Separate opinion of Judge Gaja

Document Number
118-20150203-JUD-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
118-20150203-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

394

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE GAJA

1. The Judgment rendered in 2007 on the Application of the Convention

on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 43)
concerned events that had occurred in Bosnia. It does not formally bind h
the Court in the present proceedings. However, it would be unreasonable h
for the Court to adopt a different approach to the interpretation and

application of the Genocide Convention when considering events of a
similar character which had taken place in the same years in nearby areahs
in the former Yugoslavia. Thus, it is quite understandable that the Courht
uses with regard to events in Croatia the same criteria contained in theh
2007 Judgment on issues such as the definition of genocide, the material

acts covered by this definition and the required mental element. The shlight
difference in the formulation of the rule on evidence in the present Judgh -
ment, which now specifies the need to make a “reasonable” inferehnce of
the intention of genocide, is not intended as a modification of the stan -
dard previously used (Judgment, para. 148).

It may be worth noting, however, that both the 2007 Judgment and the
present Judgment use the same or a similar legal framework when consid-
ering issues relating to the responsibility of States for the commissionh of
acts of genocide and the criminal responsibility of individuals for genoh -
cide. Certain aspects that are specific to State responsibility appear to be

underrated and will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

2. One aspect concerns the definition of genocide. This may at first
seem strange since Article II of the Genocide Convention applies to the
commission of genocide both by individuals and by States. I agree with
the Court’s view that for States “the obligation to prevent genocihde

necessarily implies the prohibition of the commission of genocide”
(I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 113, para. 166). A State could hardly infringe
an obligation to prevent genocide more directly than by itself committing
genocide.
It is well known that, in order to define genocide, the statutes of thhe

international criminal tribunals simply reproduce Article II of the Geno -
cide Convention (Article 4 of the Statute of the International Criminal
Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) ; Article 2 of the Statute of
the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) Article; 6 of the
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC)).

While it would seem logical to give to the definition of genocide the h
same meaning with regard to State responsibility and the criminal respon -
sibility of individuals, there are reasons for the international criminahl tri-

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bunals to adopt a restrictive approach to the definition which are not
applicable when one considers State responsibility.

According to Article 22 (2) of the ICC Statute, “[t]he definition of a
crime shall be strictly construed” and “[i]n case of ambiguity . . . shall be
interpreted in favour of the person being investigated, prosecuted or cohn-
victed”. A similar approach, implying a “strict construction”, hwas taken

by a Trial Chamber of the ICTY in Delalić (Judgment of 16 Novem-
ber 1998, IT-96-21-T, para. 411). With regard to the definition of geno -
cide, a Trial Chamber of the ICTR found in Kayishema that “if a doubt
exists, for a matter of statutory interpretation, that doubt must be inter -
preted in favour of the accused” (Judgment of 21May 1999, ICTR-95-1-T,

para. 103).

A restrictive approach to the definition of genocide may also be foundh
in the “Elements of Crimes”, adopted by the Assembly of States Parhties
in order to “assist” the ICC in the interpretation and applicationh of the

relevant provisions of the Rome Statute (Art. 9).According to these Ele -
ments, for genocide to be committed it is necessary that “[t]he conduhct
took place in the context of a manifest pattern of similar conduct direchted
against that group or was conduct that could itself effect such destruc -
tion”. Since the adoption of the Elements of Crimes does not embody ah

“subsequent agreement between the parties regarding the interpretatiohn”
of the Genocide Convention according to Article 31, paragraph 3 (a), of
the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, it does not affect the
extent of State responsibility for genocide.

Moreover, unlike the Court’s jurisdiction under Article IX of the
Genocide Convention, the jurisdiction of international criminal tribunalhs
extends to crimes against humanity and serious breaches of internationalh
humanitarian law. These crimes in part overlap with genocide and are

generally easier to prove. This has caused the Prosecutor sometimes to
refrain from charging genocide and also the tribunals to take a restricthive
approach to finding that genocide had occurred.

It is noteworthy that in Krstić, one of the few instances where the ICTY

found that genocide had been committed, the Appeals Chamber observed :

“The gravity of genocide is reflected in the stringent requirementsh
which must be satisfied before this conviction is imposed. These
requirements — the demanding proof of specific intent and the show-
ing that the group was targeted for destruction in its entirety or in
substantial part — guard against a danger that convictions for this

crime will be imposed lightly.” (Judgment of 19 April 2004, IT-98-
33-A, para. 37.)

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3. Determining the existence of the mental element of genocide may
lead to different conclusions with regard to individuals and the State fohr
which they may be acting.

The United Nations Commission of Inquiry on Darfur found that,
while the Sudanese governmental authorities did not possess an intent toh
destroy an ethnic group in whole or in part, single individuals belonginhg
to the Sudanese army or paramilitaries could have had that intent (Report
of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Natiohns

Secretary-G eneral, 25 January 2005, paras. 520-521). The reverse hypo -
thesis may also occur. While it would be difficult to infer from the acht of
an individual his or her intent to target a substantial part of a group,h a
number of State organs or other individuals acting for a State may pro -
duce a pattern of conduct from which a governmental policy concerning

the destruction of a group could be inferred. In relation to the events hin
Srebrenica, the Appeals Chamber of the ICTY stated in Krstić that:

“The Trial Chamber found, and the Appeals Chamber endorses
this finding, that the killing was engineered and supervised by some
members of the Main Staff of the VRS. The fact that the Trial Cham-

ber did not attribute genocidal intent to a particular official within
the Main Staff may have been motivated by a desire not to assign
individual culpability to persons not on trial here. This, however, doesh
not undermine the conclusion that Bosnian Serb forces carried out
genocide against the Bosnian Muslims.” (Judgment of 19 April 2004,

IT-98-33-A, para. 35 ; footnote omitted.)

Moreover, identifying the individuals who committed specific acts may hbe
problematic and therefore impede prosecution. However, when the acting
persons are at least identified as State organs or as acting for the Shtate, a
finding of State responsibility for genocide may be warranted.

In any case, establishing that an individual or organ committed certain h
acts with genocidal intent is not a precondition for finding that a Sthate
committed genocide. The following passage in the 2007 Judgment may
contain some ambiguity, but does not suggest the existence of such a preh-
condition. The Court only said that “if an organ of the State, or a pherson

or group whose acts are legally attributable to the State, commits any of
the acts proscribed by Article III of the Convention, the international
responsibility of that State is incurred” (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 119,
para. 179). The further developments contained in the present Judgment
(paras. 128-129) on this issue do not fully remove the ambiguity, but also

do not point to a precondition.

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4. The main difference between international criminal responsibility
and State responsibility for genocide concerns the standard of proof. In
international criminal proceedings, as in criminal proceedings in generahl,
the evidence against the accused is often required to be “beyond all hrea -

sonable doubt”. This standard was set with regard to genocide by the h
Trial Chamber of the ICTR in Akayesu (Judgment of 2 September 1998,
ICTR -96-4-T, para. 530) and in Rutaganda (Judgment of 6 Decem -
ber 1999, ICTR -96-3-T, para. 398) and by the Trial Chamber of the
ICTY in Jelisić (Judgment of 14 December 1999, IT-95-10-T, para. 108).

In the latter Judgment the Chamber also stated that “the benefit of the
doubt must always go to the accused” (ibid.).
With regard to the evidence relating to the intent to commit genocide,
the 2007 Judgment of the Court used a similar approach. The Court
found that :

“The dolus specialis, the specific intent to destroy the group in
whole or in part, has to be convincingly shown by reference to par -

ticular circumstances, unless a general plan to that end can be con -
vincingly demonstrated to exist ; and for a pattern of conduct to be
accepted as evidence of its existence, it would have to be such that it h
could only point to the existence of such intent.” ( I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), pp. 196-197, para. 373 ; see also Judgment, paras. 145

and 148.)
The Court went on to say that the “broad” proposition advanced by hthe

applicant State (Bosnia and Herzegovina) concerning intent was “not
consistent with the findings of the ICTY relating to genocide or with hthe
actions of the Prosecutor” (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 197, para. 374).
In the 2007 Judgment a variety of expressions were used to describe the h
required standard of proof. The Court said that it had to be “fully chon -

vinced that allegations made in the proceedings, that the crime of geno -
cide or the other acts enumerated in Article III have been committed,
have been clearly established” ; this also “applies to the proof of attribu -
tion for such acts” (ibid., p. 129, para. 209; see also Judgment,
paras. 178-179). With regard to a breach of the obligations “to prevent
genocide and to punish and extradite persons charged with genocide”, the

Court observed that there was the need of “proof at a high level of cer -
tainty” (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p.130, para. 210). The Court also found
that one condition for the responsibility for complicity in genocide was
not fulfilled

“because it [was] not established beyond any doubt in the argument
between the Parties whether the authorities of the FRY supplied —
and continued to supply — the VRS leaders who decided upon and

carried out those acts of genocide with their aid and assistance, at a
time when those authorities were clearly aware that genocide was
about to take place or was under way” (ibid., p. 218, para. 422 ; ital
ics added).

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In substance, although different wording was used, the Court applied the h
same standard of “beyond all reasonable doubt” that the ICTY and thhe
ICTR apply with regard to individual crimes. This was confirmed by a

remark made by President Higgins in her presentation in November 2007
of the Court’s jurisprudence to the Sixth Committee of the General
Assembly. After quoting paragraph 209 of the Judgment, she noted that :

“There have been some curious comments by observers as to this
being a ‘higher’ or ‘lower’ standard than ‘beyond reasonahble doubt’.

It is simply a comparable standard, but employing terminology more
appropriate to a civil, international law case.” (Speech by H.E.
Judge Rosalyn Higgins, President of the International Court of Jus -
tice, to the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly, 2 Novem-
ber 2007.)

One of the reasons for requiring such a standard of proof for issues of

State responsibility was found by the Court in the “exceptional gravihty”
of the charges involving the commission of genocide ( I.C.J.
Reports 2007 (I) , p. 129, para. 209). The Court referred (ibid.) to the
passage in the Corfu Channel Judgment where, in view of “allegations
short of conclusive evidence” of a minefield having been laid by twho

Yugoslav vessels, the Court said : “A charge of such exceptional gravity
against a State would require a degree of certainty that has not been
reached here.” (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 17.) Also with regard to the alleged
breach of obligations to prevent genocide and to punish and extradite

persons charged with genocide, the Court linked the standard of proof
with the “seriousness of the allegation” (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 130,
para. 210). The present Judgment adopts “the same standard of proof”
(para. 179).

However, it would be difficult to explain why the seriousness of the
alleged wrongful act and its connection with international crimes shouldh
make the establishment of international responsibility more difficult. hAs

was pointed out by the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission in two of its h
decisions dated 1 July 2003 :

“The Commission does not accept any suggestion that, because
some claims may involve allegations of potentially criminal individual
conduct, it should apply an even higher standard of proof correspond -
ing to that in individual criminal proceedings. The Commission is not
a criminal tribunal assessing individual criminal responsibility. It

must instead decide whether there have been breaches of international
law based on normal principles of state responsibility. The possibility h
that particular findings may involve very serious matters does not

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change the international law rules to be applied or fundamentally

transform the quantum of evidence required.” (RIAA, Vol. XXVI,
p. 41, para. 47, and p. 88, para. 38.)

5. The difference in approach that should be taken with regard to State

responsibility, on the one hand, and individual criminal responsibility,h on
the other, may not be very substantial. However, it is not insignificahnt. It
may provide a greater opportunity for a State to assert before the Courth
a claim that another State committed genocide.

(Signed) Giorgio Gaja.

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Bilingual Content

394

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE GAJA

1. The Judgment rendered in 2007 on the Application of the Convention

on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro) (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 43)
concerned events that had occurred in Bosnia. It does not formally bind h
the Court in the present proceedings. However, it would be unreasonable h
for the Court to adopt a different approach to the interpretation and

application of the Genocide Convention when considering events of a
similar character which had taken place in the same years in nearby areahs
in the former Yugoslavia. Thus, it is quite understandable that the Courht
uses with regard to events in Croatia the same criteria contained in theh
2007 Judgment on issues such as the definition of genocide, the material

acts covered by this definition and the required mental element. The shlight
difference in the formulation of the rule on evidence in the present Judgh -
ment, which now specifies the need to make a “reasonable” inferehnce of
the intention of genocide, is not intended as a modification of the stan -
dard previously used (Judgment, para. 148).

It may be worth noting, however, that both the 2007 Judgment and the
present Judgment use the same or a similar legal framework when consid-
ering issues relating to the responsibility of States for the commissionh of
acts of genocide and the criminal responsibility of individuals for genoh -
cide. Certain aspects that are specific to State responsibility appear to be

underrated and will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

2. One aspect concerns the definition of genocide. This may at first
seem strange since Article II of the Genocide Convention applies to the
commission of genocide both by individuals and by States. I agree with
the Court’s view that for States “the obligation to prevent genocihde

necessarily implies the prohibition of the commission of genocide”
(I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 113, para. 166). A State could hardly infringe
an obligation to prevent genocide more directly than by itself committing
genocide.
It is well known that, in order to define genocide, the statutes of thhe

international criminal tribunals simply reproduce Article II of the Geno -
cide Convention (Article 4 of the Statute of the International Criminal
Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) ; Article 2 of the Statute of
the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) Article; 6 of the
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC)).

While it would seem logical to give to the definition of genocide the h
same meaning with regard to State responsibility and the criminal respon -
sibility of individuals, there are reasons for the international criminahl tri-

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OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE GAJA

[Traduction]

1. L’arrêt rendu en 2007 en l’affaire relative à l’pplication de la conven‑

tion pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (▯Bosnie‑
Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro) (C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 43)
avait trait à des événements qui s’étaient produits en Bohsnie. Il ne lie pas
formellement la Cour dans la présente procédure, mais il aurait éhté dérai-
sonnable d’aborder différemment l’interprétation et l’applhication de la

convention sur le génocide pour examiner des faits de nature semblablhe
survenus à la même époque et dans des régions avoisinantes dhe l’ex -
Yougoslavie. Il est donc compréhensible qu’elle ait appliqué auhx événe -
ments survenus en Croatie les mêmes critères que ceux énoncéhs dans
l’arrêt de 2007 pour ce qui est des questions telles que la définition du

génocide, les actes matériels visés par cette définition eht l’élément moral
requis. La légère précision apportée dans le présent arrêht à la formulation
de la règle de preuve applicable, selon laquelle la déduction de lh’intention
génocidaire doit être « raisonnable», n’est pas censée modifier le critère
précédemment défini (arrêt, par. 148).

Il convient sans doute de relever, toutefois, que l’arrêt de 2007 het le
présent arrêt s’inscrivent dans un cadre juridique identique ouh du moins
semblable pour l’examen des questions relatives à la responsabilithé de
l’Etat à raison de la commission d’actes de génocide et àh la responsabilité
pénale individuelle en matière de génocide. Certains aspects qui sont

propres à la responsabilité de l’Etat paraissent avoir étéh négligés et seront
traités dans les paragraphes ci -après.
2. L’un de ces aspects a trait à la définition du génocide, ce qui peut
sembler étrange à première vue, car l’article II de la Convention s’ap -
plique à la commission du génocide tant par des individus que par hdes
Etats. Je souscris au point de vue de la Cour selon lequel, pour ces derh -

niers, « l’obligation de prévenir le génocide implique nécessairementh l’in-
terdiction de le commettre » (C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 113, par. 166). Un
Etat pourrait difficilement enfreindre l’obligation de prévenir lhe génocide
plus directement qu’en en commettant un lui -même.
Comme chacun sait, pour définir le génocide, les statuts des trihbunaux

pénaux internationaux se bornent à reproduire l’article II de la conven -
tion sur le génocide (article 4 du statut du Tribunal pénal international
pour l’ex-Yougoslavie (TPIY) ; articl2 du statut du Tribunal pénal inter-
national pour le Rwanda (TPIR) ; article 6 du statut de Rome de la Cour
pénale internationale (CPI)).

Il pourrait sembler logique de donner à la définition du génohcide la
même portée en ce qui concerne la responsabilité de l’Etat qhu’en matière
de responsabilité pénale individuelle, mais les raisons qui ont cohnduit les

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bunals to adopt a restrictive approach to the definition which are not
applicable when one considers State responsibility.

According to Article 22 (2) of the ICC Statute, “[t]he definition of a
crime shall be strictly construed” and “[i]n case of ambiguity . . . shall be
interpreted in favour of the person being investigated, prosecuted or cohn-
victed”. A similar approach, implying a “strict construction”, hwas taken

by a Trial Chamber of the ICTY in Delalić (Judgment of 16 Novem-
ber 1998, IT-96-21-T, para. 411). With regard to the definition of geno -
cide, a Trial Chamber of the ICTR found in Kayishema that “if a doubt
exists, for a matter of statutory interpretation, that doubt must be inter -
preted in favour of the accused” (Judgment of 21May 1999, ICTR-95-1-T,

para. 103).

A restrictive approach to the definition of genocide may also be foundh
in the “Elements of Crimes”, adopted by the Assembly of States Parhties
in order to “assist” the ICC in the interpretation and applicationh of the

relevant provisions of the Rome Statute (Art. 9).According to these Ele -
ments, for genocide to be committed it is necessary that “[t]he conduhct
took place in the context of a manifest pattern of similar conduct direchted
against that group or was conduct that could itself effect such destruc -
tion”. Since the adoption of the Elements of Crimes does not embody ah

“subsequent agreement between the parties regarding the interpretatiohn”
of the Genocide Convention according to Article 31, paragraph 3 (a), of
the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, it does not affect the
extent of State responsibility for genocide.

Moreover, unlike the Court’s jurisdiction under Article IX of the
Genocide Convention, the jurisdiction of international criminal tribunalhs
extends to crimes against humanity and serious breaches of internationalh
humanitarian law. These crimes in part overlap with genocide and are

generally easier to prove. This has caused the Prosecutor sometimes to
refrain from charging genocide and also the tribunals to take a restricthive
approach to finding that genocide had occurred.

It is noteworthy that in Krstić, one of the few instances where the ICTY

found that genocide had been committed, the Appeals Chamber observed :

“The gravity of genocide is reflected in the stringent requirementsh
which must be satisfied before this conviction is imposed. These
requirements — the demanding proof of specific intent and the show-
ing that the group was targeted for destruction in its entirety or in
substantial part — guard against a danger that convictions for this

crime will be imposed lightly.” (Judgment of 19 April 2004, IT-98-
33-A, para. 37.)

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tribunaux pénaux internationaux à adopter une interprétation restrictive
de cette définition ne trouvent pas à s’appliquer dans le conhtexte de la
responsabilité de l’Etat.
Aux termes du paragraphe 2 de l’article 22 du statut de la CPI, « [l]a

définition d’un crime est d’interprétation stricte » et, « [e]n cas d’ambi -
guïté, … est interprétée en faveur de la personne qui fait l’objet d’une
enquête, de poursuites ou d’une condamnation». La chambre de première
instance du TPIY saisie de l’affaire Delalić a suivi un raisonnement ana -
logue, faisant intervenir une « interprétation restrictive » (jugement du

16 novembre 1998, IT-96-21-T, par. 411). S’agissant de la définition du
génocide, la chambre de première instance du TPIR saisie de l’ahf -
faire Kayishema a considéré que, «s’il existe un quelconque doute, celui-ci
doit jouer en faveur de l’accusé »jugement du 21 mai 1999, ICTR-95-1-T,
par. 103).

Les « Eléments des crimes », adoptés par l’Assemblée des Etats parties
afin d’« aider» la CPI à interpréter et appliquer les dispositions en cause
du Statut de Rome (art. 9), préconisent eux aussi une interprétation
restrictive de la définition du génocide. Pour conclure qu’unh génocide a
été commis, il faut en effet que « [l]e comportement [se soit] inscrit dans le

cadre d’une série manifeste de comportements analogues dirigés hcontre ce
groupe, ou [qu’il puisse] en lui -même produire une telle destruction ».
Puisque l’adoption des Eléments des crimes n’était pas assorhtie d’un
«accord ultérieur intervenu entre les parties au sujet de » l’interprétation
de la convention sur le génocide, aux termes de l’alinéa a) du para -

graphe 3 de l’article 31 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des traités,
cela n’a pas d’incidence sur la responsabilité de l’Etat en hmatière de géno -
cide.
En outre, contrairement à la compétence que confère à la Couhr
l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide, la juridiction des tribunaux

pénaux internationaux s’étend aux crimes contre l’humanitéh et aux vio -
lations graves du droit international humanitaire. Ces crimes, qui
s’apparentent en partie au génocide, sont, de manière généhrale, plus
faciles à établir. Cela a conduit le procureur à parfois écahrter le chef de
génocide, et les tribunaux à faire preuve de prudence pour conclurhe
qu’un génocide avait été commis.

Il convient de relever que, dans l’affaire Krstić, l’une des rares occasions
où le TPIY a conclu à la perpétration d’un génocide, la chhambre d’appel
a fait observer ce qui suit :

«Les conditions rigoureuses qui doivent être remplies pour que
l’on puisse prononcer une déclaration de culpabilité pour géhnocide
témoignent de la gravité de ce crime. Ces conditions — la preuve,
difficile à apporter, d’une intention spécifique, et la déhmonstration

que c’était l’ensemble du groupe, ou une partie substantielle dhe
celui-ci, qui était voué à l’extinction — écartent le risque que des
déclarations de culpabilité pour génocide soient prononcées hà la
légère. » (Arrêt du 19 avril 2004, IT-98-33-A, par. 37.)

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3. Determining the existence of the mental element of genocide may
lead to different conclusions with regard to individuals and the State fohr
which they may be acting.

The United Nations Commission of Inquiry on Darfur found that,
while the Sudanese governmental authorities did not possess an intent toh
destroy an ethnic group in whole or in part, single individuals belonginhg
to the Sudanese army or paramilitaries could have had that intent (Report
of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Natiohns

Secretary-G eneral, 25 January 2005, paras. 520-521). The reverse hypo -
thesis may also occur. While it would be difficult to infer from the acht of
an individual his or her intent to target a substantial part of a group,h a
number of State organs or other individuals acting for a State may pro -
duce a pattern of conduct from which a governmental policy concerning

the destruction of a group could be inferred. In relation to the events hin
Srebrenica, the Appeals Chamber of the ICTY stated in Krstić that:

“The Trial Chamber found, and the Appeals Chamber endorses
this finding, that the killing was engineered and supervised by some
members of the Main Staff of the VRS. The fact that the Trial Cham-

ber did not attribute genocidal intent to a particular official within
the Main Staff may have been motivated by a desire not to assign
individual culpability to persons not on trial here. This, however, doesh
not undermine the conclusion that Bosnian Serb forces carried out
genocide against the Bosnian Muslims.” (Judgment of 19 April 2004,

IT-98-33-A, para. 35 ; footnote omitted.)

Moreover, identifying the individuals who committed specific acts may hbe
problematic and therefore impede prosecution. However, when the acting
persons are at least identified as State organs or as acting for the Shtate, a
finding of State responsibility for genocide may be warranted.

In any case, establishing that an individual or organ committed certain h
acts with genocidal intent is not a precondition for finding that a Sthate
committed genocide. The following passage in the 2007 Judgment may
contain some ambiguity, but does not suggest the existence of such a preh-
condition. The Court only said that “if an organ of the State, or a pherson

or group whose acts are legally attributable to the State, commits any of
the acts proscribed by Article III of the Convention, the international
responsibility of that State is incurred” (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 119,
para. 179). The further developments contained in the present Judgment
(paras. 128-129) on this issue do not fully remove the ambiguity, but also

do not point to a precondition.

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3. La recherche de l’ élément moral du génocide peut conduire à des
conclusions différentes selon qu’il est question d’individus ou hde l’Etat
pour le compte duquel ceux-ci peuvent avoir agi.

La commission d’enquête des Nations Unies sur le Darfour a conclu
que, si les autorités soudanaises n’avaient pas eu l’intention hde détruire un
groupe ethnique en tout ou en partie, des individus appartenant à l’harmée
ou aux paramilitaires soudanais avaient pu être animés d’une tehlle inten-
tion (Rapport de la commission internationale d’enquête sur le Dahrfour

au Secrétaire général, 25 janvier 2005, par. 520-521). Le cas inverse peut
aussi se produire. Alors qu’il serait difficile de déduire, à hpartir d’un acte
commis par une personne, que celle -ci avait l’intention de prendre pour
cible une partie substantielle d’un groupe, un certain nombre d’orhganes
ou d’autres individus agissant pour le compte d’un Etat pourraienth adop -

ter une ligne de conduite à partir de laquelle on pourrait inférerh une poli-
tique gouvernementale tendant à la destruction d’un groupe. S’ahgissant
des événements de Srebrenica, la chambre d’appel du TPIY a déhclaré ce
qui suit dans l’affaireKrstić:

«La Chambre d’appel souscrit à la conclusion de la Chambre de
première instance selon laquelle les meurtres ont été orchestréhs par
des membres de l’état-major principal de la VRS qui en ont aussi

assuré la supervision. Si la Chambre de première instance n’a pas
prêté d’intention génocidaire à tel ou tel officier de lh’état-major prin
cipal, c’est peut-être pour ne pas retenir la responsabilité inhdividuelle
de personnes qui ne sont pas mises en accusation dans ce procès.
Cependant, cela ne remet pas en cause la conclusion selon laquelle

les forces serbes de Bosnie ont commis un génocide contre les Musul-
mans de Bosnie. » (Arrêt du 19 avril 2004, IT-98-33-A, par. 35; note
de bas de page omise.)

Il peut par ailleurs être difficile d’identifier les individus hqui ont commis
les actes matériels incriminés, ce qui peut faire obstacle à l’hengagement de
poursuites. Mais s’il peut être établi qu’ils agissaient pouhr le compte de
l’Etat ou en tant qu’organes de celui -ci, on peut être fondé à conclure à la
responsabilité de l’Etat pour génocide.

En tout état de cause, il n’est pas nécessaire d’établir hau préalable qu’un
individu ou un organe a commis tel ou tel acte dans une intention génho -
cidaire pour parvenir à la conclusion que l’Etat s’est rendu cohupable de
génocide. Le passage ci -après de l’arrêt de 2007, s’il peut prêter à quelque
ambiguïté, ne permet pas d’inférer l’existence d’une thelle condition préa-

lable, la Cour s’étant bornée à dire que, « si un organe de l’Etat ou une
personne ou un groupe de personnes dont les actes sont juridiquement
attribuables à l’Etat en question commet l’un des actes prohibéhs par l’ar-
ticle III de la Convention, la responsabilité internationale de celui-ci est
engagée» (C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 119, par. 179). Les nouveaux élé-

ments qui figurent dans le présent arrêt sur ce point (par. 128-129) ne
lèvent pas complètement l’ambiguïté, mais n’indiquent hpas non plus
l’existence d’une condition préalable.

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7 CIJ1077.indb 791 18/04/16 08:54 397 application of genochide convention (sep. ohp. gaja)

4. The main difference between international criminal responsibility
and State responsibility for genocide concerns the standard of proof. In
international criminal proceedings, as in criminal proceedings in generahl,
the evidence against the accused is often required to be “beyond all hrea -

sonable doubt”. This standard was set with regard to genocide by the h
Trial Chamber of the ICTR in Akayesu (Judgment of 2 September 1998,
ICTR -96-4-T, para. 530) and in Rutaganda (Judgment of 6 Decem -
ber 1999, ICTR -96-3-T, para. 398) and by the Trial Chamber of the
ICTY in Jelisić (Judgment of 14 December 1999, IT-95-10-T, para. 108).

In the latter Judgment the Chamber also stated that “the benefit of the
doubt must always go to the accused” (ibid.).
With regard to the evidence relating to the intent to commit genocide,
the 2007 Judgment of the Court used a similar approach. The Court
found that :

“The dolus specialis, the specific intent to destroy the group in
whole or in part, has to be convincingly shown by reference to par -

ticular circumstances, unless a general plan to that end can be con -
vincingly demonstrated to exist ; and for a pattern of conduct to be
accepted as evidence of its existence, it would have to be such that it h
could only point to the existence of such intent.” ( I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), pp. 196-197, para. 373 ; see also Judgment, paras. 145

and 148.)
The Court went on to say that the “broad” proposition advanced by hthe

applicant State (Bosnia and Herzegovina) concerning intent was “not
consistent with the findings of the ICTY relating to genocide or with hthe
actions of the Prosecutor” (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 197, para. 374).
In the 2007 Judgment a variety of expressions were used to describe the h
required standard of proof. The Court said that it had to be “fully chon -

vinced that allegations made in the proceedings, that the crime of geno -
cide or the other acts enumerated in Article III have been committed,
have been clearly established” ; this also “applies to the proof of attribu -
tion for such acts” (ibid., p. 129, para. 209; see also Judgment,
paras. 178-179). With regard to a breach of the obligations “to prevent
genocide and to punish and extradite persons charged with genocide”, the

Court observed that there was the need of “proof at a high level of cer -
tainty” (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p.130, para. 210). The Court also found
that one condition for the responsibility for complicity in genocide was
not fulfilled

“because it [was] not established beyond any doubt in the argument
between the Parties whether the authorities of the FRY supplied —
and continued to supply — the VRS leaders who decided upon and

carried out those acts of genocide with their aid and assistance, at a
time when those authorities were clearly aware that genocide was
about to take place or was under way” (ibid., p. 218, para. 422 ; ital
ics added).

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4. La principale différence entre la responsabilité pénale internathionale et
la responsabilité de l’Etat en matière de génocide tient au hcritère d’établis‑se
ment de la preuve. Dans les procédures pénales internationales, comme dans
les procédures pénales en général, il est souvent exigé qhue la culpabilité de

l’accusé soit démontrée « au-delà de tout doute raisonnable ». Pour ce qui
est du génocide, ce critère a été énoncé par le TPIR dhans l’affaireAkayesu
(jugement du 2 septembre 1998, ICTR-96-4-T, par. 530) et aussi dans l’af-
faireRutaganda(jugement du 6 décembre 1999, ICTR-96-3-T, par. 398), et
par le TPIY en l’affaire Jelisić(jugement du 14 décembre 1999, IT-95-10-T,

par. 108). Dans cette dernière, la chambre de première instance a éhgalement
affirmé que «[l]e doute doit toujours profiter à l’accusé» (ibid.).
En ce qui concerne les éléments de preuve se rapportant à l’intention de
commettre le génocide, la Cour a tenu, dans son arrêt de 2007, un hraison -
nement analogue :

«Le dolus specialis, l’intention spécifique de détruire le groupe en
tout ou en partie, doit être établi en référence à des cihrconstances

précises, à moins que l’existence d’un plan général tehndant à cette fin
puisse être démontrée de manière convaincante; pour qu’une ligne de
conduite puisse être admise en tant que preuve d’une telle intentihon,
elle devrait être telle qu’elle ne puisse qu’en dénoter l’hexistence. »
(.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 196-197, par. 373 ; voir aussi arrêt,

par. 145 et 148.)
Elle a poursuivi en précisant que la « large» proposition avancée par

l’Etat demandeur (la Bosnie-Herzégovine) au sujet de l’intention n’était
«pas conforme aux conclusions du TPIY sur le génocide ni aux décisihons
du procureur » (C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 197, par. 374).
Dans son arrêt de 2007, la Cour a utilisé diverses formules pour dhéfinir le
critère d’établissement de la preuve applicable. Ainsi, elle a hindiqué devoir

«être pleinement convaincue qu’ont été clairement avéréhes les allégations
formulées au cours de l’instance selon lesquelles le crime de génocide ou les
autres actes énumérés à l’article III ont été commis » et qu’il en allait de
même pour « lapreuve de l’attribution de tels actes (ibid., p.129, par. 209;
voir aussi arrêt, par.178-179). S’agissant du manquement aux obligations
«de prévenir le génocide ainsi que de punir et d’extrader les pehrsonnes accu -

sées de ce crime», elle a fait observer qu’il fallait «qu[e ce manquement] soit
prouv[é] avec un degré élevé de certitude » (C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 130,
par. 210). Elle a considéré qu’une des conditions nécessaires pohur établir la
responsabilité du chef de complicité dans le génocide n’éhtait pas remplie :

«il n’a, en effet, pas été établie manière indiscutable, par l’argumen -
tation développée entre les Parties, que les autorités de la RFhY
auraient fourni — et continué à fournir — leur aide et leur assistance

aux chefs de la VRS qui ont décidé et exécuté le génocideh, à un
moment où elles auraient été clairement conscientes qu’un géhnocide
était sur le point, ou en train, d’être commis » (ibid., p. 218, par. 422;
les italiques sont de moi).

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In substance, although different wording was used, the Court applied the h
same standard of “beyond all reasonable doubt” that the ICTY and thhe
ICTR apply with regard to individual crimes. This was confirmed by a

remark made by President Higgins in her presentation in November 2007
of the Court’s jurisprudence to the Sixth Committee of the General
Assembly. After quoting paragraph 209 of the Judgment, she noted that :

“There have been some curious comments by observers as to this
being a ‘higher’ or ‘lower’ standard than ‘beyond reasonahble doubt’.

It is simply a comparable standard, but employing terminology more
appropriate to a civil, international law case.” (Speech by H.E.
Judge Rosalyn Higgins, President of the International Court of Jus -
tice, to the Sixth Committee of the General Assembly, 2 Novem-
ber 2007.)

One of the reasons for requiring such a standard of proof for issues of

State responsibility was found by the Court in the “exceptional gravihty”
of the charges involving the commission of genocide ( I.C.J.
Reports 2007 (I) , p. 129, para. 209). The Court referred (ibid.) to the
passage in the Corfu Channel Judgment where, in view of “allegations
short of conclusive evidence” of a minefield having been laid by twho

Yugoslav vessels, the Court said : “A charge of such exceptional gravity
against a State would require a degree of certainty that has not been
reached here.” (Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 17.) Also with regard to the alleged
breach of obligations to prevent genocide and to punish and extradite

persons charged with genocide, the Court linked the standard of proof
with the “seriousness of the allegation” (I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 130,
para. 210). The present Judgment adopts “the same standard of proof”
(para. 179).

However, it would be difficult to explain why the seriousness of the
alleged wrongful act and its connection with international crimes shouldh
make the establishment of international responsibility more difficult. hAs

was pointed out by the Eritrea-Ethiopia Claims Commission in two of its h
decisions dated 1 July 2003 :

“The Commission does not accept any suggestion that, because
some claims may involve allegations of potentially criminal individual
conduct, it should apply an even higher standard of proof correspond -
ing to that in individual criminal proceedings. The Commission is not
a criminal tribunal assessing individual criminal responsibility. It

must instead decide whether there have been breaches of international
law based on normal principles of state responsibility. The possibility h
that particular findings may involve very serious matters does not

399

7 CIJ1077.indb 794 18/04/16 08:54 application de convehntion génocide (op. inhd. gaja) 398

Bien qu’elle ait opté pour une formulation différente, la Cour ah en subs -
tance appliqué le même critère de la preuve « au-delà de tout doute rai-
sonnable » auquel le TPIY et le TPIR ont eu recours pour ce qui concerne

les accusés individuels. Cela a été confirmé par la préhsidenteHiggins lors-
qu’elle a présenté la jurisprudence de la Cour à la Sixièhme Commission
de l’Assemblée générale, en novembre 2007. Après avoir cité le para -
graphe 209 de l’arrêt de 2007, elle a fait observer ce qui suit :

«Certains observateurs ont fait d’étonnants commentaires, comme
s’il s’agissait d’un critère « plus rigoureux » ou « moins rigoureux »

que celui qui se situe « au -delà de tout doute raisonnable ». Il s’agit
simplement d’un critère comparable, qui emploie une terminologie
plus adaptée à une affaire de droit international en matière civhile. »
(Discours de S. Exc. M me Rosalyn Higgins, président de la Cour
internationale de Justice, devant la Sixième Commission de l’Assem-

blée générale, 2 novembre 2007.)
L’une des raisons qui rendent nécessaire l’application d’un htel critère

d’établissement de la preuve aux questions relatives à la respohnsabilité de
l’Etat réside, selon la Cour, dans l’« exceptionnelle gravité » des accusa -
tions liées à la perpétration d’un génocide (C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 129,
par. 209). La Cour a alors fait référence (ibid.) au passage de l’arrêt
rendu en l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou, selon lequel, au vu des « alléga-

tions sans force probante suffisante » concernant un champ de mines
mouillé par deux navires yougoslaves, « [u]ne imputation d’une gravité
aussi exceptionnelle articulée contre un Etat exigerait un degré dhe certi -
tude qui n’est pas atteint ici » (Détroit de Corfou (Royaume ‑Uni c. Alba‑
nie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 17). En ce qui concerne les

allégations de manquement aux obligations de prévenir le génocihde ainsi
que de punir et d’extrader les personnes accusées de ce crime, la hCour a
également lié le critère d’établissement de la preuve «h à la mesure de [l]a
gravité [de l’allégation]» (C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 130, par. 210). Dans

le présent arrêt, elle a appliqué « le même critère d’établissement de la
preuve » (par. 179).
Il serait pourtant difficile d’expliquer pourquoi la gravité du fhait illicite
reproché et sa connexité avec les crimes internationaux devraient hrendre
plus ardu l’établissement de la responsabilité internationale. hEn effet, la

Commission des réclamations entre erErythrée et l’Ethiopie ah souligné,
dans deux de ses décisions du 1 juillet 2003, qu’elle ne pouvait

« accepter l’idée que, parce que certaines réclamations pourraienht
reposer sur des allégations de comportement individuel potentielle -
ment criminel, elle devrait appliquer un critère d’établissemenht de la
preuve encore plus rigoureux, équivalant à celui retenu dans les phro-
cédures pénales individuelles. La Commission n’est pas un tribuhnal

pénal auquel il appartiendrait d’apprécier la responsabilitéh pénale
individuelle. Son rôle consiste plutôt à déterminer s’il hy a eu violation
du droit international sur la base des principes habituels de la res -

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7 CIJ1077.indb 795 18/04/16 08:54 399 application of genochide convention (sep. ohp. gaja)

change the international law rules to be applied or fundamentally

transform the quantum of evidence required.” (RIAA, Vol. XXVI,
p. 41, para. 47, and p. 88, para. 38.)

5. The difference in approach that should be taken with regard to State

responsibility, on the one hand, and individual criminal responsibility,h on
the other, may not be very substantial. However, it is not insignificahnt. It
may provide a greater opportunity for a State to assert before the Courth
a claim that another State committed genocide.

(Signed) Giorgio Gaja.

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7 CIJ1077.indb 796 18/04/16 08:54 application de convehntion génocide (op. inhd. gaja) 399

ponsabilité de l’Etat. Le fait que des conclusions particulièrehs
puissent faire intervenir des questions extrêmement graves ne change h

pas les règles de droit international devant être appliquées, phas plus
que cela ne modifie le volume d’éléments de preuve requis. » (ecueil
des sentences arbitrales (RSA), vol. XXVI, p. 41, par. 47, et p. 88,
par. 38.)

5. La différence entre la norme à appliquer en ce qui concerne, d’uhne
part, la responsabilité de l’Etat et celle qui régit, d’autrhe part, la responsa
bilité pénale individuelle paraît ainsi assez subtile, mais ellhe n’est pas

négligeable. Peut -être les Etats sont-ils plus à même, grâce à elle, de por -
ter devant la Cour leurs allégations quant à la commission d’un génocide
par l’un deux.

(Signé) Giorgio Gaja.

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7 CIJ1077.indb 797 18/04/16 08:54

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Gaja

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