p. 54, para. 13; Prince von
Pless Administration, Order of 4 February 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B,

No. 52,p.15; Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8, 1927,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9 , p. 32.)

55. In the practice of the Court the expressions ex officio and proprio
motu are used as interchangeable, although there exist differences in the

meaning of these two expressions. The expression proprio motu implies
the discretionary authority of the Court to take action on its own initia-
tive. The action taken by the Court ex officio is an expression of the duty
of the Court by virtue of its judicial function. The exclusion of the discre-
tion of the Court relates to the action itself and does not touch upon the

freedom of the Court in respect of the ruling.
The linking element of these two expressions is of a negative nature
and is reflected in the fact that it is about the actions which the Court
takes, or may take, irrespective of the will and the processual actions of

the parties.
The genuine difference in the meaning of these two expressions is over-
come in some dicta of the Court, by adding the qualification “must” to
the expression “proprio motu” as in, for example, the Court’s Judgment
in the ICAO Council case (I.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 52, para. 13). Thus, in

fact, the Court’s own motion is qualified as the obligation and the action
proprio motu deprives it of discretion and turns it into action ex officio.

56. As questio juris pertaining to the public order, jurisdiction is deter-
mined by the decision of the Court, formal or informal, on the basis of

the principle of compétence de la compétence. The principle of com-

169578 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

pétence de la compétence possesses two meanings in that regard: a nar-
row and a broad one. As such the principle is confirmed in the Court’s
jurisprudence. In the Nottebohm case, the Court stated inter alia :

“Paragraph 6 of Article 36 merely adopted, in respect of the
Court, a rule consistently accepted by general international law in
the matter of international arbitration.

.............................

Article 36, paragraph 6, suffices to invest the Court with power to

adjudicate on its own jurisdiction in the present case. But even if this
were not the case, the Court, ‘whose function is to decide in accord-
ance with international law such disputes as are submitted to it’
(Article 38, paragraph 1, of the Statute), should follow in this connec-
tion what is laid down by general international law. The judicial char-

acter of the Court and the rule of general international law referred
to above are sufficient to establish that the Court is competent to
adjudicate on its own jurisdiction in the present case. ”( Nottebohm
(Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), Preliminary Objection, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1953,pp . 119-120; emphasis added.)

57. The Court exercises its inherent power from the institution of the
proceedings until its end with a view to establishing whether or not it

possesses jurisdiction in the particular case. (In reality, the Court pro-
ceeds to exercise its inherent power in two ways: (a) by ascertaining the
existence of processual requirements for jurisdiction through prima facie
assessment, being substantively a judicial presumption of jurisdiction or
(b) by adopting a formal decision on the jurisdiction. In that sense, the

power of the Court to determine whether it has jurisdiction in a given
case seems absolute, considering that the Court, even when declaring that
it has no jurisdiction in casu, exercises that inherent power.)
58. Without the operation of the principle of compétence de la com-
pétence in its broad meaning as a principle of general international law, it

would be impossible to establish the competence of the Court to indicate
provisional measures, for the objections to the Court’s jurisdiction, pur-
suant to Article 79 of the Rules, may be submitted by the respondent
within the time-limit fixed for the delivery of the Counter-Memorial and

by a party other than the respondent within the time-limit fixed for the
delivery of the first pleading. The operation of the principle in this case
results in the judicial presumption on proper jurisdiction of the Court in
the form of “prima facie jurisdiction”.
59. The understanding that action by the party is a condition neces-

sary for the Court to deal properly with jurisdictional issues appears to
be erroneous. It relies on the equalization of the merits and the jurisdic-
tional part of the proceedings before the Court. Equalization of these two
parts of the proceedings is conducive to the treatment of the question of
jurisdiction as questio facti and as a matter inter partes, which is in dis-

cord with its true nature.

170579 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

The rule according to which “the existence of a dispute is the primary
condition for the Court to exercise its judicial function” (Nuclear Tests

(New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 476,
para. 58), is valid in the merits phase of a case, but is not equally valid in
the jurisdictional phase of the proceedings. The application of the rule in
the jurisdictional phase is resisted by the very nature of the question of

jurisdiction, running counter to the inherent right and duty of the Court
to determine its jurisdiction.

II. SPECIFIC ISSUES IN C ASU

1. Jus standi of the Respondent

(a) General approach of the majority to the jus standi requirement

60. The general approach of the majority to the jus standi requirement
does not seem clear and precise either as regards its substance or as
regards the terminology used. The majority is ambivalent as regards the
preliminary question whether the jus standi requirement is an auto-

nomous one.
Jus standi in the Judgment is seen as:
(a) “either as an issue relating to the Court’s jurisdiction ratione perso-

nae or as an issue preliminary to the examination of jurisdiction”
(Judgment, para. 66);
(b) “the question of access is clearly distinct from those relating to the
examination of jurisdiction in the narrow sense” (ibid., para. 87);

61. These qualifications are not only imprecise but are also contradic-
tory. For, if access to the Court is understood as jurisdiction ratione per-
sonae, it is unclear how it can be “an issue preliminary to the examination

of jurisdiction” or “clearly distinct from those relating to . . . jurisdiction
in the narrow sense”, if jurisdiction ratione personae is, in fact, a part of
the jurisdiction. If, on the contrary, it is an issue preliminary to jurisdic-
tion in the narrow sense, it is, mutatis mutandi, equally unclear. Besides,

the qualifications are indirect, offered primarily with the intention of
determining the relation between jus standi and jurisdiction of the Court.

62. It is true that in descriptive terms every jurisdiction over personae,

be it natural or legal persons, is jurisdiction ratione personae. But, a
descriptive meaning of the expression is one thing and the legal meaning
as technicus terminus is quite another thing.
Jurisdiction ratione personae concerns the issue whether the party to
the dispute is bound by a jurisdictional instrument serving as a basis of

jurisdiction as usually understood. As such, it is not a matter that falls
within the ambit of Article 35 but rather of Article 36 of the Statute.
The equalizing of these two terms — jurisdiction ratione personae and

171580 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

jus standi — applied in the merits phase in the Application of the Conven-
tion on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide , should
be treated as an incident dictated by the substance of an ad hoc construc-

tion of the decision by necessary implication (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I),
separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Krec ´a, pp. 485-489, paras. 40-43).

63. If one deems it necessary to find a proper solution to the terms
used, within the frame of jurisdiction ratione personae, then, if it relates

to the requirement of jus standi also, it would be termed as “jurisdiction
ratione personae lato sensu ”, combining the descriptive and technical
meaning of the term. A contrario, a measure of confusion is inevitable,
since the jurisdiction of the Court is “a unitary concept, and the use by
the Court and elsewhere of terms such as jurisdiction ratione personae,

ratione materiae or the scope of the jurisdiction ratione temporis is solely
for purposes of systematic presentation” (S. Rosenne, The Law and Prac-
tice of the International Court, 1920-2005 , Vol. II, Jurisdiction, p. 526).

64. The majority had no intention, it seems, of dealing in more detail
with the substance of the jus standi requirement, finding that it is a matter
of “debate” (Judgment, para. 66), tending to suggest its theoretical nature.
Any issue, however, can, and often must, be treated as a theoretical one,
concerned with knowledge as, exempli causa, is shown by the extensive

discourse in the Judgment about the objection to the admissibility and to
the jurisdiction of the Court (ibid., para. 120). The more so, since the
experience with respect to the Court, at least its part relating to cases in
which the FRY/Serbia was involved, could hardly be accepted as satis-
factory.

In essence, the discourse about the jus standi requirement in the
present case, taking into consideration all the circumstances concomitant
to its application, is in fact a discourse about the nature and scope of
Article 35 of the Statute.
65. The situation is confusing also as regards the terms used in order

to determine the requirement under Article 35 of the Statute. The expres-
sions “access to the Court” (ibid., paras. 64, 67, 87), “capacity to
participate in the proceedings” (ibid., paras. 69, 87), “capacity to be a
party to the proceedings” (ibid., table of contents, para. 57), “right to

access (ibid., para. 67), “properly appear before the Court” (ibid., para. 68)
are used interchangeably.
66. More expressions, more confusion. The expression “access to the
Court” corresponds by its meaning to the general term jus standi in indi-
cio as the right of a person to appear or to be heard in such-and-such

proceedings (Jowitt’s Dictionary of English Law , 2nd ed., Vol. 2, p. 1115).
This, however, could not be said for the expression used in the Judg-
ment — “capacity to participate in the proceedings” — which has a
broader meaning. It includes, for instance, also the capacity to partici-
pate in the proceedings on the basis of legal interests of the party which,

otherwise, has access to the Court.

172581 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

Exempli causa, in the case concerning Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Limited, the Court used it to denote the right of “a gov-
ernment to protect the interests of shareholders as such” which was in

effect the matter of legal interest independent of the right of Belgium to
appear before the Court (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1964, p. 45). On the contrary, in the South West Africa case the
Court has drawn a clear distinction between “standing before the Court
itself”, i.e., locus standi, and “standing in the. . . phase of. . . proceedings”

(South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa),
Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966 , p. 18, para. 4).

67. In addition to the expression “access to the Court”, also appropri-
ate seem the expressions “right to appear”, “jus standi before the Court”,

or “entitled to appear before the Court”, because they have been designed
in terms of the right or entitlement of a State and, as such, correspond
with the general provision of Article 35 providing that “the Court shall
be open”, implying a subjective right of a State party to the Statute. (Fur-

thermore, other expressions are used, such as, for example, “locus standi
in judicio ratione personae” — S. Rosenne, op. cit., Vol. II, Jurisdiction,
p. 913. It appears however, that this expression is less appropriate. It is
partly a pleonasm, because locus standi in indicio is per definitionem
related to personae; it seems also too extensive because, by suggesting

that there also exists locus standi in indicio ratione materiae , it may con-
cern also a legal interest of the party to the dispute.)

(b) Nature and characteristics of the jus standi requirement

68. The totality of the requirements for the competence of the Court is
given in Articles 34, 35 and 36 of the Statute. The requirements are not,
however, of the same nature, having in mind that they express two domi-
nant, but distinct features of the International Court of Justice as a court

of law — its character of a partly open court and consensual basis of
jurisdiction.
As stated by the Court in the provisional measures phase in the ten
Legality of Use of Force cases:

“the Court can. . . exercise jurisdiction only between States parties to
a dispute who not only have access to the Court but also have

accepted the jurisdiction of the Court , either in general form or for
the individual dispute concerned” ((Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I),
p. 132, para. 20).

69. Whereas Article 36 of the Statute is concerned with the consensual
basis of the jurisdiction of the Court, embracing instruments serving as
its basis, Articles 34 and 35 are concerned with access to the Court. All

three Articles have their place in the Statute in the part under the heading

173582 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

“Competence of the Court”. As in the practice of the Court the words
“jurisdiction” and “competence” are used interchangeably, the difference
between “access to the Court” and “jurisdiction of the Court” may be

diluted or even lost. Therefore, it seems appropriate to make, in this part
as well, the corresponding terminological requirements under Article 36
of the Statute and in terms of jurisdiction/competence lato sensu in the
sense of requirements under Articles 34 and 35 of the Statute. Or, special
and general jurisdiction/competence, respectively.

70. The right to appear before the International Court of Justice is a
limited right, due to the fact that it is not a fully open court of law. The
limitations exist in two respects. First, the right is reserved for States
(Statute, Art. 34, para. 1). Consequently, it does not belong to other
juridical persons or physical persons. Second, as far as States are con-

cerned, only States parties to the Statute of the Court possess the right
referred to, being as Member of the United Nations ipso facto parties to
the Statute of the Court or by accepting conditions pursuant to Arti-
cle 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute. States non-parties to the Statute can

acquire this right on condition that they accept the general jurisdiction of
the Court in conformity with Security Council resolution 9 (1946).

71. The common element underpinning these two notions is that they
represent processual conditions on whose existence is dependent the

validity of the actual proceedings before the Court; both with respect to
incidental proceedings and the merits, and with respect to the bringing of
the dispute to the Court’s decision in the proceedings. And there the
common ground between the two notions essentially ends and room for
differences emerges.

72. Both notions, jus standi and jurisdiction ratione personae, share
the characteristic of belonging to the corpus of processual conditions,
necessary for the validity of proceedings before the Court, whether inci-
dental or on the merits, and with respect to the reference of disputes to
the Court for decision. They also share the attribute of being absolute

processual conditions that must be satisfied in every case and both are
positive requirements in that, if they are not satisfied, the Court cannot
entertain the claims made.
73. The differences between them, however, are considerably greater,

making them distinct processual conditions:
— they reflect the different aspects of the legal nature of the Court.
While jurisdiction ratione personae, as one of the relevant aspects of
jurisdiction, expresses the consensual nature of the Court’s jurisdic-

tion, jus standi derives from the fact that the International Court of
Justice, in contrast to arbitration courts, is not a fully open court
of law. Access to the Court is limited in two respects on the basis of
Article 34, paragraph 1, and Article 35, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the

Statute of the Court.
— although both jurisdiction ratione personae and jus standi are reg-
ulated by the rules of the Statute having an objective, constitutional

174583 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

character, there exists a fundamental difference in the application of
these rules. The rules of the Statute which concern jus standi are
applied by the Court ex lege, while the corresponding rules concern-

ing jurisdiction ratione personae are applied on the basis of the con-
sent of States to the dispute. In its Judgments in the Legality of Use
of Force cases, the Court stated, inter alia, that “a question of
jurisdiction . . . relates to the consent of a party and the question of
the right of a party to appear before the Court under the require-

ments of the Statute, which is not a matter of consent” ((Serbia and
Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2004 (I), p. 295, para. 36). Therefore, it can be said that in
substance the jurisdiction of the Court is governed by the law in force
between the parties, while jus standi is governed by the objective rules

of the Statute as such.
— the differing natures of jus standi, on the one hand, and jurisdiction
ratione personae, on the other, generate corresponding legal conse-
quences in the proceedings. A lack of jus standi possesses an auto-

matic effect, since, as a rule, it cannot be overcome in the proceedings
before the Court, while a lack of jurisdiction ratione personae is sur-
mountable as the parties may either confer jurisdiction upon the
Court in the course of the proceedings or perfect it for instance, by
express agreement or by forum prorogatum. As a consequence, in

contrast to a lack of jus standi, the absence of jurisdiction ratione per-
sonae does not preclude valid seisin of the Court (paragraph 106
below).
74. The competence or special jurisdiction in the particular case of the

International Court of Justice, as a semi-open court of law with jurisdic-
tion based on consent of the parties to a dispute, implies twofold consent
by States:

(a) consent that the Court is “an organ instituted for the purpose jus
dicere”( Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Preliminary
Objection, Judgment, 1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948 ; dissenting
opinion of Dr. Daxner, p. 39). This consent is expressed indirectly,
through membership of the United Nations, or directly, in the case

of a non-Member of the United Nations either by adhering to the
Statute of the Court or by accepting the general jurisdiction of the
Court in conformity with Security Council resolution 9 (1946), as a
preliminary condition; and

(b) consent that the Court is competent to deal with the particular dis-
pute or type of dispute which is given through the relevant jurisdic-
tional bases under Article 36 of the Statute, as a substantive but
qualified condition.

(c) Majority’s decision-making framework

75. The starting-point of the majority reasoning consists of two obser-

175584 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

vations “which are not disputed by the Parties” (Judgment, para. 74).

According to the first observation,

“in its Judgments in 2004 in the Legality of Use of Force cases, the
Court clearly determined the legal status of the FRY, now Serbia,

over the period from the dissolution of the former SFRY to the
admission of the FRY to the United Nations on 1 November 2000”
(ibid., para. 75),

in terms that the Respondent was not a Member of the United Nations
prior to 1 November 2000, nor that it was a party to the Statute of the
Court.
The second observation is that

“from 1 November 2000 and up to the date of the present Judgment,
the Respondent is a party to the Statute by virtue of its status as a

Member of the United Nations, that is to say pursuant to Article 93,
paragraph 1, of the Charter, which automatically grants to all Mem-
bers of the Organization the status of party to the Statute of the
Court” (ibid., para. 77).

These observations, in fact premissae minor in the majority reasoning,
are different by their nature and effects in the framework of the present

case.
76. The legal status of the FRY/Serbia in the United Nations, being in
the circumstances surrounding the present case the determinative of its
jus standi, is the jurisdictional fact per se. For the membership in the
United Nations is the only basis upon which the Court might be open to

the FRY/Serbia, since it did not accept the conditions pursuant to Arti-
cle 35, paragraph 1, of the Statute nor the general jurisdiction of the
Court in conformity with Security Council resolution 9 (1946).

On the other hand, the fact that from 1 November 2000 the FRY/Ser-

bia has been a new Member of the United Nations is, by itself, deprived
of jurisdictional significance in casu, in the light of the rule that “the juris-
diction of the Court must normally be assessed on the date of the filing of
the act instituting proceedings ”( Application of the Convention on the

Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herze-
govina v. Yugoslavia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 613,
para. 26; emphasis added; see also I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 26, para. 44)
on the one side, and the fact that Croatia submitted its Application on
2 July 1999, a date well before the admission of the FRY to the United

Nations, on the other.
77. The reconciliation of these two observations, being premissae minor
in the majority reasoning in casu, implies therefore the establishment of
an exception to the general rule. An exception that in the frame of the
judicial syllogism represents premissae maior, which the majority tries to

find in the so-called Mavrommatis rule.

176585 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

(d) The Mavrommatis rule, as a purported legal basis for reconciliation

78. In its Judgment in the Mavrommatis case, the Permanent Court of
International Justice stated, inter alia, that:

“it must. . . be considered whether the validity of the institution of
proceedings can be disputed on the ground that the application was
filed before Protocol XII [annexed to the Treaty of Lausanne] had
become applicable. This is not the case. Even assuming that before
that time the Court had no jurisdiction because the international

obligation referred to in Article II [of the Mandate for Palestine]
was not yet effective, it would always have been possible for the
applicant to re-submit his application in the same terms after
the coming into force of the Treaty of Lausanne, and in that case,

the argument in question could not have been advanced. Even if
the grounds on which the institution of proceedings was based were
defective for the reason stated, this would not be an adequate rea-
son for the dismissal of the applicant’s suit. The Court, whose juris-
diction is international, is not bound to attach to matters of form

the same degree of importance which they might possess in munici-
pal law. Even, therefore, if the application were premature because
the Treaty of Lausanne had not yet been ratified, this circumstance
would now be covered by the subsequent deposit of the necessary
ratifications.” (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 ,

p. 34.)
79. The Court’s dictum is interpreted by counsel for Croatia in the fol-
lowing terms:

“all the substantive requirements for the Court’s jurisdiction were
united, at the latest when the Respondent was admitted to the
United Nations on 1 November 2000. There was a case duly filed
before the Court by Croatia, so there was seisin. The Respondent

was at relevant times a party to the Genocide Convention, so there
was an apparent basis of claim. The Respondent was a State which
had in force an unqualified consent to jurisdiction under the Geno-
cide Convention, so there was consent to jurisdiction. The Respon-
dent was, at least as from 1 November 2000, a party to the Court’s

Statute, so there was access to the Court. One: seisin; two: basis of
claim; three: consent to jurisdiction; four: access to the Court. Who
could say there is a fifth requirement for you to hear a case? The
Mavrommatis principle is the principle that provided these four sub-

stantial elements are united at any given time, the order in which this
occurred is a pure matter of form and does not affect. . . jurisdic-
tion.” (CR 2008/11, pp. 33-34, para. 8 (Crawford).)

177586 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

(e) The substantial incapability of the Mavrommatis rule to produce
the desired effects in casu

80. It seems clear that the so-called Mavrommatis rule constitutes an
exception to the general rule that the jurisdiction of the Court must be

assessed on the date of the filing of the act instituting proceedings. That
fact, however, does not solve the problem posed in casu. (Even the Mav-
rommatis rule by itself, inspired basically by reservations made in many
arbitration treaties, seems too broad in the light of the subsequent juris-

prudence of the Court. The ratification of a treaty is not regarded now as
a matter of form but rather as a matter of substance. In the Ambatielos
case, the Court found, inter alia, as regards the retroactive effects of the
Treaty of 1926, that:

“Article 32 of this Treaty states that the Treaty, which must mean all
the provisions of the Treaty, shall come into force immediately upon
ratification. Such a conclusion might have been rebutted if there had

been any special clause or any special object necessitating retroactive
interpretation. There is no such clause or object in the present case.
It is therefore impossible to hold that any of its provisions must be
deemed to have been in force earlier.” (Ambatielos (Greece v. United
Kingdom), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 ,

p. 40.)
The word “form” used in the Mavrommatis dictum should perhaps be

understood as “formalities”, for the simple reason that in any judicial
proceedings as a formal one, including the proceedings before the Court,
the form as such plays a prominent and, as regards some issues, even a
decisive role. As a matter of illustration, an application could not be sub-

mitted to the Court in an oral form.)
In the light of the relevant circumstances of the present case, the true
question is: what is the scope of the exception established by the Mav-
rommatis Judgment. Is it a general exception applicable to any jurisdic-
tional defect, or a special exception applicable to certain species of juris-

dictional defects?
81. The so-called Mavrommatis rule is based on a couple of constitu-
tive elements:

(i) the existence of a procedural defect in the instrument serving as the
basis of jurisdiction on the date of institution of the proceedings;
(ii) the defect is of such kind that it may be cured by a proper action of
the applicant as a rule (in principle, however, the possibility that the
defect is overcome by an action of the respondent, if a willing liti-

gant, can not be a priori excluded); and,
(iii) the perfectuated instrument produces a retroactive effect, since, as
the Court observed, it would make no sense to require an applicant
to “institute fresh proceedings . . . which it would be fully entitled
to do” (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against

Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction

178587 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , pp. 428-429,

para. 83).
82. It appears that in the Mavrommatis Judgment, as well as in other

Judgments, such as Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia
(Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6 , p. 14) and
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicara-
gua v. United States of America) (Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , pp. 428-429, para. 83), based on its preceden-
tal authority, the real issue in question was the existence of procedural
defects in terms of defects in jurisdictional instruments as contemplated
by Article 36 of the Statute. Jurisdictional instruments as such have as

their object the competence of the Court to deal with the particular dis-
pute or type of disputes, not the right of judicial protection before the
Court. As those instruments are based on the consent of the parties it is
natural that they can be cured by a proper action of the applicant or even

the respondent, if it is a willing litigant.

83. But, “the right of a party to appear before the Court. . . is not a
matter of consent” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v.

Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
p. 295, para. 36). Since the jus standi requirement belongs to corpus juris
cogentis , its defect in jus standi can not be cured upon the institution of
proceedings.

Consequently, a defect in jus standi is not a matter of form (see Mav-
rommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series
A, No. 2, p. 34) or “a mere defect of form, the removal of which depends
solely on the Party concerned” (Certain German Interests in Polish Upper

Silesia, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6 , p. 14).

84. The nature of jus standi determines the date of assessment of its
fulfilment. As an objective requirement relating to the limits of the judi-

cial activity of the Court, jus standi must be assessed as soon as possible,
i.e., on the date of the institution of proceedings. (In that regard, strictly
and without exception, the Court has treated the issue in eight Legality of
Use of Force cases ((Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary

Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), pp. 298-299, paras. 46;
pp. 310-311, para. 79; pp. 314-315, para. 91 and p. 327, para. 126).)
In the absence of jus standi of a party, the proceedings before the
Court are, as matter of law, devoid of substance as demonstrated in the

Legality of Use of Force cases:

“The conclusion which the Court has reached, that Serbia and

3G. Schwarzenberger, “International Law as Applied by International Courts and Tri-
bunals”, International Judicial Law , Vol. IV, 1986, pp. 434-435; Faclere, The Permanent
Court of International Justice , 1932, p. 63; R. Kolb, Théorie du ius cogens international,
Essai de relecture du concept , 2001, pp. 344-348.

179588 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

Montenegro did not, at the time of the institution of the present pro-
ceedings, have access to the Court. . . makes it unnecessary for the
Court to consider the other preliminary objections filed by the Respon-

dents to the jurisdiction of the Court. . . ”( Serbia and Montenegro v.
Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004
(I), pp. 327-328, para. 127; emphasis added.)

85. The theory about the uniting of all the requirements for the

Court’s jurisdiction at any given time has certain, but strictly limited,
merits.
It is applicable, in principle, to the requirements regarding the jurisdic-
tion stricto sensu in all its aspects — ratione materiae, personae et tem-
poris — but not to the requirement of jus standi. The requirement of jus

standi is not just a fundamental one, but at the same time of antecedent
and pre-preliminary nature. “The Court can exercise its judicial function
only in respect of those States which have access to it under Article 35 of
the Statute. And only those States which have access to the Court can

confer jurisdiction upon it. ” (Ibid., p. 299, para. 46; emphasis added.)
86. Such a nature of the jus standi requirement affects the temporal
order of the fulfilment of the requirements regarding the jurisdiction lato
sensu. It could be said that the jus standi requirement is, in terms of time,
not only antecedent but, in that sense, also immovable, related to the

date of the institution of the proceedings, and that other requirements
provided accumulate around it as a kind of linchpin. In its Judgment in
the Fisheries Jurisdiction case the Court stated in explicit terms: “a dec-
laration, which may be either particular or general, must be filed by the
State which is not a party to the Statute, previously to its appearance

before the Court”( Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Germany
v. Iceland), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973 ,
p. 53, para. 11; emphasis added; see also eight Legality of Use of Force
cases (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , pp. 298-299, para. 46).

Otherwise, pursuing the logic on which the majority’s understanding of
the Mavrommatis principle is based, it would be possible to imagine a
situation of the Court having pronounced itself competent in the Aerial

Incident case, after Bulgaria’s admission to membership in the United
Nation, since “the Statute of the present Court could not lay any obliga-
tion upon Bulgaria before its admission to the United Nations” (Aerial
Incident of 27 July 1955 (Israel v. Bulgaria), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1959, p. 143).

87. Such a temporal order seems not only reasonable, but unavoid-
able, as well. As a general, potential right of a State, jus standi belongs to
a State if the State is not a party to the dispute or a party to the proceed-
ings before the Court. It is transformed into an active, effective right
under the additional proviso of the existence of a proper jurisdictional

instrument.

180589 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

It is also supported by the order of the relevant Articles of the Statute
— Article 35, regarding jus standi precedes Article 36, regarding jurisdic-
tion stricto sensu. The order of the enumeration of the relevant require-

ments may represent per se an indication of hierarchy or order of prior-
ity.
88. Bearing in mind the fundamental nature of the jus standi require-
ment, such a temporal order is rather a matter of substance than a matter
of form. In such circumstances the theory of uniting, in an indefinite

period of time, the relevant requirements for the competence of the Court
looks, as a matter of law, like a judicial “Waiting for Godot”.

(f) Sound administration of justice as a purported basis for the establish-

ment of the desired exception to the general rule

89. It appears that the majority itself did not accept the Mavrommatis
rule as applicable to the jus standi requirement. It is loyally observed that
the Mavrommatis rule as well as the jurisprudence of the Court based on
it relate to “jurisdiction ratione materiae or ratione personae in the nar-
row sense and not to the question of access to the Court, which has to do

with a party’s capacity to participate in any proceedings whatever before
the Court” (Judgment, para. 86).
The majority in fact tries to introduce an exception to the rule that the
existence of jus standi of a party should be assessed on the date of the
institution of the proceedings on the principles underpinning the Mav-

rommatis rule. According to this view:
“That being so, it is not apparent why the arguments based on the

sound administration of justice which underpin the Mavrommatis
case jurisprudence cannot also have a bearing in a case such as the
present one. It would not be in the interests of justice to oblige the
Applicant, if it wishes to pursue its claims, to initiate fresh proceed-
ings. In this respect it is of no importance which condition was

unmet at the date the proceedings were instituted, and thereby pre-
vented the Court at that time from exercising its jurisdiction, once it
has been fulfilled subsequently.” (Ibid., para. 87.)

90. Is it questionable whether the principle of sound administration of
justice directly underpins the jurisprudence of the Mavrommatis case? If
we interpret the terms used in the relevant part of the Judgment in the

Mavrommatis case, in accordance with its ordinary and natural meaning,
it seems that the principle of judicial economy, and not the principle of
sound administration, underpins the Court’s reasoning. For, ratio deci-
dendi lies in the words:

“Even assuming that before that time the Court had no jurisdiction
because the international obligation referred to in Article II [of the
mandate for Palestine] was not yet effective,it would always have been

possible for the applicant to re-submit his application in the same

181590 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. KRECu )

terms after the coming into force of the Treaty of Lausanne, and in

that case, the argument in question could not have been advanced.”
(Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 34; emphasis added; see also thePolish Upper
Silesia case, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series A,

No. 6, p. 14.)

And it would mean going much too far, if the principle of judicial
economy would overcome the requirements which makes the core of the

legality of proceedings before the Court.
91. The principle of sound administration of justice is obviously not
omnipotent nor a law-creating principle. It is rather a standard which
allows the Court, in the limits of discretio legalis, to mitigate the rigid

application of the rule of procedure or to solve an issue of procedure
which is not regulated by specific rules of the Statute of the Court and its
Rules. In that sense it is designed in the jurisprudence of the Court .As
such, it can not serve as a basis for the establishment of exception to the

general rule as regards the requirement of jus standi for a number of
reasons.

First of all, the requirement of jus standi is of a mandatory, constitu-

tional nature. Article 35 of the Statute is part of its Chapter II (Compe-
tence of the Court) and not of Chapter III (Procedure) which is the
natural operating space of the principle of sound administration of jus-
tice. Then, there do not exist lacunae in the provision of Article 35 of the

Statute. It is clear and comprehensive, as the concretization of the provi-
sion of Article 93, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the United Nations Charter,
which lifted a limitation to the right of judicial protection before the
International Court of Justice to the rank of public order of the United

Nations. As such it cannot be considered as a procedural rule. Finally,
even if, arguendo, the requirement of jus standi would be defined as pro-
cedural, it would obviously represent norme procedurale fondamentale ,
incapable of any modification.

92. It appears that, contrary to the majority view, the application of
the general rule in casu derives directly from the principle of sound

administration of justice. In the syntagma “sound administration of jus-
tice”, the very administration of justice is the substance of the principle.
“The justice” as the object of “sound and proper administration” is not
abstract justice but justice according to the rules of law governing the

Court’s judicial activity.

4Barcelona Traction, I.C.J. Reports 1964 , pp. 6, 42; Oil Platforms, I.C.J. Reports
1998, pp. 190-203, para. 33; p. 205, para. 43; Application of the Convention on the Pre-
vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, I.C.J. Reports 1997 , p. 257, para. 30;
pp. 257-258, para. 31.

182591 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

93. The institution of proceedings before the Court, as far as its sig-
nificance is concerned, “falls short only of that of the judgment itself”
(G. Schwarzenberger,International Law, Vol. I, 1945, p. 376). It permeates,

as very few rules do, the whole body of the Court’s law, starting with the
provision of Article 40 of the Statute, via the provisions of Articles
26 (1 (b)), 38, 39, 40 (2-3), 42, 46, 80, 81 up to Articles 87, 92 (1), 98 (1-
3), 99 (1-2) and 104 of the Rules of Court.
On the date of the institution of the proceedings, a process relationship

is established between the parties to the dispute, as well as between the
parties to the dispute and the Court — a fact which per se produces
important legal consequences for the parties to the dispute and the Court
itself. From that date the conservatory effects of the Application are
beginning and the litispendence goes on.

94. All in all, from that moment on, the Court starts its judicial activ-
ity stricto sensu, separated from the administrative action of the Registry
of the Court. The principal task of the Court, in that phase of the pro-
ceedings, is to establish the existence of the necessary requirements for its

jurisdiction lato sensu, i.e., the requirement of jus standi, for require-
ments regarding the special jurisdiction in all of its relevant aspects —
ratione personae, materiae et temporis — may be perfected and even
established in the course of the proceedings.
95. The proper application of the principle of sound administration of

justice in casu, must take into account the difference between the require-
ment of jus standi, on the one side, and the requirements of jurisdiction
of the Court stricto sensu, on the other.
An exception to the general rule regarding the date of assessment of
the Court’s jurisdiction might operate as regards the requirement of juris-

diction based on consent of the parties, for it does not touch the legality
of the juridical activity of the Court as such.

Regarding the requirement of jus standi, as a matter of interpretation
of a rule of the Statute, being objective law, the legal situation seems dif-

ferent, regardless of whether the principle underpinning the Mavromma-
tis rule is understood as a principle of judicial economy or as a principle
of sound administration of justice.
The imperative wording of Article 35, paragraph 1, of the Statute, read

in conjunction with Article 93 of the United Nations Charter, does not
leave any doubt in that regard. For, “[t]he Court can exercise its judicial
function only in respect of those States which have access to it under
Article 35 of the Statute. And only those States which have access to the
Court can confer jurisdiction upon it.” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia

and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2004 (I), pp. 298-299, para. 46; see also the ten cases in the pro-
visional measures phase (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), I.C.J. Reports
1999 (I), p. 132, para. 20; and Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic
of Germany v. Iceland), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment , I.C.J.

Reports 1973, p. 53, para. 11.)

183592 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

(g) Compétence de la compétence as an improper modus operandi

96. The application of the principles underpinning the Mavrommatis
rule, as perceived by the majority, implies a modus operandi, since the
principle of sound administration of justice does not operate automati-
cally. The modus operandi is ascertained in the principle of compétence de
la compétence so that it could be said that the exception to the general

rule, that the jurisdiction lato sensu is assessed on the date of the institu-
tion of the proceedings, is, in the majority approach, the result of com-
bined effects of the principle of sound administration of justice and com-
pétence de la compétence respectively.
97. The majority view that “[t]he Court always possesses the com-

pétence de la compétence ” (Judgment, para. 86) is basically correct, in
contrast to the interpretation of Serbia according to which, “whenever it
is seised by a State which does not fulfil the conditions of access under
Article 35, or seised of a case brought against a State which does not fulfil

those conditions, the Court does not even have the compétence de la com-
petence” (ibid.).
98. Compétence de la compétence is an inherent right and duty of the
Court, necessary for it to discharge its duties as regards jurisdictional
issues lato sensu. As such, it operates during the entire proceedings, from

the institution until the end, implying that the Court, either upon a juris-
dictional objection of a party, or proprio motu, not only makes the deter-
mination whether it has jurisdiction in terms of incidental jurisdiction,
but in that regard remains attentive during the entire proceedings. A con-
trario, the Court would be deprived of its essential duty to establish its

jurisdiction lato sensu.
99. However, the power of the Court to determine whether it has juris-
diction is one thing, and the substance of the decision taken on the basis
of the principle of compétence de la compétence is quite another thing. As
a structural and functional principle, the principle of compétence de la

compétence does not possess its own substance in terms of substantive
law. This principle is only the legal vehicle which allows the Court to sat-
isfy itself that the conditions governing its own competence, as defined by
its Statute, are met. The decision of the Court on the basis of the princi-

ple of compétence de la compétence is of a declaratory nature and, as
such, it can not bestow on the Court itself a jurisdiction which is not sup-
ported by applicable rules of law.
100. Due to its nature, this is especially true as regards the requirement
of jus standi. Since the majority itself does not dispute that during

the period from the dissolution of the former SFRY in April 1992
to the admission of the FRY to the United Nations on 1 November
2000, the FRY/Serbia was not a Member of the United Nations, and since the
membership in the United Nations is determinative of its jus standi,a
reasoning in the following terms seems unavoidable:

184593 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

“If, on a correct legal reading of a given situation, certain alleged
rights are found to be non-existent, the consequences of this must be
accepted. The Court cannot properly postulate the existence of such

rights in order to avert those consequences.” (South West Africa
(Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966 , p. 36, para. 57.)

Unfortunately, the majority does not follow this wise dictum, but involves
itself in the fishing of jus standi of Serbia.
101. The non-existence of jus standi of the Party in the moment of

institution of the proceedings deprives the Court, as a semi-open court
of law, of the power to take judicial action. In that regard, the principle
of compétence de la compétence , as such, does not and cannot add or
change anything whatsoever. For,

“The details of this law [law of jurisdiction] have grown with the
continuing exercise of the Court’s compétence de la compétence , but

its basic norm can still be traced to the Permanent Court’s broad
dictum that ‘there is no dispute which States entitled to appear
before the Court cannot refer to it’.” (I. Shihata, The Power of the
International Court to Determine its own Jurisdiction, Compétence
de la Compétence, 1965, p. 304; emphasis added.)

(h) Effects of seisin of the Court

102. It seems that the majority view has overstressed the role of the

seisin of the Court, attributing to it some effect in terms of substantive
jurisdiction.
103. The qualifications of the seisin of the Court as “duly”, “regular”
or “proper” are frequently used, in the present phase of the proceedings
as well, to indicate a State’s recourse to the Court in a proper way. This,

in fact, implies that a State has submitted an application, or that two or
more States have submitted a special agreement, in conformity with the
relevant provisions of the Statute of the Court and its Rules. In this
sense, the expressions such as “duly seised” or “properly seised” have,

first and foremost, a formal, procedural meaning.
104. Although it is a procedural act, seisin, however, is not deprived of
any legal effects. By the act of seizure, the Court has acquired a measure
of procedural competence “to determine its substantive jurisdiction if in
question or otherwise uncertain” (G. Fitzmaurice, “The Law and Proce-

dure of the International Court of Justice, 1951-1954: Questions of Juris-
diction, Competence and Procedure”, British Year Book of International
Law, 1958, p. 15) and to activate its inherent power to determine its juris-
diction (compétence de la compétence) either upon an objection of the
party or proprio motu.

For, the law of the Court does not know, apart from the administra-

185594 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

tive action of the Registry as regards non-State entities, separate proceed-
ings designed specifically to deal with the validity of the proceedings in
terms of whether necessary requirements, as established by Articles 35

and 36 of the Statute, are being fulfilled. Thus, in effect, the Court,
although “properly” or “duly” seised, only a posteriori decides whether it
possesses substantive competence to deal with the case brought before it.
It seems that it is precisely this that is the rationale of the dictum of the
Court in the Qatar/Bahrain case, to the effect that “the question of

whether the Court was validly seised appears to be a question of jurisdic-
tion” (Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar
and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1995 , p. 23, para. 43).
105. Stricti juris, the seizure of the Court is valid in substantive terms

only if all the requirements for the Court’s jurisdiction lato sensu, pro-
vided by Articles 35 and 36 of the Statute, are fulfilled. A contrario, sei-
sin, regardless of whether termed “properly” or “duly”, is essentially only
“effective” seisin, enabling the Court to establish whether it possesses

substantive competence in casu, or whether, in the light of the relevant
requirements, it is “validly seised”. (Adjectives, at least in the legal
vocabulary, more often than not, hinder rather than help understanding.
Thus, “proper(ly)” or “due (duly)” seisin would, in fact, be the very “seis-
ing of the Court” (G. Fitzmaurice, op. cit.), and “seisin” would, by defi-

nition, imply “valid seisin”.)
For, as the Court stressed in subtle terms — although using the word
“seising” in terms of “effective seisin” — in the Nottebohm case: “under
the system of the Statute the seising of the Court by means of an Applica-
tion is not ipso facto open to all States parties to the Statute, it is only

open to the extent defined in the applicable Declarations” (Nottebohm,
(Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1953, p. 122).
106. Seisin of the Court as a procedural step is effected in practice in a
highly relaxed manner. It appears that it is assumed that the fulfilment of

the procedural conditions specified in Article 38, paragraphs 1, 2 and 3,
and Article 39, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the Rules of Court, are sufficient
in that regard. Only, “[w]hen the applicant State proposes to found the
jurisdiction of the Court upon a consent” of a State against which such

application is made, “[i]t shall not . . . be entered in the General List, nor
any action be taken in the proceedings” (Art. 38, para. 5, of the Rules of
Court). Such a manner is understandable, if the requirements under Arti-
cle 36 of the Statute are in question, for the simple reason that following
the seisin of the Court substantive jurisdiction may be conferred upon the

Court or perfected by the parties.
107. As regards the requirements under Article 35 of the Statute, this
is another matter. Having in mind the nature of the requirements and its
effects upon the legality of the judicial activity of the Court, it seems
essential, in particular in case of doubt or uncertainty, to determine as

soon as possible whether or not the requirements under Article 35 of the

186595 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

Statute are met. In contrast to the requirements under Article 35 which,
being based on the consent of the parties to the dispute, cannot only be
perfected but also created in the time following the seisin of the Court,

the requirements under Article 36 of the Statute must be fulfilled on the
date of the institution of the proceedings before the Court. Short of this,
seisin of the Court is not valid, but is merely a procedural step having no
effects on the substantive competence of the Court to deal with the case.

It is precisely in this that I see the meaning of the dictum of the Court
in the eight Legality of Use of Force cases, that the Applicant “could not
have properly seised the Court” ((Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 299,
para. 46), because it was not a party to the Statute and, consequently, did

not have a right to appear before the Court.

(i) If valid, why was not the alleged exception applied in the Legality of
Use of Force cases?

108. It remains unclear why the Court, if found that there exists an
exception to the general rule that the jurisdiction lato sensu is assessed on
the day of the institution of the proceedings, did not apply it in the iden-
tical legal situation in the Legality of the Use of Force cases? The objec-

tion of Serbia (Judgment, para. 84) aims at the very heart of the majority
reasoning, alluding to the violation of the fundamental principle of
equality of States. The unconvincing answer of the majority to that
objection is surprising. It consists of three considerations, broad in their
vagueness and formalism, so that one can get the impression that they are

given formalitatis causa.

109. Firstly, the majority finds that:

“It was clear that Serbia and Montenegro did not have the inten-
tion of pursuing its claims by way of new applications. That State
itself argued before the Court that it was not, and never had been,
bound by Article IX of the Genocide Convention, even though that

was the basis for jurisdiction which it had initially invoked (e.g.,
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Pre-
liminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , pp. 292-
293, para. 29). It is true that the Applicant in those cases had let it be
known that it did not intend to discontinue the proceedings pending

before the Court; but, given the legal position it was asserting from
that time on as to the Genocide Convention, it was out of the ques-
tion that, in the event of judgments rejecting its applications owing
to its lack of access to the Court at the date the proceedings had
been instituted, it would rely on the status it would then undoubt-

edly possess of party to the Statute of the Court to submit fresh

187596 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

applications identical in substance to the first . . . Indeed, Serbia and
Montenegro took care not to ask the Court to do so; while Croatia
is asking the Court to apply the jurisprudence of the Mavrommatis

case to the present case, no such request was made, or could logi-
cally have been made, by the Applicant in 2004.” (Judgment,
para. 89.)

The question of “the intention of pursuing. . . claims by way of new
applications” (ibid.) does not seem relevant at all in the frame of the so-
called Mavrommatis rule. In its Judgment in the Mavrommatis case, the
Court invoked the general possibility “for the applicant to re-submit his

application” (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 , p. 34) and
not the intention. It applied rather an objective than subjective standard
in that regard. In the absence of clear and unequivocal evidence of
“intention” one can only speculate. The majority “infers” that the Appli-
cant did not wish to pursue the proceedings on the basis of the argument

of Serbia that it was not, and never had been, bound by Article IX of the
Genocide Convention. It seems almost unbelievable that the majority, in
relation to jurisdiction as a questio juris falling within the scope of the
principle jura novit curia, gives decisive importance to the arguments of a

party.

110. At the same time, the finding that “Serbia and Montenegro did
not have the intention of pursuing its claims by way of new applications”
appears to be erroneous and even contra factum proprium. For, in the

Legality of Use of Force cases the Court stated expressis verbis :

“it is suggested that, by inviting the Court to find that it has no juris-
diction, the Applicant can no longer be regarded as pursuing the set-
tlement by the Court of the substantive dispute.
The Court is unable to uphold these. . . contentions. . . As to the
argument concerning the disappearance of the substantive dispute, it

is clear that Serbia and Montenegro has by no means withdrawn its
claims as to the merits. Indeed, these claims were extensively argued
and developed in substance during the hearings on jurisdiction, in
the context of the question of the jurisdiction of the Court under

Article IX of the Genocide Convention. It is equally clear that these
claims are being vigorously denied by the Respondents. It could not
even be said under these circumstances that, while the essential dis-
pute still subsists, Serbia and Montenegro is no longer seeking to
have its claim determined by the Court . Serbia and Montenegro has

not sought a discontinuance. . .; and it has stated that it ‘wants the
Court to continue the case and to decide upon its jurisdiction — and
to decide on the merits as well, if it has jurisdiction’ . In the present
circumstances, the Court is unable to find that Serbia and Montene-
gro has renounced any of its substantive or procedural rights, or has

taken the position that the dispute between the Parties has ceased to

188597 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

exist.” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Bel-
gium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
p. 297, paras. 42-43; emphasis added.)

The consideration that “there would have been no justification for the

Court to disregard the FRY’s initial lack of capacity to seise the Court,
on the ground that the defect had been cured in the course of proceed-
ings” (Judgment, para. 89) because “Serbia and Montenegro took care
not to ask the Court to do so”( ibid.; emphasis added), is not convincing.
In contrast to Croatia, it seems sufficient to remark that as regards the

issue of jurisdiction, the wishes of the parties are not of decisive impor-
tance, if any (paras. 46-59 above).

111. Secondly, it seems that the majority tends to introduce elements
of penalizing or reward for the parties as regards the application of the

exception to the general rule, depending on a party’s attitude towards its
jus standi in earlier cases. Such a conclusion stems from the consideration
that:

“At the date the Application was filed, the Respondent considered
that it had the capacity to participate in proceedings before the

Court, and its position in that respect was a matter of public
knowledge. . . The Applicant could therefore feel entitled to seise the
Court on what at first sight seemed to be an appropriate basis of
jurisdiction.” (Judgment, para. 90.)

Therefore, “Croatia’s conduct does not reflect any circumstances that
would warrant a particularly strict application by the Court of the juris-

prudence described above” (ibid.).
112. The dictum suggests that the Court has full discretionary power
regarding the application of the constitutional rules of its Statute on the
basis of the assessment of the behaviour of the parties in terms of bona
fidae, although a party’s arguments might be motivated by considera-

tions based on litigation strategy. It looks like an inversed theory of
estoppel in favour of the Applicant.

Things are additionally complicated by the statement of the majority

that the attitude of the Respondent as regards its jus standi in the rele-
vant period makes that the Applicant “could. . . feel entitled to seise the
Court on what at first sight seemed to be an appropriate basis of jurisdic-
tion” (ibid.). Such a statement seems highly doubtful.
113. Apart from the issue of the relevance of the arguments of the

Parties as regards the jurisdiction lato sensu and that in concreto the
question in issue is not “the basis of jurisdiction” but the “capacity to
appear before the Court”, the true meaning of the majority’s considera-
tion is that the Applicant, for utilitarian purposes, relied on the earlier
arguments of the Respondent as regards its jus standi. For, the funda-

mental premise of the Croatian policy, which is a matter of common

189598 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. KRECA )
u

knowledge consistently applied, is that the SFRY was dissolved into six
legally equal parts, so that the FRY, according to that premise, does not
have continuity with the SFRY, and, consequently, no continuity as
5
regards the membership in the United Nations . And without continua-
tion in the membership of the SFRY in the United Nations, the FRY/
Serbia simply could not have the status of a party to the Statute of the

Court.

114. Further, the majority’s consideration seems also dubious in the
light of the arguments of the Applicant itself. It appears probable that the

Applicant relied in fact on the decisions of the Court taken in the differ-
ent phases of the Bosnia case as regards the jus standi of FRY/Serbia,
expecting, as it is shown rightly, that they will overcome the jurispru-

dence which consists of the Judgments in the eight Legality of Use of
Force cases, the Fisheries Jurisdiction and Monetary Gold cases. This
expectation was described in a condensed form by counsel of Croatia. He

said:
“Croatia took account of the provisional measure Orders and the

1996 Judgment. It relied on the Court’s reasoning as authoritative. It
had a reasonable expectation that the Court would, following a prin-
ciple of judicial certainty, adopt the same reasoning in future cases
where the facts in issue were, to all intents and purposes, identical.”

(CR 2008/10, p. 31, para. 12).

As Serbia’s real target in the proceedings, according to that view, was
“the Court’s recent Judgment in the Bosnia case. It wants a judgment . . .
that will allow it to minimize, neutralize, and — eventually — abandon

the Bosnia Judgments of 2007 and 1996 as an anomaly” (ibid., pp. 27-28,
para. 2), then, in the view of the Applicant, the Court’s decision in terms
of a rescue operation of the legality of the jurisdictional decision in the

Bosnia case was expected.
115. Thirdly, another additional consideration is even more uncon-
vincing than the previous two. The majority states that

5 Exempli causa, in its Memorial, Croatia pointed out, inter alia, that “[n]either Croatia
nor any of the other Republics of SFRY which became independent accept that FRY was
the ‘continuation’ in a legal sense of the SFRY” (Memorial, para. 2.138, footnote 220).

In his letter of 16 February 1994 addressed to the Secretary-General, the Permanent
Representative of Croatia to the United Nations takes a position on the “declaration
adopted on 27 April 1992 at the joint session of the National Assembly of the Republic of
Serbia and the Assembly of the Republic of Montenegro” (UN doc. S/1994/198 (1994)).

The question seems clear and unequivocal: “The Republic of Croatia strongly objects
to the pretensions of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) to con-
tinue the state, international, legal and political personality of the former Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia.”

190599 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

“while Croatia’s Application — a short text comprising some ten
pages — was filed on 2 July 1999, that is prior to the admission of
the FRY to the United Nations on 1 November 2000, its Memorial

on the merits, a document of 414 pages, was submitted on 1 March
2001, after that date” (Judgment, para. 90).

Although saying that “it is not possible to equate the filing of a memo-
rial with that of an instrument instituting proceedings” (ibid.), the major-
ity in fact passes half of the way in this equation. Given the fact that it
“expounds the Applicant’s arguments, but also . . . specifies the submis-
sions” (ibid.), the majority view is that that “it cannot be entirely

ignored” (ibid.).
Apart from the fact that such an equalizing has no basis whatsoever in
the Statute and in the Rules of Court, it implicitly derogates, or at least
substantially dilutes, the basic thesis of the majority on the existence of
the exception to the general rule that the jurisdiction of the Court must

be assessed on the date of institution of the proceedings. For, on the basis
of such determination of the Memorial of Croatia, the majority con-
cludes that “if Croatia had submitted the substance of its Memorial, on
1 March 2001, in the form of a new application, as it could have done, no

question with respect to Article 35 of the Statute would have arisen”
(ibid.).

2. Jurisdiction ratione materiae

(a) General approach of the majority

116. The present Judgment, in contrast to the 1996 Judgment (Appli-
cation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objec-

tions, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 613, para. 26) treats the 1992 declara-
tion as the basis of the jurisdiction ratione materiae. The turn in the
treatment of the declaration, which in the 1996 Judgment was perceived
by the majority as a proper basis of the jurisdiction of the Court ratione

personae (paragraphs 18-20 above), seems to be dictated by the needs of
an ad hoc construction of the Judgment by necessary implication applied
in the 2007 Judgment.
117. The declaration was adopted by the participants of the Joint Ses-
sion of the Assembly of the SFRY, the National Assembly of the Repub-

lic of Serbia and the Assembly of the Republic of Montenegro, on
27 April 1992. The text of the declaration reads as follows:

“The representatives of the people of the Republic of Serbia and
the Republic of Montenegro,
Expressing the will of the citizens of their respective Republics to
stay in the common state of Yugoslavia,
Accepting all basic principles of the Charter of the United Nations

and the CSCE Helsinki Final Act and the Paris Charter, and par-

191600 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

ticularly the principles of parliamentary democracy, market
economy and respect for human rights and the rights of national
minorities,

Remaining strictly committed to a peaceful resolution of the Yugo-
slav crisis, wish to state in this Declaration their views on the basic,
immediate and lasting objectives of the policy of their common state,

and on its relations with the former Yugoslav Republics.

In that regard, the representatives of the people of the Republic of
Serbia and the Republic of Montenegro declare:

1. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, continuing the state, inter-
national legal and political personality of the Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, shall strictly abide by all the commitments
that the SFR of Yugoslavia assumed internationally,

At the same time, it is ready to fully respect the rights and inter-
ests of the Yugoslav Republics which declared independence. The
recognition of the newly-formed states will follow after all the out-
standing questions negotiated on within the Conference on Yugosla-

via have been settled,

Remaining bound by all obligations to international organizations
and institutions whose member it is, the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia shall not obstruct the newly-formed States to join these organi-

zations and institutions, particularly the United Nations and its spe-
cialized agencies. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia shall respect
and fulfil the rights and obligations the SFR of Yugoslavia assumed
vis-à-vis the territories of Krajina which have been placed, within the

framework of the United Nations peace-keeping operation, under
the protection of the world Organization.

The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia also remains ready to nego-

tiate, within the Conference on Yugoslavia, all problems related to
the division of assets, which means both to assets and debts acquired
jointly. In case of a dispute regarding these issues, the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia shall be ready to accept the arbitration of
the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague.

2. The diplomatic and consular missions of the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia abroad shall continue without interruption to per-
form their functions of representing and protecting the interests of
Yugoslavia. Until further notice, they shall continue to take care of

all the assets of Yugoslavia abroad.

They shall also extend consular protection to all nationals of the

192601 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

SFR of Yugoslavia whenever they request them to do so until a final
regulation of their nationality status.
The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia recognizes, at the same time,

the full continuity of the representation of foreign states by their dip-
lomatic and consular missions in its territory.
3. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is interested in the re-
instatement of economic, transport, energy and other flows and ties in
the territory of the SFR of Yugoslavia. It is ready to make its full

contribution to that end.

4. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has no territorial aspira-
tions towards any of its neighbors. Respecting the objectives and
principles of the United Nations Charter and CSCE documents, it

remains strictly committed to the principle of non-use of force in set-
tling any outstanding issues.
5. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia shall ensure the highest
standards of the protection of human rights and the rights of national

minorities provided for in international legal instruments and CSCE
documents. In addition, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is ready
to grant the national minorities in its territory all those rights which
would be recognized to and enjoyed by the national minorities in
other CSCE participating states.

6. In its foreign relations, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
shall be guided by the principles of the United Nations Charter, as
well as the principles of CSCE documents, particularly the Paris
Charter for New Europe. As the founding member of the Movement

of non-aligned countries, it shall remain committed to the principles
and objectives of the policy of non-alignment.

It shall develop relations of confidence and understanding with its
neighbors proceeding from the principle of good neighborliness. The

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia shall, as a State of free citizens, be
guided in its democratic development by the standards and achieve-
ments of the Council of Europe, the European Community and
other European institutions, with an orientation to join them in the

foreseeable future.” (United Nations doc. A/46/915, Ann. II; empha-
sis added.)

118. In its 1996 Judgment the Court perceived the declaration as a uni-
lateral act that per se produced legal consequences relevant as regards its

jurisdiction ratione personae. The Court found that by way of the decla-
ration the FRY expressed the intention “to remain bound by the inter-
national treaties to which the former Yugoslavia was party” (Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objec-

tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 610, para. 17) and, on that

193602 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

basis, could be considered as bound by the Genocide Convention on the
date of filing of the Application by Bosnia and Herzegovina.

119. De novo assessment of the nature and effects of the 1992 declara-
tion is necessary, not only because of the fact that the 1996 Judgment is
not res indicata in the present case, but primarily due to substantial rea-
sons. The reasons regarding the new developments, legal and factual,

should be added to the reasons which existed at the time of the adoption
of the 1996 Judgment and considered in toto.
In the light of the developments which took place following the adop-
tion of the 1996 Judgment, and especially the admission of the FRY to

the UN membership in a double capacity — as a new Member and as a
successor State — it comes out that, as regards the perception of the
nature and effects of the declaration, the 1996 Judgment was a kind of
interim judgment based on the continuity presumption. As such, it is

deprived of precedental authority in casu.

(b) Whether the 1992 declaration could be considered a unilateral
legal act in terms of international law?

120. It seems obvious that the issue of an act by a single State cannot

by itself qualify as a unilateral act capable of producing legal effects in
foro externo. The unilateral nature of an act is but one extrinsic element
which, when coupled with other elements, both extrinsic and intrinsic,
forms a unilateral legal act in terms of international law.

121. In the circumstances of the case at hand a number of elements are
of special relevance. The primary extrinsic element concerns the capacity
of the participants in the Joint Session of the Assembly of the SFRY,

the National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia and the Assembly
of the Republic of Montenegro to perform unilateral acts in the sense
of international law. This Joint Session of the Assembly of the SFRY,
the National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia and the Assembly of the

Republic of Montenegro was not constituted as the Parliament of the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia; rather it was a body of representatives
in statu nascendi. Even if, arguendo, it represented the Parliament, it was
obviously not a State organ possessing the capacity to perform unilateral
acts on behalf of the State. Representatives of a State for purposes of

formulating unilateral legal acts are Heads of State, Heads of Govern-
ment and ministers of foreign affairs . This rule has also been confirmed
in the jurisprudence of the Court (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , pp. 269-270, paras. 49-51; Application of

the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Geno-
cide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections,

6Art. 4, Report on Unilateral Acts of States, Yearbook of the International Law Com-
mission, 1998, Vol. II, Part One, doc. A/CN.4/486; United Nations doc. A/CN.4/500 and
Add. 1.

194603 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP . KRECu )

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 622, para. 44; Arrest Warrant of

11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , pp. 21-22, para. 53; Armed Activities on the
Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic

of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction of the Court and Admissibility of
the Application, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 27, para. 46; see alsoLegal Status
of Eastern Greenland (Denmark v. Norway), Judgment, 1933, P.C.I.J.,

Series A/B, No. 53, p. 71). Consequently, it appears that the declaration,
if designed as a unilateral legal act in foro externo, was issued by an
incompetent organ under international law and, as such, produced no
7
legal effects .
122. True, the declaration, as the Court found, “was confirmed in an
official Note of 27 April 1992 from the Permanent Mission of Yugoslavia

to the United Nations, addressed to the Secretary-General” (Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objec-

tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 610, para. 17). The word
“confirmed” in the present context may have two meanings: a descriptive
one in the sense that the letter from the Permanent Representative repro-

duced the text of the declaration and a meaning as a“terminus technicus”,
signifying confirmation of a unilateral act of an unauthorized State organ.
Neither of these two possible meanings of the word “confirmed” can be

accepted in concreto. In respect of the descriptive meaning of the word
“confirmed”, it is obvious that the Note from the Permanent Representa-
tive reproduces the text of the declaration only in part, i.e., citing only a

small part thereof relating exclusively to legal identity and continuity.
By definition, the limited powers held by heads of permanent missions
to international organizations, including permanent missions to the

United Nations, negate the possibility of the official Note of the Perma-
nent Mission of Yugoslavia of 27 April 1992 being understood as “con-

7 See Art. 4 (subsequent confirmation of an act formulated by a person not authorized
for that purpose) in the Third Report of the Special Rapporteur, Yearbook of the Inter-
national Law Commission , 2000, Vol. I, p. 96.
8 The text of the Note reads:

“The Assembly of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, at its session held
on 27 April 1992, promulgated the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via. Under the Constitution, on the basis of the continuing personality of Yugoslavia
and the legitimate decisions by Serbia and Montenegro to continue to live together in
Yugoslavia, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, consisting of the Republic
of Serbia and the Republic of Montenegro.

Strictly respecting the continuity of the international personality of Yugoslavia, the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia shall continue to fulfil all the rights conferred to, and
obligations assumed by, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in international
relations, including its membership in all international organizations and participa-
tion in international treaties ratified or acceded to by Yugoslavia.” (United Nations

doc. A/46/915, Ann. I.)

195604 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.KRECu )

firmation” of an act issued by an organ, if at the material point in time it
was an organ incompetent under international law to perform legal acts

on behalf of the State.
123. Hence the proper characterization of the Note of the Yugoslav
Permanent Mission of 27 April 1992 is that of a transmission of the dec-
laration, followed by the corresponding reproduction of a part of the

declaration directly connected with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s
proclaimed legal identity with, and continuation of, the former SFRY
vis-à-vis the United Nations.
124. This characterization of the Note of the Yugoslav Permanent

Mission suggests that the declaration of 27 April 1992 and the Note of
the Permanent Mission are two distinct, yet not totally separate acts,
both by their nature and by their effects. For its part, the declaration is
basically a general statement of policy with respect to matters directly or

indirectly connected with the issue of the proclaimed legal identity and
State continuity of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, while the Note
seems to be primarily a notification in the standard sense. Evidence to
this effect is found in the fact that the addressee of the Note was the Sec-

retary-General, who was requested to circulate the declar9tion and the
Note as an official document of the General Assembly , whereas the dec-
laration as such was addressed urbi et orbi.

(c) The issue of intention

125. The intention to produce a proper legal effect is a common ele-
ment of unilateral legal acts. In that regard, unilateral acts are always a
manifestation of the will of a State. However, the intention to produce
legal consequences is not per se sufficient to give to unilateral act as such

the character of legal undertaking.
In that respect, unilateral legal acts may be divided into two groups:
unilateral legal acts which produce legal effects on its own, and unilateral
legal acts which produce proper legal effects on the basis of acceptance or

acquiescence by another State or States (paras. 126-128, and 134 below).

The 1992 declaration would represent, in that respect, a mixture of
those two kinds of unilateral acts. Its point 4 might have legal effects on

its own, and that would be the act of renouncing the territorial aspira-
tions towards the neighbouring countries. The other points of the decla-
ration would imply the acceptance or acquiescence of other States in
order to produce proper legal effects.

126. It appears that in the 1996 Judgment, the majority applied
mechanically the legal formula from the Nuclear Tests cases to point 1 of
the declaration saying that:

“The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, continuing the State, inter-

9United Nations doc. A/46/915.

196605 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

national legal and political personality of the Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, shall strictly abide by all the commitments
that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia assumed interna-

tionally.” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugo-
slavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,
p. 610, para. 17.)

That formula could not be applied to the declaration.
127. The well-known dictum of the Court in the Nuclear Tests cases

reads as follows:

“It is well recognized that declarations made by way of unilateral
acts, concerning legal or factual situations, may have the effect of
creating legal obligations. Declarations of this kind may be, and
often are, very specific. When it is the intention of the State making

the declaration that it should be bound according to its terms, that
intention confers on the declaration the character of a legal under-
taking, the State being thenceforth legally required to follow a
course of conduct consistent with the declaration. An undertaking of
this kind, if given publicly, and with an intent to be bound, even

though not made within the context of international negotiations, is
binding.” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 267, para. 43; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v.
France), ibid., p. 472, para. 46.)

In the Nuclear Tests cases the act in issue was a unilateral legal act
capable of producing legal effect of its own, being an expression of “the

power of auto-limitation which States enjoyed under international law, in
other words, their ability in the exercise of their sovereignty to subject
themselves to international legal obligations” (see V. Rodríguez Cedeño,
Special Rapporteur, Yearbook of the International Law Commission ,
1998, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 53, para. 140).

128. The 1992 declaration, although being a unilateral act, is not capa-
ble of producing legal effects per se, without the acceptance by other
States. The continuity claim on which it was based — “continuing the

State, international legal and political personality of the SFRY, [it] shall
strictly abide by all the commitments that the SFRY assumed interna-
tionally” — had to be, as such, accepted by the international community
in order for the relevant part of the declaration to produce legal effects.
Otherwise, the 1996 Judgment would create a general principle, accord-

ing to which any interested State could determine, in the form of a uni-
lateral act, its objective legal status in terms of the dichotomy continua-
tor State/successor State, including its membership in the international
organizations. For, in the very point of the declaration in which its
authors said that the FRY “shall strictly abide by all the commitments

that the SFRY assumed internationally” it is also said that the FRY is

197606 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

“remaining bound by all obligations to international organizations and
institutions whose member it is” including “particularly the United
Nations and its specialized agencies”.

However, the continuity claim as a legal basis of the declaration was
not generally accepted. That appears to be a matter of common knowl-

edge.

(d) Whether the “intention of the FRY” is separable from the

continuity condition?

129. The idea which is underlying the majority reasoning is that the
“intention of the FRY to abide by all the commitments that the SFRY
assumed internationally” is separable from the continuity condition since
it was not expressed in explicit terms. It implies that the continuity

premise, since it was not explicitly formulated in terms of the condition of
validity of the declaration, represents, in fact, only a motif for its adop-
tion, which would per se be irrelevant.

130. In the light of the text of the declaration, the idea seems abstract

and divorced from its natural and ordinary meaning. The undertaking
“shall strictly abide by all the commitments that the SFRY assumed
internationally” is given by the FRY as “continuing the State, interna-
tional legal and political personality of the SFRY”. Relevant in that
sense are also the travaux préparatoires of the declaration. At the meet-

ing of the Federal Chamber of the Assembly of the SFRY held on
27 April 1992, which proclaimed the Constitution of the FRY, the Presi-
dent of the Assembly of Serbia emphasized, in his introductory speech
inter alia that “Serbia and Montenegro do not recognize that Yugoslavia
is abolished and ceased to exist” (Politika, Belgrade, 28 April 1992, p. 6;

emphasis added). Another opening speaker, the President of the Assem-
bly of Montenegro, pointed out, inter alia, that Serbia and Montenegro
were “the only States which brought their statehood with them on the
creation of Yugoslavia and decided to constitutionally rearrange the

former Yugoslavia”( ibid.; emphasis added).

That fact was not contested by the then Applicant — Bosnia and
Herzegovina — which asserted that “it is on the basis of this alleged ‘con-
tinuity’ that Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) considers itself to be

bound by all international commitments undertaken by the former
SFRY” (Memorial, p. 160, para. 4.2.2.11).
131. As such, it is a declaration of continuity out of which comes
ex lege that the FRY strictly abides by the commitments assumed by
the SFRY. The wording “abide by all the commitments that the

SFRY assumed internationally” is, in fact, a claim for legal identity

198607 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECA )
u

with the SFRY which, by itself, represents the basis and substance
of the continuity as the operational, functioning side of a single insti-
tution.
132. In the 1992 declaration, the continuity claim is an inherent condi-

tion, its rationale and the element permeating the declaration as a whole.
It is more than a formal condition, for the declaration would be devoid
of substance without the continuity claim. If the declaration was intended
to produce legal effects irrespective of continuity, these effects would
have been expressed as the confirmation or safeguarding of rights and

obligations created by the treaty commitments of the SFRY rather than,
as inferred by the Court itself, in terms to “remain bound by the interna-
tional treaties to which the former Yugoslavia was party” (Application of
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Geno-
cide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 610, para. 17; emphasis added).

133. The idea of the separability of the intention of the FRY to abide
by all the commitments of the SFRY and the continuity premise is
sharply, almost irreconcilably opposed also to the rules of interpretation

of unilateral legal acts of States, well settled in the jurisprudence of the
Court. Where unilateral acts of States are to be interpreted,
“declarations. . . are to be read as a whole”( Fisheries Jurisdiction
(Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1998, p. 454, para. 47; emphasis added) and “interpreted as a unity”

(ibid., p. 453, para. 44; emphasis added). Further, unilateral acts “must
be interpreted as [they stand,] having regard to the words actually used”
(Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (United Kingdom v. Iran), Preliminary Objec-
tion, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 , p. 105). Finally, when States “make
statements by which their freedom of action is to be limited, a restrictive

interpretation is called for ”( Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 267, para. 44; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand
v. France), ibid., p. 473, para. 47; emphasis added).

134. The intention of the authors of the acts, incapable of producing
legal effects per se made in treaty pattern, is of a specific nature. Regard-
ing that particular group of unilateral acts, the consideration of the
Court in the Nuclear Tests cases, that “nothing in the nature of a quid
pro quo nor any subsequent acceptance of the declaration, nor even
any reply or reaction from other States, is required for the declaration to

take effect” (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 267, para. 43) does not stand.
For, the object of unilateral acts made in treaty pattern, is not an
obligation stricto sensu, by way of which the authors limit themselves in
the exercise of its sovereignty, but a synallagmatic obligation immanent
to treaties. As regards those kind of unilateral legal acts, the intention is

only the cause which must be accompanied by a proper treaty action
in order to produce the intended effects (para. 153 below). If not, the

199608 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECA )
u

fundamental principle pacta tertiis nec nocent nec prosunt would be
infringed.

(e) The effects of the 1992 declaration

135. The intention of the authors of the 1992 declaration seems clear
on the face of the declaration itself. In its preamble it is said that the par-
ticipants in the Joint Session of the Assembly of the SFRY, the National
Assembly of the Republic of Serbia, and the Assembly of the Republic of

Montenegro, as its authors, “wish to state in this Declaration their views
on the basic, immediate and lasting objectives of the policy of their com-
mon state, and on its relations with the former Yugoslav Republics”
(emphasis added). In that respect, it can be compared with the commu-
nication of the Junta of the Government of National Reconstruction of

Nicaragua to the Secretary-General of the Organization of American
States, accompanied by the “Plan to secure peace” which the Court in the
Nicaragua case determined as

“This part of the resolution is a mere statement which does not
comprise any formal offer which if accepted would constitute a
promise in law, and hence a legal obligation. . . an essentially politi-
cal pledge, made not only to the Organization, but also to the people

of Nicaragua, intended to be its first beneficiaries” (Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 ,
p. 132, para. 261; emphasis added).

136. It should be noted that the declarations of the Assembly in the
constitutional system of Yugoslavia have, since its foundation, been
treated as general political acts having for its object the issues not

included in the competence of the Assembly (M. Snuderl, Constitutional
Law, Ljubljana, Vol. II, 1957, p. 47; A. Fira, Constitutional Law, Bel-
grade, 1977, p. 381).

(f) Could the 1992 declaration be considered a notification of
succession?

137. The majority treats the 1992 declaration in a specific way, differ-
ent from that implemented in the 1996 and 2007 Judgments. While in the
1996 and the 2007 Judgments the 1992 declaration is perceived as a uni-
lateral legal act producing per se effects in terms of the determination of

the FRY as a party to the Genocide Convention, in the present Judgment
the declaration is put in a broader context of the succession in respect of
treaties. Basically, the majority treats it as a notification of succession.
And the succession itself, in respect of treaties, is in the majority reason-
ing, coloured by the logic of automatic succession without speaking its

name.

200609 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

138. In that regard, the majority finds that:

“In the case of succession or continuation on the other hand, the
act of will of the State relates to an already existing set of circum-
stances, and amounts to a recognition by that State of certain legal
consequences flowing from those circumstances, so that any docu-

ment issued by the State concerned, being essentially confirmatory,
may be subject to less rigid requirements of form.” (Judgment,
para. 109.)

And, further, that the idea is reflected in:

“Article 2 (g) of the 1978 Vienna Convention on Succession of
States in respect of Treaties . . . defining a ‘notification of succession’
as meaning ‘in relation to a multilateral treaty, any notification, how-
ever framed or named, made by a successor State expressing its con-
sent to be considered as bound by the treaty’” (ibid.).

139. It appears, however, that “any document issued by the State”
(ibid.), may, as a matter of law, mean only the document issued by an
organ competent under international law to act on behalf of a State. The
principle seems to be generally recognized in international law (Head of
State principle).

140. The majority interprets “being. . . confirmatory” (ibid.) in the
context of “an already existing set of circumstances. . . [as amounting] to
a recognition by that State of certain legal consequences flowing from
those circumstances” (ibid.). Further, that the 1992 declaration referred
“to a class of instruments which was perfectly ascertainable. . . the treaty

‘commitments’. . . the Genocide Convention was one of these ‘commit-
ments’” (ibid., para. 108.)
141. The finding, it seems, starts from the perception of notification of
succession as confirmation that the Respondent is bound by a “perfectly
ascertainable” (ibid.) class of instruments which includes the Genocide

Convention, on the basis of law (plein du droit).
True, such an understanding might correspond to the grammatical
meaning of Article 34 of the Convention on Succession of States in
respect of Treaties which is, however, substantially modified in the prac-

tice of States. None of the successor States, following the entry into force
of the Convention, acted in the way implying that the notification of suc-
cession meant confirmation that the transfer of rights and obligations of
the predecessor State occurred ipso jure. The majority itself does not refer
to any practice in that regard. Successor States, most of them being at the

same time Contracting Parties to the Convention on Succession of States
in respect of Treaties, treated the continuity rule provided in its Article 34
“only as main and general flexible rule covering everything that has
emerged in the region involving State succession” (H. Bokor-Szego,
“Questions of State Identity and State Succession in Eastern and Central

Europe”, Succession of States, 1999, ed., by M. Mrak, pp. 104-105). The

201610 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

residual and jus dispositivum nature of the rules on succession on the one
hand, and the general notion of succession of States given in Article 2,
paragraph 1 (b), of the Convention, leaving aside any connotation of

inheritance of rights and obligations on the occurrence of change of sov-
ereignty, on the other, give supportive force to such practice of successor
States.
142. The majority has made an impressive effort to construct condi-
tions for the application of the Mavrommatis principle as it sees it, in

order to escape the inescapable — to consider the relationship of the
Respondent vis-à-vis the Genocide Convention within the general law on
succession of States in respect of treaties. For that purpose it resorts to
the inversed order of examination of the Applicant’s contentions, by first
examining the alternative contention regarding the 1992 declaration, with

the explanation that
“if Croatia’s contentions as to the effect of the declaration and Note

are accepted, the need does not arise for the Court further to address
the arguments put to it by the Parties concerning the rules of inter-
national law governing State succession to treaties including the
question of ipso jure succession to some multilateral treaties” (Judg-

ment, para. 101).
However, Croatia’s contentions as to the effect of the 1992 declaration

have been designed within the law on succession. Counsel for the Appli-
cant pointed out, inter alia, that

“The famous letter [Note] the Respondent sent to the Secretary-
General on 27 April 1992 was not an offer to those States who
agreed with the FRY’s continuity thesis that the FRY would not
commit genocide or otherwise breach its treaty obligations. It was
neither relative nor qualified. Nor was it expressed to be prospective;

it was drafted. . . in terms of continuity. The Respondent was a party
by succession to the Genocide Convention from the beginning of its
existence as a State.” (CR 2008/11, p. 9, para. 7 (Crawford); empha-
sis added. See also Written Statement of Croatia, p. 3; Preliminary

Objections of Serbia, Ann. 7.)

As the Applicant sees succession as “a distinct mode of transmission of
treaty obligations. . . retrospective to the commencement of the successor
State” (CR 2008/11, p. 9, para. 8 (Crawford)), it is obvious that one is
dealing here with automatic succession.
143. Moreover, the majority itself suggests that the FRY acquired the

status of party to the Convention by a process that is to be regarded as
succession. True, in its conclusio the majority finds that “both the text of
the declaration and Note of 27 April 1992, and the consistent conduct of
the FRY at the time of its making and throughout the years 1992-2001”
(Judgment, para. 117) by its combined effects make the Respondent a

Contracting Party to the Genocide Convention as from 1992. However,

202611 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.KRECu )

the element “conduct of the FRY” could hardly have any substantial role
(paras. 160-166 below), which is also attested to by the final position of

the majority to the effect that “the 1992 declaration and Note had the
effect of a notification of succession by the FRY to the SFRY in relation
to the Genocide Convention (Judgment, para. 117; emphasis added).

144. It appears indisputable that, before the adoption of the Conven-
tion on Succession of States in respect of Treaties, it is not possible to
speak of automatic succession in terms of customary law. As an Expert
Consultant of the Conference, Sir Francis Vallet, emphasized:

“The rule [in Article 2 — Succession of States in cases of separa-
tion of parts of a State — corresponding to Article 34] was not based
either on established practice or on precedent, it was a matter of the
progressive development of international law rather than of codifica-

tion.” (Summary Records, Committee of the Whole, 48th meeting,
8 August 1978, doc. A/CONF.80/16/Add.1, p. 105, para. 10.)

The automatic succession as a rule of customary law began to be dis-
cussed after the 1990s, with reference to the practice of the successor

States of the USSR, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic and the SFRY
and the related pronouncements of some human rights bodies, in particu-
lar the Human Rights Committee.

However, what is involved here is a theory, a construction de lege fer-
enda without foundation in practice. The allegedly consistent practice in
that regard is the result of a creative interpretation exceeding the permis-
sible interpretative framework. Even if the practice of the successor

States was most consistent, the question of opinio juris remains open,
because a good part of that practice has been modelled under the influ-
ence of conditional recognition, which also implied the acceptance of the
standard of respect for human rights , practised as regards those succes-
sor States.

145. It appears that none of the successor States applied the practice
of confirmatory notification in a generalized form, which alone perfectly
corresponds with the conception of the ipso jure transfer of the rights and
obligations from the predecessor State to the successor State (s), but

declared themselves bound by the treaties of their predecessor State in
their own name, applying different modalities. Besides, universal succes-
sion implies not only ipso jure transfer of treaty rights and obligations,
but transfer uno ictu comprising all the treaty rights and obligations of

the predecessor State, together with the reservations made, excluding
boundary treaties or territorial settlement. The fact that the modalities

10“Guidelines for the Recognition of New States in Eastern Europe”, International
Legal Materials, Vol. 31 (November 1992), pp. 1485-1487.

203612 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECA )
u

applied have, or may have, the effect of a continuum of treaty rights and
obligations does not mean automatic succession — although it is implied
— because that continuum is created not by the operation of the rule of
international law (ipso jure) but by the will of the successor State. It is

difficult, exempli causa, to qualify the notification of succession of Bosnia
and Herzegovina of 29 December 1992 in terms of automatic succession
if it states that “having considered the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 9 December 1948 to which the
former SFRY was a party, wishes to succeed to the same” (Communica-

tion from the Secretary-General of the United Nations dated 18 March
1993 (ref. C.N. 451-1992, Treaties 5 (Depositary Notification)), entitled
“Succession by Bosnia and Herzegovina”; emphasis added).

146. In that crucial point which is, in fact, the point of differentiation
between automatic succession and succession of treaties of the predeces-
sor State by the will of the successor State, the practice of the successor
States seems consistent.
The Minsk Accords of 8 December 1991, signed by Russia, Belarus

and Ukraine, providing for the unconditional commitment to honour
treaty obligations of the USSR, appeared to lay conventional found-
ations for universal succession of the treaties of the former USSR. How-
ever, the subsequent Alma-Ata Accords modified the commitment to
fulfil treaty obligations of the former Soviet Union to the extent that such

continuation was “in accordance with constitutional procedures” of the
successor State (P. R. Williams, “The Treaty Obligations of the Successor
States of the Former Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia: Do
They Continue in Force?”, 23 Denver Journal of International Law and
Policy 1, 1994-1995, pp. 22-23; see also R. Mullerson, “The Continuity

and Succession of States by Reference to the Former USSR and Yugo-
slavia”, 42 International and Comparative Law Quarterly , 1993, p. 479).
Acting on that basis, the Baltic republics opted to accede to conventions
of the USSR in their own right (J. Klabbers, “State Succession and Res-
ervations to Treaties”, in J. Klabbers and R. Lefeber, Essays on the Law

of Treaties, 1998, p. 111), while Moldova, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan
explicitly adopted the clean State model (B. Stern, “Rapport prélimi-
naire sur la succession d’Etats en matière de traités” (Report submitted
to the International Law Association’s Committee on Aspects of the
Law of State Succession for the 1996 Helsinki Conference), p. 675).
Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan issued

notifications of succession in their own right, without any reference
to reservations and declarations made by the Soviet Union as a
predecessor State (J. Klabbers, op. cit., p. 113). Consequently, the
former Soviet republics widely practised accession as a means of
binding themselves by multilateral treaties to which the USSR was

a party.

204613 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

147. The practice of the Czech and the Slovak Republics is also not
free from inconsistency, although these two States notified the Secretary-
General of the United Nations that they consider themselves bound by

the multilateral treaties to which the former Czechoslovakia was a party.
Inconsistency is reflected not only in the fact that they consider them-
selves bound as from different dates (the Czech Republic as from 1 Janu-
ary 1993 and Slovakia as from 31 December 1992), but also because, in
spite of confirmatory notifications relating to the multilateral treaties to

which Czechoslovakia was a party, they also issued notifications on suc-
cession in respect of particular treaties, while they acceded to some
others. Thus the Czech Republic became a party to the 1985 Interna-
tional Convention against Apartheid in Sports by succession, whereas
Slovakia did not. Also, whereas Slovakia succeeded to most treaties on

the date of general notification, the Czech Republic, in a number of
cases, succeeded on the basis of notification of succession which followed
on a later date (see J. Klabbers, op. cit, pp. 117-118). As regards some
multilateral conventions, the Czech Republic bound itself in the form of

accession, although in question were conventions to which the former
Czechoslovakia was a party such as, for example, the Convention on
International Civil Aviation (P. R. Williams, op. cit., p. 41).

148. The legal situation as regards the former Yugoslav republics is
much more contradictory. At first, while the FRY stuck to the continuity
claim until 2000, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Mac-
edonia ab ignitio considered themselves as successor States and were recog-
nized as such by the international community. Further, although

declaratively favouring automatic succession in respect of multilateral
treaties to which the SFRY was a party, in particular Bosnia and Herze-
govina and Croatia in proceedings before the Court, they did not apply
the automatic succession pattern of treaty action in practice. Thus, for
instance, Bosnia and Herzegovina designed its notification on succession

to the Genocide Convention in terms of a “wish” to succeed to same,
which fits in with the concept of succession in its own right rather than
automatic succession. Particularly illustrative is the case of the 1989 Con-
vention on the Rights of the Child. Bosnia and Herzegovina is listed as

having succeeded on 1 September 1993; Croatia succeeded on 12 October
1992; Slovenia succeeded on 6 July 1992 and Macedonia did so on
2 December 1993 (Multilateral Treaties Deposited with the Secretary-
General, Status as at 31 December 1993 , United Nations doc. ST/LEG/
SER./E/11-12, pp. 193-194). None of these dates corresponds to the dates

upon which those republics succeeded the SFRY according to the gener-
ally accepted opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Commission (Interna-
tional Legal Materials, Vol. 32, 1993, pp. 1587-1589). The Commission
established the following dates in that regard: 8 October 1991 in the case
of the Republic of Croatia and the Republic of Slovenia; 17 November

1991 in the case of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia; 6 March

205614 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. KRECu )

1992 in the case of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Finally, this

contradictory practice seems to be nothing more than the expression of a
confused and ambivalent attitude towards the automatic succession rule.
For example, at a meeting of Legal Advisers on International Public Law
convened by the Committee of Ministers for the Council of Europe on

14-15 September 1992, the representative of Croatia noted that Croatia
would respect all the treaties of the SFRY unless they conflicted with the
Croatian Constitution (Committee of Legal Advisers on International
Public Law for the Council of Europe, 4th meeting 14-15 September

1992, p. 3). Slovenia, as stated by its representative “had been invited to
accede to some conventions to which former Yugoslavia had been a
party and would like to be invited to accede to other conventions which
had been ratified by the former federation” (ibid.).

149. It comes out that the rule contained in Article 34 of the Conven-
tion on Succession of States in respect of Treaties did not generate the

rule of general international law on ipso jure transfer of the treaty rights
and obligations from the predecessor State to the successor State.
Moreover, it has not even become a jus perfecta as a conventional rule.
Before the Convention even came into force in 1978, the automatic suc-

cession rule provided in its Article 34 was modified by the practice of suc-
cessor States, followed by acceptance of that practice by existing States.
The absence of objections to notifications of succession in its own right as
regards multilateral treaties to which their predecessor States were parties
11
as well as to numerous accessions to those treaties are credible evidence
in that regard. In short, Article 34 of the Convention remained an empty
provision, a conventional project which was not materialized.

Even if it had not been modified before the coming into force of the
Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties, the rule qua
treaty rule is inapplicable in casu, since it entered into force in November
1996, well after the dissolution of the SFRY.

Retroactive effects of the Convention are excluded in its Article 7,
paragraph 1, which provides that “the Convention applies only in respect
of a succession of States which has occurred after the entry into force of

the Convention”.
150. If so, automatic succession in respect of treaties is the expression
of diplomatic or political considerations rather than a rule in harmony
with common sense and legal considerations.

11Exempli causa, most of the successor States of the USSR acceded to the Genocide
Convention (Azerbaijan (16.VIII.1996); Armenia (23.VI.1998); Georgia (11.X.1993);
Kazakhstan (26.VIII.1998); Kyrgyzstan (5.IX.1997); Moldova (26.I.1993); Uzbekistan
(9.IX.1999)) along with other successor States such as Algeria (31.X.1963); (Rwanda
(16.IV.1975); Tonga (16.II.1972).

206615 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.KRECu )

First of all, if we stick to the difference between the predecessor State
and the successor State, in terms of legal personality, it is unclear how the
successor State, as a new State, may be considered bound by the will of

the predecessor State, being another State in legal terms. Such an under-
standing obliterates the difference between the predecessor State and the
successor State as distinct legal personalities and relies on the fiction that,
in respect of treaties, their wills concur. (See, for instance, the concept of
succession as substitution plus continuation according to which “[d]er

Nachfolger des Völkerrechts aber tritt in Rechte und Pflichten seines
Vorgängers so ein, als wären es seine eigenen” (H. M. Huber, Beiträge zu
einer Lehre von der Staaten-succession , Berlin, 1897, p. 14).) Further, a
rule on automatic succession runs counter to the fundamental principle
of equality of States to the detriment of successor States. Successor

States, by applying this rule, would be deprived of the rights which, other-
wise, States have when expressing consent to be bound, such as, for
example, making a reservation in respect of part of a treaty or accepting
to be bound by a treaty under certain conditions. Finally, automatic suc-

cession rests on, or is substantially close to, the idea of universal succes-
sion in civil law which is incompatible with an essentially consensual
order, in which the main subjects (legal persons) are States as equal and
sovereign political entities.

As far as the effects of automatic succession in respect of treaties are
concerned, it would not substantially contribute to legal stability and cer-
tainty, because it lies on the shoulders of the norms of jus cogens as the
most perfect part of the structure of international law.

151. Erroneous is the thesis that, in the absence of ipso jure transfer of
the rights and obligations, there appears a time gap in the application of
the rules prohibiting the crime of genocide. In contrast to its procedural
provisions, including Article IX, the substantive provisions of the Geno-
cide Convention, being part of the corpus juris cogentis, bind any succes-

sor State, regardless whether it is, or is not, a Contracting Party to the
Convention. The rules of jus cogens as peremptory, absolutely binding,
rules, bind a priori every State, be it a successor or predecessor State,
“even without any conventional obligation” (Reservations to the Conven-

tion on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advi-
sory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951 , p. 23).
In that regard, to speak about the succession of substantive rules con-
tained in universal treaties or general multilateral treaties adopted in the
interests of the international community as a whole, like the Genocide

Convention, is either superfluous or a wrong way of expressing, for those
rules are ab initio et suo vigore binding on any successor State, regardless
of the law on succession of States in respect of treaties.

152. The different position of the substantive and procedural provi-

sions of universal treaties or general multilateral treaties which express

207616 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

the interests of the international community as a whole is not contra-
dicted by the legal nature of succession in respect of treaties, either. In
fact, the expression “succession in respect of treaties” is in its brevity

somewhat abstract and imprecise in this particular context. It is not the
treaties qua legal acts which are the subject of succession, but rather the
rights and obligations deriving from the treaties.

Substantive obligations in universal treaties being “the obligations of a

State towards the international community as a whole” (Barcelona Trac-
tion, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain), Second
Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970 , p. 32, para. 33) are the obligations
of “a State”, regardless of its legal position in terms of whether it is a new
State or the existing one. Opposite to them stand procedural provisions

of such treaties, including provisions such as those of Article IX of the
Genocide Convention which are not “obligations towards the interna-
tional community as a whole”, but obligations intuitu personae which are
not binding upon the successor State without its consent.

153. The notification of succession to which the successor States resort
in practice in order to be bound by the treaties of the predecessor State in
its own right must be specific, in contrast to notifications confirming ipso
jure the transfer of treaty rights and obligations of the predecessor to the

successor State. They could not concern “a class of instruments”, regard-
less of their ascertainability, but the specific treaty which was in force in
relation to the predecessor State.
A synallagmatic obligation, being a specific obligation constituted ex
consenso, cannot be undertaken like an obligation contemplated by the

dictum of the Court in the Nuclear Tests cases, by the intention of a State
solely. As regards those obligations, the intention of a State represents
just a basis of consent as a legally designed intention for treaty law pur-
poses. The notification of succession as developed in the practice of suc-
cessor States is nothing else than a new, specific way of expressing con-

sent to be bound by treaty in the case of succession. This point
demonstrates the close relationship between the law of succession in
respect of treaties and the law on treaties.

154. It is natural that the succession of States with respect to treaties
has the closest link with the law of treaties itself and could be regarded as
dealing with particular aspects of participation in treaties, the conclusion
of treaties and the application of treaties. Special Rapporteur Humphrey
Waldock described this link as follows:

“the Commission could not do otherwise than examine the topic of
succession of States with respect to treaties within the general frame-
work of the law of treaties. . . the principles and rules of the law of
treaties seemed to provide a surer guide to the problems of succes-

sion with respect to treaties than any general theories of succession”

208617 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

(Yearbook of the International Law Commission , 1968, Vol. I, p. 131,
para. 52).

Or as stated by O’Connell: “The effect of change of sovereignty on trea-
ties is not a manifestation of some general principle or rule of State suc-
cession, but rather a matter of treaty law and interpretation.” (D. P.

O’Connell, The Law of State Succession , 1956, p. 15.)

155. The Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) stipulates in Arti-
cle 11 (Means of Expressing Consent To Be Bound by a Treaty): “The
consent of a State to be bound by a treaty may be expressed by signature,

exchange of instruments constituting a treaty, ratification, acceptance,
approval or accession, or by any other means if so agreed .” (Emphasis
added.)
The Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties defines
notification of succession as “any notification, however phrased or named,

made by a successor State expressing its consent to be considered as
bound by the treaty” (Art. 2, para. 1 (g) of the Convention, United
Nations, Treaty Series, Vol. 1946; emphasis added).

It seems clear that the notification of succession as defined, being a
means of “expressing consent” in relation to “the treaty”, could hardly be
understood, as the majority view suggests, as an abstract, generalized
form of expressing an intention to be bound by an ascertainable class of
treaty instruments.

156. Tractu temporis, the notification of succession becomes “other
means” in the terms of Article 11 of the Convention on the Law of Trea-
ties, of the expressing consent to be bound by the treaty designed for suc-
cessor States on the basis of collateral agreement in simplified form
between them and the parties to its predecessor’s treaties. As such, the

notification of succession is treated by the Secretary-General as deposi-
tary of multilateral treaties.
157. To that effect, the position of the Secretary-General, as deposi-
tary of multilateral treaties, seems clear:

“Frequently, newly independent States will submit to the Secre-
tary-General ‘general’ declarations of succession, usually requesting

that the declaration be circulated to all States Members of the
United Nations. The Secretary-General, duly complies with such a
request. . . but does not consider such a declaration as a valid instru-
ment of succession to any of the treaties deposited with him, and he
so informs the Government of the new State concerned. In so doing,

the Secretary-General is guided by the following considerations.

The deposit of an instrument of succession results in having the
succeeding State become bound, in its own name, by the treaty to
which the succession applies, with exactly the same rights and obli-

gations as if that State had ratified or acceded to, or otherwise

209618 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

accepted, the treaty. Consequently, it has always been the position
of the Secretary-General, in his capacity as depositary, to record a
succeeding State as a party to a given treaty solely on the basis of a

formal document similar to instruments of ratification, accession,
etc., that is, a notification emanating from the Head of State, the
Head of Government or the Minister for Foreign Affairs, which
should specify the treaty or treaties by which the State concerned
recognizes itself to be bound.

General declarations are not sufficiently authoritative to have the
States concerned listed as parties in the publication Multilateral
Treaties Deposited with the Secretary-General.” (Summary of Prac-
tice of the Secretary-General as Depositary of Multilateral Treaties,
doc. ST/LEG/7/Rev. 1, paras. 303-305 (footnote omitted); emphasis

added.)
158. It should be noted that the Applicant itself, except for the pur-

poses of the present proceedings, did not consider the FRY a party to the
Genocide Convention nor to other multilateral treaties on the basis of the
1992 declaration. The general position of the Applicant in that regard
was expressed in a letter of its Minister of Foreign Affairs addressed to

the President of the Security Council dated 23 August 1993. That posi-
tion was as follows:

“As a result of the dissolution of the former State, the country
known as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montene-
gro) will have to deposit an instrument of succession to all interna-
tional treaties it wishes to continue to be a party to.” (United
Nations doc. S/26349 (1993).)

The position, repeatedly raised on a number of occasions (United Nations
doc. CERD/SP/51 (1994), p. 3; United Nations doc. CCPR/SP/40 (1994),

p. 3; United Nations doc. CCPR/SP/SR.18 (1994), p. 3, para. 2; p. 6,
para. 21, p. 7, para 23; United Nations doc. CCPR/SP/SP/SR.19 (1994),
pp. 3, 4 and 8), was summarized in a letter of the Permanent Representa-
tive of Croatia of 30 January 1995 addressed to the Secretary-General in

his capacity as depositary of multilateral treaties (United Nations doc. A/
50/75-E/1995/10).
159. Commenting on a document regarding the “Status of succession,
accession and ratification of human rights treaties by successors to the
former Yugoslavia, the former Soviet Union and the former Czechoslo-

vakia”, the Permanent Representative of Croatia recalled that:

“The representatives of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Ser-
bia and Montenegro) have been prevented from participating in
international meetings and conferences of State[s] parties to multi-
lateral treaties in respect of which the Secretary-General acts as
depositary (i.e. Convention on Prohibitions and Restrictions of the

Use of Certain Conventional Weapons which May be Deemed to be

210619 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

Excessively Injurious or to have Indiscriminate Effects, Convention
on the Rights of the Child, International Convention on Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, International Covenant on

Civil and Political Rights, etc.) as the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via (Serbia and Montenegro) had not acted according to interna-
tional rules of succession of States. Namely, the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) had tried to participate in
international forums as a State party without having notified its

succession. . .” (United Nations doc. A/50/75-E/1995/10; emphasis
added.)

And, consequently, that:

“Should the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Mon-
tenegro) express its intention to be considered a party , by virtue of
succession, to the multilateral treaties of the predecessor State with

effect as of 27 April 1992, the date on which the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), as a new State, assumed
responsibility for its international relations, the Republic of Croatia
would take note of that notifications of succession.” (Ibid.; emphasis
added.)

(g) Could the Respondent be considered a party to the Genocide
Convention on the basis of the 1992 declaration and its conduct?

160. It is true that, in the majority perception, the Respondent is con-
sidered a party to the Genocide Convention by the combined effects of
the 1992 declaration and its “consistent conduct” as regards the Conven-
tion. This is suggested by the conclusio that “both the text of the declara-
tion and Note of 27 April 1992, and the consistent conduct of the FRY at

the time of its making and throughout the years 1992-2001” (Judgment,
para. 117) give rise to the finding that the FRY was a Contracting Party
to the Convention at the relevant time.

(It may, incidentally, be mentioned that the very reliance on the con-
duct of the Respondent, in the assessment as to whether it can be con-
sidered a Contracting Party to the Convention in the relevant period of
time, represents by itself a tacit admission that the 1992 declaration was
not capable of producing the effects attributed to it by the 1996 Judg-

ment and by the subsequent decisions of the Court on its precedential
authority.)
It transpires, consequently, that the “consistent conduct” of the FRY
possesses substantive effects in casu, that “consistent conduct” as such is
not a supportive argument for the understanding of the 1992 declaration

as a notification of succession, but a basis per se. This is additionally sug-

211620 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

gested by the fact that the conclusio does not refer to the 1992 declaration
as an act, but to the text of the declaration. What is understood under
“consistent conduct” in that perception? It appears that what is meant by

“consistent conduct” are the actions and inactions of the FRY.
161. The actions in question are the following:
(i) that in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Pre-

vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (preliminary objec-
tions phase), the FRY “argued that the Genocide Convention had
begun to apply to relations between the two Parties on 14 December
1995” (Judgment, para. 114);
(ii) that the FRY “on 29 April 1999. . . filed in the Registry of the Court

Applications instituting proceedings against ten States Members of
NATO, citing (inter alia) the Genocide Convention as title of juris-
diction” (ibid., para. 114).

As regards the inactions of the FRY, according to the majority percep-
tion, the following inactions are relevant:
(i) that the FRY “did not repudiate its status as a party to the Conven-

tion even when it became apparent that that claim [continuity claim]
would not prevail (ibid., para. 111);
(ii) that in the provisional measures phase of the case concerning Appli-
cation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide, the FRY “while questioning whether the Appli-

cant State was a party to the Genocide Convention at the relevant
dates, did not challenge the claim that it was itself a party” (ibid.,
para. 114);
(iii) that following its admission to the United Nations in 2000, the FRY
“did not at that time withdraw, or purport to withdraw, the declara-

tion and Note of 1992, which had been drawn up in the light of the
contention that the FRY was continuing the legal personality of the
SFRY” (ibid., para. 115).

162. The conduct of the FRY, according to the majority perception,
attributes to the 1992 declaration the quality of “a valid and effective
means by which the declaring State could assume obligations under the
Convention” (Judgment, para. 110). For, as it is reasoned, the declara-
tion “need not strictly comply with all formal requirements” (ibid.)

having in mind that
“For example, in the North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Repub-

lic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/Nether-
lands) cases, the Court recognized the possibility that a State that
had not carried out the usual formalities (ratification, accession) to
become bound by the régime of an international convention might
nevertheless ‘somehow become bound in another way’, even though

such a process was ‘not lightly to be presumed’ to have occurred.”
(Ibid.)

Consequently, the conduct of the FRY possesses as regards the 1992 dec-

212621 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

laration a convalidating effect, because a contrario it is devoid of any
substance. The reasoning and conclusio of the majority simply call for
comments.

163. The rationale of referring to the North Sea Continental Shelf
cases is completely unclear, as the claim of the Respondents that the
FRG was contractually bound by the 1958 Geneva Convention on the
Continental Shelf, and in particular by its Article 6, “by conduct, by pub-
lic statements and proclamations” (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 25, para. 27)

was rejected in the Judgment and even in the opinions of Judges appended
to it (ibid., pp. 86, 155, 198, 242). As the Court stated,

“only the existence of a situation of estoppel could suffice to lend
substance to this contention, — that is to say if the Federal Republic
were now precluded from denying the applicability of the conven-

tional régime, by reason of past conduct, declarations, etc., which
not only clearly and consistently evinced acceptance of that régime,
but also had caused Denmark or the Netherlands, in reliance on
such conduct, detrimentally to change position or suffer some preju-

dice” (ibid., p. 26, para. 30).
Needless to say, however, that such effects of past conduct are limited

to a particular case, so that the actions or inactions of the FRY in the
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide as well as in the Legality of Use of Force cases are
absolutely irrelevant in casu.

164. Even if, arguendo, the claim of Denmark and the Netherlands is
acceptable, the requirement of a “very definite, very consistent course of
conduct” (ibid., p. 25, para. 28) on the part of the FRY would hardly
have been met. For, in the preliminary objections phase in the Legality of
Use of Force cases ((Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary

Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , pp. 292-293, para. 29), as
well as in the merits phase in the Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide case, the FRY
clearly pointed out that it did not consider itself a Contracting Party to

the Genocide Convention before the expression of consent in the form of
accession on 6 March 2001 (effective 10 June 2001) ((Bosnia and Herze-
govina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I) ,
p. 77, para. 81).
165. Conduct in terms of actions and/or inactions of a party cannot be

the means of binding a State by a treaty, because it is simply not a state-
ment of the will of a State. As such, it can be an external, material expres-
sion of a certain intention of a State and, in that sense, the basis for a
unilateralundertakingofanobligation,asdemonstratedbytheideaunder-
lying the dictum of the Court in the Nuclear Tests cases. Unilateral

undertaking of an obligation is, however, one thing, and acquiring the

213622 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

status of a Contracting Party to a treaty as an act essentially character-
ized by synallagmaticity, is quite another thing (para. 134 above). There-
fore, the means of expressing consent to be bound by a treaty is always a

matter of concurrence of the wills of the negotiators, a part of the final
clauses of a treaty having retroactive effects. Conduct of a State in terms
of actions or inactions is not stipulated in the Genocide Convention nor
in any other convention as a means of expressing consent to be bound. In
contrast to the expression of consent to be bound by a treaty, the actions

or inactions of a party to the dispute can constitute jurisdiction of the
Court in a particular case by way of the mechanism of forum prorogatum.

166. If, as the majority reasons, the practice of a State is considered as

a basis for acceptance of the conventional régime, the role of the 1992
declaration, both as a matter of logic and as a matter of law, is unclear
within the framework of such reasoning.
As a matter of logic, in such a perception of the practice of a State, the

1992 declaration ought to be either irrelevant as such or only an element
of the practice, together with other actions and/or inactions of a State.
However, in the majority perception, the “consistent conduct” of the
FRY and the 1992 declaration have been placed on the same level, as two
equal and independent bases for the determination of the FRY as a Con-

tracting Party to the Genocide Convention.

As a matter of law, in relation to the 1992 declaration and the “con-
sistent conduct” of the FRY, as projected by the majority, it appears that
the latter has been attributed the convalidating role as regards the defi-

ciencies of the declaration. It is hardly possible, in the circumstances sur-
rounding the present case, that the practice may have a convalidating
role. For, in concreto, what is involved here is the incapability of the 1992
declaration, in the light of the rules of general international law, to pro-
duce a proper legal effect, and not the defects of consent (vices de con-

sentement) which, as a rule, may be convalidated by the actions or in-
actions of the State concerned. The practice of the Respondent, as perceived
by the majority, should, in fact, remove the objective deficiencies of the
1992 declaration which are not in the domain of the will of its authors

and, as such, cannot be affected by its actions and/or inactions.

(h) Legal effects of the admission of the FRY/Serbia to the United

Nations as a new State

167. In the absence of the rule on automatic succession as regards the
multilateral treaties applicable to the present case, the admission of the
FRY/Serbia to the United Nations is unavoidably reflected on its status
vis-à-vis the Genocide Convention due to the specific circumstances sur-

rounding its admission to the United Nations. That was not only the

214623 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

admission to the membership in the ordinary sense, but an admission fol-
lowed by the determination of the legal personality of the FRY in terms
of continuator/successor dichotomy.

This element is highly relevant in casu. In the case that the FRY con-
tinues the legal personality of the SFRY, it would be a Contracting Party
to the Genocide Convention on the basis of the deposition of the instru-
ments of ratification of the SFRY, without reservation, on 25 Aug-

ust 1950. The position of the FRY as a successor State puts the
matter on a different legal level, as demonstrated by the actions taken by
the Secretary-General as depositary of multilateral treaties (paras. 173,
176-178 below).
168. At the end of the year 2000 the FRY did two things:

(a) it renounced the continuity claim and accepted the status of the suc-
cessor State of the former SFRY; and
(b) it proceeded from a qualitatively new legal basis — as the successor

State — and on that basis submitted the application for admission
to membership in the United Nations.
169. The State, as a notion of international law, comprises two ele-

ments, i.e., possesses two faces:
(a) statehood in the sense of the relevant attributes such as defined ter-
ritory, stable population and sovereign power;
(b) legal personality, i.e., the status of a subject of international law

equipped with a corpus of rights and obligations. The legal person-
ality of the FRY, in the light of the relevant circumstances sur-
rounding it, can either be of an inferential, derivative nature —
based on the legal identity and continuity with the SFRY — or of

an inherent, original nature — based on the status of a new State.

170. By submitting the application for admission to membership in the
United Nations, the FRY not only renounced the claim to legal identity

and continuity but claimed at the same time to be accepted as a new State
in the sense of some other, different legal personality from the one
claimed until the year 2000 — a successor State versus the continuator of
the former SFRY.

171. The admission of the FRY to membership of the United Nations
from 1 November 2000 also meant the acceptance of the claim of the
FRY to be accepted as a new State in the sense of a new international
personality different from its hybrid and controversial personality in the
period 1992-2000. The claim was accepted by way of a series of collateral

agreements in a simplified form, or a general collateral agreement in a
simplified form, between the FRY, on the one hand, and the Member
States of the United Nations and the World Organization itself, on the
other. The subject of the series of collateral agreements, or of the general
collateral agreement as well as explicit statements, is recognition of the

FRY as a new personality, a personality of the successor State of the

215624 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

former SFRY, and, in that capacity it was admitted to the World Organi-
zation as a Member. Thus, the FRY, although being the “old State” in
the sense of statehood, was universally recognized as a “new State” in the

sense of its international legal personality. As far as the FRY after the
year 2000 is concerned, its legal existence as a new international legal per-
sonality started in November 2000 by its admission to membership in the
United Nations.
172. As regards the claim of the FRY to be accepted as a successor

State, the following explicit statements are relevant: Statements made
upon the admission of FRY to membership in the United Nations on 1
November 2000 by the Non-Aligned Movement; Germany, on behalf of
the Western European and Other States Group; France, on behalf of the
European Union and the Central and Eastern European countries asso-

ciated with the European Union, the associated countries of Cyprus,
Malta and Turkey, and the EFTA countries members of the European
Economic Area; Croatia and Slovenia. See also document A/55/522-S/
2000/1028 (letter dated 25 October 2000 from the Permanent Representa-

tive of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia to the United Nations
addressed to the Secretary-General) containing, in an annex thereto, the
following joint statement made at the Informal Summit of the Heads of
State and Government of the countries participating in the South-East
European Cooperation Process:

“We strongly encouraged the commitment of the Federal Repub-
lic of Yugoslavia to follow a policy of good-neighborly relations,
reconciliation and mutual understanding in the region, as well as

respect for the principle of equality and non discrimination of all the
successor States of the former Yugoslavia in their mutual rela-
tions.’” (Non-paper of the United Nations Legal Counsel attached
to his letter to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Federal Repub-

lic of Yugoslavia dated 8 December 2000, Ann. 23 of the Prelimi-
nary Objections of the FRY.)

(i) The relevance of the Secretary-General’s/Secretariat’s action in the
exercise of the depositary function

173. Although the Secretary-General, in the capacity of depositary of

the Genocide Convention, is not invested with any autonomous, substan-
tive competence in terms of the determination of whether the FRY was
viewed, or could be viewed, as qualifying to be a party to the Genocide
Convention, his actions are not a priori devoid of any effects, which the
complete ignoring of his actions might suggest. After all, his functions of

depositary of multilateral treaties would be devoid of any substance.

In the present case the actions taken by the Secretary-General as
regards the position of the FRY vis-à-vis the Genocide Convention are of
a specific nature. They must be viewed in the totality of his competences

as one of the principal organs of the Organization. In a case like the

216625 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

present one, actions of the Secretary-General in the capacity of executive
organ of the Organization and depositary of multilateral treaties respec-
tively, are inevitably interrelated but distinguishable.

174. In closely related cases, the Court heavily relied on the pro-
nouncements of the Secretary-General in its Judgment in the preliminary
objections phase (1996) and found, with regard to the Sixth Preliminary
Objection raised by the FRY, that

“Bosnia and Herzegovina could become a party to the Convention

through the mechanism of State succession. Moreover, the Secretary-
General of the United Nations considered that this had been
the case” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugo-
slavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,

p. 611, para. 20).

The Court took also note of this consideration of the Secretary-General
in its Order of 8 April 1993 (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 16, para. 25).
175. In paragraph 44 of that same Judgment the Court rejected the
Second Preliminary Objection of the FRY, in which Mr. Alija Izet-
begovic´ “was not serving as President of the Republic. . . at the time at

which he granted the authorization to initiate proceedings” (I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), pp. 621-622), and in the reasoning and in the wording
practically repeated the consideration which Mr. R. Zacklin, then Direc-
tor and Deputy to the Under-Secretary-General in charge of the Office of
Legal Affairs, made in his letter of 25 March 1993 addressed to the Reg-

istry of the Court. In that letter it is said that “[i]n the United Nations
and in the International Conference on the former Yugoslavia, Mr. Izet-
begovic´ has been regarded and continues to be regarded as the President
of Bosnia-Herzegovina” (dissenting opinion of Judge ad hoc Krec ´a,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 704, para. 37). The same finding is included

in the Court’s Order of 8 April 1993 (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 11, para. 13).
It appears that in the 1996 Judgment, the Court took the above deci-
sion, on the basis of a consideration of an official of lower rank than the
Secretary-General, in a matter which as such touches the constitutional

system of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which did not contain, as it does not
contain at present, the institution of an individual Head of State but a
collective one.
176. Following the admission of the FRY to membership of the United
Nations on 1 November 2000, the Legal Counsel of the United Nations

sent, on 8 December 2000, a letter addressed to the Minister of Foreign
Affairs of the FRY, expressing, inter alia, that “the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia should now undertake treaty actions, as appropriate, in rela-
tion to the treaties concerned, if its intention is to assume the relevant
legal rights and obligations as a successor State”.

217626 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

177. In the non-paper of the UN Legal Counsel entitled “Admission
of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the United Nations on 1
November 2000: Implications for Treaties Deposited with the Secretary-

General”, the view is elaborated in detail. It starts with the finding that:

“1.3. The admission of the FRY to membership in the United

Nations on 1 November 2000 has raised a number of issues relating
to treaty actions undertaken by the FRY in relation to multilateral
treaties accepted in deposit by the Secretary-General, and recorded
against the name ‘Yugoslavia’;

.............................
2.1. Four major categories of treaty actions are at issue:

(a) Treaty actions undertaken by the SFRY prior to 27 April 1992
(Annex A);
(b) Treaty actions undertaken by the FRY between 27 April and
1 November 2000, pursuant to its previous claim to continue
the legal personality of the SFRY (Annex B);

(c) Treaty actions undertaken by the FRY, in its own right, and
not dependent on prior treaty actions by the SFRY (Annex C);
and

(d) Treaty actions undertaken by the FRY, which require member-
ship in the United Nations or a specialized agency as an essen-
tial precondition (Annex D). Treaty actions relating to the
International Court of Justice and the Constitution of the
World Health Organization have been addressed separately

(see paragraphs 8 and 9 below).
............................
4.1. In the light of the circumstances of FRY’s admission to mem-
bership in the United Nations on 1 November 2000, it would be

proper for the depositary to treat the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via as a ‘Newly Independent State’.

4.2. The international community appears to agree that the FRY’s

admission to membership in the United Nations on 1 November 2000,
together with its declaration make it a successor State with the
requirement that it comply with the principle of equality among the
successor States to the former SFRY. . . Accordingly, the FRY
should be treated as a new State as described in the Summary of

Practice of the Secretary-General as Depositary of Multilateral Trea-
ties (ST/LEG/7/Rev.1, p. 87, para. 289).
4.3. [T]he FRY, as the new State that came into existence on
27 April 1992, may now wish to succeed to treaty actions undertaken
by the SFRY prior to this date. This would include treaties to

which the SFRY was a party.” (Ann. 23 of the Preliminary

218627 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

Objections of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 2002; Emphasis
added.)

178. The determination that the FRY is qualifying to become a party
to the Genocide Convention is necessarily implied in the very decision of
the General Assembly, upon the recommendation of the Security Coun-
cil, to admit the FRY to the membership of the United Nations not only

as a new Member but as a successor State at the same time. For, as
United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated in his letter to the
President of the United Nations General Assembly dated 27 December
2001:

“I have the honour to refer to General Assembly resolution 55/12
of 1 November 2000, in which the Assembly decided to admit the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to membership in the United

Nations. This decision necessarily and automatically terminated the
membership in the Organization of the former Yugoslavia, the State
admitted to membership in 1945.” (United Nations doc. A/56/767;
emphasis added.)

That action clearly belongs to the Secretary-General as the executive
organ of the Organization. Although far from being consistent in legal
terms, it undoubtedly results from the decision taken by the principal

political organs of the United Nations — the General Assembly and the
Security Council — in respect of the question of the admission of a State
to United Nations membership, which is in their exclusive competence.
(Such an interpretation was advocated in the literature as well. In an arti-
cle entitled “The New United Nations and Former Yugoslavia”, Profes-

sor Rosalyn Higgins wrote:
“The Assembly did recommend that the new Federal Republic

(Serbia-Montenegro) should apply for membership of the United
Nations. But the resolution did not either suspend, or terminate,
Yugoslavia’s membership in the UN. The outcome had been anoma-
lous in the extreme. The seat and nameplate remain as before. The
old Yugoslav flag continues to fly on 42nd Street. ‘Yugoslavia’

remains a member of the UN, i.e. not Serbia-Montenegro, but Yugo-
slavia in its entirety.” (Op. cit., p. 479; emphasis added.)

This necessarily means, as the Legal Counsel of the United Nations
pointed out in the above-cited non-paper entitled “Admission of the Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia to the United Nations on 1 November 2000:
Implications for Treaties Deposited with the Secretary-General” that

“the FRY, as the new State that came into existence on 27 April 1992,
may now wish to succeed to treaty actions undertaken by the SFRY prior
to this date” (emphasis added). As regards the Genocide Convention, the
SFRY undertook a treaty action on 29 August 1950 in the form of rati-
fication pursuant to Article XI of the Convention.

219628 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

179. In these circumstances, the Respondent was fully entitled to
express its consent to be bound by the Genocide Convention in the form
of accession like a number of other successor States (footnote 11).

The right of accession of a successor State to a treaty such as the
Genocide Convention derives from its very nature as a general interna-
tional treaty, expressing the interests of the international community as a
whole. As the Court stated in its Advisory Opinion in the case concerning
Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the

Crime of Genocide, “[I]n such a convention the contracting States do not
have any interests of their own; they merely have, one and all, a common
interest, namely, the accomplishment of those high purposes which are
the raison d’être of the convention” (I.C.J. Reports 1951,p.23) . Such a
nature of the Genocide Convention implies

“that it was the intention of the General Assembly and of the States
which adopted it that as many States as possible should participate.

The complete exclusion from the Convention of one or more States
would not only restrict the scope of its application, but would
detract from the authority of the moral and humanitarian principles
which are its basis.” (Ibid., p. 24.)

180. Accession of a State to the Convention, therefore, appears to be
an application of the demand for the participation in the Convention of
as many States as possible. This is so, regardless of the nature of the

accession to the multilateral treaties expressing the interests of the inter-
national community as a whole within the positive law.)
As regards those treaties, the right of accession must be treated as a jus
cogens rule. In reality, the exercise of that right, bearing in mind the
effects of the substantive provisions of such treaties, possesses constitu-

tive effects only in regard of the provisions other than the substantive
ones.
181. The Respondent’s accession to the Genocide Convention is, in
some part, unusual. The standard notification of accession is accompa-
nied by the explanation of the legal position of the FRY in terms of the

dichotomy continuator/successor State and its consequences for the status
of the FRY vis-à-vis the Genocide Convention.

The explanation notes, first of all, that the FRY declared on 27 April

1992 that it,
“continuing the State, international legal and political personality of
the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, shall strictly abide by

all the commitments that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via assumed internationally” (notification of accession of the FRY,
Preliminary Objections of Serbia, Ann. 5).

Further, that

“the contention and assumption of continuity was eventually not

220629 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

accepted by the United Nations, nor was it accepted by other
successor States of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia,
and thus it produced no effects” (notification of accession of the

FRY, Preliminary Objections of Serbia, Ann. 5).

And, finally, that

“it has been established that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has
not succeeded on April 27, 1992, or on any later date, to treaty mem-
bership, rights and obligations of the Socialist Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide on the assumption of continued membership

in the United Nations and continued state, international legal and
political personality of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via” (ibid.).

A couple of observations seem relevant in concreto :
First, the explanation is an integral part of the FRY’s notification of
accession to the Genocide Convention, making a logical and legal union
with the statement of accession;
Second, the substance of the explanation corresponds to the objective

legal position of the FRY, established by the admission of the FRY to
the United Nations on 1 November 2000;
Third, the substance of the explanation corresponds to the action
taken by the Secretary-General of the United Nations in his capacity as
depositary of multilateral treaties;

Fourth, the FRY’s notification of accession is generally accepted by
the Contracting Parties to the Genocide Convention, with three objec-
tions (Croatia, Sweden and Bosnia and Herzegovina): it was accepted as
a whole, together with the provided explanation.

182. Accession is a valid means of expression of consent to be bound
by a treaty in terms of the law of treaties and, as such, specifically pro-
vided in Article XI of the Genocide Convention.

In view of the fact that automatic succession in respect of treaties is not
a part of positive international law, successor States are free, acting as
regards multilateral treaties of predecessor States in their own name, to
choose the means of expressing consent to be bound by a concrete treaty
within the framework of the means stipulated by the treaty. Considering

such a state of facts, there is no difference in substantive terms whatso-
ever between accession and notification of succession as developed in the
practice of successor States. For, acting in its own name, the successor
State, in its notification of succession, also determines the date from
which it considers itself bound by the concrete treaty and which need not

necessarily concur with the date of succession (para. 148 above).

221630 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

183. Article XI of the Genocide Convention provides:

“The present Convention shall be open until 31 December 1949
for signature on behalf of any Member of the United Nations and of
any non-member State to which an invitation to sign has been

addressed by the General Assembly.
The present Convention shall be ratified, and the instruments of
ratification shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the
United Nations.
After 1 January 1950 the present Convention may be acceded to

on behalf of any Member of the United Nations and of any non-
member State which has received an invitation as aforesaid.

Instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations.” (United Nations, Treaty Series,

(UNTS), Vol. 78, 1951; footnotes omitted.)

It appears that accession is not only established as a means of expression
of consent to be bound by the Convention, but that it is a means specifi-
cally designed for non-original Contracting Parties, i.e., those which con-
sent to be bound by the Convention after 1 January 1950.

184. Consequently, there remains the question whether the provisions
of Article XI of the Convention are also equally applicable to the succes-
sor States. Article XI does not contain any indication, let alone any ele-
ment given explicite, to the effect that accession, as a means of expression

to be bound by the Convention, is not applicable as regards successor
States. No corresponding limitation exists in the law on succession in
respect of treaties, either. Moreover, the relevant rules of the law on suc-
cession appear to suggest quite the contrary, granting a successor State
the right of option in that regard. For, if a successor State, according to

Article 17 of the Convention, has the right to choose to become a party
to multilateral treaties “independently of the consent of the other States
parties and quite apart from the final clauses of the treaty ”( Yearbook of
the International Law Commission , 1974, Vol. II, Part One, p. 215,

para. 2; emphasis added), then that right belongs a fortiori to a successor
State in case it has been provided by the treaty.

185. The reservation of the FRY to Article IX of the Convention was
completely ignored, although the reservation, in the light of the relevant

rules of the law of treaties, is of far-reaching importance as regards the
jurisdiction of the Court in casu. The FRY sent a notification of acces-
sion to the Secretary-General of the United Nations as its depositary on
6 March 2001, containing a reservation to Article IX of the Convention
to the effect that:

“The FRY does not consider itself bound by Article IX of the

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of

222631 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

Genocide, and, therefore, before any dispute to which the FRY is a
party may be validly submitted to the jurisdiction of the Interna-
tional Court of Justice under this Article, the specific and explicit

consent of the FRY is required in each case.” (United Nations
doc. C.N.945.2006.TREATIES-2 (Depositary Notification).)

In a Note dated 21 March 2001 the Secretary-General stated, inter alia,
that “[d]ue note has been taken of the reservation contained in the instru-
ment” (ibid.).
On 18 May 2001 the Permanent Representative of Croatia sent a com-

munication to the Secretary-General, stating inter alia :

“The Government of the Republic of Croatia objects to the depo-
sition of the instrument of accession of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide, due to the fact that the Federal Republic of

Yugoslavia is already bound by the Convention since its emergence
as one of the five equal successor States to the former Socialist Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia.
.............................

The Government of the Republic of Croatia further objects to the
reservation made by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in respect
of Article IX of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide, and considers it to be incompatible with

the object and purpose of the Convention. The Government of the
Republic of Croatia considers the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide to be fully in force and appli-
cable between the Republic of Croatia and the Federal Republic of

Yugoslavia, including Article IX.” (Multilateral Treaties Deposited
with the Secretary-General, Status as at 31 December 2002 , United
Nations doc. ST/LEG/SER./E/21, p. 129.)

186. Thus, the objection of Croatia concerns two things:

(i) accession as a means of expressing consent of the FRY to be bound
by the Genocide Convention; and
(ii) the reservation of the FRY made in respect of Article IX of the Con-
vention.

In concreto, the objection to the reservation in respect of Article IX is
of interest, having in mind the fact that Croatia considers “the Conven-

tion on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide to be
fully in force and applicable between the Republic of Croatia and the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, including Article IX”.
In that regard it seems clear that the objection to Article IX, supported
by the fact that Croatia is not opposed to the entry into force of the Con-

vention between itself and the Respondent, makes automatically applica-

223632 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

ble paragraph 3 of Article 21 of the Convention on the Law of Treaties,
which stipulates:

“When a State objecting to a reservation has not opposed the
entry into force of the treaty between itself and the reserving State,
the provisions to which the reservation relates do not apply as

between the reserving State and the objecting State to the extent of
the reservation.”

187. The action taken by the Secretary-General through the Legal
Counsel in regard to the deposited multilateral treaties, including the
Genocide Convention, is basically of an administrative nature, a sort of
reminder of the necessary consequences resulting from the fact that by
the act of admission of the FRY, it was at the same time accepted and

recognized, implicitly and explicitly, as a new personality both by the
Organization itself and its member States (paras. 167-173 above) and
implemented in the total structure of the Organization. As such, it fits
perfectly the function of the depositary provided by Article 77, para-

graph 1 (e), of the Convention on the Law of Treaties, i.e., “[i]nforming
the parties and the States entitled to become parties to the treaty of acts,
notifications and communications relating to the treaty” (United Nations,
Treaty Series, Vol. 1155).

3. Preliminary objection to the jurisdiction of the Court,
and to admissibility ratione temporis

188. This particular objection of the Respondent is treated by the

majority “at one and the same time [as] an objection to jurisdiction and
one going to the admissibility of the claims” (Judgment, para. 120), con-
sequently, as “two inseparable issues in the present case” (ibid., para. 129).
Innovativeness of such a treatment of the issues of the scope of the
jurisdiction of the Court ratione temporis and the admissibility of claims

is accompanied by a contradictory reasoning. For, if the essential char-
acteristics of an objection to jurisdiction is in that “if upheld, it brings the
proceedings in respect of that claim to an end” (ibid., para. 120) and
objections to admissibility, as observed by reference to the Judgment in

the Oil Platforms case “normally take the form of an assertion that, even
if the Court has jurisdiction and the facts stated by the applicant State
are assumed to be correct” (ibid.), the Court nonetheless declines to hear
the case, it is unclear how two such objections can be considered insepa-
rable issues. For, whereas the objection to jurisdiction concerns the exist-

ence of the jurisdiction of the Court ad casum, an objection to inadmis-
sibility, as accepted by the majority, is concerned with the performance of
the jurisdiction that is established.

189. It is true that the Respondent formulated this objection in the

sense that “claims based on acts and omissions which took place prior to

224633 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

27 April 1992 are beyond the jurisdiction of this Court and inadmissible”
(CR 2008/12, p. 68). It is equally true, however, that it is up to a party to
the dispute, in concreto the Respondent, to present its objection(s) to

jurisdiction, and that it is up to the Court to make the determination on
the basis of final submissions and, if necessary, other pertinent evidence,
the real meaning of a jurisdictional objection. This would not be a matter
which touches upon the power of the Court to “‘substitute itself for them
and formulate new submissions simply on the basis of arguments and

facts advanced’ (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7 , p. 35)” (Nuclear Tests (New
Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 466, para. 30), but
a matter of the objective determination of a legal issue.
It seems, based on the wording of this particular objection of the FRY,
as well as on the reasons advanced, that it is rather an objection to the

scope of the jurisdiction ratione temporis, whereas admissibility could be
an alternative objection.
190. It appears that the majority fails to pay due regard to the fact,
which any legal reasoning must obey, considering that it expresses the

iron law of logic and common sense itself. And, that is, that any legal
personality, including a State, might bear responsibility or be subject to
the legal procedure, only if it exists and during the period of time of its
existence. In concreto, it seems obvious that the Court may have jurisdic-
tion starting only on 27 April 1992, when the Respondent was consti-

tuted as the legal person in terms of international law — for acts or
omissions which may be attributed to it.
The term “State” in the International Law Commission’s Articles on
the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (Annex to
General Assembly resolution 56/83, 12 December 2001) possesses a clear

and precise meaning. It is certainly not a State in an abstract or meta-
physical sense, but a real State, a State in existence. Only a State in exist-
ence, bound by an international obligation, may commit an internation-
ally wrongful act that entails international responsibility. The same holds
true, mutatis mutandi, also for the term “State” or “party” used both in

the Statute and in the Rules of Court. Jurisdiction of the Court, either
stricto or lato sensu, cannot be established in relation to a non-existent
State.
191. In the law of State responsibility, the only exception to that iron

rule of logic is the mechanism of succession in respect of treaties of delict-
ual responsibility. The Applicant refers to the rule provided in Article 10,
paragraph 2, of the ILC’s Articles on State Responsibility, according to
which “‘the conduct of a movement insurrectional or other which suc-
ceeds in establishing a new State shall be considered an act of the new

State under international law’” (Judgment, para. 125).

192. Two observations seem relevant in that regard:
First, the mechanism of succession in respect of delictual responsibility
is not a part of lex lata;

Second, this particular assertion of the Applicant seems manifestly

225634 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

absurd, in serious conflict with common sense and cogent legal consid-
erations. The assertion that the FRY — which is, in fact, a part of the
SFRY that remained after the successive recessions of the four former

federal units, including Croatia, and whose legal position in terms of
legal identity and continuity with the SFRY was the subject of vehement
legal and political confrontations in the international community —
came into being as a consequence of a successful insurrectional move-
ment, hardly deserves another qualification. Besides, it turns out that the

“successful insurrectional movement” grew into the youngest successor
State in the territory of the former SFRY, following the four successive
secessions of the former Yugoslav republics, ending the process of its dis-
solution.
It appears that such an assertion is rather a matter of litigation strat-

egy. In the majority view, the determination of questions relating to the
assertion of the Applicant regarding the insurrectional nature of the FRY
would require it “to enter into an examination of factual issues concern-
ing the events leading up to the dissolution of the SFRY and the estab-

lishment of the FRY” (Judgment, para. 127). It appears, however, that
examination of the relevant factual issues in concreto is not a sufficient
basis for the determination of this particular objection of the Respondent
as one having no exclusively preliminary nature.
193. The issue of the dissolution of the SFRY is of a mixed nature,

being a questio juris et questio facti at the same time, since it is based on
the principles of international law which serve to define the conditions in
which an entity constitutes a State or disappears as a State. As regards
the questio facti aspect of the dissolution of the SFRY, the relevant facts
have been clearly established by the Arbitration Commission and accepted

by the international community as well as by the successor States of the
SFRY.
According to Opinion No. 1 of the Arbitration Commission (Interna-
tional Legal Materials, Vol. 31 (November 1992), p. 1496), due to the
fact that the republics, more precisely Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and

Herzegovina and Macedonia “have expressed their desire for independ-
ence” the “composition and workings of the essential organs of the
Federation . . . no longer meet the criteria of participation and repre-
sentativeness inherent in a federal State” and, consequently, “the SFRY

is in the process of dissolution”. The process was completed — as stated
by the Commission in its Opinion No. 8 (ibid., p. 1523), adopted with
respect to the question posed on 18 May 1992 by Lord Carrington —
with the constitution of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a new
State that on 27 April 1992 adopted a new Constitution (92 International

Law Reports (ILR) 167). Ergo, these facts, being established and
accepted, did not even call for a special examination, but were simply to
be perceived or taken cognizance of.
Finally, even if these facts ought to have been the subject of examina-
tion, they were obviously not of such a nature as to be preclusive of the

matter. As such they are issues that “may be by no means divorced from

226635 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

the merits. A jurisdictional decision may often have to touch upon the
latter or at least involve some consideration of them.” (Appeal Relating
to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 ,

p. 56, para. 18 (c)). It might rather be said that they touch
“on a point of merits, but . . . only in a provisional way, to the extent
necessary for deciding the question raised by the preliminary objec-

tion. Any finding on the point of merits therefore, ranks simply as
part of the motivation of the decision on the preliminary objection,
and not as the object of that decision.” (South West Africa (Ethiopia
v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1966, p. 37, para. 59.)
194. The extension of the scope of the jurisdiction of the Court ratione
temporis to the events that occurred before 27 April 1992 radically modi-

fied the characterization of the case in terms of responsibility. Consider-
ing that in the period preceding 27 April 1992 the Respondent did not
exist as a State, extension of the scope of the Court’s jurisdiction ratione
temporis can mean two things:

(i) that the responsibility claim was addressed to a dead, non-existent
State; or
(ii) that, assuming hypothetically that there exists the rule of positive
international law regarding succession in respect of delictual respon-

sibility, the responsibility claim of the Applicant as such, apart from
the jurisdictional side of the matter, represents, in fact, a claim for
joint and several responsibility of Serbia, Montenegro, as well as
Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia, either of both or of Mace-
donia alone, depending on the moment of occurrence of the events

alleged by the Applicant in its Memorial, as successor States which
the territorially reduced SFRY comprised in that period.

4. Preliminary objection to the admissibility of claims relating to

the submission of certain persons to trial, provision of information
on missing Croatian citizens, and return of cultural property

195. Given the unusual understanding of the jurisdiction of the Court
ratione personae et materiae (paras. 18-20 above), this particular objec-
tion remains simply “preliminary objection” and is treated as such.

In fact, all three issues included in this particular objection are par
excellence issues of the jurisdiction of the Court ratione materiae that
should be assessed in terms of whether there is a dispute between the

Parties that falls within the scope of Article IX of the Genocide Conven-
tion. Article IX states that:
“Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpre-

tation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including

227636 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any
of the other acts enumerated in Article III, shall be submitted to the
International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to

the dispute.”

196. As regards the submission of certain persons to trial, it seems
obvious that it is essential that certain conditions be met in order that the
dispute regarding the submission could be considered as a dispute falling

within the ambit of Article IX of the Convention. Firstly, that the per-
sons accused of genocide or any other acts enumerated in Article III of
the Convention have precisely been identified in due procedure provided
for by the law of the ICTY. Further, that it has been shown that persons
charged by the ICTY Prosecutor with acts of genocide committed in

Croatia are to be found in the territory of the Respondent or territory
within its control. Finally, that the Applicant did not take effective steps
to submit those persons to the ICTY as a “competent international penal
tribunal” in terms of Article VI of the Convention. It seems that none of

these preconditions have been fulfilled.
197. It is a matter of common knowledge that not a single citizen of
the Respondent has been accused of genocide or other acts enumerated in
Article III of the Convention, allegedly committed in the territory of
Croatia. (As to the part of the submission relating to the former Presi-

dent, Mr. S. Milosevic ´, it is not only moot but, as presently designed, it
implies the existence of a sort of actio popularis, which is obviously
totally erroneous (see South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa;
Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966 ,
p. 47, para. 88).)

It is in that sense that the Applicant has invoked the Genocide Con-
vention, since it refers to “trial before the appropriate judicial authority”
(submission 2 (a) in the Memorial) and not to the “international penal
tribunal” in terms of Article VI of the Convention.
Therefore, it is only in the case of accumulation of certain elements of

the dispute as regards the “submission of certain persons to trial” in the
terms of the Genocide Convention that it would fall within the jurisdic-
tion of the Court ratione materiae.
The Applicant probably has in mind the submission of certain persons

indicted for genocide by its organs, which are not verified by the Chief
Prosecution and the ICTY itself, for trial before its national criminal
courts. If so, the Applicant’s submission is rather a matter of application
of treaty rules in force between Croatia and Serbia on legal assistance in
criminal matters.

198. It is however true, that in the oral proceedings counsel for Croatia
referred, inter alia, also to the ICTY, by saying: “persons found in Serbia
suspected of committing genocide in Croatia can still be submitted to
trial before the ICTY — which is a tribunal —, and Serbia would, on that

hypothesis still have obligations to fulfil ” (CR 2008/13, p. 35 (Crawford);

228637 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

emphasis added). The Applicant, in fact, presumed that a number of per-
petrators so charged are in Serbia (CR 2008/10, p. 15 (Šimonovic ´)).

By reference to the ICTY the matter is prima facie brought into nexus
with the Genocide Convention. That nexus is, however, of hypothetic
nature and, as such, it is beyond the jurisdiction of the Court. On this

particular point, in fact, there does not exist an actual, real, dispute as a
primary condition for the Court to exercise its judicial function, but a
hypothetic dispute.
For the dispute between the Parties is one thing, and the dispute before
the Court is quite another. What, in effect, does the Applicant contend?

On the one hand, that the persons charged with genocide by the Croatian
authorities are presumably staying in Serbia and, on the other, that these
persons, who may be staying in Serbia, might be accused in a proper pro-
cedure before the ICTY, as a competent international penal tribunal,

which might then activate the obligation of Serbia to co-operate with the
ICTY. The Respondent denies that contention, putting forward argu-
ments which appear relevant to it.
199. Consequently, it is indisputable that there are clearly opposite
views, a disagreement about the submission of Croatia. But, such a dis-

agreement is not sufficient to constitute the dispute before the Court to
fall within the competence of the Court in casu.
It is of an abstract, hypothetical nature in view of the fact that the sub-
mission of the Applicant is subjected to a triple qualification:

(a) that the persons charged with genocide by the Croatian authorities
are staying in the territory of Serbia;
(b) that the ICTY bring in an indictment against them; and

(c) that Serbia, explicitly or tacitly, refuse to co-operate with the ICTY.

200. Thus, it appears that, in actual fact, there does not exist a dispute
between the Parties in terms of the well-known definition given in the
case concerning Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions . According to that
definition the dispute is a “disagreement on a point of law or fact, a con-

flict of legal views or interests between two persons” (Judgment No. 2,
1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 , p. 11).
The Parties are, in essence, not disputing a point of law, because the
Respondent does not deny the obligation to co-operate with the ICTY in
terms of Article VI of the Convention. For its part, the Applicant does

not deny that the ICTY has not accused any of the Respondent’s citizens
of the crime of genocide allegedly committed in the territory of Croatia.

Accordingly, what remains as a possible subject of dispute before the
Court is a disagreement on a point of fact. However, in concreto, the

“fact” in terms of a thing that exists or occurred simply is not present.

229638 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

What the Court is really faced with is not a “fact”, but a presumed fact or
a hypothetical fact. Dealing with presumed facts or hypothetical facts
however is outside the purview of the judicial function of the Court

because of cogent legal considerations. For, as the Court stated in the
case concerning Northern Cameroons :

“The function of the Court is to state the law, but it may pro-
nounce judgment only in connection with concrete cases where there
exists at the time of the adjudication an actual controversy involving
a conflict of legal interests between the parties. The Court’s judgment
must have some practical consequence in the sense that it can affect

existing legal rights and obligations of the parties, thus removing un-
certainty from their legal relations.” (Northern Cameroons (Cam-
eroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1963, pp. 33-34.)

It would be incompatible with the judicial function of the Court to render
judgments which would be dependent on the existence of facts or situa-

tions to which a party refers.
201. The majority’s conclusion as regards the duty of prosecution and
punishment that “[t]hese issues are clearly matters of interpretation or
application of the Genocide Convention” (Judgment, para. 136) seems
correct but abstract, since it is not followed by a proper conclusio. The

Genocide Convention does not contain the principle of universal repres-
sion. States are “obliged to punish persons charged with the commission
of acts coming under the Convention insofar as they were committed in
their territory” (N. Robinson, The Genocide Convention, its Origins and
Interpretation, 1949, p. 31).

In its Judgment in the Bosnia case, the Court stated clearly:

“Even if Serbian domestic law granted jurisdiction to its criminal
courts to try those accused, and even supposing such proceedings
were compatible with Serbia’s other international obligations, inter
alia its obligation to co-operate with the ICTY, to which the Court

will revert below, an obligation to try the perpetrators of the Sre-
brenica massacre in Serbia’s domestic courts cannot be deduced
from Article VI. Article VI only obliges the Contracting Parties to
institute and exercise territorial criminal jurisdiction; while it cer-
tainly does not prohibit States, with respect to genocide, from con-

ferring jurisdiction on their criminal courts based on criteria other
than where the crime was committed which are compatible with
international law, in particular the nationality of the accused, it does
not oblige them to do so.” (Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and

Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), pp. 226-227, para. 442.)

The idea underlying theconclusio of the majority seems to be the under-

230639 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

standing that, if a person charged in State A with acts of genocide
committed in its territory is found in the territory of State B, a party to
the Genocide Convention, that State would be under an obligation to co-

operate in the arrest and extradition of such a person. Such an under-
standing seems erroneous for two principal reasons:
First, the duty to co-operate in the Convention is limited to co-opera-
tion with international penal tribunals (Art. VI of the Convention);

Second, it runs counter to the general principle of international crimi-
nal law in that regard — aut dedere, aut punire. The duty to extradite
might be established on the basis of a treaty, bilateral or multilateral, on
legal assistance in criminal matters only!
202. It is completely unclear how the dispute on the information on

missing persons falls within the jurisdiction of the Court ratione materiae
under the Genocide Convention. Co-operation of that kind between the
Contracting Parties is not envisaged by the Convention. In the concrete
case, the object are the bilateral treaty instruments, so this is rather a dis-

pute about its fulfilment.

203. The majority reasoning as regards the return of items of cultural
property (submission 2 (c)) is, it seems, not in harmony with its conclu-
sio. If the majority sees “no reason to depart from its earlier finding on

the general question of interpretation of the Convention in this respect”
(Judgment, para. 141), it is not clear how it came to the conclusio that the
objection raised by Serbia is not of an exclusively preliminary nature.

In the Bosnia case, the Court found, inter alia, that the deliberate

destruction of the historical, cultural and religious heritage “does not fall
within the categories of acts of genocide set out in Article II of the Con-
vention” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and
Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I) , pp. 185-186, para. 344.

It is a fortiori valid for acts of seizure of those items of cultural property.
If so, the dispute regarding the return of items of cultural property can-
not be considered as falling within the jurisdiction ratione materiae of the
Court on the basis of Article IX of the Convention, which perceives

genocide in terms of physical or biological destruction of the relevant
group as such.
204. The majority’s consideration that the claim of Croatia includes
“disputed matters of fact” (Judgment, para. 143), appears to be irrelevant
in the light of the fact that as a matter of law the so-called cultural geno-

cide does not fall within the scope of the Genocide Convention.
Both objections of the Respondent are determined by the majority as
objections having no exclusively preliminary character on the basis of the
consideration that it includes disputed matters of fact inappropriate to be
examined in the present phase of the proceedings.

In that regard, a different treatment of the disputed matters of fact in

231640 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

closely related cases seems evident. I have in mind the treatment of the
disputed facts in the Order of 8 April 1993 (Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Provisional Measures, I.C.J. Reports 1993 ,

p. 25), followed by the Order of 13 September 1993 (ibid., pp. 349-350) as
well as the Orders of 2 June 1999 in the ten Legality of Use of Force cases
((Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provisional Measures, I.C.J. Reports 1999
(I), p. 138, para. 39) regarding facts that possess a sufficiently clear

manifestation of genocidal intent, a matter much more demanding than
the matter involved in this particular issue.

(Signed) Milenko K REuA .

232

Bilingual Content

556

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC KREC uA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

I. GENERAL ISSUES 557
1. The consistency as a purported principle of the majority reason-
ing 557

2. What is the possible backing of the inconsistency? 566
3. Nature of the issue of jurisdiction 574
II. SPECIFICISSUESIN C ASU 579

1. Jus standi of the Respondent 579
(a) General approach of the majority to the jus standi require-

ment 579
(b) Nature and characteristics of the jus standi requirement 581
(c) Majority’s decision-making framework 583
(d) The Mavrommatis rule, as a purported legal basis for recon-
ciliation 585
(e) The substantial incapability of the Mavrommatis rule to pro-
duce the desired effects in casu 586
(f) Sound administration of justice as a purported basis for the
establishment of the desired exception to the general rule 589
(g) Compétence de la compétence as an improper modus oper-

andi 592
(h) Effects of seisin of the Court 593
(i) If valid, why was not the alleged exception applied in the
Legality of Use of Force cases? 595

2. Jurisdiction ratione materiae 599
(a) General approach of the majority 599
(b) Whether the 1992 declaration could be considered a unilat-
eral legal act in terms of international law? 602
(c) The issue of intention 604
(d) Whether the “intention of the FRY” is separable from the

continuity condition? 606
(e) The effects of the 1992 declaration 608
(f) Could the 1992 declaration be considered a notification of
succession? 608
(g) Could the Respondent be considered a party to the Genocide
Convention on the basis of the 1992 declaration and its con-
duct? 619
(h) Legal effects of the admission of the FRY/Serbia to the
United Nations as a new State 622

148 556

OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC KREC uA

[Traduction]

TABLE DES MATIÈRES

Pages

I. QUESTIONS GÉNÉRALES 557

1. La cohérence en tant que principe censé fonder le raisonnement
majoritaire 557
2. Comment expliquer l’incohérence des décisions de la Cour? 566
3. Nature de la question de la compétence 574

II. QUESTIONS SPÉCIFIQUES EN ’ESPÈCE 579
1. Le jus standi du défendeur 579

a) Conception générale de la majorité de la condition relative au
jus standi 579
b) Nature et caractéristiques de la condition de jus standi 581
c) Cadre dans lequel la majorité a pris sa décision 583
d) La règle Mavrommatis en tant que prétendu fondement juri-
dique de la conciliation 585
e) L’incapacité substantielle de la règle Mavrommatis à produire
les effets souhaités en l’espèce 586
f) La bonne administration de la justice comme fondement de
l’établissement de l’exception souhaitée à la règle générale 589
g) La compétence de la compétence en tant que modus operandi

inapproprié 592
h) Effets de la saisine de la Cour 593
i) Si elle était valide, pourquoi la prétendue exception appliquée
dans les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force ne
l’a-t-elle pas été en l’espèce? 595
2. Compétence ratione materiae 599

a) Conception générale de la majorité 599
b) La déclaration de 1992 peut-elle être considérée comme un
acte juridique unilatéral au regard du droit international? 602
c) La question de l’intention 604
d) L’«intention de la RFY» est-elle séparable de la condition de
continuité? 606
e) Les effets de la déclaration de 1992 608
f) La déclaration de 1992 peut-elle être considérée comme une
notification de succession? 608

g) Le défendeur pourrait-il être considéré comme partie à la
convention sur le génocide sur la base de la déclaration de 1992
et de son comportement? 619
h) Effets juridiques de l’admission de la RFY/Serbie à l’Organi-
sation des Nations Unies en tant que nouvel Etat 622

148557 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

(i) The relevance of the Secretary-General’s/Secretariat’s action
in the exercise of the depositary function 624

3. Preliminary objection to the jurisdiction of the Court, and to
admissibility ratione temporis 632
4. Preliminary objection to the admissibility of claims relating to the
submission of certain persons to trial, provision of information

on missing Croatian citizens, and return of cultural property 635

*

I. G ENERAL ISSUES

1. The consistency as a purported principle of the majority reasoning

1. It seems that the principle of judicial consistency understood as
“consistency with its own past case law. . . especially. . . in different

phases of the same case or with regard to closely related cases” (Legality
of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary
Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 330, para. 3; joint
declaration of Vice-President Ranjeva, Judges Guillaume, Higgins, Kooij-

mans, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal and Elaraby) should have been the
essence of the majority reasoning in the present case. Even for the stand-
ards of the Court itself in whose jurisprudence the principle of consist-
ency has a prominent place, there is a conspicuous reference to the course
“not. . . to depart from previous findings, particularly when similar issues

were dealt with in the earlier decisions, as in the current case” (Judgment,
para. 104) or similarly couched (exempli causa, ibid., paras. 53, 54, 71,
76, 141).

2. The consistency as such may in concreto be evaluated at three lev-
els:

(a) consistency in casu (horizontal consistency);
(b) limited vertical consistency, i.e., consistency in cases in which the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY)/Serbia was involved as a

party; and
(c) general vertical consistency in terms of the consistency of decisions
taken by the Court in cases in which the FRY/Serbia was involved,
in the light of the general jurisprudence of the Court on relevant
issues.

3. It appears that the application of the principle of consistency in casu
was a difficult task, as regards the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia even an
impossible mission, due to heterogeneous decisions taken by the Court in

149 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 557

i) Pertinence de l’action du Secrétaire général/Secrétariat dans
l’exercice de la fonction de dépositaire 624

3. Exception préliminaire à la compétence de la Cour et à la receva-
bilité ratione temporis 632
4. Exception préliminaire à la recevabilité des demandes relatives à
la traduction de certaines personnes en justice, la communication

de renseignements sur les citoyens croates portés disparus et la
restitution de biens culturels 635

*

I. Q UESTIONS GÉNÉRALES

1. La cohérence en tant que principe censé fonder
le raisonnement majoritaire

1. Il semble que le principe de la cohérence judiciaire entendu comme
«la cohérence de la solution retenue [par la Cour] avec sa propre

jurisprudence ... spécialement ... dans les différentes phases de la procé-
dure d’une même affaire ou s’agissant d’affaires connexes» (Licéité de
l’emploi de la force (Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions pré-
liminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) , p. 330, par. 3; déclaration com-

mune dmeM. le juge Ranjeva, vice-président, et de M. le juge Guillaume,
de M le juge Higgins, et de MM. les juges Kooijmans, Al-Khasawneh,
Buergenthal et Elaraby) aurait dû constituer l’essence du raisonnement
majoritaire dans la présente affaire. Même au regard des normes de la
Cour elle-même, dont la jurisprudence accorde au principe de la cohé-

rence une place de premier plan, force est de relever que l’arrêt indique
que la Cour «ne s’écarte toutefois pas de sa jurisprudence, notamment
lorsque des questions comparables à celles qui se posent à elle, comme
en l’espèce, ont été examinées dans des décisions antérieures» (arrêt,

par. 104), ou exprime la même idée en des termes comparables (par
exemple ibid., par. 53, 54, 71, 76 et 141).
2. Ainsi entendue, la cohérence peut être évaluée in concreto à trois
niveaux:

a) la cohérence in casu (cohérence horizontale);
b) la cohérence verticale limitée, c’est-à-dire la cohérence dans les affaires
auxquelles la République fédérale de Yougoslavie (RFY)/Serbie était

partie; et
c) la cohérence verticale générale, c’est-à-dire la cohérence des décisions
prises par la Cour dans des affaires auxquelles la RFY/Serbie était
partie, à la lumière de la jurisprudence générale de la Cour sur les
questions en cause.

3. Il semble que l’application du principe de la cohérence était en
l’espèce une tâche difficile, voire une mission impossible, en ce qui
concerne le jus standi de la RFY/Serbie, en raison de l’hétérogénéité des

149558 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

the earlier cases in that respect as well as in respect of the status of the
FRY/Serbia vis-à-vis the United Nations as its determinative.

4. In that regard, the decisions of the Court in the earlier cases may be
divided into three groups:

(a) decisions based on avoiding or ignoring the position as regards the
jus standi of the FRY/Serbia;
(b) decisions involving some elements or indicae of the jus standi of the
FRY/Serbia; and
(c) decisions based on substantive assessment, whether positive or nega-

tive, of the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia.
5. The explicit avoidance position was taken by the Court in its Orders

of 8 April 1993 in the Bosnia case and 2 June 1999 in the Legality of Use
of Force cases. In its Order of 8 April 1993 the Court found, inter alia,
that in resolution 47/1 “the solution. . . is not free from legal difficulties”
(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the

Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia (Serbia and
Montenegro)), Provisional Measures, Order of 8 April 1993, I.C.J.
Reports 1993, p. 14, para. 18), but decided that the question is one which
“the Court does not need to determine definitively at the present stage of
the proceedings” (ibid.).

Since the FRY/Serbia could have the status of a party in the Court
only on the basis of its membership in the United Nations, the meaning
of the finding regarding the jus standi of the FRY is that it, as such, “is
not free of legal difficulties”. That position was slightly modified in its
Order of 2 June 1999 by stating that it “need not consider this question

for the purpose of deciding whether or not it can indicate provisional
measures in the present case” (Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v.
Belgium), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports
1999 (I), p. 136, para. 33).

6. In the Judgment on Preliminary Objections in the Bosnia case,
which would have been the proper place for the decision as to whether
the fundamental condition of jus standi (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia
and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.

Reports 2004 (I), pp. 298-299, para. 46) had been fulfilled, the Court put
the issue of the jus standi of the FRY under the carpet. It satisfied itself
by the finding that “Yugoslavia was bound by the provisions of the Con-
vention on the date of the filing of the Application” (Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), p. 610, para. 17) and since Bosnia and Herzegovina
“became a Member of the United Nations. . . on 22 May 1992” (ibid.,
p. 611, para. 19) and as such “could become a party to the Convention
through the mechanism of State succession” (ibid., p. 611, para. 20), it

came to the conclusion that “all the conditions are now fulfilled to found

150 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 558

décisions prises par la Cour dans les affaires antérieures à cet égard ainsi
qu’en ce qui concerne le statut de la RFY/Serbie vis-à-vis de l’Organisa-
tion des Nations Unies en tant que facteur déterminant.

4. A cet égard, les décisions de la Cour dans les affaires antérieures
peuvent être regroupées en trois catégories:

a) les décisions dans lesquelles la Cour a éludé ou négligé la question du
jus standi de la RFY/Serbie;
b) les décisions comportant certains éléments ou indices concernant le
jus standi de la RFY/Serbie; et
c) les décisions reposant sur une évaluation quant au fond, positive ou

négative, du jus standi de la RFY/Serbie.
5. La Cour a expressément éludé la question dans ses ordonnances du

8 avril 1993 dans l’affaire de laBosnie et du 2 juin 1999 dans les affaires de
la Licéité de l’emploi de la force. Dans son ordonnance du 8 avril 1993,
la Cour a notamment jugé que, dans la résolution 47/1, «la solution adop-
tée ne laisse pas de susciter des difficultés juridiques» (Application de la

convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-
Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténégro)), mesures conserva-
toires, ordonnance du 8 avril 1993, C.I.J. Recueil 1993 , p. 14, par. 18),
mais elle a décidé que c’était là une question sur laquelle elle «n’a[vait]
pas à statuer définitivement au stade actuel de la procédure» (ibid.).

Comme la RFY/Serbie n’aurait pu avoir le statut de partie devant la
Cour que sur la base de sa qualité de Membre de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies, la signification de cette décision en ce qui concerne le jus
standi de la RFY «ne laisse pas de susciter des difficultés juridiques». La
Cour a légèrement modifié sa position dans son ordonnance du 2 juin

1999 en déclarant qu’elle «n’a[vait] pas à examiner cette question à l’effet
de décider si elle p[ouvait] ou non indiquer des mesures conservatoires
dans le cas d’espèce» (Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Yougoslavie c. Bel-
gique), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil
1999 (I), p. 136, par. 33).

6. Dans son arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires dans l’affaire de la
Bosnie, où il aurait été judicieux de rendre une décision sur le point de
savoir si la condition fondamentale de jus standi (Licéité de l’emploi de la
force (Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 298-299, par. 46) avait été satisfaite, la Cour a
escamoté la question du jus standi de la RFY. Elle s’est contentée de
constater que «la Yougoslavie était liée par les dispositions de la Conven-
tion à la date du dépôt de la requête» (Application de la convention pour
la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine

c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) ,
p. 610, par. 17) et que, comme la Bosnie-Herzégovine «[était] devenue
Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies ... le 22 mai 1992» (ibid.,
p. 611, par. 19), elle «pouvait devenir partie à la Convention par l’effet
du mécanisme de la succession d’Etats» (ibid., p. 611, par. 20), et elle a

abouti à la conclusion que «toutes les conditions [étaient] à présent réu-

150559 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

the jurisdiction of the Court ratione personae”( Application of the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bos-

nia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), p. 613, para. 26). The approach could be called the
implicit avoiding position or, perhaps more properly, the ignoring posi-
tion as regards the jus standi of the FRY. (The implicit avoiding position

is basically the substance of the joint declaration of seven judges on the
Legality of Use of Force cases also ((Serbia and Montenegro v. Bel-
gium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
pp. 330-334.) For, if the Court would consider itself not competent on

considerations ratione temporis and ratione materiae, as was argued in
the joint declaration, then the question of the jus standi of the FRY
would be set aside, and would be substantially disqualified as an anteced-
ent condition of the jurisdiction of the Court.)

7. In the decisions of the Court involving some elements or indicae of
substantive assessment of the jus standi of the FRY, one could include
the Order of 8 April 1993 in the case concerning Application of the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide and

the 2003 Judgment in the Application for Revision case.
The Order of 8 April 1993, apart from the finding that the solution
adopted by General Assembly resolution 47/1 “is not free from legal dif-
ficulties”, adduced another consideration namely, that

“proceedings may validly be instituted by a State against a State
which is a party to. . . a special provision in a treaty in force, but is

not party to the Statute, and independently of the conditions laid
down by the Security Council in its resolution 9 of 1946 (cf. S.S.
“Wimbledon”, 1923, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 1 , p. 6)” (para. 19 of the
Order) .

In its Judgment in the Application for Revision case (Application for
Revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning Applica-

tion of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objec-
tions (Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2003, p. 7), the Court entered into the assessment of both the jus standi of

the FRY and its determinative — the status of the FRY vis-à-vis the
United Nations. As regards the status of the FRY vis-à-vis the United
Nations a notion sui generis of membership was constructed.
8. The Court, considering General Assembly resolution 55/12 of 1
November 2000 by which FRY/Serbia was admitted to the United

Nations as a new Member, points out, inter alia, that it

1The consideration proved to be erroneous in the light of the eight Judgments of the
Court in the Legality of Use of Force cases ((Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), I.C.J.
Reports 2004 (I), pp. 323-324, paras. 113-114).

151 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. KRECu ) 559

nies pour fonder la compétence de la Courratione personae»( Application

de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 613, par. 26). Cette démarche pourrait être
appelée la position d’évitement implicite ou, peut-être plus exactement, la

position consistant à laisser de côté lejus standi de la RFY. (La position
d’évitement implicite est pour l’essentiel celle que consacre la déclaration
commune des sept juges dans les affaires de la Licéité de l’emploi de la
force ((Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 330-334). Car, si la Cour s’était considérée
comme incompétente sur la base de considérations ratione temporis et
ratione materiae, comme l’affirmait la déclaration commune, la question
du jus standi de la RFY serait alors écartée, et ne constituerait plus une

condition préalable de fond de la compétence de la Cour.)
7. Parmi les décisions de la Cour comportant certains éléments ou in-
dices d’une évaluation quant au fond dujus standi de la RFY, on peut faire
figurer l’ordonnance rendue le 8 avril 1993 dans l’affaire concernantA l’ppli-

cation de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de géno-
cide et l’arrêt rendu en 2003 dans l’affaire de laDemande en revision.
Dans l’ordonnance du 8 avril 1993, la Cour observe que la solution
adoptée par l’Assemblée générale dans sa résolution 47/1 «ne laisse pas

de susciter des difficultés juridiques», et fait en outre valoir une autre
considération, à savoir

«qu’une instance peut être valablement introduite par un Etat contre
un autre Etat qui ... est partie à une telle disposition particulière d’un
traité en vigueur, et ce indépendamment des conditions réglées par le
Conseil de sécurité dans sa résolution 9 (1946) (voir Vapeur Wim-
o 1
bledon, 1923, C.P.J.I. série A n 1, p. 6)» (ordonnance, par. 19) .

Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu dans l’affaire de laDemande en revision de
l’arrêt du 11 juillet 1996 en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la conven-
tion pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-
Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires(Yougoslavie c.

Bosnie-Herzégovine) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003, p. 7), la Cour a procédé à
une évaluation à la fois dujus standi de la RFY et du facteur le déterminant
— le statut de la RFY vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des Nations Unies. En ce
qui concerne le statut de la RFY vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des Nations

Unies, une notionsui generis de la qualité de membre a été élaborée.
8. La Cour, examinant la résolution 55/12 de l’Assemblée générale en
date du 1 ernovembre 2000 par laquelle la RFY/Serbie a été admise à
l’Organisation des Nations Unies en tant que nouveau Membre, fait

observer notamment qu’elle

1 Cette considération s’est révélée erronée à la lumière des huit arrêts rendus par la Cour
dans les affaires de la Licéité de l’emploi de la force ((Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique),
C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 323-324, par. 113-114).

151560 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

“cannot have changed retroactively the sui generis position which
the FRY found itself in vis-à-vis the United Nations over the period
1992 to 2000, or its position in relation to the Statute of the Court

and the Genocide Convention. Furthermore, the letter of the Legal
Counsel of the United Nations dated 8 December 2000, cannot have
affected the FRY’s position in relation to treaties.” (Application for
Revision of the Judgment of 11 July 1996 in the Case concerning
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of

the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia),
Preliminary Objections (Yugoslavia v. Bosnia and Herzegovina),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2003 , p. 31, para. 71.)

(Apart from the substantive validity of the position taken, two obser-

vations seem to be of interest. First, the assessment of the status of the
FRY took place almost a decade after Bosnia and Herzegovina submit-
ted its Application to the Court, and over four years since the admission
of the FRY to the United Nations as a new Member. Second, the assess-

ment is, by its nature, an obiter dictum exceeding the competence of the
Court in the revision procedure which, in the sense of Article 61 of the
Statute, should have confined itself to the issue whether the admission of
the FRY to the United Nations as such is a “new fact”.)

Regarding the jus standi of the FRY, the Court noted that: “Resolu-
tion 47/1 did not inter alia affect the FRY’s right to appear before the
Court. . . under the conditions laid down by the Statute. Nor did it affect
the position of the FRY in relation to the Genocide Convention.” (Ibid.,

p. 31, para. 70.)
9. The Court performed substantial assessment of jus standi in two
cases: in the Legality of Use of Force cases, the Court found that the
FRY was deprived of the right to appear before it due to the fact that in
the period 1992-2000 Serbia and Montenegro was not a Member of the

United Nations and, consequently, “did not. . . have access to the Court
under either paragraph 1 or paragraph 2 of Article 35 of the Statute”
(Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Prelimi-
nary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 327, para. 127),

while in the 2007 Judgment in the case concerning Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide it
found, through the form of decision by “necessary implication”, that Ser-
bia did have access to the Court (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), pp. 98-99,
para. 132).

10. In the jurisprudence of the Court, taken as a whole, the cases in
which the issue of access was status versiae et controversiae are rare
because of the practically universal nature of the United Nations and
because of the equality sign between the membership in the Organization

and the jus standi before the Court. Along with the cases in which the

152 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 560

«ne peut avoir rétroactivement modifié la situation sui generis dans
laquelle se trouvait la RFY vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies pendant la période 1992-2000, ni sa situation à l’égard du Sta-

tut de la Cour et de la convention sur le génocide. En outre, la lettre
du conseiller juridique de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en date
du 8 décembre 2000 ne peut avoir modifié le statut de la RFY à
l’égard des traités.» (Demande en revision de l’arrêt du 11 juillet
1996 en l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la

prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-
Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires (Yougoslavie
c. Bosnie-Herzégovine) , arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2003 , p. 31, par. 71.)

(La validité quant au fond de la position ainsi prise mise à part, deux

observations semblent être intéressantes. Premièrement, cette évaluation
du statut de la RFY a eu lieu presque une décennie après que la Bosnie-
Herzégovine eut introduit sa requête devant la Cour, et plus de quatre
ans après l’admission de la RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies en

tant que nouveau Membre. Deuxièmement, cette évaluation est, de par sa
nature, un obiter dictum outrepassant la compétence de la Cour dans le
cadre de la procédure de revision car, aux termes de l’article 61 du Statut,
la Cour aurait dû se limiter à la question de savoir si l’admission de la
RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies constituait en tant que telle un

«fait nouveau».)
S’agissant du jus standi de la RFY, la Cour a noté: «La résolution 47/1
ne portait notamment pas atteinte au droit de la RFY d’ester devant la
Cour ... dans les conditions fixées par le Statut. Elle ne touchait pas
davantage à la situation de la RFY au regard de la convention sur le

génocide.» (Ibid., p. 31, par. 70.)
9. La Cour a procédé à une évaluation quant au fond du jus standi
dans deux affaires: dans les affaires de la Licéité de l’emploi de la force,
la Cour a jugé que la RFY était privée du droit d’ester devant elle parce
que de 1992 à 2000 la Serbie et le Monténégro n’étaient pas un Membre

de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et, en conséquence, n’avait «qualité
pour ester devant la Cour, ni en vertu du paragraphe 1, ni en vertu du
paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut» (Licéité de l’emploi de la force
(Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 327, par. 127); et, dans son arrêt rendu en
2007 dans l’affaire concernant l’Application de la convention sur la pré-
vention et la répression du crime de génocide , elle a jugé que sa conclusion
antérieure devait «nécessairement» s’interpréter comme signifiant que la
Serbie avait qualité pour ester devant la Cour (C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I),

p. 98-99, par. 132).
10. Dans la jurisprudence de la Cour, prise comme un tout, les affaires
dans lesquelles la question de l’accès à la Cour était status versiae et
controversiae sont rares en raison du caractère pratiquement universel de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies et parce que la qualité de Membre

de l’Organisation égale jus standi devant la Cour. Outre les affaires aux-

152561 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

FRY/Serbia was involved, the list of relevant cases included the Mon-
etary Gold and Fisheries cases. In all these cases the Court followed a
uniform pattern in its reasoning. Exempli causa,inthe Fisheries Jurisdic-

tion (Federal Republic of Germany v. Iceland) case, the Court stated
inter alia :

“the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Iceland seemed to suggest that
the timing of the declaration of the Federal Republic of Germany of
29 October 1971, deposited with the Registrar on 22 November
1971, may have had some effect on the binding force of the agree-

ment contained in the Exchange of Notes of 19 July 1961 or on the
right of access to the Court of the Federal Republic of Germany .As
to the first point, it is clear that the binding force of the agreement
between the two Governments, which is to be examined in the
present Judgment, bears no relation to the date on which the declara-

tion required by the Security Council resolution of 15 October 1946
was deposited with the Registrar: the former is designed to establish
the jurisdiction of the Court over a particular kind of dispute; the
latter provides for access to the Court of States which are not parties

to the Statute. As to the second point (i.e., the question of the Fed-
eral Republic’s right of access to the Court), according to the Secu-
rity Council resolution, a declaration, which may be either particular
or general, must be filed by the State which is not a party to the Stat-
ute, previously to its appearance before the Court. This was done.”

(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973 , p. 53, para. 11; emphasis added.)

11. It comes out that in the series of decisions taken by the Court as
regards the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia, the Judgments on the Legality
of Use of Force cases are the only ones in conformity with the general
jurisprudence of the Court in the matter. In its reasoning part, the Judg-

ment substantiates the basic elements of the jus standi as defined by Arti-
cle 35 of the Statute in terms of an autonomous processual condition of
antecedent and mandatory nature distinguishable from jurisdiction of the
Court stricto sensu. The Court found, inter alia, that

“the question whether Serbia and Montenegro was or was not a

party to the Statute of the Court at the time of the institution of the
present proceedings is fundamental; for if it were not such a party,
the Court would not be open to it under Article 35, paragraph 1, of
the Statute. In that situation, subject to any application of para-
graph 2 of that Article, Serbia and Montenegro could not have

properly seised the Court, whatever title of jurisdiction it might have
invoked, for the simple reason that Serbia and Montenegro did not
have the right to appear before the Court.
The Court can exercise its judicial function only in respect of those
States which have access to it under Article 35 of the Statute. And

only those States which have access to the Court can confer jurisdic-

153 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 561

quelles la RFY/Serbie était partie, la liste des affaires pertinentes
comprend l’affaire de l’Or monétaire et celle des Pêcheries. Dans toutes
ces affaires, la Cour a suivi le même raisonnement. Par exemple, dans

l’affaire de la Compétence en matière de pêcheries (République fédérale
d’Allemagne c. Islande) , la Cour a notamment déclaré:

«le ministre des Affaires étrangères d’Islande paraît laisser entendre
que le moment auquel a été faite la déclaration de la République
fédérale d’Allemagne du 29 octobre 1971, déposée au Greffe le
22 novembre 1971, n’est peut-être pas sans effet sur la force obliga-

toire de l’accord constitué par l’échange de notes du 19 juillet 1961
ou sur le droit de la République fédérale d’Allemagne d’ester devant
la Cour. En ce qui concerne le premier point, il est clair que la force
obligatoire de l’accord conclu entre les deux gouvernements, qui sera
examinée dans le présent arrêt, n’a aucun rapport avec la date à

laquelle la déclaration requise par la résolution du Conseil de sécurité
du 15 octobre 1946 a été déposée au Greffe: l’accord a pour but
d’établir la compétence de la Cour à l’égard d’une catégorie particu-
lière de différends; la déclaration concerne l’accès à la Cour d’Etats

qui ne sont pas parties au Statut. Pour ce qui est du second point, à
savoir la question du droit de la République fédérale d’ester devant la
Cour, on doit noter qu’en application de la résolution du Conseil de
sécurité tout Etat qui n’est pas partie au Statut doit déposer une
déclaration, laquelle peut avoir soit un caractère particulier soit un

caractère général, avant d’ester devant la Cour. Cela a été fait .»
(Arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1973 , p. 53, par. 11; les italiques sont de moi.)

11. Il apparaît que, dans la série de décisions prises par la Cour en ce
qui concerne le jus standi de la RFY/Serbie, les arrêts rendus dans les
affaires de la Licéité de l’emploi de la force sont les seuls qui soient
conformes à la jurisprudence générale de la Cour en la matière. Dans les

motifs de ces arrêts, la Cour établit les éléments fondamentaux du jus
standi, tels que définis à l’article 35 du Statut, en tant que condition pro-
cédurale autonome de caractère préalable et obligatoire distincte de la
compétence de la Cour stricto sensu. La Cour a notamment jugé que

«la question de savoir si la Serbie-et-Monténégro était ou non partie

au Statut de la Cour à l’époque de l’introduction des présentes ins-
tances est une question fondamentale; en effet, si elle n’avait pas été
partie au Statut, la Cour ne lui aurait pas été ouverte en vertu du
paragraphe 1 de l’article 35 du Statut. En pareille situation, et sous
réserve d’une possible application du paragraphe 2 dudit article, la

Serbie-et-Monténégro n’aurait pu saisir la Cour de manière valable,
quel que soit le titre de compétence qu’elle puisse invoquer, pour la
simple raison qu’elle n’avait pas le droit d’ester devant la Cour.
La Cour ne peut exercer sa fonction judiciaire qu’à l’égard des
seuls Etats auxquels elle est ouverte en vertu de l’article 35 du Statut.

Et seuls les Etats auxquels la Cour est ouverte peuvent lui conférer

153562 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

tion upon it.” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v.
Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
pp. 298-299, para. 46; see also pp. 292-293, para. 29.)

12. In addition, the finding that “at the time of filing of its Application
to institute the present proceedings before the Court on 29 April 1999,
the Applicant. . . was not a Member of the United Nations” (ibid., p. 314,

para. 91) was, as time has shown, of far-reaching importance. The Court
accepted it in the Judgment of 2007 in the case concerning Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide and in the present Judgment after more than one decade of

wandering between the Scylla of avoiding position, and the Haribda of
sui generis position, a sort of tertium quid between membership and
non-membership of the FRY in the United Nations.

13. However, it should be noted that stricti juris even the 2004 Judg-

ment is not free from inconsistency. It regards the disharmony between
the dispositif of the Judgment with its ratio decidendi. While the reason-
ing part of the Judgment is strictly formulated in terms of the right of the
FRY to access to the Court under Article 35, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the
Statute (ibid., p. 298, paras. 46; pp. 310-311, para. 79; pp. 314-315, para. 91

and p. 327, para. 126), its dispositif concerns exclusively the “jurisdiction
to entertain the claims” (ibid., p. 328, para. 129; emphasis added). The
inconsistency between the dispositif and the ratio decidendi is even greater,
because the Court did not deal with the issue of jurisdiction stricto sensu,
sticking to the basic assumption that it must determine whether the FRY

meets the conditions laid down in Article 35 of the Statute before exam-
ining the conditions in Articles 36 and 37 of the Statute. Therefore, the
Court concluded that the fact that

“Serbia and Montenegro did not, at the time of the institution of the
present proceedings, have access to the Court. . . makes it unneces-
sary for the Court to consider the other preliminary objections filed

by the Respondents to the jurisdiction of the Court”( ibid., pp. 327-
328, para. 127; emphasis added).
14. It appears that the jurisdiction of the Court, in the cases in which

the FRY/Serbia was involved as a party, is far from consistent at all three
levels of its evaluation. The very fact that the Court, in dealing with an
identical issue in the different phases of the same case, or in closely
related cases, applied the three basic, mutually exclusive modus faciendi,

is, if not by itself an answer to the question whether the Court acted in a
consistent manner or not, at the very least represents a strong indiciae in
that regard.
It is difficult to discuss in terms of substantial consistency the decisions
of the Court based on the avoiding position. For, the decisions regarding

the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia, taken sub silentio, either by accepting
the factual presumptions (praesumptio facti vel homine) about the con-

154 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 562

compétence.» (Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Serbie-et-Monténégro
c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) ,
p. 298-299, par. 46; voir également p. 292-293, par. 29.)

12. De plus, la conclusion selon laquelle «au moment où il a déposé sa
requête pour introduire la présente instance devant la Cour le 29 avril
1999, le demandeur en l’espèce ... n’était pas membre de l’Organisation

des Nations Unies» (ibid., p. 314, par. 91) était, comme cela est apparu
depuis, lourde de conséquences. La Cour l’a acceptée dans l’arrêt qu’elle a
rendu en 2007 dans l’affaire concernant l’Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide et dans le présent

arrêt après avoir erré entre le Scylla de la position d’évitement et le Cha-
rybde de la position sui generis, une sorte de tertium quid entre l’appar-
tenance et la non-appartenance de la RFY à l’Organisation des Nations
Unies en tant que membre.
13. Toutefois, il convient de noter que, stricti juris, même l’arrêt de

2004 n’est pas dénué d’incohérence. Celle-ci apparaît dans l’écart entre
le dispositif de l’arrêt et sa ratio decidendi. Si cette dernière est stric-
tement formulée du point de vue du droit de la RFY d’ester devant
la Cour en vertu des paragraphes 1 et 2 de l’article 35 du Statut
(ibid., p. 298, par. 46; p. 310-311, par. 79; p. 314-315, par. 91; et p. 327,

par. 126), le dispositif de l’arrêt concerne exclusivement la «compétence
pour connaître des demandes formulées (ibid., p. 328, par. 129; les
italiques sont de moi). L’incohérence entre le dispositif et la ratio deci-
dendi est encore plus grande, parce que la Cour n’a pas examiné la ques-
tion de la compétence stricto sensu, s’en tenant à l’hypothèse de base

selon laquelle elle devait décider si la RFY remplissait les conditions
énoncées à l’article 35 du Statut avant d’examiner celles qui sont
énoncées aux articles 36 et 37 du même texte. Elle a donc conclu que,
du fait que

«la Serbie-et-Monténégro n’avait, au moment de l’introduction de
l’instance, [pas] qualité pour ester devant la Cour..., il n’est pas
nécessaire qu’elle examine les autres exceptions préliminaires à sa

compétence soulevées par les défendeurs» (ibid., p. 327-328, par. 127;
les italiques sont de moi).
14. Il apparaît que la compétence de la Cour, dans les affaires aux-

quelles la RFY/Serbie était partie, est loin d’être cohérente aux trois
niveaux d’évaluation susmentionnés. Le fait même que la Cour, traitant
de la même question aux différentes phases de la même affaire, ou dans
des affaires étroitement liées, ait appliqué les trois modus faciendi fonda-

mentaux qui s’excluent mutuellement constitue, sinon en lui-même une
réponse à la question de savoir si la Cour a été ou non cohérente, à tout
le moins un indice solide à cet égard.
Il est difficile d’examiner du point de vue de la cohérence quant au
fond les décisions de la Cour reposant sur la position d’évitement. En

effet, les décisions concernant le jus standi de la RFY/Serbie prises
sub silentio, soit en acceptant les présomptions de fait (praesumptio facti

154563 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

tinuity and legal identity (1996 Judgment in the case concerning Applica-
tion of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide) or by the constructions which keep them indirectly in force

(2007 Judgment in the same case) do not give real answers to the question
which is cardinal for the legality of the Court’s judicial activity. Decisions
based on the substantial assessment of jus standi, although in contrast to
those based on avoidance, represent the expression of a proper judicial
action, are diametrically opposed in the determination of the jus standi of

the FRY/Serbia. Indiciae or elements of the substantial assessment of jus
standi, since they are not, by themselves, decisions and, moreover, were
not an element of the proper decisions on the issue, demonstrate the
scope of the inconsistency in the legal reasoning.

15. The conclusion follows that the only consistency of the decisions
of the Court regarding jus standi of the FRY/Serbia is found in the
inconsistency of the decisions per se and in its ratio decidendi. And, if the
purpose of consistency is, inter alia, to “provide predictability” (joint

declaration of Vice-President Ranjeva, Judges Guillaume, Higgins, Kooij-
mans, Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal and Elaraby, Legality of Use of Force
(Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), p. 330, para. 3) “in different phases of the same
case or with regard to closely related cases” (ibid.), it is not clear what

that predictability would consist of in those cases in which the FRY/Ser-
bia was a party, except, perhaps, that the FRY/Serbia has jus standi as a
respondent, and that it is deprived of it as an applicant.

16. The jurisdiction of the Court regarding the status of the FRY/Ser-
bia as a Contracting Party to the Genocide Convention is seemingly con-
sistent. In the different phases of the case concerning Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
(Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia) as well as in the provisional

measures phase of the Legality of Use of Force cases, the Court basically
adopted the finding that the FRY/Serbia may be considered as bound by
the Genocide Convention on the basis of intention, as expressed in the
declaration adopted on 27 April 1992

“to remain bound by the international treaties to which the former
Yugoslavia was party. . . confirmed in an official Note of 27 April
1992 from the Permanent Mission of Yugoslavia to the United

Nations” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugo-
slavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,
p. 610, para. 17; see also Legality of Use of Force (Yugoslavia v.
United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999,

I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II) , p. 838, para. 32).

155 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 563

vel homine) relatives à la continuité et à l’identité juridiques (arrêt de 1996
rendu dans l’affaire concernant l’Application de la convention pour la pré-
vention et la répression du crime de génocide), soit au moyen de raisonne-

ments qui les maintiennent indirectement en vigueur (arrêt de 2007 dans la
même affaire), ne répondent pas véritablement à la question qui est capi-
tale pour la licéité de l’activité judiciaire de la Cour. Les décisions repo-
sant sur une évaluation quant au fond dujus standi, bien qu’elles diffèrent
de celles reposant sur la position d’évitement, sont l’expression d’une acti-

vité judiciaire légitime et sont diamétralement opposées à la détermination
du jus standi de la RFY/Serbie. Les indices ou éléments de l’évaluation
quant au fond dujus standi n’étant pas, en eux-mêmes, des décisions et, de
plus, n’étant pas un élément des décisions appropriées sur la question, ils
démontrent l’étendue de l’incohérence du raisonnement juridique.

15. Force est donc de conclure que la seule cohérence dans les déci-
sions de la Cour concernant le jus standi de la RFY/Serbie réside dans
l’incohérence entre les décisions per se et leur ratio decidendi. Et, si le but
de la cohérence est, entre autres, «de garantir la sécurité juridique»

(déclaration commune deme. le juge Ranjeva, vice-président, et de M. le
juge Guillaume, de M le juge Higgins et de MM. les juges Kooijmans,
Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal et Elaraby, Licéité de l’emploi de la force
(Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 330, par. 3) «dans les différentes phases de la

procédure d’une même affaire ou s’agissant d’affaires connexes» (ibid.),
on voit mal en quoi peut consister cette sécurité dans les affaires aux-
quelles la RFY/Serbie est partie, excepté, peut-être, le fait que la RFY/
Serbie a la capacité d’ester en tant que défendeur mais non en tant que
demandeur.

16. La position de la Cour en ce qui concerne sa compétence quant au
statut de la RFY/Serbie en tant que partie à la convention sur le génocide
est apparemment cohérente. Dans les différentes phases de l’affaire
concernant l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répres-
sion du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie) ainsi que

dans la phase des mesures conservatoires des affaires relatives à la Licéité
de l’emploi de la force, la Cour a pour l’essentiel adopté la conclusion
selon laquelle la RFY/Serbie peut être considérée comme liée par la
convention sur le génocide sur la base de son intention, exprimée dans la

déclaration adoptée le 27 avril 1992,

«de demeurer liée par les traités internationaux auxquels était partie
l’ex-Yougoslavie ... confirmée dans une note officielle du 27 avril
1992 adressée au Secrétaire général par la mission permanente de la

Yougoslavie auprès des Nations Unies» (Application de la conven-
tion pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-
Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1996 (II), p. 610, par. 17; voir également Licéité de l’emploi
de la force (Yougoslavie c. Royaume-Uni), mesures conservatoires,

ordonnance du 2 juin 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II) , p. 838, par. 32).

155564 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

The finding acquired, in the merits phase of the case concerning Applica-
tion of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide, the res indicata status and is in part reaffirmed in the present

Judgment, too (para. 11). So, in terms of horizontal as well as limited
vertical consistency, it seems that the Court acted almost semper idem.
The precedental authority of the finding is, however, in doubt in terms of
substantive consistency.
First of all, the qualification of the 1992 declaration as a unilateral

legal act capable of producing the proper effects per se, seems to be
inconsistent with the relevant rules of international law as expressed in
the jurisprudence of the Court (paras. 121-128 below).
Even if ex hypothesis the 1992 declaration may be considered as such
an act, well-settled rules in the jurisprudence of the Court regarding the

interpretation of unilateral acts could hardly lead to the conclusion
reached by the Court (para. 132 below).

17. Two additional considerations are of interest also.

Although in the present Judgment as well, the majority reaffirms the
dispositif of the decisions of the Court adopted in the earlier cases related
to the Genocide Convention, its legal reasoning is not consistent in that
regard. While in the earlier cases, or its relevant phases, the majority,
clearly and unequivocally, gave to the 1992 declaration a constitutive

character, the present Judgment considers Serbia a Contracting Party by
a combined action of the declaration and some additional, explicit or
implicit, considerations (paras. 160-167 below). In that way, the majority
perception of the declaration is blurred, for it is not clear enough whether
it sees it as a constitutive or declarative act or as a mixture of the two.

18. The jurisdictional treatment of the declaration is different as well.
In the earlier cases, the 1992 declaration was treated as a proper basis for
the jurisdiction of the Court ratione personae (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,
pp. 610-613, paras. 17-26), while in the present case the 1992 declaration

is treated as an issue of jurisdiction ratione materiae (Judgment,
paras. 93-119).

The position of the Court in the 1996 Judgment was clear and designed

in accordance with the standard practice of the Court. The jurisdiction
ratione personae was determined in terms of whether Bosnia and Herze-
govina and the FRY may be considered as parties to the Genocide Con-
vention. Finding that the Parties to the dispute are Contracting Parties to
the Genocide Convention — the FRY on the basis of the 1992 declara-

tion (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 610, para. 17) and Bosnia and Herze-
govina through the mechanism of State succession (ibid., p. 611,
para. 20) —, the Court concluded:

“For the purposes of determining its jurisdiction in this case, the

Court has no need to settle the question of what the effects of a situ-

156 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 564

Cette conclusion a acquis, dans la phase du fond de l’affaire concernant
l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime
de génocide, le statut de res indicata et est en partie reprise dans le présent

arrêt (par. 11). Ainsi, du point de vue de la cohérence horizontale comme
de celui de la cohérence verticale limitée, il semble que la Cour réagit
presque semper idem. L’autorité jurisprudentielle de cette conclusion est
toutefois douteuse du point de vue de la cohérence quant au fond.
Premièrement, qualifier la déclaration de 1992 d’acte unilatéral capable

de produire per se les effets appropriés semble incompatible avec les
règles pertinentes du droit international telles qu’exprimées dans la juris-
prudence de la Cour (par. 121-128 ci-dessous).
Même si par hypothèse la déclaration de 1992 peut être considérée
comme un acte unilatéral, l’application des règles relatives à l’interpréta-

tion des actes unilatéraux bien établies dans la jurisprudence de la Cour
ne permet guère d’aboutir à la conclusion à laquelle la Cour a abouti
(par. 132 ci-dessous).
17. Deux autres considérations sont également intéressantes.

Bien que la majorité réaffirme, dans le présent arrêt également, le dis-
positif des décisions adoptées par la Cour dans les affaires antérieures
relatives à la convention sur le génocide, son raisonnement juridique n’est
pas cohérent à cet égard. Si, dans les affaires antérieures ou dans les
phases pertinentes de ces affaires, la majorité a donné clairement et sans

équivoque un caractère constitutif à la déclaration de 1992, dans le pré-
sent arrêt elle considère la Serbie comme une Partie par l’effet combiné de
la déclaration et de considérations additionnelles, expresses ou implicites
(par. 160-167 ci-dessous). Ainsi, la perception qu’a la majorité de la
déclaration est confuse, car on voit mal si elle la considère comme un acte

constitutif ou un acte déclaratif, ou encore comme un mélange des deux.
18. La manière dont la déclaration est traitée du point de vue de la
compétence est également différente. Dans les affaires antérieures, la
déclaration de 1992 était considérée comme une base de compétence
ratione personae appropriée (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 610-613, par. 17-

26), alors que dans la présente espèce la déclaration de 1992 est envisagée
comme une question relevant de la compétence ratione materiae (arrêt,
par. 93-119).
La position de la Cour dans l’arrêt de 1996 était claire et conforme à sa

pratique habituelle. Pour déterminer sa compétence ratione personae,a l
Cour s’est demandé si la Bosnie-Herzégovine et la RFY pouvaient être
considérées comme parties à la convention sur le génocide. Consta-
tant que les Parties au différend étaient parties à la convention sur le
génocide — la RFY sur la base de la déclaration de 1992 (C.I.J. Recueil

1996 (II), p. 610, par. 17) et la Bosnie-Herzégovine par l’effet du
mécanisme de la succession d’Etats (ibid., p. 611, par. 20) —, la Cour
a conclu:

«Aux fins de se prononcer sur sa compétence en l’espèce, la Cour

n’a pas à trancher la question de savoir quels peuvent être les effets

156565 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

ation of non-recognition may be on the contractual ties between
parties to a multilateral treaty. It need only note that, even if it were
to be assumed that the Genocide Convention did not enter into force

between the Parties until the signature of the Dayton-Paris Agree-
ment, all the conditions are now fulfilled to found the jurisdiction of
the Court ratione personae .” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 613,
para. 26; emphasis added.)

The Court assessed its jurisdiction ratione materiae in the following
terms:

“whether there is a dispute between the Parties that falls within the
scope of that provision [Art. IX of the Convention].
.............................

It is jurisdiction ratione materiae , as so defined, to which Yugosla-
via’s fifth objection relates.” (Ibid., p. 614, para. 27; emphasis added.)

19. In the present Judgment, the majority treats the jurisdiction of the
Court ratione materiae exclusively as the issue of whether Serbia could be
considered a Contracting Party to the Genocide Convention in the rele-

vant period of time (Judgment, paras. 93-119). In its conclusion, the
majority finds that:

“In sum, in the present case the Court, taking into account both
the text of the declaration and Note of 27 April 1992, and the con-
sistent conduct of the FRY at the time of its making and throughout
the years 1992-2001, considers that it should attribute to those docu-

ments precisely the effect that they were, in the view of the Court,
intended to have on the face of their terms: namely, that from that
date onwards the FRY would be bound by the obligations of a party
in respect of all the multilateral conventions to which the SFRY had
been a party at the time of its dissolution. . .” (Ibid., para. 117.)

20. A turn in the jurisdictional treatment of the 1992 declaration took

place in the majority reasoning in the 2007 Judgment because of the spe-
cific needs as regards the construction of the decision by “necessary
implication” on the jus standi of the FRY in the 1996 Judgment. The dic-
tum reads:

“In the view of the Court, the express finding in the 1996 Judg-
ment that the Court had jurisdiction in the case ratione materiae,on

the basis of Article IX of the Genocide Convention, seen in its con-
text, is a finding which is only consistent, in law and logic, with the
proposition that, in relation to both parties, it had jurisdiction
ratione personae in its comprehensive sense, that is to say, that the
status of each of them was such to comply with the provisions of the

Statute concerning the capacity of States to be parties before the

157 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 565

d’une situation de non-reconnaissance sur les liens contractuels entre
parties à un traité multilatéral. Il lui suffira de constater qu’à supposer
même que la convention sur le génocide ne soit entrée en vigueur entre

les Parties qu’à la signature des accords de Dayton-Paris,toutes les
conditions sont à présent réunies pour fonder la compétence de la Cour
ratione personae.» (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 613, par. 26; les ita-
liques sont de moi.)

La Cour a apprécié sa compétence ratione materiae dans les termes
suivants:

«s’il existe entre les Parties un différend entrant dans les prévisions
de cette disposition [art. IX de la Convention].
.............................

C’est sur la compétence ratione materiae ainsi définie que porte la
cinquième exception de la Yougoslavie.» (Ibid., p. 614, par. 27; les
italiques sont de moi.)

19. Dans le présent arrêt, la majorité envisage la compétence ratione
materiae de la Cour comme exclusivement déterminée par la réponse
à la question de savoir si la Serbie pouvait être considérée comme partie à

la convention sur le génocide durant la période pertinente (arrêt, par. 93-
119). Dans sa conclusion, la majorité déclare:

«En résumé, la Cour considère que, dans la présente affaire,
compte tenu de la teneur de la déclaration et de la note du 27 avril
1992 ainsi que du comportement concordant de la RFY tant au
moment de leur rédaction que tout au long des années 1992 à 2001,

il convient d’attribuer précisément à ces documents l’effet qu’ils
étaient, selon elle, censés avoir d’après leur libellé, à savoir que, à
compter de cette date, la RFY serait liée, en tant que partie, par les
obligations découlant de toutes les conventions multilatérales aux-
quelles la RSFY était partie au moment de sa dissolution...» (Ibid.,

par. 117.)
20. Le revirement du raisonnement majoritaire qui s’est produit dans

l’arrêt de 2007 en ce qui concerne le traitement de la déclaration de 1992
du point de vue de la compétence s’explique par les besoins spécifiques de
l’élaboration de la décision sur la base d’une interprétation par «impli-
cation logique» de la position prise par la Cour sur le jus standi dans
l’arrêt de 1996. Le dictum se lit comme suit:

«De l’avis de la Cour, examinée dans son contexte, la conclusion
expresse énoncée dans l’arrêt de 1996 selon laquelle elle avait com-

pétence ratione materiae en l’espèce sur la base de l’article IX de la
convention sur le génocide n’est conciliable, en droit et en toute lo-
gique, qu’avec l’idée que, à l’égard des deux Parties, elle avait com-
pétence ratione personae au sens large — c’est-à-dire que la situation
de l’une et de l’autre était de nature à satisfaire aux conditions du

Statut concernant la capacité des Etats à se présenter devant

157566 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

Court.” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia
and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I) ,.p 99

para. 133.)
21. Apart from its meaning in terms of judicial consistency, the differ-
ent treatment of the 1992 declaration seen in this context is highly sig-

nificant for at least three reasons:
(a) the manner in which the majority reads the relevant earlier deci-
sions;

(b) the majority perception of the res judicata effects of the 1996 Judg-
ment; and
(c) the majority perception of the precedental authority of the 1996
Judgment.

22. The judicial consistency is rather the result, the picture of the
coherency of the decisions and the reasons making a logical and legal
union, based on the proper application of legal rules which should bind
any court of law in its judicial activity, and not a matter for itself or by

itself. It represents the intrinsic, organic quality of the judicial reasoning
in the different phases of a case, or different cases, which regard identical
or similar issues. As such, it cannot be built up in terms of ex post har-
monization of heterogeneous decisions on identical or substantially iden-
tical issues. Deliberate actions in that regard may have for result the

formal consistency only, which exhausts itself in the strengthening of the
formal authority of the court of law.

In a situation where two diametrically opposed decisions existed as

regards the issue of jus standi — the Bosnia and Herzegovina case (2007)
and the Legality of Use of Force cases (2004) — it seems impossible to
achieve the quality of substantive consistency, either legally or logically.
Even by using a measure of judicial engineering.

2. What is the possible backing of the inconsistency?

23. It is difficult to explain the heterogeneous decisions of the Court as
regards the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia by reasonable differences in the
legal reasoning, unavoidable in every bigger collegium of judges. They
are rather the expression of different views of a proper judicial policy in
that regard, for the differences in legal reasoning as such have their limits

which were well surpassed in the cases where the FRY/Serbia was
involved.

It would seem that Judge Higgins in her separate opinion appended to

the Judgment in the Legality of Use of Force cases gave succinctly the
real explanation of the matter by saying:

“The Court, in purporting to find an ex post facto clarification of

158 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 566

la Cour.» (Application de la convention pour la prévention et la
répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Serbie-et-
Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I) , p. 99, par. 133.)

21. Ses conséquences du point de vue de la cohérence judiciaire mises
à part, le traitement différent accordé à la déclaration de 1992, vu dans ce

contexte, est très important à trois égards au moins:
a) la manière dont la majorité lit les décisions antérieures pertinentes;

b) la manière dont la majorité conçoit les effets de l’arrêt de 1996 du
point de vue de l’autorité de la chose jugée; et
c) la manière dont la majorité conçoit l’autorité jurisprudentielle de
l’arrêt de 1996.

22. La cohérence judiciaire est le résultat, l’image de la cohérence des
décisions et des motifs constituant un tout logique et juridique, reposant
sur l’application appropriée de règles juridiques qui devraient lier toute
juridiction dans le cadre de son activité judiciaire, et non une chose

importante pour elle-même ou par elle-même. Elle représente la qualité
organique intrinsèque du raisonnement judiciaire lors des différentes
phases d’une affaire, ou de différentes affaires, concernant des questions
identiques ou comparables. Dans ces conditions, elle ne peut être réalisée
par une harmonisation ex post de décisions hétérogènes sur des questions

identiques ou identiques en substance. Les décisions délibérées prises à
cet effet ne peuvent aboutir qu’à la cohérence formelle, qui s’épuise dans
le renforcement de l’autorité formelle de la juridiction concernée.
Lorsqu’il existe deux décisions diamétralement opposées sur la ques-

tion du jus standi — l’affaire de la Bosnie-Herzégovine (2007) et celles de
la Licéité de l’emploi de la force (2004) —, il semble impossible qu’il existe
une cohérence quant au fond, du point de vue juridique ou logique.
Même par le biais d’artifices judiciaires.

2. Comment expliquer l’incohérence des décisions de la Cour?

23. Il est difficile d’expliquer les décisions hétérogènes de la Cour
quant au jus standi de la RFY/Serbie par des différences raisonnables
dans le raisonnement juridique, inévitables dans toute formation judi-
ciaire comptant de nombreux juges. Elles sont davantage l’expression
d’opinions différentes quant à ce que doit être la politique judiciaire à cet

égard, car les divergences dans les raisonnements juridiques eux-mêmes
ont leurs limites, et celles-ci ont été largement dépassées dans les affaires
auxquelles la RFY/Serbie était partie.
Il semblerait que, dans son opinion individuelle jointe à l’arrêt de la
me
Cour dans les affaires de la Licéité de l’emploi de la force ,M Higgins
ait donné de manière succincte la véritable explication lorsqu’elle a
déclaré:

«La Cour, en prétendant éclaircir à posteriori la situation qui exis-

158567 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

the situation as it was in 1992-2000, notwithstanding that the General
Assembly and Security Council had in all deliberation felt the objec-
tives of the United Nations were best met by legal ambiguity, seems

to have ignored that wise dictum.”( (Serbia and Montenegro v. Bel-
gium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
p. 342, para. 20; emphasis added.)

24. The explanation given in the separate opinion of Judge Higgins
was confirmed in a number of pronouncements of the Court.
In the Legality of Use of Force cases (2004) the Court pointed out
expressis verbis that

“in its Judgment on Preliminary Objections of 11 July 1996. . . [t]he
question of the status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in rela-
tion to Article 35 of the Statute was not raised and the Court saw no

reason to examine it”( ibid., p. 311, para. 82; emphasis added).
In addition, it admitted that:

“The Court did not commit itself to a definitive position on the
issue of the legal status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in
relation to the Charter and the Statute in its pronouncements in inci-

dental proceedings, in the cases [one of them being the present one]
involving this issue which came before the Court during this anoma-
lous [1992-2000] period.” (Ibid., p. 309, para. 74.)

25. This seems to be a perception of the judicial policy of the Court, of
which it could not be said that it perfectly fits in the functional parallel-
ism as a governing principle of the relations between the principal politi-
cal organs of the United Nations, the General Assembly and the Security

Council, on the one hand, and the International Court of Justice as its
principal judicial organ, on the other, as well as judicial independence
and impartiality. It seems rather like an action in concert with the prin-
cipal political organs, implying that the Court follows the legal ambiguity
which “has been anomalous in extreme” (R. Higgins, “The new United

Nations and former Yugoslavia”, International Affairs, Vol. 69,
No. 3, July 1993, p. 479).
26. Of special relevance in that regard is the pronouncement of the
Court in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Pre-

vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide , made, moreover, in the
merits phase, that “in 1999 — and even more so in 1996 — it was by no
means so clear as the Court found it to be in 2004 that the Respondent
was not a Member of the United Nations at the relevant time” (Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I) , p. 98, para. 131; emphasis added).

(This pronouncement opens a very unpleasant question as to the activ-
ity of the Court over a considerable period of time in the light of the prin-
ciple bona fidei which, as a peremptory one, is at least equally valid for
the Court as it is for States. If, for more than a decade, it was so clear

that the Respondent was not a Member of the United Nations, and the

159 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. KREuA ) 567

tait entre 1992 et 2000, alors même que l’Assemblée générale et le
Conseil de sécurité avaient estimé, lors de toutes les délibérations,

que les objectifs des Nations Unies étaient mieux servis par le flou
juridique, semble avoir fait fi de cette sage parole. »( (Serbie-et-
Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2004 (I), p. 342, par. 20; les italiques sont de moi.)
me
24. L’explication donnée par M Higgins dans son opinion indivi-
duelle a été confirmée en plusieurs occasions par la Cour.
Dans les affaires de la Licéité de l’emploi de la force (2004), la Cour a

déclaré expressément que
«dans l’arrêt qu’elle rendit le 11 juillet 1996 ... [l]a question du statut

de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie au regard de l’article 35 du
Statut ne fut pas soulevée et la Cour ne vit aucune raison de procéder
à son examen »( ibid., p. 311, par. 82; les italiques sont de moi).

De plus, elle fit l’aveu suivant:
«La Cour n’adopta aucune position définitive sur la question du

statut juridique de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie au regard
de la Charte et du Statut lorsque, dans les affaires [dont la présente
affaire fait partie] qui lui furent soumises au cours de cette période
singulière [1992-2000], la question se posa et qu’elle se prononça

dans le cadre de procédures incidentes.» (Ibid., p. 309, par. 74.)
25. Cela semble être une conception de l’activité judiciaire de la Cour
dont on ne peut dire qu’elle s’accorde parfaitement avec le parallélisme

fonctionnel en tant que principe directeur des relations entre les princi-
paux organes politiques de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, l’Assem-
blée générale et le Conseil de sécurité, d’une part, et la Cour internatio-
nale de Justice en tant que principal organe judiciaire de l’Organisation,

de l’autre, ni avec l’indépendance judiciaire et l’impartialité. Il semble plu-
tôt que la Cour agisse de concert avec les principaux organes politiques,
ce qui implique qu’elle demeure dans une ambiguïté juridique «extrê-
mement anormale» (R. Higgins, «The new United Nations and former
o
Yugoslavia», International Affairs, vol. 69, n 3, juillet 1993, p. 479).
26. Ce qu’a dit la Cour dans l’affaire concernant l’Application de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide ,etqui
plus est dans la phase du fond, à savoir que, «s’il lui a paru clair en 2004
que le défendeur n’était pas membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies

à l’époque pertinente, la situation n’était absolument pas aussi claire en
1999 — et encore moins en 1996» (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I) ,p.98,
par. 131; les italiques sont de moi), est tout particulièrement pertinent à
cet égard.

(Ce dictum soulève, quant à l’activité de la Cour sur une période rela-
tivement longue, une question très déplaisante au regard du principe de la
bonne foi, qui, en tant que règle impérative, s’impose au moins autant à
la Cour qu’aux Etats. Si, pendant plus de dix ans, il était si clair que le
défendeur n’était pas membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, et

159568 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

quality of being a Member of the United Nations was the only basis on
which the Respondent could have been considered a party to the Statute
of the Court, it follows that the Court deliberately avoided recognizing

the jurisdictional fact affecting the very legality of the totality of its
actions in the cases in which the FRY/Serbia was involved as a party.
Such an attitude of the Court could be termed judicial arbitrariness, close
to, or in the zone of, abuse of judicial power rather than judicial caution
resulting in judicial indecision. The explicit admission by the Court that

“in 1999 — and even more so in 1996 — it was by no means clear . . . that
the FRY was not a Member of the United Nations at the relevant time”
being, in fact, tantamount to the admission that the Court acted sine
vires, represents a sufficient and sound basis for revision of the 1996
Judgment proprio motu. It would be the proper way of action of the

Court in such circumstances to preserve its judicial integrity. For, in the
light of international law, the fact that the Court acted sine vires auto-
matically deprives the 1996 Judgment of validity, both in formal and in
substantive terms. Standing in the way of the application of the law in

that regard is only the comfortable position of the Court in the judicial
environment of the international community which does not know the
appellate procedure or the appellate court.)
27. The action in concert with the political organs of the World
Organization was familiar or, even, inherent to the spirit prevailing at the

Hague Peace Conference that judicial settlement as such may play the
role of an instrument for diminishing the danger of, and, moreover, sub-
stitute to the resort of arms. The situation is quite different now. The idea
that

“‘an international Court should play an important role in the new
Organization of nations for peace and security’, is illusory. Indeed,
there is evidence, in the records of the various organs of the United

Nations, that the Court is regarded as something different from
other United Nations organs, and its procedures something inde-
pendent from customary United Nations procedures.” (S. Rosenne,
The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-2005, Vol. I,
The Court and the United Nations, pp. 189-190; footnote omitted.)

28. In the framework of the United Nations “the International Court

of Justice stood as the judicial apex, while the Security Council was the
new Praetorian guard for the political consensus and its enforcement”
(M. Cohen, “Impartiality, Realism and International Process”, Interna-
tional Law at a Time of Perplexity: Essays in Honour of Shabtai

Rosenne, p. 96).
So,
“Much more than the establishment of peace, the development of

international law is the essential function of judicial settlement . . .
The gradual elaboration of the law through the accumulation of a

160 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 568

que la qualité de Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies était la
seule base sur laquelle le défendeur aurait pu être considéré comme partie
au Statut de la Cour, force est de conclure que la Cour a délibérément

évité de reconnaître le fait juridictionnel qui compromet la légalité même
de toutes ses décisions dans les affaires auxquelles la RFY/Serbie était
partie. Cette attitude de la Cour peut être qualifiée d’arbitraire judiciaire,
proche ou relevant de l’abus du pouvoir judiciaire, et non de prudence
judiciaire aboutissant à l’indécision judiciaire. L’aveu exprès de la Cour,

à savoir qu’il n’était absolument pas aussi clair en 1999 — et encore
moins en 1996 — que la RFY n’était pas membre de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies à l’époque pertinente, peut être considéré comme un aveu
que la Cour a agi sine vires, et constitue une base suffisante et solide pour
la revision de l’arrêt de 1996 proprio motu. C’est ainsi que la Cour devrait

agir dans de telles circonstances pour préserver son intégrité judiciaire.
Car, au regard du droit international, le fait que la Cour a agi sine vires
prive automatiquement l’arrêt de 1996 de sa validité, tant du point de vue
formel que quant au fond. La position confortable de la Cour dans le

système judiciaire de la communauté internationale, qui ne connaît ni
procédure ni juridiction d’appel, est le seul obstacle à l’application du
droit à cet égard.)
27. Une action concertée avec les organes politiques de l’Organisation
était conforme ou même inhérente à l’esprit qui prévalait lors de la confé-

rence de la paix de La Haye, à savoir que le règlement judiciaire en tant
que tel peut jouer le rôle d’instrument propre à réduire le danger du
recours à la force armée, voire se substituer à celui-ci. La situation est
fort différente aujourd’hui. L’idée selon laquelle

«une cour internationale devrait jouer un rôle important dans la
nouvelle Organisation des Nations pour la paix et la sécurité est illu-

soire. De fait, on trouve des preuves, dans les archives des divers
organes de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, que la Cour est consi-
dérée comme différente des autres organes de l’Organisation, et que
ses procédures sont d’une certaine manière autonomes par rapport
aux procédures habituelles des Nations Unies.» (S. Rosenne,

The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-2005 , vol. I,
The Court and the United Nations, p. 189-190; note omise.)

28. Dans le cadre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, «la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice constituait l’apex, tandis que le Conseil de sécurité
était la nouvelle garde prétorienne au service du consensus politique et de

sa mise en Œuvre» (M. Cohen, «Impartiality, Realism and International
Process», International Law at a Time of Perplexity: Essays in Honour
of Shabtai Rosenne, p. 96).
Ainsi,

«La fonction essentielle du règlement judiciaire est bien davantage
le développement du droit international que l’établissement de la

paix ... l’élaboration progressive du droit par l’accumulation d’un

160569 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

body of homogeneous decisions is a condition of order and stability .”
(C. De Visscher, Theory and Reality in Public International Law ,
rev. ed., 1968, p. 390; emphasis added.)

29. The principle of functional parallelism gives to the ICJ an impor-

tant, substantially broader scope for judicial activity in terms of the
impartial determination of disputes on the basis of law. By its very nature
the principle runs counter to crypto-political decisions clad in legal garb,
which may bring any court of law dangerously close to the well-known
chambres de réunion. The principle gives each organ involved the possi-

bility to act in its own space, fulfilling its original role, and regards the
court that is to declare the law.

30. Deliberate concerted activity with political organs leaves hard con-
sequences on any court of law. Legal reasoning and reasoning based on

political considerations and expediency are in unsolvable conflict both in
terms of substance and in terms of time. This is clearly demonstrated, as
far as judicial consistency is concerned, in the cases before the Court
involving the FRY/Serbia as a party.

31. It appears that during some 15 years the Court, in terms of judicial
policy, acted in several capacities in the cases in which the FRY/Serbia
was involved as a party.
32. Since the institution of proceedings in the case concerning Applica-

tion of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide in 1993, until the admission of the FRY to the United Nations
in 2000, the Court, in respect of the jurisdictional issues involved, basi-
cally acted as a guardian of the ambiguous policy of the principal politi-
cal organs of the United Nations in regard to the status of the FRY in

the Organization. In the proceedings on the indication of provisional
measures of 1993 and in the Judgment on preliminary objections of 1996,
it relied tacitly on the factual presumption (praesumptio facti vel homine)
of the legal identity and continuity of the FRY with the SFRY, acting in
concert with the General Assembly as author of the legally vague and

controversial resolution 47/1, which allowed pro et contra interpretation
of the status of the FRY vis-à-vis the United Nations.

33. So, as became clear tractu temporis, it choose the weakest possi-

bility in the light of the principle that “[t]he Court must however always
be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, and must if necessary go into that
matter proprio motu”( Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO
Council (India v. Pakistan), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 ,p .,
para. 13), especially with respect to the jus standi requirement as the

principal condition for the legality of the Court’s judicial action in casu.
The Court had two more, much better, possibilities at its disposal:
(a) to ask for an authentic interpretation of resolution 47/1 from the

General Assembly; or

161 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 569

corpus de décisions homogènes est une condition de l’ordre et de la
stabilité.» (C. De Visscher, Theory and Reality in Public Internatio-
nal Law, édition révisée 1968, p. 390; les italiques sont de moi.)

29. Le principe du parallélisme fonctionnel donne à la CIJ une lati-

tude importante, nettement plus large, dans son activité judiciaire pour
ce qui est de trancher impartialement les différends sur la base du droit.
Par sa nature même, ce principe va à l’encontre des décisions crypto-
politiques revêtues de l’habit juridique, qui risquent de rapprocher
dangereusement toute juridiction des célèbres «chambres de réunion».

Il donne à chaque organe intéressé la possibilité d’agir dans son propre
espace, de remplir son rôle original, et, en ce qui concerne la Cour, ce
rôle est de dire le droit.
30. Agir délibérément de concert avec des organes politiques a de
lourdes conséquences pour tout tribunal. Le raisonnement juridique et

le raisonnement reposant sur des considérations politiques et d’oppor-
tunité sont totalement inconciliables tant quant au fond que du point de
vue du temps. On en trouve la preuve manifeste, en ce qui concerne la
cohérence judiciaire, dans les affaires auxquelles la RFY/Serbie a été
partie devant la Cour.

31. Il semble que, durant quelque quinze ans, la Cour, du point de vue
de la politique judiciaire, ait agi en plusieurs qualités dans les affaires
auxquelles la RFY/Serbie était partie.
32. Depuis l’introduction de l’instance dans l’affaire relative à l’Appli-

cation de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de
génocide en 1993 jusqu’à l’admission de la RFY à l’Organisation des
Nations Unies en 2000, la Cour, en ce qui concerne les questions de com-
pétence qui se posaient, a pour l’essentiel agi en tant que gardienne de la
politique ambiguë des principaux organes politiques de l’Organisation

des Nations Unies à l’égard du statut de la RFY à l’Organisation. Dans
la procédure en indication de mesures conservatoires de 1993 et dans
l’arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires de 1996, elle s’est tacitement fon-
dée sur la présomption factuelle (praesumptio facti vel homine) de l’iden-
tité et de la continuité juridiques de la RFY avec la RSFY, agissant de

concert avec l’Assemblée générale, l’auteur de la résolution 47/1, contro-
versée et juridiquement vague, qui autorisait une interprétation pro et
contra du statut de la RFY vis-à-vis de l’Organisation des Nations Unies.
33. Ainsi, comme il apparut clairement tractu temporis, elle a choisi la

possibilité la plus faible au regard du principe selon lequel «[l]a Cour n’en
doit pas moins toujours s’assurer de sa compétence et elle doit, s’il y a
lieu, l’examiner d’office» (Appel concernant la compétence du Conseil de
l’OACI (Inde c. Pakistan), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972 , p. 52, par. 13), en
particulier en ce qui concerne la condition de jus standi en tant que prin-

cipale condition de la licéité de l’activité judiciaire de la Cour in casu.
La Cour disposait de deux possibilités, bien meilleures:
a) demander à l’Assemblée générale une interprétation faisant autorité

de la résolution 47/1; ou

161570 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

(b) to make its own explicit interim determination of the matter in a
proper form.

34. In contrast to the legal presumption (praesumptio juris et de jure) ,
the factual presumption bears an unavoidable limitation in terms of time.
In the context of the matter, it was obvious that the factual presumption

of continuity of the FRY may be valid only until the moment when the
competent political organs of the United Nations adopted the final deci-
sion on the status of the FRY/Serbia in the United Nations, unfounded
on the continuity premise. That is what happened in November 2000,
when, by decision of the competent organs of the United Nations, the

FRY was admitted to its membership as a new Member.

35. This fact demonstrated dramatically the ontological irreconcil-
ability of the legal reasoning, on the one side, and the reasoning based on
pragmatic considerations and expedience, on the other.

Since the admission to the membership in the United Nations is a mat-
ter of exclusive competence of the two principal political organs — the
Security Council and the General Assembly — and their decision is bind-

ing upon the United Nations structure as a whole, it might be expected
from the Court, in the spirit of functional parallelism, to adapt in a
proper form its determination of the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia to that
fact, being, in the circumstances surrounding the case, determinative of
its jus standi.

The Court, however, opted for a different treatment of the FRY/Serbia
in that regard, depending on the cases before it, thus demonstrating not
only its inconsistency but throwing a shadow on the application of the
fundamental principle of the equality of States before the Court also.
36. In the Legality of Use of Force cases the Court designed its deter-

mination of the jus standi of Serbia/Montenegro in the spirit of the prin-
ciple of functional parallelism, finding, inter alia, that

“at the time of filing of its Application to institute the present pro-
ceedings before the Court on 29 April 1999. . ., Serbia and Montene-
gro, was not a Member of the United Nations, and, consequently,

wasnot...aStatepartytotheStatuteoftheInternationalCourtof
Justice” ((Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objec-
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 314, para. 91).

So, in the eight Legality of Use of Force cases the Court in fact acted as
a guardian of legality, both in the formal and in the substantive terms,

respecting the division of competences between the principal political
organs of the United Nations and the International Court of Justice as
expressed in the functional parallelism principle.

37. In its Judgment in the Bosnia case (2007) the majority de facto

stuck to the continuity presumption using technical, legal explanations in

162 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 570

b) trancher elle-même la question à titre intérimaire dans une forme
appropriée.

34. Contrairement à la présomption juridique (praesumptio juris et de
jure), la présomption factuelle comporte une limitation temporelle inévi-
table. En l’occurrence, il était évident que la présomption factuelle de

continuité de la RFY ne pouvait être valide que jusqu’au moment où les
organes politiques compétents de l’Organisation des Nations Unies adop-
teraient une décision définitive quant au statut de la RFY/Serbie à
l’Organisation, une décision ne reposant pas sur l’hypothèse de la conti-
nuité. C’est ce qui s’est produit en novembre 2000 lorsque, par une déci-

sion des organes compétents de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, la
RFY a été admise comme nouveau membre à l’Organisation.
35. Ce fait a démontré de manière frappante le caractère ontologique-
ment inconciliable du raisonnement juridique d’une part et du raisonne-
ment reposant sur des considérations pragmatiques et sur l’opportunité

de l’autre.
Comme l’admission à l’Organisation des Nations Unies relève de la
compétence exclusive des deux principaux organes politiques — le Conseil
de sécurité et l’Assemblée générale — et que leur décision lie l’ensemble

du système des Nations Unies, on aurait pu s’attendre à ce que la Cour,
dans l’esprit du parallélisme fonctionnel, adapte sous une forme appro-
priée sa décision quant au jus standi de la RFY/Serbie à ce fait, lequel,
dans les circonstances de l’espèce, déterminait ce jus standi.

Or, la Cour a choisi de traiter différemment la RFY/Serbie à cet égard,
en fonction des affaires dont elle était saisie, démontrant ainsi son inco-
hérence mais jetant aussi un doute sur l’application du principe fonda-
mental de l’égalité des Etats devant la Cour.
36. Dans les affaires de la Licéité de l’emploi de la force , la Cour a

conçu sa décision quant au jus standi de la Serbie/Monténégro confor-
mément au principe du parallélisme fonctionnel, jugeant notamment que

«au moment où [elle] a déposé sa requête pour introduire la présente
instance devant la Cour, le 29 avril 1999, ... la Serbie-et-Monténégro
n’était pas membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies ni, dès

lors, ... partie au Statut de la Cour internationale de Justice» ((Ser-
bie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 314, par. 91).

Ainsi, dans les huit affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force ,la
Cour a en fait agi en tant que gardienne de la légalité, tant dans la forme

que quant au fond, respectant le partage des compétences entre les prin-
cipaux organes politiques de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et la Cour
internationale de Justice tel qu’exprimé dans le principe du parallélisme
fonctionnel.
37. Dans l’arrêt rendu par la Cour dans l’affaire de la Bosnie (2007), la

majorité s’en est tenue de facto à la présomption de continuité en utilisant

162571 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

the form of specific interpretation of the res indicata rule, relying on the
understanding of judicial power in terms of unqualified power, which
implies that:

“Subject only to this possibility of revision, the applicable princi-
ple is res judicata pro veritate habetur, that is to say that the findings

of a judgment are, for the purposes of the case and between the
parties, to be taken as correct, and may not be reopened on the basis
of claims that doubt has been thrown on them by subsequent events .”
(I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 93, para. 120; emphasis added.)

38. In that Judgment the Court in fact acted as a guardian of its past
decision embodied in the 1996 Judgment. Acting in that way, the Court

persisted on its own judicial truth, completely divorced from the reality
as established in the United Nations by resolution 55/12 and thus pro-
ducing a judicium illusorum.
In that way the position of the Court took a highly interesting turn.

While the 1996 Judgment in the Bosnia case was adopted with the pur-
pose of acting in harmony with the principal political organs of the
United Nations, the insistence on the validity of the premises on which it
was based following the adoption of General Assembly resolution 55/12,
brought the Court in harsh disharmony with the whole United Nations

structure which implemented the resolution strictly.
As a matter of illustration, the objective meaning of the factual pre-
sumption on which the jus standi of the FRY/Serbia was based in the
1996 Judgment, and accepted in the 2007 Judgment, is that in the context
of the dispute before the Court, the FRY/Serbia was considered, at least

tacitly, to have been a Member in the period 1992-2000 as far as the
Court and the Applicants are concerned, whereas for the United Nations
itself it was not a Member, nor even for the Applicants, in respect of any
other matter than the cases before the Court. In addition, in the eyes of
the Court, the FRY/Serbia was considered a Member of the United

Nations in the Bosnia case, and is in the present case, and was considered
a non-Member in the eight Legality of Use of Force cases.

39. The Judgment in the Application for Revision case (I.C.J. Reports

2003, p. 7) is specific in this particular context (paras. 7-8 above). It pos-
sesses two basic meanings. On the one hand, by the construction of the
sui generis position of the FRY vis-à-vis the United Nations, the Judg-
ment tended, in essence, to substitute the tacit presumption on the con-
tinuity with a substantive ground of jus standi. For, by admission of the

FRY to the United Nations, the presumption of the continuity became
devoid of any substance. On the other hand, articulated well after the
admission of the FRY to the United Nations, the sui generis construction
amounted to a revision of the decision taken by the General Assembly
which, being binding and conclusive, cannot be reversed by the Court

(Northern Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary

163 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECA ) 571
u

des explications de technique juridique sous la forme d’une interprétation
spécifique de la règle de la res indicata, considérant le pouvoir judiciaire
comme un pouvoir sans limite, ce qui implique que:

«Sous la seule réserve de cette possibilité de revision, le principe
applicable est celui de la res judicata pro veritate habetur,c eqi
signifie que les conclusions d’un arrêt doivent, aux fins de l’affaire et

entre les parties, être considérées comme exactes, et ne sauraient être
remises en question au motif que des événements postérieurs feraient
planer sur elles des doutes. »( C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 93, par. 120;
les italiques sont de moi.)

38. Dans cet arrêt, la Cour a en fait agi en tant que gardienne de la
décision qu’elle avait prise antérieurement dans son arrêt de 1996. En
agissant ainsi, la Cour a persisté dans sa propre vérité judiciaire, totale-

ment dissociée de la réalité telle qu’établie à l’Organisation des Nations
Unies par la résolution 55/12, et en produisant un judicium illusorum.
La position de la Cour a ainsi pris un virage extrêmement intéressant.
Si l’arrêt de 1996 dans l’affaire de la Bosnie a été adopté dans le but
d’agir en harmonie avec les principaux organes politiques de l’Organisa-

tion des Nations Unies, en insistant sur la validité des prémisses sur les-
quelles il reposait après l’adoption de la résolution 55/12 de l’Assemblée
générale, la Cour s’est trouvée en complète disharmonie avec l’ensemble
du système des Nations Unies, qui a appliqué strictement cette résolution.
A titre d’illustration, le sens objectif de la présomption factuelle sur

laquelle reposait le jus standi de la RFY/Serbie dans l’arrêt de 1996, qui
avait été acceptée dans l’arrêt de 2007, est que, dans le contexte du dif-
férend dont la Cour était saisie, la RFY/Serbie était considérée au moins
tacitement comme ayant été Membre de l’Organisation de 1992 à 2000 en
ce qui concerne la Cour et les demandeurs, alors que pour l’Organisation

des Nations Unies elle-même, et même pour les demandeurs, elle n’en
était pas membre en ce qui concerne toute autre question que les affaires
dont la Cour était saisie. De plus, aux yeux de la Cour, la RFY/Serbie
était Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies dans l’affaire de
la Bosnie, comme elle l’est dans la présente affaire, mais n’en était pas

membre dans les huit affaires de la Licéité de l’emploi de la force .
39. L’arrêt rendu dans l’affaire de la Demande en revision (C.I.J.
Recueil 2003, p. 7) est spécifique dans ce contexte particulier (par. 7 et 8
ci-dessus). Il a deux significations fondamentales. D’une part, par l’éla-
boration de la position sui generis de la RFY vis-à-vis de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies, il tend, dans son essence, à substituer à la présomp-

tion tacite de continuité une base de fond pour le jus standi. Car, du fait
de l’admission de la RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies, la pré-
somption de continuité s’était vidée de son sens. D’autre part, élaborée
bien après l’admission de la RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies, la
position sui generis équivalait à une revision de la décision prise par

l’Assemblée générale, laquelle, étant contraignante et concluante, ne peut
être inversée par la Cour (Cameroun septentrional (Cameroun c. Royaume-

163572 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1963 , p. 33). The construction is a
demonstration of the late reaction of the Court, for terminus ad quem for
the Court’s interpretation of the substance of General Assembly resolu-

tion 47/1, which as such was a part of its judicial function, in terms other
than those of resolution 55/12 of 1 November 2000, elapsed by the admis-
sion of the FRY to the United Nations as a new Member.

40. In the present Judgment, the majority makes an effort to reconcile

the basic premises of the 2004 Judgments and the 2007 Judgment. To
that effect, the majority proceeds from the finding contained in the 2004
Judgment that the FRY/Serbia, being a Member of the United Nations
from 1 November 2000, cannot be considered a party to the Statute prior
to that date (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Bel-

gium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 310,
para. 76). Accordingly, on the date of the institution of the present pro-
ceedings it did not possess the right to appear before the Court. However,
the majority is not ready to accept the necessary consequences of the fact

which it took as the starting point of its legal reasoning, but rather
resorts to a broadened interpretation of the so-called Mavrommatis rule
in an effort to prove that, at a certain point in time, all requirements
under Articles 35 and 36 of the Statute for the competence of the Court
in casu were fulfilled.

However, this is not so, either as regards the date of the institution of
the proceedings, a date relevant on the basis of the generally accepted
rule, or as regards the date of the rendering of the Judgment allegedly as
an exception to the general rule, but it is rather an unspecified date in the
period of time between the date of the admission of the FRY to United

Nations membership — on 1 November 2000 — and the date when the
FRY, as a new, successor State, expressed its consent to be bound by the
Genocide Convention in the form of accession — on 6 March 2001.

41. Two basic inconsistencies exist in this regard.

First, it transpired that, in the same period of time, the FRY/Serbia, at
least as regards its status as a Contracting Party to the Genocide Conven-
tion, was both a continuator and a successor State. The present Judg-
ment, true implicite, treats the FRY/Serbia as a continuator State as

regards the Genocide Convention until 12 March 2001, because it con-
siders it bound by the provisions of the Convention until that date on the
basis of the 1992 declaration adopted on behalf of the State “continuing
the state, international legal and political personality of the SFRY”
(para. 1 of the declaration). From 12 March 2001 pro futuro, the FRY/

Serbia is a successor State which, acting upon the reminder of the Secretary-
General (paras. 176-177 below) expressed its consent to be bound by
the Genocide Convention.

Second, if, arguendo, it is accepted that the majority interpretation of

the Mavrommatis rule is correct, the relevant date for assessment as to

164 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 572

Uni), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1963 , p. 33). Cette
construction est une démonstration de la réaction tardive de la Cour,

en tant que terminus ad quem de l’interprétation par la Cour de la sub-
stance de la résolution 47/1 de l’Assemblée générale, qui relevait de sa
fonction judiciaire, en des termes autres que ceux énoncés dans la résolu-
tion 55/12 du 1 ernovembre 2000, caduque du fait de l’admission de la
RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies en tant que nouveau Membre.

40. Dans le présent arrêt, la majorité s’efforce de concilier les pré-
misses fondamentales des arrêts de 2004 et de l’arrêt de 2007. A cette fin,
elle part de la conclusion figurant dans l’arrêt de 2004 selon laquelle la
RFY/Serbie, étant Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies à partir
er
du 1 novembre 2000, ne peut être considérée comme partie au Statut
avant cette date (Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Serbie-et-Monténégro c.
Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) , p. 310,
par. 76). En conséquence, à la date de l’introduction de la présente ins-
tance, elle n’avait pas le droit d’ester devant la Cour. Toutefois, la majo-

rité n’est pas prête à accepter les conséquences nécessaires du fait qu’elle
a pris comme point de départ de son raisonnement juridique, et préfère
recourir à une interprétation élargie de la règle dite Mavrommatis pour
essayer de prouver que, à un certain moment, toutes les conditions énon-

cées dans les articles 35 et 36 du Statut en ce qui concerne la compétence
de la Cour en l’espèce étaient remplies.
Or il n’en est pas ainsi, ni en ce qui concerne la date de l’introduction
de l’instance, une date pertinente eu égard à la règle généralement accep-
tée, ni en ce qui concerne la date à laquelle l’arrêt a été rendu prétendu-

ment en tant qu’exception à la règle générale. Il s’agit plutôt d’une date
non précisée se situant entre la date de l’admission de la RFY à l’Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies — le 1 er novembre 2000 — et la date à
laquelle la RFY a, en tant qu’Etat successeur, exprimé son consente-

ment à être liée par la convention sur le génocide en y accédant — le
6 mars 2001.
41. A cet égard, l’incohérence est double.
Premièrement, il est apparu que, durant la même période, la RFY/Ser-

bie, au moins en ce qui concerne son statut de partie à la convention sur
le génocide, était un Etat à la fois continuateur et successeur. Le présent
arrêt, implicitement, traite la RFY/Serbie comme un Etat continuateur
en ce qui concerne la convention sur le génocide jusqu’au 12 mars 2001,
parce qu’il la considère comme liée par les dispositions de la Convention

jusqu’à cette date sur la base de la déclaration faite en 1992 au nom de
l’Etat «assurant la continuité de l’Etat et de la personnalité juridique et
politique internationale de la République fédérative socialiste de Yougo-
slavie» (paragraphe 1 de la déclaration). A compter du 12 mars 2001

pro futuro, la RFY/Serbie est un Etat successeur qui, agissant sur le rap-
pel du Secrétaire général (par. 176-177 ci-dessous), a exprimé son consen-
tement à être lié par la convention sur le génocide.
Deuxièmement, si, arguendo, on accepte l’interprétation majoritaire de
la règle Mavrommatis comme correcte, la date pertinente pour évaluer si

164573 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

whether the necessary requirements for the competence of the Court are
met, should be the date of the rendering of the Judgment. This seems to
transpire clearly from the Mavrommatis Judgment:

“Even, therefore, if the application were premature because the
Treaty of Lausanne had not yet been ratified, this circumstance
would now be covered by the subsequent deposit of the necessary

ratifications.” (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2,
1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 34; emphasis added.)

42. In its 1996 Judgment in the case concerning Application of the
Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide ,
the Court stated inter alia :

“even if it were to be assumed that the Genocide Convention did not
enter into force between the Parties until the signature of the Dayton-
Paris Agreement, all the conditions are now fulfilled to found the
jurisdiction of the Court” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 613, para. 26;
emphasis added).

And, it seems obvious that on that date the requirement under Article 36,
paragraph 1, of the Statute was not fulfilled as regards the basis of the

jurisdiction of the Court, because the FRY, when acceding to the Geno-
cide Convention, expressed its reservation regarding Article IX of the
Convention.
43. It appears that the idea underlying functional parallelism — each
has its own — is the most appropriate and productive as regards the

Court, in an uninstitutionalized, eminently political community. As the
Court stated in the Nicaragua case:
“The [Security] Council has functions of a political nature assigned

to it, whereas the Court exercises purely judicial functions. Both
organs can therefore perform their separate but complementary func-
tions with respect to the same events.” (Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of

America), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1984, p. 435, para. 95; emphasis added.)
In such society, the assurance of the autonomy of the Court from the

political organs is the crucial element of its judicial integrity. The cases in
which the FRY/Serbia was involved as a party demonstrate that the judi-
cial consistency, and especially the proper exercise of judicial power as its
substance and determinative, should be best safeguarded by objective
rules as a guide in determining the applicable law. This principle, which is

axiomatic, should be followed in particular by international courts and
tribunals, pursuing their activities in a judicial environment that knows
no appellate court or procedure.
44. In sum, it appears that the jurisprudence of the Court, as regards

the issue of jus standi of the FRY/Serbia as well as its status as Contract-
ing Party to the Genocide Convention, not only is not consistent, but
there are also departures from earlier decisions, often sub silentio, with-

165 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. KREuA ) 573

les conditions nécessaires pour que la Cour soit compétente sont réunies
devrait être la date du prononcé de l’arrêt. Cela semble ressortir claire-

ment de l’arrêt Mavrommatis :
«Dans ces conditions, même si l’introduction avait été prématu-
rée, parce que le Traité de Lausanne n’était pas encore ratifié, ce fait

aurait été couvert par le dépôt ultérieur des ratificotions requises.»
(Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt n 2, 1924, C.P.J.I.
série A n 2, p. 34.)

42. Dans son arrêt de 1996 dans l’affaire concernant l’Application de
la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide ,la
Cour a notamment déclaré:

«à supposer même que la convention sur le génocide ne soit entrée
en vigueur entre les Parties qu’à la signature des accords de Dayton-
Paris, toutes les conditions sont à présent réunies pour fonder la

compétence de la Cour» (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 613, par. 26;
les italiques sont de moi).

Et il semble évident qu’à cette date la condition posée au paragraphe 1 de
l’article 36 du Statut n’était pas remplie en ce qui concerne la base de
compétence de la Cour, parce que la RFY, lorsqu’elle a accédé à la
convention sur le génocide, a formulé une réserve en ce qui concerne
l’article IX de la Convention.

43. Il semble que l’idée qui sous-tend le parallélisme fonctionnel — à
chacun sa fonction — est la plus judicieuse et la plus productive, pour ce
qui est de la Cour, dans un cadre non institutionnalisé, éminemment poli-
tique. Comme la Cour l’a déclaré dans l’affaire du Nicaragua :

«Le Conseil a des attributions politiques; la Cour exerce des fonc-
tions purement judiciaires. Les deux organes peuvent donc s’acquit-
ter de leurs fonctions distinctes mais complémentaires à propos des

mêmes événements.» ( Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nica-
ragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), com-
pétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984 , p. 435, par. 95; les
italiques sont de moi.)

Dans une telle société, l’assurance de l’autonomie de la Cour par rapport
aux organes politiques est l’élément crucial de son intégrité judiciaire. Les
affaires auxquelles la RFY/Serbie a été partie démontrent que la cohé-

rence judiciaire, et en particulier l’exercice régulier du pouvoir judiciaire
en tant qu’il en est la substance et la détermination, devrait être préservée
par des règles objectives pour orienter la détermination du droit appli-
cable. Ce principe, axiomatique, devrait être suivi en particulier par les

cours et tribunaux internationaux, qui exercent leurs activités dans un
système judiciaire dépourvu d’organe ou de procédure d’appel.
44. En résumé, il apparaît que la jurisprudence de la Cour en ce qui
concerne la question du jus standi de la RFY/Serbie et celle de son statut

de partie à la convention sur le génocide non seulement n’est pas cohé-
rente, mais en outre s’écarte de décisions antérieures, souvent sub silentio,

165574 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

out adducing reasons for departing or, at least, without clear and con-
vincing reasons.
45. The legal ambiguity which the political organs of the United

Nations abided by from the beginning to the very end of the Yugoslav
crisis may be understandable from the standpoint of pragmatic political
considerations and expediency, but not from the standpoint of judicial
consideration of the matter. (For instance, recognition of the legal iden-
tity and continuity of the FRY with the SFRY, for which there existed

strong legal reasons, would automatically open the question of legality,
both in its formal and in its substantive terms of the actions and omis-
sions vis-à-vis that State from the very beginning of the Yugoslav crisis.)

3. Nature of the issue of jurisdiction

46. In a number of points, the majority justifies the failure of the
Court to deal properly, in its earlier decisions, with specific jurisdictional

issues pertaining both to jurisdiction lato sensu and stricto sensu prop-
erly, by referring to the absence of the party or parties concerned. Exem-
pli causa, it is stated that “[w]hile at the time objection was taken to the
claim of the FRY to be the continuator of the SFRY, it was not then
suggested that that claim was not advanced by the appropriate representa-

tive body of the FRY” (Judgment, para. 107; emphasis added). Or, that
“the FRY, while questioning whether the applicant State was a party to
the Genocide Convention at the relevant dates, did not challenge the
claim that it was itself a party ”( ibid., para. 114; emphasis added; see
also para. 115). This is surprising in the light of the importance of the

issue of jurisdiction, especially jurisdiction lato sensu, and its legal nature
as well.

47. In view of the fact that “the establishment or otherwise of jurisdic-
tion is not a matter for the parties but for the Court itself”, the dispute of

the parties regarding the jurisdiction in the preliminary objection phase is
not a necessary condition for the Court to address the issue of jurisdic-
tion. (Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 , p. 450, para. 37; see also the individual

opinion of President McNair in the jurisdiction phase of the case con-
cerning Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. in which he stated that “[a]n international
tribunal cannot regard a question of jurisdiction solely as a question inter
partes”( Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (United Kingdom v. Iran), Preliminary
Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 , p. 116).)

48. Preliminary objections raised by a party are only a tool, a proce-
durally designed weapon, for the establishment of the jurisdiction of the
Court, suo nomine et suo vigore, for it is under an obligation to do so ex

officio. The legal meaning of the proceedings on preliminary objections

166 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 574

sans donner les raisons pour lesquelles elle s’en écarte ou, au moins, sans
donner de raisons claires et convaincantes.
45. L’ambiguïté juridique que les organes politiques de l’Organisation

des Nations Unies ont acceptée du début jusqu’à la fin même de la crise
yougoslave peut s’expliquer par des considérations politiques pragma-
tiques et par un souci d’opportunité, mais n’est pas compatible avec
un examen judiciaire de l’affaire. (Par exemple, la reconnaissance de
l’identité juridique et de la continuité de la RFY avec la RSFY, qui

reposait sur des raisons juridiques solides, soulevait automatiquement la
question de la licéité, du point de vue tant de la forme que du fond,
des actions et omissions vis-à-vis de cet Etat depuis le tout début de la
crise yougoslave.)

3. Nature de la question de la compétence

46. Sur plusieurs points, la majorité justifie le fait que la Cour n’a pas,
dans ses décisions antérieures, traité comme il convenait des questions

spécifiques concernant tant sa compétence lato sensu que sa compétence
stricto sensu par l’absence de la partie ou des parties considérées. Par
exemple, l’arrêt stipule que «[m]algré l’opposition manifestée à l’époque
contre la thèse de la RFY selon laquelle celle-ci assurait la continuité de
la RSFY, l’idée que cette thèse n’émanait pas de l’organe représentatif

approprié de la RFY ... n’a pas été avancée » (arrêt, par. 107; les italiques
sont de moi). Ou que «la RFY, tout en émettant des doutes sur le fait de
savoir si l’Etat demandeur était partie à la convention sur le génocide aux
dates pertinentes, n’avait pas contesté la thèse qu’elle y était, quant à elle,
partie»( ibid., par. 114; les italiques sont de moi; voir également par. 115).

Cela est surprenant compte tenu de l’importance de la question de la
compétence, en particulier de la compétence lato sensu, ainsi que de sa
nature juridique.
47. Etant donné «qu’établir ou ne pas établir sa compétence n’est pas
une question qui relève des parties; elle est du ressort de la Cour elle-

même», le différend entre les parties en ce qui concerne la compétence
durant la phase des exceptions préliminaires n’est pas une condition
nécessaire pour que la Cour examine la question de sa compétence.
(Compétence en matière de pêcheries (Espagne c. Canada), compétence

de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 450, par. 37; voir également
l’opinion individuelle de sir Arnold McNair, président de la Cour, dans la
phase relative à la compétence de l’affaire concernant l’Anglo-Iranian Oil
Co., dans laquelle il déclarait: «Un tribunal international ne saurait
considérer une question de compétence comme une simple question

inter partes.» ( Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (Royaume-Uni c. Iran), exception
préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1952 , p. 116.))
48. Les exceptions préliminaires soulevées par une partie ne sont qu’un
instrument, une arme procédurale, aux fins de l’établissement de la com-
pétence de la Cour, suo nomine et suo vigore, car elle est tenue de l’établir

d’office. La signification juridique de la procédure concernant les excep-

166575 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

has been defined by the Court in the case concerning Rights of Minorities
in Upper Silesia (Minority Schools) (hereinafter referred to as “Minority
Schools”) as follows:

“the raising of an objection by one Party merely draws the attention
of the Court to an objection to the jurisdiction which it must ex offi-

cio consider”( Rights of Minorities in Upper Silesia (Minority
Schools), Judgment No. 12, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 ,p.23;
emphasis added).

Or, as stated by the Court in the case concerning Application of the Con-
vention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide :

“The Court must, in each case submitted to it, verify whether it
has jurisdiction to deal with the case . . . and such objections as are
raised by the Respondent may be useful to clarify the legal situa-
tion.” (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,

p. 622, para. 46; emphasis added.)

Accordingly, the jurisdiction established by the Court in casu is not
necessarily linked with the dispute as to jurisdiction. If the duty of the
Court to verify its jurisdiction in each particular case exists regardless of
the preliminary objection as such, then the pleadings of the parties in the

proceedings are not a fortiori of decisive importance in that sense.
49. The dictum of the Court in the case concerning Appeal Relating to
the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council (hereinafter referred to as “ICAO
Council”) could represent a synthesis of that practice: “[t]he Court must
however always be satisfied that it has jurisdiction, and must if necessary

go into that matter proprio motu”( Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 ,p.52,
para. 13). This is also reflected in the opinions of Judges. (In the case
concerning Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions , Judge Moore, in his dis-
senting opinion, stated that “even though the Parties be silent, the tribu-
nal, if it finds that competence is lacking, is bound of its own motion to

dismiss the case” (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 ,
p. 58); in theMinority Schoolscase, Judge Huber, in his dissenting opinion,
found that the Court “must ex officio ascertain on what legal foundation
it is to base its judgment upon the claims of the Parties” (Judgment

No. 12, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 15 , p. 54); and in the case concern-
ing Free Zones of Upper Savoy and the District of Gex , Judge Kellogg
pointed out in his observations attached to the Order of 6 December 1930
that it was not necessary that the question of jurisdiction be raised by one
of the parties, since “[i]t may and should be raised by the Court on its

own initiative, as was done in the Eastern Carelia case” (Order of
6 December 1930, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 24 , p. 43).)
50. The question of the jurisdiction of the Court bears two dominant
features: (a) the question of jurisdiction of the Court is a questio juris ;
and (b) the question of jurisdiction of the Court is a matter of interna-

tional public order.

167 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. KRECu ) 575

tions préliminaires a été définie par la Cour dans l’affaire concernant les
Droits de minorités en Haute-Silésie (écoles minoritaires) (ci-après
l’affaire des «Ecoles minoritaires») comme suit:

«l’exception de la Partie ne fait qu’attirer l’attention du tribunal sur
une objection à la compétence qu’il doitexaminer d’office, cet acte de

la Partie peut être accompli à tout moment, au cours de la procé-
dure» (Droits de minorités en Haute-Silésie (écoles minoritaires), arrêt
n 12, 1928, C.P.J.I. série A n 15, p. 23; les italiques sont de moi).

Ou, comme l’a déclaré la Cour dans l’affaire concernant l’Application de
la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide :

«La Cour doit, dans chaque instance introduite devant elle, véri-
fier si elle a compétence pour connaître de l’affaire ... les exceptions

éventuellement soulevées par la partie défenderesse peuvent être
utiles pour clarifier la situation juridique.» (Exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 622, par. 46; les italiques sont
de moi.)

C’est pourquoi la compétence établie par la Courin casu n’est pas né-

cessairement liée au différend relatif à la compétence. Si la Cour est tenue
de vérifier qu’elle est compétente dans chaque affaire, que des exceptions
préliminaires aient ou non été soulevées, les arguments des parties durant
la procédure ne sont pas a fortiori d’une importance décisive en ce sens.

49. Le dictum de la Cour dans l’affaire de l’Appel concernant la com-
pétence du Conseil de l’OACI (ci-après l’affaire du «Conseil de l’OACI»)
peut représenter une synthèse de cette pratique: «[l]a Cour n’en doit pas
moins toujours s’assurer de sa compétence et elle doit, s’il y a lieu, l’exa-

miner d’office» (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972 , p. 52, par. 13). Cela est éga-
lement exprimé dans les opinions des juges. (Dans l’affaire des Conces-
sions Mavrommatis en Palestine , le juge Moore, dans son opinion

dissidente, déclara que, «même dans le silence des Parties, le tribunal est
tenu de se dessaisir d’office s’il estime qu’il y a défaut de compétence»
(arrêt n 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A n o 2, p. 58); dans l’affaire des Ecoles
minoritaires, le juge Huber, dans son opinion dissidente, dit que la Cour

«recherchera d’office quelle sera sa baso juridique pour se prononcer sur o
les demandes des Parties» (arrêt n 12, 1928, C.P.J.I. série A n 15,
p. 54); et, dans l’affaire des Zones franches de la Haute-Savoie et du Pays
de Gex, le juge Kellogg a fait observer dans ses observations jointes à

l’ordonnance du 6 décembre 1930 qu’il n’était pas nécessaire que la ques-
tion de la compétence soit soulevée par l’une des parties, puisqu’«[e]lle
peut et devrait être soulevée par la Cour de sa propre initiative, ainsi
qu’elle l’a fait dans l’affaire de la Carélie orientale» (ordonnance du
o
6 décembre 1930, C.P.J.I. série A n 24, p. 43).)
50. La question de la compétence de la Cour a deux traits domi-
nants: a) c’est une questio juris ;t e b) elle relève de l’ordre public
international.

167576 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. KRECu )

2
51. As a questio juris the jurisdiction of the Court is within the scope
of the principle jura novit curia. In the case concerning Territorial Juris-
diction of the International Commission of the River Oder (hereinafter
referred to as “River Oder”) the Polish Government did not contend that

the Barcelona Convention had not been ratified by Poland until the oral
proceedings. The six respondents asked the Court to reject the Polish
contention a limine, for having been submitted at such an advanced stage
of the proceedings. The Court dismissed the objection as untenable for

“[t]he fact that Poland has not ratified the Barcelona Convention not
being contested, it is evident that the matter is purely one of law such as
the Court. . . should examine ex officio”( Judgment No. 16, 1929,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 23 , p. 19).

52. Being bound by law, the Court is not bound by the arguments of
the parties. This follows clearly from the principle jura novit curia
addressed by the Court in its Judgments in the cases concerning Fisheries

Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland) and Fisheries Jurisdiction (Fed-
eral Republic of Germany v. Iceland):

“The Court. . . as an international judicial organ, is deemed to
take judicial notice of international law, and is therefore required in
a case falling under Article 53 of the Statute, as in any other case,to

consider on its own initiative all rules of international law which
may be relevant to the settlement of the dispute. . . for the law lies
within the judicial knowledge of the Court.” (Merits, Judgment,

I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 9, para. 17; ibid., p. 181, para. 18; emphasis
added.)

The principle has also been confirmed in the Nicaragua case by a dictum
that

“[f]or the purpose of deciding whether the claim is well founded in
law, the principle jura novit curia signifies that the Court is not solely
dependent on the argument of the parties before it with respect to

the applicable law (cf. “Lotus”, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 10, p. 31)”
(Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua
(Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1986, p. 24, para. 29).

53. Consequently, the rule according to which a party seeking to assert

2
“The existence of jurisdiction of the Court in a given case is ... not a question of fact,
but a question of law to be resolved in the light of the relevant facts.” (Border and Trans-
border Armed Actions (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1988 , p. 76, para. 16.) The question of the Court’s jurisdiction is
“necessarily an antecedent and independent one — an objective question of law — which
cannot be governed by preclusive considerations capable of being so expressed as to tell
against either Party — or both Parties” (Appeal Relating to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO
Council, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 , p. 54, para. 16 (c)).

168 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .DISS. KRECA ) 576
u
2
51. En tant que questio juris , la compétence de la Cour relève du
principe jura novit curia. Dans l’affaire de la Juridiction territoriale de la
Commission internationale de l’Oder (ci-après l’affaire de l’«Oder»), le

Gouvernement polonais n’a pas fait valoir que la convention de Barce-
lone n’avait été ratifiée par la Pologne que lors de la procédure orale. Les
six défendeurs ont demandé à la Cour que l’argument polonais soit rejeté

a limine pour avoir été invoqué à un stade aussi avancé de la procédure.
La Cour a rejeté cette exception comme infondée au motif que «[l]e fait
que la Pologne n’a pas ratifié la convention de Barcelone n’est pas
contesté, il est évident qu’il s’agit d’une pure question de droit que la
o
Cour ... devrait examiner même d’office» (arrêt n 16, 1929, C.P.J.I.
série A n 23, p. 19).
52. Etant liée par le droit, la Cour ne l’est pas par les arguments

des parties. Cela découle clairement du principe jura novit curia exa-
miné par la Cour dans les arrêts qu’elle a rendus dans les affaires de la
Compétence en matière de pêcheries (Royaume-Uni c. Islande) et de la

Compétence en matière de pêcheries (République fédérale d’Allemagne
c. Islande):

«La Cour, en tant qu’organe judiciaire international, n’en est pas
moins censée constater le droit international et, dans une affaire rele-
vant de l’article 53 du Statut comme dans toute autre, est donc tenue

de prendre en considération de sa propre initiative toutes les règles
de droit international qui seraient pertinentes pour le règlement du
différend ... car le droit ressortit au domaine de la connaissance judi-
ciaire de la Cour.» (Fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 9, par. 17;

ibid., p. 181, par. 18; les italiques sont de moi.)

Ce principe a été aussi confirmé dans l’affaire du Nicaragua, dans le dic-
tum suivant:

«[l]e principe jura novit curia signifie que, pour décider que les
conclusions sont fondées en droit, la Cour ne doit pas s’appuyer uni-
quement sur les exposés des parties relativement au droit applicable
o
(voir l’affaire du Lotus, C.P.J.I. série A n 10,p.)»( Activités
militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicara-
gua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986 ,

p. 24, par. 29).

53. En conséquence, la règle qui veut que c’est à la partie qui cherche

2 «L’existence de la compétence de la Cour dans un cas particulier n’est pas une ques-
tion de fait, mais une question de droit qui doit être tranchée à la lumière des faits perti-
nents.» (Actions armées frontalières et transfrontalières (Nicaragua c. Honduras), com-
pétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1988 , p. 76, par. 16.) La question de la
compétence de la Cour est «une question nécessairement préalable et indépendante, une
question de droit objective, qui ne saurait être régie par des considérations de forclusion
pouvant être formulées de façon à jouer contre l’une des Parties ou contre les deux»
(Appel concernant la compétence du Conseil de l’OACI, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972 ,p.54,
par. 16, al. c)).

168577 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

a fact must bear the burden of proving that it “has no relevance for the
establishment of the Court’s jurisdiction” (Fisheries Jurisdiction (Spain
v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998 ,

p. 450, para. 37).
The disposition of the parties, although being the dominant principle
in the proceedings before the Court, suffers limitations. These limitations
derive from the objective rules of the Statute and the Rules of Court
defining the nature and limits of the Court’s judicial action. As constitu-

tional norms (R. Monaco, “Observations sur la hierarchie des sources du
droit international”, Festschrift für Hermann Mosler , 1983, pp. 607-608)
or as règles préceptives (intervention of Judge M. Yovanovitch, Prelimi-
nary Session of the Court, P.C.I.J., Series D, No. 2 , p. 59), these rules
transcend the disposition of the parties and pertain to the international

public order.
54. As a matter of international public order superior to the will of the
parties, the question of jurisdiction need not necessarily be raised by the
parties themselves but the Court can and should examine it ex officio.

(Cf. Territorial Jurisdiction of the International Commission of the River
Oder, Judgment No. 16, 1929, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 23, pp. 18-19; Fish-
eries Jurisdiction (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Jurisdiction of the Court,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973 , p. 7, para. 12; p. 54, para. 13; Prince von
Pless Administration, Order of 4 February 1933, P.C.I.J., Series A/B,

No. 52,p.15; Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8, 1927,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9 , p. 32.)

55. In the practice of the Court the expressions ex officio and proprio
motu are used as interchangeable, although there exist differences in the

meaning of these two expressions. The expression proprio motu implies
the discretionary authority of the Court to take action on its own initia-
tive. The action taken by the Court ex officio is an expression of the duty
of the Court by virtue of its judicial function. The exclusion of the discre-
tion of the Court relates to the action itself and does not touch upon the

freedom of the Court in respect of the ruling.
The linking element of these two expressions is of a negative nature
and is reflected in the fact that it is about the actions which the Court
takes, or may take, irrespective of the will and the processual actions of

the parties.
The genuine difference in the meaning of these two expressions is over-
come in some dicta of the Court, by adding the qualification “must” to
the expression “proprio motu” as in, for example, the Court’s Judgment
in the ICAO Council case (I.C.J. Reports 1972, p. 52, para. 13). Thus, in

fact, the Court’s own motion is qualified as the obligation and the action
proprio motu deprives it of discretion and turns it into action ex officio.

56. As questio juris pertaining to the public order, jurisdiction is deter-
mined by the decision of the Court, formal or informal, on the basis of

the principle of compétence de la compétence. The principle of com-

169 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 577

à établir un fait qu’incombe la charge de la preuve «est sans pertinence

aux fins d’établir la compétence de la Cour» (Compétence en matière de
pêcheries (Espagne c. Canada), compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1998, p. 450, par. 37).
La volonté des parties, bien qu’elle soit le principe dominant des pro-

cédures devant la Cour, connaît des limites. Ces limites découlent des
règles objectives du Statut et du Règlement de la Cour définissant la
nature et les limites de l’activité judiciaire de la Cour. En tant que normes
constitutionnelles (R. Monaco, «Observations sur la hiérarchie des

sources du droit international», Festschrift für Hermann Mosler , 1983,
p. 607-608) ou que règles préceptives (intervention de M. Yovanovitch,
session préliminaire de la Cour, C.P.J.I. série D n 2, p. 59), ces règles
transcendent la volonté des parties et relèvent de l’ordre public inter-

national.
54. En tant que question relevant de l’ordre public international,
lequel est supérieur à la volonté des parties, la question de la compé-
tence n’a pas nécessairement à être soulevée par les parties elles-mêmes

et la Cour peut et doit l’examiner d’office. (Voir Juridicoion terri-
toriale de la Commission internationale de l’Oder, arrêt n 16, 1929,
C.P.J.I. série A n o 23, p. 18-19; Compétence en matière de pêcheries
(Royaume-Uni c. Islande), compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J.

Recueil 1973 , p. 7, par. 12; p. 54, par. 13; Administration du poince von
Pless, ordonnance du 4 février 1933, C.P.J.I. série A/B n 52,p.5;
Usine de Chorzów, compétence, arrêt n o 8, 1927, C.P.J.I. série A n o 9,
p. 32.)

55. Dans la pratique de la Cour, les expressions «d’office» et «proprio
motu» sont interchangeables bien qu’elles n’aient pas exactement le même
sens. L’expression proprio motu renvoie au pouvoir discrétionnaire de la
Cour d’agir de sa propre initiative. L’initiative prise d’office par la Cour

reflète l’obligation découlant pour celle-ci de sa fonction judiciaire.
L’exclusion du pouvoir discrétionnaire de la Cour concerne l’initiative
elle-même et non la liberté de la Cour en ce qui concerne sa décision.

L’élément qui lie ces deux expressions est de caractère négatif et
concerne les initiatives que la Cour prend, ou peut prendre, quels que
soient la volonté des parties et leurs actes de procédure.

La véritable différence existant dans la signification de ces deux expres-
sions est occultée dans certains dicta de la Cour par l’ajout du verbe
«doit» avant l’expression «proprio motu», comme, par exemple, dans
l’arrêt rendu par la Cour dans l’affaire du Conseil de l’OACI (C.I.J.

Recueil 1972, p. 52, par. 13). Ainsi, en fait, l’initiative propre de la Cour
est qualifiée d’obligation et l’action proprio motu la prive de son pouvoir
discrétionnaire et la transforme en action d’office.
56. En tant que questio juris relevant de l’ordre public, la compétence

est déterminée par la décision formelle ou informelle que prend la Cour
sur la base du principe de la compétence de la compétence. Ce principe a

169578 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

pétence de la compétence possesses two meanings in that regard: a nar-
row and a broad one. As such the principle is confirmed in the Court’s
jurisprudence. In the Nottebohm case, the Court stated inter alia :

“Paragraph 6 of Article 36 merely adopted, in respect of the
Court, a rule consistently accepted by general international law in
the matter of international arbitration.

.............................

Article 36, paragraph 6, suffices to invest the Court with power to

adjudicate on its own jurisdiction in the present case. But even if this
were not the case, the Court, ‘whose function is to decide in accord-
ance with international law such disputes as are submitted to it’
(Article 38, paragraph 1, of the Statute), should follow in this connec-
tion what is laid down by general international law. The judicial char-

acter of the Court and the rule of general international law referred
to above are sufficient to establish that the Court is competent to
adjudicate on its own jurisdiction in the present case. ”( Nottebohm
(Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), Preliminary Objection, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1953,pp . 119-120; emphasis added.)

57. The Court exercises its inherent power from the institution of the
proceedings until its end with a view to establishing whether or not it

possesses jurisdiction in the particular case. (In reality, the Court pro-
ceeds to exercise its inherent power in two ways: (a) by ascertaining the
existence of processual requirements for jurisdiction through prima facie
assessment, being substantively a judicial presumption of jurisdiction or
(b) by adopting a formal decision on the jurisdiction. In that sense, the

power of the Court to determine whether it has jurisdiction in a given
case seems absolute, considering that the Court, even when declaring that
it has no jurisdiction in casu, exercises that inherent power.)
58. Without the operation of the principle of compétence de la com-
pétence in its broad meaning as a principle of general international law, it

would be impossible to establish the competence of the Court to indicate
provisional measures, for the objections to the Court’s jurisdiction, pur-
suant to Article 79 of the Rules, may be submitted by the respondent
within the time-limit fixed for the delivery of the Counter-Memorial and

by a party other than the respondent within the time-limit fixed for the
delivery of the first pleading. The operation of the principle in this case
results in the judicial presumption on proper jurisdiction of the Court in
the form of “prima facie jurisdiction”.
59. The understanding that action by the party is a condition neces-

sary for the Court to deal properly with jurisdictional issues appears to
be erroneous. It relies on the equalization of the merits and the jurisdic-
tional part of the proceedings before the Court. Equalization of these two
parts of the proceedings is conducive to the treatment of the question of
jurisdiction as questio facti and as a matter inter partes, which is in dis-

cord with its true nature.

170 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 578

deux significations à cet égard: une signification étroite et une significa-
tion large. En tant que tel, il est confirmé dans la jurisprudence de la
Cour. Dans l’affaire Nottebohm, la Cour a notamment déclaré:

«Le paragraphe 6 de l’article 36 ne fait que reprendre pour la
Cour une règle que le droit international commun a consacrée en
matière d’arbitrage international.

.............................

L’article 36, paragraphe 6, suffit à conférer à la Cour le pouvoir de

statuer sur sa compétence dans le cas présent. Même si tel n’était pas
le cas, la Cour, «dont la mission est de régler conformément au droit
international les différends qui lui sont soumis» (article 38, para-
graphe 1, du Statut), devrait suivre à cet égard ce que prescrit le droit
international commun. Or le caractère judiciaire de la Cour et la

règle de droit international commun qui a été précédemment rappelée
suffisent à établir que la Cour est compétente pour statuer sur sa
propre compétence en la présente affaire.» (Nottebohm (Liechtenstein
c. Guatemala), exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1953 ,
p. 119-120; les italiques sont de moi.)

57. La Cour exerce son pouvoir inhérent de l’introduction de l’ins-
tance jusqu’à la fin de celle-ci en vue d’établir si elle est ou non compé-

tente en l’espèce. (En réalité, la Cour exerce son pouvoir inhérent de deux
manières: a) en s’assurant que les conditions procédurales de sa com-
pétence sont réunies dans le cadre d’une évaluation prima facie,c eui
constitue en substance une présomption judiciaire de compétence; ou
b) en adoptant une décision formelle sur sa compétence. En ce sens,

le pouvoir de la Cour de décider si elle a compétence dans une affaire
donnée semble absolu, car la Cour, même lorsqu’elle déclare qu’elle n’a
pas compétence en l’espèce, exerce ce pouvoir inhérent.)
58. En l’absence du principe de la compétence de la compétence au
sens large en tant que principe du droit international général, il serait

impossible d’établir la compétence de la Cour pour indiquer des mesures
conservatoires, car les exceptions à la compétence de la Cour peuvent, en
vertu de l’article 79 du Règlement, être soulevées par le défendeur dans le
délai fixé pour le dépôt du contre-mémoire et par une partie autre que le

défendeur dans le délai fixé pour le dépôt de la première pièce de procé-
dure émanant de cette partie. L’application du principe en la présente
affaire aboutit à la présomption judiciaire de la compétence de la Cour
sous la forme de «compétence prima facie ».
59. L’idée qu’un acte de la partie est une condition nécessaire pour que

la Cour se saisisse régulièrement de questions de compétence semble erro-
née. Elle revient à mettre la phase du fond et la phase de la compétence
sur un pied d’égalité. Or, cela amène à traiter la question de la compé-
tence comme une questio facti et une question inter partes, ce qui ne cor-
respond pas à sa véritable nature.

170579 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

The rule according to which “the existence of a dispute is the primary
condition for the Court to exercise its judicial function” (Nuclear Tests

(New Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 476,
para. 58), is valid in the merits phase of a case, but is not equally valid in
the jurisdictional phase of the proceedings. The application of the rule in
the jurisdictional phase is resisted by the very nature of the question of

jurisdiction, running counter to the inherent right and duty of the Court
to determine its jurisdiction.

II. SPECIFIC ISSUES IN C ASU

1. Jus standi of the Respondent

(a) General approach of the majority to the jus standi requirement

60. The general approach of the majority to the jus standi requirement
does not seem clear and precise either as regards its substance or as
regards the terminology used. The majority is ambivalent as regards the
preliminary question whether the jus standi requirement is an auto-

nomous one.
Jus standi in the Judgment is seen as:
(a) “either as an issue relating to the Court’s jurisdiction ratione perso-

nae or as an issue preliminary to the examination of jurisdiction”
(Judgment, para. 66);
(b) “the question of access is clearly distinct from those relating to the
examination of jurisdiction in the narrow sense” (ibid., para. 87);

61. These qualifications are not only imprecise but are also contradic-
tory. For, if access to the Court is understood as jurisdiction ratione per-
sonae, it is unclear how it can be “an issue preliminary to the examination

of jurisdiction” or “clearly distinct from those relating to . . . jurisdiction
in the narrow sense”, if jurisdiction ratione personae is, in fact, a part of
the jurisdiction. If, on the contrary, it is an issue preliminary to jurisdic-
tion in the narrow sense, it is, mutatis mutandi, equally unclear. Besides,

the qualifications are indirect, offered primarily with the intention of
determining the relation between jus standi and jurisdiction of the Court.

62. It is true that in descriptive terms every jurisdiction over personae,

be it natural or legal persons, is jurisdiction ratione personae. But, a
descriptive meaning of the expression is one thing and the legal meaning
as technicus terminus is quite another thing.
Jurisdiction ratione personae concerns the issue whether the party to
the dispute is bound by a jurisdictional instrument serving as a basis of

jurisdiction as usually understood. As such, it is not a matter that falls
within the ambit of Article 35 but rather of Article 36 of the Statute.
The equalizing of these two terms — jurisdiction ratione personae and

171 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 579

La règle selon laquelle «[l]’existence d’un différend est ... la condition
première de l’exercice [par la Cour] de sa fonction judiciaire» (Essais

nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 ,
p. 476, par. 58) est valide lors de la phase du fond, mais n’est pas égale-
ment valide lors de la phase de l’instance relative à la compétence.
L’application de cette règle durant la phase relative à la compétence va à
l’encontre de la nature même de la question de la compétence, à l’encon-

tre du droit inhérent et du devoir de la Cour de décider de sa compétence.

II. Q UESTIONS SPÉCIFIQUES EN L ’ESPÈCE

1. Le jus standi du défendeur

a) Conception générale de la majorité de la condition relative au jus
standi

60. La conception générale qu’a la majorité de la condition relative au
jus standi ne semble ni claire ni précise, que ce soit quant au fond ou

quant à la terminologie utilisée. La majorité est ambivalente sur la ques-
tion préliminaire de savoir si la condition de jus standi est une condition
autonome.
Dans l’arrêt, le jus standi est considéré:

a) «soit comme une question se rattachant à la compétence ratione per-
sonae de la Cour, soit comme une question antérieure à l’examen de
la compétence» (arrêt, par. 66);

b) «[soit comme] la question de l’accès [qui] se distingue ... de celles rela-
tives à l’examen de la compétence au sens étroit» (ibid., par. 87);
61. Ces définitions sont non seulement imprécises mais aussi contra-

dictoires. Car, si l’accès à la Cour est entendu comme compétence
ratione personae, on voit mal comment il peut constituer «une question
antérieure à l’examen de la compétence» ou «une question qui «se
distingue ... de celles relatives à ... la compétence au sens étroit»», si la

compétence ratione personae fait effectivement partie de la compétence.
Si, par contre, il s’agit d’une question antérieure à la compétence au sens
étroit, elle est, mutatis mutandi, tout aussi peu claire. Par ailleurs, les défi-
nitions données sont indirectes, formulées d’abord pour déterminer la
relation entre le jus standi et la compétence de la Cour.

62. Il est vrai qu’en termes descriptifs toute compétence sur des perso-
nae, qu’elles soient physiques ou morales, est une compétence ratione per-
sonae. Mais la signification descriptive de l’expression est une chose et
son sens juridique en tant que technicus terminus en est une autre.

La juridiction ratione personae concerne la question de savoir si la par-
tie au différend est liée par un instrument juridictionnel servant de base
de compétence au sens usuel. En tant que telle, elle ne relève pas de l’ar-
ticle 35 du Statut mais de l’article 36.
L’identification de ces deux expressions — compétence ratione perso-

171580 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

jus standi — applied in the merits phase in the Application of the Conven-
tion on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide , should
be treated as an incident dictated by the substance of an ad hoc construc-

tion of the decision by necessary implication (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I),
separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Krec ´a, pp. 485-489, paras. 40-43).

63. If one deems it necessary to find a proper solution to the terms
used, within the frame of jurisdiction ratione personae, then, if it relates

to the requirement of jus standi also, it would be termed as “jurisdiction
ratione personae lato sensu ”, combining the descriptive and technical
meaning of the term. A contrario, a measure of confusion is inevitable,
since the jurisdiction of the Court is “a unitary concept, and the use by
the Court and elsewhere of terms such as jurisdiction ratione personae,

ratione materiae or the scope of the jurisdiction ratione temporis is solely
for purposes of systematic presentation” (S. Rosenne, The Law and Prac-
tice of the International Court, 1920-2005 , Vol. II, Jurisdiction, p. 526).

64. The majority had no intention, it seems, of dealing in more detail
with the substance of the jus standi requirement, finding that it is a matter
of “debate” (Judgment, para. 66), tending to suggest its theoretical nature.
Any issue, however, can, and often must, be treated as a theoretical one,
concerned with knowledge as, exempli causa, is shown by the extensive

discourse in the Judgment about the objection to the admissibility and to
the jurisdiction of the Court (ibid., para. 120). The more so, since the
experience with respect to the Court, at least its part relating to cases in
which the FRY/Serbia was involved, could hardly be accepted as satis-
factory.

In essence, the discourse about the jus standi requirement in the
present case, taking into consideration all the circumstances concomitant
to its application, is in fact a discourse about the nature and scope of
Article 35 of the Statute.
65. The situation is confusing also as regards the terms used in order

to determine the requirement under Article 35 of the Statute. The expres-
sions “access to the Court” (ibid., paras. 64, 67, 87), “capacity to
participate in the proceedings” (ibid., paras. 69, 87), “capacity to be a
party to the proceedings” (ibid., table of contents, para. 57), “right to

access (ibid., para. 67), “properly appear before the Court” (ibid., para. 68)
are used interchangeably.
66. More expressions, more confusion. The expression “access to the
Court” corresponds by its meaning to the general term jus standi in indi-
cio as the right of a person to appear or to be heard in such-and-such

proceedings (Jowitt’s Dictionary of English Law , 2nd ed., Vol. 2, p. 1115).
This, however, could not be said for the expression used in the Judg-
ment — “capacity to participate in the proceedings” — which has a
broader meaning. It includes, for instance, also the capacity to partici-
pate in the proceedings on the basis of legal interests of the party which,

otherwise, has access to the Court.

172 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. KREuA ) 580

nae et jus standi —, intervenue par exemple dans la phase du fond dans
l’affaire de l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répres-
sion du crime de génocide, doit être considérée comme un incident dicté

par la substance d’une interprétation ad hoc de la décision par implica-
tion logique (voir C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I) ; opinion individuelle du juge
ad hoc Krec ´a, p. 485-489, par. 40-43).
63. Si l’on juge nécessaire de trouver une solution appropriée aux
termes utilisés dans le cadre de la compétence ratione personae, et si l’on

vise également la condition relative au jus standi, il faudrait parler de
«compétence ratione personae lato sensu », en combinant les sens descrip-
tif et technique de l’expression. A défaut, une certaine confusion est iné-
vitable, car la compétence de la Cour est «une notion unitaire et que c’est
seulement aux fins d’une présentation systématique qu’on utilise, à la

Cour et ailleurs, des termes comme compétence ratione personae, ratione
materiae ou étendue de la compétence ratione temporis » (S. Rosenne,
The Law and Practice of the International Court, 1920-2005 , vol. II,
Jurisdiction, p. 526).

64. Il semble que la majorité n’avait pas l’intention d’examiner plus en
détail, quant au fond, la condition de jus standi, estimant qu’elle relève
d’un «débat» (arrêt, par. 66) et tendant à lui attribuer un caractère théo-
rique. Toutefois, toute question peut, et souvent doit, être considérée
comme une question théorique, relevant de la connaissance, comme, par

exemple, le montre le long passage de l’arrêt consacré à l’exception à la
recevabilité et à la compétence de la Cour (ibid., par. 120). Cela d’autant
plus que l’expérience, en ce qui concerne la Cour, au moins pour ce qui
est des affaires auxquelles la RFY/Serbie a été partie, ne peut guère être
considérée comme satisfaisante.

Pour l’essentiel, l’examen de la condition de jus standi dans la présente
affaire, compte tenu de toutes les circonstances entourant son applica-
tion, est en fait un examen de la nature et de la portée de l’article 35 du
Statut.
65. Sont aussi source de confusion les expressions utilisées pour déter-

miner la condition énoncée à l’article 35 du Statut. Les expressions
«accès à la Cour» (ibid., par. 64, 67, 87), «capacité nécessaire pour par-
ticiper à la procédure» (ibid., par. 69, 87), «capacité de participer à une
procédure devant la Cour» (ibid., table des matières, par. 57), «droit ...

d’accéder» (ibid., par. 67), «qualité pour se présenter devant la Cour»
(ibid., par. 68) sont utilisées de manière interchangeable.
66. En multipliant les expressions, on multiplie la confusion. L’expres-
sion «accès à la Cour» correspond par sa signification à l’expression géné-
rale jus standi in indicio, à savoir le droit d’une personne de se présenter ou

d’être entendue dans telle ou telle procédure J(owitt’s Dictionary of English
Law,2 éd., vol. 2, p. 1115). On ne peut par contre dire cela de l’expression
utilisée dans l’arrêt — «capacité nécessaire pour participer à la procé-
dure» —, qui a un sens plus large. Elle désigne aussi, par exemple, la capa-
cité d’une partie ayant autrement accès à la Cour de participer à la procé-

dure en raison des intérêts juridiques qui sont les siens.

172581 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

Exempli causa, in the case concerning Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Limited, the Court used it to denote the right of “a gov-
ernment to protect the interests of shareholders as such” which was in

effect the matter of legal interest independent of the right of Belgium to
appear before the Court (Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1964, p. 45). On the contrary, in the South West Africa case the
Court has drawn a clear distinction between “standing before the Court
itself”, i.e., locus standi, and “standing in the. . . phase of. . . proceedings”

(South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa),
Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966 , p. 18, para. 4).

67. In addition to the expression “access to the Court”, also appropri-
ate seem the expressions “right to appear”, “jus standi before the Court”,

or “entitled to appear before the Court”, because they have been designed
in terms of the right or entitlement of a State and, as such, correspond
with the general provision of Article 35 providing that “the Court shall
be open”, implying a subjective right of a State party to the Statute. (Fur-

thermore, other expressions are used, such as, for example, “locus standi
in judicio ratione personae” — S. Rosenne, op. cit., Vol. II, Jurisdiction,
p. 913. It appears however, that this expression is less appropriate. It is
partly a pleonasm, because locus standi in indicio is per definitionem
related to personae; it seems also too extensive because, by suggesting

that there also exists locus standi in indicio ratione materiae , it may con-
cern also a legal interest of the party to the dispute.)

(b) Nature and characteristics of the jus standi requirement

68. The totality of the requirements for the competence of the Court is
given in Articles 34, 35 and 36 of the Statute. The requirements are not,
however, of the same nature, having in mind that they express two domi-
nant, but distinct features of the International Court of Justice as a court

of law — its character of a partly open court and consensual basis of
jurisdiction.
As stated by the Court in the provisional measures phase in the ten
Legality of Use of Force cases:

“the Court can. . . exercise jurisdiction only between States parties to
a dispute who not only have access to the Court but also have

accepted the jurisdiction of the Court , either in general form or for
the individual dispute concerned” ((Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provi-
sional Measures, Order of 2 June 1999, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I),
p. 132, para. 20).

69. Whereas Article 36 of the Statute is concerned with the consensual
basis of the jurisdiction of the Court, embracing instruments serving as
its basis, Articles 34 and 35 are concerned with access to the Court. All

three Articles have their place in the Statute in the part under the heading

173 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 581

Par exemple, dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction, Light and Power
Company, Limited, la Cour l’a utilisée pour désigner le droit «d’un gou-
vernement [de] protéger les intérêts d’actionnaires en tant que tels», en

fait l’intérêt juridique, indépendant du droit de la Belgique d’ester devant
la Cour (exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1964 , p. 45). Au
contraire, dans l’affaire du Sud-Ouest africain, la Cour a distingué clai-
rement entre «l’aptitude des demandeurs à se présenter devant la Cour»,
c’est-à-dire le locus standi, et «la qualité des demandeurs en la phase

actuelle de la procédure» (Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du
Sud; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1966, p. 18, par. 4).
67. Outre l’expression «accès à la Cour», semblent également appro-
priées les expressions «droit de se présenter», «jus standi devant la

Cour» ou «Etat habilité à se présenter devant la Cour», parce qu’elles
ont été formulées du point de vue du droit et de la faculté de l’Etat et, en
tant que telles, correspondent à la disposition générale de l’article 35, qui
prévoit que «la Cour est ouverte», impliquant un droit subjectif des Etats

parties au Statut. (De plus, d’autres expressions sont utilisées, comme,
par exemple, «locus standi in judicio ratione personae » (S. Rosenne,
op. cit., vol. II, Jurisdiction, p. 913). Il apparaît cependant que cette ex-
pression est moins appropriée. Elle est en partie pléonastique, parce que
locus standi in indicio concerne par définition les personae; elle semble

aussi trop large parce que, en laissant penser qu’il existe aussi un locus
standi in indicio ratione materiae , elle peut viser aussi un intérêt juridique
de la partie au différend.)

b) Nature et caractéristiques de la condition de jus standi

68. Toutes les conditions de la compétence de la Cour sont énoncées
aux articles 34, 35 et 36 du Statut. Ces conditions ne sont cependant pas
de même nature, étant donné qu’elles expriment deux traits dominants
mais distincts de la Cour internationale de Justice en tant que tribunal

— sa nature de tribunal partiellement ouvert et le fondement consensuel
de sa compétence.
Comme la Cour l’a déclaré dans la phase relative aux mesures conser-
vatoires dans les dix affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force :

«la Cour ne peut donc exercer sa compétence à l’égard d’Etats
parties à un différend que si ces derniers ont non seulement accès à la

Cour, mais ont en outre accepté sa compétence , soit d’une manière
générale, soit pour le différend particulier dont il s’agit» ((Yougo-
slavie c. Belgique), mesures conservatoires, ordonnance du 2 juin
1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (I) , p. 132, par. 20).

69. Alors que l’article 36 du Statut concerne la base consensuelle de la
compétence de la Cour et les instruments qui fondent celle-ci, les arti-
cles 34 et 35 traitent de l’accès à la Cour. Ces trois articles figurent dans

le Statut sous la rubrique «Compétence de la Cour». Comme, dans la

173582 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

“Competence of the Court”. As in the practice of the Court the words
“jurisdiction” and “competence” are used interchangeably, the difference
between “access to the Court” and “jurisdiction of the Court” may be

diluted or even lost. Therefore, it seems appropriate to make, in this part
as well, the corresponding terminological requirements under Article 36
of the Statute and in terms of jurisdiction/competence lato sensu in the
sense of requirements under Articles 34 and 35 of the Statute. Or, special
and general jurisdiction/competence, respectively.

70. The right to appear before the International Court of Justice is a
limited right, due to the fact that it is not a fully open court of law. The
limitations exist in two respects. First, the right is reserved for States
(Statute, Art. 34, para. 1). Consequently, it does not belong to other
juridical persons or physical persons. Second, as far as States are con-

cerned, only States parties to the Statute of the Court possess the right
referred to, being as Member of the United Nations ipso facto parties to
the Statute of the Court or by accepting conditions pursuant to Arti-
cle 35, paragraph 2, of the Statute. States non-parties to the Statute can

acquire this right on condition that they accept the general jurisdiction of
the Court in conformity with Security Council resolution 9 (1946).

71. The common element underpinning these two notions is that they
represent processual conditions on whose existence is dependent the

validity of the actual proceedings before the Court; both with respect to
incidental proceedings and the merits, and with respect to the bringing of
the dispute to the Court’s decision in the proceedings. And there the
common ground between the two notions essentially ends and room for
differences emerges.

72. Both notions, jus standi and jurisdiction ratione personae, share
the characteristic of belonging to the corpus of processual conditions,
necessary for the validity of proceedings before the Court, whether inci-
dental or on the merits, and with respect to the reference of disputes to
the Court for decision. They also share the attribute of being absolute

processual conditions that must be satisfied in every case and both are
positive requirements in that, if they are not satisfied, the Court cannot
entertain the claims made.
73. The differences between them, however, are considerably greater,

making them distinct processual conditions:
— they reflect the different aspects of the legal nature of the Court.
While jurisdiction ratione personae, as one of the relevant aspects of
jurisdiction, expresses the consensual nature of the Court’s jurisdic-

tion, jus standi derives from the fact that the International Court of
Justice, in contrast to arbitration courts, is not a fully open court
of law. Access to the Court is limited in two respects on the basis of
Article 34, paragraph 1, and Article 35, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the

Statute of the Court.
— although both jurisdiction ratione personae and jus standi are reg-
ulated by the rules of the Statute having an objective, constitutional

174 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 582

pratique de la Cour, les mots «juridiction» et «compétence» sont utilisés
de manière interchangeable, la différence entre «accès à la Cour» et
«compétence de la Cour» peut s’estomper, voire disparaître. Il semble

donc opportun de faire, également dans la présente section, les distinc-
tions terminologiques correspondantes entre les dispositions de l’ar-
ticle 36 du Statut et la juridiction/compétencelato sensu selon les prescrip-
tions des articles 34 et 35 du Statut, ou entre la juridiction/compétence
spéciale et la juridiction/compétence générale, respectivement.

70. Le droit de se présenter devant la Cour internationale de Justice
est un droit limité, car la Cour n’est pas une juridiction pleinement
ouverte. Ce droit est limité à deux égards. Premièrement, il est réservé
aux Etats (Statut, art. 34, par. 1). En conséquence, les autres personnes
morales et les personnes physiques n’en jouissent pas. Deuxièmement, en

ce qui concerne les Etats, ceux qui sont parties au Statut de la Cour pos-
sèdent ce droit, soit en tant que Membres de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies ipso facto parties au Statut de la Cour, soit en acceptant les condi-
tions énoncées au paragraphe 2 de l’article 35 du Statut. Les Etats qui ne

sont pas parties au Statut peuvent acquérir ce droit à condition qu’ils
acceptent la compétence générale de la Cour conformément à la résolu-
tion 9 (1946) du Conseil de sécurité.
71. L’élément commun qui sous-tend ces deux notions est qu’elles
représentent des conditions procédurales dont l’existence détermine la

validité des procédures devant la Cour, du point de vue tant des procé-
dures incidentes que du fond, s’agissant de porter le différend devant
la Cour pour décision dans le cadre de la procédure. Et c’est là que
prend fin l’élément commun aux deux notions et qu’apparaissent des
différences.

72. Les deux notions, le jus standi et la compétence ratione personae,
partagent la caractéristique de relever du corpus des conditions procédu-
rales, nécessaires à la validité des procédures devant la Cour, qu’elles
soient incidentes ou au fond, s’agissant de porter les différends devant la
Cour pour décision. Elles partagent aussi l’attribut d’être des conditions

procédurales absolues qui doivent être satisfaites dans chaque cas, et elles
sont toutes deux des conditions positives en ce que, si elles ne sont pas
satisfaites, la Cour ne peut connaître des demandes.
73. Les différences entre elles sont toutefois beaucoup plus impor-

tantes, et en font des conditions procédurales distinctes:
— Elles reflètent les différents aspects de la nature juridique de la Cour.
Si la juridiction ratione personae, en tant qu’elle est l’un des aspects
pertinents de la compétence, exprime le caractère consensuel de la

compétence de la Cour, le jus standi découle du fait que la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice, à la différence des tribunaux arbitraux, n’est pas
une juridiction pleinement ouverte. L’accès à la Cour est limité à deux
égards, par le paragraphe 1 de l’article 34 et par les paragraphes 1 et 2

de l’article 35 de son Statut.
— Bien que la compétence ratione personae et le jus standi soient régis
par des règles du Statut qui ont un caractère constitutionnel et objec-

174583 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

character, there exists a fundamental difference in the application of
these rules. The rules of the Statute which concern jus standi are
applied by the Court ex lege, while the corresponding rules concern-

ing jurisdiction ratione personae are applied on the basis of the con-
sent of States to the dispute. In its Judgments in the Legality of Use
of Force cases, the Court stated, inter alia, that “a question of
jurisdiction . . . relates to the consent of a party and the question of
the right of a party to appear before the Court under the require-

ments of the Statute, which is not a matter of consent” ((Serbia and
Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2004 (I), p. 295, para. 36). Therefore, it can be said that in
substance the jurisdiction of the Court is governed by the law in force
between the parties, while jus standi is governed by the objective rules

of the Statute as such.
— the differing natures of jus standi, on the one hand, and jurisdiction
ratione personae, on the other, generate corresponding legal conse-
quences in the proceedings. A lack of jus standi possesses an auto-

matic effect, since, as a rule, it cannot be overcome in the proceedings
before the Court, while a lack of jurisdiction ratione personae is sur-
mountable as the parties may either confer jurisdiction upon the
Court in the course of the proceedings or perfect it for instance, by
express agreement or by forum prorogatum. As a consequence, in

contrast to a lack of jus standi, the absence of jurisdiction ratione per-
sonae does not preclude valid seisin of the Court (paragraph 106
below).
74. The competence or special jurisdiction in the particular case of the

International Court of Justice, as a semi-open court of law with jurisdic-
tion based on consent of the parties to a dispute, implies twofold consent
by States:

(a) consent that the Court is “an organ instituted for the purpose jus
dicere”( Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Preliminary
Objection, Judgment, 1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948 ; dissenting
opinion of Dr. Daxner, p. 39). This consent is expressed indirectly,
through membership of the United Nations, or directly, in the case

of a non-Member of the United Nations either by adhering to the
Statute of the Court or by accepting the general jurisdiction of the
Court in conformity with Security Council resolution 9 (1946), as a
preliminary condition; and

(b) consent that the Court is competent to deal with the particular dis-
pute or type of dispute which is given through the relevant jurisdic-
tional bases under Article 36 of the Statute, as a substantive but
qualified condition.

(c) Majority’s decision-making framework

75. The starting-point of the majority reasoning consists of two obser-

175 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DIS. KRECu ) 583

tif, il existe une différence fondamentale dans l’application de ces
règles. Les règles du Statut concernant le jus standi sont appliquées
par la Cour ex lege, alors que les règles correspondantes concernant

la compétence ratione personae sont appliquées sur la base du consen-
tement des Etats parties au différend. Dans ses arrêts sur la Licéité de
l’emploi de la force, la Cour a notamment déclaré qu’il fallait distin-
guer entre «une question de compétence liée au consentement d’une
partie et celle du droit d’une partie à ester devant la Cour confor-

mément aux prescriptions du Statut, qui n’implique pas un tel
consentement» ((Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) , p. 295, par. 36). On
peut donc dire qu’en substance la compétence de la Cour est régie
par le droit en vigueur entre les parties, alors que le jus standi est

régi par les règles objectives du Statut lui-même.
— Les différences de nature entre le jus standi, d’une part, et la compé-
tence ratione personae, de l’autre, génèrent des conséquences juridi-
ques correspondantes dans la procédure. L’absence de jus standi aun

effet automatique puisque, en tant que règle, il ne peut y être remédié
dans la procédure devant la Cour, alors qu’il peut être remédié au
défaut de compétence ratione personae puisque les parties peuvent
soit conférer compétence à la Cour durant la procédure, soit parfaire
cette compétence par un accord exprès ou en vertu du forum proro-

gatum. En conséquence, à la différence de l’absence du jus standi,
l’absence de compétence ratione personae n’exclut pas que la Cour
soit validement saisie (par. 106 ci-dessous).
74. La compétence ou la juridiction spéciale dans le cas particulier de

la Cour internationale de Justice, en tant que tribunal semi-ouvert dont la
compétence repose sur le consentement des parties au différend, implique
un double consentement des Etats:

a) le consentement à la compétence de la Cour en tant qu’«organe
institué pour «dire le droit»» (Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni
c. Albanie), exception préliminaire, arrêt, 1948, C.I.J. Recueil 1947-
1948; opinion dissidente du Dr Daxner, p. 39). Ce consentement est
exprimé indirectement, par l’admission à l’Organisation des Nations

Unies, ou directement, dans le cas d’un Etat non membre de l’Orga-
nisation, soit par adhésion au Statut de la Cour, soit par acceptation
de la compétence générale de la Cour conformément à la résolution 9
(1946) du Conseil de sécurité, en tant que condition préliminaire;

et
b) le consentement à ce que la Cour soit compétente pour connaître du
différend ou du type de différend particulier, qui est donné au moyen
des bases de compétence pertinentes prévues à l’article 36 du Statut,
en tant que condition de fond mais non absolue.

c) Cadre dans lequel la majorité a pris sa décision

75. Le point de départ du raisonnement de la majorité consiste en

175584 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

vations “which are not disputed by the Parties” (Judgment, para. 74).

According to the first observation,

“in its Judgments in 2004 in the Legality of Use of Force cases, the
Court clearly determined the legal status of the FRY, now Serbia,

over the period from the dissolution of the former SFRY to the
admission of the FRY to the United Nations on 1 November 2000”
(ibid., para. 75),

in terms that the Respondent was not a Member of the United Nations
prior to 1 November 2000, nor that it was a party to the Statute of the
Court.
The second observation is that

“from 1 November 2000 and up to the date of the present Judgment,
the Respondent is a party to the Statute by virtue of its status as a

Member of the United Nations, that is to say pursuant to Article 93,
paragraph 1, of the Charter, which automatically grants to all Mem-
bers of the Organization the status of party to the Statute of the
Court” (ibid., para. 77).

These observations, in fact premissae minor in the majority reasoning,
are different by their nature and effects in the framework of the present

case.
76. The legal status of the FRY/Serbia in the United Nations, being in
the circumstances surrounding the present case the determinative of its
jus standi, is the jurisdictional fact per se. For the membership in the
United Nations is the only basis upon which the Court might be open to

the FRY/Serbia, since it did not accept the conditions pursuant to Arti-
cle 35, paragraph 1, of the Statute nor the general jurisdiction of the
Court in conformity with Security Council resolution 9 (1946).

On the other hand, the fact that from 1 November 2000 the FRY/Ser-

bia has been a new Member of the United Nations is, by itself, deprived
of jurisdictional significance in casu, in the light of the rule that “the juris-
diction of the Court must normally be assessed on the date of the filing of
the act instituting proceedings ”( Application of the Convention on the

Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herze-
govina v. Yugoslavia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 613,
para. 26; emphasis added; see also I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 26, para. 44)
on the one side, and the fact that Croatia submitted its Application on
2 July 1999, a date well before the admission of the FRY to the United

Nations, on the other.
77. The reconciliation of these two observations, being premissae minor
in the majority reasoning in casu, implies therefore the establishment of
an exception to the general rule. An exception that in the frame of the
judicial syllogism represents premissae maior, which the majority tries to

find in the so-called Mavrommatis rule.

176 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 584

deux constatations «qui ne font pas l’objet de controverses entre les
Parties» (arrêt, par. 74).

Selon la première,

«dans ses arrêts de 2004 rendus dans les affaires relatives à la Licéité
de l’emploi de la force, [la Cour a] clairement déterminé le statut juri-
dique qui était celui de la RFY devenue aujourd’hui la Serbie, au cours
de la période allant de la dissolution de l’ancienne RSFY à l’admission
er
de la RFY aux Nations Unies le 1 novembre 2000» (ibid., par. 75),
à l’effet que le défendeur n’était pas membre de l’Organisation des
er
Nations Unies avant le 1 novembre 2000, et qu’il n’était pas non plus
partie au Statut de la Cour.
La deuxième constatation est que
er
«depuis le 1 novembre 2000 et de façon continue jusqu’à la date du
présent arrêt, le défendeur est partie au Statut, en raison de sa qua-
lité de Membre des Nations Unies, c’est-à-dire par l’effet de la dis-

position de l’article 93, paragraphe 1, de la Charte, qui attribue
automatiquement à tous les Membres de l’Organisation la qualité de
parties au Statut de la Cour» (ibid., par. 77).

Ces constatations, en fait des premissae minor du raisonnement de la
majorité, diffèrent par leur nature et par leurs effets dans le cadre de la
présente affaire.

76. Le statut juridique de la RFY/Serbie à l’Organisation des Nations
Unies, qui dans les circonstances de la présente affaire détermine son jus
standi, est le fait juridictionnel en soi. Car la qualité de Membre
de l’Organisation est la seule base sur laquelle la Cour peut être ouverte

à la RFY/Serbie, puisque celle-ci n’a pas accepté les conditions
visées au paragraphe 1 de l’article 35 du Statut ni la compétence
générale de la Cour conformément à la résolution 9 (1946) du Conseil
de sécurité.
er
Par ailleurs, le fait que depuis le 1 novembre 2000 la RFY/Serbie est
un nouveau Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies est, en lui-
même, dénué d’importance juridictionnelle en l’espèce, étant donné la
règle selon laquelle «la compétence de la Cour doit normalement s’appré-

cier à la date du dépôt de l’acte introductif d’instance »( Application de
la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) ,
p. 613, par. 26; les italiques sont de moi; voir également C.I.J. Recueil

1998, p. 26, par. 44) d’une part, et le fait que la Croatie a déposé sa
requête le 2 juillet 1999, une date bien antérieure à celle de l’admission de
la RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies, d’autre part.
77. La conciliation de ces deux constatations, qui sont des premissae
minor du raisonnement de la majorité en l’espèce, implique donc l’établis-

sement d’une exception à la règle générale. Une exception qui, dans le
cadre du syllogisme judiciaire, relève des premissae maior, et que la majo-
rité essaie de trouver dans la règle Mavrommatis.

176585 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

(d) The Mavrommatis rule, as a purported legal basis for reconciliation

78. In its Judgment in the Mavrommatis case, the Permanent Court of
International Justice stated, inter alia, that:

“it must. . . be considered whether the validity of the institution of
proceedings can be disputed on the ground that the application was
filed before Protocol XII [annexed to the Treaty of Lausanne] had
become applicable. This is not the case. Even assuming that before
that time the Court had no jurisdiction because the international

obligation referred to in Article II [of the Mandate for Palestine]
was not yet effective, it would always have been possible for the
applicant to re-submit his application in the same terms after
the coming into force of the Treaty of Lausanne, and in that case,

the argument in question could not have been advanced. Even if
the grounds on which the institution of proceedings was based were
defective for the reason stated, this would not be an adequate rea-
son for the dismissal of the applicant’s suit. The Court, whose juris-
diction is international, is not bound to attach to matters of form

the same degree of importance which they might possess in munici-
pal law. Even, therefore, if the application were premature because
the Treaty of Lausanne had not yet been ratified, this circumstance
would now be covered by the subsequent deposit of the necessary
ratifications.” (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 ,

p. 34.)
79. The Court’s dictum is interpreted by counsel for Croatia in the fol-
lowing terms:

“all the substantive requirements for the Court’s jurisdiction were
united, at the latest when the Respondent was admitted to the
United Nations on 1 November 2000. There was a case duly filed
before the Court by Croatia, so there was seisin. The Respondent

was at relevant times a party to the Genocide Convention, so there
was an apparent basis of claim. The Respondent was a State which
had in force an unqualified consent to jurisdiction under the Geno-
cide Convention, so there was consent to jurisdiction. The Respon-
dent was, at least as from 1 November 2000, a party to the Court’s

Statute, so there was access to the Court. One: seisin; two: basis of
claim; three: consent to jurisdiction; four: access to the Court. Who
could say there is a fifth requirement for you to hear a case? The
Mavrommatis principle is the principle that provided these four sub-

stantial elements are united at any given time, the order in which this
occurred is a pure matter of form and does not affect. . . jurisdic-
tion.” (CR 2008/11, pp. 33-34, para. 8 (Crawford).)

177 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 585

d) La règle Mavrommatis en tant que prétendu fondement juridique de
la conciliation

78. Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu dans l’affaire Mavrommatis, la Cour

permanente de Justice internationale a notamment déclaré:
«il faut encore examiner la question de savoir si la validité de l’intro-
duction d’instance peut être mise en doute parce qu’elle est anté-

rieure à l’époque où le Protocole XII est devenu applicable. Tel n’est
pas le cas. Même si, avant cette époque, la juridiction de la Cour
n’existait pas pour la raison que l’obligation internationale visée à
l’article II n’était pas encore en vigueur, il aurait été toujours pos-
sible, pour la partie demanderesse, de présenter à nouveau sa requête,

dans les mêmes termes, après l’entrée en vigueur du Traité de Lau-
sanne; et alors on n’aurait pu lui opposer le fait en question. Même
si la base de l’introduction d’instance était défectueuse pour la raison
mentionnée, ce ne serait pas une raison suffisante pour débouter le

demandeur de sa requête. La Cour, exerçant une juridiction interna-
tionale, n’est pas tenue d’attacher à des considérations de forme la
même importance qu’elles pourraient avoir dans le droit interne.
Dans ces conditions, même si l’introduction avait été prématurée,

parce que le Traité de Lausanne n’était pas encore ratifié, ce fait
aurait été couvert par le dépôt ultérieur des ratifications requises.»
(Arrêt n 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A n o 2, p. 34.)

79. Le dictum de la Cour est interprété par le conseil de la Croatie
dans les termes suivants:

«toutes les conditions de fond pour que la Cour ait compétence
étaient réunies, au plus tard, lorsque le défendeur a été admis au sein
de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, le 1 novembre 2000. Une ins-

tance avait été dûment introduite devant la Cour par la Croatie, et il
y avait donc saisine. Le défendeur était, aux époques pertinentes,
partie à la convention sur le génocide, et il existait donc manifeste-
ment un fondement juridique à la demande. Le défendeur était un

Etat dont le consentement inconditionnel à la juridiction de la Cour
en vertu de la convention sur le génocide était en vigueur, et il y avait
donc consentement à la juridiction . Le défendeur était, au moins
depuis le 1er novembre 2000, partie au Statut de la Cour, et il avait
donc accès à la Cour. Premièrement: saisine; deuxièmement: exis-

tence d’un fondement juridique à la demande; troisièmement:
consentement à la juridiction; quatrièmement: accès à la Cour. Qui
pourrait prétendre qu’il existerait une cinquième condition pour que
la Cour puisse connaître d’une affaire? Le principe Mavrommatis est

le principe selon lequel ces quatre éléments de fond doivent être réu-
nis à un moment donné, l’ordre dans lequel cela se produit étant une
pure question de forme et n’ayant aucune incidence sur la compé-
tence de la Cour.» (CR 2008/11, p. 33-34, par. 8 (Crawford).)

177586 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

(e) The substantial incapability of the Mavrommatis rule to produce
the desired effects in casu

80. It seems clear that the so-called Mavrommatis rule constitutes an
exception to the general rule that the jurisdiction of the Court must be

assessed on the date of the filing of the act instituting proceedings. That
fact, however, does not solve the problem posed in casu. (Even the Mav-
rommatis rule by itself, inspired basically by reservations made in many
arbitration treaties, seems too broad in the light of the subsequent juris-

prudence of the Court. The ratification of a treaty is not regarded now as
a matter of form but rather as a matter of substance. In the Ambatielos
case, the Court found, inter alia, as regards the retroactive effects of the
Treaty of 1926, that:

“Article 32 of this Treaty states that the Treaty, which must mean all
the provisions of the Treaty, shall come into force immediately upon
ratification. Such a conclusion might have been rebutted if there had

been any special clause or any special object necessitating retroactive
interpretation. There is no such clause or object in the present case.
It is therefore impossible to hold that any of its provisions must be
deemed to have been in force earlier.” (Ambatielos (Greece v. United
Kingdom), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 ,

p. 40.)
The word “form” used in the Mavrommatis dictum should perhaps be

understood as “formalities”, for the simple reason that in any judicial
proceedings as a formal one, including the proceedings before the Court,
the form as such plays a prominent and, as regards some issues, even a
decisive role. As a matter of illustration, an application could not be sub-

mitted to the Court in an oral form.)
In the light of the relevant circumstances of the present case, the true
question is: what is the scope of the exception established by the Mav-
rommatis Judgment. Is it a general exception applicable to any jurisdic-
tional defect, or a special exception applicable to certain species of juris-

dictional defects?
81. The so-called Mavrommatis rule is based on a couple of constitu-
tive elements:

(i) the existence of a procedural defect in the instrument serving as the
basis of jurisdiction on the date of institution of the proceedings;
(ii) the defect is of such kind that it may be cured by a proper action of
the applicant as a rule (in principle, however, the possibility that the
defect is overcome by an action of the respondent, if a willing liti-

gant, can not be a priori excluded); and,
(iii) the perfectuated instrument produces a retroactive effect, since, as
the Court observed, it would make no sense to require an applicant
to “institute fresh proceedings . . . which it would be fully entitled
to do” (Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against

Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Jurisdiction

178 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. KREuA ) 586

e) L’incapacité substantielle de la règle Mavrommatis à produire les
effets souhaités en l’espèce

80. Il semble clair que la règle Mavrommatis constitue une exception à
la règle générale selon laquelle la compétence de la Cour s’apprécie à la

date du dépôt de l’acte introductif d’instance. Ce fait ne résout toutefois
pas le problème qui se pose en l’espèce. (Même la règle Mavrommatis en
elle-même, inspirée pour l’essentiel par des réserves formulées à de nom-
breux traités d’arbitrage, semble trop large à la lumière de la jurispru-

dence ultérieure de la Cour. La ratification d’un traité n’est pas considé-
rée aujourd’hui comme une question de forme mais comme une question
de fond. Dans l’affaire Ambatielos, la Cour a notamment jugé, en ce qui
concerne les effets rétroactifs du traité de 1926, que:

«l’article 32 du même traité énonce que le traité, ce qui doit signifier
toutes les dispositions du traité, entrera en vigueur dès sa ratifica-
tion. Cette conclusion aurait pu être contredite s’il avait existé une

clause ou une raison particulières appelant une interprétation rétro-
active. Il n’existe pas dans le cas présent de telle clause ni de telle rai-
son. Il est donc impossible d’admettre que l’une quelconque de ses
dispositions doive être considérée comme ayant été en vigueur à une
date antérieure.» (Ambatielos (Grèce c. Royaume-Uni), exception

préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1952 , p. 40.)
Le mot «forme» utilisé dans le dictum Mavrommatis doit peut-être être

entendu comme «formalités», pour la simple raison que dans toute pro-
cédure judiciaire en tant que procédure formelle, y compris les procé-
dures devant la Cour, la forme en tant que telle joue un rôle important,
voire décisif en ce qui concerne certaines questions. A titre d’illustration,

une requête pourrait être introduite devant la Cour oralement.)
A la lumière des circonstances pertinentes de la présente affaire, la véri-
table question est la suivante: quelle est la portée de l’exception établie
par l’arrêt Mavrommatis ? S’agit-il d’une exception générale applicable à
tout vice de compétence, ou d’une exception spéciale applicable à certains

types de vices de compétence?
81. La règle Mavrommatis repose sur certains éléments constitutifs:

i) l’existence d’un vice procédural dans l’instrument servant de base de
compétence à la date de l’introduction de l’instance;
ii) ce vice est tel que le requérant peut en général y remédier par un acte
approprié (en principe, toutefois, la possibilité que ce soit le défen-
deur, s’il est de son plein gré devant la Cour, qui y remédie ne peut

être exclue a priori); et
iii) l’instrument qui a été parfait doit pouvoir produire un effet rétroac-
tif, puisque, comme la Cour l’a relevé, il n’y aurait aucun sens à obli-
ger un requérant à «entamer une nouvelle procédure ... ce qu’il aurait
pleinement le droit de faire» (Activités militaires et paramilitaires au

Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique),

178587 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , pp. 428-429,

para. 83).
82. It appears that in the Mavrommatis Judgment, as well as in other

Judgments, such as Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia
(Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6 , p. 14) and
Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicara-
gua v. United States of America) (Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1984 , pp. 428-429, para. 83), based on its preceden-
tal authority, the real issue in question was the existence of procedural
defects in terms of defects in jurisdictional instruments as contemplated
by Article 36 of the Statute. Jurisdictional instruments as such have as

their object the competence of the Court to deal with the particular dis-
pute or type of disputes, not the right of judicial protection before the
Court. As those instruments are based on the consent of the parties it is
natural that they can be cured by a proper action of the applicant or even

the respondent, if it is a willing litigant.

83. But, “the right of a party to appear before the Court. . . is not a
matter of consent” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v.

Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
p. 295, para. 36). Since the jus standi requirement belongs to corpus juris
cogentis , its defect in jus standi can not be cured upon the institution of
proceedings.

Consequently, a defect in jus standi is not a matter of form (see Mav-
rommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series
A, No. 2, p. 34) or “a mere defect of form, the removal of which depends
solely on the Party concerned” (Certain German Interests in Polish Upper

Silesia, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 6 , p. 14).

84. The nature of jus standi determines the date of assessment of its
fulfilment. As an objective requirement relating to the limits of the judi-

cial activity of the Court, jus standi must be assessed as soon as possible,
i.e., on the date of the institution of proceedings. (In that regard, strictly
and without exception, the Court has treated the issue in eight Legality of
Use of Force cases ((Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary

Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), pp. 298-299, paras. 46;
pp. 310-311, para. 79; pp. 314-315, para. 91 and p. 327, para. 126).)
In the absence of jus standi of a party, the proceedings before the
Court are, as matter of law, devoid of substance as demonstrated in the

Legality of Use of Force cases:

“The conclusion which the Court has reached, that Serbia and

3G. Schwarzenberger, “International Law as Applied by International Courts and Tri-
bunals”, International Judicial Law , Vol. IV, 1986, pp. 434-435; Faclere, The Permanent
Court of International Justice , 1932, p. 63; R. Kolb, Théorie du ius cogens international,
Essai de relecture du concept , 2001, pp. 344-348.

179 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .DISS. KRECA ) 587
u

compétence de la Cour et recevabilité de la requête, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1984, p. 428-429, par. 83).

82. Il semble que dans l’arrêt Mavrommatis, ainsi que dans d’autres
arrêts, comme les arrêts Certains intérêts allemands en Haute-Silésie
polonaise (compétence, arrêt n o 6, 1925, C.P.J.I. série A n o 6, p. 14) et

Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nica-
ragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique) (compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1984, p. 428-429, par. 83), du point de vue de l’autorité de la

chose jugée, la question véritable en cause était l’existence de vices pro-
céduraux entendus comme vices dans les instruments juridictionnels envi-
sagés à l’article 36 du Statut. En tant que tels, les instruments juridiction-

nels ont pour objet de définir la compétence de la Cour pour connaître
d’un différend ou type de différend particulier, non le droit à la protec-
tion judiciaire devant la Cour. Comme ces instruments reposent sur le
consentement des parties, il est normal qu’il puisse être remédié à leurs

vices par un acte approprié du demandeur ou même du défendeur s’il
plaide de son plein gré.
83. Mais le «droit d’une partie à ester devant la Cour ... n’implique

pas un ... consentement» (Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Serbie-et-
Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2004 (I), p. 295, par. 36). Comme la condition de jus standi relève du
corpus juris cogentis , il ne peut être remédié à l’absence de jus standi lors

de l’introduction de l’instance.
En conséquence, un vice dans le jus standi n’est pas une question de
forme (voir Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt n o 2, 1924,
o
C.P.J.I. série A n 2, p. 34) ni «un simple vice de forme, dont l’élimina-
tion dépend seulement de la partie concernée» (Certains intérêts alle-
mands en Haute-Silésie polonaise, compétence, arrêt n o 6, 1925, C.P.J.I.
série A n 6, p. 14).

84. La nature du jus standi détermine la date à laquelle son existence
s’apprécie. En tant que condition objective touchant les limites de l’acti-
vité judiciaire de la Cour, le jus standi doit être évalué le plus tôt possible,

c’est-à-dire à la date de l’introduction de l’instance. (A cet égard, stricte-
ment et sans exception, la Cour a traité la question dans les huit affaires
relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force ((Serbie-et-Monténégro

c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 298-
299, par. 46; p. 310-311, par. 79; p. 314-315, par. 91; p. 327, par. 126).)
Si une partie n’a pas qualité pour ester devant la Cour, la procédure
est, en droit, vidée de sa substance, comme l’ont démontré les affaires

relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force :

«La Cour ayant conclu que la Serbie-et-Monténégro n’avait pas,

3 G. Schwarzenberger, «International Law as Applied by International Courts and Tri-
bunals», International Judicial Law , vol. IV, 1986, p. 434-435; Faclere, The Permanent
Court of International Justice , 1932, p. 63; R. Kolb, Théorie du ius cogens international,
Essai de relecture du concept , 2001, p. 344-348.

179588 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

Montenegro did not, at the time of the institution of the present pro-
ceedings, have access to the Court. . . makes it unnecessary for the
Court to consider the other preliminary objections filed by the Respon-

dents to the jurisdiction of the Court. . . ”( Serbia and Montenegro v.
Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004
(I), pp. 327-328, para. 127; emphasis added.)

85. The theory about the uniting of all the requirements for the

Court’s jurisdiction at any given time has certain, but strictly limited,
merits.
It is applicable, in principle, to the requirements regarding the jurisdic-
tion stricto sensu in all its aspects — ratione materiae, personae et tem-
poris — but not to the requirement of jus standi. The requirement of jus

standi is not just a fundamental one, but at the same time of antecedent
and pre-preliminary nature. “The Court can exercise its judicial function
only in respect of those States which have access to it under Article 35 of
the Statute. And only those States which have access to the Court can

confer jurisdiction upon it. ” (Ibid., p. 299, para. 46; emphasis added.)
86. Such a nature of the jus standi requirement affects the temporal
order of the fulfilment of the requirements regarding the jurisdiction lato
sensu. It could be said that the jus standi requirement is, in terms of time,
not only antecedent but, in that sense, also immovable, related to the

date of the institution of the proceedings, and that other requirements
provided accumulate around it as a kind of linchpin. In its Judgment in
the Fisheries Jurisdiction case the Court stated in explicit terms: “a dec-
laration, which may be either particular or general, must be filed by the
State which is not a party to the Statute, previously to its appearance

before the Court”( Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic of Germany
v. Iceland), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1973 ,
p. 53, para. 11; emphasis added; see also eight Legality of Use of Force
cases (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , pp. 298-299, para. 46).

Otherwise, pursuing the logic on which the majority’s understanding of
the Mavrommatis principle is based, it would be possible to imagine a
situation of the Court having pronounced itself competent in the Aerial

Incident case, after Bulgaria’s admission to membership in the United
Nation, since “the Statute of the present Court could not lay any obliga-
tion upon Bulgaria before its admission to the United Nations” (Aerial
Incident of 27 July 1955 (Israel v. Bulgaria), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1959, p. 143).

87. Such a temporal order seems not only reasonable, but unavoid-
able, as well. As a general, potential right of a State, jus standi belongs to
a State if the State is not a party to the dispute or a party to the proceed-
ings before the Court. It is transformed into an active, effective right
under the additional proviso of the existence of a proper jurisdictional

instrument.

180 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 588

au moment de l’introduction de l’instance, qualité pour ester devant
la Cour, ... il n’est pas nécessaire qu’elle examine les autres excep-
tions préliminaires à sa compétence soulevées par les défendeurs ...»

((Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 327-328, par. 127; les italiques sont de
moi.)

85. La théorie selon laquelle toutes les conditions de la compétence de

la Cour doivent être réunies à un moment donné a certains mérites, mais
ceux-ci sont strictement limités.
Elle est applicable, en principe, aux conditions relatives à la compé-
tence stricto sensu dans tous ses aspects — ratione materiae, personae et
temporis — mais non à la condition de jus standi. Celle-ci n’est pas seu-

lement une condition fondamentale, elle a également une nature préa-
lable et pré-préliminaire. «La Cour ne peut exercer sa fonction judiciaire
qu’à l’égard des seuls Etats auxquels elle est ouverte en vertu de l’arti-
cle 35 du Statut. Et seulsles Etats auxquels la Cour est ouverte peuvent lui

conférer compétence.» ( Ibid., p. 299, par. 46; les italiques sont de moi.)
86. Cette nature du jus standi influe sur l’ordre chronologique dans
lequel les conditions de la compétence lato sensu doivent être réunies. On
pourrait dire que la condition de jus standi est, du point de vue chrono-
logique, non seulement préalable mais, en ce sens, également inamovible,

car liée à la date de l’introduction de l’instance, et que les autres condi-
tions prévues s’accumulent sur elle comme sur une sorte de fondation.
Dans son arrêt dans l’affaire de la Compétence en matière de pêcheries ,la
Cour a déclaré expressément: «tout Etat qui n’est pas partie au Statut
doit déposer une déclaration, laquelle peut avoir soit un caractère parti-

culier soit un caractère général, avant d’ester devant la Cour »( Compé-
tence en matière de pêcheries (République fédérale d’Allemagne c.
Islande), compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1973 , p. 53, par. 11;
les italiques sont de moi; voir également les huit affaires relatives à la
Licéité de l’emploi de la force ((Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), excep-

tions préliminaires, arrêt , C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 298-299, par. 46)).
A défaut, selon la logique sur laquelle repose l’interprétation que
donne la majorité du principe Mavrommatis, il serait possible d’imaginer
que la Cour se soit déclarée compétente dans l’affaire de l’Incident aérien,

après l’admission de la Bulgarie à l’Organisation des Nations Unies, puis-
que «le Statut de la présente Cour ne [peut] entraîner d’obligation pour la
Bulgarie qu’à partir de l’admission de celle-ci aux Nations Unies» (Inci-
dent aérien du 27 juillet 1955 (Israël c. Bulgarie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1959, p. 143).

87. Une telle chronologie semble non seulement raisonnable mais aussi
inévitable. En tant que droit potentiel général de l’Etat, le jus standi
appartient à celui-ci même s’il n’est pas partie au différend ou n’est pas
partie à la procédure devant la Cour. Il est transformé en droit effectif et
actif à la condition supplémentaire de l’existence d’un instrument juridic-

tionnel en bonne et due forme.

180589 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

It is also supported by the order of the relevant Articles of the Statute
— Article 35, regarding jus standi precedes Article 36, regarding jurisdic-
tion stricto sensu. The order of the enumeration of the relevant require-

ments may represent per se an indication of hierarchy or order of prior-
ity.
88. Bearing in mind the fundamental nature of the jus standi require-
ment, such a temporal order is rather a matter of substance than a matter
of form. In such circumstances the theory of uniting, in an indefinite

period of time, the relevant requirements for the competence of the Court
looks, as a matter of law, like a judicial “Waiting for Godot”.

(f) Sound administration of justice as a purported basis for the establish-

ment of the desired exception to the general rule

89. It appears that the majority itself did not accept the Mavrommatis
rule as applicable to the jus standi requirement. It is loyally observed that
the Mavrommatis rule as well as the jurisprudence of the Court based on
it relate to “jurisdiction ratione materiae or ratione personae in the nar-
row sense and not to the question of access to the Court, which has to do

with a party’s capacity to participate in any proceedings whatever before
the Court” (Judgment, para. 86).
The majority in fact tries to introduce an exception to the rule that the
existence of jus standi of a party should be assessed on the date of the
institution of the proceedings on the principles underpinning the Mav-

rommatis rule. According to this view:
“That being so, it is not apparent why the arguments based on the

sound administration of justice which underpin the Mavrommatis
case jurisprudence cannot also have a bearing in a case such as the
present one. It would not be in the interests of justice to oblige the
Applicant, if it wishes to pursue its claims, to initiate fresh proceed-
ings. In this respect it is of no importance which condition was

unmet at the date the proceedings were instituted, and thereby pre-
vented the Court at that time from exercising its jurisdiction, once it
has been fulfilled subsequently.” (Ibid., para. 87.)

90. Is it questionable whether the principle of sound administration of
justice directly underpins the jurisprudence of the Mavrommatis case? If
we interpret the terms used in the relevant part of the Judgment in the

Mavrommatis case, in accordance with its ordinary and natural meaning,
it seems that the principle of judicial economy, and not the principle of
sound administration, underpins the Court’s reasoning. For, ratio deci-
dendi lies in the words:

“Even assuming that before that time the Court had no jurisdiction
because the international obligation referred to in Article II [of the
mandate for Palestine] was not yet effective,it would always have been

possible for the applicant to re-submit his application in the same

181 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 589

Cela est confirmé par l’ordre des dispositions du Statut — l’article 35,
relatif au jus standi, précède l’article 36, relatif à la compétence
stricto sensu. L’ordre de l’énumération des conditions pertinentes peut en

lui-même indiquer une hiérarchie ou un ordre de priorité.

88. Eu égard à la nature fondamentale de la condition de jus standi,
cette chronologie est plus une question de fond qu’une question de forme.
Dans de telles circonstances, la théorie de la réunion, dans un délai indé-

fini, des conditions de la compétence de la Cour semble, du point de vue
du droit, un «En attendant Godot» judiciaire.

f) La bonne administration de la justice comme fondement de l’éta-

blissement de l’exception souhaitée à la règle générale

89. Il semble que la majorité elle-même n’ait pas accepté la règle
Mavrommatis comme applicable à la condition de jus standi. Elle relève
honnêtement que la règle Mavrommatis ainsi que la jurisprudence de la
Cour reposant sur celle-ci ont trait «à la compétence ratione materiae ou
ratione personae dans le sens étroit, et non à la question de l’accès à la

Cour, qui touche à la capacité d’une partie à prendre part à une procé-
dure dans quelque affaire que ce soit» (arrêt, par. 86).
En fait, la majorité tente d’introduire une exception à la règle selon
laquelle l’existence du jus standi d’une partie doit être appréciée à la date
de l’introduction de l’instance selon les principes qui sous-tendent la règle

Mavrommatis. Selon cette opinion:
«Dans ces conditions, on n’aperçoit pas pourquoi les arguments

tirés d’une bonne administration de la justice, qui sont à la base de la
jurisprudence Mavrommatis, ne seraient pas pertinents aussi dans un
cas tel que celui qui nous occupe. Il ne servirait pas l’intérêt de la
justice de mettre le demandeur dans l’obligation, s’il souhaite persé-
vérer dans ses prétentions, d’entamer une nouvelle procédure. A cet

égard, peu importe la condition qui, à la date d’introduction de
l’instance, faisait défaut, empêchant ainsi la Cour, à ce moment-là,
d’exercer sa compétence, dès lors qu’elle a été remplie par la suite.»
(Ibid., par. 87.)

90. Est-il contestable que le principe d’une bonne administration de la
justice soit directement à la base de la jurisprudence Mavrommatis ?S i
l’on interprète les termes utilisés dans le passage pertinent de l’arrêt

Mavrommatis selon leur sens ordinaire et naturel, il semble que le prin-
cipe de l’économie judiciaire, et non le principe d’une bonne administra-
tion, sous-tend le raisonnement de la Cour. La ratio decidendi s’exprime
en effet dans les termes suivants:

«Même si, avant cette époque, la juridiction de la Cour n’existait
pas pour la raison que l’obligation internationale visée à l’article II
n’était pas encore en vigueur,il aurait été toujours possible, pour la

partie demanderesse, de présenter à nouveau sa requête, dans les mêmes

181590 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. KRECu )

terms after the coming into force of the Treaty of Lausanne, and in

that case, the argument in question could not have been advanced.”
(Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J.,
Series A, No. 2, p. 34; emphasis added; see also thePolish Upper
Silesia case, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 6, 1925, P.C.I.J., Series A,

No. 6, p. 14.)

And it would mean going much too far, if the principle of judicial
economy would overcome the requirements which makes the core of the

legality of proceedings before the Court.
91. The principle of sound administration of justice is obviously not
omnipotent nor a law-creating principle. It is rather a standard which
allows the Court, in the limits of discretio legalis, to mitigate the rigid

application of the rule of procedure or to solve an issue of procedure
which is not regulated by specific rules of the Statute of the Court and its
Rules. In that sense it is designed in the jurisprudence of the Court .As
such, it can not serve as a basis for the establishment of exception to the

general rule as regards the requirement of jus standi for a number of
reasons.

First of all, the requirement of jus standi is of a mandatory, constitu-

tional nature. Article 35 of the Statute is part of its Chapter II (Compe-
tence of the Court) and not of Chapter III (Procedure) which is the
natural operating space of the principle of sound administration of jus-
tice. Then, there do not exist lacunae in the provision of Article 35 of the

Statute. It is clear and comprehensive, as the concretization of the provi-
sion of Article 93, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the United Nations Charter,
which lifted a limitation to the right of judicial protection before the
International Court of Justice to the rank of public order of the United

Nations. As such it cannot be considered as a procedural rule. Finally,
even if, arguendo, the requirement of jus standi would be defined as pro-
cedural, it would obviously represent norme procedurale fondamentale ,
incapable of any modification.

92. It appears that, contrary to the majority view, the application of
the general rule in casu derives directly from the principle of sound

administration of justice. In the syntagma “sound administration of jus-
tice”, the very administration of justice is the substance of the principle.
“The justice” as the object of “sound and proper administration” is not
abstract justice but justice according to the rules of law governing the

Court’s judicial activity.

4Barcelona Traction, I.C.J. Reports 1964 , pp. 6, 42; Oil Platforms, I.C.J. Reports
1998, pp. 190-203, para. 33; p. 205, para. 43; Application of the Convention on the Pre-
vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, I.C.J. Reports 1997 , p. 257, para. 30;
pp. 257-258, para. 31.

182 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 590

termes, après l’entrée en vigueur du Traité de Lausanne; et alors on
n’aurait pu lui opposer le fait en question.»C (oncessions Mavromma-
tis en Palestine, arrêt n 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A n 2, p. 34; les ita-

liques sont de moi; voir également l’affaireCertainsointérêts allemands
en Haute-Silésie polonaise, compétence, arrêt n 6, 1925, C.P.J.I.
série A n 6, p. 14.)

Et on irait beaucoup trop loin si le principe de l’économie judiciaire pré-
valait sur les conditions qui sont au cŒur de la licéité des instances devant
la Cour.
91. Le principe d’une bonne administration de la justice n’est mani-

festement pas omnipotent, pas plus qu’il n’est un principe normatif.
Il s’agit plutôt d’une norme qui permet à la Cour, dans les limites
de la discretio legalis, d’atténuer l’application rigide de la règle de
procédure ou de régler une question de procédure qui n’est pas régie

par des dispositions du Statut et du Règlement de la Cour. C’est
dans ce sens qu’elle est conçue dans la jurisprudence de la Cour . 4
En tant que telle, elle ne saurait fonder l’établissement d’une exception

à la règle générale relative à la condition de jus standi pour un certain
nombre de raisons.
Premièrement, la condition de jus standi est de caractère obligatoire et
constitutionnel. L’article 35 du Statut figure dans le chapitre II de celui-ci

(Compétence de la Cour) et non dans le chapitre III (Procédure), la
procédure étant l’espace dans lequel s’applique naturellement le
principe d’une bonne administration de la justice. Il n’y a donc pas de

lacune dans la disposition de l’article 35 du Statut. Celui-ci est clair
et complet, en tant qu’il concrétise les dispositions des paragraphes 1
et 2 de l’article 93 de la Charte des Nations Unies, qui a élevé une
limitation du droit à la protection judiciaire de la Cour internationale

de Justice au rang de règle d’ordre public de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies. En tant que telle, la condition de jus standi ne peut être
considérée comme une règle procédurale. Enfin, même si, arguendo,

cette condition devait être considérée comme procédurale, elle serait
à l’évidence une norme procédurale fondamentale, ne souffrant
aucune modification.
92. Il semble que, contrairement à ce que pense la majorité, l’applica-

tion de la règle générale en l’espèce découle directement du principe d’une
bonne administration de la justice. Dans le syntagme «bonne administra-
tion de la justice», l’administration même de la justice est la substance du
principe. «La justice» en tant qu’objet d’une «bonne administration»

n’est pas une justice abstraite mais la justice selon les règles de droit régis-
sant l’activité judiciaire de la Cour.

4Barcelona Traction, C.I.J. Recueil 1964 ,p.6,42Plates-formes pétrolières, C.I.J.
Recueil 1998, p. 190-203, par. 33; p. 205, par. 43; Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide, C.I.J. Recueil 1997 , p. 257, par. 30;

p. 257-258, par. 31.

182591 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

93. The institution of proceedings before the Court, as far as its sig-
nificance is concerned, “falls short only of that of the judgment itself”
(G. Schwarzenberger,International Law, Vol. I, 1945, p. 376). It permeates,

as very few rules do, the whole body of the Court’s law, starting with the
provision of Article 40 of the Statute, via the provisions of Articles
26 (1 (b)), 38, 39, 40 (2-3), 42, 46, 80, 81 up to Articles 87, 92 (1), 98 (1-
3), 99 (1-2) and 104 of the Rules of Court.
On the date of the institution of the proceedings, a process relationship

is established between the parties to the dispute, as well as between the
parties to the dispute and the Court — a fact which per se produces
important legal consequences for the parties to the dispute and the Court
itself. From that date the conservatory effects of the Application are
beginning and the litispendence goes on.

94. All in all, from that moment on, the Court starts its judicial activ-
ity stricto sensu, separated from the administrative action of the Registry
of the Court. The principal task of the Court, in that phase of the pro-
ceedings, is to establish the existence of the necessary requirements for its

jurisdiction lato sensu, i.e., the requirement of jus standi, for require-
ments regarding the special jurisdiction in all of its relevant aspects —
ratione personae, materiae et temporis — may be perfected and even
established in the course of the proceedings.
95. The proper application of the principle of sound administration of

justice in casu, must take into account the difference between the require-
ment of jus standi, on the one side, and the requirements of jurisdiction
of the Court stricto sensu, on the other.
An exception to the general rule regarding the date of assessment of
the Court’s jurisdiction might operate as regards the requirement of juris-

diction based on consent of the parties, for it does not touch the legality
of the juridical activity of the Court as such.

Regarding the requirement of jus standi, as a matter of interpretation
of a rule of the Statute, being objective law, the legal situation seems dif-

ferent, regardless of whether the principle underpinning the Mavromma-
tis rule is understood as a principle of judicial economy or as a principle
of sound administration of justice.
The imperative wording of Article 35, paragraph 1, of the Statute, read

in conjunction with Article 93 of the United Nations Charter, does not
leave any doubt in that regard. For, “[t]he Court can exercise its judicial
function only in respect of those States which have access to it under
Article 35 of the Statute. And only those States which have access to the
Court can confer jurisdiction upon it.” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia

and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2004 (I), pp. 298-299, para. 46; see also the ten cases in the pro-
visional measures phase (Yugoslavia v. Belgium), I.C.J. Reports
1999 (I), p. 132, para. 20; and Fisheries Jurisdiction (Federal Republic
of Germany v. Iceland), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment , I.C.J.

Reports 1973, p. 53, para. 11.)

183 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 591

93. Du point de vue de son importance, l’introduction de l’instance
devant la Cour «ne cède le pas qu’à l’arrêt lui-même» (G. Schwarzenber-
ger, International Law, vol. I, 1945, p. 376). Elle imprègne, comme peu de

règles le font, tout le corpus du droit de la Cour, à commencer par les
dispositions de l’article 40 du Statut, en passant par celles des articles 26
(1 b)), 38, 39, 40 (2-3), 42, 46, 80 et 81, et jusqu’aux articles 87, 92 (1),
98 (1-3), 99 (1-2) et 104 du Règlement de la Cour.
A la date de l’introduction de l’instance, une relation procédurale est

établie entre les parties au différend ainsi qu’entre les parties au différend
et la Cour — un fait qui en lui-même a d’importantes conséquences
juridiques pour les parties et pour la Cour elle-même. C’est à cette
date que commencent les effets conservatoires de la requête ainsi que la
litispendance.

94. Dans l’ensemble, à partir de ce moment, la Cour entame son acti-
vité judiciaire stricto sensu, distincte de l’activité administrative de son
Greffe. La principale tâche de la Cour, dans cette phase de la procédure,
est d’établir l’existence des conditions nécessaires de sa compétence au

sens large, c’est-à-dire la condition de jus standi, car les conditions rela-
tives à sa compétence spéciale dans tous ses aspects pertinents — ratione
personae, materiae et temporis — peuvent être parfaites et même établies
durant la procédure.
95. En l’espèce, l’application appropriée du principe d’une bonne admi-

nistration de la justice doit tenir compte de la différence entre la condi-
tion de jus standi, d’une part, et les conditions de la compétence de la
Cour stricto sensu, de l’autre.
Une exception à la règle générale relative à la date à laquelle s’apprécie
la compétence de la Cour peut s’appliquer en ce qui concerne la condition

de la compétence fondée sur le consentement des parties, car elle n’a pas
d’incidence sur la licéité de l’activité judiciaire de la Cour en tant que
telle.
S’agissant de la condition de jus standi, du point de vue de l’interpréta-
tion d’une règle du Statut, en tant que droit objectif, la situation juri-

dique semble différente, que l’on comprenne le principe sur lequel repose la
règle Mavrommatis comme un principe d’économie judiciaire ou comme
un principe d’administration de la justice.
Le libellé impératif du paragraphe 1 de l’article 35 du Statut, lu

en même temps que l’article 93 de la Charte des Nations Unies, ne laisse
aucun doute à cet égard. Car «[l]a Cour ne peut exercer sa fonction
judiciaire qu’à l’égard des seuls Etats auxquels elle est ouverte en
vertu de l’article 35 du Statut. Et seuls les Etats auxquels la Cour est
ouverte peuvent lui conférer compétence.» (Licéité de l’emploi de la force

(Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2004 (I), p. 299, par. 46; voir aussi les dix affaires dans
la phase des mesures conservatoires ((Yougoslavie c. Belgique), C.I.J.
Recueil 1999 (I), p. 132, par. 20); et l’affaire de la Compétence en
matière de pêcheries (République fédérale d’Allemagne c. Islande),

compétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 53, par. 11.)

183592 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

(g) Compétence de la compétence as an improper modus operandi

96. The application of the principles underpinning the Mavrommatis
rule, as perceived by the majority, implies a modus operandi, since the
principle of sound administration of justice does not operate automati-
cally. The modus operandi is ascertained in the principle of compétence de
la compétence so that it could be said that the exception to the general

rule, that the jurisdiction lato sensu is assessed on the date of the institu-
tion of the proceedings, is, in the majority approach, the result of com-
bined effects of the principle of sound administration of justice and com-
pétence de la compétence respectively.
97. The majority view that “[t]he Court always possesses the com-

pétence de la compétence ” (Judgment, para. 86) is basically correct, in
contrast to the interpretation of Serbia according to which, “whenever it
is seised by a State which does not fulfil the conditions of access under
Article 35, or seised of a case brought against a State which does not fulfil

those conditions, the Court does not even have the compétence de la com-
petence” (ibid.).
98. Compétence de la compétence is an inherent right and duty of the
Court, necessary for it to discharge its duties as regards jurisdictional
issues lato sensu. As such, it operates during the entire proceedings, from

the institution until the end, implying that the Court, either upon a juris-
dictional objection of a party, or proprio motu, not only makes the deter-
mination whether it has jurisdiction in terms of incidental jurisdiction,
but in that regard remains attentive during the entire proceedings. A con-
trario, the Court would be deprived of its essential duty to establish its

jurisdiction lato sensu.
99. However, the power of the Court to determine whether it has juris-
diction is one thing, and the substance of the decision taken on the basis
of the principle of compétence de la compétence is quite another thing. As
a structural and functional principle, the principle of compétence de la

compétence does not possess its own substance in terms of substantive
law. This principle is only the legal vehicle which allows the Court to sat-
isfy itself that the conditions governing its own competence, as defined by
its Statute, are met. The decision of the Court on the basis of the princi-

ple of compétence de la compétence is of a declaratory nature and, as
such, it can not bestow on the Court itself a jurisdiction which is not sup-
ported by applicable rules of law.
100. Due to its nature, this is especially true as regards the requirement
of jus standi. Since the majority itself does not dispute that during

the period from the dissolution of the former SFRY in April 1992
to the admission of the FRY to the United Nations on 1 November
2000, the FRY/Serbia was not a Member of the United Nations, and since the
membership in the United Nations is determinative of its jus standi,a
reasoning in the following terms seems unavoidable:

184 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 592

g) La compétence de la compétence en tant que modus operandi inap-
proprié

96. L’application des principes qui sous-tendent la règle Mavromma-
tis, telle que perçue par la majorité, implique un modus operandi, puisque
le principe d’une bonne administration de la justice n’opère pas automa-
tiquement. Ce modus operandi s’exprime dans le principe de la compé-
tence de la compétence, de telle manière qu’on peut dire que l’exception

à la règle générale selon laquelle la compétence lato sensu s’apprécie
à la date de l’introduction de l’instance est, selon l’approche majori-
taire, le résultat des effets combinés du principe de bonne administra-
tion de la justice et de la compétence de la compétence, respectivement.
97. L’opinion majoritaire selon laquelle «[d]ans tous les cas, la Cour

possède la compétence de sa compétence» (arrêt, par. 86) est fonda-
mentalement correcte, à la différence de celle de la Serbie, qui avance
que, «lorsqu’elle est saisie par un Etat qui ne remplit pas les conditions
d’accès de l’article 35, ou à l’encontre d’un Etat qui ne remplit pas les

mêmes conditions, la Cour [est] même privée de la compétence de sa
compétence» (ibid.).
98. La compétence de la compétence est un droit inhérent et une obli-
gation de la Cour, qui lui est nécessaire pour s’acquitter de ses fonctions
en ce qui concerne les questions de compétencelato sensu. Dans ces condi-

tions, elle s’applique durant toute l’instance, de son introduction à son
achèvement, ce qui implique que la Cour, soit sur l’exception d’une partie
à sa compétence, soit proprio motu, décide non seulement si elle est com-
pétente du point de vue de sa compétence incidente mais aussi demeure à
cet égard attentive durant toute l’instance. A défaut, la Cour serait privée

de son obligation essentielle d’établir sa compétencelato sensu.
99. Toutefois, le pouvoir de la Cour de déterminer qu’elle est compé-
tente est une chose, et la substance de la décision prise sur la base du
principe de la compétence de la compétence en est une autre. En tant que
principe fonctionnel et structurel, ce principe n’a pas de substance propre

quant au fond du droit. Il s’agit seulement d’un instrument juridique qui
permet à la Cour de s’assurer que les conditions régissant sa compétence,
telles que définies dans son statut, sont remplies. La décision de la Cour
sur la base du principe de la compétence de la compétence a un caractère

déclaratoire et, en tant que tel, ne confère pas à la Cour elle-même une
compétence qui n’est pas étayée par les règles de droit applicables.

100. En raison de sa nature, cela est particulièrement vrai de la condi-
tion relative au jus standi. Comme la majorité elle-même ne conteste pas

que, durant la période allant de la dissolution de l’ex-RSFY en avril er92
à l’admission de la RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies le 1 no-
vembre 2000, la RFY/Serbie n’était pas membre de l’Organisation des
Nations Unies, et comme c’est la qualité de Membre de l’Organisation
qui détermine son jus standi, il semble inévitable de tenir un raisonne-

ment dans les termes suivants:

184593 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

“If, on a correct legal reading of a given situation, certain alleged
rights are found to be non-existent, the consequences of this must be
accepted. The Court cannot properly postulate the existence of such

rights in order to avert those consequences.” (South West Africa
(Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966 , p. 36, para. 57.)

Unfortunately, the majority does not follow this wise dictum, but involves
itself in the fishing of jus standi of Serbia.
101. The non-existence of jus standi of the Party in the moment of

institution of the proceedings deprives the Court, as a semi-open court
of law, of the power to take judicial action. In that regard, the principle
of compétence de la compétence , as such, does not and cannot add or
change anything whatsoever. For,

“The details of this law [law of jurisdiction] have grown with the
continuing exercise of the Court’s compétence de la compétence , but

its basic norm can still be traced to the Permanent Court’s broad
dictum that ‘there is no dispute which States entitled to appear
before the Court cannot refer to it’.” (I. Shihata, The Power of the
International Court to Determine its own Jurisdiction, Compétence
de la Compétence, 1965, p. 304; emphasis added.)

(h) Effects of seisin of the Court

102. It seems that the majority view has overstressed the role of the

seisin of the Court, attributing to it some effect in terms of substantive
jurisdiction.
103. The qualifications of the seisin of the Court as “duly”, “regular”
or “proper” are frequently used, in the present phase of the proceedings
as well, to indicate a State’s recourse to the Court in a proper way. This,

in fact, implies that a State has submitted an application, or that two or
more States have submitted a special agreement, in conformity with the
relevant provisions of the Statute of the Court and its Rules. In this
sense, the expressions such as “duly seised” or “properly seised” have,

first and foremost, a formal, procedural meaning.
104. Although it is a procedural act, seisin, however, is not deprived of
any legal effects. By the act of seizure, the Court has acquired a measure
of procedural competence “to determine its substantive jurisdiction if in
question or otherwise uncertain” (G. Fitzmaurice, “The Law and Proce-

dure of the International Court of Justice, 1951-1954: Questions of Juris-
diction, Competence and Procedure”, British Year Book of International
Law, 1958, p. 15) and to activate its inherent power to determine its juris-
diction (compétence de la compétence) either upon an objection of the
party or proprio motu.

For, the law of the Court does not know, apart from the administra-

185 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 593

«Si, après avoir interprété d’une manière juridiquement exacte
une situation donnée, on considère que certains droits allégués n’exis-
tent pas, on doit en accepter les conséquences. Il n’appartient pas à

la Cour de postuler l’existence de ces droits pour éviter de telles
conséquences.» (Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud;
Libéria c. Afrique du Sud), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1966,p.36 , par. 57.)

Malheureusement, la majorité n’a pas suivi ce sage dictum mais est partie
à la recherche du jus standi de la Serbie.
101. L’absence de jus standi de la partie au moment de l’introduction

de l’instance prive la Cour, en tant que juridiction semi-ouverte, du pou-
voir d’exercer sa fonction judiciaire. A cet égard, le principe de la com-
pétence de la compétence, comme tel, n’ajoute et ne change absolument
rien, et ne peut le faire. En effet,

«Ce droit [le droit de la compétence] a gagné en complexité avec
l’exercice continu par la Cour de la compétence de sa compétence,

mais son principe fondamental demeure tel qu’il a été exprimé dans
le large dictum de la Cour permanente, à savoir qu’«il n’est pas de
différend que les Etats habilités à ester devant la Cour ne peuvent
porter devant elle».» (I. Shihata, The Power of the International
Court to Determine its own Jurisdiction, compétence de la compé-

tence, 1965, p. 304; les italiques sont de moi.)

h) Effets de la saisine de la Cour

102. Il semble que la majorité a surestimé le rôle de la saisine de la

Cour en lui attribuant des effets du point de vue de la compétence.

103. On dit souvent que la Cour a été saisie «dûment», «régulière-
ment» ou «de manière appropriée», y compris dans la présente phase de
l’instance, pour indiquer qu’un Etat a porté un différend devant la Cour

de manière appropriée. Cela, en fait, implique que l’Etat a introduit une
requête, ou que deux Etats ou plus ont signé un compromis, conformé-
ment aux dispositions pertinentes du Statut et du Règlement de la Cour.
En ce sens, des expressions comme «dûment saisie» ou «saisie de manière

appropriée» ont, avant tout, un sens formel et procédural.
104. Bien qu’il s’agisse d’un acte procédural, la saisine n’en est pas
pour autant privée d’effets juridiques. Etant saisie, la Cour a acquis une
certaine compétence procédurale «pour déterminer sa compétence quant
au fond si celle-ci est en question ou autrement incertaine» (G. Fitzmau-

rice, «The Law and Procedure of the International Court of Justice,
1951-1954: Questions of Jurisdiction, Competence and Procedure», Bri-
tish Year Book of International Law , 1958, p. 15) et pour exercer son
pouvoir inhérent de décider de sa compétence (compétence de la compé-
tence) soit sur une exception d’une partie, soit proprio motu.

En effet, le droit de la Cour ne prévoit pas, l’activité administrative du

185594 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

tive action of the Registry as regards non-State entities, separate proceed-
ings designed specifically to deal with the validity of the proceedings in
terms of whether necessary requirements, as established by Articles 35

and 36 of the Statute, are being fulfilled. Thus, in effect, the Court,
although “properly” or “duly” seised, only a posteriori decides whether it
possesses substantive competence to deal with the case brought before it.
It seems that it is precisely this that is the rationale of the dictum of the
Court in the Qatar/Bahrain case, to the effect that “the question of

whether the Court was validly seised appears to be a question of jurisdic-
tion” (Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar
and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1995 , p. 23, para. 43).
105. Stricti juris, the seizure of the Court is valid in substantive terms

only if all the requirements for the Court’s jurisdiction lato sensu, pro-
vided by Articles 35 and 36 of the Statute, are fulfilled. A contrario, sei-
sin, regardless of whether termed “properly” or “duly”, is essentially only
“effective” seisin, enabling the Court to establish whether it possesses

substantive competence in casu, or whether, in the light of the relevant
requirements, it is “validly seised”. (Adjectives, at least in the legal
vocabulary, more often than not, hinder rather than help understanding.
Thus, “proper(ly)” or “due (duly)” seisin would, in fact, be the very “seis-
ing of the Court” (G. Fitzmaurice, op. cit.), and “seisin” would, by defi-

nition, imply “valid seisin”.)
For, as the Court stressed in subtle terms — although using the word
“seising” in terms of “effective seisin” — in the Nottebohm case: “under
the system of the Statute the seising of the Court by means of an Applica-
tion is not ipso facto open to all States parties to the Statute, it is only

open to the extent defined in the applicable Declarations” (Nottebohm,
(Liechtenstein v. Guatemala), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1953, p. 122).
106. Seisin of the Court as a procedural step is effected in practice in a
highly relaxed manner. It appears that it is assumed that the fulfilment of

the procedural conditions specified in Article 38, paragraphs 1, 2 and 3,
and Article 39, paragraphs 1 and 2, of the Rules of Court, are sufficient
in that regard. Only, “[w]hen the applicant State proposes to found the
jurisdiction of the Court upon a consent” of a State against which such

application is made, “[i]t shall not . . . be entered in the General List, nor
any action be taken in the proceedings” (Art. 38, para. 5, of the Rules of
Court). Such a manner is understandable, if the requirements under Arti-
cle 36 of the Statute are in question, for the simple reason that following
the seisin of the Court substantive jurisdiction may be conferred upon the

Court or perfected by the parties.
107. As regards the requirements under Article 35 of the Statute, this
is another matter. Having in mind the nature of the requirements and its
effects upon the legality of the judicial activity of the Court, it seems
essential, in particular in case of doubt or uncertainty, to determine as

soon as possible whether or not the requirements under Article 35 of the

186 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 594

Greffe concernant les entités non étatiques mise à part, de procédure dis-
tincte conçue spécifiquement pour apprécier la validité de l’instance au
regard des conditions nécessaires posées aux articles 35 et 36 du Statut.

Ainsi, en fait, la Cour, bien qu’elle soit «régulièrement» ou «dûment»
saisie, ne décide qu’a posteriori si elle possède la compétence quant au
fond nécessaire pour connaître de l’affaire portée devant elle. Il semble
que ce soit précisément ce raisonnement qui a motivé le dictum de la
Cour dans l’affaire Qatar/Bahreïn, à savoir que «la question de savoir si

la Cour a été valablement saisie apparaît comme une question de com-
pétence» (Délimitation maritime et questions territoriales entre Qatar et
Bahreïn (Qatar c. Bahreïn), compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1995, p. 23, par. 43).
105. Stricti juris, la saisine de la Cour est valide uniquement si toutes

les conditions relatives à la compétence lato sensu prévues aux articles 35
et 36 du Statut sont remplies. A contrario, la saisine, que l’on utilise ou
non le terme «régulièrement» ou «dûment», n’est pour l’essentiel qu’une
saisine «effective», permettant à la Cour d’établir si elle est compétente

en l’espèce ou si, eu égard aux conditions pertinentes, elle est «validement
saisie». (Les adjectifs, au moins dans le vocabulaire juridique, gênent la
compréhension plus qu’ils ne la facilitent. Ainsi, la saisine «(de manière)
appropriée» ou «due (dûment)» constituerait en réalité le fait même de
«saisir la Cour» (G. Fitzmaurice, op. cit.), et le mot «saisine» implique-

rait par définition une «saisine valide».)
Car, comme la Cour l’a souligné en des termes subtils — bien qu’en
utilisant le mot «saisine» pour signifier «saisine effective» — dans l’affaire
Nottebohm : «la saisine de la Cour par voie de requête, dans le système du
Statut, n’est pas ouverte de plein droit à tout Etat partie au Statut, elle

n’est ouverte que dans la mesure définie par les déclarations applicables»
(Nottebohm (Liechtenstein c. Guatemala), exception préliminaire, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1953, p. 122).
106. La saisine de la Cour en tant qu’acte procédural s’effectue en pra-
tique de manière extrêmement détendue. Il semble que l’on postule que la

réunion des conditions procédurales prévues aux paragraphes 1, 2 et 3 de
l’article 38 et aux paragraphes 1 et 2 de l’article 39 du Règlement de la
Cour est suffisante à cet égard. C’est seulement «[l]orsque le demandeur
entend fonder la compétence de la Cour sur un consentement» de l’Etat

contre lequel la requête est formée que cette dernière «n’est pas inscrite
au rôle général de la Cour et [qu’]aucun acte de procédure n’est effectué»
(art. 38, par. 5, du Règlement de la Cour). Cela est compréhensible s’il
n’est pas sûr que les conditions prévues à l’article 36 du Statut soient rem-
plies, pour la simple raison qu’une fois la Cour saisie les parties peuvent

lui conférer compétence ou remédier à un défaut de compétence.
107. En ce qui concerne les prescriptions de l’article 35 du Statut, la
question est différente. Eu égard à la nature de ces prescriptions et à ses
effets sur la licéité de l’activité judiciaire de la Cour, il semble essentiel,
notamment en cas de doute ou d’incertitude, de déterminer le plus tôt

possible si les conditions prévues à l’article 35 du Statut sont ou non rem-

186595 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

Statute are met. In contrast to the requirements under Article 35 which,
being based on the consent of the parties to the dispute, cannot only be
perfected but also created in the time following the seisin of the Court,

the requirements under Article 36 of the Statute must be fulfilled on the
date of the institution of the proceedings before the Court. Short of this,
seisin of the Court is not valid, but is merely a procedural step having no
effects on the substantive competence of the Court to deal with the case.

It is precisely in this that I see the meaning of the dictum of the Court
in the eight Legality of Use of Force cases, that the Applicant “could not
have properly seised the Court” ((Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 299,
para. 46), because it was not a party to the Statute and, consequently, did

not have a right to appear before the Court.

(i) If valid, why was not the alleged exception applied in the Legality of
Use of Force cases?

108. It remains unclear why the Court, if found that there exists an
exception to the general rule that the jurisdiction lato sensu is assessed on
the day of the institution of the proceedings, did not apply it in the iden-
tical legal situation in the Legality of the Use of Force cases? The objec-

tion of Serbia (Judgment, para. 84) aims at the very heart of the majority
reasoning, alluding to the violation of the fundamental principle of
equality of States. The unconvincing answer of the majority to that
objection is surprising. It consists of three considerations, broad in their
vagueness and formalism, so that one can get the impression that they are

given formalitatis causa.

109. Firstly, the majority finds that:

“It was clear that Serbia and Montenegro did not have the inten-
tion of pursuing its claims by way of new applications. That State
itself argued before the Court that it was not, and never had been,
bound by Article IX of the Genocide Convention, even though that

was the basis for jurisdiction which it had initially invoked (e.g.,
Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Pre-
liminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , pp. 292-
293, para. 29). It is true that the Applicant in those cases had let it be
known that it did not intend to discontinue the proceedings pending

before the Court; but, given the legal position it was asserting from
that time on as to the Genocide Convention, it was out of the ques-
tion that, in the event of judgments rejecting its applications owing
to its lack of access to the Court at the date the proceedings had
been instituted, it would rely on the status it would then undoubt-

edly possess of party to the Statute of the Court to submit fresh

187 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DIS. KRECu ) 595

plies. A la différence des prescriptions de l’article 35, qui, reposant sur le
consentement des parties au différend, peuvent non seulement être par-
faites mais aussi créées à tout moment une fois la Cour saisie, les pres-

criptions de l’article 36 du Statut doivent être remplies à la date de
l’introduction de l’instance devant la Cour. A défaut, la saisine de la
Cour n’est pas valide, mais est simplement un acte procédural qui n’a
aucun effet sur la compétence de fond de la Cour pour connaître de
l’affaire.

C’est précisément comme cela que j’entends le dictum de la Cour
dans les huit affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force , à savoir
que le demandeur «n’aurait pu saisir la Cour de manière valable»
((Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt ,
C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 299, par. 46), parce qu’il n’était pas

partie au Statut et en conséquence n’avait pas le droit d’ester devant la
Cour.

i) Si elle était valide, pourquoi la prétendue exception appliquée dans les
affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force ne l’a-t-elle pas

été en l’espèce?

108. On comprend mal pourquoi la Cour, si elle juge qu’il existe une
exception à la règle générale selon laquelle la compétence lato sensu
s’apprécie le jour de l’introduction de l’instance, ne l’a pas appliquée dans
une situation juridique identique à celle qui existait dans les affaires

relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force . L’objection de la Serbie
(arrêt, par. 84) ayant trait à la violation du principe fondamental de
l’égalité des Etats vise le cŒur même du raisonnement de la majorité.
La réponse peu convaincante de la majorité à cette objection est sur-
prenante. Elle comprend trois considérations, vagues et empreintes de

formalisme, si bien qu’on a l’impression qu’elle est donnée formalitatis
causa.
109. Premièrement, la majorité conclut comme suit:

«Il était clair, en effet, que la Serbie-et-Monténégro n’avait pas
l’intention de maintenir ses demandes sous la forme de nouvelles
requêtes; cet Etat soutenait lui-même devant la Cour qu’il n’était
pas, et n’avait jamais été, lié par l’article IX de la convention sur le

génocide, pourtant la base de compétence qu’il avait initialement
invoquée (voir par exemple Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Serbie-
et-Monténégro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2004 (I), p. 292-293, par. 29). Certes, le demandeur dans ces
affaires avait fait savoir qu’il n’entendait pas se désister des requêtes

pendantes devant la Cour. Mais, compte tenu de la position juri-
dique qu’il affirmait désormais au sujet de la convention sur le géno-
cide, il était exclu que, à la suite d’arrêts rejetant ses requêtes
en raison de son défaut d’accès à la Cour à la date de l’engagement
des procédures, il introduise de nouvelles requêtes identiques en

substance aux premières en se prévalant de sa qualité, désormais

187596 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

applications identical in substance to the first . . . Indeed, Serbia and
Montenegro took care not to ask the Court to do so; while Croatia
is asking the Court to apply the jurisprudence of the Mavrommatis

case to the present case, no such request was made, or could logi-
cally have been made, by the Applicant in 2004.” (Judgment,
para. 89.)

The question of “the intention of pursuing. . . claims by way of new
applications” (ibid.) does not seem relevant at all in the frame of the so-
called Mavrommatis rule. In its Judgment in the Mavrommatis case, the
Court invoked the general possibility “for the applicant to re-submit his

application” (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 , p. 34) and
not the intention. It applied rather an objective than subjective standard
in that regard. In the absence of clear and unequivocal evidence of
“intention” one can only speculate. The majority “infers” that the Appli-
cant did not wish to pursue the proceedings on the basis of the argument

of Serbia that it was not, and never had been, bound by Article IX of the
Genocide Convention. It seems almost unbelievable that the majority, in
relation to jurisdiction as a questio juris falling within the scope of the
principle jura novit curia, gives decisive importance to the arguments of a

party.

110. At the same time, the finding that “Serbia and Montenegro did
not have the intention of pursuing its claims by way of new applications”
appears to be erroneous and even contra factum proprium. For, in the

Legality of Use of Force cases the Court stated expressis verbis :

“it is suggested that, by inviting the Court to find that it has no juris-
diction, the Applicant can no longer be regarded as pursuing the set-
tlement by the Court of the substantive dispute.
The Court is unable to uphold these. . . contentions. . . As to the
argument concerning the disappearance of the substantive dispute, it

is clear that Serbia and Montenegro has by no means withdrawn its
claims as to the merits. Indeed, these claims were extensively argued
and developed in substance during the hearings on jurisdiction, in
the context of the question of the jurisdiction of the Court under

Article IX of the Genocide Convention. It is equally clear that these
claims are being vigorously denied by the Respondents. It could not
even be said under these circumstances that, while the essential dis-
pute still subsists, Serbia and Montenegro is no longer seeking to
have its claim determined by the Court . Serbia and Montenegro has

not sought a discontinuance. . .; and it has stated that it ‘wants the
Court to continue the case and to decide upon its jurisdiction — and
to decide on the merits as well, if it has jurisdiction’ . In the present
circumstances, the Court is unable to find that Serbia and Montene-
gro has renounced any of its substantive or procedural rights, or has

taken the position that the dispute between the Parties has ceased to

188 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 596

certaine, de partie au Statut de la Cour ... Aussi bien, d’ailleurs, la
Serbie-et-Monténégro s’était-elle gardée de le lui demander: si, dans

la présente affaire, la Croatie demande à la Cour d’appliquer la
jurisprudence issue de l’arrêt Mavrommatis, une telle demande
n’avait pas été, et ne pouvait pas logiquement être, formulée par
l’Etat requérant en 2004.» (Arrêt, par. 89.)

La question de «l’intention de maintenir ... [des] demandes sous la forme
de nouvelles requêtes» (ibid.) ne semble pas du tout pertinente dans le

cadre de la règle Mavrommatis. Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu dans l’affaire
Mavrommatis, la Cour a invoqué la possibilité générale, «pour la oartie
demanderesse, de présenter à nouveau sa requête» (arrêt n 2, 1924,
C.P.J.I. série A n o 2, p. 34), et non l’intention. Elle a appliqué à cet
égard une norme objective, non subjective. En l’absence de preuve claire

et non équivoque de «l’intention», on peut seulement conjecturer. La
majorité «infère» que le demandeur ne souhaitait pas poursuivre l’ins-
tance sur la base de l’argument de la Serbie selon lequel celle-ci n’était
pas et n’avait jamais été liée par l’article IX de la convention sur le

génocide. Il semble presque incroyable que la majorité, s’agissant de
la compétence en tant que questio juris relevant du principe jura
novit curia, donne une importance décisive aux arguments d’une
partie.
110. Dans le même temps, la conclusion selon laquelle «la Serbie-et-

Monténégro n’avait pas l’intention de maintenir les demandes sous la
forme de nouvelles requêtes» semble être erronée, voire contra factum
proprium. Car, dans les affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la
force, la Cour a déclaré expressément:

«il a été avancé que, ayant invité la Cour à dire qu’elle n’avait pas
compétence, le demandeur ne pouvait plus être considéré comme

recherchant un règlement au fond du différend par la Cour.
La Cour ne peut faire droit à ces ... assertions ... Quant à l’argu-
ment concernant la disparition du différend au fond, il est clair que
la Serbie-et-Monténégro n’a aucunement renoncé à ses prétentions

au fond. De fait, celles-ci ont été abondamment exposées et dévelop-
pées en substance au cours de la procédure orale sur la compétence,
à propos de la compétence de la Cour au titre de l’article IX de la
convention sur le génocide. Il est tout aussi clair que lesdites préten-
tions sont vigoureusement rejetées par les défendeurs. Dans ces cir-

constances, on ne saurait même dire que, bien que le différend au
fond subsiste, la Serbie-et-Monténégro ne demande plus à la Cour de
statuer sur ses prétentions . La Serbie-et-Monténégro n’a pas cherché
à se désister ...; et elle a déclaré qu’elle «v[oulait] que la Cour pour-

suive l’affaire et se prononce sur sa compétence — et se prononce
aussi sur le fond, si elle a[vait] compétence» . Dans ces conditions, la
Cour ne peut dire que la Serbie-et-Monténégro a renoncé à l’un
quelconque de ses droits au fond ou de ses droits procéduraux, ni
qu’elle a adopté pour position que le différend entre les Parties a

188597 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

exist.” (Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Bel-
gium), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
p. 297, paras. 42-43; emphasis added.)

The consideration that “there would have been no justification for the

Court to disregard the FRY’s initial lack of capacity to seise the Court,
on the ground that the defect had been cured in the course of proceed-
ings” (Judgment, para. 89) because “Serbia and Montenegro took care
not to ask the Court to do so”( ibid.; emphasis added), is not convincing.
In contrast to Croatia, it seems sufficient to remark that as regards the

issue of jurisdiction, the wishes of the parties are not of decisive impor-
tance, if any (paras. 46-59 above).

111. Secondly, it seems that the majority tends to introduce elements
of penalizing or reward for the parties as regards the application of the

exception to the general rule, depending on a party’s attitude towards its
jus standi in earlier cases. Such a conclusion stems from the consideration
that:

“At the date the Application was filed, the Respondent considered
that it had the capacity to participate in proceedings before the

Court, and its position in that respect was a matter of public
knowledge. . . The Applicant could therefore feel entitled to seise the
Court on what at first sight seemed to be an appropriate basis of
jurisdiction.” (Judgment, para. 90.)

Therefore, “Croatia’s conduct does not reflect any circumstances that
would warrant a particularly strict application by the Court of the juris-

prudence described above” (ibid.).
112. The dictum suggests that the Court has full discretionary power
regarding the application of the constitutional rules of its Statute on the
basis of the assessment of the behaviour of the parties in terms of bona
fidae, although a party’s arguments might be motivated by considera-

tions based on litigation strategy. It looks like an inversed theory of
estoppel in favour of the Applicant.

Things are additionally complicated by the statement of the majority

that the attitude of the Respondent as regards its jus standi in the rele-
vant period makes that the Applicant “could. . . feel entitled to seise the
Court on what at first sight seemed to be an appropriate basis of jurisdic-
tion” (ibid.). Such a statement seems highly doubtful.
113. Apart from the issue of the relevance of the arguments of the

Parties as regards the jurisdiction lato sensu and that in concreto the
question in issue is not “the basis of jurisdiction” but the “capacity to
appear before the Court”, the true meaning of the majority’s considera-
tion is that the Applicant, for utilitarian purposes, relied on the earlier
arguments of the Respondent as regards its jus standi. For, the funda-

mental premise of the Croatian policy, which is a matter of common

189 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 597

cessé d’exister.» (Licéité de l’emploi de la force (Serbie-et-Monté-
négro c. Belgique), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt , C.I.J. Recueil
2004 (I), p. 297, par. 42-43; les italiques sont de moi.)

La considération selon laquelle «il eût été ... dépourvu de justification,

de la part de la Cour, de passer outre au défaut initial de capacité de la
RFY à la saisir, pour le motif que ce défaut avait été couvert en cours
d’instance» (arrêt, par. 89) parce que «la Serbie-et-Monténégro s’était
gardée de le lui demander »( ibid.; les italiques sont de moi), n’est pas
convaincante. A la différence de la Croatie, il semble suffisant de faire

observer que, en ce qui concerne la question de la compétence, les sou-
haits des parties n’ont pas une importance décisive, si elles en ont une
(par. 46-59 ci-dessus).
111. Deuxièmement, il semble que la majorité tende à pénaliser ou
récompenser les parties en ce qui concerne l’application de l’exception à

la règle générale en fonction de leur attitude quant à leur jus standi dans
des affaires antérieures. Une telle conclusion découle de la considération
selon laquelle:

«A la date de l’introduction de la requête, le défendeur considé-
rait, et sa position à cet égard était publiquement connue, qu’il pos-

sédait la capacité de participer à des procédures devant la Cour ...
Le demandeur pouvait s’estimer, en conséquence, en droit de saisir
la Cour sur une base de compétence à première vue appropriée.»
(Arrêt, par. 90.)

En conséquence, «le comportement de la Croatie n’est révélateur d’aucune
circonstance qui justifierait que la Cour fasse preuve d’une rigueur parti-

culière dans l’application de sa jurisprudence ci-dessus décrite» (ibid.).
112. Ce dictum donne à penser que la Cour jouit d’un pouvoir discré-
tionnaire total en ce qui concerne l’application des règles constitution-
nelles de son Statut sur la base de son appréciation du comportement
des parties du point de vue de la bonne foi, bien que les arguments de

celles-ci puissent être motivés par des considérations de stratégie judi-
ciaire. Cela ressemble à une théorie de l’estoppel inversée en faveur du
demandeur.
Les choses sont rendues encore plus complexes par la déclaration de la

majorité sur l’attitude du défendeur en ce qui concerne son jus standi
durant la période pertinente, à savoir qu’il «pouvait s’estimer ... en droit
de saisir la Cour sur une base de compétence à première vue appropriée»
(ibid.). Cela semble extrêmement douteux.
113. Outre la question de la pertinence des arguments des Parties

quant à la compétence lato sensu et le fait que, in concreto, la question en
cause n’est pas «la base de compétence» mais la «capacité de se présenter
devant la Cour», la signification véritable de la considération de la majo-
rité est que le demandeur, à des fins utilitaires, a fait fond sur les argu-
ments avancés antérieurement par le défendeur en ce qui concerne son jus

standi. Car le postulat fondamental de la politique croate, qui est de

189598 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. KRECA )
u

knowledge consistently applied, is that the SFRY was dissolved into six
legally equal parts, so that the FRY, according to that premise, does not
have continuity with the SFRY, and, consequently, no continuity as
5
regards the membership in the United Nations . And without continua-
tion in the membership of the SFRY in the United Nations, the FRY/
Serbia simply could not have the status of a party to the Statute of the

Court.

114. Further, the majority’s consideration seems also dubious in the
light of the arguments of the Applicant itself. It appears probable that the

Applicant relied in fact on the decisions of the Court taken in the differ-
ent phases of the Bosnia case as regards the jus standi of FRY/Serbia,
expecting, as it is shown rightly, that they will overcome the jurispru-

dence which consists of the Judgments in the eight Legality of Use of
Force cases, the Fisheries Jurisdiction and Monetary Gold cases. This
expectation was described in a condensed form by counsel of Croatia. He

said:
“Croatia took account of the provisional measure Orders and the

1996 Judgment. It relied on the Court’s reasoning as authoritative. It
had a reasonable expectation that the Court would, following a prin-
ciple of judicial certainty, adopt the same reasoning in future cases
where the facts in issue were, to all intents and purposes, identical.”

(CR 2008/10, p. 31, para. 12).

As Serbia’s real target in the proceedings, according to that view, was
“the Court’s recent Judgment in the Bosnia case. It wants a judgment . . .
that will allow it to minimize, neutralize, and — eventually — abandon

the Bosnia Judgments of 2007 and 1996 as an anomaly” (ibid., pp. 27-28,
para. 2), then, in the view of the Applicant, the Court’s decision in terms
of a rescue operation of the legality of the jurisdictional decision in the

Bosnia case was expected.
115. Thirdly, another additional consideration is even more uncon-
vincing than the previous two. The majority states that

5 Exempli causa, in its Memorial, Croatia pointed out, inter alia, that “[n]either Croatia
nor any of the other Republics of SFRY which became independent accept that FRY was
the ‘continuation’ in a legal sense of the SFRY” (Memorial, para. 2.138, footnote 220).

In his letter of 16 February 1994 addressed to the Secretary-General, the Permanent
Representative of Croatia to the United Nations takes a position on the “declaration
adopted on 27 April 1992 at the joint session of the National Assembly of the Republic of
Serbia and the Assembly of the Republic of Montenegro” (UN doc. S/1994/198 (1994)).

The question seems clear and unequivocal: “The Republic of Croatia strongly objects
to the pretensions of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) to con-
tinue the state, international, legal and political personality of the former Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia.”

190 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS .KRECA ) 598
u

notoriété publique et appliqué avec constance, est que la RSFY a été dis-
soute en six parties juridiquement égales, de telle manière que la RFY,
selon ce postulat, n’est pas le continuateur de la RSFY et, en consé-

quence, n’en assure pas la continuité en ce qui concerne la qualité
de Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies . Et, sans continuation
de la qualité de Membre des Nations Unies de la RSFY, la RFY/Serbie

ne pouvait tout simplement pas avoir le statut de partie au Statut de
la Cour.
114. De plus, cette considération de la majorité semble aussi douteuse à
la lumière des arguments du demandeur lui-même. Il semble probable que ce

dernier faisait en fait fond sur les décisions prises par la Cour lors des dif-
férentes phases de l’affaire de laBosnie en ce qui concerne lejus standi de la
RFY/Serbie, comptant, comme on l’a vu à juste titre, qu’elles prévaudraient

sur la jurisprudence constituée par les arrêts rendus dans les huit affaires
relatives à laLicéité de l’emploi de la force, dans les affaires de laCompé-
tence en matière de pêcheries et dans l’affaire de ’lOr monétaire. Cette

attente est exposée succinctement comme suit par le conseil de la Croatie:
«La Croatie a tenu compte des ordonnances rendues sur la

demande en indication de mesures conservatoires et de l’arrêt de
1996. Elle s’est appuyée sur le raisonnement de la Cour comme fai-
sant autorité. Elle pouvait raisonnablement compter que la Cour,
suivant un principe de certitude juridique, adopterait le même rai-

sonnement dans les affaires futures lorsque les faits en cause étaient,
à toutes fins utiles, identiques.» (CR 2008/10, p. 31, par. 12.)

Comme l’objectif réel de la Serbie en l’instance était, selon cette opinion,
«l’arrêt rendu récemment par la Cour dans l’affaire de la Bosnie: la Ser-
bie souhaiterait obtenir un arrêt lui permettant de réduire au minimum

l’effet de l’arrêt Bosnie, de le neutraliser et, finalement, de l’abandonner
comme une anomalie» (ibid., p. 27-28, par. 2), ce que le demandeur atten-
dait de la décision de la Cour, c’était une opération de sauvetage de la

licéité de la décision rendue sur la compétence dans l’affaire de la Bosnie.
115. Troisièmement, la réponse de la majorité comporte une considé-
ration supplémentaire qui est encore moins convaincante que les deux
précédentes. La majorité déclare que

5 Par exemple, dans son mémoire, la Croatie a notamment observé que «[n]i la Croatie
ni aucune des autres républiques de la RFSY qui sont devenues indépendantes n’accepte
que la RFY était la «continuation» au sens juridique de la RFSY» (mémoire, par. 2.138,
note 220).
Dans sa lettre du 16 février 1994 adressée au Secrétaire général, le représentant perma-
nent de la Croatie auprès de l’Organisation des Nations Unies prend position sur «la
déclaration adoptée le 27 avril 1992 lors de la session commune de l’Assemblée nationale
de la République de Serbie et de l’Assemblée de la République du Monténégro» (Nations
Unies, doc. S/1994/198 (1994)).
La question semble claire et sans équivoque: «La République de Croatie s’élève
énergiquement contre le fait que la République fédérative de Yougoslavie (Serbie-et-
Monténégro) prétend assurer la continuité de l’Etat et de la personnalité juridique et poli-
tique internationale de l’ex-République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie.»

190599 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

“while Croatia’s Application — a short text comprising some ten
pages — was filed on 2 July 1999, that is prior to the admission of
the FRY to the United Nations on 1 November 2000, its Memorial

on the merits, a document of 414 pages, was submitted on 1 March
2001, after that date” (Judgment, para. 90).

Although saying that “it is not possible to equate the filing of a memo-
rial with that of an instrument instituting proceedings” (ibid.), the major-
ity in fact passes half of the way in this equation. Given the fact that it
“expounds the Applicant’s arguments, but also . . . specifies the submis-
sions” (ibid.), the majority view is that that “it cannot be entirely

ignored” (ibid.).
Apart from the fact that such an equalizing has no basis whatsoever in
the Statute and in the Rules of Court, it implicitly derogates, or at least
substantially dilutes, the basic thesis of the majority on the existence of
the exception to the general rule that the jurisdiction of the Court must

be assessed on the date of institution of the proceedings. For, on the basis
of such determination of the Memorial of Croatia, the majority con-
cludes that “if Croatia had submitted the substance of its Memorial, on
1 March 2001, in the form of a new application, as it could have done, no

question with respect to Article 35 of the Statute would have arisen”
(ibid.).

2. Jurisdiction ratione materiae

(a) General approach of the majority

116. The present Judgment, in contrast to the 1996 Judgment (Appli-
cation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objec-

tions, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 613, para. 26) treats the 1992 declara-
tion as the basis of the jurisdiction ratione materiae. The turn in the
treatment of the declaration, which in the 1996 Judgment was perceived
by the majority as a proper basis of the jurisdiction of the Court ratione

personae (paragraphs 18-20 above), seems to be dictated by the needs of
an ad hoc construction of the Judgment by necessary implication applied
in the 2007 Judgment.
117. The declaration was adopted by the participants of the Joint Ses-
sion of the Assembly of the SFRY, the National Assembly of the Repub-

lic of Serbia and the Assembly of the Republic of Montenegro, on
27 April 1992. The text of the declaration reads as follows:

“The representatives of the people of the Republic of Serbia and
the Republic of Montenegro,
Expressing the will of the citizens of their respective Republics to
stay in the common state of Yugoslavia,
Accepting all basic principles of the Charter of the United Nations

and the CSCE Helsinki Final Act and the Paris Charter, and par-

191 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 599

«si la requête de la Croatie — un texte bref d’une dizaine de
pages — a été déposée le 2 juillet 1999, soit avant l’admission de la
er
RFY aux Nations Unies le 1 novembre 2000, sonerémoire au
fond, un document de 414 pages, a été déposé le 1 mars 2001, soit
après cette date» (arrêt, par. 90).

Tout en relevant qu’il n’est «pas possible d’assimiler le dépôt d’un
mémoire à un acte introductif d’instance» (ibid.), la majorité procède en

partie à une telle assimilation. Elle déclare, au sujet de ce mémoire,
qu’étant donné «qu’il développe les arguments du demandeur mais
aussi ... qu’il précise ses conclusions» (ibid.) «on ne saurait l’écarter tout
à fait» (ibid.).
Outre qu’une telle assimilation ne trouve absolument aucun fondement

dans le Statut et le Règlement de la Cour, elle s’écarte implicitement de la
thèse fondamentale de la majorité sur l’existence de l’exception à la règle
générale selon laquelle la compétence de la Cour doit s’apprécier à la date
de l’introduction de l’instance, ou, au moins, affaiblit considérablement

cette thèse. Car, sur la base de cette appréciation portée sur le méerire
de la Croatie, la majorité conclut que «si la Croatie avait, le 1 mars
2001, présenté la substance de son mémoire sous la forme d’une nouvelle
requête, ce qu’elle aurait pu faire, aucune question ne se serait posée sur

le terrain de l’article 35 du Statut» (ibid.).

2. Compétence ratione materiae

a) Conception générale de la majorité

116. Dans le présent arrêt, contrairement à la position adoptée dans
l’arrêt de 1996 (Application de la convention pour la prévention et la

répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie),
exceptions préliminaires, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 613, par. 26), la
déclaration de 1992 est considérée comme la base de la compétence
ratione materiae. Ce revirement dans le traitement de la déclaration de
1992, qui, dans l’arrêt de 1996, était considérée par la majorité comme

une base valide de la compétence ratione personae de la Cour (par. 18-20
ci-dessus), semble être dicté par les besoins d’une interprétation ad hoc de
l’arrêt reposant sur l’implication logique appliquée dans l’arrêt de 2007.
117. La déclaration a été adoptée par les participants à la session com-

mune de l’Assemblée de la RSFY, de l’Assemblée nationale de la Répu-
blique de Serbie et de l’Assemblée de la République du Monténégro,
tenue le 27 avril 1992. Le texte en est le suivant:

«Les représentants du peuple de la République de Serbie et de la
République du Monténégro,
Exprimant la volonté des citoyens de leurs républiques respectives

de demeurer au sein de l’Etat commun de Yougoslavie,
Acceptant tous les principes fondamentaux de la Charte des
Nations Unies et de l’Acte final d’Helsinki adopté par la conférence

191600 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

ticularly the principles of parliamentary democracy, market
economy and respect for human rights and the rights of national
minorities,

Remaining strictly committed to a peaceful resolution of the Yugo-
slav crisis, wish to state in this Declaration their views on the basic,
immediate and lasting objectives of the policy of their common state,

and on its relations with the former Yugoslav Republics.

In that regard, the representatives of the people of the Republic of
Serbia and the Republic of Montenegro declare:

1. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, continuing the state, inter-
national legal and political personality of the Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, shall strictly abide by all the commitments
that the SFR of Yugoslavia assumed internationally,

At the same time, it is ready to fully respect the rights and inter-
ests of the Yugoslav Republics which declared independence. The
recognition of the newly-formed states will follow after all the out-
standing questions negotiated on within the Conference on Yugosla-

via have been settled,

Remaining bound by all obligations to international organizations
and institutions whose member it is, the Federal Republic of Yugo-
slavia shall not obstruct the newly-formed States to join these organi-

zations and institutions, particularly the United Nations and its spe-
cialized agencies. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia shall respect
and fulfil the rights and obligations the SFR of Yugoslavia assumed
vis-à-vis the territories of Krajina which have been placed, within the

framework of the United Nations peace-keeping operation, under
the protection of the world Organization.

The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia also remains ready to nego-

tiate, within the Conference on Yugoslavia, all problems related to
the division of assets, which means both to assets and debts acquired
jointly. In case of a dispute regarding these issues, the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia shall be ready to accept the arbitration of
the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague.

2. The diplomatic and consular missions of the Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia abroad shall continue without interruption to per-
form their functions of representing and protecting the interests of
Yugoslavia. Until further notice, they shall continue to take care of

all the assets of Yugoslavia abroad.

They shall also extend consular protection to all nationals of the

192 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP .DISS.KRECu ) 600

sur la sécurité et la coopération en Europe (CSCE) ainsi que de
la Charte de Paris pour une nouvelle Europe, et en particulier les
principes de la démocratie parlementaire, de l’économie de mar-

ché et du respect des droits de l’homme et des droits des minorités
nationales,
Restant profondément déterminés à parvenir à un règlement paci-
fique de la crise yougoslave, souhaitent exprimer leurs vues sur les
objectifs fondamentaux, immédiats et à long terme de la politique de

leur Etat commun, ainsi que sur ses relations avec les anciennes répu-
bliques yougoslaves et,
A cette fin, font la déclaration suivante:

1. La République fédérale de Yougoslavie, assurant la continuité
de l’Etat et de la personnalité juridique et politique internationale de
la République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie, respectera stric-
tement tous les engagements que la République fédérative socialiste

de Yougoslavie a pris à l’échelon international.
Simultanément, elle est disposée à respecter pleinement les droits
et les intérêts des républiques yougoslaves qui ont déclaré leur indé-
pendance. La reconnaissance des Etats nouvellement constitués
interviendra une fois qu’auront été réglées les questions en suspens

actuellement en cours de négociation dans le cadre de la conférence
sur la Yougoslavie.
Restant liée par toutes ses obligations vis-à-vis des organisations et
institutions internationales auxquelles elle appartient, la République
fédérale de Yougoslavie ne fera rien pour empêcher les Etats nouvel-

lement constitués d’adhérer à ces organisations et institutions, notam-
ment à l’Organisation des Nations Unies et à ses institutions spéciali-
sées. La République fédérale de Yougoslavie respectera et honorera
les droits et obligations que la République fédérative socialiste de

Yougoslavie a contractés vis-à-vis des territoires de Krajina qui
ont été placés, dans le cadre de l’opération de maintien de la
paix de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, sous la protection de
l’organisation mondiale.
La République fédérale de Yougoslavie demeure également prête

à négocier, dans le cadre de la conférence sur la Yougoslavie, tous
les problèmes liés à la répartition des actifs acquis et des dettes
contractées conjointement. En cas de litige sur ces questions, la
République fédérale de Yougoslavie est disposée à accepter l’arbi-
trage de la Cour permanente d’arbitrage de La Haye.

2. Les missions diplomatiques et consulaires qui représentent la
République fédérale de Yougoslavie à l’étranger continueront, sans
interruption, à s’acquitter de leurs fonctions qui consistent à repré-
senter et à protéger les intérêts de la Yougoslavie. Jusqu’à nouvel

ordre, elles continueront à se charger de la gestion de tous les avoirs
de la Yougoslavie à l’étranger.
De plus, elles offriront une protection consulaire à tous les ressortis-

192601 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

SFR of Yugoslavia whenever they request them to do so until a final
regulation of their nationality status.
The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia recognizes, at the same time,

the full continuity of the representation of foreign states by their dip-
lomatic and consular missions in its territory.
3. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is interested in the re-
instatement of economic, transport, energy and other flows and ties in
the territory of the SFR of Yugoslavia. It is ready to make its full

contribution to that end.

4. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has no territorial aspira-
tions towards any of its neighbors. Respecting the objectives and
principles of the United Nations Charter and CSCE documents, it

remains strictly committed to the principle of non-use of force in set-
tling any outstanding issues.
5. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia shall ensure the highest
standards of the protection of human rights and the rights of national

minorities provided for in international legal instruments and CSCE
documents. In addition, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is ready
to grant the national minorities in its territory all those rights which
would be recognized to and enjoyed by the national minorities in
other CSCE participating states.

6. In its foreign relations, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
shall be guided by the principles of the United Nations Charter, as
well as the principles of CSCE documents, particularly the Paris
Charter for New Europe. As the founding member of the Movement

of non-aligned countries, it shall remain committed to the principles
and objectives of the policy of non-alignment.

It shall develop relations of confidence and understanding with its
neighbors proceeding from the principle of good neighborliness. The

Federal Republic of Yugoslavia shall, as a State of free citizens, be
guided in its democratic development by the standards and achieve-
ments of the Council of Europe, the European Community and
other European institutions, with an orientation to join them in the

foreseeable future.” (United Nations doc. A/46/915, Ann. II; empha-
sis added.)

118. In its 1996 Judgment the Court perceived the declaration as a uni-
lateral act that per se produced legal consequences relevant as regards its

jurisdiction ratione personae. The Court found that by way of the decla-
ration the FRY expressed the intention “to remain bound by the inter-
national treaties to which the former Yugoslavia was party” (Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objec-

tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 610, para. 17) and, on that

193 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECA ) 601
u

sants de la République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie qui la solli-
citeront, en attendant que leur statut national soit définitivement arrêté.
La République fédérale de Yougoslavie reconnaît, simultanément, la
pleine continuité de la représentation des Etats étrangers assurée par

les missions diplomatiques et consulaires de ces Etats sur son territoire.
3. La République fédérale de Yougoslavie souhaite le rétablisse-
ment de tous les liens qui existaient sur le territoire de la République
fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie, notamment dans les domaines
de l’économie, des transports et de l’énergie. Elle est disposée à coo-

pérer pleinement à la réalisation de cet objectif.
4. La République fédérale de Yougoslavie n’a aucune ambition
sur les territoires de ses voisins, quels qu’ils soient. Fidèle aux objec-
tifs et principes de la Charte des Nations Unies et aux documents de
la CSCE, elle reste profondément attachée aux principes du non-

recours à la force dans le règlement des différends.
5. La République fédérale de Yougoslavie garantira le plus haut
niveau de protection des droits de l’homme et des droits des
minorités nationales prévue dans les instruments juridiques
internationaux et ceux de la CSCE. La République fédérale de

Yougoslavie se déclare en outre disposée à accorder aux minorités
nationales qui résident sur son territoire tous les droits reconnus
aux minorités nationales qui résident dans les autres Etats
membres de la CSCE.
6. Dans ses relations avec l’étranger, la République fédérale de

Yougoslavie se laissera guider par les principes de la Charte des
Nations Unies ainsi que par ceux qui sont consacrés dans les docu-
ments de la CSCE, notamment la Charte de Paris pour une nouvelle
Europe. En sa qualité de membre fondateur du mouvement des pays
non alignés, elle demeurera fidèle aux principes et objectifs de la

politique du non-alignement.
Elle établira des relations de confiance et de compréhension avec
ses voisins, sur la base du principe du bon voisinage. En qualité
d’Etat de citoyens libres, la République fédérale de Yougoslavie se
laissera guider, dans son développement démocratique, par les

normes et décisions du Conseil de l’Europe, de la Communauté
européenne et des autres institutions européennes, auxquelles elle
envisage d’adhérer prochainement.» (Nations Unies, doc. A/46/915,
annexe II; les italiques sont de moi.)

118. Dans son arrêt de 1996, la Cour a considéré que cette déclaration

était un acte unilatéral ayant des conséquences juridiques pertinentes au
regard de sa compétence ratione personae. Elle a jugé que par cette décla-
ration la RFY exprimait son intention de «demeurer liée par les traités
internationaux auxquels était partie l’ex-Yougoslavie» (Application de
la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide

(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 610, par. 17) et, sur cette base, pouvait être

193602 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

basis, could be considered as bound by the Genocide Convention on the
date of filing of the Application by Bosnia and Herzegovina.

119. De novo assessment of the nature and effects of the 1992 declara-
tion is necessary, not only because of the fact that the 1996 Judgment is
not res indicata in the present case, but primarily due to substantial rea-
sons. The reasons regarding the new developments, legal and factual,

should be added to the reasons which existed at the time of the adoption
of the 1996 Judgment and considered in toto.
In the light of the developments which took place following the adop-
tion of the 1996 Judgment, and especially the admission of the FRY to

the UN membership in a double capacity — as a new Member and as a
successor State — it comes out that, as regards the perception of the
nature and effects of the declaration, the 1996 Judgment was a kind of
interim judgment based on the continuity presumption. As such, it is

deprived of precedental authority in casu.

(b) Whether the 1992 declaration could be considered a unilateral
legal act in terms of international law?

120. It seems obvious that the issue of an act by a single State cannot

by itself qualify as a unilateral act capable of producing legal effects in
foro externo. The unilateral nature of an act is but one extrinsic element
which, when coupled with other elements, both extrinsic and intrinsic,
forms a unilateral legal act in terms of international law.

121. In the circumstances of the case at hand a number of elements are
of special relevance. The primary extrinsic element concerns the capacity
of the participants in the Joint Session of the Assembly of the SFRY,

the National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia and the Assembly
of the Republic of Montenegro to perform unilateral acts in the sense
of international law. This Joint Session of the Assembly of the SFRY,
the National Assembly of the Republic of Serbia and the Assembly of the

Republic of Montenegro was not constituted as the Parliament of the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia; rather it was a body of representatives
in statu nascendi. Even if, arguendo, it represented the Parliament, it was
obviously not a State organ possessing the capacity to perform unilateral
acts on behalf of the State. Representatives of a State for purposes of

formulating unilateral legal acts are Heads of State, Heads of Govern-
ment and ministers of foreign affairs . This rule has also been confirmed
in the jurisprudence of the Court (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , pp. 269-270, paras. 49-51; Application of

the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Geno-
cide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections,

6Art. 4, Report on Unilateral Acts of States, Yearbook of the International Law Com-
mission, 1998, Vol. II, Part One, doc. A/CN.4/486; United Nations doc. A/CN.4/500 and
Add. 1.

194 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 602

considérée comme liée par la convention sur le génocide à la date de
dépôt de la requête de la Bosnie-Herzégovine.

119. Une évaluation de novo de la nature et des effets de la déclaration
de 1992 est nécessaire, non seulement parce que l’arrêt de 1996 n’est pas
res indicata dans la présente espèce, mais principalement pour des raisons
de fond. Les raisons concernant les nouveaux développements, juridiques

et factuels, devraient s’ajouter aux raisons qui existaient lorsque l’arrêt de
1996 a été adopté et être envisagées in toto.
A la lumière des faits nouveaux survenus depuis l’adoption de l’arrêt
de 1996, en particulier l’admission de la RFY à l’ONU à double titre

— en tant que nouveau Membre et en tant qu’Etat successeur —, il appa-
raît, en ce qui concerne la conception de la nature et des effets de la décla-
ration, que l’arrêt de 1996 était une sorte d’arrêt intérimaire reposant sur
la présomption de continuité. En tant que tel, il n’a pas force de précé-

dent en l’espèce.

b) La déclaration de 1992 peut-elle être considérée comme un acte juri-
dique unilatéral au regard du droit international?

120. Il semble évident qu’un acte accompli par un seul Etat ne peut

en lui-même être qualifié d’acte unilatéral capable de produire des effets
juridiques in foro externo. Le caractère unilatéral de l’acte n’est qu’un
des éléments extrinsèques qui, associé à d’autres éléments, extrinsèques
et intrinsèques, constitue un acte juridique unilatéral au regard du droit

international.
121. Dans les circonstances de l’espèce, un certain nombre d’éléments
revêtent une pertinence particulière. Le principal élément extrinsèque
concerne la capacité des participants à la session conjointe de l’Assemblée

de la RSFY, de l’Assemblée nationale de la République de Serbie et de
l’Assemblée de la République du Monténégro d’accomplir des actes uni-
latéraux au sens du droit international. Cette session conjointe n’a pas
été constituée en parlement de la République fédérative de Yougoslavie;

il s’agissait d’un corps de représentants in statu nascendi. Même si, pour
les besoins du débat, elle représentait le parlement, elle n’était pas à l’évi-
dence un organe étatique possédant la capacité d’accomplir des actes uni-
latéraux au nom de l’Etat. S’agissant de la formulation d’actes juridiques
unilatéraux, les représentants de l’Etat sont les chefs d’Etat, chefs de gou-
6
vernement et ministres des affaires étrangères . Cette règle a été confir-
mée dans la jurisprudence de la Cour (Essais nucléaires (Australie c.
France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 269-270, par. 49-51; Application
de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide

(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 622, par. 44; Mandat d’arrêt du 11 avril 2000

6 Article 4, Rapport sur les actes unilatéraux, Annuaire de la Commission du droit
international, 1998, vol. II (première partie), doc. A/CN.4/486; Nations Unies, doc.
A/CN.4/500 et Add. 1.

194603 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP . KRECu )

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 622, para. 44; Arrest Warrant of

11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 , pp. 21-22, para. 53; Armed Activities on the
Territory of the Congo (New Application: 2002) (Democratic Republic

of the Congo v. Rwanda), Jurisdiction of the Court and Admissibility of
the Application, I.C.J. Reports 2006, p. 27, para. 46; see alsoLegal Status
of Eastern Greenland (Denmark v. Norway), Judgment, 1933, P.C.I.J.,

Series A/B, No. 53, p. 71). Consequently, it appears that the declaration,
if designed as a unilateral legal act in foro externo, was issued by an
incompetent organ under international law and, as such, produced no
7
legal effects .
122. True, the declaration, as the Court found, “was confirmed in an
official Note of 27 April 1992 from the Permanent Mission of Yugoslavia

to the United Nations, addressed to the Secretary-General” (Application
of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objec-

tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 610, para. 17). The word
“confirmed” in the present context may have two meanings: a descriptive
one in the sense that the letter from the Permanent Representative repro-

duced the text of the declaration and a meaning as a“terminus technicus”,
signifying confirmation of a unilateral act of an unauthorized State organ.
Neither of these two possible meanings of the word “confirmed” can be

accepted in concreto. In respect of the descriptive meaning of the word
“confirmed”, it is obvious that the Note from the Permanent Representa-
tive reproduces the text of the declaration only in part, i.e., citing only a

small part thereof relating exclusively to legal identity and continuity.
By definition, the limited powers held by heads of permanent missions
to international organizations, including permanent missions to the

United Nations, negate the possibility of the official Note of the Perma-
nent Mission of Yugoslavia of 27 April 1992 being understood as “con-

7 See Art. 4 (subsequent confirmation of an act formulated by a person not authorized
for that purpose) in the Third Report of the Special Rapporteur, Yearbook of the Inter-
national Law Commission , 2000, Vol. I, p. 96.
8 The text of the Note reads:

“The Assembly of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, at its session held
on 27 April 1992, promulgated the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via. Under the Constitution, on the basis of the continuing personality of Yugoslavia
and the legitimate decisions by Serbia and Montenegro to continue to live together in
Yugoslavia, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, consisting of the Republic
of Serbia and the Republic of Montenegro.

Strictly respecting the continuity of the international personality of Yugoslavia, the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia shall continue to fulfil all the rights conferred to, and
obligations assumed by, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in international
relations, including its membership in all international organizations and participa-
tion in international treaties ratified or acceded to by Yugoslavia.” (United Nations

doc. A/46/915, Ann. I.)

195 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. KRECu ) 603

(République démocratique du Congo c. Belgique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil

2002, p. 21-22, par. 53; Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nou-
velle requête: 2002) (République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda),

compétence et recevabilité, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2006 , p. 27, par. 46; voir
également Statut juridique du Groënland oriental (Danemark c. Nor-
vège), arrêt, 1933, C.P.J.I. série A/B n o 53, p. 71). En conséquence, il

apparaît que la déclaration, si on l’envisage comme un acte juridique uni-
latéral in foro externo, a été faite par un organe incompétent au regard
du droit international et n’a de ce fait produit aucun effet juridique . 7

122. Certes, la déclaration, comme l’a constaté la Cour, «a été confir-

mée dans une note officielle du 27 avril 1992 adressée au Secrétaire géné-
ral par la mission permanente de la Yougoslavie auprès des Nations
Unies» (Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression

du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 610, par. 17). Le mot
«confirmée» dans le présent contexte peut avoir deux sens: un sens des-

criptif, à savoir que la lettre du représentant permanent reproduisait le
texte de la déclaration, et un sens de «terminus technicus», renvoyant à la
confirmation d’un acte unilatéral émanant d’un organe d’Etat non auto-

risé. Aucun de ces deux sens du mot «confirmée» ne peut être accepté in
concreto. S’agissant du sens descriptif du mot «confirmée», il est évident
que la note du représentant permanent ne reproduit le texte de la décla-

ration qu’en partie, c’est-à-dire qu’il ne cite qu’une petite partie de celle-ci
qui a trait exclusivement à l’identité juridique et à la continuité.
Par définition, les pouvoirs limités des chefs de missions permanentes

auprès des organisations internationales, y compris les missions perma-
nentes auprès de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, excluent que la note offi-

cielle de la mission permanente de la Yougoslavie du 27 avril 1992 puisse

7
Voir article 4 (confirmation ultérieure d’un acte formulé par une personne non auto-
risée à cette fin) dans le troisième rapport du Rapporteur spécial, Annuaire de la Commis-
si8n du droit international , 2000, vol. I, p. 96.
Son texte est le suivant:
«L’Assemblée de la République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie, à la session
qu’elle a tenue le 27 avril 1992, a promulgué la Constitution de la République fédé-

rale de Yougoslavie. Aux termes de la Constitution, et compte tenu de la continuité
de la personnalité de la Yougoslavie et des décisions légitimes qu’ont prises la Serbie
et le Monténégro de continuer à vivre ensemble en Yougoslavie, la République
fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie devient la République fédérale de Yougoslavie,
composée de la République de Serbie et de la République du Monténégro.
Dans le strict respect de la continuité de la personnalité internationale de la You-
goslavie, la République fédérale de Yougoslavie continuera à exercer tous les droits
conférés à la République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie et à s’acquitter de
toutes les obligations assumées par cette dernière dans les relations internationales, y
compris en ce qui concerne son appartenance à toutes les organisations internatio-
nales et sa participation à tous les traités internationaux que la Yougoslavie a ratifiés
ou auxquels elle a adhéré.» (Nations Unies, doc. A/46/915, annexe I.)

195604 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.KRECu )

firmation” of an act issued by an organ, if at the material point in time it
was an organ incompetent under international law to perform legal acts

on behalf of the State.
123. Hence the proper characterization of the Note of the Yugoslav
Permanent Mission of 27 April 1992 is that of a transmission of the dec-
laration, followed by the corresponding reproduction of a part of the

declaration directly connected with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia’s
proclaimed legal identity with, and continuation of, the former SFRY
vis-à-vis the United Nations.
124. This characterization of the Note of the Yugoslav Permanent

Mission suggests that the declaration of 27 April 1992 and the Note of
the Permanent Mission are two distinct, yet not totally separate acts,
both by their nature and by their effects. For its part, the declaration is
basically a general statement of policy with respect to matters directly or

indirectly connected with the issue of the proclaimed legal identity and
State continuity of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, while the Note
seems to be primarily a notification in the standard sense. Evidence to
this effect is found in the fact that the addressee of the Note was the Sec-

retary-General, who was requested to circulate the declar9tion and the
Note as an official document of the General Assembly , whereas the dec-
laration as such was addressed urbi et orbi.

(c) The issue of intention

125. The intention to produce a proper legal effect is a common ele-
ment of unilateral legal acts. In that regard, unilateral acts are always a
manifestation of the will of a State. However, the intention to produce
legal consequences is not per se sufficient to give to unilateral act as such

the character of legal undertaking.
In that respect, unilateral legal acts may be divided into two groups:
unilateral legal acts which produce legal effects on its own, and unilateral
legal acts which produce proper legal effects on the basis of acceptance or

acquiescence by another State or States (paras. 126-128, and 134 below).

The 1992 declaration would represent, in that respect, a mixture of
those two kinds of unilateral acts. Its point 4 might have legal effects on

its own, and that would be the act of renouncing the territorial aspira-
tions towards the neighbouring countries. The other points of the decla-
ration would imply the acceptance or acquiescence of other States in
order to produce proper legal effects.

126. It appears that in the 1996 Judgment, the majority applied
mechanically the legal formula from the Nuclear Tests cases to point 1 of
the declaration saying that:

“The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, continuing the State, inter-

9United Nations doc. A/46/915.

196 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 604

être interprétée comme la «confirmation» d’un acte formulé par un organe,
si au moment pertinent il s’agissait d’un organe incompétent au regard du

droit international pour accomplir des actes juridiques au nom de l’Etat.
123. De ce fait, il échet de conclure que la note de la mission perma-
nente de la Yougoslavie en date du 27 avril 1992 était la transmission de
la déclaration, suivie de la reproduction de la partie de la déclaration

directement liée à l’identité juridique de la République fédérative de You-
goslavie avec l’ex-RSFY et à sa continuité avec celle-ci vis-à-vis de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies.
124. Cette qualification de la note de la mission permanente de la

Yougoslavie donne à penser que la déclaration du 27 avril 1992 et cette
note sont deux actes distincts mais non totalement séparés, tant par leur
nature que par leurs effets. La déclaration quant à elle est pour l’essentiel
une déclaration de politique générale en ce qui concerne des questions

directement ou indirectement liées à l’identité juridique et à la continuité
d’Etat proclamées par la République fédérative de Yougoslavie, alors que
la note semble être d’abord une notification au sens ordinaire du terme.
Cela est attesté par le fait que le destinataire de la note est le Secrétaire

général, qui est prié de distribuer la dé9laration et la note comme docu-
ment officiel de l’Assemblée générale , tandis que la déclaration elle-
même est adressée urbi et orbi.

c) La question de l’intention

125. L’intention de produire un effet juridique est un élément commun
des actes juridiques unilatéraux. A cet égard, les actes juridiques sont tou-
jours une manifestation de la volonté de l’Etat. L’intention de produire
des effets juridiques n’est toutefois pas suffisante à elle seule pour donner

à un acte unilatéral le caractère d’un engagement juridique.
A cet égard, les actes juridiques unilatéraux peuvent être divisés en
deux groupes: les actes juridiques unilatéraux qui produisent des effets
juridiques par eux-mêmes, et les actes juridiques unilatéraux qui produi-

sent des effets juridiques sur la base de l’acceptation ou de l’acquiesce-
ment d’un ou plusieurs autres Etats (par. 126-128 et 134 ci-dessous).
La déclaration de 1992 est de ce point de vue une combinaison de ces
deux types d’actes unilatéraux. Son point 4 pourrait avoir des effets juri-

diques par lui-même, car il représenterait l’acte de renoncer à des aspira-
tions territoriales sur les pays voisins. Les autres points de la déclaration
supposeraient, pour produire des effets juridiques appropriés, l’accepta-
tion ou l’acquiescement d’autres Etats.

126. Il semble que, dans l’arrêt de 1996, la majorité a appliqué méca-
niquement au point 1 de la déclaration la formule juridique tirée des
affaires des Essais nucléaires :

«La République fédérative de Yougoslavie, assurant la continuité

9Nations Unies, doc. A/46/915.

196605 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

national legal and political personality of the Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia, shall strictly abide by all the commitments
that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia assumed interna-

tionally.” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugo-
slavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,
p. 610, para. 17.)

That formula could not be applied to the declaration.
127. The well-known dictum of the Court in the Nuclear Tests cases

reads as follows:

“It is well recognized that declarations made by way of unilateral
acts, concerning legal or factual situations, may have the effect of
creating legal obligations. Declarations of this kind may be, and
often are, very specific. When it is the intention of the State making

the declaration that it should be bound according to its terms, that
intention confers on the declaration the character of a legal under-
taking, the State being thenceforth legally required to follow a
course of conduct consistent with the declaration. An undertaking of
this kind, if given publicly, and with an intent to be bound, even

though not made within the context of international negotiations, is
binding.” (Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1974, p. 267, para. 43; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v.
France), ibid., p. 472, para. 46.)

In the Nuclear Tests cases the act in issue was a unilateral legal act
capable of producing legal effect of its own, being an expression of “the

power of auto-limitation which States enjoyed under international law, in
other words, their ability in the exercise of their sovereignty to subject
themselves to international legal obligations” (see V. Rodríguez Cedeño,
Special Rapporteur, Yearbook of the International Law Commission ,
1998, Vol. II, Part Two, p. 53, para. 140).

128. The 1992 declaration, although being a unilateral act, is not capa-
ble of producing legal effects per se, without the acceptance by other
States. The continuity claim on which it was based — “continuing the

State, international legal and political personality of the SFRY, [it] shall
strictly abide by all the commitments that the SFRY assumed interna-
tionally” — had to be, as such, accepted by the international community
in order for the relevant part of the declaration to produce legal effects.
Otherwise, the 1996 Judgment would create a general principle, accord-

ing to which any interested State could determine, in the form of a uni-
lateral act, its objective legal status in terms of the dichotomy continua-
tor State/successor State, including its membership in the international
organizations. For, in the very point of the declaration in which its
authors said that the FRY “shall strictly abide by all the commitments

that the SFRY assumed internationally” it is also said that the FRY is

197 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 605

de 1’Etat et de la personnalité juridique et politique internationale de
la République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie, respectera stric-
tement tous les engagements que la République fédérative socialiste

de Yougoslavie a pris à l’échelon international.» (Application de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide
(Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 610, par. 17.)

Cette formule ne pouvait être appliquée à la déclaration.
127. Le dictum bien connu de la Cour dans les affaires des Essais

nucléaires se lit comme suit:

«Il est reconnu que des déclarations revêtant la forme d’actes uni-
latéraux et concernant des situations de droit ou de fait peuvent
avoir pour effet de créer des obligations juridiques. Des déclarations
de cette nature peuvent avoir et ont souvent un objet très précis.

Quand l’Etat auteur de la déclaration entend être lié conformément
à ses termes, cette intention confère à sa prise de position le caractère
d’un engagement juridique, l’Etat intéressé étant désormais tenu
en droit de suivre une ligne de conduite conforme à sa déclaration.
Un engagement de cette nature, exprimé publiquement et dans

l’intention de se lier, même hors du cadre de négociations inter-
nationales, a un effet obligatoire.» (Essais nucléaires (Australie c.
France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 267, par. 43; Essais nucléaires
(Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), ibid. , p. 472, par. 46.)

Dans les affaires des Essais nucléaires, l’acte en cause était un acte juri-
dique unilatéral capable de produire des effets juridiques par lui-même,

étant l’expression du «pouvoir d’autolimitation que le droit international
conférait aux Etats, en d’autres termes, la possibilité que ceux-ci avaient,
dans l’exercice de leur souveraineté, de se soumettre à des obligations
juridiques internationales» (voir V. Rodríguez Cedeño, rapporteur spé-
cial, Annuaire de la Commission du droit international , 1998, vol. II

(deuxième partie), p. 53, par. 140).
128. La déclaration de 1992, bien qu’elle soit un acte unilatéral, ne
peut par elle-même produire des effets juridiques sans l’acceptation
d’autres Etats. La revendication de continuité sur laquelle elle reposait

— «assurant la continuité de l’Etat et de la personnalité juridique et poli-
tique internationale de la République fédérative socialiste de Yougosla-
vie, [elle] respectera strictement tous les engagements que la République
fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie a pris à l’échelon international» —
devait être, en tant que telle, acceptée par la communauté internationale

pour que ses passages pertinents produisent des effets juridiques. A
défaut, l’arrêt de 1996 créerait un principe général selon lequel tout Etat
intéressé pourrait décider, par un acte unilatéral, de son statut juridique
objectif du point de vue de la dichotomie Etat continuateur/Etat succes-
seur, y compris sa qualité de membre des organisations internationales.

Car, dans le paragraphe même de la déclaration dans lequel les auteurs

197606 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

“remaining bound by all obligations to international organizations and
institutions whose member it is” including “particularly the United
Nations and its specialized agencies”.

However, the continuity claim as a legal basis of the declaration was
not generally accepted. That appears to be a matter of common knowl-

edge.

(d) Whether the “intention of the FRY” is separable from the

continuity condition?

129. The idea which is underlying the majority reasoning is that the
“intention of the FRY to abide by all the commitments that the SFRY
assumed internationally” is separable from the continuity condition since
it was not expressed in explicit terms. It implies that the continuity

premise, since it was not explicitly formulated in terms of the condition of
validity of the declaration, represents, in fact, only a motif for its adop-
tion, which would per se be irrelevant.

130. In the light of the text of the declaration, the idea seems abstract

and divorced from its natural and ordinary meaning. The undertaking
“shall strictly abide by all the commitments that the SFRY assumed
internationally” is given by the FRY as “continuing the State, interna-
tional legal and political personality of the SFRY”. Relevant in that
sense are also the travaux préparatoires of the declaration. At the meet-

ing of the Federal Chamber of the Assembly of the SFRY held on
27 April 1992, which proclaimed the Constitution of the FRY, the Presi-
dent of the Assembly of Serbia emphasized, in his introductory speech
inter alia that “Serbia and Montenegro do not recognize that Yugoslavia
is abolished and ceased to exist” (Politika, Belgrade, 28 April 1992, p. 6;

emphasis added). Another opening speaker, the President of the Assem-
bly of Montenegro, pointed out, inter alia, that Serbia and Montenegro
were “the only States which brought their statehood with them on the
creation of Yugoslavia and decided to constitutionally rearrange the

former Yugoslavia”( ibid.; emphasis added).

That fact was not contested by the then Applicant — Bosnia and
Herzegovina — which asserted that “it is on the basis of this alleged ‘con-
tinuity’ that Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) considers itself to be

bound by all international commitments undertaken by the former
SFRY” (Memorial, p. 160, para. 4.2.2.11).
131. As such, it is a declaration of continuity out of which comes
ex lege that the FRY strictly abides by the commitments assumed by
the SFRY. The wording “abide by all the commitments that the

SFRY assumed internationally” is, in fact, a claim for legal identity

198 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DIS. KRECu ) 606

déclarent que la RFY «respectera strictement tous les engagements que
la République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie a pris à l’échelon
international», il est aussi indiqué que la RFY «[rest]e liée par toutes

ses obligations vis-à-vis des organisations et institutions internationales
auxquelles elle appartient», notamment «l’Organisation des Nations
Unies et ... ses institutions spécialisées».
Or la revendication de continuité en tant que fondement juridique de la
déclaration n’a pas été généralement acceptée. Cela semble être de noto-

riété publique.

d) L’«intention de la RFY» est-elle séparable de la condition de conti-

nuité?

129. L’idée qui sous-tend le raisonnement de la majorité est que
«l’intention de la RFY de respecter tous les engagements que la RSFY a
pris à l’échelon international» est séparable de la condition de continuité
puisque celle-ci n’a pas été exprimée expressément. Cela implique que le

postulat de la continuité, puisqu’il n’a pas été expressément formulé
comme une condition de la validité de la déclaration, ne représente en fait
qu’un des motifs de l’adoption de celle-ci, ce qui serait en soi dénué de
pertinence.
130. Eu égard au texte de la déclaration, l’idée semble abstraite et dis-

sociée de son sens ordinaire et naturel. La RFY prend l’engagement de
«respect[er] strictement tous les engagements que la République fédéra-
tive socialiste de Yougoslavie a pris à l’échelon international» en «assu-
rant la continuité de l’Etat et de la personnalité juridique et politique
internationale de la République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie».

Les travaux préparatoires de la déclaration sont également pertinents à
cet égard. Le 27 avril 1992, à la réunion de la Chambre fédérale de
l’Assemblée de la RSFY, lors de laquelle la Constitution de la RFY a été
proclamée, le président de l’Assemblée de Serbie a souligné, dans son
allocution liminaire, que «la Serbie et le Monténégro ne reconnaissent

pas que la Yougoslavie est dissoute et a cessé d’exister» (Politika, Bel-
grade, 28 avril 1992, p. 6; les italiques sont de moi). Un autre orateur, le
président de l’Assemblée du Monténégro, a notamment souligné que la
Serbie et le Monténégro étaient «les seuls Etats qui avaient la qualité

d’Etat lors de la création de la Yougoslavie et ont décidé de remanier
constitutionnellement l’ex-Yougoslavie »( ibid.; les italiques sont de moi).
Ce fait n’était pas contesté par l’Etat qui était alors demandeur — la
Bosnie-Herzégovine —, soulignant que «c’est en se fondant sur cette
«continuité» présumée que la Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténégro) se

considère comme liée par tous les engagements internationaux pris par
l’ex-RSFY» (mémoire, p. 160, par. 4.2.2.11).
131. Ainsi, il s’agit d’une déclaration de continuité dont il découle
ex lege que la RFY respecte strictement les engagements pris par la
RSFY. La formule «respectera tous les engagements que la RSFY a

pris au plan international» est, en fait, une revendication d’identité

198607 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECA )
u

with the SFRY which, by itself, represents the basis and substance
of the continuity as the operational, functioning side of a single insti-
tution.
132. In the 1992 declaration, the continuity claim is an inherent condi-

tion, its rationale and the element permeating the declaration as a whole.
It is more than a formal condition, for the declaration would be devoid
of substance without the continuity claim. If the declaration was intended
to produce legal effects irrespective of continuity, these effects would
have been expressed as the confirmation or safeguarding of rights and

obligations created by the treaty commitments of the SFRY rather than,
as inferred by the Court itself, in terms to “remain bound by the interna-
tional treaties to which the former Yugoslavia was party” (Application of
the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Geno-
cide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 610, para. 17; emphasis added).

133. The idea of the separability of the intention of the FRY to abide
by all the commitments of the SFRY and the continuity premise is
sharply, almost irreconcilably opposed also to the rules of interpretation

of unilateral legal acts of States, well settled in the jurisprudence of the
Court. Where unilateral acts of States are to be interpreted,
“declarations. . . are to be read as a whole”( Fisheries Jurisdiction
(Spain v. Canada), Jurisdiction of the Court, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1998, p. 454, para. 47; emphasis added) and “interpreted as a unity”

(ibid., p. 453, para. 44; emphasis added). Further, unilateral acts “must
be interpreted as [they stand,] having regard to the words actually used”
(Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (United Kingdom v. Iran), Preliminary Objec-
tion, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1952 , p. 105). Finally, when States “make
statements by which their freedom of action is to be limited, a restrictive

interpretation is called for ”( Nuclear Tests (Australia v. France), Judg-
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 267, para. 44; Nuclear Tests (New Zealand
v. France), ibid., p. 473, para. 47; emphasis added).

134. The intention of the authors of the acts, incapable of producing
legal effects per se made in treaty pattern, is of a specific nature. Regard-
ing that particular group of unilateral acts, the consideration of the
Court in the Nuclear Tests cases, that “nothing in the nature of a quid
pro quo nor any subsequent acceptance of the declaration, nor even
any reply or reaction from other States, is required for the declaration to

take effect” (I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 267, para. 43) does not stand.
For, the object of unilateral acts made in treaty pattern, is not an
obligation stricto sensu, by way of which the authors limit themselves in
the exercise of its sovereignty, but a synallagmatic obligation immanent
to treaties. As regards those kind of unilateral legal acts, the intention is

only the cause which must be accompanied by a proper treaty action
in order to produce the intended effects (para. 153 below). If not, the

199 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 607

juridique avec la RSFY, qui en elle-même représente le fondement et
la substance de la continuité en tant qu’aspect opérationnel d’une
institution unique.

132. La continuité est une condition intrinsèque de la déclaration de
1992, sa raison d’être et l’élément qui l’imprègne dans son ensemble.
C’est davantage qu’une condition formelle, car la déclaration serait vidée
de sa substance en l’absence de la revendication de continuité. Si la déclara-
tion visait à produire des effets juridiques indépendamment de la continui-

té, ces effets auraient été exprimés comme la confirmation ou la préser-
vation des droits et obligations créés par les engagements conventionnels
de la RSFY et non, ainsi que la Cour l’a elle-même déduit, comme
l’intention de «demeurer liée par les traités internationaux auxquels l’ex-
Yougoslavie était partie» (Application de la convention pour la prévention

et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougosla-
vie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 610,
par. 17; les italiques sont de moi).
133. L’idée de la séparabilité de l’intention de la RFY de respecter

tous les engagements de la RSFY et du postulat de la continuité s’oppose
de manière frappante aux règles d’interprétation des actes juridiques uni-
latéraux des Etats bien établies dans la jurisprudence de la Cour et est
presque inconciliable avec celles-ci. S’agissant d’interpréter les actes uni-
latéraux des Etats, «les déclarations ... doivent être considérées comme un

tout»( Compétence en matière de pêcheries (Espagne c. Canada), com-
pétence de la Cour, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998 , p. 454, par. 47; les itali-
ques sont de moi) et «interprétées comme formant un tout »( ibid., p. 453,
par. 44; les italiques sont de moi). De plus, les actes unilatéraux «peuvent
être interprét[és tels qu’ils se présentent], en tenant compte des mots

effectivement employés» (Anglo-Iranian Oil Co. (Royaume-Uni c. Iran),
exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1952 , p. 105). Enfin, lorsque
des Etats «font des déclarations qui limitent leur liberté d’action future,
une interprétation restrictive s’impose »( Essais nucléaires (Australie
c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 267, par. 44; Essais nucléaires

(Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), ibid. , p. 473, par. 47; les italiques sont
de moi).
134. L’intention des auteurs d’actes incapables de produire des effets
juridiques par eux-mêmes formulés sous la forme de traités a un caractère

spécifique. S’agissant de ce groupe particulier d’actes unilatéraux, la
considération retenue par la Cour dans les affaires des Essais nucléaires,
à savoir qu’«aucune contrepartie n’est nécessaire pour que la déclaration
prenne effet, non plus qu’une acceptation ultérieure ni même une réplique
ou une réaction d’autres Etats» (C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 267, par. 43), ne

tient pas. En effet, l’objet des actes unilatéraux qui prennent la forme
conventionnelle n’est pas une obligation stricto sensu par laquelle les
auteurs limitent eux-mêmes l’exercice de leur souveraineté, mais une obliga-
tion synallagmatique inhérente aux traités. S’agissant de ce type d’actes juri-
diques unilatéraux, l’intention est seulement la cause qui doit être accom-

pagnée d’une action conventionnelle appropriée pour produire les effets

199608 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECA )
u

fundamental principle pacta tertiis nec nocent nec prosunt would be
infringed.

(e) The effects of the 1992 declaration

135. The intention of the authors of the 1992 declaration seems clear
on the face of the declaration itself. In its preamble it is said that the par-
ticipants in the Joint Session of the Assembly of the SFRY, the National
Assembly of the Republic of Serbia, and the Assembly of the Republic of

Montenegro, as its authors, “wish to state in this Declaration their views
on the basic, immediate and lasting objectives of the policy of their com-
mon state, and on its relations with the former Yugoslav Republics”
(emphasis added). In that respect, it can be compared with the commu-
nication of the Junta of the Government of National Reconstruction of

Nicaragua to the Secretary-General of the Organization of American
States, accompanied by the “Plan to secure peace” which the Court in the
Nicaragua case determined as

“This part of the resolution is a mere statement which does not
comprise any formal offer which if accepted would constitute a
promise in law, and hence a legal obligation. . . an essentially politi-
cal pledge, made not only to the Organization, but also to the people

of Nicaragua, intended to be its first beneficiaries” (Military and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 ,
p. 132, para. 261; emphasis added).

136. It should be noted that the declarations of the Assembly in the
constitutional system of Yugoslavia have, since its foundation, been
treated as general political acts having for its object the issues not

included in the competence of the Assembly (M. Snuderl, Constitutional
Law, Ljubljana, Vol. II, 1957, p. 47; A. Fira, Constitutional Law, Bel-
grade, 1977, p. 381).

(f) Could the 1992 declaration be considered a notification of
succession?

137. The majority treats the 1992 declaration in a specific way, differ-
ent from that implemented in the 1996 and 2007 Judgments. While in the
1996 and the 2007 Judgments the 1992 declaration is perceived as a uni-
lateral legal act producing per se effects in terms of the determination of

the FRY as a party to the Genocide Convention, in the present Judgment
the declaration is put in a broader context of the succession in respect of
treaties. Basically, the majority treats it as a notification of succession.
And the succession itself, in respect of treaties, is in the majority reason-
ing, coloured by the logic of automatic succession without speaking its

name.

200 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 608

visés (par. 153 ci-dessous). A défaut, il serait porté atteinte au principe
fondamental exprimé par la maxime pacta tertiis nec nocent nec prosunt .

e) Les effets de la déclaration de 1992

135. L’intention des auteurs de la déclaration de 1992 semble claire à
la lecture de la déclaration elle-même. Celle-ci indique dans son préam-
bule que les participants à la session conjointe de l’Assemblée de la

RSFY, de l’Assemblée nationale de la République de Serbie et de l’Assem-
blée de la République du Monténégro, ses auteurs, «souhaitent exprimer
leurs vues sur les objectifs fondamentaux, immédiats et à long terme de
la politique de leur Etat commun, ainsi que sur ses relations avec les
anciennes républiques yougoslaves» (les italiques sont de moi). A cet

égard, elle peut être comparée à la communication adressée par la junte
du Gouvernement de reconstruction nationale du Nicaragua au Secré-
taire général de l’Organisation des Etats américains, accompagnée d’un
«plan de paix», dont la Cour a déclaré dans l’affaire du Nicaragua :

«Cette partie de la résolution n’est qu’une simple déclaration ne
comportant pas d’offre formelle pouvant constituer, par son accep-

tation, une promesse en droit et donc une obligation juridique ... une
promesse essentiellement politique , faite non seulement à l’Organisa-
tion mais aussi au peuple du Nicaragua, qui devait en être le premier
bénéficiaire» (Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et
contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 132, par. 261; les italiques sont de moi).
136. Il convient de noter que les déclarations de l’Assemblée, dans le

système constitutionnel yougoslave ont, depuis la fondation du pays, été
considérées comme des actes de politique générale ayant pour objet les
questions qui ne relèvent pas de la compétence de l’Assemblée (M. Snu-
derl, Constitutional Law, Ljubljana, vol. II, 1957, p. 47; A. Fira, Cons-
titutional Law, Belgrade, 1977, p. 381).

f) La déclaration de 1992 peut-elle être considérée comme une notifi-
cation de succession?

137. La majorité envisage la déclaration de 1992 d’une manière bien
précise, qui diffère de la conception qu’elle en avait dans les arrêts de
1996 et 2007. Si, dans ces arrêts, la déclaration de 1992 est considérée
comme un acte juridique unilatéral produisant par lui-même des effets
concluants quant à la qualité de la RFY de partie à la convention sur le

génocide, dans le présent arrêt la déclaration est placée dans le contexte
plus large de la succession en matière de traités. Fondamentalement, la
majorité la considère comme une notification de succession. Et la succes-
sion elle-même, en matière de traités, est, selon le raisonnement de la
majorité, colorée par la logique d’une succession automatique qui ne dit

pas son nom.

200609 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

138. In that regard, the majority finds that:

“In the case of succession or continuation on the other hand, the
act of will of the State relates to an already existing set of circum-
stances, and amounts to a recognition by that State of certain legal
consequences flowing from those circumstances, so that any docu-

ment issued by the State concerned, being essentially confirmatory,
may be subject to less rigid requirements of form.” (Judgment,
para. 109.)

And, further, that the idea is reflected in:

“Article 2 (g) of the 1978 Vienna Convention on Succession of
States in respect of Treaties . . . defining a ‘notification of succession’
as meaning ‘in relation to a multilateral treaty, any notification, how-
ever framed or named, made by a successor State expressing its con-
sent to be considered as bound by the treaty’” (ibid.).

139. It appears, however, that “any document issued by the State”
(ibid.), may, as a matter of law, mean only the document issued by an
organ competent under international law to act on behalf of a State. The
principle seems to be generally recognized in international law (Head of
State principle).

140. The majority interprets “being. . . confirmatory” (ibid.) in the
context of “an already existing set of circumstances. . . [as amounting] to
a recognition by that State of certain legal consequences flowing from
those circumstances” (ibid.). Further, that the 1992 declaration referred
“to a class of instruments which was perfectly ascertainable. . . the treaty

‘commitments’. . . the Genocide Convention was one of these ‘commit-
ments’” (ibid., para. 108.)
141. The finding, it seems, starts from the perception of notification of
succession as confirmation that the Respondent is bound by a “perfectly
ascertainable” (ibid.) class of instruments which includes the Genocide

Convention, on the basis of law (plein du droit).
True, such an understanding might correspond to the grammatical
meaning of Article 34 of the Convention on Succession of States in
respect of Treaties which is, however, substantially modified in the prac-

tice of States. None of the successor States, following the entry into force
of the Convention, acted in the way implying that the notification of suc-
cession meant confirmation that the transfer of rights and obligations of
the predecessor State occurred ipso jure. The majority itself does not refer
to any practice in that regard. Successor States, most of them being at the

same time Contracting Parties to the Convention on Succession of States
in respect of Treaties, treated the continuity rule provided in its Article 34
“only as main and general flexible rule covering everything that has
emerged in the region involving State succession” (H. Bokor-Szego,
“Questions of State Identity and State Succession in Eastern and Central

Europe”, Succession of States, 1999, ed., by M. Mrak, pp. 104-105). The

201 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 609

138. A cet égard, la majorité conclut:

«Dans le cas de la succession ou de la continuité, en revanche,
l’acte de volonté de l’Etat s’inscrit dans un contexte préexistant et
revient pour l’Etat intéressé à reconnaître que certaines consé-
quences juridiques découlent dudit contexte, de sorte que tout

document produit par cet Etat peut, dès lors qu’il s’agit essentielle-
ment d’une confirmation, être soumis à des exigences formelles
moins rigoureuses.» (Arrêt, par. 109.)

Et elle indique, en outre, que cette idée trouve son expression:

«à l’article 2 g) de la convention de Vienne de 1978 sur la succession
d’Etats en matière de traités, qui définit la «notification de succes-
sion» comme s’entendant, «par rapport à un traité multilatéral,
d’une notification, quel que soit son libellé ou sa désignation , faite par
un Etat successeur, exprimant le consentement de cet Etat à être

considéré comme étant lié par le traité»» (ibid.).

139. Il apparaît toutefois que «tout document produit par [l’]Etat»
(ibid.) peut, en droit, signifier uniquement un document produit par un
organe compétent au regard du droit international pour agir au nom de
l’Etat. Ce principe semble être généralement reconnu en droit internatio-
nal (principe du chef de l’Etat).

140. Selon la majorité, le fait qu’«il s’agit ... d’une confirmation»
(ibid.) s’inscrivant «dans un contexte préexistant [revient] pour l’Etat
intéressé à reconnaître que certaines conséquences juridiques découlent
dudit contexte» (ibid.). De plus, elle conclut que la déclaration de 1992
renvoyait «à une catégorie d’instruments qui était ... parfaitement iden-

tifiable, à savoir celle des «engagements» conventionnels ... la convention
sur le génocide était l’un de ces «engagements»» (ibid., par. 108).
141. Il semble que cette conclusion tient à ce que la notification de
succession est perçue comme confirmant que le défendeur est lié par
une catégorie d’instruments «parfaitement identifiable» (ibid.) dont la

convention sur le génocide fait partie, de plein droit.
Certes, cette interprétation correspond peut-être au sens grammatical
de l’article 34 de la convention sur la succession d’Etats en matière de
traités, mais la pratique des Etats s’en écarte très sensiblement. Aucun des

Etats successeurs, après l’entrée en vigueur de cette convention, n’a agi
de manière impliquant que la notification de succession devait s’entendre
comme la confirmation du fait que le transfert des droits et obliga-
tions de l’Etat prédécesseur s’était produit de plein droit. La majorité
elle-même ne cite aucune pratique en ce sens. Les Etats successeurs, dont

la plupart sont dans le même temps des parties contractantes à la conven-
tion sur la succession d’Etats en matière de traités, considèrent la règle de
la continuité énoncée à l’article 34 uniquement comme «principale règle,
générale et souple, couvrant tout ce qui s’est passé dans la région en
matière de succession d’Etat» (H. Bokor-Szego, «Questions of State

Identity and State Succession in Eastern and Central Europe», Succes-

201610 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

residual and jus dispositivum nature of the rules on succession on the one
hand, and the general notion of succession of States given in Article 2,
paragraph 1 (b), of the Convention, leaving aside any connotation of

inheritance of rights and obligations on the occurrence of change of sov-
ereignty, on the other, give supportive force to such practice of successor
States.
142. The majority has made an impressive effort to construct condi-
tions for the application of the Mavrommatis principle as it sees it, in

order to escape the inescapable — to consider the relationship of the
Respondent vis-à-vis the Genocide Convention within the general law on
succession of States in respect of treaties. For that purpose it resorts to
the inversed order of examination of the Applicant’s contentions, by first
examining the alternative contention regarding the 1992 declaration, with

the explanation that
“if Croatia’s contentions as to the effect of the declaration and Note

are accepted, the need does not arise for the Court further to address
the arguments put to it by the Parties concerning the rules of inter-
national law governing State succession to treaties including the
question of ipso jure succession to some multilateral treaties” (Judg-

ment, para. 101).
However, Croatia’s contentions as to the effect of the 1992 declaration

have been designed within the law on succession. Counsel for the Appli-
cant pointed out, inter alia, that

“The famous letter [Note] the Respondent sent to the Secretary-
General on 27 April 1992 was not an offer to those States who
agreed with the FRY’s continuity thesis that the FRY would not
commit genocide or otherwise breach its treaty obligations. It was
neither relative nor qualified. Nor was it expressed to be prospective;

it was drafted. . . in terms of continuity. The Respondent was a party
by succession to the Genocide Convention from the beginning of its
existence as a State.” (CR 2008/11, p. 9, para. 7 (Crawford); empha-
sis added. See also Written Statement of Croatia, p. 3; Preliminary

Objections of Serbia, Ann. 7.)

As the Applicant sees succession as “a distinct mode of transmission of
treaty obligations. . . retrospective to the commencement of the successor
State” (CR 2008/11, p. 9, para. 8 (Crawford)), it is obvious that one is
dealing here with automatic succession.
143. Moreover, the majority itself suggests that the FRY acquired the

status of party to the Convention by a process that is to be regarded as
succession. True, in its conclusio the majority finds that “both the text of
the declaration and Note of 27 April 1992, and the consistent conduct of
the FRY at the time of its making and throughout the years 1992-2001”
(Judgment, para. 117) by its combined effects make the Respondent a

Contracting Party to the Genocide Convention as from 1992. However,

202 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 610

sion of States, 1999, M. Mrak (dir. publ.), p. 104-105). La nature rési-
duelle et le jus dispositivum des règles de la succession d’une part, et la
notion générale de succession d’Etats énoncée au paragraphe 1 b) de

l’article 2 de la Convention, en laissant de côté toute connotation de
dévolution de droits et d’obligations lors du changement de souveraineté
de l’autre, étayent cette pratique des Etats successeurs.
142. La majorité a fait un effort impressionnant pour interpréter les
conditions d’application du principe Mavrommatis tel qu’elle le conçoit,

en vue d’éviter l’inévitable — envisager la relation du défendeur à l’égard
de la convention sur le génocide dans le cadre du droit général de la suc-
cession d’Etats en matière de traités. A cette fin, elle inverse l’ordre dans
lequel les arguments du demandeur devraient être examinés, en exami-
nant d’abord l’argument subsidiaire relatif à la déclaration de 1992, et

explique que
«s’il est fait droit à la thèse de la Croatie relative à l’effet de la décla-

ration et de la note, la Cour n’aura pas besoin d’examiner plus avant
les arguments que lui ont présentés les Parties au sujet des règles du
droit international régissant la succession d’Etats aux traités, y com-
pris la question de la succession ipso jure à certains traités multila-

téraux» (arrêt, par. 101).
Les arguments de la Croatie quant à l’effet de la déclaration de 1992 ont

toutefois été formulés dans le cadre du droit de la succession. Le conseil
du demandeur a notamment fait observer ce qui suit:

«La fameuse lettre [note] que le défendeur a adressée le 27 avril
1992 au Secrétaire général n’était pas une promesse, faite aux Etats
qui acceptaient la thèse de la continuité de la RFY, selon laquelle la
RFY ne commettrait pas de génocide ou d’autres actes contraires
aux obligations conventionnelles de la RSFY. Elle n’était ni relative

ni conditionnelle. Elle n’était pas non plus exprimée en termes pros-
pectifs; elle était rédigée en termes de continuité. Le défendeur était
partie à la convention sur le génocide par l’effet de la succession dès
le début de son existence en tant qu’Etat .» (CR 2008/11, p. 9, par. 7

(Crawford); les italiques sont de moi. Voir également exposé écrit de
la Croatie, p. 3; exceptions préliminaires de la Serbie, annexe 7.)

Comme le demandeur conçoit la succession comme «un mode distinct de
participation à un traité ... qui rétroagit à la naissance de l’Etat succes-
seur» (CR 2008/11, p. 9, par. 8 (Crawford)), il est évident qu’on a affaire
ici à une succession automatique.
143. De plus, la majorité elle-même indique que la RFY a acquis le

statut de partie à la Convention par un processus devant être considéré
comme une succession. Certes, dans sa conclusio la majorité juge que «la
teneur de la déclaration et de la note du 27 avril 1992 ainsi que [le] com-
portement concordant de la RFY tant au moment de leur rédaction que
tout au long des années 1992 à 2001» (arrêt, par. 117) font du défendeur,

par leur effet combiné, une partie à la convention sur le génocide à comp-

202611 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.KRECu )

the element “conduct of the FRY” could hardly have any substantial role
(paras. 160-166 below), which is also attested to by the final position of

the majority to the effect that “the 1992 declaration and Note had the
effect of a notification of succession by the FRY to the SFRY in relation
to the Genocide Convention (Judgment, para. 117; emphasis added).

144. It appears indisputable that, before the adoption of the Conven-
tion on Succession of States in respect of Treaties, it is not possible to
speak of automatic succession in terms of customary law. As an Expert
Consultant of the Conference, Sir Francis Vallet, emphasized:

“The rule [in Article 2 — Succession of States in cases of separa-
tion of parts of a State — corresponding to Article 34] was not based
either on established practice or on precedent, it was a matter of the
progressive development of international law rather than of codifica-

tion.” (Summary Records, Committee of the Whole, 48th meeting,
8 August 1978, doc. A/CONF.80/16/Add.1, p. 105, para. 10.)

The automatic succession as a rule of customary law began to be dis-
cussed after the 1990s, with reference to the practice of the successor

States of the USSR, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic and the SFRY
and the related pronouncements of some human rights bodies, in particu-
lar the Human Rights Committee.

However, what is involved here is a theory, a construction de lege fer-
enda without foundation in practice. The allegedly consistent practice in
that regard is the result of a creative interpretation exceeding the permis-
sible interpretative framework. Even if the practice of the successor

States was most consistent, the question of opinio juris remains open,
because a good part of that practice has been modelled under the influ-
ence of conditional recognition, which also implied the acceptance of the
standard of respect for human rights , practised as regards those succes-
sor States.

145. It appears that none of the successor States applied the practice
of confirmatory notification in a generalized form, which alone perfectly
corresponds with the conception of the ipso jure transfer of the rights and
obligations from the predecessor State to the successor State (s), but

declared themselves bound by the treaties of their predecessor State in
their own name, applying different modalities. Besides, universal succes-
sion implies not only ipso jure transfer of treaty rights and obligations,
but transfer uno ictu comprising all the treaty rights and obligations of

the predecessor State, together with the reservations made, excluding
boundary treaties or territorial settlement. The fact that the modalities

10“Guidelines for the Recognition of New States in Eastern Europe”, International
Legal Materials, Vol. 31 (November 1992), pp. 1485-1487.

203 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 611

ter de 1992. Toutefois, l’élément «comportement de la RFY» ne peut
guère avoir joué un rôle substantiel (par. 160-166 ci-dessous), ce qui est

aussi attesté par la position finale de la majorité, à savoir que «la déclara-
tion et la note de 1992 ont eu l’effet d’une notification de succession de la
RFY à la RSFY à l’égard de la convention sur le génocide » (arrêt,
par. 117; les italiques sont de moi).

144. Il semble incontestable qu’avant l’adoption de la convention sur
la succession d’Etats en matière de traités il n’était pas possible de parler
de succession automatique au regard du droit coutumier. Comme l’a sou-
ligné sir Francis Vallet, expert consultant de la conférence:

«La règle [énoncée à l’article 2 — Succession d’Etats en cas de
séparation de parties d’un Etat — correspondant à l’article 34] ne
reposait ni sur la pratique établie ni sur la jurisprudence, elle relevait
du développement progressif du droit international et non de sa

codification.» (Comptes rendus analytiques, Commission plénière,
quarante-huitième séance, 8 août 1978, doc. A/CONF.80/16/Add.1,
p. 105, par. 10.)

Il a commencé à être question de la succession automatique en tant que
règle du droit coutumier à la fin des années quatre-vingt-dix, au sujet de

la pratique des Etats successeurs de l’URSS, de la République socialiste
de Tchécoslovaquie et de la RSFY, et des déclarations y afférentes de cer-
tains organes créés par des traités relatifs aux droits de l’homme, en par-
ticulier le Comité des droits de l’homme.

Toutefois, ce dont il s’agit ici est une théorie, une interprétation de lege
ferenda sans fondement aucun dans la pratique. La pratique constante
alléguée à cet égard est le résultat d’une interprétation créative sortant du
cadre de ce qui est permis en la matière. Même si la pratique des Etats

successeurs était très constante, la question de l’opinio juris demeure
ouverte, parce qu’une bonne part de cette pratique s’est constituée sous
l’influence de la reconnaissance conditionnelle, qui impliquait aussi
l’acceptation de la norme en matière de respect des droits de l’homme 10
établie en ce qui concerne ces Etats successeurs.

145. Il semble qu’aucun des Etats successeurs n’ait utilisé la pratique
de la notification confirmatoire d’ordre général, qui seule correspond par-
faitement à la conception du transfert de plein droit des droits et obliga-
tions de l’Etat prédécesseur à l’Etat ou aux Etats successeurs, et que tous

se soient déclarés liés par les traités de leur Etat prédécesseur en leur nom
propre, selon des modalités différentes. Par ailleurs, la succession univer-
selle implique non seulement un transfert ipso jure de droits et obligations
conventionnels, mais aussi un transfert uno ictu comprenant tous les

droits et obligations conventionnels de l’Etat prédécesseur, avec les
réserves qu’il a formulées, à l’exclusion des traités frontaliers ou portant

10«Guidelines for the Recognition of New States in Eastern Europe», International
Legal Materials, vol. 31, novembre 1992, p. 1485-1487.

203612 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECA )
u

applied have, or may have, the effect of a continuum of treaty rights and
obligations does not mean automatic succession — although it is implied
— because that continuum is created not by the operation of the rule of
international law (ipso jure) but by the will of the successor State. It is

difficult, exempli causa, to qualify the notification of succession of Bosnia
and Herzegovina of 29 December 1992 in terms of automatic succession
if it states that “having considered the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 9 December 1948 to which the
former SFRY was a party, wishes to succeed to the same” (Communica-

tion from the Secretary-General of the United Nations dated 18 March
1993 (ref. C.N. 451-1992, Treaties 5 (Depositary Notification)), entitled
“Succession by Bosnia and Herzegovina”; emphasis added).

146. In that crucial point which is, in fact, the point of differentiation
between automatic succession and succession of treaties of the predeces-
sor State by the will of the successor State, the practice of the successor
States seems consistent.
The Minsk Accords of 8 December 1991, signed by Russia, Belarus

and Ukraine, providing for the unconditional commitment to honour
treaty obligations of the USSR, appeared to lay conventional found-
ations for universal succession of the treaties of the former USSR. How-
ever, the subsequent Alma-Ata Accords modified the commitment to
fulfil treaty obligations of the former Soviet Union to the extent that such

continuation was “in accordance with constitutional procedures” of the
successor State (P. R. Williams, “The Treaty Obligations of the Successor
States of the Former Soviet Union, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia: Do
They Continue in Force?”, 23 Denver Journal of International Law and
Policy 1, 1994-1995, pp. 22-23; see also R. Mullerson, “The Continuity

and Succession of States by Reference to the Former USSR and Yugo-
slavia”, 42 International and Comparative Law Quarterly , 1993, p. 479).
Acting on that basis, the Baltic republics opted to accede to conventions
of the USSR in their own right (J. Klabbers, “State Succession and Res-
ervations to Treaties”, in J. Klabbers and R. Lefeber, Essays on the Law

of Treaties, 1998, p. 111), while Moldova, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan
explicitly adopted the clean State model (B. Stern, “Rapport prélimi-
naire sur la succession d’Etats en matière de traités” (Report submitted
to the International Law Association’s Committee on Aspects of the
Law of State Succession for the 1996 Helsinki Conference), p. 675).
Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan issued

notifications of succession in their own right, without any reference
to reservations and declarations made by the Soviet Union as a
predecessor State (J. Klabbers, op. cit., p. 113). Consequently, the
former Soviet republics widely practised accession as a means of
binding themselves by multilateral treaties to which the USSR was

a party.

204 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 612

règlement territorial. Le fait que les modalités appliquées ont ou peuvent
avoir l’effet d’un continuum de droits et obligations conventionnels ne
signifie pas qu’il y ait une succession automatique — bien que cela

soit sous-entendu — parce que ce continuum est créé non par le jeu de
la règle de droit international (ipso jure) mais par la volonté de l’Etat
successeur. Il est difficile, par exemple, de qualifier la notification de
succession de la Bosnie-Herzégovine en date du 29 décembre 1992
comme relevant de la succession automatique car elle déclare que,

«ayant examiné la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocide du 9 décembre 1948 à laquelle l’ex-RSFY était
partie, [elle] souhaite succéder à celle-ci» (communication du Secrétaire
général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies datée du 18 mars 1993
(C.N. 451-1992, Traités 5 (notification dépositaire)), intitulée «Succession

de la Bosnie-Herzégovine»; les italiques sont de moi).
146. Sur ce point crucial, qui est en fait le point de différenciation
entre succession automatique et succession aux traités de l’Etat prédéces-
seur par la volonté de l’Etat successeur, la pratique des Etats successeurs

semble cohérente.
Les accords de Minsk du 8 décembre 1991, signés par la Russie, le
Bélarus et l’Ukraine, consacrant l’engagement inconditionnel d’honorer
les obligations conventionnelles de l’URSS, semblent poser les fonde-
ments conventionnels d’une succession universelle aux traités de l’ex-

URSS. Toutefois, les accords ultérieurs d’Alma-Ata ont modifié l’enga-
gement d’exécuter les obligations conventionnelles de l’ex-Union sovié-
tique dans la mesure où cette continuation est effectuée «conformément
aux procédures constitutionnelles» de l’Etat successeur (P. R. Williams,
«The Treaty Obligations of the Successor States of the Former Soviet

Union, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia: Do They Continue in Force?»,
23 Denver Journal of International Law and Policy , 1, 1994-1995, p. 22-
23; voir également R. Mullerson, «The Continuity and Succession of
States by Reference to the Former USSR and Yugoslavia», 42 Interna-
tional and Comparative Law Quarterly , 1993, p. 479). Agissant sur ce

fondement, les républiques baltes ont choisi d’accéder aux conventions de
l’URSS en leur nom propre (J. Klabbers, «State Succession and Reser-
vations to Treaties», dans J. Klabbers et R. Lefeber, Essays on the Law
of Treaties, 1998, p. 111), alors que la Moldavie, l’Ouzbékistan et le

Turkménistan ont expressément adopté le modèle de «l’Etat vierge»
(B. Stern, «Rapport préliminaire sur la succession d’Etats en matière de
traités» (rapport présenté par le comité chargé d’étudier certains aspects
du droit de la succession d’Etats de l’Association de droit international à la
conférence d’Helsinki de 1996), p. 675). Le Turkménistan, le Kazakhstan,

le Kirghizistan et le Tadjikistan ont formulé des notifications de succes-
sion en leur nom propre, sans aucun renvoi aux réserves et déclarations
faites par l’Union soviétique en tant qu’Etat prédécesseur (J. Klabbers,
op. cit., p. 113). En conséquence, les ex-républiques soviétiques ont large-
ment pratiqué l’adhésion comme moyen d’exprimer leur consentement

à être liées par les traités multilatéraux auxquels l’URSS était partie.

204613 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

147. The practice of the Czech and the Slovak Republics is also not
free from inconsistency, although these two States notified the Secretary-
General of the United Nations that they consider themselves bound by

the multilateral treaties to which the former Czechoslovakia was a party.
Inconsistency is reflected not only in the fact that they consider them-
selves bound as from different dates (the Czech Republic as from 1 Janu-
ary 1993 and Slovakia as from 31 December 1992), but also because, in
spite of confirmatory notifications relating to the multilateral treaties to

which Czechoslovakia was a party, they also issued notifications on suc-
cession in respect of particular treaties, while they acceded to some
others. Thus the Czech Republic became a party to the 1985 Interna-
tional Convention against Apartheid in Sports by succession, whereas
Slovakia did not. Also, whereas Slovakia succeeded to most treaties on

the date of general notification, the Czech Republic, in a number of
cases, succeeded on the basis of notification of succession which followed
on a later date (see J. Klabbers, op. cit, pp. 117-118). As regards some
multilateral conventions, the Czech Republic bound itself in the form of

accession, although in question were conventions to which the former
Czechoslovakia was a party such as, for example, the Convention on
International Civil Aviation (P. R. Williams, op. cit., p. 41).

148. The legal situation as regards the former Yugoslav republics is
much more contradictory. At first, while the FRY stuck to the continuity
claim until 2000, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Mac-
edonia ab ignitio considered themselves as successor States and were recog-
nized as such by the international community. Further, although

declaratively favouring automatic succession in respect of multilateral
treaties to which the SFRY was a party, in particular Bosnia and Herze-
govina and Croatia in proceedings before the Court, they did not apply
the automatic succession pattern of treaty action in practice. Thus, for
instance, Bosnia and Herzegovina designed its notification on succession

to the Genocide Convention in terms of a “wish” to succeed to same,
which fits in with the concept of succession in its own right rather than
automatic succession. Particularly illustrative is the case of the 1989 Con-
vention on the Rights of the Child. Bosnia and Herzegovina is listed as

having succeeded on 1 September 1993; Croatia succeeded on 12 October
1992; Slovenia succeeded on 6 July 1992 and Macedonia did so on
2 December 1993 (Multilateral Treaties Deposited with the Secretary-
General, Status as at 31 December 1993 , United Nations doc. ST/LEG/
SER./E/11-12, pp. 193-194). None of these dates corresponds to the dates

upon which those republics succeeded the SFRY according to the gener-
ally accepted opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Commission (Interna-
tional Legal Materials, Vol. 32, 1993, pp. 1587-1589). The Commission
established the following dates in that regard: 8 October 1991 in the case
of the Republic of Croatia and the Republic of Slovenia; 17 November

1991 in the case of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia; 6 March

205 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 613

147. La pratique des Républiques tchèque et slovaque n’est pas non
plus dénuée d’incohérence, bien que ces deux Etats aient notifié au Secré-

taire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies qu’ils se considéraient
comme liés par les traités multilatéraux auxquels l’ex-Tchécoslovaquie
était partie. Cette incohérence est reflétée non seulement par le fait qu’ils
se considèrent comme liés à partir de dates différentes (la République
tchèque à partir du 1 janvier 1993 et la Slovaquie à partir du 31 décembre

1992), mais aussi parce que, bien qu’ayant formulé des notifications
de confirmation des traités multilatéraux auxquels la Tchécoslovaquie
était partie, ils ont aussi produit des notifications de succession en ce qui
concerne certains traités, alors qu’ils ont accédé à d’autres. Ainsi, la

République tchèque est devenue partie par succession à la convention
internationale de 1985 contre l’apartheid dans les sports, mais non la Slo-
vaquie. De même, tandis que la Slovaquie a succédé à la plupart des trai-
tés à la date de la notification générale, la République tchèque, dans un
certain nombre de cas, a succédé sur la base d’une notification de succes-

sion qui a suivi à une date ultérieure (voir J. Klabbers, op. cit., p. 117-
118). S’agissant de certaines conventions multilatérales, la République
tchèque a exprimé son consentement à être liée en y accédant, alors que
l’ex-Yougoslavie était partie à certaines de ces conventions, par exemple

la convention sur l’aviation civile internationale (P. R. Williams, op. cit.,
p. 41).
148. La situation juridique en ce qui concerne les ex-républiques you-
goslaves est beaucoup plus contradictoire. Au début, alors que la RFY
s’en est tenue à une revendication de continuité jusqu’en 2000, la Slové-

nie, la Croatie, la Bosnie-Herzégovine et la Macédoine se sont d’emblée
considérées comme des Etats successeurs et ont été reconnues comme tels
par la communauté internationale. De plus, bien que se déclarant favo-
rables à la succession automatique en ce qui concerne les traités multila-

téraux auxquels la RSFY était partie dans les procédures devant la Cour,
ces Etats, en particulier la Bosnie-Herzégovine et la Croatie, n’ont pas en
pratique appliqué la succession automatique dans leur activité conven-
tionnelle. Ainsi, par exemple, la Bosnie-Herzégovine a présenté sa notifi-

cation de succession à la convention sur le génocide sous la forme d’un
«souhait» de succéder à cet instrument, ce qui dénote qu’elle y a succédé
de sa propre initiative et non par succession automatique. Le cas de la
convention de 1989 relative aux droits de l’enfant est particulièrement
éclairant à cet égard. Il est indiqué sur la liste des Etats parties que la
er
Bosnie-Herzégovine a succédé à cet instrument le 1 septembre 1993, la
Croatie le 12 octobre 1992, la Slovénie le 6 juillet 1992 et la Macédoine le
2 décembre 1993 (Traités multilatéraux déposés auprès du Secrétaire
général, état au 31 décembre 1993 , Nations Unies, doc. ST/LEG/SER.

E/11-12, p. 193-194). Aucune de ces dates ne correspond aux dates aux-
quelles ces républiques ont succédé à la RSFY selon l’avis généralement
accepté de la commission d’arbitrage Badinter (International Legal Mate-
rials, vol. 32, 1993, p. 1587-1589). Cette commission a établi, à cet égard,
les dates suivantes: le 8 octobre 1991 pour la République de Croatie et

205614 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP. KRECu )

1992 in the case of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Finally, this

contradictory practice seems to be nothing more than the expression of a
confused and ambivalent attitude towards the automatic succession rule.
For example, at a meeting of Legal Advisers on International Public Law
convened by the Committee of Ministers for the Council of Europe on

14-15 September 1992, the representative of Croatia noted that Croatia
would respect all the treaties of the SFRY unless they conflicted with the
Croatian Constitution (Committee of Legal Advisers on International
Public Law for the Council of Europe, 4th meeting 14-15 September

1992, p. 3). Slovenia, as stated by its representative “had been invited to
accede to some conventions to which former Yugoslavia had been a
party and would like to be invited to accede to other conventions which
had been ratified by the former federation” (ibid.).

149. It comes out that the rule contained in Article 34 of the Conven-
tion on Succession of States in respect of Treaties did not generate the

rule of general international law on ipso jure transfer of the treaty rights
and obligations from the predecessor State to the successor State.
Moreover, it has not even become a jus perfecta as a conventional rule.
Before the Convention even came into force in 1978, the automatic suc-

cession rule provided in its Article 34 was modified by the practice of suc-
cessor States, followed by acceptance of that practice by existing States.
The absence of objections to notifications of succession in its own right as
regards multilateral treaties to which their predecessor States were parties
11
as well as to numerous accessions to those treaties are credible evidence
in that regard. In short, Article 34 of the Convention remained an empty
provision, a conventional project which was not materialized.

Even if it had not been modified before the coming into force of the
Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties, the rule qua
treaty rule is inapplicable in casu, since it entered into force in November
1996, well after the dissolution of the SFRY.

Retroactive effects of the Convention are excluded in its Article 7,
paragraph 1, which provides that “the Convention applies only in respect
of a succession of States which has occurred after the entry into force of

the Convention”.
150. If so, automatic succession in respect of treaties is the expression
of diplomatic or political considerations rather than a rule in harmony
with common sense and legal considerations.

11Exempli causa, most of the successor States of the USSR acceded to the Genocide
Convention (Azerbaijan (16.VIII.1996); Armenia (23.VI.1998); Georgia (11.X.1993);
Kazakhstan (26.VIII.1998); Kyrgyzstan (5.IX.1997); Moldova (26.I.1993); Uzbekistan
(9.IX.1999)) along with other successor States such as Algeria (31.X.1963); (Rwanda
(16.IV.1975); Tonga (16.II.1972).

206 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 614

la République de Slovénie; le 17 novembre 1991 pour l’ex-République

yougoslave de Macédoine; le 6 mars 1992 pour la République de Bosnie-
Herzégovine. Finalement, cette pratique contradictoire semble n’être
rien d’autre que l’expression d’une attitude ambivalente et confuse face à
la règle de la succession automatique. Par exemple, lors d’une réunion

des conseillers juridiques sur le droit international public convoquée
par le Comité des ministres du Conseil de l’Europe les 14 et 15 septembre
1992, le représentant de la Croatie a déclaré que la Croatie respecterait
tous les traités de la RSFY s’ils n’étaient pas contraires à la Constitution

croate (Comité des conseillers juridiques sur le droit international public
du Conseil de l’Europe, quatrième séance, 14-15 septembre 1992, p. 3).
La Slovénie, aux dires de son représentant, «avait été invitée à accéder à
certaines des conventions auxquelles l’ex-Yougoslavie avait été partie et

souhaitait être invitée à accéder à d’autres conventions — qui avaient été
ratifiées par l’ex-fédération» (ibid.).
149. Il apparaît que la règle énoncée à l’article 34 de la convention sur
la succession d’Etats en matière de traités n’a pas créé de règle de droit

international général sur le transfert de plein droit des traités et obliga-
tions conventionnels de l’Etat prédécesseur à l’Etat successeur.
De plus, elle n’est même pas devenue jus perfecta en tant que règle
conventionnelle. Avant l’entrée en vigueur de la Convention en 1978, la

succession automatique prévue par son article 34 a été modifiée par la
pratique d’Etats successeurs, laquelle a été acceptée par des Etats exis-
tants. L’absence d’objections aux notifications de succession formulées de
manière indépendante en ce qui concerne les traités multilatéraux aux-

quels les Etats prédécesseurs étaient parties ainsi que les nombreuses
adhésions 11à ces traités constituent des preuves crédibles à cet égard. En
bref, l’article 34 de la Convention est demeuré à l’état de disposition sans
effet, de projet conventionnel qui ne s’est pas concrétisé.

Même si elle n’avait pas été modifiée avant l’entrée en vigueur de la
convention sur la succession d’Etats en matière de traités, cette règle en
tant que règle conventionnelle est inapplicable en l’espèce, puisqu’elle est
entrée en vigueur en novembre 1996, bien après la dissolution de la

RSFY.
Le paragraphe 1 de l’article 7 de la Convention, qui dispose que la
Convention «s’applique uniquement à l’égard d’une succession d’Etats
qui s’est produite après son entrée en vigueur», exclut tout effet rétro-

actif.
150. S’il en est ainsi, la succession automatique en matière de traités
est l’expression de considérations politiques ou diplomatiques et non une
règle en harmonie avec le bon sens et le raisonnement juridique.

11Par exemple, la plupart des Etats successeurs de l’URSS ont accédé à la convention
sur le génocide (Azerbaïdjan (16 VIII 1996); Arménie (23 VI 1998); Géorgie (11 X 1993);
Kazakhstan (26 VIII 1998); Kirghizistan (5 IX 1997); Moldavie (26 I 1993); Ouzbékistan
(9 IX 1999)) avec d’autres Etats successeurs, comme l’Algérie (31 X 1963), le Rwanda
(16 IV 1975) et Tonga (16 II 1972).

206615 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS. OP.KRECu )

First of all, if we stick to the difference between the predecessor State
and the successor State, in terms of legal personality, it is unclear how the
successor State, as a new State, may be considered bound by the will of

the predecessor State, being another State in legal terms. Such an under-
standing obliterates the difference between the predecessor State and the
successor State as distinct legal personalities and relies on the fiction that,
in respect of treaties, their wills concur. (See, for instance, the concept of
succession as substitution plus continuation according to which “[d]er

Nachfolger des Völkerrechts aber tritt in Rechte und Pflichten seines
Vorgängers so ein, als wären es seine eigenen” (H. M. Huber, Beiträge zu
einer Lehre von der Staaten-succession , Berlin, 1897, p. 14).) Further, a
rule on automatic succession runs counter to the fundamental principle
of equality of States to the detriment of successor States. Successor

States, by applying this rule, would be deprived of the rights which, other-
wise, States have when expressing consent to be bound, such as, for
example, making a reservation in respect of part of a treaty or accepting
to be bound by a treaty under certain conditions. Finally, automatic suc-

cession rests on, or is substantially close to, the idea of universal succes-
sion in civil law which is incompatible with an essentially consensual
order, in which the main subjects (legal persons) are States as equal and
sovereign political entities.

As far as the effects of automatic succession in respect of treaties are
concerned, it would not substantially contribute to legal stability and cer-
tainty, because it lies on the shoulders of the norms of jus cogens as the
most perfect part of the structure of international law.

151. Erroneous is the thesis that, in the absence of ipso jure transfer of
the rights and obligations, there appears a time gap in the application of
the rules prohibiting the crime of genocide. In contrast to its procedural
provisions, including Article IX, the substantive provisions of the Geno-
cide Convention, being part of the corpus juris cogentis, bind any succes-

sor State, regardless whether it is, or is not, a Contracting Party to the
Convention. The rules of jus cogens as peremptory, absolutely binding,
rules, bind a priori every State, be it a successor or predecessor State,
“even without any conventional obligation” (Reservations to the Conven-

tion on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advi-
sory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1951 , p. 23).
In that regard, to speak about the succession of substantive rules con-
tained in universal treaties or general multilateral treaties adopted in the
interests of the international community as a whole, like the Genocide

Convention, is either superfluous or a wrong way of expressing, for those
rules are ab initio et suo vigore binding on any successor State, regardless
of the law on succession of States in respect of treaties.

152. The different position of the substantive and procedural provi-

sions of universal treaties or general multilateral treaties which express

207 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 615

Premièrement, si l’on s’en tient à la différence entre l’Etat prédécesseur
et l’Etat successeur du point de vue de la personnalité juridique, on voit
mal comment l’Etat successeur, en tant que nouvel Etat, peut être consi-

déré comme lié par la volonté de l’Etat prédécesseur, lequel est juridique-
ment un autre Etat. Une telle interprétation fait disparaître la différence
entre Etat prédécesseur et Etat successeur en tant que personnes juridi-
ques distinctes et repose sur la fiction selon laquelle, en matière de traités,
la volonté de l’un et celle de l’autre se rencontrent. (Voir, par exemple, la

notion de succession en tant que substitution augmentée d’une continua-
tion, selon laquelle «[d]er Nachfolger des Völkerrechts aber tritt in Rechte
und Pflichten seines Vorgängers so ein, als wären es seine eigenen»
(H. M. Huber, Beiträge zu einer Lehre von der Staaten-succession , Ber-
lin, 1897, p. 14).) En outre, la succession automatique va à l’encontre du

principe fondamental de l’égalité des Etats, au détriment des Etats suc-
cesseurs. Ces derniers, en appliquant une telle règle, seraient privés des
droits qu’ont les Etats lorsqu’ils expriment leur consentement à être liés,
par exemple le droit de faire une réserve à une partie du traité ou d’accep-

ter d’être liés par le traité à certaines conditions. Enfin, la succession
automatique repose sur l’idée de la succession universelle en droit civil,
ou est en substance proche de cette idée qui est incompatible avec
un ordre essentiellement consensuel, dans lequel les principaux sujets
(personnes juridiques) sont les Etats, des entités politiques souveraines

et égales.
S’agissant des effets de la succession automatique en matière de traités,
celle-ci ne contribuerait pas beaucoup à la stabilité et à la certitude juri-
diques parce qu’elle repose sur les normes du jus cogens, la partie la plus
parfaite de la structure du droit international.

151. La thèse selon laquelle, en l’absence de transfert ipso jure des
droits et obligations, il semble y avoir un hiatus dans l’application des
règles interdisant le crime de génocide est erronée. A la différence des dis-
positions procédurales de la convention sur le génocide, dont l’article IX,
les dispositions de fond de ce texte, qui font partie du corpus juris cogen-

tis, lient tout Etat successeur, qu’il soit ou non partie à la Convention.
Les règles du jus cogens étant des règles impératives absolument obliga-
toires, elles lient a priori tout Etat, successeur ou prédécesseur, «même en
dehors de tout lien conventionnel» (Réserves à la convention pour la pré-

vention et la répression du crime de génocide, avis consultatif, C.I.J.
Recueil 1951, p. 23).
A cet égard, il est soit superflu soit maladroit de parler de la succession
aux règles de fond énoncées dans des traités universels ou des traités mul-
tilatéraux de caractère général adoptés dans l’intérêt de la communauté

internationale dans son ensemble, comme la convention sur le génocide,
car ces règles sont ab initio et suo vigore contraignantes pour tout Etat
successeur, indépendamment du droit de la succession d’Etats en matière
de traités.
152. La différence existant entre les dispositions de fond et les dispo-

sitions procédurales des traités universels ou des traités multilatéraux à

207616 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

the interests of the international community as a whole is not contra-
dicted by the legal nature of succession in respect of treaties, either. In
fact, the expression “succession in respect of treaties” is in its brevity

somewhat abstract and imprecise in this particular context. It is not the
treaties qua legal acts which are the subject of succession, but rather the
rights and obligations deriving from the treaties.

Substantive obligations in universal treaties being “the obligations of a

State towards the international community as a whole” (Barcelona Trac-
tion, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v. Spain), Second
Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1970 , p. 32, para. 33) are the obligations
of “a State”, regardless of its legal position in terms of whether it is a new
State or the existing one. Opposite to them stand procedural provisions

of such treaties, including provisions such as those of Article IX of the
Genocide Convention which are not “obligations towards the interna-
tional community as a whole”, but obligations intuitu personae which are
not binding upon the successor State without its consent.

153. The notification of succession to which the successor States resort
in practice in order to be bound by the treaties of the predecessor State in
its own right must be specific, in contrast to notifications confirming ipso
jure the transfer of treaty rights and obligations of the predecessor to the

successor State. They could not concern “a class of instruments”, regard-
less of their ascertainability, but the specific treaty which was in force in
relation to the predecessor State.
A synallagmatic obligation, being a specific obligation constituted ex
consenso, cannot be undertaken like an obligation contemplated by the

dictum of the Court in the Nuclear Tests cases, by the intention of a State
solely. As regards those obligations, the intention of a State represents
just a basis of consent as a legally designed intention for treaty law pur-
poses. The notification of succession as developed in the practice of suc-
cessor States is nothing else than a new, specific way of expressing con-

sent to be bound by treaty in the case of succession. This point
demonstrates the close relationship between the law of succession in
respect of treaties and the law on treaties.

154. It is natural that the succession of States with respect to treaties
has the closest link with the law of treaties itself and could be regarded as
dealing with particular aspects of participation in treaties, the conclusion
of treaties and the application of treaties. Special Rapporteur Humphrey
Waldock described this link as follows:

“the Commission could not do otherwise than examine the topic of
succession of States with respect to treaties within the general frame-
work of the law of treaties. . . the principles and rules of the law of
treaties seemed to provide a surer guide to the problems of succes-

sion with respect to treaties than any general theories of succession”

208 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 616

caractère général qui expriment les intérêts de la communauté internatio-
nale dans son ensemble n’est pas non plus contredite par la nature juri-
dique de la succession en matière de traités. En fait, l’expression «succes-

sion en matière de traités» est dans sa brièveté quelque peu abstraite et
imprécise dans ce contexte particulier. Ce ne sont pas les traités en tant
qu’actes juridiques qui font l’objet de la succession mais les droits et les
obligations qui en découlent.
Les obligations de fond énoncées dans les traités universels et dans des

«obligations des Etats envers la communauté internationale dans son
ensemble» (Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited
(Belgique c. Espagne), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970 ,
p. 32, par. 33) sont les obligations d’«un Etat», quelle que soit sa situa-
tion juridique, nouvel Etat ou Etat existant. On trouvera à l’opposé les

obligations procédurales de ces traités, y compris les dispositions comme
l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide qui ne sont pas des «obliga-
tions des Etats envers la communauté internationale dans son ensemble»,
mais des obligations intuitu personae qui ne lient pas l’Etat successeur

sans son consentement.
153. La notification de succession à laquelle recourent les Etats suc-
cesseurs dans la pratique pour être liés par les traités de l’Etat prédéces-
seur doit être précise, à la différence des notifications confirmant le trans-
fert de plein droit des droits et obligations conventionnels de l’Etat

prédécesseur à l’Etat successeur. Elles ne peuvent concerner «une catégo-
rie d’instruments», que ceux-ci puissent ou non être identifiés, mais le
traité bien défini qui était en vigueur pour l’Etat prédécesseur.
La seule intention d’un Etat ne suffit pas pour qu’une obligation synal-
lagmatique, étant une obligation spécifique née ex consenso, soit assumée

comme une obligation envisagée dans le dictum de la Cour dans les
affaires des Essais nucléaires. En ce qui concerne ces obligations, l’inten-
tion de l’Etat est seulement une base du consentement en tant qu’intention
juridiquement conçue aux fins du droit des traités. La notification de suc-
cession telle qu’elle a évolué dans la pratique des Etats successeurs n’est

rien d’autre qu’une nouvelle manière d’exprimer expressément le consen-
tement de son auteur à être lié par un traité dans le cadre de la succession.
Cela démontre la relation étroite entre le droit de la succession en matière
de traités et le droit des traités.

154. Il est naturel que la succession d’Etats en matière de traités ait
le lien le plus étroit avec le droit des traités lui-même et puisse être consi-
dérée comme concernant des aspects particuliers de la participation aux
traités, de la conclusion des traités et de l’application des traités. Le rap-
porteur spécial, sir Humphrey Waldock, a exposé ce lien comme suit:

«la Commission ne peut faire autrement qu’examiner la question de
la succession d’Etats en matière de traités dans le cadre général du
droit des traités ... la solution la plus sûre des problèmes de succes-
sion en matière de traités doit, semble-t-il, être recherchée dans le

cadre des principes et des règles du droit des traités plutôt que dans

208617 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

(Yearbook of the International Law Commission , 1968, Vol. I, p. 131,
para. 52).

Or as stated by O’Connell: “The effect of change of sovereignty on trea-
ties is not a manifestation of some general principle or rule of State suc-
cession, but rather a matter of treaty law and interpretation.” (D. P.

O’Connell, The Law of State Succession , 1956, p. 15.)

155. The Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969) stipulates in Arti-
cle 11 (Means of Expressing Consent To Be Bound by a Treaty): “The
consent of a State to be bound by a treaty may be expressed by signature,

exchange of instruments constituting a treaty, ratification, acceptance,
approval or accession, or by any other means if so agreed .” (Emphasis
added.)
The Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties defines
notification of succession as “any notification, however phrased or named,

made by a successor State expressing its consent to be considered as
bound by the treaty” (Art. 2, para. 1 (g) of the Convention, United
Nations, Treaty Series, Vol. 1946; emphasis added).

It seems clear that the notification of succession as defined, being a
means of “expressing consent” in relation to “the treaty”, could hardly be
understood, as the majority view suggests, as an abstract, generalized
form of expressing an intention to be bound by an ascertainable class of
treaty instruments.

156. Tractu temporis, the notification of succession becomes “other
means” in the terms of Article 11 of the Convention on the Law of Trea-
ties, of the expressing consent to be bound by the treaty designed for suc-
cessor States on the basis of collateral agreement in simplified form
between them and the parties to its predecessor’s treaties. As such, the

notification of succession is treated by the Secretary-General as deposi-
tary of multilateral treaties.
157. To that effect, the position of the Secretary-General, as deposi-
tary of multilateral treaties, seems clear:

“Frequently, newly independent States will submit to the Secre-
tary-General ‘general’ declarations of succession, usually requesting

that the declaration be circulated to all States Members of the
United Nations. The Secretary-General, duly complies with such a
request. . . but does not consider such a declaration as a valid instru-
ment of succession to any of the treaties deposited with him, and he
so informs the Government of the new State concerned. In so doing,

the Secretary-General is guided by the following considerations.

The deposit of an instrument of succession results in having the
succeeding State become bound, in its own name, by the treaty to
which the succession applies, with exactly the same rights and obli-

gations as if that State had ratified or acceded to, or otherwise

209 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 617

celui d’une théorie générale de la succession» (Annuaire de la Com-
mission du droit international , 1968, vol. I, p. 131, par. 52).

Ou, comme l’écrit O’Connell: «L’effet d’un changement de souveraineté
sur les traités n’est pas la manifestation de quelques principes ou règles
générales de la succession d’Etats mais bien une question de droit et

d’interprétation des traités.» (D. P. O’Connell, The Law of State Succes-
sion, 1956, p. 15.)
155. La convention sur le droit des traités (1969) dispose en son ar-
ticle 11 (Modes d’expression du consentement à être lié par un traité) que
«[l]e consentement d’un Etat à être lié par un traité peut être exprimé par

la signature, l’échange d’instruments constituant un traité, la ratification,
l’acceptation, l’approbation ou l’adhésion, ou par tout autre moyen
convenu» (les italiques sont de moi).
La convention sur la succession d’Etats en matière de traités définit la
notification de succession comme «une notification, quel que soit son

libellé ou sa désignation,faite par un Etat successeur, exprimant le consen-
tement de cet Etat à être considéré comme étant lié par le traité» (art. 2,
par. 1 g), de la convention, Nations Unies,Recueil des traités, vol. 1946;
les italiques sont de moi).

Il semble clair que la notification de succession telle qu’elle est définie,
étant un moyen d’«exprimer un consentement» en relation avec «le
traité», ne peut guère être entendue, ainsi que le porte à croire l’opinion
majoritaire, comme l’expression abstraite et générale d’une intention
d’être lié par une catégorie identifiable d’instruments conventionnels.

156. Tractu temporis, la notification de succession devient un «autre
moyen», aux termes de l’article 11 de la convention sur le droit des trai-
tés, d’exprimer son consentement à être lié par le traité, moyen conçu à
l’intention des Etats successeurs sur la base d’un accord collatéral en
forme simplifiée entre ces Etats et les parties aux traités de l’Etat prédé-

cesseur. Dans ces conditions, le Secrétaire général reçoit la notification de
succession en sa qualité de dépositaire des traités multilatéraux.
157. Sur ce point, la position du Secrétaire général, en sa qualité de
dépositaire des traités multilatéraux, semble claire:

«Les Etats nouvellement indépendants soumettent souvent au
Secrétaire général des déclarations «générales» de succession en

demandant le plus souvent que le texte en soit communiqué à tous
les Etats Membres de l’Organisation des Nations Unies. Le Secré-
taire général fait droit à ce type de demande ... mais ne considère pas
la déclaration comme un instrument valable de succession à l’un
quelconque des traités déposés auprès de lui et il notifie en ce sens le

gouvernement du nouvel Etat intéressé. Ce faisant, il s’appuie sur les
considérations suivantes.
De par le dépôt d’un instrument de succession, l’Etat qui succède
se trouve lié, de son propre chef, par le traité auquel s’applique la
succession, avec les mêmes droits et obligations que s’il avait ratifié le

traité, y avait adhéré ou l’avait accepté de toute autre manière. En

209618 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

accepted, the treaty. Consequently, it has always been the position
of the Secretary-General, in his capacity as depositary, to record a
succeeding State as a party to a given treaty solely on the basis of a

formal document similar to instruments of ratification, accession,
etc., that is, a notification emanating from the Head of State, the
Head of Government or the Minister for Foreign Affairs, which
should specify the treaty or treaties by which the State concerned
recognizes itself to be bound.

General declarations are not sufficiently authoritative to have the
States concerned listed as parties in the publication Multilateral
Treaties Deposited with the Secretary-General.” (Summary of Prac-
tice of the Secretary-General as Depositary of Multilateral Treaties,
doc. ST/LEG/7/Rev. 1, paras. 303-305 (footnote omitted); emphasis

added.)
158. It should be noted that the Applicant itself, except for the pur-

poses of the present proceedings, did not consider the FRY a party to the
Genocide Convention nor to other multilateral treaties on the basis of the
1992 declaration. The general position of the Applicant in that regard
was expressed in a letter of its Minister of Foreign Affairs addressed to

the President of the Security Council dated 23 August 1993. That posi-
tion was as follows:

“As a result of the dissolution of the former State, the country
known as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montene-
gro) will have to deposit an instrument of succession to all interna-
tional treaties it wishes to continue to be a party to.” (United
Nations doc. S/26349 (1993).)

The position, repeatedly raised on a number of occasions (United Nations
doc. CERD/SP/51 (1994), p. 3; United Nations doc. CCPR/SP/40 (1994),

p. 3; United Nations doc. CCPR/SP/SR.18 (1994), p. 3, para. 2; p. 6,
para. 21, p. 7, para 23; United Nations doc. CCPR/SP/SP/SR.19 (1994),
pp. 3, 4 and 8), was summarized in a letter of the Permanent Representa-
tive of Croatia of 30 January 1995 addressed to the Secretary-General in

his capacity as depositary of multilateral treaties (United Nations doc. A/
50/75-E/1995/10).
159. Commenting on a document regarding the “Status of succession,
accession and ratification of human rights treaties by successors to the
former Yugoslavia, the former Soviet Union and the former Czechoslo-

vakia”, the Permanent Representative of Croatia recalled that:

“The representatives of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Ser-
bia and Montenegro) have been prevented from participating in
international meetings and conferences of State[s] parties to multi-
lateral treaties in respect of which the Secretary-General acts as
depositary (i.e. Convention on Prohibitions and Restrictions of the

Use of Certain Conventional Weapons which May be Deemed to be

210 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 618

conséquence, la ligne constante du Secrétaire général en tant que
dépositaire a été de n’inclure un Etat qui succède dans la liste des
Etats parties à un traité déterminé que sur la base d’un document

formel de même nature que les instruments de ratification, d’adhé-
sion, etc., c’est-à-dire d’une notification émanant du chef d’Etat, du
chef de gouvernement ou du ministre des affaires étrangères, qui
désigne nommément le traité ou les traités par le(s)quel(s) l’Etat en
cause se reconnaît lié.

Les déclarations générales n’offrent pas une base juridique suffi-
sante pour permettre l’inclusion des Etats intéressés dans la liste des
parties reproduite dans la publication Traités multilatéraux déposés
auprès du Secrétaire général.» (Précis de la pratique du Secrétaire
général en tant que dépositaire de traités multilatéraux, doc. ST/LEG/

7/Rev.1, par. 303-305 (note omise); les italiques sont de moi.)
158. Il convient de noter que le demandeur lui-même, excepté aux fins

de la présente espèce, ne considérait pas que la RFY fût, sur la base de la
déclaration de 1992, partie à la convention sur le génocide ni à d’autres
traités multilatéraux. La position générale du demandeur à cet égard a
été exprimée dans une lettre datée du 23 août 1993 adressée au président

du Conseil de sécurité par le ministre des affaires étrangères. Cette posi-
tion était la suivante:

«Par suite de la dissolution de l’ancien Etat, l’Etat appelé Répu-
blique fédérative de Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténégro) devra dépo-
ser un instrument de succession à tous les traités internationaux
auxquels il souhaite continuer d’être partie.» (Nations Unies, doc.
S/26349 (1993).)

Cette position, rappelée en un certain nombre d’occasions (Nations Unies,
doc. CERD/SP/51 (1994), p. 3; CCPR/SP/40 (1994), p. 3; CCPR/SP/

SR.18 (1994), p. 3, par. 2; p. 6, par. 21; p. 7, par. 23; CCPR/SP/SP/SR.19
(1994), p. 3, 4 et 8), a été résumée dans une lettre datée du 30 janvier 1995
adressée au Secrétaire général en sa qualité de dépositaire des traités mul-
tilatéraux par le représentant permanent de la Croatie (Nations Unies,

doc. A/50/75-E/1995/10).

159. Commentant un document sur l’«état des instruments relatifs aux
droits de l’homme en ce qui concerne la succession, l’adhésion ou la rati-
fication par les Etats qui ont succédé à l’ex-Yougoslavie, à l’ex-Union

soviétique et à l’ex-Tchécoslovaquie», le représentant permanent de la
Croatie rappelait ce qui suit:

«C’est ainsi que les représentants de la République fédérative de
Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténégro) n’ont pas été autorisés à parti-
ciper aux réunions et conférences internationales d’Etats parties aux
traités multilatéraux dont le Secrétaire général est dépositaire (entre
autres, la convention sur l’interdiction ou la limitation de l’emploi de

certaines armes classiques qui peuvent être considérées comme pro-

210619 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

Excessively Injurious or to have Indiscriminate Effects, Convention
on the Rights of the Child, International Convention on Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, International Covenant on

Civil and Political Rights, etc.) as the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via (Serbia and Montenegro) had not acted according to interna-
tional rules of succession of States. Namely, the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) had tried to participate in
international forums as a State party without having notified its

succession. . .” (United Nations doc. A/50/75-E/1995/10; emphasis
added.)

And, consequently, that:

“Should the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Mon-
tenegro) express its intention to be considered a party , by virtue of
succession, to the multilateral treaties of the predecessor State with

effect as of 27 April 1992, the date on which the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro), as a new State, assumed
responsibility for its international relations, the Republic of Croatia
would take note of that notifications of succession.” (Ibid.; emphasis
added.)

(g) Could the Respondent be considered a party to the Genocide
Convention on the basis of the 1992 declaration and its conduct?

160. It is true that, in the majority perception, the Respondent is con-
sidered a party to the Genocide Convention by the combined effects of
the 1992 declaration and its “consistent conduct” as regards the Conven-
tion. This is suggested by the conclusio that “both the text of the declara-
tion and Note of 27 April 1992, and the consistent conduct of the FRY at

the time of its making and throughout the years 1992-2001” (Judgment,
para. 117) give rise to the finding that the FRY was a Contracting Party
to the Convention at the relevant time.

(It may, incidentally, be mentioned that the very reliance on the con-
duct of the Respondent, in the assessment as to whether it can be con-
sidered a Contracting Party to the Convention in the relevant period of
time, represents by itself a tacit admission that the 1992 declaration was
not capable of producing the effects attributed to it by the 1996 Judg-

ment and by the subsequent decisions of the Court on its precedential
authority.)
It transpires, consequently, that the “consistent conduct” of the FRY
possesses substantive effects in casu, that “consistent conduct” as such is
not a supportive argument for the understanding of the 1992 declaration

as a notification of succession, but a basis per se. This is additionally sug-

211 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KREuA ) 619

duisant des effets traumatiques excessifs ou comme frappant sans
discrimination, la convention relative aux droits de l’enfant, la
convention sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination à

l’égard des femmes, la convention internationale sur l’élimination de
toutes les formes de discrimination raciale, le Pacte international
relatif aux droits civils et politiques) étant donné que cet Etat ne
s’était pas conformé aux règles du droit international régissant la
succession d’Etats. A plusieurs occasions en effet, la République

fédérative de Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténégro) avait cherché à
participer à des rencontres internationales en tant qu’Etat partie sans
s’être présentée comme Etat successeur ... » (Nations Unies,
doc. A/50/75-E/1995/10; les italiques sont de moi.)

En conséquence,

«Si la République fédérative de Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténé-
gro) faisait part de son intention d’être considérée , en tant qu’Etat
successeur, comme partie aux traités multilatéraux conclus par l’Etat

prédécesseur à compter du 27 avril 1992, date à laquelle la Répu-
blique fédérative de Yougoslavie (Serbie et Monténégro) a assumé,
en sa qualité de nouvel Etat, la responsabilité de ses relations inter-
nationales, la République de Croatie prendrait bonne note de cette
notification de succession.» (Ibid.; les italiques sont de moi.)

g) Le défendeur pourrait-il être considéré comme partie à la convention
sur le génocide sur la base de la déclaration de 1992 et de son compor-
tement?

160. Il est exact que, dans l’esprit de la majorité, le défendeur est
considéré comme partie à la convention sur le génocide par les effets
combinés de la déclaration de 1992 et de son «comportement concor-
dant» en ce qui concerne la Convention. C’est ce que donne à penser la
conclusion selon laquelle «la teneur de la déclaration et de la note du

27 avril 1992 ainsi que du comportement concordant de la RFY tant au
moment de leur rédaction que tout au long des années 1992 à 2001»
(arrêt, par. 117) permet de conclure que la RFY était une partie à la
Convention au moment pertinent.

(On mentionnera incidemment que le fait même de se fonder sur le
comportement du défendeur afin d’apprécier si celui-ci peut être consi-
déré comme partie à la Convention pour la période pertinente revient à
admettre tacitement que la déclaration de 1992 ne pouvait produire les
effets que lui attribuent l’arrêt de 1996 et les décisions postérieures de la

Cour sur le fondement de cet arrêt.)

Il apparaît donc que le «comportement concordant» de la RFY a des
effets sur le fond en l’espèce, que ce «comportement concordant» n’est
pas seulement invoqué pour étayer l’interprétation de la déclaration de

1992 comme une notification de succession, mais bien un fondement en

211620 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

gested by the fact that the conclusio does not refer to the 1992 declaration
as an act, but to the text of the declaration. What is understood under
“consistent conduct” in that perception? It appears that what is meant by

“consistent conduct” are the actions and inactions of the FRY.
161. The actions in question are the following:
(i) that in the case concerning Application of the Convention on the Pre-

vention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (preliminary objec-
tions phase), the FRY “argued that the Genocide Convention had
begun to apply to relations between the two Parties on 14 December
1995” (Judgment, para. 114);
(ii) that the FRY “on 29 April 1999. . . filed in the Registry of the Court

Applications instituting proceedings against ten States Members of
NATO, citing (inter alia) the Genocide Convention as title of juris-
diction” (ibid., para. 114).

As regards the inactions of the FRY, according to the majority percep-
tion, the following inactions are relevant:
(i) that the FRY “did not repudiate its status as a party to the Conven-

tion even when it became apparent that that claim [continuity claim]
would not prevail (ibid., para. 111);
(ii) that in the provisional measures phase of the case concerning Appli-
cation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide, the FRY “while questioning whether the Appli-

cant State was a party to the Genocide Convention at the relevant
dates, did not challenge the claim that it was itself a party” (ibid.,
para. 114);
(iii) that following its admission to the United Nations in 2000, the FRY
“did not at that time withdraw, or purport to withdraw, the declara-

tion and Note of 1992, which had been drawn up in the light of the
contention that the FRY was continuing the legal personality of the
SFRY” (ibid., para. 115).

162. The conduct of the FRY, according to the majority perception,
attributes to the 1992 declaration the quality of “a valid and effective
means by which the declaring State could assume obligations under the
Convention” (Judgment, para. 110). For, as it is reasoned, the declara-
tion “need not strictly comply with all formal requirements” (ibid.)

having in mind that
“For example, in the North Sea Continental Shelf (Federal Repub-

lic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany/Nether-
lands) cases, the Court recognized the possibility that a State that
had not carried out the usual formalities (ratification, accession) to
become bound by the régime of an international convention might
nevertheless ‘somehow become bound in another way’, even though

such a process was ‘not lightly to be presumed’ to have occurred.”
(Ibid.)

Consequently, the conduct of the FRY possesses as regards the 1992 dec-

212 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 620

lui-même. C’est également ce que donne à penser le fait que la conclusio
ne vise pas la déclaration de 1992 comme un acte, mais vise son texte.
Qu’entend-on par «comportement concordant» à cet égard? Il semble

que ce que l’on entend par là est l’action et l’inaction de la RFY.
161. Les actions en cause sont les suivantes:
i) dans l’affaire concernant l’Application de la convention pour la pré-

vention et la répression du crime de génocide (phase des exceptions
préliminaires), la RFY «a soutenu que ... la convention sur le géno-
cide ... était entré[e] en vigueur entre les deux Parties le 14 décembre
1995» (arrêt, par. 114);
ii) la RFY, «le 29 avril 1999, ... a déposé au Greffe de la Cour des requêtes

introductives d’instance contre dix Etats membres de l’OTAN, en
invoquant notamment la convention sur le génocide comme base de
compétence» (ibid., par. 114).

En ce qui concerne l’inaction de la RFY, selon l’opinion de la majorité,
les faits pertinents sont les suivants:
i) la RFY «ne renonça pas à son statut de partie à la Convention même

lorsqu’il devint manifeste que cette thèse [celle de la continuité] ne
prévaudrait pas» (ibid., par. 111);
ii) dans la phase des mesures conservatoires de l’affaire concernant
l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocide, la RFY, «tout en émettant des doutes sur le fait

de savoir si l’Etat demandeur était partie à la convention sur le géno-
cide aux dates pertinentes, n’avait pas contesté la thèse qu’elle y
était» (ibid., par. 114);
iii) après son admission à l’Organisation des Nations Unies en 2000, la
RFY «n’a, à l’époque, ni retiré ni prétendu retirer la déclaration et

la note de 1992, qui étaient inspirées de sa thèse selon laquelle elle
assurait la continuité de la personnalité juridique de la RFSY» (ibid.,
par. 115).

162. Le comportement de la RFY, selon l’opinion majoritaire, attri-
bue à la déclaration de 1992 la qualité de «moyen valable et effectif par
lequel l’Etat déclarant peut assumer des obligations en vertu de la
Convention» (ibid., par. 110). Car, selon cette opinion, la déclaration
«n’a pas à être strictement conforme à l’ensemble des formalités

requises» (ibid.):
«Ainsi, dans les affaires du Plateau continental de la mer du Nord

(République fédérale d’Allemagne/Danemark) (République fédérale
d’Allemagne/Pays-Bas) , la Cour a reconnu qu’un Etat qui ne s’était
pas acquitté des formalités d’usage (ratification, adhésion) pour
devenir lié par le régime établi par une convention internationale
pouvait «n’en [être] pas moins tenu d’une autre façon», encore

qu’on «ne saurait présumer à la légère» que ce processus a eu lieu.»
(Ibid.)

Ainsi, le comportement de la RFY possède en ce qui concerne la déclara-

212621 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

laration a convalidating effect, because a contrario it is devoid of any
substance. The reasoning and conclusio of the majority simply call for
comments.

163. The rationale of referring to the North Sea Continental Shelf
cases is completely unclear, as the claim of the Respondents that the
FRG was contractually bound by the 1958 Geneva Convention on the
Continental Shelf, and in particular by its Article 6, “by conduct, by pub-
lic statements and proclamations” (I.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 25, para. 27)

was rejected in the Judgment and even in the opinions of Judges appended
to it (ibid., pp. 86, 155, 198, 242). As the Court stated,

“only the existence of a situation of estoppel could suffice to lend
substance to this contention, — that is to say if the Federal Republic
were now precluded from denying the applicability of the conven-

tional régime, by reason of past conduct, declarations, etc., which
not only clearly and consistently evinced acceptance of that régime,
but also had caused Denmark or the Netherlands, in reliance on
such conduct, detrimentally to change position or suffer some preju-

dice” (ibid., p. 26, para. 30).
Needless to say, however, that such effects of past conduct are limited

to a particular case, so that the actions or inactions of the FRY in the
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the
Crime of Genocide as well as in the Legality of Use of Force cases are
absolutely irrelevant in casu.

164. Even if, arguendo, the claim of Denmark and the Netherlands is
acceptable, the requirement of a “very definite, very consistent course of
conduct” (ibid., p. 25, para. 28) on the part of the FRY would hardly
have been met. For, in the preliminary objections phase in the Legality of
Use of Force cases ((Serbia and Montenegro v. Belgium), Preliminary

Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , pp. 292-293, para. 29), as
well as in the merits phase in the Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide case, the FRY
clearly pointed out that it did not consider itself a Contracting Party to

the Genocide Convention before the expression of consent in the form of
accession on 6 March 2001 (effective 10 June 2001) ((Bosnia and Herze-
govina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I) ,
p. 77, para. 81).
165. Conduct in terms of actions and/or inactions of a party cannot be

the means of binding a State by a treaty, because it is simply not a state-
ment of the will of a State. As such, it can be an external, material expres-
sion of a certain intention of a State and, in that sense, the basis for a
unilateralundertakingofanobligation,asdemonstratedbytheideaunder-
lying the dictum of the Court in the Nuclear Tests cases. Unilateral

undertaking of an obligation is, however, one thing, and acquiring the

213 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 621

tion de 1992 un effet convalidant, parce que dans le cas contraire celle-ci
serait dénuée de substance. Le raisonnement et la conclusio de la majorité
appellent certaines observations.

163. La raison qui motive le renvoi aux affaires du Plateau continental
de la mer du Nord n’est absolument pas claire, car l’argument des deman-
deurs selon lequel la République fédérale d’Allemagne était contractuel-
lement liée par la convention de Genève de 1958 sur le plateau continen-
tal, et en particulier par son article 6, «en raison notamment de son

comportement, de ses déclarations publiques et de ses proclamations»
(C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 25, par. 27), a été rejeté dans l’arrêt et même dans
les opinions des juges annexées à celui-ci (ibid., p. 86, 155, 198 et 242).
Comme l’a déclaré la Cour,

«seule l’existence d’une situation d’estoppel pourrait étayer pareille
thèse: il faudrait que la République fédérale ne puisse plus contester
l’applicabilité du régime conventionnel, en raison d’un comporte-

ment, de déclarations, etc., qui n’auraient pas seulement attesté
d’une manière claire et constante son acceptation de ce régime mais
auraient également amené le Danemark ou les Pays-Bas, se fondant
sur cette attitude, à modifier leur position à leur détriment ou à subir

un préjudice quelconque» (ibid., p. 26, par. 30).
Il va cependant sans dire que de tels effets d’un comportement passé

sont limités à une affaire particulière, de telle manière que ce que la RFY
a fait ou n’a pas fait dans l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide ainsi que dans les
affaires relatives à la Licéité de l’emploi de la force est absolument dénué
de pertinence en l’espèce.

164. Même si, arguendo, l’argument du Danemark et des Pays-Bas est
acceptable, la condition d’un «comportement ... absolument net et
constant» (ibid., p. 25, par. 28) de la RFY n’aurait pas été satisfaite.
En effet, dans la phase des exceptions préliminaires dans les affaires de
la Licéité de l’emploi de la force ((Serbie-et-Monténégro c. Belgique),

exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) , p. 292-293,
par. 29) ainsi que dans la phase du fond de l’affaire relative à
l’Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime
de génocide, la RFY a clairement souligné qu’elle considérait ne

pas avoir été partie à la convention sur le génocide avant d’avoir ex-
primé son consentement par son adhésion le 6 mars 2001 (avec effet au
10 juin 2001) ((Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Serbie-et-Monténégro), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 77, par. 81).
165. Un Etat ne peut être lié par un traité en raison de son comporte-

ment, actif ou passif, parce que ce comportement n’est tout simplement
pas l’expression de sa volonté. Dans ces conditions, celui-ci peut consti-
tuer l’expression externe et pertinente d’une certaine intention de l’Etat
et, en ce sens, la base d’un engagement unilatéral à s’obliger, comme le
montre l’idée qui sous-tend le dictum de la Cour dans les affaires des

Essais nucléaires. Toutefois, assumer unilatéralement une obligation est

213622 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

status of a Contracting Party to a treaty as an act essentially character-
ized by synallagmaticity, is quite another thing (para. 134 above). There-
fore, the means of expressing consent to be bound by a treaty is always a

matter of concurrence of the wills of the negotiators, a part of the final
clauses of a treaty having retroactive effects. Conduct of a State in terms
of actions or inactions is not stipulated in the Genocide Convention nor
in any other convention as a means of expressing consent to be bound. In
contrast to the expression of consent to be bound by a treaty, the actions

or inactions of a party to the dispute can constitute jurisdiction of the
Court in a particular case by way of the mechanism of forum prorogatum.

166. If, as the majority reasons, the practice of a State is considered as

a basis for acceptance of the conventional régime, the role of the 1992
declaration, both as a matter of logic and as a matter of law, is unclear
within the framework of such reasoning.
As a matter of logic, in such a perception of the practice of a State, the

1992 declaration ought to be either irrelevant as such or only an element
of the practice, together with other actions and/or inactions of a State.
However, in the majority perception, the “consistent conduct” of the
FRY and the 1992 declaration have been placed on the same level, as two
equal and independent bases for the determination of the FRY as a Con-

tracting Party to the Genocide Convention.

As a matter of law, in relation to the 1992 declaration and the “con-
sistent conduct” of the FRY, as projected by the majority, it appears that
the latter has been attributed the convalidating role as regards the defi-

ciencies of the declaration. It is hardly possible, in the circumstances sur-
rounding the present case, that the practice may have a convalidating
role. For, in concreto, what is involved here is the incapability of the 1992
declaration, in the light of the rules of general international law, to pro-
duce a proper legal effect, and not the defects of consent (vices de con-

sentement) which, as a rule, may be convalidated by the actions or in-
actions of the State concerned. The practice of the Respondent, as perceived
by the majority, should, in fact, remove the objective deficiencies of the
1992 declaration which are not in the domain of the will of its authors

and, as such, cannot be affected by its actions and/or inactions.

(h) Legal effects of the admission of the FRY/Serbia to the United

Nations as a new State

167. In the absence of the rule on automatic succession as regards the
multilateral treaties applicable to the present case, the admission of the
FRY/Serbia to the United Nations is unavoidably reflected on its status
vis-à-vis the Genocide Convention due to the specific circumstances sur-

rounding its admission to the United Nations. That was not only the

214 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 622

une chose, et acquérir le statut de partie à un traité, un acte qui se carac-
térise essentiellement par la synallagmaticité, en est une autre (par. 134
ci-dessus). Ainsi, le mode d’expression du consentement à être lié par un

traité relève toujours de la rencontre des volontés des négociateurs, une
partie des clauses finales du traité ayant des effets rétroactifs. Le compor-
tement d’un Etat, qu’il s’agisse de ce qu’il fait ou de ce qu’il ne fait pas,
n’est pas prévu dans la convention sur le génocide ni dans aucune autre
convention comme moyen d’exprimer son consentement à être lié. Si elles

ne peuvent exprimer le consentement à être liées par un traité, les actions
ou les omissions d’une partie au différend peuvent conférer, dans une
espèce donnée, compétence à la Cour au moyen du mécanisme du forum
prorogatum.
166. Si, comme le soutient la majorité, on considère que la pratique

d’un Etat exprime l’acceptation par celui-ci du régime conventionnel, le
rôle de la déclaration de 1992, du point de vue tant de la logique que du
droit, n’est pas clair à cet égard.
Du point de vue de la logique, si l’on considère de cette façon la pra-

tique d’un Etat, la déclaration de 1992 doit soit être dénuée de pertinence
en tant que telle, soit n’être qu’un élément de la pratique, parmi d’autres
actions ou inactions de l’Etat. Toutefois, selon la majorité, le «compor-
tement concordant» de la RFY et la déclaration de 1992 ont été placés
sur le même pied, comme deux éléments indépendants et égaux per-

mettant d’attribuer à la RFY la qualité de partie à la convention sur
le génocide.
Du point de vue du droit, s’agissant de la déclaration de 1992 et du
«comportement concordant» de la RFY, tel que le perçoit la majorité, il
semble que celle-ci ait attribué à ce comportement la faculté de remédier

aux insuffisances de la déclaration. Il n’est guère possible, dans les cir-
constances de la présente espèce, que la pratique puisse avoir un tel rôle
convalidant. Car, in concreto, ce qui est en cause ici est l’incapacité de la
déclaration de 1992, à la lumière des règles du droit international général,
à produire l’effet juridique approprié, et non les vices de consentement

qui, en général, peuvent être couverts par l’action ou l’inaction de l’Etat
concerné. La pratique du défendeur, comme la conçoit la majorité,
devrait en fait remédier aux vices objectifs de la déclaration de 1992 qui
ne relèvent pas du domaine de la volonté de ses auteurs et sur lesquels,

dans ces conditions, les actions ou l’inaction du défendeur ne peuvent
avoir d’effet.

h) Effets juridiques de l’admission de la RFY/Serbie à l’Organisation

des Nations Unies en tant que nouvel Etat

167. En l’absence de règle de succession automatique aux traités mul-
tilatéraux applicable dans la présente affaire, l’admission à l’Organisation
des Nations Unies de la RFY/Serbie a inévitablement eu un effet sur le
statut de celle-ci au regard de la convention sur le génocide en raison des

circonstances particulières qui ont entouré cette admission. Il ne s’agissait

214623 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

admission to the membership in the ordinary sense, but an admission fol-
lowed by the determination of the legal personality of the FRY in terms
of continuator/successor dichotomy.

This element is highly relevant in casu. In the case that the FRY con-
tinues the legal personality of the SFRY, it would be a Contracting Party
to the Genocide Convention on the basis of the deposition of the instru-
ments of ratification of the SFRY, without reservation, on 25 Aug-

ust 1950. The position of the FRY as a successor State puts the
matter on a different legal level, as demonstrated by the actions taken by
the Secretary-General as depositary of multilateral treaties (paras. 173,
176-178 below).
168. At the end of the year 2000 the FRY did two things:

(a) it renounced the continuity claim and accepted the status of the suc-
cessor State of the former SFRY; and
(b) it proceeded from a qualitatively new legal basis — as the successor

State — and on that basis submitted the application for admission
to membership in the United Nations.
169. The State, as a notion of international law, comprises two ele-

ments, i.e., possesses two faces:
(a) statehood in the sense of the relevant attributes such as defined ter-
ritory, stable population and sovereign power;
(b) legal personality, i.e., the status of a subject of international law

equipped with a corpus of rights and obligations. The legal person-
ality of the FRY, in the light of the relevant circumstances sur-
rounding it, can either be of an inferential, derivative nature —
based on the legal identity and continuity with the SFRY — or of

an inherent, original nature — based on the status of a new State.

170. By submitting the application for admission to membership in the
United Nations, the FRY not only renounced the claim to legal identity

and continuity but claimed at the same time to be accepted as a new State
in the sense of some other, different legal personality from the one
claimed until the year 2000 — a successor State versus the continuator of
the former SFRY.

171. The admission of the FRY to membership of the United Nations
from 1 November 2000 also meant the acceptance of the claim of the
FRY to be accepted as a new State in the sense of a new international
personality different from its hybrid and controversial personality in the
period 1992-2000. The claim was accepted by way of a series of collateral

agreements in a simplified form, or a general collateral agreement in a
simplified form, between the FRY, on the one hand, and the Member
States of the United Nations and the World Organization itself, on the
other. The subject of the series of collateral agreements, or of the general
collateral agreement as well as explicit statements, is recognition of the

FRY as a new personality, a personality of the successor State of the

215 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 623

pas seulement d’une admission en tant que nouveau membre au sens
ordinaire, mais d’une admission suivie par la détermination de la person-
nalité juridique de la RFY du point de vue de la dichotomie Etat conti-

nuateur/Etat successeur.
Cet élément est extrêmement pertinent en l’espèce. Si la RFY avait
assuré la continuité de la personnalité juridique de la RSFY, elle aurait
été partie à la convention sur le génocide sur la base du dépôt des instru-
ments de ratification de la RSFY, sans réserve, le 25 août 1950. Le statut

d’Etat successeur de la RFY place la question à un niveau juridique dif-
férent, comme le montrent les mesures prises par le Secrétaire général en
sa qualité de dépositaire des traités multilatéraux (par. 173 et 176-178 ci-
dessous).
168. A la fin de l’an 2000, la RFY a fait deux choses:

a) elle a renoncé à sa revendication de continuité et accepté le statut
d’Etat successeur de l’ex-RSFY; et
b) elle s’est placée sur un fondement juridique qualitativement nouveau

— en qualité d’Etat successeur — et sur cette base a demandé à être
admise à l’Organisation des Nations Unies.
169. L’Etat, en tant que concept du droit international, comprend

deux éléments, c’est-à-dire qu’il a deux visages:
a) la qualité d’Etat du point de vue des attributs pertinents tels qu’un
territoire défini, une population stable et un pouvoir souverain;
b) la personnalité juridique, c’est-à-dire le statut d’un sujet de droit

international pourvu d’un corpus de droits et d’obligations. La per-
sonnalité juridique de la RFY, à la lumière des circonstances perti-
nentes, peut avoir soit un caractère dérivé, être définie par inférence
— sur la base de l’identité juridique et de la continuité avec la

RSFY —, soit un caractère original inhérent — sur la base du statut
de nouvel Etat.
170. En présentant sa demande d’admission à l’Organisation des
Nations Unies, la RFY n’a pas seulement renoncé à sa revendication

d’identité juridique et de continuité, mais a demandé dans le même temps
à être acceptée comme un nouvel Etat doté d’une personnalité juridique
différente de celle qu’elle revendiquait jusqu’à 2000 — un Etat successeur
et non l’Etat continuateur de l’ex-RSFY.

171. L’admierion de la RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies à
compter du 1 novembre 2000 a aussi signifié qu’était acceptée sa demande
d’être admise en tant que nouvel Etat ayant une personnalité internatio-
nale nouvelle, différente de la personnalité hybride et controversée qui
avait été la sienne de 1992 à 2000. Cette demande a été acceptée au moyen

d’une série d’accords collatéraux en forme simplifiée, ou d’accord collaté-
ral général en forme simplifiée, entre la RFY d’une part et les Etats Mem-
bres de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et l’Organisation elle-même de
l’autre. L’objet de cette série d’accords collatéraux, ou de cet accord col-
latéral général ainsi que des déclarations expresses, était la reconnaissance

de la RFY en tant que nouvelle personnalité, une personnalité d’Etat suc-

215624 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

former SFRY, and, in that capacity it was admitted to the World Organi-
zation as a Member. Thus, the FRY, although being the “old State” in
the sense of statehood, was universally recognized as a “new State” in the

sense of its international legal personality. As far as the FRY after the
year 2000 is concerned, its legal existence as a new international legal per-
sonality started in November 2000 by its admission to membership in the
United Nations.
172. As regards the claim of the FRY to be accepted as a successor

State, the following explicit statements are relevant: Statements made
upon the admission of FRY to membership in the United Nations on 1
November 2000 by the Non-Aligned Movement; Germany, on behalf of
the Western European and Other States Group; France, on behalf of the
European Union and the Central and Eastern European countries asso-

ciated with the European Union, the associated countries of Cyprus,
Malta and Turkey, and the EFTA countries members of the European
Economic Area; Croatia and Slovenia. See also document A/55/522-S/
2000/1028 (letter dated 25 October 2000 from the Permanent Representa-

tive of the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia to the United Nations
addressed to the Secretary-General) containing, in an annex thereto, the
following joint statement made at the Informal Summit of the Heads of
State and Government of the countries participating in the South-East
European Cooperation Process:

“We strongly encouraged the commitment of the Federal Repub-
lic of Yugoslavia to follow a policy of good-neighborly relations,
reconciliation and mutual understanding in the region, as well as

respect for the principle of equality and non discrimination of all the
successor States of the former Yugoslavia in their mutual rela-
tions.’” (Non-paper of the United Nations Legal Counsel attached
to his letter to the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Federal Repub-

lic of Yugoslavia dated 8 December 2000, Ann. 23 of the Prelimi-
nary Objections of the FRY.)

(i) The relevance of the Secretary-General’s/Secretariat’s action in the
exercise of the depositary function

173. Although the Secretary-General, in the capacity of depositary of

the Genocide Convention, is not invested with any autonomous, substan-
tive competence in terms of the determination of whether the FRY was
viewed, or could be viewed, as qualifying to be a party to the Genocide
Convention, his actions are not a priori devoid of any effects, which the
complete ignoring of his actions might suggest. After all, his functions of

depositary of multilateral treaties would be devoid of any substance.

In the present case the actions taken by the Secretary-General as
regards the position of the FRY vis-à-vis the Genocide Convention are of
a specific nature. They must be viewed in the totality of his competences

as one of the principal organs of the Organization. In a case like the

216 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 624

cesseur de l’ex-RSFY, et, à ce titre, son admission à l’organisation mon-
diale en tant que Membre. Ainsi, la RFY, bien qu’étant le «vieil Etat» du
point de vue de sa qualité d’Etat, a été universellement reconnue comme

un «nouvel Etat» du point de vue de sa personnalité juridique internatio-
nale. S’agissant de la RFY après 2000, son existence juridique en tant que
nouvelle personnalité juridique internationale a commencé en novembre
2000 à partir de son admission à l’Organisation des Nations Unies.
172. En ce qui concerne la prétention de la RFY à être acceptée en tant

qu’Etat successeur, les déclarations expresses ci-après sont pertinentes:
les déclarations faites lors de l’admission de la RFY à l’Organisation
des Nations Unies le 1 er novembre 2000 par le Mouvement des pays non
alignés; par l’Allemagne, au nom du Groupe des Etats d’Europe occiden-
tale et autres Etats; par la France, au nom de l’Union européenne et des

pays d’Europe centrale et orientale associés à l’Union européenne, de
Chypre, de Malte et de la Turquie, Etats associés, des membres de
l’AELE membres de l’Espace économique européen; et par la Croatie et
la Slovénie. Voir également le document A/55/522-S/2000/1028 (lettre

datée du 25 octobre 2000 adressée au Secrétaire général par le représen-
tant permanent de l’ex-République yougoslave de Macédoine à l’Organi-
sation des Nations Unies), contenant en annexe la déclaration commune
adoptée lors du sommet officieux des chefs d’Etat et de gouvernement des
pays participant au processus de coopération d’Europe du Sud-Est:

«Nous avons fortement encouragé la République fédérale de You-
goslavie à adopter une politique de bon voisinage, de réconciliation
et de compréhension mutuelles dans la région et à respecter le prin-

cipe de l’égalité et de la non-discrimination dans les relations entre
tous les Etats ayant succédé à l’ex-Yougoslavie.» (Annexe de la
lettre datée du 8 décembre 2000 adressée par le conseiller juridique de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies au ministre des affaires étrangères

de la République fédérative de Yougoslavie, annexe 23 des excep-
tions préliminaires de la RFY.)

i) Pertinence de l’action du Secrétaire général/Secrétariat dans l’exer-
cice de la fonction de dépositaire

173. Bien que le Secrétaire général, en sa qualité de dépositaire de la

convention sur le génocide, ne soit pas investi d’une compétence auto-
nome sur le fond pour déterminer si la RFY était considérée, ou pouvait
être considérée, comme remplissant les conditions requises pour être par-
tie à la convention sur le génocide, ses actions ne sont pas a priori
dénuées d’effets, comme pourrait le donner à penser le fait qu’elles n’ont

pas du tout été prises en compte. S’il en était ainsi, ses fonctions de dépo-
sitaire des traités multilatéraux seraient dénuées de substance.
Dans la présente espèce, les mesures prises par le Secrétaire général en
ce qui concerne la situation de la RFY au regard de la convention sur le
génocide ont un caractère bien précis. Elles doivent être envisagées eu

égard à la totalité des compétences du Secrétaire général en tant qu’il est

216625 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

present one, actions of the Secretary-General in the capacity of executive
organ of the Organization and depositary of multilateral treaties respec-
tively, are inevitably interrelated but distinguishable.

174. In closely related cases, the Court heavily relied on the pro-
nouncements of the Secretary-General in its Judgment in the preliminary
objections phase (1996) and found, with regard to the Sixth Preliminary
Objection raised by the FRY, that

“Bosnia and Herzegovina could become a party to the Convention

through the mechanism of State succession. Moreover, the Secretary-
General of the United Nations considered that this had been
the case” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Pun-
ishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugo-
slavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) ,

p. 611, para. 20).

The Court took also note of this consideration of the Secretary-General
in its Order of 8 April 1993 (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 16, para. 25).
175. In paragraph 44 of that same Judgment the Court rejected the
Second Preliminary Objection of the FRY, in which Mr. Alija Izet-
begovic´ “was not serving as President of the Republic. . . at the time at

which he granted the authorization to initiate proceedings” (I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), pp. 621-622), and in the reasoning and in the wording
practically repeated the consideration which Mr. R. Zacklin, then Direc-
tor and Deputy to the Under-Secretary-General in charge of the Office of
Legal Affairs, made in his letter of 25 March 1993 addressed to the Reg-

istry of the Court. In that letter it is said that “[i]n the United Nations
and in the International Conference on the former Yugoslavia, Mr. Izet-
begovic´ has been regarded and continues to be regarded as the President
of Bosnia-Herzegovina” (dissenting opinion of Judge ad hoc Krec ´a,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II) , p. 704, para. 37). The same finding is included

in the Court’s Order of 8 April 1993 (I.C.J. Reports 1993, p. 11, para. 13).
It appears that in the 1996 Judgment, the Court took the above deci-
sion, on the basis of a consideration of an official of lower rank than the
Secretary-General, in a matter which as such touches the constitutional

system of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which did not contain, as it does not
contain at present, the institution of an individual Head of State but a
collective one.
176. Following the admission of the FRY to membership of the United
Nations on 1 November 2000, the Legal Counsel of the United Nations

sent, on 8 December 2000, a letter addressed to the Minister of Foreign
Affairs of the FRY, expressing, inter alia, that “the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia should now undertake treaty actions, as appropriate, in rela-
tion to the treaties concerned, if its intention is to assume the relevant
legal rights and obligations as a successor State”.

217 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. KREuA ) 625

un des organes principaux de l’Organisation. Dans une affaire comme la
présente affaire, les actions du Secrétaire général en ses qualités d’organe
exécutif de l’Organisation et de dépositaire des traités multilatéraux, res-

pectivement, sont inévitablement liées mais peuvent être distinguées.
174. Dans des affaires très proches de la présente espèce, la Cour a fait
pleinement fond sur les déclarations du Secrétaire général, par exemple
dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu à la phase des exceptions préliminaires (1996),
lorsqu’elle a jugé, en ce qui concerne la sixième exception préliminaire de

la RFY, que
«la Bosnie-Herzégovine pouvait devenir partie à la Convention par

l’effet du mécanisme de la succession d’Etats. Du reste, le Secrétaire
général des Nations Unies a considéré que tel avait été le cas.»
(Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du
crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions
préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II) , p. 611, par. 20.)

La Cour a aussi pris note de cette position du Secrétaire général dans son
ordonnance du 8 avril 1993 (C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 16, par. 25).
175. Au paragraphe 44 du même arrêt, la Cour a rejeté la deuxième
exception préliminaire de la RFY, selon laquelle M. Alija Izetbegovic ´
«[n’occupait] pas les fonctions de président de la République ... au mo-

ment où il a donné l’autorisation d’introduire l’instance» (C.I.J. Recueil
1996 (II), p. 621-622), et dans son raisonnement comme dans le texte de
l’arrêt a pratiquement repris l’opinion que M. R. Zacklin, qui était alors
l’adjoint du Secrétaire général adjoint chargé du Bureau des affaires juri-
diques, exprimait dans sa lettre adressée au Greffe de la Cour le 25 mars

1993. On peut lire dans cette lettre que, «[à] l’Organisation des Nations
Unies et à la conférence internationale sur l’ex-Yougoslavie, M. Izetbegovic ´
a été considéré et continue d’être considéré comme le président de la
Bosnie-Herzégovine» (opinion dissidente de M. Krec ´a, jugead hoc, C.I.J.
Recueil 1996 (II), p. 704, par. 37). Cette conclusion figure aussi dans l’or-

donnance de la Cour du 8 avril 1993 (C.I.J. Recueil 1993, p. 11, par. 13).
Ainsi, dans l’arrêt de 1996, la Cour a pris la décision susmentionnée
sur la base de l’opinion d’un fonctionnaire de rang inférieur à celui de
Secrétaire général, à propos d’une question qui concerne l’ordre consti-

tutionnel de la Bosnie-Herzégovine, dans lequel il n’y a pas un chef
d’Etat unique mais une présidence collective.

176. A la suite de l’admission de la RFY à l’Organisation des Nations
Unies le 1 ernovembre 2000, le conseiller juridique de l’Organisation des

Nations Unies a, le 8 décembre 2000, adressé au ministre des affaires
étrangères de la RFY une lettre dans laquelle il déclarait notamment que
«la République fédérative de Yougoslavie devrait à présent accomplir
toute formalité conventionnelle qui s’imposerait en ce qui concerne les
traités considérés, si son intention est d’assumer les droits et obligations

juridiques pertinents en tant qu’Etat successeur».

217626 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

177. In the non-paper of the UN Legal Counsel entitled “Admission
of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the United Nations on 1
November 2000: Implications for Treaties Deposited with the Secretary-

General”, the view is elaborated in detail. It starts with the finding that:

“1.3. The admission of the FRY to membership in the United

Nations on 1 November 2000 has raised a number of issues relating
to treaty actions undertaken by the FRY in relation to multilateral
treaties accepted in deposit by the Secretary-General, and recorded
against the name ‘Yugoslavia’;

.............................
2.1. Four major categories of treaty actions are at issue:

(a) Treaty actions undertaken by the SFRY prior to 27 April 1992
(Annex A);
(b) Treaty actions undertaken by the FRY between 27 April and
1 November 2000, pursuant to its previous claim to continue
the legal personality of the SFRY (Annex B);

(c) Treaty actions undertaken by the FRY, in its own right, and
not dependent on prior treaty actions by the SFRY (Annex C);
and

(d) Treaty actions undertaken by the FRY, which require member-
ship in the United Nations or a specialized agency as an essen-
tial precondition (Annex D). Treaty actions relating to the
International Court of Justice and the Constitution of the
World Health Organization have been addressed separately

(see paragraphs 8 and 9 below).
............................
4.1. In the light of the circumstances of FRY’s admission to mem-
bership in the United Nations on 1 November 2000, it would be

proper for the depositary to treat the Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via as a ‘Newly Independent State’.

4.2. The international community appears to agree that the FRY’s

admission to membership in the United Nations on 1 November 2000,
together with its declaration make it a successor State with the
requirement that it comply with the principle of equality among the
successor States to the former SFRY. . . Accordingly, the FRY
should be treated as a new State as described in the Summary of

Practice of the Secretary-General as Depositary of Multilateral Trea-
ties (ST/LEG/7/Rev.1, p. 87, para. 289).
4.3. [T]he FRY, as the new State that came into existence on
27 April 1992, may now wish to succeed to treaty actions undertaken
by the SFRY prior to this date. This would include treaties to

which the SFRY was a party.” (Ann. 23 of the Preliminary

218 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. KREuA ) 626

177. Cette position était exposée en détail dans le document interne
émanant du conseiller juridique de l’ONU intitulé «Admission de la

Répuerique fédérale de Yougoslavie à l’Organisation des Nations Unies
le 1 novembre 2000: conséquences pour les traités déposés auprès du
Secrétaire général». Il y est tout d’abord constaté ce qui suit:

«1.3. Cette admission a soulevé un certain nombre de problèmes
concernant les formalités conventionnelles accomplies par la RFY
eu égard aux traités multilatéraux dont le Secrétaire général avait

accepté le dépôt et qui avaient été enregistrées à l’actif de la «You-
goslavie»;
.............................

2.1. Quatre grandes catégories de formalités conventionnelles sont
à considérer:
a) celles que la RFSY a accomplies avant le 27 avril 1992 (an-

nexe A); er
b) celles que la RFY a accomplies entre le 27 avril et le 1 novem-
bre 2000, en tant que continuatrice de la personnalité juridique
de la RFSY conformément à sa revendication antérieure (an-
nexe B);

c) celles que la RFY a accomplies en sa qualité propre, et non en
rapport avec des formalités accomplies antérieurement par la
RFSY (annexe C); et
d) celles, accomplies par la RFY, pour lesquelles il est impératif que

celle-ci ait la qualité de Membre de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies ou de l’une de ses institutions spécialisées (annexe D). Les
formalités conventionnelles concernant la Cour internationale de
Justice et la Constitution de l’Organisation mondiale de la santé

font l’objet d’un examen distinct (voir par. 8 et 9 ci-dessous).
............................
4.1. Compte tenu des circonstances de son admission comme
er
Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies le 1 novembre 2000,
il conviendrait que la République fédérale de Yougoslavie soit consi-
dérée comme un Etat nouvellement indépendant par le dépositaire
des traités.

4.2. La communauté internationale semble convenir que l’admis-
sion de la RFY comme Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies
le 1ernovembre 2000 ainsi que sa déclaration en font un Etat succes-
seur tenu de respecter le principe de l’égalité entre les Etats succes-

seurs de l’ancienne RFSY ... En conséquence, la RFY devrait être
considérée comme un nouvel Etat ainsi que le prévoit le Précis de la
pratique du Secrétaire général en tant que dépositaire de traités mul-
tilatéraux (ST/LEG/7/Rev.1, p. 87, par. 289).
4.3. [L]a RFY en tant que nouvel Etat créé le 27 avril 1992 vou-

dra sans doute succéder aux formalités conventionnelles accomplies
avant cette date par la RFSY. Cela concernerait notamment les trai-
tés auxquels la RFSY était partie.» (Annexe 23 des exceptions pré-

218627 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

Objections of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 2002; Emphasis
added.)

178. The determination that the FRY is qualifying to become a party
to the Genocide Convention is necessarily implied in the very decision of
the General Assembly, upon the recommendation of the Security Coun-
cil, to admit the FRY to the membership of the United Nations not only

as a new Member but as a successor State at the same time. For, as
United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan stated in his letter to the
President of the United Nations General Assembly dated 27 December
2001:

“I have the honour to refer to General Assembly resolution 55/12
of 1 November 2000, in which the Assembly decided to admit the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to membership in the United

Nations. This decision necessarily and automatically terminated the
membership in the Organization of the former Yugoslavia, the State
admitted to membership in 1945.” (United Nations doc. A/56/767;
emphasis added.)

That action clearly belongs to the Secretary-General as the executive
organ of the Organization. Although far from being consistent in legal
terms, it undoubtedly results from the decision taken by the principal

political organs of the United Nations — the General Assembly and the
Security Council — in respect of the question of the admission of a State
to United Nations membership, which is in their exclusive competence.
(Such an interpretation was advocated in the literature as well. In an arti-
cle entitled “The New United Nations and Former Yugoslavia”, Profes-

sor Rosalyn Higgins wrote:
“The Assembly did recommend that the new Federal Republic

(Serbia-Montenegro) should apply for membership of the United
Nations. But the resolution did not either suspend, or terminate,
Yugoslavia’s membership in the UN. The outcome had been anoma-
lous in the extreme. The seat and nameplate remain as before. The
old Yugoslav flag continues to fly on 42nd Street. ‘Yugoslavia’

remains a member of the UN, i.e. not Serbia-Montenegro, but Yugo-
slavia in its entirety.” (Op. cit., p. 479; emphasis added.)

This necessarily means, as the Legal Counsel of the United Nations
pointed out in the above-cited non-paper entitled “Admission of the Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia to the United Nations on 1 November 2000:
Implications for Treaties Deposited with the Secretary-General” that

“the FRY, as the new State that came into existence on 27 April 1992,
may now wish to succeed to treaty actions undertaken by the SFRY prior
to this date” (emphasis added). As regards the Genocide Convention, the
SFRY undertook a treaty action on 29 August 1950 in the form of rati-
fication pursuant to Article XI of the Convention.

219 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 627

liminaires de la République fédérative de Yougoslavie, 2002; les ita-
liques sont de moi.)

178. La décision même d’admettre, sur la recommandation du Conseil
de sécurité, la RFY à l’Organisation des Nations Unies non seulement

comme nouveau Membre mais aussi comme Etat successeur implique
nécessairement que, selon l’Assemblée générale, la RFY remplissait les
conditions requises pour devenir partie à la convention sur le génocide.
Car, comme l’a déclaré le Secrétaire général Kofi Annan dans la lettre

qu’il a adressée le 27 décembre 2001 au président de l’Assemblée générale
des Nations Unies:

«J’ai l’honneur de meeréférer à la résolution 55/12 de l’Assemblée
générale en date du 1 novembre 2000, par laquelle l’Assemblée a
décidé d’admettre la République fédérale de Yougoslavie à l’Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies. Cette décision a mis fin ipso facto àa l

qualité de Membre de l’Organisation de l’ex-Yougoslavie, qui avait
été admise en 1945.» (Nations Unies, doc. A/56/767; les italiques
sont de moi.)

Cette déclaration émane à l’évidence du Secrétaire général en sa qualité
d’organe exécutif de l’Organisation. Bien que loin d’être cohérente du
point de vue juridique, elle résulte sans aucun doute de la décision prise
par les principaux organes politiques de l’Organisation — l’Assemblée

générale et le Conseil de sécurité — en ce qui concerne l’admission d’un
Etat à l’Organisation des Nations Unies, qui relève de leur compétence
exclusive. (Cette interprétation a été également défendue par la doctrine.
Dans un article intitulé «The new United Nations and former Yugosla-
me
via», M Rosalyn Higgins a écrit ce qui suit:
«L’Assemblée a bien recommandé que la nouvelle République

fédérale (Serbie-Monténégro) demande à être admise à l’Organisa-
tion des Nations Unies. Mais cette résolution n’a pas suspendu
l’appartenance de la Yougoslavie à l’ONU, et n’y a pas non plus mis
fin. Ce résultat était extrêmement anormal. Le siège et le nom

demeurent lesemêmes. Le vieux drapeau yougoslave continue de flot-
ter sur la 42 rue. «La Yougoslavie» demeure Membre de l’ONU,
c’est-à-dire pas la Serbie-Monténégro, mais la Yougoslavie dans son
ensemble. »( Op. cit., p. 479; les italiques sont de moi.)

Cela signifie nécessairement, comme l’a fait observer le conseiller juri-
dique de l’ONU dans le document informel susvisé intitulé «Admission

de la Répuerique fédérale de Yougoslavie à l’Organisation des Nations
Unies le 1 novembre 2000: conséquences pour les traités déposés auprès
du Secrétaire général», que «la RFY, en tant que nouvel Etat créé le
27 avril 1992, voudra sans doute succéder aux formalités conventionnelles
accomplies avant cette date par la RSFY » (les italiques sont de moi). En

ce qui concerne la convention sur le génocide, la RSFY a accompli une
formalité conventionnelle le 29 août 1950 sous la forme d’une ratification
en application de l’article XI de la Convention.

219628 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

179. In these circumstances, the Respondent was fully entitled to
express its consent to be bound by the Genocide Convention in the form
of accession like a number of other successor States (footnote 11).

The right of accession of a successor State to a treaty such as the
Genocide Convention derives from its very nature as a general interna-
tional treaty, expressing the interests of the international community as a
whole. As the Court stated in its Advisory Opinion in the case concerning
Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the

Crime of Genocide, “[I]n such a convention the contracting States do not
have any interests of their own; they merely have, one and all, a common
interest, namely, the accomplishment of those high purposes which are
the raison d’être of the convention” (I.C.J. Reports 1951,p.23) . Such a
nature of the Genocide Convention implies

“that it was the intention of the General Assembly and of the States
which adopted it that as many States as possible should participate.

The complete exclusion from the Convention of one or more States
would not only restrict the scope of its application, but would
detract from the authority of the moral and humanitarian principles
which are its basis.” (Ibid., p. 24.)

180. Accession of a State to the Convention, therefore, appears to be
an application of the demand for the participation in the Convention of
as many States as possible. This is so, regardless of the nature of the

accession to the multilateral treaties expressing the interests of the inter-
national community as a whole within the positive law.)
As regards those treaties, the right of accession must be treated as a jus
cogens rule. In reality, the exercise of that right, bearing in mind the
effects of the substantive provisions of such treaties, possesses constitu-

tive effects only in regard of the provisions other than the substantive
ones.
181. The Respondent’s accession to the Genocide Convention is, in
some part, unusual. The standard notification of accession is accompa-
nied by the explanation of the legal position of the FRY in terms of the

dichotomy continuator/successor State and its consequences for the status
of the FRY vis-à-vis the Genocide Convention.

The explanation notes, first of all, that the FRY declared on 27 April

1992 that it,
“continuing the State, international legal and political personality of
the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, shall strictly abide by

all the commitments that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via assumed internationally” (notification of accession of the FRY,
Preliminary Objections of Serbia, Ann. 5).

Further, that

“the contention and assumption of continuity was eventually not

220 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 628

179. Dans ces conditions, le défendeur était pleinement habilité à
exprimer son consentement à être lié par la convention sur le génocide en
y accédant comme un certain nombre d’autres Etats successeurs (note 11).

Le droit d’un Etat successeur d’accéder à un traité comme la conven-
tion sur le génocide dérive de la nature même de celle-ci, qui est un traité
international de caractère général exprimant les intérêts de la commu-
nauté internationale dans son ensemble. Comme la Cour l’a déclaré dans
l’avis consultatif qu’elle a rendu dans l’affaire des Réserves à la conven-

tion pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide , «[d]ans une
telle convention, les Etats contractants n’ont pas d’intérêts propres; ils
ont seulement, tous et chacun, un intérêt commun, celui de préserver les
fins supérieures qui sont la raison d’être de la convention» (C.I.J. Recueil
1951,p.23) . Ce caractère de la convention sur le génocide implique

«chez l’Assemblée générale et chez les Etats qui l’ont adoptée l’inten-
tion d’y voir participer le plus grand nombre possible d’Etats.

L’exclusion complète de la Convention d’un ou de plusieurs Etats,
outre qu’elle restreindrait le cercle de son application, serait une
atteinte à l’autorité des principes de morale et d’humanité qui sont à
sa base.» (Ibid., p. 24.)

180. L’adhésion d’un Etat à la Convention semble donc répondre à
l’impératif d’une participation aussi large que possible à la Convention. Il
en est ainsi quelle que soit la nature de l’adhésion aux traités multilaté-

raux exprimant les intérêts de la communauté internationale dans son
ensemble dans le cadre du droit positif.)
En ce qui concerne ces traités, le droit d’adhésion doit être considéré
comme une règle du jus cogens. En réalité, l’exercice de ce droit, eu égard
aux effets des dispositions de fond des traités en question, a des effets

constitutifs uniquement en ce qui concerne les autres dispositions.

181. L’adhésion du défendeur à la convention sur le génocide est par
certains côtés inhabituelle. La notification d’adhésion proprement dite est
assortie d’une explication de la situation juridique de la RFY du point

de vue de la dichotomie Etat continuateur/Etat successeur et de ses
conséquences pour le statut de la RFY au regard de la convention sur
le génocide.
Il est tout d’abord relevé dans cette explication que la RFY a déclaré ce

qui suit le 27 avril 1992:
«en assurant la continuité de l’Etat et de la personnalité juridique et
politique internationale de la République fédérative socialiste de

Yougoslavie, [elle] respectera strictement tous les engagements que la
République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie a pris à l’échelon
international» (notification d’adhésion de la RFY, exceptions préli-
minaires de la Serbie, annexe 5).

Il y est en outre précisé que

«cette prétention et ce postulat de continuité n’ont finalement été

220629 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

accepted by the United Nations, nor was it accepted by other
successor States of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia,
and thus it produced no effects” (notification of accession of the

FRY, Preliminary Objections of Serbia, Ann. 5).

And, finally, that

“it has been established that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has
not succeeded on April 27, 1992, or on any later date, to treaty mem-
bership, rights and obligations of the Socialist Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide on the assumption of continued membership

in the United Nations and continued state, international legal and
political personality of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugosla-
via” (ibid.).

A couple of observations seem relevant in concreto :
First, the explanation is an integral part of the FRY’s notification of
accession to the Genocide Convention, making a logical and legal union
with the statement of accession;
Second, the substance of the explanation corresponds to the objective

legal position of the FRY, established by the admission of the FRY to
the United Nations on 1 November 2000;
Third, the substance of the explanation corresponds to the action
taken by the Secretary-General of the United Nations in his capacity as
depositary of multilateral treaties;

Fourth, the FRY’s notification of accession is generally accepted by
the Contracting Parties to the Genocide Convention, with three objec-
tions (Croatia, Sweden and Bosnia and Herzegovina): it was accepted as
a whole, together with the provided explanation.

182. Accession is a valid means of expression of consent to be bound
by a treaty in terms of the law of treaties and, as such, specifically pro-
vided in Article XI of the Genocide Convention.

In view of the fact that automatic succession in respect of treaties is not
a part of positive international law, successor States are free, acting as
regards multilateral treaties of predecessor States in their own name, to
choose the means of expressing consent to be bound by a concrete treaty
within the framework of the means stipulated by the treaty. Considering

such a state of facts, there is no difference in substantive terms whatso-
ever between accession and notification of succession as developed in the
practice of successor States. For, acting in its own name, the successor
State, in its notification of succession, also determines the date from
which it considers itself bound by the concrete treaty and which need not

necessarily concur with the date of succession (para. 148 above).

221 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 629

acceptés ni par l’Organisation des Nations Unies, ni par les autres
Etats successeurs de la République fédérative socialiste de Yougos-
lavie, et sont donc restés sans effet» (notification d’adhésion de la

RFY, exceptions préliminaires de la Serbie, annexe 5).

Il y est enfin indiqué que

«il est maintenant établi que la République fédérale de Yougo-
slavie n’a pas succédé le 27 avril 1992, ni à aucune autre date ulté-
rieure, à la République fédérative socialiste de Yougoslavie en sa
qualité de partie à la convention pour la prévention et la répression
du crime de génocide et dans ses droits et obligations découlant de

cette convention conformément au postulat selon lequel elle lui suc-
cédait en qualité de Membre de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et
assurait la continuité de l’Etat et de la personnalité juridique et poli-
tique internationale de la République fédérative socialiste de You-

goslavie» (ibid.).

Quelques observations semblent s’imposer in concreto :
Premièrement, cette explication fait partie intégrante de la notification
d’adhésion de la RFY à la convention sur le génocide, car elle est logi-
quement et juridiquement liée à la déclaration d’adhésion;
Deuxièmement, cette explication correspond en substance à la position

juridique objective de la RFY telle qu’éerblie par l’admission de celle-ci à
l’Organisation des Nations Unies le 1 novembre 2000;
Troisièmement, cette explication correspond en substance à la décision
prise par le Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en sa
qualité de dépositaire des traités multilatéraux;

Quatrièmement, la notification d’adhésion de la RFY est généralement
acceptée par les parties contractantes à la convention sur le génocide, à
trois exceptions près (objections de la Croatie, de la Suède et de la
Bosnie-Herzégovine): elle a été acceptée dans son ensemble, avec l’expli-
cation fournie.

182. L’adhésion est un moyen valide pour un Etat d’exprimer son
consentement à être lié par un traité au regard du droit des traités, et elle
est en outre expressément prévue à l’article XI de la convention sur le
génocide.

Etant donné que la succession automatique aux traités ne fait pas par-
tie du droit international positif, les Etats successeurs sont libres, agissant
en leur nom propre en ce qui concerne les traités multilatéraux des Etats
prédécesseurs, de choisir parmi les moyens prévus par un traité comment
exprimer leur consentement à être liés par ce traité. Cela étant, il n’y a pas

de différence quant au fond entre l’adhésion et la notification de succes-
sion telle que celle-ci s’est constituée dans la pratique des Etats succes-
seurs. Car, agissant en son nom propre, l’Etat successeur, dans sa notifi-
cation de succession, décide également de la date à compter de laquelle il
se considère comme lié par le traité en cause, une date qui ne doit pas

nécessairement correspondre à celle de la succession (par. 148 ci-dessus).

221630 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

183. Article XI of the Genocide Convention provides:

“The present Convention shall be open until 31 December 1949
for signature on behalf of any Member of the United Nations and of
any non-member State to which an invitation to sign has been

addressed by the General Assembly.
The present Convention shall be ratified, and the instruments of
ratification shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the
United Nations.
After 1 January 1950 the present Convention may be acceded to

on behalf of any Member of the United Nations and of any non-
member State which has received an invitation as aforesaid.

Instruments of accession shall be deposited with the Secretary-
General of the United Nations.” (United Nations, Treaty Series,

(UNTS), Vol. 78, 1951; footnotes omitted.)

It appears that accession is not only established as a means of expression
of consent to be bound by the Convention, but that it is a means specifi-
cally designed for non-original Contracting Parties, i.e., those which con-
sent to be bound by the Convention after 1 January 1950.

184. Consequently, there remains the question whether the provisions
of Article XI of the Convention are also equally applicable to the succes-
sor States. Article XI does not contain any indication, let alone any ele-
ment given explicite, to the effect that accession, as a means of expression

to be bound by the Convention, is not applicable as regards successor
States. No corresponding limitation exists in the law on succession in
respect of treaties, either. Moreover, the relevant rules of the law on suc-
cession appear to suggest quite the contrary, granting a successor State
the right of option in that regard. For, if a successor State, according to

Article 17 of the Convention, has the right to choose to become a party
to multilateral treaties “independently of the consent of the other States
parties and quite apart from the final clauses of the treaty ”( Yearbook of
the International Law Commission , 1974, Vol. II, Part One, p. 215,

para. 2; emphasis added), then that right belongs a fortiori to a successor
State in case it has been provided by the treaty.

185. The reservation of the FRY to Article IX of the Convention was
completely ignored, although the reservation, in the light of the relevant

rules of the law of treaties, is of far-reaching importance as regards the
jurisdiction of the Court in casu. The FRY sent a notification of acces-
sion to the Secretary-General of the United Nations as its depositary on
6 March 2001, containing a reservation to Article IX of the Convention
to the effect that:

“The FRY does not consider itself bound by Article IX of the

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of

222 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 630

183. L’article XI de la convention sur le génocide dispose que:

«[l]a présente convention sera ouverte jusqu’au 31 décembre 1949 à
la signature au nom de tout Membre de l’Organisation des Nations

Unies et de tout Etat non membre à qui l’Assemblée générale aura
adressé une invitation à cet effet.
La présente convention sera ratifiée et les instruments de ratifica-
tion seront déposés auprès du Secrétaire général de l’Organisation
des Nations Unies.
er
A partir du 1 janvier 1950, il pourra être adhéré à la présente
convention au nom de tout Membre de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies et de tout Etat non membre qui aura reçu l’invitation sus-
mentionnée.

Les instruments d’adhésion seront déposés auprès du Secrétaire
général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies.» (Nations Unies,
Recueil des traités, vol. 78, 1951; notes de bas de page omises.)

Il semble que l’adhésion ne soit pas seulement établie comme moyen
d’expression du consentement à être lié par la Convention, mais que c’est

un moyen spécifiquement conçu pour les Etats qui n’étaient pas parmi les
parties contractantes originaires, c’est-à-dire pour ceux qui consentent à
être liés par la Convention après le 1 erjanvier 1950.
184. Demeure donc la question de savoir si les dispositions de l’ar-
ticle XI de la Convention sont également applicables aux Etats succes-

seurs. L’article XI ne contient aucune indication, et encore moins une
disposition expresse, à l’effet que l’adhésion, comme moyen d’exprimer
son consentement à être lié par la Convention, n’est pas ouverte aux
Etats successeurs. Il n’existe pas de limitation correspondante dans le

droit de la succession en matière de traités non plus. De plus, les règles
pertinentes du droit de la succession semblent indiquer tout à fait le
contraire, en accordant à l’Etat successeur un droit d’option à cet égard.
Car, si un Etat successeur a, selon l’article 17 de la Convention, le droit
de choisir de devenir partie à des traités multilatéraux «indépendamment

du consentement des autres parties aux traités et en faisant absolument
abstraction des clauses finales du traité »( Annuaire de la Commission du
droit international, 1974, vol. II (première partie), p. 215, par. 2; les ita-
liques sont de moi), ce droit appartient a fortiori à un Etat successeur s’il

est prévu dans le traité.
185. Il n’a été tenu aucun compte de la réserve de la RFY à l’article IX
de la Convention, alors qu’elle revêt, au regard des règles pertinentes du
droit des traités, une importance considérable en ce qui concerne la com-
pétence de la Cour en l’espèce. La RFY a adressé une notification

d’adhésion au Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies en
sa qualité de dépositaire le 6 mars 2001, qui contient une réserve à l’ar-
ticle IX de la Convention ainsi libellée:

«La RFY ne se considère pas liée par l’article IX de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide: c’est pour-

222631 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

Genocide, and, therefore, before any dispute to which the FRY is a
party may be validly submitted to the jurisdiction of the Interna-
tional Court of Justice under this Article, the specific and explicit

consent of the FRY is required in each case.” (United Nations
doc. C.N.945.2006.TREATIES-2 (Depositary Notification).)

In a Note dated 21 March 2001 the Secretary-General stated, inter alia,
that “[d]ue note has been taken of the reservation contained in the instru-
ment” (ibid.).
On 18 May 2001 the Permanent Representative of Croatia sent a com-

munication to the Secretary-General, stating inter alia :

“The Government of the Republic of Croatia objects to the depo-
sition of the instrument of accession of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide, due to the fact that the Federal Republic of

Yugoslavia is already bound by the Convention since its emergence
as one of the five equal successor States to the former Socialist Fed-
eral Republic of Yugoslavia.
.............................

The Government of the Republic of Croatia further objects to the
reservation made by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in respect
of Article IX of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide, and considers it to be incompatible with

the object and purpose of the Convention. The Government of the
Republic of Croatia considers the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide to be fully in force and appli-
cable between the Republic of Croatia and the Federal Republic of

Yugoslavia, including Article IX.” (Multilateral Treaties Deposited
with the Secretary-General, Status as at 31 December 2002 , United
Nations doc. ST/LEG/SER./E/21, p. 129.)

186. Thus, the objection of Croatia concerns two things:

(i) accession as a means of expressing consent of the FRY to be bound
by the Genocide Convention; and
(ii) the reservation of the FRY made in respect of Article IX of the Con-
vention.

In concreto, the objection to the reservation in respect of Article IX is
of interest, having in mind the fact that Croatia considers “the Conven-

tion on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide to be
fully in force and applicable between the Republic of Croatia and the
Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, including Article IX”.
In that regard it seems clear that the objection to Article IX, supported
by the fact that Croatia is not opposed to the entry into force of the Con-

vention between itself and the Respondent, makes automatically applica-

223 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP.DISS. KRECu ) 631

quoi, pour qu’un différend auquel la RFY est partie puisse être
valablement soumis à la Cour internationale de Justice en vertu
dudit article, le consentement spécifique et exprès de la RFY est néces-

saire dans chaque cas.» (Nations Unies, doc. C.N.945.2006.
TREATIES-2 (notification dépositaire).)

Dans une note datée du 21 mars 2001, le Secrétaire général a notamment
indiqué «qu’il a été dûment pris note de la réserve figurant dans l’instru-
ment» (ibid.).
Le 18 mai 2001, le représentant permanent de la Croatie a adressé au

Secrétaire général une communication dans laquelle il déclarait notam-
ment:

«Le Gouvernement de la République de Croatie formule une
objection contre le dépôt de l’instrument d’adhésion de la Répu-
blique fédérale de Yougoslavie à la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide au motif que la République

fédérale de Yougoslavie est déjà liée par la Convention depuis
qu’elle est devenue l’un des cinq Etats successeurs égaux de l’ex-
République socialiste fédérative de Yougoslavie.
.............................

Le Gouvernement de la République de Croatie fait en outre une
objection à la réserve formulée par la République fédérale de You-
goslavie à l’égard de l’article IX de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide et considère que cette

réserve est incompatible avec l’objet et le but de la Convention. Le
Gouvernement de la République de Croatie considère que la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de géno-
cide est pleinement en vigueur et applicable entre la République

de Croatie et la République fédérale de Yougoslavie, y compris
son article IX.» (Traités multilatéraux déposés auprès du Secré-
taire général, état au 31 décembre 2002, Nations Unies, doc. ST/LEG/
SER.E/21, p. 129.)

186. Ainsi, l’objection de la Croatie est double en ce qu’elle vise:

i) l’adhésion comme moyen d’exprimer le consentement de la RFY à
être liée par la convention sur le génocide; et
ii) la réserve de la RFY à l’article IX de la Convention.

In concreto, l’objection à la réserve concernant l’article IX est intéres-
sante, si l’on songe que la Croatie considère que «la convention pour la

prévention et la répression du crime de génocide est pleinement en
vigueur et applicable entre la République de Croatie et la République
fédérale de Yougoslavie, y compris son article IX».
A cet égard, il semble clair que l’objection à l’article IX, étayée
par le fait que la Croatie n’est pas opposée à l’entrée en vigueur de

la Convention entre elle-même et le défendeur, rend le paragraphe 3

223632 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

ble paragraph 3 of Article 21 of the Convention on the Law of Treaties,
which stipulates:

“When a State objecting to a reservation has not opposed the
entry into force of the treaty between itself and the reserving State,
the provisions to which the reservation relates do not apply as

between the reserving State and the objecting State to the extent of
the reservation.”

187. The action taken by the Secretary-General through the Legal
Counsel in regard to the deposited multilateral treaties, including the
Genocide Convention, is basically of an administrative nature, a sort of
reminder of the necessary consequences resulting from the fact that by
the act of admission of the FRY, it was at the same time accepted and

recognized, implicitly and explicitly, as a new personality both by the
Organization itself and its member States (paras. 167-173 above) and
implemented in the total structure of the Organization. As such, it fits
perfectly the function of the depositary provided by Article 77, para-

graph 1 (e), of the Convention on the Law of Treaties, i.e., “[i]nforming
the parties and the States entitled to become parties to the treaty of acts,
notifications and communications relating to the treaty” (United Nations,
Treaty Series, Vol. 1155).

3. Preliminary objection to the jurisdiction of the Court,
and to admissibility ratione temporis

188. This particular objection of the Respondent is treated by the

majority “at one and the same time [as] an objection to jurisdiction and
one going to the admissibility of the claims” (Judgment, para. 120), con-
sequently, as “two inseparable issues in the present case” (ibid., para. 129).
Innovativeness of such a treatment of the issues of the scope of the
jurisdiction of the Court ratione temporis and the admissibility of claims

is accompanied by a contradictory reasoning. For, if the essential char-
acteristics of an objection to jurisdiction is in that “if upheld, it brings the
proceedings in respect of that claim to an end” (ibid., para. 120) and
objections to admissibility, as observed by reference to the Judgment in

the Oil Platforms case “normally take the form of an assertion that, even
if the Court has jurisdiction and the facts stated by the applicant State
are assumed to be correct” (ibid.), the Court nonetheless declines to hear
the case, it is unclear how two such objections can be considered insepa-
rable issues. For, whereas the objection to jurisdiction concerns the exist-

ence of the jurisdiction of the Court ad casum, an objection to inadmis-
sibility, as accepted by the majority, is concerned with the performance of
the jurisdiction that is established.

189. It is true that the Respondent formulated this objection in the

sense that “claims based on acts and omissions which took place prior to

224 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 632

de l’article 21 de la convention sur le droit des traités automatiquement
applicable:

«Lorsqu’un Etat qui a formulé une objection à une réserve ne s’est
pas opposé à l’entrée en vigueur du traité entre lui-même et l’Etat
auteur de la réserve, les dispositions sur lesquelles porte la réserve ne

s’appliquent pas entre les deux Etats, dans la mesure prévue par la
réserve.»

187. Les mesures prises par le Secrétaire général par l’intermédiaire du
conseiller juridique en ce qui concerne les traités multilatéraux dont il est
le dépositaire, y compris la convention sur le génocide, sont de nature
essentiellement administrative; elles constituent en quelque sorte un rap-
pel des conséquences nécessaires découlant du fait que, par son admis-

sion, la RFY était en même temps acceptée et reconnue, implicitement et
expressément, comme une nouvelle personnalité tant par l’Organisation
elle-même que par ses Etats Membres (par. 167-173 ci-dessus), et ce à
l’échelle de l’Organisation dans son ensemble. Cette action correspond

donc parfaitement à la fonction de dépositaire au sens de l’alinéa e) du
paragraphe 1 de l’article 77 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des
traités, qui consiste à «[i]nformer les parties au traité et les Etats ayant
qualité pour le devenir des actes, notifications et communications relatifs
au traité» (Nations Unies, Recueil des traités, vol. 1155).

3. Exception préliminaire à la compétence de la Cour
et à la recevabilité ratione temporis

188. Cette exception du défendeur est considérée par la majorité «à la

fois comme une exception d’incompétence et comme une exception d’irre-
cevabilité des demandes» (arrêt, par. 120), donc comme soulevant, «en la
présente affaire, deux questions indissociables» (ibid., par. 129).
L’innovation que représente un tel traitement des questions d’étendue
de la compétence de la Cour ratione temporis et de recevabilité des

demandes s’accompagne d’un raisonnement contradictoire. En effet, si la
caractéristique d’une exception à la compétence est que, «lorsqu’elle est
retenue, [elle] a pour effet de mettre fin à la procédure en ce qui concerne
la demande visée» (ibid., par. 120) et si une exception à la recevabilité,

comme la Cour le relève en renvoyant à l’affaire des Plates-formes pétro-
lières, «[n]ormalement, ... consiste à affirmer que, quand bien même la
Cour serait compétente et les faits exposés par l’Etat demandeur seraient
tenus pour exacts» (ibid.), elle refuse néanmoins de connaître de l’affaire,
on voit mal comment ces deux exceptions peuvent être considérées comme

indissociables. Car, si l’exception à la compétence concerne l’existence de
la compétence de la Cour en l’espèce, l’exception à la recevabilité, telle
qu’acceptée par la majorité, a trait à l’exercice de la compétence qui est
établie.
189. Il est exact que le défendeur a formulé cette exception au sens où

«les demandes fondées sur les agissements et les omissions antérieurs au

224633 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP .KRECu )

27 April 1992 are beyond the jurisdiction of this Court and inadmissible”
(CR 2008/12, p. 68). It is equally true, however, that it is up to a party to
the dispute, in concreto the Respondent, to present its objection(s) to

jurisdiction, and that it is up to the Court to make the determination on
the basis of final submissions and, if necessary, other pertinent evidence,
the real meaning of a jurisdictional objection. This would not be a matter
which touches upon the power of the Court to “‘substitute itself for them
and formulate new submissions simply on the basis of arguments and

facts advanced’ (P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7 , p. 35)” (Nuclear Tests (New
Zealand v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 466, para. 30), but
a matter of the objective determination of a legal issue.
It seems, based on the wording of this particular objection of the FRY,
as well as on the reasons advanced, that it is rather an objection to the

scope of the jurisdiction ratione temporis, whereas admissibility could be
an alternative objection.
190. It appears that the majority fails to pay due regard to the fact,
which any legal reasoning must obey, considering that it expresses the

iron law of logic and common sense itself. And, that is, that any legal
personality, including a State, might bear responsibility or be subject to
the legal procedure, only if it exists and during the period of time of its
existence. In concreto, it seems obvious that the Court may have jurisdic-
tion starting only on 27 April 1992, when the Respondent was consti-

tuted as the legal person in terms of international law — for acts or
omissions which may be attributed to it.
The term “State” in the International Law Commission’s Articles on
the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (Annex to
General Assembly resolution 56/83, 12 December 2001) possesses a clear

and precise meaning. It is certainly not a State in an abstract or meta-
physical sense, but a real State, a State in existence. Only a State in exist-
ence, bound by an international obligation, may commit an internation-
ally wrongful act that entails international responsibility. The same holds
true, mutatis mutandi, also for the term “State” or “party” used both in

the Statute and in the Rules of Court. Jurisdiction of the Court, either
stricto or lato sensu, cannot be established in relation to a non-existent
State.
191. In the law of State responsibility, the only exception to that iron

rule of logic is the mechanism of succession in respect of treaties of delict-
ual responsibility. The Applicant refers to the rule provided in Article 10,
paragraph 2, of the ILC’s Articles on State Responsibility, according to
which “‘the conduct of a movement insurrectional or other which suc-
ceeds in establishing a new State shall be considered an act of the new

State under international law’” (Judgment, para. 125).

192. Two observations seem relevant in that regard:
First, the mechanism of succession in respect of delictual responsibility
is not a part of lex lata;

Second, this particular assertion of the Applicant seems manifestly

225 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS. KREuA ) 633

27 avril 1992 ne relèvent pas de la compétence de la Cour et sont irrece-
vables» (CR 2008/12, p. 68). Il est toutefois également exact que c’est à
une partie au différend, en l’espèce au défendeur, de présenter son ou ses

exceptions à la compétence, et que c’est à la Cour de statuer sur la base
des conclusions finales et, si nécessaire, d’autres éléments pertinents, sur
le sens véritable de l’exception à sa compétence. Il ne s’agit pas d’une
question liée au pouvoir de la Cour de ««se substituer [aux Parties] pour
en formuler de nouvelles sur la base des seules thèses avancées et faits
o
allégués» (C.P.J.I. série A n 7,.5)»( Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-
Zélande c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 466, par. 30), mais
d’une question juridique qui doit être tranchée objectivement.
Il semble, d’après le libellé de cette exception de la RFY, de même que
d’après les raisons avancées par celle-ci, qu’il s’agit plutôt d’une excep-

tion à l’étendue de la compétence ratione temporis, tandis que celle qui
concerne la recevabilité pourrait être une exception subsidiaire.
190. Il apparaît que la majorité ne tient pas dûment compte de ce fait,
auquel tout raisonnement juridique devrait déférer, étant donné qu’il

exprime la loi d’airain de la logique et le bon sens lui-même, à savoir que
toute personne juridique, y compris un Etat, peut voir sa responsabilité
engagée ou faire l’objet d’une procédure judiciaire uniquement s’il existe
et pendant qu’il existe. In concreto, il semble évident que la Cour a peut-
être compétence à partir du 27 avril 1992 seulement, la date à laquelle le

défendeur a été constitué en personne juridique au regard du droit inter-
national — pour les actes ou omissions qui peuvent lui être attribués.
Dans les articles de la Commission du droit international sur la res-
ponsabilité de l’Etat pour fait internationalement illicite (annexés à la
résolution 56/83 de l’Assemblée générale en date du 12 décembre 2001), le

terme «Etat» a un sens clair et précis. Il ne s’agit assurément pas d’un
Etat au sens abstrait ou métaphysique, mais d’un Etat réel, un Etat qui
existe. Seul un Etat qui existe et est lié par une obligation internationale
peut commettre un fait internationalement illicite qui engage sa respon-
sabilité internationale. Il en va de même, mutatis mutandi, du terme

«Etat» ou «partie» utilisé dans le Statut et le Règlement de la Cour. La
compétence de la Cour, que ce soit stricto ou lato sensu, ne peut être éta-
blie à l’égard d’un Etat inexistant.
191. Dans le droit de la responsabilité de l’Etat, la seule exception à

cette règle de la logique est le mécanisme de succession en matière de trai-
tés relatifs à la responsabilité délictuelle. Le demandeur renvoie à la règle
énoncée au paragraphe 2 de l’article 10 des articles de la CDI sur la res-
ponsabilité de l’Etat, selon laquelle «[l]e comportement d’un mouvement
insurrectionnel ou autre qui parvient à créer un nouvel Etat ... est consi-

déré comme un fait de ce nouvel Etat d’après le droit international»
(arrêt, par. 125).
192. Deux observations semblent pertinentes à cet égard:
Premièrement, le mécanisme de succession en matière de responsabilité
délictuelle ne fait pas partie de la lex lata;

Deuxièmement, cette affirmation particulière du demandeur semble

225634 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP.KRECu )

absurd, in serious conflict with common sense and cogent legal consid-
erations. The assertion that the FRY — which is, in fact, a part of the
SFRY that remained after the successive recessions of the four former

federal units, including Croatia, and whose legal position in terms of
legal identity and continuity with the SFRY was the subject of vehement
legal and political confrontations in the international community —
came into being as a consequence of a successful insurrectional move-
ment, hardly deserves another qualification. Besides, it turns out that the

“successful insurrectional movement” grew into the youngest successor
State in the territory of the former SFRY, following the four successive
secessions of the former Yugoslav republics, ending the process of its dis-
solution.
It appears that such an assertion is rather a matter of litigation strat-

egy. In the majority view, the determination of questions relating to the
assertion of the Applicant regarding the insurrectional nature of the FRY
would require it “to enter into an examination of factual issues concern-
ing the events leading up to the dissolution of the SFRY and the estab-

lishment of the FRY” (Judgment, para. 127). It appears, however, that
examination of the relevant factual issues in concreto is not a sufficient
basis for the determination of this particular objection of the Respondent
as one having no exclusively preliminary nature.
193. The issue of the dissolution of the SFRY is of a mixed nature,

being a questio juris et questio facti at the same time, since it is based on
the principles of international law which serve to define the conditions in
which an entity constitutes a State or disappears as a State. As regards
the questio facti aspect of the dissolution of the SFRY, the relevant facts
have been clearly established by the Arbitration Commission and accepted

by the international community as well as by the successor States of the
SFRY.
According to Opinion No. 1 of the Arbitration Commission (Interna-
tional Legal Materials, Vol. 31 (November 1992), p. 1496), due to the
fact that the republics, more precisely Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and

Herzegovina and Macedonia “have expressed their desire for independ-
ence” the “composition and workings of the essential organs of the
Federation . . . no longer meet the criteria of participation and repre-
sentativeness inherent in a federal State” and, consequently, “the SFRY

is in the process of dissolution”. The process was completed — as stated
by the Commission in its Opinion No. 8 (ibid., p. 1523), adopted with
respect to the question posed on 18 May 1992 by Lord Carrington —
with the constitution of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia as a new
State that on 27 April 1992 adopted a new Constitution (92 International

Law Reports (ILR) 167). Ergo, these facts, being established and
accepted, did not even call for a special examination, but were simply to
be perceived or taken cognizance of.
Finally, even if these facts ought to have been the subject of examina-
tion, they were obviously not of such a nature as to be preclusive of the

matter. As such they are issues that “may be by no means divorced from

226 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 634

manifestement absurde car totalement contraire au sens commun et à des
considérations juridiques extrêmement convaincantes. L’affirmation selon

laquelle la RFY — laquelle est, en fait, la partie de la RSFY qui a sub-
sisté après les sécessions successives des quatre ex-entités fédérales, y com-
pris la Croatie, et dont la situation juridique du point de vue de l’identité
juridique et de la continuité avec la RSFY a fait l’objet de très vifs débats
politiques et juridiques au sein de la communauté internationale — a vu

le jour parce qu’un mouvement insurrectionnel est parvenu à créer un
Etat ne peut guère être qualifiée autrement. Par ailleurs, ce «mouve-
ment insurrectionnel» est devenu le plus jeune Etat successeur sur le
territoire de l’ex-RSFY, à la suite des quatre sécessions successives des

ex-républiques yougoslaves, mettant fin au processus de dissolution.
Il semble que cette affirmation relève de la stratégie judiciaire du
demandeur. Selon la majorité, pour trancher les questions que soulève
l’affirmation du demandeur relative au caractère insurrectionnel de la
RFY, il faudrait «se livrer à un examen des points de fait relatifs aux

événements qui ont conduit à la dissolution de la RSFY et à la création
de la RFY» (arrêt, par. 127). Il semble toutefois que l’examen des ques-
tions de fait pertinentes in concreto ne suffit pas pour décider que cette
exception particulière du défendeur n’a pas exclusivement un caractère

préliminaire.
193. La question de la dissolution de la RSFY est une question mélan-
gée, à la fois une questio juris et une questio facti, puisqu’elle concerne les
principes du droit international servant à définir les conditions dans les-
quelles une entité constitue un Etat ou disparaît en tant qu’Etat. En ce

qui concerne l’aspect factuel de la dissolution de la RSFY, les faits per-
tinents ont été clairement établis par la Commission d’arbitrage et accep-
tés par la communauté internationale ainsi que par les Etats successeurs
de la RSFY.
o
Selon l’avis n 1 de la Commission d’arbitrage (International Legal
Materials, vol. 31, novembre 1992, p. 1496), lorsque «la volonté d’indé-
pendance des républiques [plus précisément la Slovénie, la Croatie, la
Bosnie-Herzégovine et la Macédoine] s’est exprimée», la «composition et

le fonctionnement des organes essentiels de la Fédération ... ne satisfont
plus aux exigences de participation et de représentativité inhérentes à un
Etat fédéral» et, en conséquence, «la République socialiste fédérative de
Yougoslavie est engagée dans un processus de dissolution». Ce processus
s’est achevé — comme l’a constaté la Commission dans son avis n 8 o

(ibid., p. 1523), adopté sur la question posée le 18 mai 1992 par lord Car-
rington — avec la création de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie en
tant que nouvel Etat qui, le 27 avril 1992, a adopté une nouvelle Consti-
tution (92 International Law Reports (ILR) 167). Ainsi, ces faits étaient

établis et acceptés, aucun examen spécial n’était même nécessaire et il fal-
lait simplement en tenir compte ou en prendre acte.
Enfin, même si ces faits auraient dû faire l’objet d’un examen, à l’évi-
dence ils n’étaient pas de nature à constituer un obstacle. En tant que
telles, ces questions «ne [peuvent] être dissociées du fond. Il arrive sou-

226635 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

the merits. A jurisdictional decision may often have to touch upon the
latter or at least involve some consideration of them.” (Appeal Relating
to the Jurisdiction of the ICAO Council, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1972 ,

p. 56, para. 18 (c)). It might rather be said that they touch
“on a point of merits, but . . . only in a provisional way, to the extent
necessary for deciding the question raised by the preliminary objec-

tion. Any finding on the point of merits therefore, ranks simply as
part of the motivation of the decision on the preliminary objection,
and not as the object of that decision.” (South West Africa (Ethiopia
v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1966, p. 37, para. 59.)
194. The extension of the scope of the jurisdiction of the Court ratione
temporis to the events that occurred before 27 April 1992 radically modi-

fied the characterization of the case in terms of responsibility. Consider-
ing that in the period preceding 27 April 1992 the Respondent did not
exist as a State, extension of the scope of the Court’s jurisdiction ratione
temporis can mean two things:

(i) that the responsibility claim was addressed to a dead, non-existent
State; or
(ii) that, assuming hypothetically that there exists the rule of positive
international law regarding succession in respect of delictual respon-

sibility, the responsibility claim of the Applicant as such, apart from
the jurisdictional side of the matter, represents, in fact, a claim for
joint and several responsibility of Serbia, Montenegro, as well as
Bosnia and Herzegovina and Macedonia, either of both or of Mace-
donia alone, depending on the moment of occurrence of the events

alleged by the Applicant in its Memorial, as successor States which
the territorially reduced SFRY comprised in that period.

4. Preliminary objection to the admissibility of claims relating to

the submission of certain persons to trial, provision of information
on missing Croatian citizens, and return of cultural property

195. Given the unusual understanding of the jurisdiction of the Court
ratione personae et materiae (paras. 18-20 above), this particular objec-
tion remains simply “preliminary objection” and is treated as such.

In fact, all three issues included in this particular objection are par
excellence issues of the jurisdiction of the Court ratione materiae that
should be assessed in terms of whether there is a dispute between the

Parties that falls within the scope of Article IX of the Genocide Conven-
tion. Article IX states that:
“Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpre-

tation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including

227 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 635

vent qu’une décision sur la compétence doive aborder le fond ou du
moins comporter un certain examen au fond.» (Appel concernant la com-
pétence du Conseil de l’OACI, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1972 , p. 56, par. 18 c).)

On pourrait dire qu’elles touchent
«à un point de fond, mais ... à titre provisoire et dans la mesure
nécessaire pour décider la question soulevée par l’exception. Toute

déclaration sur le point de fond constitue donc simplement un motif
de la décision sur l’exception et non l’objet de celle-ci.» (Sud-Ouest
africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud; Libéria c. Afrique du Sud),
deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1966 , p. 37, par. 59.)

194. L’extension du champ de la compétence de la Cour ratione tem-
poris aux événements qui se sont produits avant le 27 avril 1992 a radi-

calement modifié la qualification de l’affaire du point de vue de la res-
ponsabilité. Comme avant le 27 avril 1992 le défendeur n’existait pas en
tant qu’Etat, l’extension du champ de la compétence de la Cour ratione
temporis peut signifier deux choses:

i) que l’action en responsabilité visait un Etat défunt, inexistant; ou

ii) que, même à supposer qu’il existe une règle de droit international
positif concernant la succession en matière de responsabilité délic-

tuelle, l’action en responsabilité du demandeur, outre l’aspect de la
question touchant la compétence, représente en fait une action en res-
ponsabilité solidaire et conjointe visant la Serbie et le Monténégro,
auxquels il faudrait ajouter, selon le moment où se sont produits les
événements allégués par le demandeur dans son mémoire, la Bosnie-

Herzégovine et la Macédoine ou la Macédoine seule, en leur qualité
d’Etats successeurs présents dans le territoire réduit qui constituait la
RSFY à l’époque.

4. Exception préliminaire à la recevabilité des demandes

relatives à la traduction de certaines personnes en justice,
la communication de renseignements sur les citoyens croates
portés disparus et la restitution de biens culturels

195. Etant donné la conception inhabituelle de la compétence de la
Cour ratione personae et materiae (par. 18-20 ci-dessus), cette exception
particulière demeure simplement une «exception préliminaire» et est trai-

tée comme telle.
En fait, les trois questions visées dans cette exception sont par excel-
lence des questions touchant à la compétenceratione materiae de la Cour,
qu’il conviendrait d’apprécier en cherchant à établir s’il existe entre les

parties un différend relevant du champ d’application de l’article IX de la
convention sur le génocide. Cet article se lit comme suit:
«Les différends entre les Parties contractantes relatifs à l’interpré-

tation, l’application ou l’exécution de la présente convention, y com-

227636 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any
of the other acts enumerated in Article III, shall be submitted to the
International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to

the dispute.”

196. As regards the submission of certain persons to trial, it seems
obvious that it is essential that certain conditions be met in order that the
dispute regarding the submission could be considered as a dispute falling

within the ambit of Article IX of the Convention. Firstly, that the per-
sons accused of genocide or any other acts enumerated in Article III of
the Convention have precisely been identified in due procedure provided
for by the law of the ICTY. Further, that it has been shown that persons
charged by the ICTY Prosecutor with acts of genocide committed in

Croatia are to be found in the territory of the Respondent or territory
within its control. Finally, that the Applicant did not take effective steps
to submit those persons to the ICTY as a “competent international penal
tribunal” in terms of Article VI of the Convention. It seems that none of

these preconditions have been fulfilled.
197. It is a matter of common knowledge that not a single citizen of
the Respondent has been accused of genocide or other acts enumerated in
Article III of the Convention, allegedly committed in the territory of
Croatia. (As to the part of the submission relating to the former Presi-

dent, Mr. S. Milosevic ´, it is not only moot but, as presently designed, it
implies the existence of a sort of actio popularis, which is obviously
totally erroneous (see South West Africa (Ethiopia v. South Africa;
Liberia v. South Africa), Second Phase, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1966 ,
p. 47, para. 88).)

It is in that sense that the Applicant has invoked the Genocide Con-
vention, since it refers to “trial before the appropriate judicial authority”
(submission 2 (a) in the Memorial) and not to the “international penal
tribunal” in terms of Article VI of the Convention.
Therefore, it is only in the case of accumulation of certain elements of

the dispute as regards the “submission of certain persons to trial” in the
terms of the Genocide Convention that it would fall within the jurisdic-
tion of the Court ratione materiae.
The Applicant probably has in mind the submission of certain persons

indicted for genocide by its organs, which are not verified by the Chief
Prosecution and the ICTY itself, for trial before its national criminal
courts. If so, the Applicant’s submission is rather a matter of application
of treaty rules in force between Croatia and Serbia on legal assistance in
criminal matters.

198. It is however true, that in the oral proceedings counsel for Croatia
referred, inter alia, also to the ICTY, by saying: “persons found in Serbia
suspected of committing genocide in Croatia can still be submitted to
trial before the ICTY — which is a tribunal —, and Serbia would, on that

hypothesis still have obligations to fulfil ” (CR 2008/13, p. 35 (Crawford);

228 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 636

pris ceux relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide
ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à l’article III, seront
soumis à la Cour internationale de Justice, à la requête d’une partie

au différend.»

196. En ce qui concerne la traduction de certaines personnes en justice,
il est évidemment essentiel que certaines conditions soient remplies pour
que le différend sur ce point puisse être considéré comme relevant de

l’article IX de la Convention. Premièrement, il faut que les personnes
accusées de génocide ou de tous autres actes visés à l’article III de la
Convention aient été précisément identifiées selon la procédure régulière
prévue par le droit du TPIY. De plus, il faut qu’il soit établi que les per-
sonnes accusées par le procureur du TPIY d’actes de génocide commis en

Croatie se trouvent sur le territoire du défendeur ou sur un territoire sous
son contrôle. Enfin, il faut que le demandeur n’ait pas pris de mesures
effectives pour remettre ces personnes au TPIY, qui a qualité de «cour
criminelle internationale ... compétente» au sens de l’article VI de la

Convention. Il semble qu’aucune de ces conditions n’ait été satisfaite.
197. Il est de notoriété publique que pas un seul national du défendeur
n’a été accusé de génocide ni d’autres actes visés à l’article III de la
Convention, commis sur le territoire de la Croatie. (S’agissant de la partie
de la conclusion concernant l’ancien président Milosevic ´, elle est non seu-

lement caduque mais elle implique sous sa forme actuelle l’existence
d’une sorte d’actio popularis, ce qui manifestement est tout à fait erroné
(voir Sud-Ouest africain (Ethiopie c. Afrique du Sud; Libéria c. Afrique
du Sud), deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1966 , p. 47, par. 88).)

C’est dans ce sens que le demandeur a invoqué la convention sur le
génocide, puisqu’il vise la traduction en justice «devant l’autorité judi-
ciaire compétente» (mémoire, conclusion 2 a)) et non la «cour criminelle
internationale» aux termes de l’article VI de la Convention.
Ainsi, c’est uniquement en cas d’accumulation de certains éléments du

différend en ce qui concerne la «traduction de certaines personnes en jus-
tice» au sens de la convention sur le génocide que la Cour serait compé-
tente ratione materiae.
Le demandeur songeait probablement à la traduction en justice devant

ses tribunaux pénaux nationaux de certaines personnes accusées de géno-
cide par ses organes, des accusations qui ne sont pas confirmées par le
procureur du TPIY ni par celui-ci. Si tel est le cas, la conclusion du
demandeur concerne davantage l’application des règles conventionnelles
en vigueur entre la Croatie et la Serbie sur l’entraide judiciaire en matière

pénale.
198. Il est toutefois exact que lors de la procédure orale le conseil de la
Croatie a, entre autres, également mentionné le TPIY lorsqu’il a déclaré:
«les personnes, en Serbie, sur lesquelles pèse de manière certaine une
présomption d’avoir commis des actes de génocide en Croatie peuvent

néanmoins être traduites en justice devant le TPIY — il s’agit là d’un tri-

228637 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

emphasis added). The Applicant, in fact, presumed that a number of per-
petrators so charged are in Serbia (CR 2008/10, p. 15 (Šimonovic ´)).

By reference to the ICTY the matter is prima facie brought into nexus
with the Genocide Convention. That nexus is, however, of hypothetic
nature and, as such, it is beyond the jurisdiction of the Court. On this

particular point, in fact, there does not exist an actual, real, dispute as a
primary condition for the Court to exercise its judicial function, but a
hypothetic dispute.
For the dispute between the Parties is one thing, and the dispute before
the Court is quite another. What, in effect, does the Applicant contend?

On the one hand, that the persons charged with genocide by the Croatian
authorities are presumably staying in Serbia and, on the other, that these
persons, who may be staying in Serbia, might be accused in a proper pro-
cedure before the ICTY, as a competent international penal tribunal,

which might then activate the obligation of Serbia to co-operate with the
ICTY. The Respondent denies that contention, putting forward argu-
ments which appear relevant to it.
199. Consequently, it is indisputable that there are clearly opposite
views, a disagreement about the submission of Croatia. But, such a dis-

agreement is not sufficient to constitute the dispute before the Court to
fall within the competence of the Court in casu.
It is of an abstract, hypothetical nature in view of the fact that the sub-
mission of the Applicant is subjected to a triple qualification:

(a) that the persons charged with genocide by the Croatian authorities
are staying in the territory of Serbia;
(b) that the ICTY bring in an indictment against them; and

(c) that Serbia, explicitly or tacitly, refuse to co-operate with the ICTY.

200. Thus, it appears that, in actual fact, there does not exist a dispute
between the Parties in terms of the well-known definition given in the
case concerning Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions . According to that
definition the dispute is a “disagreement on a point of law or fact, a con-

flict of legal views or interests between two persons” (Judgment No. 2,
1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2 , p. 11).
The Parties are, in essence, not disputing a point of law, because the
Respondent does not deny the obligation to co-operate with the ICTY in
terms of Article VI of the Convention. For its part, the Applicant does

not deny that the ICTY has not accused any of the Respondent’s citizens
of the crime of genocide allegedly committed in the territory of Croatia.

Accordingly, what remains as a possible subject of dispute before the
Court is a disagreement on a point of fact. However, in concreto, the

“fact” in terms of a thing that exists or occurred simply is not present.

229 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 637

bunal —, et la Serbie aurait toujours, dans de telles circonstances, des
obligations à honorer » (CR 2008/13, p. 35 (Crawford); les italiques

sont de moi). En fait, le défendeur supposait qu’un certain nombre de
personnes ainsi accusées se trouvaient en Serbie (CR 2008/10, p. 15
(Šimonovic ´)).
Par cette mention qui est faite du TPIY, un lien est présomptivement
établi entre la question et la convention sur le génocide. Ce lien a tou-

tefois une nature hypothétique et, en tant que tel, ne relève pas de
la compétence de la Cour. Sur ce point particulier, en fait, il n’existe pas
de différend réel et effectif, condition préalable à l’exercice de la fonction
judiciaire de la Cour, mais un différend hypothétique.

En effet, le différend entre les parties est une chose, le différend devant
la Cour en est une autre. Qu’affirme donc le requérant? D’une part, qu’il
existe une présomption que les personnes accusées d’actes de génocide par
les autorités croates résident en Serbie et, de l’autre, que ces personnes,
qui résident peut-être en Serbie, pourraient peut-être être accusées dans le

cadre d’une procédure régulière devant le TPIY, qui a qualité de cour cri-
minelle internationale compétente, ce qui pourrait activer l’obligation de
la Serbie de coopérer avec le TPIY. Le défendeur rejette cette prétention,
avançant des arguments qui semblent pertinents.

199. Il est donc incontestable qu’il y a des opinions clairement oppo-
sées, un désaccord au sujet de la conclusion de la Croatie. Mais un tel
désaccord ne suffit pas pour faire du différend porté devant la Cour un
différend qui relève de la compétence de celle-ci in casu.
Ce différend est en effet de nature abstraite et hypothétique, car la

conclusion du demandeur est assujettie aux trois conditions suivantes:

a) que les personnes accusées de génocide par les autorités croates rési-
dent sur le territoire de la Serbie;
b) que le TPIY mette ces personnes en accusation; et
c) que la Serbie, expressément ou tacitement, refuse de coopérer avec le
TPIY.

200. Il apparaît ainsi qu’en fait il n’y a pas de différend entre les

Parties au sens de la définition bien connue formulée dans l’affaire des
Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine . Selon cette définition, un diffé-
rend est «un désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, ou une contra-
diction, une opposition de thèses juridiques ou d’intérêts entre deux per-
sonnes» (arrêt n 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A n o 2, p. 11).

Fondamentalement, les Parties ne s’opposent pas sur un point de droit,
parce que le défendeur ne nie pas l’obligation de coopérer avec le TPIY
au sens de l’article VI de la Convention. Pour sa part, le demandeur
ne nie pas qu’aucun national du défendeur n’a été accusé par le

TPIY du crime de génocide qui aurait été commis sur le territoire de la
Croatie.
C’est pourquoi ce qui demeure un sujet possible de désaccord devant la
Cour est un désaccord sur un point de fait. Toutefois, in concreto,iln’y
a pas en l’occurrence de «fait», c’est-à-dire une chose qui arrive ou qui

229638 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION (DISS.OP. KRECu )

What the Court is really faced with is not a “fact”, but a presumed fact or
a hypothetical fact. Dealing with presumed facts or hypothetical facts
however is outside the purview of the judicial function of the Court

because of cogent legal considerations. For, as the Court stated in the
case concerning Northern Cameroons :

“The function of the Court is to state the law, but it may pro-
nounce judgment only in connection with concrete cases where there
exists at the time of the adjudication an actual controversy involving
a conflict of legal interests between the parties. The Court’s judgment
must have some practical consequence in the sense that it can affect

existing legal rights and obligations of the parties, thus removing un-
certainty from their legal relations.” (Northern Cameroons (Cam-
eroon v. United Kingdom), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 1963, pp. 33-34.)

It would be incompatible with the judicial function of the Court to render
judgments which would be dependent on the existence of facts or situa-

tions to which a party refers.
201. The majority’s conclusion as regards the duty of prosecution and
punishment that “[t]hese issues are clearly matters of interpretation or
application of the Genocide Convention” (Judgment, para. 136) seems
correct but abstract, since it is not followed by a proper conclusio. The

Genocide Convention does not contain the principle of universal repres-
sion. States are “obliged to punish persons charged with the commission
of acts coming under the Convention insofar as they were committed in
their territory” (N. Robinson, The Genocide Convention, its Origins and
Interpretation, 1949, p. 31).

In its Judgment in the Bosnia case, the Court stated clearly:

“Even if Serbian domestic law granted jurisdiction to its criminal
courts to try those accused, and even supposing such proceedings
were compatible with Serbia’s other international obligations, inter
alia its obligation to co-operate with the ICTY, to which the Court

will revert below, an obligation to try the perpetrators of the Sre-
brenica massacre in Serbia’s domestic courts cannot be deduced
from Article VI. Article VI only obliges the Contracting Parties to
institute and exercise territorial criminal jurisdiction; while it cer-
tainly does not prohibit States, with respect to genocide, from con-

ferring jurisdiction on their criminal courts based on criteria other
than where the crime was committed which are compatible with
international law, in particular the nationality of the accused, it does
not oblige them to do so.” (Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and

Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), pp. 226-227, para. 442.)

The idea underlying theconclusio of the majority seems to be the under-

230 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 638

est arrivée. Ce à quoi la Cour est en réalité confrontée n’est pas un «fait»
mais un fait présumé ou hypothétique. Or il ne relève pas de la fonction
judiciaire de la Cour, pour des raisons juridiques puissantes, de connaître

de faits présumés ou hypothétiques. Ainsi que la Cour l’a déclaré dans
l’affaire concernant le Cameroun septentrional :

«La fonction de la Cour est de dire le droit, mais elle ne peut
rendre des arrêts qu’à l’occasion de cas concrets dans lesquels il
existe, au moment du jugement, un litige réel impliquant un conflit
d’intérêts juridiques entre les parties. L’arrêt de la Cour doit avoir
des conséquences pratiques en ce sens qu’il doit pouvoir affecter les

droits ou obligations juridiques existants des parties, dissipant
ainsi toute incertitude dans leurs relations juridiques.» (Cameroun
septentrional (Cameroun c. Royaume-Uni), exceptions prélimi-
naires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1963 , p. 33-34.)

Il serait incompatible avec la fonction judiciaire de la Cour que celle-ci
rende des arrêts dépendant de l’existence de faits ou de situations invo-

qués par une partie.
201. La conclusion de la majorité concernant l’obligation de pour-
suivre et de punir, selon laquelle «ces questions relèvent clairement de l’inter-
prétation ou de l’application de la convention sur le génocide» (arrêt,
par. 136), semble correcte mais abstraite, car elle n’est pas suivie par une

conclusio appropriée. La convention sur le génocide n’énonce pas le prin-
cipe de la répression universelle. Les Etats sont «tenus de punir les per-
sonnes accusées d’avoir commis des actes relevant de la Convention pour
autant que ces actes aient été commis sur leur territoire» (N. Robinson,
The Genocide Convention, its Origins and Interpretation , 1949, p. 31).

Dans son arrêt dans l’affaire de la Bosnie, la Cour a clairement déclaré
ce qui suit:

«Quand bien même le droit interne de la Serbie attribuerait com-
pétence aux tribunaux répressifs de cet Etat pour juger les personnes
concernées, et même dans la mesure où un tel jugement serait com-
patible avec les autres obligations internationales de la Serbie, notam-

ment son obligation de coopération avec le TPIY, sur laquelle la
Cour reviendra ci-après, on ne saurait déduire de l’article VI précité
une obligation de traduire devant les tribunaux de la Serbie les
auteurs du génocide de Srebrenica. L’article VI n’oblige les Etats
contractants qu’à instituer et exercer une compétence pénale territo-

riale; s’il n’interdit certes pas aux Etats de conférer à leurs tribunaux
pénaux, en matière de génocide, une compétence fondée sur d’autres
critères que le lieu de commission du crime compatibles avec le droit
international, en particulier la nationalité de l’accusé, il ne leur impose
pas d’agir ainsi.» (Application de la convention pour la prévention et

la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Serbie-et-
Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 226-227, par. 442.)

L’idée qui sous-tend la conclusion de la majorité semble être que, si

230639 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

standing that, if a person charged in State A with acts of genocide
committed in its territory is found in the territory of State B, a party to
the Genocide Convention, that State would be under an obligation to co-

operate in the arrest and extradition of such a person. Such an under-
standing seems erroneous for two principal reasons:
First, the duty to co-operate in the Convention is limited to co-opera-
tion with international penal tribunals (Art. VI of the Convention);

Second, it runs counter to the general principle of international crimi-
nal law in that regard — aut dedere, aut punire. The duty to extradite
might be established on the basis of a treaty, bilateral or multilateral, on
legal assistance in criminal matters only!
202. It is completely unclear how the dispute on the information on

missing persons falls within the jurisdiction of the Court ratione materiae
under the Genocide Convention. Co-operation of that kind between the
Contracting Parties is not envisaged by the Convention. In the concrete
case, the object are the bilateral treaty instruments, so this is rather a dis-

pute about its fulfilment.

203. The majority reasoning as regards the return of items of cultural
property (submission 2 (c)) is, it seems, not in harmony with its conclu-
sio. If the majority sees “no reason to depart from its earlier finding on

the general question of interpretation of the Convention in this respect”
(Judgment, para. 141), it is not clear how it came to the conclusio that the
objection raised by Serbia is not of an exclusively preliminary nature.

In the Bosnia case, the Court found, inter alia, that the deliberate

destruction of the historical, cultural and religious heritage “does not fall
within the categories of acts of genocide set out in Article II of the Con-
vention” (Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish-
ment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and
Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I) , pp. 185-186, para. 344.

It is a fortiori valid for acts of seizure of those items of cultural property.
If so, the dispute regarding the return of items of cultural property can-
not be considered as falling within the jurisdiction ratione materiae of the
Court on the basis of Article IX of the Convention, which perceives

genocide in terms of physical or biological destruction of the relevant
group as such.
204. The majority’s consideration that the claim of Croatia includes
“disputed matters of fact” (Judgment, para. 143), appears to be irrelevant
in the light of the fact that as a matter of law the so-called cultural geno-

cide does not fall within the scope of the Genocide Convention.
Both objections of the Respondent are determined by the majority as
objections having no exclusively preliminary character on the basis of the
consideration that it includes disputed matters of fact inappropriate to be
examined in the present phase of the proceedings.

In that regard, a different treatment of the disputed matters of fact in

231 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE OP .DISS. KRECu ) 639

une personne accusée par un Etat A d’actes de génocide commis sur son
territoire est découverte sur le territoire d’un Etat B partie à la conven-
tion sur le génocide, ce dernier sera tenu de coopérer à l’arrestation et

l’extradition de la personne en cause. Cette interprétation semble erronée
pour deux raisons principales:
Premièrement, l’obligation de coopérer énoncée dans la Convention est
limitée à la coopération avec les cours criminelles internationales (art. VI
de la Convention);

Deuxièmement, elle va à l’encontre du principe général du droit pénal
international à cet égard — aut dedere, aut punire. L’obligation d’extra-
der ne peut être établie que sur la base d’un traité, bilatéral ou multi-
latéral, d’entraide judiciaire en matière pénale!
202. On ne voit absolument pas comment le différend sur l’informa-

tion relative aux personnes disparues relève de la compétence de la Cour
ratione materiae en vertu de la convention sur le génocide. La Conven-
tion n’envisage pas de coopération à cet égard entre les parties contrac-
tantes. Dans le cas concret qui nous occupe, ce sont les instruments

conventionnels bilatéraux qui sont en cause, et il s’agit donc d’un diffé-
rend relatif à leur respect.
203. Le raisonnement de la majorité en ce qui concerne la restitution
de biens culturels (conclusion 2 c)) n’est pas semble-t-il en harmonie avec
sa conclusio. Si la majorité «ne voit pas de raison de s’écarter de la

conclusion qu’elle a précédemment formulée quant à la question générale
d’interprétation de la Convention sur ce point» (arrêt, par. 141), on voit
mal comment elle en arrive à sa conclusion selon laquelle l’exception sou-
levée par la Serbie n’a pas un caractère exclusivement préliminaire.
Dans l’affaire de la Bosnie, la Cour a notamment jugé que la destruc-

tion délibérée du patrimoine historique, culturel et religieux «ne peut pas
être considérée comme un acte de génocide au sens de l’article II de la
convention sur le génocide» (Application de la convention pour la préven-
tion et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Serbie-
et-Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I) , p. 185-186, par. 344).

Cette conclusion est a fortiori valide en ce qui concerne la saisie de biens
culturels. S’il en est ainsi, le différend concernant la restitution de biens
culturels ne peut être considéré comme relevant de la compétence
ratione materiae de la Cour sur la base de l’article IX de la Convention,

qui conçoit le génocide comme la destruction physique ou biologique du
groupe considéré.
204. L’observation de la majorité selon laquelle la demande de la
Croatie porte sur «les éléments de fait en litige» (arrêt, par. 143) semble
dénuée de pertinence puisqu’en droit le génocide dit «culturel» ne relève

pas du champ d’application de la convention sur le génocide.
La majorité juge que les deux exceptions du défendeur n’ont pas un
caractère exclusivement préliminaire au motif qu’elles soulèvent des ques-
tions de fait en litige qu’il serait inapproprié d’examiner lors de la pré-
sente phase de la procédure.

A cet égard, il semble évident que les questions de fait en litige qui se

231640 APPLICATION OF GENOCIDE CONVENTION DISS. OP. KRECu )

closely related cases seems evident. I have in mind the treatment of the
disputed facts in the Order of 8 April 1993 (Application of the Convention
on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Provisional Measures, I.C.J. Reports 1993 ,

p. 25), followed by the Order of 13 September 1993 (ibid., pp. 349-350) as
well as the Orders of 2 June 1999 in the ten Legality of Use of Force cases
((Yugoslavia v. Belgium), Provisional Measures, I.C.J. Reports 1999
(I), p. 138, para. 39) regarding facts that possess a sufficiently clear

manifestation of genocidal intent, a matter much more demanding than
the matter involved in this particular issue.

(Signed) Milenko K REuA .

232 APPLICATION DE CONVENTION GÉNOCIDE (OP. DISS.KRECu ) 640

posaient dans des affaires étroitement liées à la présente espèce ont été

traitées différemment. Je songe au traitement réservé aux faits contestés
dans l’ordonnance du 8 avril 1993 (Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine
c. Yougoslavie), mesures conservatoires, C.I.J. Recueil 1993 ,p . 25),

suivie par l’ordonnance du 13 septembre 1993 (ibid., p. 349-350), ainsi
que par les ordonnances du 2 juin 1999 dans les dix affaires relatives à
laLicéitédel’emploidelaforce ((Yougoslaviec.Belgique),mesuresconser-
vatoires, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (I) , p. 138, par. 39) en ce qui concerne

des faits impliquant une manifestation suffisamment claire de l’intention
de commettre un génocide, une question beaucoup plus exigeante que
celle qui se pose dans la présente espèce.

(Signé) Milenko K RECu .

232

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Dissenting opinion of Judge ad hoc Kreća

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