Separate opinion of President Tomka

Document Number
118-20150203-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
118-20150203-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

155

SEPARATE OPINION OF PRESIDENT TOMKA

Temporal scope of the Court’s jurisdictio— Issues left open by the Court’s

2008 Judgment on preliminary objections — Conclusion that the Court has juris ‑
diction in so far as Serbia is alleged to have succeeded to the responsi▯bility of the
SFRY not supported by text of ArticleX or its travaux préparatoires Dispute
must be between Contracting Parties and concern “the interpretation, ▯application
or fulfilment” of the Convention by those parties Disputes “relating to the

responsibility of a State for genocide” a subset of such dispute— Travaux
préparatoires demonstrate that such disputes are those involving allegations that a
State is responsible for acts of genocide perpetrated by individuals and▯ attributable
to it — Essential subject‑matter of the dispute whether Serbia breached the Con▯

vention— Dispute regarding Serbia’s succession to the SFRY’s responsibilit▯y not
a dispute about the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Con▯vention by
Serbia— Only acts occurring subsequent to Serbia’s becoming party to the Con▯ ‑
vention fall within the Court’s jurisdiction under Articleactual continuity
and identity between actors during armed conflict in Croatia before and ▯after

27 April 1992 not to be confused with situation in law — Court nonetheless able to
consider events prior to 27il 1992 in ordeto determine whether pattern of acts
existed from which dolus specialis could be inferred.

Admissibility of the claim— Monetary Gold principle — Inapplicability of
Monetary Gold principle in respect of non‑existent predecessor States acceptable
where there is agreement as to which successor States succeeded to the r▯elevant
obligations Position complicated where uncertainty as to which successor States

might ultimately bear responsibili—y Decision on SFRY’s responsibility may
concern several successor States — Relevance of 2001greement on Succession
Issues.

1. Although I share the conclusions of the Court on the merits of the
claim brought by Croatia and the counter -claim raised by Serbia, I feel
compelled to explain my position on the temporal scope of the Court’sh

jurisdiction and to offer some remarks on the admissibility of the claim.h

I. The Court’s Jurisdictiohn R atione tempoRis

2. At the hearing in 2008 on preliminary objections, Serbia maintained
its second objection, an alternative one, “that claims based on acts hand
omissions which took place prior to 27 April 1992 are beyond the juris -

diction of this Court and inadmissible” (Application of the Convention on

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the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Ser‑
bia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 420,
para. 22). In its 2008 Judgment, the Court found that “the second pre -

liminary objection submitted by the Republic of Serbia does not, in the h
circumstances of the case, possess an exclusively preliminary character”h
(bid., p. 466, para. 146 (4)). The Court identified “two inseparable issues”
raised by Serbia’s second preliminary objection :

“The first issue is that of the Court’s jurisdiction to determinhe
whether breaches of the Genocide Convention were committed in the

light of the facts that occurred prior to the date on which the FRY
came into existence as a separate State, capable of being a party in itsh
own right to the Convention ; this may be regarded as a question of the
applicability of the obligations under the Genocide Convention to the
FRY [(sic) !] before 27 April 1992. The second issue, that of admissi -

bility of the claim in relation to those facts, and involving questions
of attribution, concerns the consequences to be drawn with regard to
the responsibility of the FRY for those same facts under the general rules
of State responsibility.” (Ibid., p. 460, para. 129; emphasis added.)

It went on to explain that “[i]n order to be in a position to make anhy find -
ings on each of these issues, the Court will need to have more elements h
before it” (ibid., p. 460, para. 129).

3. In my separate opinion I respectfully, and not without regret, dis -
agreed with the majority on this point. I expressed the view

“that the question of ‘consequences to be drawn from the fact thath
the FRY [now Serbia] became a State and a party to the Genocide
Convention on 27 April 1992’ is a legal question which should [have]
be[en] decided already at [that] stage and for the answering of which
there [was] no need of any further information” (ibid., separate opin -
ion of Judge Tomka, p. 521, para. 17).

I then noted that “[w]hat is conspicuous is that the Court does not ehven
indicate what other elements it needs” (ibid.).

4. There is no indication in today’s Judgment as to what new elements
the Court received which allowed it to rule on the issue of the temporalh
scope of its jurisdiction, which it found, in 2008, not to be of an exclu -
sively preliminary character. It is not even clear how these “new ele -
ments”, if any, assisted it in resolving the remaining jurisdictionalh issue.

Rather, the Court adopts a legal construction which it could have adoptehd
already in 2008, although I cannot subscribe to it for the reasons givenh in
this opinion.

5. I cannot fail to mention that what in the 2008 Judgment was for the

Court “a question of the applicability of the obligations under the Geno -
cide Convention to the FRY before 27 April 1992” (emphasis added,
quoted above in paragraph 2 of this opinion) has now become for the

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Court the question of whether “the responsibility of the SFRY had been
engaged” and, if so, “whether the FRY succeeded to that responsibility”
(Judgment, para. 112 ; emphasis added). I also note that while in the

2008 Judgment the Court indicated that it would have to deal, in the con -
text of the admissibility of the claim in relation to facts prior to
27 April 1992, with “the consequences to be drawn with regard to the
responsibility of the FRY for those same facts under the general rules of

State responsibility” (emphasis added, quoted above in paragraph 2 of
this opinion), in the present Judgment the issue of whether the FRY is h
responsible is to be determined by the rules of general international lahw
on State succession (ibid., para. 115) “if the responsibility of the SFRY
had been engaged” (ibid., para. 112).

6. The Court, earlier in this case, determined that Serbia became party
to the Genocide Convention as of 27 April 1992 by way of succession, as
the declaration adopted on that day and the Note from the Permanent
Mission of Yugoslavia to the Secretary -General of the United Nations

“had the effect of a notification of succession by the FRY to the SFRY in
relation to the Genocide Convention” (I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 455,
para. 117). It follows that it is only from this day that the FRY (Serbia) h
has been bound by the Convention as a party to it in its own name.

7. However, the Court has now concluded that it has jurisdiction to
consider acts occurring prior to 27 April 1992 and alleged to amount to
violations of the Genocide Convention in so far as Serbia is said to havhe
succeeded to the responsibility of the SFRY for such acts (Judgment,
paras. 113-114 and 117). In this respect, the Judgment draws a distinction

between “Croatia’s principal argument” that Serbia is directly responsible
for allegedly genocidal acts occurring prior to 27 April 1992 on the basis
that they are attributable to it, and its “alternative argument” thhat Serbia’s
responsibility arises as a result of succession to the SFRY’s responshibility

(ibid., para.114). The Judgment rightly concludes that the FRY (and thus
Serbia) was not bound by the Convention prior to 27 April 1992 and that,
even if acts that occurred prior to this date were attributable to it, they
cannot have amounted to a breach of the Convention by that State (ibid.,
para. 105). The Court cannot therefore have jurisdiction over Croatia’s

claim in so far as it is based on the “principal argument” that thhe relevant
acts occurring prior to that date are attributable to Serbia. It is onlyh on the
basis of Croatia’s “alternative argument” that Serbia’s responsibility
results from succession to the responsibility of the SFRY that the Courth
concludes that its jurisdiction extends to acts prior to 27 April 1992.

8. For such conclusion, however, in my view, there is no support in
either the text of ArticleIX or its travaux préparatoires. The issue before
us is the interpretation of the compromissory clause which is contained hin
Article IX of the Genocide Convention. That provision reads as follows :

“Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpre-

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tation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including
those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any h
of the other acts enumerated in Article III, shall be submitted to the

International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to
the dispute.”

9. It is evident from the text of Article IX that the relevant dispute
must be between the Contracting Parties . Critically, the dispute must be
about “the interpretation, application or fulfilment” of the Conhvention
2
by those Contracting Parties . It is more than doubtful that a compromis-
sory clause such as Article IX would give the Court jurisdiction to deter -
mine a dispute between two Contracting Parties that is solely about the h
interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention by another

State. It would completely undermine the logic behind such clauses — by
virtue of which States give consent for their conduct to be adjudicated
upon by a judicial tribunal — if the dispute were to relate to the interpre -
tation, application or fulfilment of a given instrument by a third Stahte.

10. The presence of the words “including those [disputes] relating to
the responsibility of a State for genocide” does not alter this important

conclusion. The word “including” makes it apparent that disputes “hrelat-
ing to the responsibility of a State for genocide” are a subset of thhose
relating to “the interpretation, application or fulfilment” of thhe Conven-
tion. As the Court put it in the Bosnian Genocide case :

“The word ‘including’ tends to confirm that disputes relatingh to the
responsibility of Contracting Parties for genocide, and the other acts
enumerated in Article III to which it refers, are comprised within a
broader group of disputes relating to the interpretation, application

or fulfilment of the Convention.” (Application of the Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), p. 114, para. 169.)

One commentator similarly notes that “[t]he use of the verb ‘to inhclude’

suggests that the scope of jurisdiction ratione3materiae is not widened by
the insertion of that particular provision” .
11. The travaux préparatoires reveal that, as a result of the insertion of
the words “including those [disputes] relating to the responsibility hof a

State for genocide” (in French : “y compris [les différends] relatifs à la

1
See Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Cr▯ime of
Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, sepa-
rate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 519, para. 12.
2 Ibid.
3 Robert Kolb, “The Scope Ratione Materiae of the Compulsory Jurisdiction of
the ICJ” in Paola Gaeta (ed.), The UN Genocide Convention— A Commentary, Oxford
University Press, 2009, p. 468.

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responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide”), the Chourt’s jurisdiction

“includes [its] power . . . to determine international ‘responsibility of a
State for genocide’ on the basis of attribution to the State of the criminal
act of genocide perpetrated by a person” (Application of the Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Her ‑
zegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I),

separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 345, para. 61 ; emphasis added).
12. As I have noted previously, the text of Article IX, as it refers to
“responsibility of a State for genocide”, lends itself — prima vista — to at
least three possible readings 4.

13. The first one, that the provision can be understood as simply pro -
viding for the Court’s jurisdiction to determine the responsibility ohf a
State for breach of the obligations under the Convention, is too restrichtive
and difficult to retain in view of the principle of effectiveness in trehaty
interpretation. It would only state expressis verbis what is otherwise

implied in every compromissory clause providing for the jurisdiction of h
the Court to adjudicate disputes regarding the application of a conven -
tion. As the Permanent Court of International Justice stated :

“It is a principle of international law that the breach of an engage -
ment involves an obligation to make reparation in an adequate form.

Reparation therefore is the indispensable complement of a failure to
apply a convention and there is no necessity for this to be stated in
the convention itself. Differences relating to reparations, which may
be due by reason of failure to apply a convention, are consequently

differences relating to its application.” (Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdic ‑
tion, Judgment No. 8, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9, p. 21.)

In the words of this Court,

“it would be superfluous to add [the phrase ‘the responsibility of a
State for genocide’ into the compromissory clause] unless the Partiesh
had something else in mind . . . It would indeed be incompatible with
the generally accepted rules of interpretation to admit that a provisionh

of this sort occurring in [a convention] should be devoid of purport
or effect.” (Corfu Channel(United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judg ‑
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 24.)

14. The second possible reading, namely that the Court has jurisdiction
to determine that a State has committed the crime of genocide, would

imply the criminal responsibility of States in international law, a concept

4
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Cr▯ime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 339, para. 53. I have already made, in more
detail, the points that follow here in that separate opinion (pp. 339-340, paras. 54-56).

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which has not been accepted in international law, but was rather opposedh

by a great number of States and was not retained by the International Lahw
Commission when it finalized and adopted, in 2001, the text of the Draft
Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts.
15. The third reading of the clause, according to which the Court can

determine the responsibility of a State on the basis of the attribution hto
that State of acts constituting the crime of genocide committed by its pher -
petrators, is then most plausible. This is so not only in view of the tehxt of

the clause, in particular having regard to the French text which speaks hof
“responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide”, and not “pour le géno-
cide”, but also the travaux préparatoires, which reflect a sometimes con-

fusing debate in the Sixth Committee in 1948 when the text of the
Convention was finalized.
16. The travaux préparatoires are discussed in detail in my previous
5
separate opinion . It is, however, worth highlighting that the UnitedKing-
dom had suggested an amendment to draft Article VII (the current Arti-
cle VI) that provided that :

“Where the act of genocide as specified by Articles II and IV is, or

is alleged to be the act of the State or Government itself or of any organ
or authority of the State or Government, the matter shall, at the request
of any other party to the present Convention, be referred to the Inter-
national Court of Justice, whose decision shall be final and binding. h

Any acts or measures found by the Court to constitute acts of geno -
cide shall be immediately discontinued or rescinded and if already
suspended shall not be resumed or reimposed.” 6

17. The amendment was later withdrawn in favour of a joint amend -
ment with Belgium to Article X (the current Article IX) , which provided

for disputes “between the High Contracting Parties relating to the inhterp-re
tation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, includingh dis-
putes relating to the responsibility of a State for any of the acts enumerated

in Articles II and IV” to be submitted to the International Court of Jus -

5 I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), separate opinion of Judge Tomka, pp. 332-345, paras. 40-61,

in particular paragraphs 50-59 devoted to Article IX of the Genocide Convention.
6
See United Nations doc. A/C.6/236 and Corr. 1, reproduced in Hirad Abtahi and
Philippa Webb, The Genocide Convention: The Travaux Préparatoires Brill, 2008, Vol. II,
p. 1986; emphasis added; alsoApplication of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish ‑
ment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judg‑
ment, I.C.J.Reports 2007 (I), separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 337, para. 49.
7 See United Nations doc. A/C.6/SR.100, reproduced in Hirad Abtahi and
Philippa Webb, The Genocide Convention : The Travaux Préparatoires, supra note 6,
p. 1714; alsoApplication of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Cr▯ime

of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 337, para. 49.

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8
tice . The United Kingdom representative recalled that this new amend -
ment “represented an attempt to combine the provisions of Article X as it
stood with the essential features of the Belgian and United Kingdom

amendments to Article VII, namely, the responsibility of States and an
international court empowered to try them” . Moreover, he outlined that
he “had been impressed by the fact that all speakers had recognized thhat

the responsibility of the State was almost always involved in all acts of
genocide t;e Committee, therefore, could not reject a text mentioning the
10
responsibility of the State” . Finally, he noted that “the responsibility
envisaged by the joint Belgian and United Kingdom amendment was the
international responsibility of States following a violation of the convhen-
11
tion. That was civil responsibility, not criminal responsibility” .

18. It seems apparent that, while States were concerned by the prospect
of the State being held criminally responsible 1, the intent behind Arti -

cle IX was to allow disputes relating to violations by States of their
obligations under the Convention 13 — committed through the acts of
persons whose conduct was attributable to them — to be brought before

the Court. Article IX, read as a whole and in the context of other
provisions of the Convention, does not provide solid support for the

Court’s willingness to embark on an inquiry into Serbia’s alleged hrespon -
sibility by way of succession through just observing that Article IX
“contains no limitation regarding the manner in which [a State’s]

responsibility might be engaged” (Judgment, para. 114). The travaux
préparatoires point in a different direction : no one during the discussion
leading to the adoption of the Convention ever mentioned the issue

of succession. The intent was rather to allow the Court to consider
disputes involving an allegation that the State is to be held responsiblhe
for genocide because the acts of its perpetrators are attributable to

8See United Nations doc. A/C.6/258, reproduced in Hirad Abtahi and Philippa Webb,
The Genocide Convention:The Travaux Préparatoires, supra note 6,p.2004; also Applica‑
tion of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of ▯Genocide (Bosnia
and Herzegovina v.Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), separate
opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 340, para. 57.
9
United Nations doc. A/C.6/SR103, reproduced in Hirad Abtahi and Philippa Webb,
The Genocide Convention: The Travaux Préparatoires, supra note 6, p. 1762 (Fitzmaurice).
10Ibid.
11See ibid., p. 1774; also Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish ‑
ment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judg‑
ment, I.C.J.eports 2007 (I), separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 341, para. 58.
12See, e.g., Christian J. Tams, “Article IX” in Christian J. Tams, Lars Berster and

Björn Schiffbauer (eds.), Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide: Commentary, Munich, C. H. Beck, 2014, p. 299.
13See also ibid., pp. 299-300 (“there was little disagreement that, by virtue of ArticleIX,
it would be possible to seek an ICJ judgment on whether States had complhied with provi-
sions of the Convention prohibiting acts of genocide”).

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the State, thus amounting to breaches of the Convention by the State
itself.
19. This was the understanding of the Court in the Bosnian Genocide

case, where it noted that :
“The responsibility of a party for genocide and the other acts enu -

merated in Article III arises from its failure to comply with the obliga‑
tions imposed by the other provisions of the Convention, and in
particular, in the present context, with Article III read with Articles I
and II.”(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish ‑
ment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and

Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 114, para. 169 ;
emphasis added.)

20. This is also the understanding of Article IX that is reflected in the
Court’s 2008 Judgment on preliminary objections, referred to above, in
which it focused on the outstanding issues as relating to whether Serbiah’s
responsibility for violations of the obligations under the Convention
could have been engaged by acts attributable to it and committed prior tho

27 April 1992. Indeed, this is the understanding of the Convention that is
reflected in Croatia’s claims submitted to the Court, namely that Sherbia
itself breached the Convention. Thus, in its initial Application, Croatia
claimed “that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has breached its legal
obligations toward the people and Republic of Croatia” under various

provisions of the Convention (Judgment, para. 49 ; emphasis added). In
its final submissions in the written pleadings, it likewise claimed thhat the
Respondent “is responsible for violations of the Convention . . . (a) in
that persons for whose conduct it is responsible committed genocide on the
territory of the Republic of Croatia” (ibid., para. 50 ; emphasis added).

This submission was maintained in Croatia’s final submissions presehnted
at the close of the hearings (ibid., para. 51). This is in my view the subject-
matter of the dispute before the Court.

21. The fact that the focus of questions as to the responsibility of a
State for genocide is on responsibility arising from breach of the Convehn -
tion by that State also tends to confirm the point made above, that dihs -
putes relating to the “interpretation, application or fulfilment”h of the
Convention — of which disputes relating to State responsibility for geno -

cide are a type — are disputes about the interpretation, application or
fulfilment of the Convention by those parties in dispute. Thus, any dispute
between contracting parties relating to State responsibility for genocide
must arise from the alleged failure of one of those parties to properly h
interpret, apply or fulfil that Convention.

22. The Judgment attempts to skirt around the fact that Article IX
only gives jurisdiction over disputes concerning the “interpretation,h app- li

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cation and fulfilment” of the Convention by the contracting parties in dis‑
pute. It acknowledges that the dispute in question in this case is between

Croatia and Serbia but indicates that it appears “to fall squarely wihthin
the terms of Article IX” because “the essential subject -matter of the dis -
pute is whether Serbia is responsible for violations of the Genocide Conh-
vention and, if so, whether Croatia may invoke that responsibility”
(Judgment, para. 90).

23. In the first place, it is doubtful whether this accurately reflects hthe
“essential subject-matter of the dispute”. As has already been outlined,
Croatia has never put forward a formal claim in its final submissions hthat
Serbia’s responsibility arose because it succeeded to the responsibilhity of

the SFRY, with the relevant acts being attributable to the latter and
amounting to a violation of the SFRY’s obligations under the Conven -
tion. It is true that, rather late in the proceedings, Croatia put this hfor -
ward as an argument (as indeed the Judgment acknowledges : see
para. 109 ; emphasis added), in order to address the jurisdictional point,

but this cannot change the dispute’s essential characteristics, whichh relate
to whether Serbia breached the Convention because the relevant acts
alleged to amount to genocide are attributable to it.
24. But even if the “essential subject -matter of the dispute” were accu -
rately characterized in the Judgment, the fact that Croatia has put Ser-

bia’s succession to responsibility in issue does not make that disputhe, at
leastin so far as it relates to events prior to 27 April 1992, one about the
“interpretation, application or fulfilment” of the Convention by Serbia 14.
In this respect, the Judgment sets out three issues that are, on Croatiah’s
“alternative argument”, in dispute (Judgment, para. 112). It suggests that

these issues “concern the interpretation, application and fulfilmenht of the
provisions of the Genocide Convention” (ibid., para. 113). However, the
first two issues relate to the application and fulfilment of the Genhocide
Convention by the SFRY, not the FRY, and the former’s responsibility
for alleged genocide. The third issue — whether the FRY (Serbia) suc -

ceeded to the SFRY’s responsibility — cannot be characterized as a dis -
pute relating to the “interpretation, application or fulfilment”h of the
Convention, nor as one “relating to the responsibility of a State forh geno -
cide” once the meaning of the latter phrase has been properly understhood.

This is because it does not relate to Serbia’s obligations under the Con -
vention and its failure to properly interpret, apply or fulfil them. Ih am not
convinced that the compromissory clause in Article IX extends to ques -
tions of State succession to responsibility. The legal term “responsihbility”
does not include the concept of “succession”. As the Court stated hin the

Navigational Rights case “the terms used in a treaty must be interpreted
in light of what is determined to have been the parties’ common intenhtion,
which is, by definition, contemporaneous with the treaty’s conclusion”

14 See Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Cr▯ime of
Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, sepa-
rate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 520, para. 13.

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(Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nica ‑
ragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 242, para. 63). The term

“responsibility”, as it appears from the discussions in 1948, was certainly
not given by the Convention’s drafters the meaning which the Court
seems to be inclined to give it now for the particular purposes of this hcase.
Nor can recourse to evolutive interpretation of the terms used in the Cohn -
vention be of assistance as the term and concept “responsibility” his also at

present a distinct one from the term and concept “succession” in ihnterna-
tional law. Matters relating to “succession to responsibility” areh therefore
beyond the jurisdiction ratione materiae provided for in Article IX of the
Convention. Similarly, the second issue, as identified by the Court,

namely, “whether [the acts contrary to the provisions of the Conventihon]
were attributable to and thus engaged the responsibility of the SFRY
[(sic) !]” cannot fall “squarely within the scope ratione materiae of the
jurisdiction provided for in Article IX” (Judgment, para. 113) because it
is not a dispute “between the Contracting Parties” relating to their “inter-

pretation, application or fulfilment” of the Convention. The allegahtion is
that the SFRY breached the Convention, and that claim could only have
been brought, pursuant to Article IX of the Convention, against the
SFRY itself.

25. Having consistently denied the continuity between the legal per -
sonality of the SFRY and Serbia, Croatia must bear the consequences of
its legal position on this issue15. It is accepted that Serbia did not become

a party to the Convention until 27 April 1992 and any dispute about acts
said to have occurred before that date cannot therefore be about the
interpretation, application or fulfilment of that Convention by Serbiah
which has appeared before the Court as the Respondent. It did not have
obligations under the Convention as a party to it prior to 27 April 1992.

In my view, therefore, only acts, events and facts which occurred on theh
dates subsequent to Serbia’s becoming party to the Convention fall wihthin
the jurisdiction of the Court under Article IX of the Genocide Conven -
tion.

26. This conclusion, however, does not prevent the Court from conside-r
ing acts which occurred prior to 27 April 1992 without formally ruling on
their conformity with the obligations which were, from the point of view of
international law, the obligations of the SFRY. The obligations of the
SFRY under the Convention could have been breached by any of its organs,h

irrespective of their place in the constitutional structure of the SFRY,h or any
person whose acts were attributable to that State. There was undoubtedlyh a
certain factual continuation and identity between those who were actors hin
the period of armed conflict which raged in Croatia both before and afhter

15 See also I.C.J. Reports 2008, separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 522, para. 18.

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7 CIJ1077.indb 326 18/04/16 08:54 165 application of genochide convention (sep. ohp. tomka)

27 April 1992. But this factual continuity and identity should not be con -
fused with the situation in law, where the thesis of discontinuity betwehen the
SFRY and the FRY in the end prevailed in view of the position taken by

some “keyplayers” in the international community and the States, including
Croatia, which were earlier republics constituting the former SFRY. Non- eh
theless, as the Court had to determine, in relation to acts which were cho-
mitted after27 April 1992, whether those acts were committed with the
necessary intent (dolus specialis), the Court could have looked at the events

occurring prior to that date in order to determine whether the later acths fell
within a particular pattern from which the intent could be inferred.
27. Hence, despite my position on the limitation of the Court’s juris -
diction ratione temporis, I was not prevented from joining my colleagues
on the Bench in looking at those acts and events preceding 27 April 1992

and joining them in their overall conclusion that the Croatian claim of h
genocide having been committed during the armed conflict in its territory
must be rejected.

II. Admissibility: The m onetaRy G old Principle

28. Even if one accepts the Court’s conclusion on its jurisdiction, seri -
ous questions arise as to the admissibility of Croatia’s claim. As hahs been
noted, the Judgment takes the position that it is within the Court’s hjuris-

diction, as conferred by Article IX, for it to consider alleged breaches of
the Convention by the SFRY where Serbia is said to be responsible for
those breaches by way of succession to responsibility. The Court is
thereby indicating its readiness to rule on the responsibility of the SFRY,
a State that is no longer in existence and is not before the Court, as a

necessary precursor to determining the responsibility of the Respondent h
State that is presently before the Court. Stated in such terms, this is rather
an unusual position for the Court to take.

29. In the Monetary Gold case, the Court found that it could not rule
on a claim brought by Italy against France, the United Kingdom and the

United States of America where a third State, Albania, was not before thhe
Court. The Court considered that :

“To adjudicate upon the international responsibility of Albania
without her consent would run counter to a well -established principle
of international law embodied in the Court’s Statute, namely, that thhe
Court can only exercise jurisdiction over a State with its consent.” h
(Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943 (Italy v. France, United

Kingdom and United States of America), Preliminary Question, Judg ‑
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1954, p. 32.)

30. It noted that “Albania’s legal interests would not only be affectedh
by a decision, but would form the very subject -matter of the decision”
(ibid.) and accordingly declined to exercise its jurisdiction in respect of

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7 CIJ1077.indb 328 18/04/16 08:54 166 application of genochide convention (sep. ohp. tomka)

the claim. As the Court noted in the Nauru case, “the determination of
Albania’s responsibility was a prerequisite for a decision to be takehn on

Italy’s claims” (Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 261, para. 55).

31. The Judgment makes it clear that the Court’s jurisdiction is depen-
dent, in relation to those acts occurring prior to 27 April 1992, on Croa-
tia’s argument that Serbia succeeded to the responsibility of the SFRhY

for acts of genocide contrary to the Genocide Convention. A determina -
tion as to the responsibility of the SFRY is therefore an essential prerheq-
uisite to a determination of whether Serbia’s responsibility is engaghed.

32. However, in so far as the SFRY is concerned, the Court has opined
that the Monetary Gold principle is inapplicable in this case because the
SFRY has ceased to exist (Judgment, para. 116). This may be an accept -

able position to take where — as in the Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project
case 16 — there is an agreement as to which of the successor States will
succeed to the relevant obligations of the State that has ceased to exist.

However, the position becomes more complicated where there is uncer -
tainty as to which of a number of States might ultimately bear responsi-
bility for the acts of a predecessor State 17. In this case, as has already

been noted, Serbia is only one of five equal successor States to the ShFRY.
A decision as to the international responsibility of the SFRY may well
have implications for several, if not each, of those successor States,

depending on what view is taken on the question of the allocation of anyh
such responsibility as between them. This is particularly the case in lihght
of the fact that the 2001 Agreement on Succession Issues between the fihve
successor States provides that “[a]ll claims against the SFRY which ahre

not otherwise covered by this Agreement shall be considered by the
Standing Joint Committee established under Article 4” (United Nations,
Treaty Series, Vol. 2262, p. 251, Ann. F, Art. 2). It can be no answer that

16
Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997,
p. 7. See the Preamble to the Special Agreement excerpted at pa11 and also page 81,
paragraph 151. See also Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide (Croatiav. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.Reports
2008, separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 521, para. 14.
17See James Crawford, State Responsibility: The General Part, Cambridge University
Press, 2013, pp. 666-667, discussing the Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project case:

“[E]ven if there had been no agreement that Slovakia would succeed toh Czechosl-o
vakia’s rights and obligations under the treaty, and even if Hungary’hs allegations of
internationally wrongful acts against Czechoslovakia was considered the hvery subject
matter of the dispute, there seems no question that the Court would haveh applied the
Monetary Gold principle to protect the legal interests of a State no longer in existenhce.
On the other hand, if a bilateral dispute between Hungary and the CzeRepublic

had required the Court to determine whether or not Slovakia was the soleh successor
state to Czechoslovakia in respect of some particular matter, the Court hmight well
have decided that it was prevented from acting by the Monetary Gold principle.”

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7 CIJ1077.indb 330 18/04/16 08:54 167 application of genochide convention (sep. ohp. tomka)

the Court has ultimately found that there was no breach of the Conven -
tion and accordingly the SFRY’s responsibility was not engaged.

33. Nonetheless, it bears emphasis that the operation of the Monetary
Gold principle will serve to limit the effects of the Judgment in this case. h
The Court will be unable to exercise jurisdiction under Article IX, or any
other Convention which contains a clause providing for the jurisdiction h
of the Court, over claims brought by one State party to the Convention

against another State party that are based on alleged breaches by a third
State that — for whatever reason — is not before the Court, where that
third State remains in existence. This Judgment is therefore strictly cohn -
fined to its unusual facts and should not be taken as a precedent thath
compromissory clauses will normally be subject to such novel interpreta -

tions, nor that the Court will generally be prepared to rule on the resphon-
sibility of States not before it.

III. Concluding Remark

34. This case illustrates the limits of the Court’s judicial power, whichh
remains based on State consent. Where many States continue not to recog -
nize its jurisdiction generally, but only in compromissory clauses con -

tained in certain multilateral conventions, then some claims, like the ohnes
in this case, are framed in such a way as to make them fall within the
scope of such a convention. But the threshold to prove them might be tooh
high, like in the case of genocide. The fact that the Court has rejectedh the
claim of Croatia and the counter-claim of Serbia should not be viewed as

the Court not having seen the tragedy which unfolded in the process of
the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia. In fact, the Court has
acknowledged that many atrocities were committed during the armed
conflict. What the Parties failed to prove was the presence of genocidhal
intent when these atrocities were perpetrated. Had the Court been
endowed with more general jurisdiction, the claims could have been

framed differently.
35. It is to be hoped that more States will, in the future, recognize the
Court’s jurisdiction much more broadly. The challenge for the Court
remains to strengthen the confidence of States not only by its displayh of
objectivity, impartiality and independence, but also by strictly interpret -

ing the provisions which confer jurisdiction on it. It can do that by fohcus-
ing its inquiries on whether jurisdiction has been conferred on it, rather
than by endeavouring to find ways how to assume it.

(Signed) Peter Tomka.

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Bilingual Content

155

SEPARATE OPINION OF PRESIDENT TOMKA

Temporal scope of the Court’s jurisdictio— Issues left open by the Court’s

2008 Judgment on preliminary objections — Conclusion that the Court has juris ‑
diction in so far as Serbia is alleged to have succeeded to the responsi▯bility of the
SFRY not supported by text of ArticleX or its travaux préparatoires Dispute
must be between Contracting Parties and concern “the interpretation, ▯application
or fulfilment” of the Convention by those parties Disputes “relating to the

responsibility of a State for genocide” a subset of such dispute— Travaux
préparatoires demonstrate that such disputes are those involving allegations that a
State is responsible for acts of genocide perpetrated by individuals and▯ attributable
to it — Essential subject‑matter of the dispute whether Serbia breached the Con▯

vention— Dispute regarding Serbia’s succession to the SFRY’s responsibilit▯y not
a dispute about the interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Con▯vention by
Serbia— Only acts occurring subsequent to Serbia’s becoming party to the Con▯ ‑
vention fall within the Court’s jurisdiction under Articleactual continuity
and identity between actors during armed conflict in Croatia before and ▯after

27 April 1992 not to be confused with situation in law — Court nonetheless able to
consider events prior to 27il 1992 in ordeto determine whether pattern of acts
existed from which dolus specialis could be inferred.

Admissibility of the claim— Monetary Gold principle — Inapplicability of
Monetary Gold principle in respect of non‑existent predecessor States acceptable
where there is agreement as to which successor States succeeded to the r▯elevant
obligations Position complicated where uncertainty as to which successor States

might ultimately bear responsibili—y Decision on SFRY’s responsibility may
concern several successor States — Relevance of 2001greement on Succession
Issues.

1. Although I share the conclusions of the Court on the merits of the
claim brought by Croatia and the counter -claim raised by Serbia, I feel
compelled to explain my position on the temporal scope of the Court’sh

jurisdiction and to offer some remarks on the admissibility of the claim.h

I. The Court’s Jurisdictiohn R atione tempoRis

2. At the hearing in 2008 on preliminary objections, Serbia maintained
its second objection, an alternative one, “that claims based on acts hand
omissions which took place prior to 27 April 1992 are beyond the juris -

diction of this Court and inadmissible” (Application of the Convention on

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7 CIJ1077.indb 308 18/04/16 08:54 155

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DU PRÉSIDENT TOMKA

[Traduction]

Portée temporelle de la juridiction de la Cour — Questions laissées en suspens
par l’arrêt de 2008 sur les exceptions préliminaires — Conclusion selon laquelle la

Cour aurait compétence dans la mesure où la Serbie aurait succé▯dé à la responsa
bilité de la RFSY n’étant pas étayée par le libellé de l’articleu les travaux
préparatoires afférents — Différends devant opposer des parties contractantes et
être relatifs à «l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécut» par elles de la
Convention — Différends «relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de

génocide » constituant une sous‑catégorie des précédentsravaux préparatoires
démontrant que ces différends sont ceux qui mettent en jeu la responsabilité présu
mée d’un Etat à raison d’actes de génocide commis par des▯ personnes et lui étant
attribuables— Objet principal du différend étant de savoir si la Serbie a violé▯ la
Convention — Différend concernant la succession de la Serbie à la responsabili▯té
de la RFSY n’étant pas un différend relatif à l’interpré▯tation, l’application ou

l’exécution de la Convention par la Serbie — Compétence de la Cour au titre de
l’articleX étant limitée aux actes postérieurs à la date à laquel▯le la Serbie est
devenue partie à la Convention — Continuité factuelle et identité des acteurs du
conflit armé en Croatie avant et après le 27 avril 1992 ne devant pas être confon
dues avec la situation en droitCour n’étant toutefois pas empêchée de prendre

en considération les faits antérieurs au 2avril 1992 afin de vérifier l’existence
d’une ligne de conduite permettant d’inférer le dolus specialis.
Recevabilité de la demande — Principe établi en l’affaire de l’Or monétaire
Inapplicabilité du principe de l’Or monétaire à l’égard de l’Etat prédécesseur qui a
cessé d’exister étant raisonnable lorsque la question de savoir▯ lequel des Etats suc

cesseurs a succédé aux obligations en cause ne prête pas à c▯ontroverse Pro‑
blème complexe en cas d’incertitude quant à savoir lequel des E▯tats successeurs
assumerait, en dernière analyse, la responsabilitéDécision concernant la res‑
ponsabilité de la RFSY susceptible d’avoir des répercussions pour plusieursts
successeurs— Pertinence de l’accord de 2001 sur les questions de succession.

1. Bien que je souscrive aux conclusions de la Cour sur le bien -fondé
de la demande formée par la Croatie et de la demande reconventionnellhe

présentée par la Serbie, je me sens contraint d’expliquer ma position en ce
qui concerne la portée temporelle de la juridiction de la Cour et d’hoffrir
quelques observations concernant la recevabilité de la demande.

I. La compétence rationeh tempoRis de la Cour

2. Lors des audiences consacrées en 2008 aux exceptions préliminairesh,
la Serbie a maintenu sa deuxième exception, de nature subsidiaire, selon

laquelle «les demandes se rapportant à des actes ou omissions antérieurs
au 27 avril 1992 ne rel[evai]ent pas de la compétence de la Cour et [étaient] h

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the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Ser‑
bia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 420,
para. 22). In its 2008 Judgment, the Court found that “the second pre -

liminary objection submitted by the Republic of Serbia does not, in the h
circumstances of the case, possess an exclusively preliminary character”h
(bid., p. 466, para. 146 (4)). The Court identified “two inseparable issues”
raised by Serbia’s second preliminary objection :

“The first issue is that of the Court’s jurisdiction to determinhe
whether breaches of the Genocide Convention were committed in the

light of the facts that occurred prior to the date on which the FRY
came into existence as a separate State, capable of being a party in itsh
own right to the Convention ; this may be regarded as a question of the
applicability of the obligations under the Genocide Convention to the
FRY [(sic) !] before 27 April 1992. The second issue, that of admissi -

bility of the claim in relation to those facts, and involving questions
of attribution, concerns the consequences to be drawn with regard to
the responsibility of the FRY for those same facts under the general rules
of State responsibility.” (Ibid., p. 460, para. 129; emphasis added.)

It went on to explain that “[i]n order to be in a position to make anhy find -
ings on each of these issues, the Court will need to have more elements h
before it” (ibid., p. 460, para. 129).

3. In my separate opinion I respectfully, and not without regret, dis -
agreed with the majority on this point. I expressed the view

“that the question of ‘consequences to be drawn from the fact thath
the FRY [now Serbia] became a State and a party to the Genocide
Convention on 27 April 1992’ is a legal question which should [have]
be[en] decided already at [that] stage and for the answering of which
there [was] no need of any further information” (ibid., separate opin -
ion of Judge Tomka, p. 521, para. 17).

I then noted that “[w]hat is conspicuous is that the Court does not ehven
indicate what other elements it needs” (ibid.).

4. There is no indication in today’s Judgment as to what new elements
the Court received which allowed it to rule on the issue of the temporalh
scope of its jurisdiction, which it found, in 2008, not to be of an exclu -
sively preliminary character. It is not even clear how these “new ele -
ments”, if any, assisted it in resolving the remaining jurisdictionalh issue.

Rather, the Court adopts a legal construction which it could have adoptehd
already in 2008, although I cannot subscribe to it for the reasons givenh in
this opinion.

5. I cannot fail to mention that what in the 2008 Judgment was for the

Court “a question of the applicability of the obligations under the Geno -
cide Convention to the FRY before 27 April 1992” (emphasis added,
quoted above in paragraph 2 of this opinion) has now become for the

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irrecevables » (Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répres ‑
sion du crime de génocide (Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 420, par. 22). Dans son arrêt de 2008, la
Cour a conclu que « la deuxième exception préliminaire soulevée par la

République de Serbie n’a[vait] pas, dans les circonstances de l’hespèce, un
caractère exclusivement préliminaire » (ibid., p. 466, par. 146, point 4)).
Elle a défini en ces termes « deux questions indissociables » que soulevait
la deuxième exception préliminaire de la Serbie :

«La première est celle de savoir si la Cour a compétence pour
déterminer si des violations de la convention sur le génocide ont hété
commises, à la lumière des faits antérieurs à la date à laquelle la RFY
a commencé à exister en tant qu’Etat distinct, ayant à ce tihtre la capa -

cité d’être partie à cet instrument ; cela revient à se demander si les
obligations en vertu de la Convention étaient opposables à la RFY [sic!]
antérieurement au 27 avril 1992. La seconde question, qui porte sur la
recevabilité de la demande concernant ces faits, et qui a trait à hl’attr-i
bution, est celle des conséquences à tirer quant à la responsabilité de la

RFY à raison desdits faits en vertu des règles générales de l▯ a responsa ‑
bilité de l’Etat. (Ibid., p.460, par. 129; les italiques sont de moi.)

Elle a expliqué ensuite que, pour pouvoir « se prononcer sur chacune de
ces questions, elle devra[it] disposer de davantage d’éléments » ( ibid.,
p. 460, par. 129).
3. Ce n’est pas sans regret que, dans mon opinion individuelle, j’avahis
alors exprimé mon désaccord avec la majorité sur ce point :

«J’estime que la question des « conséquences à tirer du fait que la
RFY n’est devenue un Etat et une partie à la convention sur le géhno -
cide que le 27 avril 1992» est une question juridique qui devrait être

tranchée à ce stade de la procédure, et qu’il n’est pas nhécessaire de
disposer de davantage d’éléments d’information pour y réphondre. »
(Ibid., opinion individuelle de M. le juge Tomka, p. 521, par. 17.)

J’avais ensuite ajouté que je trouvais « remarquable que la Cour n’indique
même pas quels autres éléments lui [étaient] nécessaires » (ibid.).
4. On ne trouve dans l’arrêt prononcé aujourd’hui aucune indicahtion
des nouveaux éléments que la Cour aurait reçus et qui lui auraihent permis
de statuer sur la question de la portée temporelle de sa juridiction,h ques -

tion dont elle a dit, en 2008, qu’elle n’avait pas un caractèreh exclusive -
ment préliminaire. On ne saurait même pas dire en quoi ces « nouveaux
éléments », quels qu’ils soient, seraient de nature à l’aider à trhancher la
question principale concernant sa compétence. Au lieu de cela, elle adopte
une position qu’elle aurait pu faire sienne dès 2008, mais à laquelle je ne
puis souscrire pour les raisons exposées ci -après.

5. Je ne puis m’empêcher de mentionner que ce que la Cour a, en 2008,
assimilé à la question de savoir « si les obligations en vertu de la Conven -
tion étaient opposables à la RFY antérieurement au 27 avril 1992» (les
italiques sont de moi ; passage précité au paragraphe 2 ci -dessus) est

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Court the question of whether “the responsibility of the SFRY had been
engaged” and, if so, “whether the FRY succeeded to that responsibility”
(Judgment, para. 112 ; emphasis added). I also note that while in the

2008 Judgment the Court indicated that it would have to deal, in the con -
text of the admissibility of the claim in relation to facts prior to
27 April 1992, with “the consequences to be drawn with regard to the
responsibility of the FRY for those same facts under the general rules of

State responsibility” (emphasis added, quoted above in paragraph 2 of
this opinion), in the present Judgment the issue of whether the FRY is h
responsible is to be determined by the rules of general international lahw
on State succession (ibid., para. 115) “if the responsibility of the SFRY
had been engaged” (ibid., para. 112).

6. The Court, earlier in this case, determined that Serbia became party
to the Genocide Convention as of 27 April 1992 by way of succession, as
the declaration adopted on that day and the Note from the Permanent
Mission of Yugoslavia to the Secretary -General of the United Nations

“had the effect of a notification of succession by the FRY to the SFRY in
relation to the Genocide Convention” (I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 455,
para. 117). It follows that it is only from this day that the FRY (Serbia) h
has been bound by the Convention as a party to it in its own name.

7. However, the Court has now concluded that it has jurisdiction to
consider acts occurring prior to 27 April 1992 and alleged to amount to
violations of the Genocide Convention in so far as Serbia is said to havhe
succeeded to the responsibility of the SFRY for such acts (Judgment,
paras. 113-114 and 117). In this respect, the Judgment draws a distinction

between “Croatia’s principal argument” that Serbia is directly responsible
for allegedly genocidal acts occurring prior to 27 April 1992 on the basis
that they are attributable to it, and its “alternative argument” thhat Serbia’s
responsibility arises as a result of succession to the SFRY’s responshibility

(ibid., para.114). The Judgment rightly concludes that the FRY (and thus
Serbia) was not bound by the Convention prior to 27 April 1992 and that,
even if acts that occurred prior to this date were attributable to it, they
cannot have amounted to a breach of the Convention by that State (ibid.,
para. 105). The Court cannot therefore have jurisdiction over Croatia’s

claim in so far as it is based on the “principal argument” that thhe relevant
acts occurring prior to that date are attributable to Serbia. It is onlyh on the
basis of Croatia’s “alternative argument” that Serbia’s responsibility
results from succession to the responsibility of the SFRY that the Courth
concludes that its jurisdiction extends to acts prior to 27 April 1992.

8. For such conclusion, however, in my view, there is no support in
either the text of ArticleIX or its travaux préparatoires. The issue before
us is the interpretation of the compromissory clause which is contained hin
Article IX of the Genocide Convention. That provision reads as follows :

“Disputes between the Contracting Parties relating to the interpre-

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maintenant devenu à ses yeux celle de savoir si « la responsabilité de la
RFSY [a] été engagée » et, dans l’affirmative, « si RFY a succédé à cette
responsabilité » (arrêt, par. 112 ; les italiques sont de moi). Je remarque en
outre que, si elle a indiqué dans son arrêt de 2008 qu’il lui fhaudrait abor-

der, dans le contexte de la recevabilité de la demande en ce qu’elhle repo -
sait sur des faits antérieurs au27 avril 1992, la question des «conséquences
à tirer quant à la responsabilité de la RFY à raison desdits faits en vertu
des règles générales de la responsabilité de l’Etat » (les italiques sont de
moi ; passage précité au paragraphe 2 ci-dessus), dans le présent arrêt, elle

entend statuer sur la question de la responsabilité de la RFY en s’ap -
puyant sur les règles du droit international général en matièhre de succes‑
sion d’Etats (ibid., par. 115), « à supposer que la responsabilité de la
RFSY ait été engagée » (ibid., par. 112).
6. Plus tôt au cours de la présente affaire, la Cour est parvenue àh la

conclusion que la Serbie était devenue partie à la Convention sur hle géno -
cide le 27 avril 1992 par voie de succession, la déclaration faite le jour
même et la note adressée par la mission permanente de la Yougoslavhie au
Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies ayant « eu l’effet
d’une notification de succession de la RFY à la RFSY à l’égard de la

convention sur le génocide» ( C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 455, par. 117). Il s’e-
suit que ce n’est qu’à partir de cette date que la RFY (la Serhbie) s’est
trouvée, en son nom propre, liée par la Convention en tant que parhtie.
7. Pourtant, la Cour vient de conclure qu’elle a compétence pour
connaître des actes antérieurs au 27avril 1992 et censés constituer des viola -

tions de la convention sur le génocide, dans la mesure où la Serbihe aurait
succédé à la responsabilité de la RSFY pour ces actes (arrêht, par.113-114
et 117). Sur ce point, l’arrêt établit une distinction entre le moyen princi-
pal » de la Croatie, selon lequel la Serbie serait directement responsablhe des
actes génocidaires supposés commis avant le 27 avril 1992 parce qu’ils lui

sont attribuables, et son moyen subsidiaire voulant que la responsabilithé de
la Serbie résulte de sa succession à celle de la RFSY (ibid., par.114). L’arrêt
conclut à bon droit que la RFY (et partant la Serbie) n’étaith pas liée par la
Convention avant le 27avril1992 et que, même si des actes antérieurs à cette
date pouvaient lui être attribués, ils ne sauraient être considhérés comme
emportant violation par elle de la Convention (ibid., par. 105). La demande

de la Croatie, dans la mesure où elle est fondée sur le « moyen principal»
voulant que les actes antérieurs à cette date soient attribuables hà la Serbie,
échappe donc à la compétence de la Cour. C’est seulement sur la base du
« moyen subsidiaire» de la Croatie, selon lequel la responsabilité de la Serbie
résulte de sa succession à celle de la RFSY, que la Cour en vient hà la conclu-

sion que sa compétence s’étend aux actes antérieurs au 27avril 1992.
8. A mon avis, toutefois, rien dans l’article IX ou les travaux prépara -
toires afférents ne vient étayer pareille conclusion. La question dhont la
Cour est saisie est celle de l’interprétation de la clause compromhissoire que
contient l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide, dont voici le libellé :

«Les différends entre les Parties contractantes relatifs à l’interpré -

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tation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, including
those relating to the responsibility of a State for genocide or for any h
of the other acts enumerated in Article III, shall be submitted to the

International Court of Justice at the request of any of the parties to
the dispute.”

9. It is evident from the text of Article IX that the relevant dispute
must be between the Contracting Parties . Critically, the dispute must be
about “the interpretation, application or fulfilment” of the Conhvention
2
by those Contracting Parties . It is more than doubtful that a compromis-
sory clause such as Article IX would give the Court jurisdiction to deter -
mine a dispute between two Contracting Parties that is solely about the h
interpretation, application or fulfilment of the Convention by another

State. It would completely undermine the logic behind such clauses — by
virtue of which States give consent for their conduct to be adjudicated
upon by a judicial tribunal — if the dispute were to relate to the interpre -
tation, application or fulfilment of a given instrument by a third Stahte.

10. The presence of the words “including those [disputes] relating to
the responsibility of a State for genocide” does not alter this important

conclusion. The word “including” makes it apparent that disputes “hrelat-
ing to the responsibility of a State for genocide” are a subset of thhose
relating to “the interpretation, application or fulfilment” of thhe Conven-
tion. As the Court put it in the Bosnian Genocide case :

“The word ‘including’ tends to confirm that disputes relatingh to the
responsibility of Contracting Parties for genocide, and the other acts
enumerated in Article III to which it refers, are comprised within a
broader group of disputes relating to the interpretation, application

or fulfilment of the Convention.” (Application of the Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), p. 114, para. 169.)

One commentator similarly notes that “[t]he use of the verb ‘to inhclude’

suggests that the scope of jurisdiction ratione3materiae is not widened by
the insertion of that particular provision” .
11. The travaux préparatoires reveal that, as a result of the insertion of
the words “including those [disputes] relating to the responsibility hof a

State for genocide” (in French : “y compris [les différends] relatifs à la

1
See Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Cr▯ime of
Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, sepa-
rate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 519, para. 12.
2 Ibid.
3 Robert Kolb, “The Scope Ratione Materiae of the Compulsory Jurisdiction of
the ICJ” in Paola Gaeta (ed.), The UN Genocide Convention— A Commentary, Oxford
University Press, 2009, p. 468.

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7 CIJ1077.indb 314 18/04/16 08:54 application de convehntion génocide (op. inhd. tomka) 158

tation, l’application ou l’exécution de la présente Conventihon, y com -
pris ceux relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière hde génocide
ou de l’un quelconque des autres actes énumérés à l’arhticle III, seront
soumis à la Cour internationale de Justice, à la requête d’uhne partie

au différend.»

9. Le texte de cette disposition dit bien claireme1t que le différend en h
question doit opposer des Parties contractantes . Chose essentielle, le dif-
férend doit être relatif «à l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécution» de
la Convention par ces mêmes parties contractantes 2. Il est pour le moins

douteux qu’une clause compromissoire telle que l’article IX puisse habili-
ter la Cour à connaître d’un différend opposant deux parties hcontrac -
tantes, mais concernant exclusivement l’interprétation, l’applihcation ou
l’exécution de la présente Convention par un autre Etat. La logique qui

sous-tend ce type de clause, par laquelle les Etats consentent à se sou -
mettre au jugement d’une juridiction, serait battue en brèche si lhe diffé -
rend pouvait se rapporter à l’interprétation, l’application hou l’exécution
de tel ou tel texte par un Etat tiers.

10. La présence des mots « y compris [les différends] relatifs à la res -
ponsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide » ne change rien à cette
conclusion primordiale. La locution « y compris » indique que les diffé -
rends « relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide » font

partie de ceux qui sont « relatifs à l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exé -
cution » de la Convention. Voici ce que la Cour a dit dans l’arrêt qu’helle a
rendu en l’affaire Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro:

«L’expression « y compris » semble confirmer que les différends
relatifs à la responsabilité des parties contractantes pour génhocide ou

tout autre acte énuméré à l’article III s’inscrivent dans un ensemble
plus large de différends relatifs à l’interprétation, à l’happlication ou à
l’exécution de la Convention. » (Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzé▯govine

c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 114,
par. 169.)

De même, un auteur a fait observer que « l’emploi de la locution « y com -
pris» indique que cette mention n’a pas pour effet d’élargir la chompétence
ratione materiae» 3.
11. Les travaux préparatoires révèlent que, du fait de l’adjonction de la

mention «y compris [les différends] relatifs à la responsabilité d’un hEtat en
matière de génocide » (en anglais : « including those [disputes] relating to

1 Voir Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression d▯u crime de géno ‑
cide (Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, opinion indivi-
duelle de M. le juge Tomka, p. 519, par. 12.
2 Ibid.
3 Robert Kolb, « The Scope Ratione Materiae of the Compulsory Jurisdiction of the
ICJ», dans Paola Gaeta (dir. publ.), The UN Genocide Convention — A Commentary,
Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 468.

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7 CIJ1077.indb 315 18/04/16 08:54 159 application of genochide convention (sep. ohp. tomka)

responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide”), the Chourt’s jurisdiction

“includes [its] power . . . to determine international ‘responsibility of a
State for genocide’ on the basis of attribution to the State of the criminal
act of genocide perpetrated by a person” (Application of the Convention on
the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Her ‑
zegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I),

separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 345, para. 61 ; emphasis added).
12. As I have noted previously, the text of Article IX, as it refers to
“responsibility of a State for genocide”, lends itself — prima vista — to at
least three possible readings 4.

13. The first one, that the provision can be understood as simply pro -
viding for the Court’s jurisdiction to determine the responsibility ohf a
State for breach of the obligations under the Convention, is too restrichtive
and difficult to retain in view of the principle of effectiveness in trehaty
interpretation. It would only state expressis verbis what is otherwise

implied in every compromissory clause providing for the jurisdiction of h
the Court to adjudicate disputes regarding the application of a conven -
tion. As the Permanent Court of International Justice stated :

“It is a principle of international law that the breach of an engage -
ment involves an obligation to make reparation in an adequate form.

Reparation therefore is the indispensable complement of a failure to
apply a convention and there is no necessity for this to be stated in
the convention itself. Differences relating to reparations, which may
be due by reason of failure to apply a convention, are consequently

differences relating to its application.” (Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdic ‑
tion, Judgment No. 8, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9, p. 21.)

In the words of this Court,

“it would be superfluous to add [the phrase ‘the responsibility of a
State for genocide’ into the compromissory clause] unless the Partiesh
had something else in mind . . . It would indeed be incompatible with
the generally accepted rules of interpretation to admit that a provisionh

of this sort occurring in [a convention] should be devoid of purport
or effect.” (Corfu Channel(United Kingdom v. Albania), Merits, Judg ‑
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 24.)

14. The second possible reading, namely that the Court has jurisdiction
to determine that a State has committed the crime of genocide, would

imply the criminal responsibility of States in international law, a concept

4
Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Cr▯ime of
Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 339, para. 53. I have already made, in more
detail, the points that follow here in that separate opinion (pp. 339-340, paras. 54-56).

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7 CIJ1077.indb 316 18/04/16 08:54 application de convehntion génocide (op. inhd. tomka) 159

the responsibility of a State for genocide » ), la juridiction de la Cour com -

porte « le pouvoir d’établir la «responsabilité [internationale] d’un Etat en
matière de génocide sur la base de l’attribution à cet Etat de l’acte criminel
de génocide perpétré par un individu » (Application de la convention pour la
prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzég ▯ ovine
c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), opinion indivi -

duelle de M. le juge Tomka, p. 344-345, par. 61; les italiques sont de moi).
12. Comme je l’ai fait remarquer précédemment, le texte de l’arthicle IX,
lorsqu’il fait référence à la « responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de géno -
cide», se prête, à première vue, à trois interprétations dhifférentes au moin 4.s

13. La première, selon laquelle cette disposition ne ferait qu’habilither la
Cour à rechercher la responsabilité de l’Etat en cause pour violation des
obligations que lui impose la Convention, est trop restrictive et pourrahit
difficilement être retenue au regard du principe de l’effet utile hdans l’inter -
prétation des traités, car elle ne ferait alors que déclarer expressis verbis ce

que prévoit implicitement toute clause compromissoire donnant compéh -
tence à la Cour pour connaître des différends concernant l’aphplication de
la convention où elle figure. La Cour permanente de Justice internatio -
nale s’est exprimée ainsi à ce sujet :

«C’est un principe de droit international que la violation d’un
engagement entraîne l’obligation de réparer dans une forme adéh -

quate. La réparation est donc le complément indispensable d’un h
manquement à l’application d’une convention, sans qu’il soith néces-
saire que cela soit inscrit dans la convention même. Les divergences h
relatives à des réparations, éventuellement dues pour manquement à

l’application d’une convention, sont, partant, des divergences relha - o
tives à l’application. » ( Usine de Chorzów, compétence, arrêt n 8,
1927, C.P.J.I. série A n o9, p. 21.)

Pour sa part, la Cour de céans a dit qu’il

«aurait été superflu d’ajouter [la mention de « la responsabilité d’un
Etat en matière de génocide » à la clause compromissoire], à moins
que dans l’esprit des Parties ce point visât quelque chose de plush …
Il serait en effet contraire aux règles d’interprétation généhralement

reconnues de considérer qu’une disposition de ce genre, inséréhe dans
[une convention], soit une disposition sans portée et sans effet. »
(Détroit de Corfou (Royaume‑Uni c. Albanie), fond, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1949, p. 24.)

14. La deuxième interprétation possible, selon laquelle la Cour auraith
compétence pour déclarer qu’un Etat a commis le crime de génhocide,

repose sur la notion de responsabilité pénale des Etats, notion quhi n’a pas

4
Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression d▯u crime de génocide
(Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), opinion indi-
viduelle de M. le juge Tomka, p. 339, par. 53; j’ai exposé de façon plus détaillée dans le
texte de cette opinion individuelle (p. 339-340, par. 54-56) les observations qui suivent.

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7 CIJ1077.indb 317 18/04/16 08:54 160 application of genochide convention (sep. ohp. tomka)

which has not been accepted in international law, but was rather opposedh

by a great number of States and was not retained by the International Lahw
Commission when it finalized and adopted, in 2001, the text of the Draft
Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts.
15. The third reading of the clause, according to which the Court can

determine the responsibility of a State on the basis of the attribution hto
that State of acts constituting the crime of genocide committed by its pher -
petrators, is then most plausible. This is so not only in view of the tehxt of

the clause, in particular having regard to the French text which speaks hof
“responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide”, and not “pour le géno-
cide”, but also the travaux préparatoires, which reflect a sometimes con-

fusing debate in the Sixth Committee in 1948 when the text of the
Convention was finalized.
16. The travaux préparatoires are discussed in detail in my previous
5
separate opinion . It is, however, worth highlighting that the UnitedKing-
dom had suggested an amendment to draft Article VII (the current Arti-
cle VI) that provided that :

“Where the act of genocide as specified by Articles II and IV is, or

is alleged to be the act of the State or Government itself or of any organ
or authority of the State or Government, the matter shall, at the request
of any other party to the present Convention, be referred to the Inter-
national Court of Justice, whose decision shall be final and binding. h

Any acts or measures found by the Court to constitute acts of geno -
cide shall be immediately discontinued or rescinded and if already
suspended shall not be resumed or reimposed.” 6

17. The amendment was later withdrawn in favour of a joint amend -
ment with Belgium to Article X (the current Article IX) , which provided

for disputes “between the High Contracting Parties relating to the inhterp-re
tation, application or fulfilment of the present Convention, includingh dis-
putes relating to the responsibility of a State for any of the acts enumerated

in Articles II and IV” to be submitted to the International Court of Jus -

5 I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), separate opinion of Judge Tomka, pp. 332-345, paras. 40-61,

in particular paragraphs 50-59 devoted to Article IX of the Genocide Convention.
6
See United Nations doc. A/C.6/236 and Corr. 1, reproduced in Hirad Abtahi and
Philippa Webb, The Genocide Convention: The Travaux Préparatoires Brill, 2008, Vol. II,
p. 1986; emphasis added; alsoApplication of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish ‑
ment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judg‑
ment, I.C.J.Reports 2007 (I), separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 337, para. 49.
7 See United Nations doc. A/C.6/SR.100, reproduced in Hirad Abtahi and
Philippa Webb, The Genocide Convention : The Travaux Préparatoires, supra note 6,
p. 1714; alsoApplication of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Cr▯ime

of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2007 (I), separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 337, para. 49.

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7 CIJ1077.indb 318 18/04/16 08:54 application de convehntion génocide (op. inhd. tomka) 160

été acceptée en droit international, ayant suscité l’oppohsition d’un grand

nombre d’Etats, et que la Commission du droit international a écarhtée
lorsqu’elle a mis au point et adopté en 2001 son projet d’Artichles sur la
responsabilité de l’Etat pour fait internationalement illicite.

15. La troisième interprétation de cette clause, d’après laquellhe la Cour
pourrait conclure à la responsabilité d’un Etat par attributionh à celui -ci
des actes constitutifs de génocide commis par les auteurs matérielhs,

devient ainsi la plus plausible, au regard non seulement du libellé dhe la
clause elle-même, surtout compte tenu de la version française, où il est
question de la « responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide », et non

«pour le génocide», mais aussi des travaux préparatoires, qui font état du
débat parfois déroutant qui, au sein de la Sixième Commission, ha entouré
en 1948 la mise au point du texte de la Convention.

16. J’ai examiné les travaux préparatoires de manière approfondihe
dans mon opinion individuelle précédente 5. Il convient néanmoins de rap-
peler que le Royaume -Uni avait proposé un amendement au texte de l’ar-

ticle VII (devenu l’article VI), dont voici la teneur :

«Lorsque l’un des actes de génocide spécifiés aux articles II et IV
sera le fait de l’Etat ou du gouvernement lui ‑même ou d’un organe ou
autorité quelconque de l’Etat ou du gouvernement, ou qu’il sera pré -

senté comme tel, l’affaire, à la demande de toute autre partie àh la
présente Convention, sera soumise à la Cour internationale de Jus -
tice, dont la décision sera définitive et obligatoire. Tous actehs, toutes

mesures dont la Cour jugera qu’ils constituent des actes de génocide
seront respectivement interrompus ou annulés immédiatement ; si
leur exécution a déjà été suspendue, ces actes ne seront hpas repris ni
6
ces mesures imposées à nouveau. »

17. Cet amendement a par la suite été retiré au profit d’un auhtre, pré-
senté conjointement avec la Belgique et visant l’article X (devenu l’ar -
ticle IX) , aux termes duquel « [t]out différend entre les Hautes Parties

contractantes relatif à l’interprétation, l’application ou lh’exécution de la
présente Convention, y compris les différends relatifs à la resphonsabilité
d’un Etat dans les actes énumérés aux articles II et IV », devait être porté

5 C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I) , opinion individuelle de M. le juge Tomka, p. 332-345,
par. 40-61, en particulier les paragraphe50 -59, qui sont consacrés à l’articIX de la
convention sur le génocide.
6 Voir Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/236 et Corr. 1, reproduit dans Hirad Abtahi et

Philippa Webb, The Genocide Convention : The Travaux Préparatoires Brill, 2008, vol. II,
p. 1986 (les italiques sont de moi)oir ausApplication de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie ‑HerzégovineSerbie‑et‑Monténégro),arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), opinion individuelle de M. le juge Tomka, p. 337, par. 49.
7 Voir Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/SR.100, reproduit dans Hirad Abtahi et
Philippa Webb, The Genocide Convention : The Travaux Préparatoires , supra note 6,
p. 1714 ; voir aussApplication de la convention pour la prévention et la répression d▯u crime
de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.Recueil2007 (I),
opinion individuelle de M. le juge Tomka, p. 337, par. 49.

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7 CIJ1077.indb 319 18/04/16 08:54 161 application of genochide convention (sep. ohp. tomka)

8
tice . The United Kingdom representative recalled that this new amend -
ment “represented an attempt to combine the provisions of Article X as it
stood with the essential features of the Belgian and United Kingdom

amendments to Article VII, namely, the responsibility of States and an
international court empowered to try them” . Moreover, he outlined that
he “had been impressed by the fact that all speakers had recognized thhat

the responsibility of the State was almost always involved in all acts of
genocide t;e Committee, therefore, could not reject a text mentioning the
10
responsibility of the State” . Finally, he noted that “the responsibility
envisaged by the joint Belgian and United Kingdom amendment was the
international responsibility of States following a violation of the convhen-
11
tion. That was civil responsibility, not criminal responsibility” .

18. It seems apparent that, while States were concerned by the prospect
of the State being held criminally responsible 1, the intent behind Arti -

cle IX was to allow disputes relating to violations by States of their
obligations under the Convention 13 — committed through the acts of
persons whose conduct was attributable to them — to be brought before

the Court. Article IX, read as a whole and in the context of other
provisions of the Convention, does not provide solid support for the

Court’s willingness to embark on an inquiry into Serbia’s alleged hrespon -
sibility by way of succession through just observing that Article IX
“contains no limitation regarding the manner in which [a State’s]

responsibility might be engaged” (Judgment, para. 114). The travaux
préparatoires point in a different direction : no one during the discussion
leading to the adoption of the Convention ever mentioned the issue

of succession. The intent was rather to allow the Court to consider
disputes involving an allegation that the State is to be held responsiblhe
for genocide because the acts of its perpetrators are attributable to

8See United Nations doc. A/C.6/258, reproduced in Hirad Abtahi and Philippa Webb,
The Genocide Convention:The Travaux Préparatoires, supra note 6,p.2004; also Applica‑
tion of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of ▯Genocide (Bosnia
and Herzegovina v.Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), separate
opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 340, para. 57.
9
United Nations doc. A/C.6/SR103, reproduced in Hirad Abtahi and Philippa Webb,
The Genocide Convention: The Travaux Préparatoires, supra note 6, p. 1762 (Fitzmaurice).
10Ibid.
11See ibid., p. 1774; also Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish ‑
ment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judg‑
ment, I.C.J.eports 2007 (I), separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 341, para. 58.
12See, e.g., Christian J. Tams, “Article IX” in Christian J. Tams, Lars Berster and

Björn Schiffbauer (eds.), Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of
Genocide: Commentary, Munich, C. H. Beck, 2014, p. 299.
13See also ibid., pp. 299-300 (“there was little disagreement that, by virtue of ArticleIX,
it would be possible to seek an ICJ judgment on whether States had complhied with provi-
sions of the Convention prohibiting acts of genocide”).

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8
devant la Cour internationale de Justice . Le représentant du
Royaume-Uni avait alors rappelé que ce nouvel amendement « représen-
tait une tentative pour combiner les dispositions de l’article X actuel avec

les éléments essentiels des amendements du Royaume -Uni et de la Bel -
gique à l’article VII, à savoir la responsabilité des Etats et une juridiction
internationale pour les juger » 9. Il avait par ailleurs ajouté qu’il avait « été

frappé par le fait que tous les orateurs [avaient] admis que la respohnsabi-
lité de l’Etat [était] presque toujours engagée dans tous lehs actes de géno-
cide [et que] la Commission ne [pouvait] donc pas rejeter un texte
10
mentionnant la responsabilité de l’Etat » . Enfin, il avait fait remarquer
que « la responsabilité envisagée dans l’amendement commun de la
Belgique et du Royaume-Uni [était] la responsabilité internationalhe des

Etats à la suite d’une violation de la convention », précisant qu’il
s’agissait là «d’une responsabilité civile et non pas d’une responsabilité h
pénale» 11.

18. Il semble évident que, si les Etats étaient inquiets à l’idéhe de pouvoir
être déclarés pénalement responsables 12, l’intention sous -tendant l’ar -
ticle IX était de permettre que les différends se rapportant à la violhation
13
par un Etat de ses obligations au titre de la Convention — à raison des
agissements de personnes dont la conduite pouvait lui être attribuée —
puissent être portés devant la Cour. Pris dans son intégralitéh et dans le

contexte des autres dispositions de la Convention, l’article IX constitue
une base trop précaire pour permettre à la Cour de se lancer, en she conten -
tant de faire observer que l’article IX « ne contient aucune limitation

s’agissant de la manière dont [la] responsabilité est susceptibhle d’être eng-a
gée » (arrêt, par. 114), dans l’examen de la responsabilité qui aurait été
dévolue par succession à la Serbie. Les travaux préparatoires ne vont pas

dans ce sens : jamais la question de la succession n’a été soulevée par qhui
que ce soit au cours des discussions ayant mené à l’adoption deh la Conve-n
tion. L’intention était plutôt de permettre que la Cour puisse hêtre saisie de

tout différend dans le cadre duquel il serait allégué qu’un Ehtat est respon-

8 Voir Nations Unies, doc. A/C.6/258, reproduit dans Hirad Abtahi et Philippa Webb,
The Genocide Convention : The Travaux Préparatoires, supra note 6, p. 200; voir aussi

Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression d▯u crime de génocide
(Bosnie ‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), opinion indi-
viduelle de M. le juge Tomka, p. 340, par. 57.
9 Voir Nations Unies, doc.A/C.6/S R103, reproduit dans HiradAbtahi et PhilippaWebb,
The Genocide Convention: The Travaux Préparatoires supra note 6, p. 1762 (Fitzmaurice).
10 Ibid.
11 Voir ibid., p. 1774; voir aussi Application de la convention pour la prévention et la
répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie ‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro), arrêt,

C.I12. Recueil 2007 (I), opinion individuelle de M. le juge Tomka, p. 341, par. 58.
Voir, par exemple, Christian J. Tams, « Article IX», dans Christian J. Tams, Lars
Berster et Björn Schiffbauer (dipubl.),Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide: Commentary , Munich, C. H. Beck, 2014, p. 299.
13 Voir aussi ibid., p. 299-300: «il a été généralement admis que, grâce à l’article IX, il
serait possible d’obtenir de la CIJ un arrêt sur l’observation hpar les Etats des dispositions
de la Convention prohibant les actes de génocide

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7 CIJ1077.indb 321 18/04/16 08:54 162 application of genochide convention (sep. ohp. tomka)

the State, thus amounting to breaches of the Convention by the State
itself.
19. This was the understanding of the Court in the Bosnian Genocide

case, where it noted that :
“The responsibility of a party for genocide and the other acts enu -

merated in Article III arises from its failure to comply with the obliga‑
tions imposed by the other provisions of the Convention, and in
particular, in the present context, with Article III read with Articles I
and II.”(Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punish ‑
ment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and

Montenegro), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (I), p. 114, para. 169 ;
emphasis added.)

20. This is also the understanding of Article IX that is reflected in the
Court’s 2008 Judgment on preliminary objections, referred to above, in
which it focused on the outstanding issues as relating to whether Serbiah’s
responsibility for violations of the obligations under the Convention
could have been engaged by acts attributable to it and committed prior tho

27 April 1992. Indeed, this is the understanding of the Convention that is
reflected in Croatia’s claims submitted to the Court, namely that Sherbia
itself breached the Convention. Thus, in its initial Application, Croatia
claimed “that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia has breached its legal
obligations toward the people and Republic of Croatia” under various

provisions of the Convention (Judgment, para. 49 ; emphasis added). In
its final submissions in the written pleadings, it likewise claimed thhat the
Respondent “is responsible for violations of the Convention . . . (a) in
that persons for whose conduct it is responsible committed genocide on the
territory of the Republic of Croatia” (ibid., para. 50 ; emphasis added).

This submission was maintained in Croatia’s final submissions presehnted
at the close of the hearings (ibid., para. 51). This is in my view the subject-
matter of the dispute before the Court.

21. The fact that the focus of questions as to the responsibility of a
State for genocide is on responsibility arising from breach of the Convehn -
tion by that State also tends to confirm the point made above, that dihs -
putes relating to the “interpretation, application or fulfilment”h of the
Convention — of which disputes relating to State responsibility for geno -

cide are a type — are disputes about the interpretation, application or
fulfilment of the Convention by those parties in dispute. Thus, any dispute
between contracting parties relating to State responsibility for genocide
must arise from the alleged failure of one of those parties to properly h
interpret, apply or fulfil that Convention.

22. The Judgment attempts to skirt around the fact that Article IX
only gives jurisdiction over disputes concerning the “interpretation,h app- li

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sable de génocide parce que les actes des auteurs matériels lui sohnt attri -
buables et emportent violation de la Convention par cet Etat lui -même.
19. Telle était la position de la Cour en l’affaire Bosnie‑Herzégovine
c. Serbie‑et‑Monténégro, où elle a fait observer ce qui suit :

«La responsabilité d’une partie pour génocide ou tout autre acte
énuméré à l’article III naît de son manquement aux obligations que lui

imposent les autres dispositions de la Convention, et notamment, dans
le présent contexte, l’article III, lu conjointement avec les articles
premier et II. » (Application de la convention pour la prévention et
la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Serbie‑et‑
Monténégro), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (I), p. 114, par. 169 ; les it-
liques sont de moi.)

20. C’est aussi cette interprétation de l’article IX que reflète l’arrêt
rendu par la Cour en 2008 sur les exceptions préliminaires, auquel il a été

fait référence plus haut et dans lequel elle a abordé les questions en litige
dans la perspective de la responsabilité pouvant être imputée àh la Serbie
pour violation des obligations découlant de la Convention à raisonh
d’actes qui lui seraient attribuables et qui auraient été commis avant
le 27 avril 1992. Et de fait, telle est l’interprétation de la Convention qui h

sous-tend la demande dont la Croatie a saisi la Cour, à savoir que la Ser -
bie aurait elle‑même violé la Convention. Ainsi, dans sa requête introduc -
tive d’instance, la Croatie alléguait « que la République fédérale de
Yougoslavie a[vait] violé les obligations juridiques qui sont les siennes
vis-à-vis de la population et de la République de Croatie »,renvoyant à
cet égard à diverses dispositions de la Convention (arrêt, parh. 49; les ita-

liques sont de moi). Dans les conclusions finales qui figuraient dahns ses
écritures, elle soutenait de même que la partie défenderesse esht « respon-
sable de violations de la [C]onvention … a) en ce que des personnes de la
conduite desquelles elle est responsable ont commis un génocide sur le ter -
ritoire de la République de Croatie » (ibid., par. 50; les italiques sont de

moi). Ce chef de conclusions a été repris dans les conclusions fihnales pré-
sentées à l’issue de la procédure orale (ibid., par. 51). Voilà ce qui consti-
tue, à mon sens, l’objet du différend porté devant la Cour.
21. Le fait que la question de la responsabilité de l’Etat pour génhocide
soit envisagée du point de vue de la violation par cet Etat de la Conven -
tion tend aussi à étayer l’hypothèse posée ci -dessus, à savoir que les diffé-

rends relatifs à « l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécution » de la
Convention — dont font partie ceux relatifs à la responsabilité d’un Etat
en matière de génocide — sont ceux qui mettent en cause l’interprétation,
l’application ou l’exécution de la Convention par les parties au différend.
Par conséquent, tout différend opposant des parties contractantes eht met-
tant en jeu la responsabilité de l’Etat pour génocide doit se rhapporter aux

manquements de l’une ou l’autre quant à l’interprétation,h l’application ou
l’exécution de la Convention.
22. L’arrêt tend à contourner le fait que l’article IX n’est attributif
de compétence qu’à l’égard du différend opposant des parties contrac -

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cation and fulfilment” of the Convention by the contracting parties in dis‑
pute. It acknowledges that the dispute in question in this case is between

Croatia and Serbia but indicates that it appears “to fall squarely wihthin
the terms of Article IX” because “the essential subject -matter of the dis -
pute is whether Serbia is responsible for violations of the Genocide Conh-
vention and, if so, whether Croatia may invoke that responsibility”
(Judgment, para. 90).

23. In the first place, it is doubtful whether this accurately reflects hthe
“essential subject-matter of the dispute”. As has already been outlined,
Croatia has never put forward a formal claim in its final submissions hthat
Serbia’s responsibility arose because it succeeded to the responsibilhity of

the SFRY, with the relevant acts being attributable to the latter and
amounting to a violation of the SFRY’s obligations under the Conven -
tion. It is true that, rather late in the proceedings, Croatia put this hfor -
ward as an argument (as indeed the Judgment acknowledges : see
para. 109 ; emphasis added), in order to address the jurisdictional point,

but this cannot change the dispute’s essential characteristics, whichh relate
to whether Serbia breached the Convention because the relevant acts
alleged to amount to genocide are attributable to it.
24. But even if the “essential subject -matter of the dispute” were accu -
rately characterized in the Judgment, the fact that Croatia has put Ser-

bia’s succession to responsibility in issue does not make that disputhe, at
leastin so far as it relates to events prior to 27 April 1992, one about the
“interpretation, application or fulfilment” of the Convention by Serbia 14.
In this respect, the Judgment sets out three issues that are, on Croatiah’s
“alternative argument”, in dispute (Judgment, para. 112). It suggests that

these issues “concern the interpretation, application and fulfilmenht of the
provisions of the Genocide Convention” (ibid., para. 113). However, the
first two issues relate to the application and fulfilment of the Genhocide
Convention by the SFRY, not the FRY, and the former’s responsibility
for alleged genocide. The third issue — whether the FRY (Serbia) suc -

ceeded to the SFRY’s responsibility — cannot be characterized as a dis -
pute relating to the “interpretation, application or fulfilment”h of the
Convention, nor as one “relating to the responsibility of a State forh geno -
cide” once the meaning of the latter phrase has been properly understhood.

This is because it does not relate to Serbia’s obligations under the Con -
vention and its failure to properly interpret, apply or fulfil them. Ih am not
convinced that the compromissory clause in Article IX extends to ques -
tions of State succession to responsibility. The legal term “responsihbility”
does not include the concept of “succession”. As the Court stated hin the

Navigational Rights case “the terms used in a treaty must be interpreted
in light of what is determined to have been the parties’ common intenhtion,
which is, by definition, contemporaneous with the treaty’s conclusion”

14 See Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Cr▯ime of
Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2008, sepa-
rate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 520, para. 13.

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tantes relativement à « l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécution » de la
Convention par ces mêmes parties contractantes. Il reconnaît que le diffé -

rend en l’espèce met en présence la Croatie et la Serbie, pour hensuite
déclarer qu’il «paraît relever sans conteste de l’articleIX», puisque « l’ob-
jet principal du différend réside dans la question de savoir si la hSerbie est
responsable de violations de la convention sur le génocide et, dans lh’affir-
mative, si la Croatie peut invoquer cette responsabilité » (arrêt, par. 90).

23. Pour commencer, il est douteux que l’on puisse définir ainsi «hl’ob-
jet principal du différend ». Comme il a déjà été exposé, la Croatie n’a
jamais avancé, dans ses conclusions finales, que la responsabilité de la
Serbie était engagée par voie de succession à celle de la RFSY,h à raison

d’actes qui seraient attribuables à cette dernière et emporterahient viola -
tion par elle des obligations lui incombant au titre de la Convention.
Certes, la Croatie a bien, à une étape assez tardive de la procéhdure, sou -
levé cet argument (ainsi que l’arrêt le reconnaît: voir par. 109; les italiques
sont de moi) dans le contexte de la question de la compétence, mais hcela

ne change rien aux caractéristiques essentielles du différend, qui se rap -
portent au point de savoir si la Serbie a violé la Convention parce que des
actes supposés constitutifs de génocide lui sont imputables.
24. Mais, même à supposer que « l’objetprincipal du différend » ait été
correctement défini dans l’arrêt et que la Croatie ait bel et bien soulevé la

question de la dévolution de la responsabilité à la Serbie par hsuccession, ce
différend ne relève pas pour autant, du moins en ce qui concerne lehs faits
antérieurs au 27 avril 1992, de « l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécu -
tion» de la Convention par la Serbie 14. Sur ce point, l’arrêt définit trois
questions soulevées par le « moyen subsidiaire » de la Croatie (arrêt,

par. 112), ajoutant qu’elles « concernent l’interprétation, l’application et
l’exécution des dispositions de la convention sur le génocide » (ibid.,
par. 113). Or les deux premières se rapportent à l’application et lh’exécution
de la Convention par la RFSY, et non la RFY, et à la responsabilité de la
première au regard des allégations de génocide. Quant à la troisième ques -

tion — celle de savoir si la RFY (la Serbie) a succédé à la responsabilité de
la RFSY —, elle ne saurait être considérée comme un différend relatif à
«l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécution» de la Convention ou encore
à «la responsabilité d’un Etat en matière de génocide», pour peu que cette

dernière expression soit interprétée correctement. La raison enh est qu’elle
n’a rien à voir avec les obligations incombant à la Serbie au thitre de la
Convention ou les manquements qui pourraient lui être reprochés quhant à
l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécution de ces oblhigations. Je ne suis
pas convaincu que la clause compromissoire de l’article IX s’étende aux

questions concernant la succession d’Etats en matière de responsabhilité. Le
terme de droit « responsabilité» n’évoque pas implicitement la notion de
«succession». Ainsi que la Cour l’a dit dans l’affaire du Différend relatif à

14 Voir Application de la convention pour la prévention et la répression d▯u crime de géno ‑
cide (Croatie c. Serbie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, opinion indivi-
duelle de M. le juge Tomka, p. 520, par. 13.

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(Dispute regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nica ‑
ragua), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2009, p. 242, para. 63). The term

“responsibility”, as it appears from the discussions in 1948, was certainly
not given by the Convention’s drafters the meaning which the Court
seems to be inclined to give it now for the particular purposes of this hcase.
Nor can recourse to evolutive interpretation of the terms used in the Cohn -
vention be of assistance as the term and concept “responsibility” his also at

present a distinct one from the term and concept “succession” in ihnterna-
tional law. Matters relating to “succession to responsibility” areh therefore
beyond the jurisdiction ratione materiae provided for in Article IX of the
Convention. Similarly, the second issue, as identified by the Court,

namely, “whether [the acts contrary to the provisions of the Conventihon]
were attributable to and thus engaged the responsibility of the SFRY
[(sic) !]” cannot fall “squarely within the scope ratione materiae of the
jurisdiction provided for in Article IX” (Judgment, para. 113) because it
is not a dispute “between the Contracting Parties” relating to their “inter-

pretation, application or fulfilment” of the Convention. The allegahtion is
that the SFRY breached the Convention, and that claim could only have
been brought, pursuant to Article IX of the Convention, against the
SFRY itself.

25. Having consistently denied the continuity between the legal per -
sonality of the SFRY and Serbia, Croatia must bear the consequences of
its legal position on this issue15. It is accepted that Serbia did not become

a party to the Convention until 27 April 1992 and any dispute about acts
said to have occurred before that date cannot therefore be about the
interpretation, application or fulfilment of that Convention by Serbiah
which has appeared before the Court as the Respondent. It did not have
obligations under the Convention as a party to it prior to 27 April 1992.

In my view, therefore, only acts, events and facts which occurred on theh
dates subsequent to Serbia’s becoming party to the Convention fall wihthin
the jurisdiction of the Court under Article IX of the Genocide Conven -
tion.

26. This conclusion, however, does not prevent the Court from conside-r
ing acts which occurred prior to 27 April 1992 without formally ruling on
their conformity with the obligations which were, from the point of view of
international law, the obligations of the SFRY. The obligations of the
SFRY under the Convention could have been breached by any of its organs,h

irrespective of their place in the constitutional structure of the SFRY,h or any
person whose acts were attributable to that State. There was undoubtedlyh a
certain factual continuation and identity between those who were actors hin
the period of armed conflict which raged in Croatia both before and afhter

15 See also I.C.J. Reports 2008, separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 522, para. 18.

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des droits de navigation, « les termes employés dans un traité doivent être
interprétés sur la base d’une recherche de la commune intentionh des parties,

laquelle est, par définition, contemporaine de la conclusion du traité Dif‑
férend relatif à des droits de navigation et des droits connexes (▯ osta Rica
c. Nicaragua), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 242, par. 63). Il ressort des
débats qui ont eu lieu en 1948 que les rédacteurs de la Convention n’enten-
daient certainement pas donner au terme « responsabilité» le sens que la

Cour tend à présent à lui attribuer dans le contexte particuliehr de la pré -
sente affaire. La théorie de l’interprétation évolutive des thermes utilisés dans
la Convention n’est ici d’aucun secours, puisque la notion de «h responsabi-
lité reste de nos jours distincte de celle de « succession» en droit interna-

tional. Les questions se rapportant à la « succession à la responsabilité »
débordent donc la compétence ratione materiae que prévoit l’article IX de
la Convention. De même, la deuxième question définie par la Chour, soit
celle de savoir « si ces actes contreven[ant] aux dispositions de la Conven -
tion … étaient attribuables à la RFSY [sic!] et ont donc engagé sa respon-

sabilité, ne saurait donc être considérée comme « entr[ant] sans contredit
dans le champ de la compétence ratione materiae prévue à l’article IX »
(arrêt, par. 113), parce qu’il ne s’agit pas d’un différend « entre les Parties
contractantes» qui serait relatif à «l’interprétation, l’application ou l’exécu
tion» par elles de la Convention. Ce qui est allégué, c’est que la RFSY a

contrevenu à la Convention ; or cette allégation ne pouvait, sur le fonde -
ment de l’articleIX, être dirigée que contre la RFSY elle-même.
25. Après avoir systématiquement nié la continuation de la personnahlité
juridique de la RFSY par la Serbie, la Croatie doit à présent assuhmer les
conséquences de la position qu’elle a adoptée en droit sur cetthe question 15.

Il est établi que la Serbie n’est devenue partie à la Conventiohn que le
27 avril 1992 et que le différend concernant des actes supposés commis
avant cette date ne saurait être considéré comme relatif à l’interprétation,
l’application ou l’exécution de la Convention par le défendehur ayant com -
paru devant la Cour, c’est-à-dire la Serbie, qui, avant le 27avril 1992, n’as-

sumait aucune des obligations que la Convention impose aux Etats partiesh.
Par conséquent, seuls les actes, événements et faits qui sont postérieurs à la
date à laquelle la Serbie est devenue partie à la convention sur lhe génocide
relèvent, selon moi, de la compétence de la Cour au titre de l’harticle IX.

26. Cependant, cette conclusion n’empêche pas la Cour de prendre en
considération les actes antérieurs au 27avril1992, sans se prononcer formel -
lement sur leur conformité à des obligations qui, du point de vue hdu droit
international, étaient celles de la RFSY. Les obligations que la Convhention
imposait à cette dernière auraient pu être violées par n’himporte lequel de ses

organes, indépendamment de son régime constitutionnel, ou par n’importe
quelle personne dont les actes lui étaient attribuables. Il existe sahns aucun
doute une certaine continuité factuelle et une certaine identité entre les
acteurs du conflit armé qui faisait rage en Croatie avant et après le

15 Voir aussi C.I.J. Recueil 2008, opinion individuelle dle juge Tomka, p. 522,
par. 18.

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27 April 1992. But this factual continuity and identity should not be con -
fused with the situation in law, where the thesis of discontinuity betwehen the
SFRY and the FRY in the end prevailed in view of the position taken by

some “keyplayers” in the international community and the States, including
Croatia, which were earlier republics constituting the former SFRY. Non- eh
theless, as the Court had to determine, in relation to acts which were cho-
mitted after27 April 1992, whether those acts were committed with the
necessary intent (dolus specialis), the Court could have looked at the events

occurring prior to that date in order to determine whether the later acths fell
within a particular pattern from which the intent could be inferred.
27. Hence, despite my position on the limitation of the Court’s juris -
diction ratione temporis, I was not prevented from joining my colleagues
on the Bench in looking at those acts and events preceding 27 April 1992

and joining them in their overall conclusion that the Croatian claim of h
genocide having been committed during the armed conflict in its territory
must be rejected.

II. Admissibility: The m onetaRy G old Principle

28. Even if one accepts the Court’s conclusion on its jurisdiction, seri -
ous questions arise as to the admissibility of Croatia’s claim. As hahs been
noted, the Judgment takes the position that it is within the Court’s hjuris-

diction, as conferred by Article IX, for it to consider alleged breaches of
the Convention by the SFRY where Serbia is said to be responsible for
those breaches by way of succession to responsibility. The Court is
thereby indicating its readiness to rule on the responsibility of the SFRY,
a State that is no longer in existence and is not before the Court, as a

necessary precursor to determining the responsibility of the Respondent h
State that is presently before the Court. Stated in such terms, this is rather
an unusual position for the Court to take.

29. In the Monetary Gold case, the Court found that it could not rule
on a claim brought by Italy against France, the United Kingdom and the

United States of America where a third State, Albania, was not before thhe
Court. The Court considered that :

“To adjudicate upon the international responsibility of Albania
without her consent would run counter to a well -established principle
of international law embodied in the Court’s Statute, namely, that thhe
Court can only exercise jurisdiction over a State with its consent.” h
(Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943 (Italy v. France, United

Kingdom and United States of America), Preliminary Question, Judg ‑
ment, I.C.J. Reports 1954, p. 32.)

30. It noted that “Albania’s legal interests would not only be affectedh
by a decision, but would form the very subject -matter of the decision”
(ibid.) and accordingly declined to exercise its jurisdiction in respect of

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27 avril 1992, mais cette continuité factuelle et cette identité ne doiventh pas
être confondues avec la situation en droit, puisque, en raison de la position
adoptée par certains « protagonistes» de la communauté internationale et

des Etats, dont la Croatie, qu’étaient devenues les anciennes réhpubliques
constitutives de la RFSY, c’est la thèse de la solution de continuhité entre la
RFSY et la RFY qui a fini par l’emporter. Quoi qu’il en soit, puhisqu’il était
demandé à la Cour de juger si les actes commis après le 2a7vril1992 l’avaient
été dans l’intention nécessaire (dolus specialis), elle était fondée à examiner

les fait antérieurs à cette date afin de vérifier si les achtes postérieurs s’inscri
vaient dans une ligne de conduite permettant d’inférer cette intenhtion.
27. C’est ainsi que, malgré ma position concernant la limitation de lah
compétence ratione temporis de la Cour, j’ai pu me joindre à mes collè -
gues pour examiner ces actes et événements antérieurs au 27 avril 1992,

puis souscrire à leur conclusion générale, selon laquelle la dehmande de la
Croatie concernant le génocide censé avoir été commis au couhrs du conflit
armé dont son territoire a été le théâtre devait être hrejetée.

II. Recevabilité: le principe énoncé ehn l’affaire de l’ o R monétaiRe

28. Même à supposer fondée la conclusion à laquelle est parvenueh la
Cour quant à sa compétence, des questions épineuses se posent ehn ce qui
concerne la recevabilité de la demande de la Croatie. Comme il a déhjà été

mentionné, l’arrêt part du principe qu’il entre dans la comphétence de la
Cour, sur le fondement de l’article IX, d’examiner les violations de la
Convention dont la RFSY se serait rendue coupable et dont la responsa -
bilité aurait été dévolue à la Serbie par voie de succession. La Cour se
montre ainsi disposée à statuer sur la responsabilité de la RFShY, Etat qui

a cessé d’exister et qui ne se trouve donc pas présent devant ehlle, en tant
que préalable à l’examen de la responsabilité de l’Etat dhéfendeur qui, lui,
a comparu en l’espèce. Dans cette perspective, la position adoptéhe par la
Cour paraît assez inhabituelle.
29. Dans l’affaire de l’Or monétaire, la Cour était parvenue à la conclu -
sion qu’elle ne pouvait pas statuer sur la demande formée par l’hItalie à

l’encontre de la France, du Royaume -Uni et des Etats -Unis d’Amérique
alors qu’un Etat tiers, l’Albanie, n’avait pas comparu devant ehlle:

«Statuer sur la responsabilité internationale de l’Albanie sans sonh
consentement serait agir à l’encontre d’un principe de droit inhterna-
tional bien établi et incorporé dans le Statut, à savoir que lah Cour ne
peut exercer sa juridiction à l’égard d’un Etat si ce n’ehst avec le
consentement de ce dernier. » ( Or monétaire pris à Rome en 1943

(Italie c. France, Royaume‑Uni et Etats‑Unis d’Amérique), question
préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1954, p. 32.)

30. Faisant remarquer que «les intérêts juridiques de l’Albanie seraient
non seulement touchés par une décision, mais constitueraient l’hobjet
même de ladite décision » (ibid.), la Cour s’était alors abstenue d’exercer

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the claim. As the Court noted in the Nauru case, “the determination of
Albania’s responsibility was a prerequisite for a decision to be takehn on

Italy’s claims” (Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia),
Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992, p. 261, para. 55).

31. The Judgment makes it clear that the Court’s jurisdiction is depen-
dent, in relation to those acts occurring prior to 27 April 1992, on Croa-
tia’s argument that Serbia succeeded to the responsibility of the SFRhY

for acts of genocide contrary to the Genocide Convention. A determina -
tion as to the responsibility of the SFRY is therefore an essential prerheq-
uisite to a determination of whether Serbia’s responsibility is engaghed.

32. However, in so far as the SFRY is concerned, the Court has opined
that the Monetary Gold principle is inapplicable in this case because the
SFRY has ceased to exist (Judgment, para. 116). This may be an accept -

able position to take where — as in the Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project
case 16 — there is an agreement as to which of the successor States will
succeed to the relevant obligations of the State that has ceased to exist.

However, the position becomes more complicated where there is uncer -
tainty as to which of a number of States might ultimately bear responsi-
bility for the acts of a predecessor State 17. In this case, as has already

been noted, Serbia is only one of five equal successor States to the ShFRY.
A decision as to the international responsibility of the SFRY may well
have implications for several, if not each, of those successor States,

depending on what view is taken on the question of the allocation of anyh
such responsibility as between them. This is particularly the case in lihght
of the fact that the 2001 Agreement on Succession Issues between the fihve
successor States provides that “[a]ll claims against the SFRY which ahre

not otherwise covered by this Agreement shall be considered by the
Standing Joint Committee established under Article 4” (United Nations,
Treaty Series, Vol. 2262, p. 251, Ann. F, Art. 2). It can be no answer that

16
Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1997,
p. 7. See the Preamble to the Special Agreement excerpted at pa11 and also page 81,
paragraph 151. See also Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of
the Crime of Genocide (Croatiav. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J.Reports
2008, separate opinion of Judge Tomka, p. 521, para. 14.
17See James Crawford, State Responsibility: The General Part, Cambridge University
Press, 2013, pp. 666-667, discussing the Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros Project case:

“[E]ven if there had been no agreement that Slovakia would succeed toh Czechosl-o
vakia’s rights and obligations under the treaty, and even if Hungary’hs allegations of
internationally wrongful acts against Czechoslovakia was considered the hvery subject
matter of the dispute, there seems no question that the Court would haveh applied the
Monetary Gold principle to protect the legal interests of a State no longer in existenhce.
On the other hand, if a bilateral dispute between Hungary and the CzeRepublic

had required the Court to determine whether or not Slovakia was the soleh successor
state to Czechoslovakia in respect of some particular matter, the Court hmight well
have decided that it was prevented from acting by the Monetary Gold principle.”

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7 CIJ1077.indb 330 18/04/16 08:54 application de convehntion génocide (op. inhd. tomka) 166

sa juridiction à l’égard de la demande. Comme elle l’a ensuihte signalé en
l’affaire Nauru , «la détermination de la responsabilité de l’Albanie était

une condition préalable pour qu’il puisse être statué sur lehs prétentions de
l’Italie» (Certaines terres à phosphates à Nauru (Nauru c. Australie),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 261, par. 55).

31. Il ressort clairement de l’arrêt que la compétence de la Cour rhepose,
en ce qui concerne les actes antérieurs au 27 avril 1992, sur l’argument de
la Croatie concernant la succession de la Serbie à la responsabilitéh encou -

rue par la RFSY à raison d’actes de génocide contrevenant à hla Conven-
tion. La détermination de la responsabilité de la RFSY est donc unh
préalable essentiel à l’examen de la question de savoir si la rhesponsabilité

de la Serbie est engagée.
32. En ce qui concerne la RFSY, pourtant, la Cour s’est dite d’avis quhe
le principe de l’Or monétaire était inapplicable en l’espèce puisque cet Etat
avait cessé d’exister (arrêt, par. 116). Cette position peut paraître raison -

nable dans l’hypothèse où — comme en l’affaire du Projet Gabčíkovo‑
Nagymaros 16 — la question de savoir lequel des Etats successeurs assu-
merait les obligations en cause de l’Etat ayant cessé d’existerh ne prête pas

à controverse. Le problème devient toutefois plus complexe lorsqu’hil y a
incertitude pour ce qui est de savoir lequel d’entre plusieurs Etats hassu -
mera, en dernière analyse, la responsabilité des actes de l’Etat prédéces -
17
seur . En l’espèce, comme il a déjà été signalé, la Serbhie n’était que l’un
des cinq Etats successeurs de la RFSY, égaux entre eux. Toute décihsion
concernant la responsabilité internationale de cette dernière pourhrait

avoir des répercussions sur plusieurs, sinon chacun d’entre eux, shelon la
position retenue quant au partage d’une telle responsabilité, et ce, d’au -
tant plus que l’accord sur les questions de succession de 2001 stipule que
«[t]ous les droits d’action contre la RFSY qui ne sont pas visés pahr ail -

leurs par le présent accord seront examinés par le comité mixteh perma -
nent établi en vertu de l’article 4» (Nations Unies, Recueil des traités,
vol. 2262, p. 251, annexe F, art. 2). Le fait que, en dernière analyse, la

16
Projet Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie), arrêt, C.I.J.▯ Recueil 1997, p. 7.
Voir le préambule du compromis, cité p. 11, et p. 81, par. 151. Voir aussi Application de la
convention pour la prévention et la répression du crime de géno▯cide (Croatie c.Serbie), excep‑
tions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, opinion individuelle de M. le juge Tomka,
p. 521, par. 14.
17 Voir James Crawford, State Responsibility: The General Part, Cambridge University
Press, 2013, p. 666-667, où est examinée l’affaire relative au Projet Gabčíkovo‑Nagymaros:

« [M]ême en l’absence d’accord confirmant la succession de la Slovaquie aux droits
et obligations de la Tchécoslovaquie en tant que partie au traité, et même si les allé -
gations de faits internationalement illicites formulées par la Hongrihe à l’encontre
de cette dernière avaient été considérées comme l’objeht principal du différend, il ne
semble faire aucun doute que la Cour aurait appliqué le principe de lh’nétaire
pour protéger les intérêts juridiques de l’Etat qui avait cehssé d’exister. Par ailleurs,

dans l’hypothèse où un différend bilatéral opposant la Honhgrie et la République
tchèque l’aurait amenée à décider si la Slovaquie étaiht ou non le seul Etat successeur
de la Tchécoslovaquie dans tel ou tel contexte spécifique, la Cohur aurait bien pu
décider qu’elle était empêchée d’agir par le principe hde l’Orre.»

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7 CIJ1077.indb 331 18/04/16 08:54 167 application of genochide convention (sep. ohp. tomka)

the Court has ultimately found that there was no breach of the Conven -
tion and accordingly the SFRY’s responsibility was not engaged.

33. Nonetheless, it bears emphasis that the operation of the Monetary
Gold principle will serve to limit the effects of the Judgment in this case. h
The Court will be unable to exercise jurisdiction under Article IX, or any
other Convention which contains a clause providing for the jurisdiction h
of the Court, over claims brought by one State party to the Convention

against another State party that are based on alleged breaches by a third
State that — for whatever reason — is not before the Court, where that
third State remains in existence. This Judgment is therefore strictly cohn -
fined to its unusual facts and should not be taken as a precedent thath
compromissory clauses will normally be subject to such novel interpreta -

tions, nor that the Court will generally be prepared to rule on the resphon-
sibility of States not before it.

III. Concluding Remark

34. This case illustrates the limits of the Court’s judicial power, whichh
remains based on State consent. Where many States continue not to recog -
nize its jurisdiction generally, but only in compromissory clauses con -

tained in certain multilateral conventions, then some claims, like the ohnes
in this case, are framed in such a way as to make them fall within the
scope of such a convention. But the threshold to prove them might be tooh
high, like in the case of genocide. The fact that the Court has rejectedh the
claim of Croatia and the counter-claim of Serbia should not be viewed as

the Court not having seen the tragedy which unfolded in the process of
the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia. In fact, the Court has
acknowledged that many atrocities were committed during the armed
conflict. What the Parties failed to prove was the presence of genocidhal
intent when these atrocities were perpetrated. Had the Court been
endowed with more general jurisdiction, the claims could have been

framed differently.
35. It is to be hoped that more States will, in the future, recognize the
Court’s jurisdiction much more broadly. The challenge for the Court
remains to strengthen the confidence of States not only by its displayh of
objectivity, impartiality and independence, but also by strictly interpret -

ing the provisions which confer jurisdiction on it. It can do that by fohcus-
ing its inquiries on whether jurisdiction has been conferred on it, rather
than by endeavouring to find ways how to assume it.

(Signed) Peter Tomka.

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Cour soit parvenue à la conclusion qu’il n’y avait pas eu violahtion de la
Convention et que, partant, la responsabilité de la RFSY n’avait phas été
engagée ne change rien à la question.

33. Quoi qu’il en soit, il n’est pas inutile de souligner que l’apphlication
du principe de l’Or monétaire viendra limiter les effets de l’arrêt rendu en
l’espèce, qui ne saurait permettre à la Cour d’exercer la juhridiction que lui
confère l’article IX de la convention sur le génocide ou quelque autre
convention comportant une disposition analogue relativement à la

demande formée par un Etat partie contre un autre Etat partie et repohsant
sur des allégations de violation visant un Etat tiers qui n’a pas cessé d’exis-
ter mais qui, pour quelque raison que ce soit, n’a pas comparu devanth elle.
La portée du présent arrêt est donc strictement limitée aux hfaits inusités
qui le sous-tendent et ne saurait avoir valeur de précédent pour indiquer

que les clauses compromissoires sont désormais susceptibles d’intehrpréta-
tions inédites ou que la Cour est de façon générale disposéhe à statuer sur
la responsabilité d’Etats n’ayant pas comparu devant elle.

III. Conclusion

34. La présente affaire illustre les limites de la juridiction de la Cour,h
qui reste tributaire du consentement des Etats. Tandis que nombre d’ehntre
eux persistent à ne pas reconnaître cette juridiction de façon hgénérale,

mais seulement dans le cadre des clauses compromissoires que contiennenth
diverses conventions multilatérales, certaines demandes, comme cellesh qui
ont été présentées en l’espèce, sont conçues de manhière à s’inscrire dans le
cadre de telles conventions. Mais il se peut que la norme de preuve appli -
cable soit trop élevée, comme en matière de génocide. Mêmhe si la Cour a

rejeté la demande de la Croatie et la demande reconventionnelle de lah
Serbie, on aurait tort de penser qu’elle est insensible au drame qui hs’est
déroulé à l’occasion de l’éclatement de l’ex -Yougoslavie. De fait, elle a
donné acte des atrocités commises au cours du conflit armé. Che que les
Parties n’ont pas établi, c’est l’existence d’une intentihon génocidaire lors
de la perpétration de ces atrocités. Si la juridiction de la Cour havait été

plus générale, les demandes auraient pu être conçues difféhremment.
35. Il y a lieu d’espérer que les Etats en viendront à reconnaîthre une
juridiction plus large à la Cour. La tâche qui incombe à celle -ci consiste
à renforcer la confiance des Etats non seulement en démontrant son
objectivité, son impartialité et son indépendance, mais aussi ehn inter -

prétant avec rigueur les dispositions attributives de compétence. hDans
cette optique, elle devrait se limiter à vérifiersi la juridiction voulue lui a
effectivement été conférée, plutôt que de rechercher les moyens de se
l’attribuer.

(Signé) Peter Tomka.

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7 CIJ1077.indb 333 18/04/16 08:54

Document file FR
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Separate opinion of President Tomka

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