Separate Opinion of Judge ad hoc Rigaux (translation)

Document Number
090-20031106-JUD-01-11-EN
Parent Document Number
090-20031106-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE RIGAUX

[Translation]

Asymmetry of the two Parties' positions- Reasoning underlying dismissal of
the counter-claim - Absence of proof of Iran's responsibility- Non-American
nationality of vessels attacked- Reasoning underlying dismissal of the original
claim - Defence based on paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX of the 1955 Treaty -
Self-defence - Impact of the damage to the platforms from the Iraqi attacks -
Effect of Executive Order 12613 of 29 October 1987 - "Indirect" commerce
between the territories of the High ContractingParties - Contradictionbetween

the reasons for dismissal of the original claim and the terms of the operative
paragraph - Prohibition of the use of force as fundamental principle of inter-
national law.

Paragraphs

II. OBSERVATION ON THE REASONING UNDERLYING DISMISSAL OF THE
COUNTER-CLAIM 4-13

III. OBSERVATIONS ON THE REASONING UNDERLYING DISMISSAL OF THE
ORIGINAL CLAIM 14-30

(a) The distinction drawn between the defence based on Ar-
ticle XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955 Treaty and that
based on the right of self-defence 14-19
(b) Observations on the interpretation and application of
Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty 20-29

(i) The causal link between the damage to the Reshadat
platforms and the length of the period during which
they remained out of commission 21-25
(ii) The effect on freedom of commerce of Executive Order
12613 of 29 October 1987 26

(iii) The existence and relevance of "indirect" commerce
between the territories of the two High Contracting
Parties 27-29

(c) 1s there not a contradiction between the reasons for the dis-
missal of the original claim and the terms of the operative
paragraph?

IV. THE PROHIBITION OF THE USE OF FORCE1s A FUNDAMENTA LRIN-
CIPLE OF INTERNATIONA LLAW 1. THE ASYMMETRY OF THE TWO PARTI ES ^OSITIONS

1. Seised of two crossing actions, the claim brought by the Islamic
Republic of Iran against the United States and a counter-claim by the
Respondent to the original proceedings, the Court has found that both
claims must be rejected. In even-handedly dismissing both Parties, the
operative paragraph of the Judgment presents a simplified image of their
respective claims. 1 can accept point 2 and the first part of point 1 of the
operative paragraph without being in agreement on al1 aspects of their
underlying reasoning. On the other hand, 1 must distance myself more
radically from the Court's finding set out in the second part of point 1.
This opinion is thus a dissenting one only in relation to that part and

concurring on the other elements of the operative paragraph.

2. In adopting two substantiallyequivalent dispositi tfesCourt ignores
the asymmetry in the Parties7 respective positions and in the dispute's
underlying issues. Although each Party accuses the other of illegal use of
armed force, which constitutes the legal subject-matter common to the
two actions, the approach to verification of the facts and determination
of jurisdiction under paragraph 1 of Article X of the 1955 Treaty will be
radically different according to whether those issues are addressed in
relation to the original claim or to the counter-claim.

As regards the facts, it is not disputed - and moreover could not be
disputed - that three oil platforms belonging to the NIOC were inten-
tionally destroyed or damaged by American armed attacks (see paras. 66
to 68 of the Judgment). By contrast, the charges against Iran, whether in
regard to the laying of mines or to the firing of missiles at vessels navi-
gating in the Persian Gulf, have not been proved to the satisfaction of the
Court.

In addition to this asymmetry as to the facts, there is a comparable
lack of symmetry in terms of the nationality of the objects of verified or

alleged attacks. The oil platforms were an Iranian public asset, whereas
the ships damaged by mines or missiles did not satisfy the condition of
nationality required by Article X of the 1955 Treaty (see paras. 9 and 10
below), one of them being moreover excluded from the scope of that
Article because it was a warship.

3. It follows from this dual asymmetry that Iran could have confined
itself to disputing the truth and relevance of facts in respect of which the
counter-claimant had failed to provide adequate proof, whereas the
United States was obliged to seek out legal grounds which would strip the
proven facts of their illegal character. The United States position varied

on this point. In the period immediately following the armed attacks,
the American Government relied on its "inherent right of self-defence"
(see paras. 67 and 72 of the Judgment). Later, and in particular before
the Court, justification was sought in paragraph 1 of Article XX of the1955 Treaty, although the self-defence argument was never totally aban-
doned. In reality, as is confirmed by the objection to jurisdiction raised
before the Court, it was not initially the intention of the American

Government to justify its military action under a provision of the 1955
Treaty. However, the Court was in any event bound to consider the inter-
national legality of the United States armed attacksboth in light of para-
graph 1 of the above-mentioned Article XX and of general international
law governing the use of force (see para. 41 of the Judgment). It was to
address the defences raised by the United States that the Court was com-
pelled to interpret and apply Article XX of the 1955 Treaty in light of
general international law.

II. OBSERVATIONS ON THE REASONING UNDERLYING DISMISSAL
OF THE COUNTER-CLAIM

4. The counter-claim is dealt with in paragraphs 101 to 124 of the
Judgment. Subject to the following observations, which relate in particu-
lar to paragraph 123, 1 have no difficulty in subscribing to the Court's
findings and to point 2 of the operative paragraph. 1 do, however, regret
the excessively narrow limits within which the Court confined the grounds
for its decision. As it explains in paragraph 120 of the Judgment, the
Court sets out "in chronological order" Iran's alleged attacks and, in

relation to each of them, confines itself to examining whether the vesse1
mentioned in the counter-claim was engaged in commerce or navigation
between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties (para. 120 of
the Judgment). The overall conclusion, as set out in paragraph 121, is
negative: "none of the vessels described by the United States as being
damaged by Iran's alleged attacks was engaged in commerce or naviga-
tion 'between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties'".

5. Two further grounds, either of which would have sufficed for the
counter-claim to be dismissed, were omitted by the Court.

The first concerns the attributability of the acts alleged against Iran.
That the events in question occurred was not in doubt, but it still
remained to be shown that they were attributable to an agency of the
Respondent to the counter-claim. Not only did Iran consistently dispute
that its responsibility had been established for any of the incidents set out
in the American claim, but the Court itself was not convinced by the
arguments presented by the American Government on this point (see in
particular paras. 58-59 and 71-72 of the Judgment). However, the argu-
ments relied on by the Court to dismiss the grounds of justificationor
defence put forward by the Respondent to the original action are not re-

addressed when the counter-claim is considered.
6. During the war between Iran and Iraq, what became known as the
"Tanker War" consisted in the use of force against ships, mainly oiltankers, flying the flag of States other than the two belligerents. For the
latter, the export of petroleumproducts, theirprincipal economicresource,
was indispensable to the pursuit of the war, which required substantial
financial resources. This was particularly so for Iran, which, unlike Iraq,

was receiving no outside aid. Another difference between the two States
concerned the means used to transport the oil abroad: whilst a part at
least of the Iraqi oil was exported overland, the entirety of the Iranian
oil had to be shipped by sea through the Persian Gulf.

The Tanker War has been analysed in two studies, which largely con-
cur on the facts, one by an Egyptian researcher, Ms Nadia El-Sayed El-
Shazlyl, the other by an American professor, George K. Walker2.
During the initial years of the war between Iran and Iraq (1981-1984),
the main protagonist in the Tanker War was Iraq (Walker, p. 46), which

sought to interrupt the export flow of Iranian oil and achieved a degree
of success (Walker, p. 51). The Iranian attacks began only in February
1984 (El-Shazly, p. 202). The number of vessels, almost al1 of them
tankers, hit by attacks by one or other of the two States exceeded 400
(Walker, p. 74), and according to El-Shazly (p. 307) reached a total of
463. Other sources, consistent with these, report that Iraq attacked 234
vessels and Iran 1633. Ms El-Shazly and Professor Walker provide rele-

vant data regarding the composition of tanker traffic in the Persian Gulf.
According to Walker :

"By 1986, US-flag foreign-trade tankers were almost non-existent ;
their role had been taken by other nations' vessels, particularly
those flying flags of convenience but often beneficially owned by US
business interests." (P. 37.)

This is confirmed by Ms El-Shazly:

lNadia El-Sayed El-Shazly, The GuIf Tanker War, Iran and Iraq's Maritime Sword-
play, 1998.
George K. Walker, The Tanker War, 1980-88: Law and Policy, International Law
Studies, 2000, Vol. 74.
David L. Peace, "Major Maritime Events in the Persian Gulf War", paper presented
at the 82ndAnnual Meeting of the American Society of InternationaLaw, 21 April 1988,
p. 3, cited by Mark W. Janis, "Neutrality"Chap. VI of The Law of Naval Operations,
InternationalLaw Studies, 1991, Vol. 64, ed. Horace B. Robertson Jrp. 150. The figure
of approximately 400 is also quoted by Francis V. Russo, Jr., "Neutraliat Sea: State
Practice in the GulfWar as Emerging International Customary Law", 19 Ocean Devel-
Shipping and the Use of Force in the Persian Gulf', 31irginia Journal of International
Law (1991), p. 620, is alone in proposa figure of 536 attacks. "Owners of ageing tanker fleets, registered with poorly regulated
countries, motivated them to send their old tankers to the Gulf.
They were mostly flying flags of convenience, manned by cheap and
poorly trained crews, and had structural defects." (P. 44.)

These two statements are mutually corroborative and explain why,
during the Tanker War, the United Statesassumedthe duty of protecting

freedom of navigation in general, including that of vessels not flying its
own flag. Thus it is no surprise to find on the successive lists produced by
the United States in this case two Panamanian vessels (Texaco Carib-
bean, Grand Wisdom) ,five Liberian vessels (Lucy, Diane, Stena Explorer,
Stena Concordia, Sungari) , and a Bahamian vesse1 (Esso Freeport) .
Apart from the two Kuwaiti tankers flying an American flag of conven-
ience, to which 1 shall return, only the Esso Demetia bore the flag of
a State (the United Kingdom) not belonging to the category of States
notorious for the ease with which they register ships not having any
real link with them and for the laxity of the control exercised by them
over such vessels.
7. The most serious incident in the Tanker War, that which resulted in
the greatest number of victims (36 killed and 21 seriously injured), was
the destruction of the American warship USS Stark by two Iraqi Exocet
missiles on 17 May 1987. The Iraqi Government expressed its regrets to
the United StatesGovernment and in 1989 paid it compensation (Walker,
p. 60; El-Shazly, pp. 282-292). Ironically, after this attack (whose only
purpose may well have been to make it appear attributable to Iran andto
provoke the internationalization of the war), the position of the United
States continued to be favourable to Iraq. It was at the end of that same
month (29 May) that Assistant Secretary of Defense, Richard Armitage,
stated: "We can't stand to see Iraq defeated."4 Ms El-Shazly, who
cites this statement, adds: "Thus he sealed the death certificate of US
neutrality in the Iran-Iraq war, and this myth was officially laid to
rest." (P. 291 .)

A no less paradoxical consequence of the Iraqi attack on the USS
Stark is that it accelerated the decision to reflag under American colours
tankers belonging to a Kuwaiti State Company, the Kuwaiti Oil Tanker

Company (KOTC). Negotiations lasted several months, because the pro-
posa1 met with resistance in the United States, particularly in Congress.

Compare the information in an article by Eric Leser in Le :"The United States
heavily armed Iraqduring the 1980s" (8 March 2003, p. 4), and again in the same news-
paper on 27 March 2003, p. 8. See also Francis A. Boyle, "International Crisis and Neu-
(1992), pp. 523-562. See also the American statements cited by Mr. Bundy, CR 200315,
pp. 4 et seq.What was ultimately decisive was the fact that during the same period the

Soviet Union had offered Kuwait a similar service. The American deci-
sion may be seen as the expression of its determination not to allow the
USSR to gain a foothold in the Persian Gulf (El-Shazly, pp. 237, 271-
282, 301 ; Walker, pp. 60-62)5. One of the two United States-reflagged
vessels mentioned in the counter-claim, the Bridgeton, had also changed
its name (when flying the Kuwaiti flag, it had been called the Al Rekkah;
El-Shazly, p. 292). It should further be noted that China and France had
refused to allow Kuwaiti tankers to fly their flags, whilst the United

Kingdom had stated that it was prepared to protect them without any
change of flag (El-Shazly, p. 273). The totally artificial nature of the
reflagging, an act of expediency inspired by the circumstances, can be
shown by the fact that from January 1989 these vessels were returned
to the Kuwaiti flag ("deflagging": see Walker, p. 73; Wiswall, p. 623,
note 13).
In order to persuade the Senate Foreign Relations Committee that
the American reflagging of 11 Kuwaiti tankers was justified, Michael H.
Armacost, Under Secretary for Political Affairs, gave a detailed explana-

tion of American policy in the Persian Gulf:
"It is to frustrate Iranian hegemonic aspirations that the Arab gulf
states continue to support Iraq. It is for similar reasons that other

close friends, such as Egypt and Jordan, also assist Iraq .. ."6

The aid to Kuwait was subsequently justified by the financial support
provided by that State and by other Arab countries to Iraq.

"We understand why Kuwait and many Arab nations believe their
own security and stability depend on Iraq not collapsing before Iran.
We do not wish to see an Iranian victory in that terrible conflict.

Nevertheless, the United States remains formally neutral in the
war."
8. Only from a rapid and superficial reading of Security Council reso-

lution 552 (1984) of 1 January 1984 can any condemnation, even an
implicit one, of the attacks attributed to Iran be inferred. The resolution
was adopted following a letter of 21 May 1984, "in which the Repre-
sentatives of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the
United Arab Emirates complain[ed] against Iranian attacks on commer-
cial ships en route to and from the ports of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia".
However, the State accused of these attacks is identified only in the first

As regards the roleplayed by Soviet competitionsee, apart from El-Shazly and
Walker, Ademuni-Odeka, "Merchant Shipping and the Gulf War", 10 Marine Policy
Reports (1988), Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 8-9, who describes the Soviet offer as "blackmail".
26 International Legal Materials (1987), p. 1429.
Ibid., p. 1430.recital of the preamble to the resolution, from which the text cited above
is taken. The operative part of the resolution confines itself to reaffirming
"the right of free navigation" (point l), and applying this principle to
"shipping en route to and from al1 ports and installations of the littoral
States that are not parties to the hostilities" (point 2), to calling upon "al1
States .. .to refrain from any act which may lead to a further escalation
and widening of the conflict" (point 3), and to condemning "the recent
attacks on commercial ships en route to and from the ports of Kuwait
and Saudi Arabia" (point 4). There is no trace of any condemnation of

Iran, despite its being clearly named in the letter of 1 June 1984, and it
can well be appreciated that the Security Council, which had not named
- or not dared to name - the aggressor in the war launched in 1980,
could hardly condemn Iran at a time when, in 1984, the initial and almost
exclusive responsibility for the Tanker War lay with Iraq. It would thus
be wrong to confuse the re-statement in the resolution's first recital of
the text of the complaint by the littoral States of the Persian Gulf with
the Council's own assessment. It may be considered, a contrario, that,

inasmuch as it did not expressly condemn the State named in the docu-
ment whereby it had been seised, the Security Council was deliberately
refraining from issuing the specific condemnation sought by the States
which had signed the letter8.

9. There was a further ground for rejecting the counter-claim, namely
that which could - and should - have been derived from the national-
ity of the vessels victim of the attacks wrongly attributed to Iran.
If we apply the factor connecting a ship to a State by virtue of its flag,

i.e. its registration,to the list referred to in paragraph 6, we observe that
only one vessel, the USS Samuel B. Roberts, indisputably satisfied that
condition, but this was a warship, which, as such, must be exempted from
application of the 1955 Treaty, as the Court found (para. 120 (i) of the
Judgrnent). Apart from two Kuwaiti ships reflagged in the United States,
the Bridgeton and the Sea Isle City, which also merit special attention,
none of the tankers which Iran is accused of attacking was under the
United States flag. These were the Texaco Caribbean, a Panamanian
vessel, the Lucy and the Diane, registered in Liberia, and the Esso Freeport,

flying the Bahamian flag. Even if we accept the expanded list, first pro-
vided in the Rejoinder of 23 March 2001, we find that it does not include
any vessel satisfying the nationality requirement. Three of these vessels,
the Stena Explorer, the Stena Concordia and the Sungari, flew the
Liberian flag, one was Panamanian, the Grand Wisdom, and the last, the
Esso Demetia, British.

Cf., similarly, Russo, op. cit., pp. 395-396; W. J. Fenrick, "The Exclusion Zone
Device in the Law of Naval Warfare", XXIV The Canadian Yearbook of International
Law (1986), p. 120. Both Article 6 of the Geneva Convention on the High Seas of 29 April
1958 and Article 92 of the Montego Bay Convention of 10 December
1982 recognize only one nationality for a ship, that of the flag State. This
principle has been applied by the Court of Justice of the European Com-
munities 9.
The United States attempts to respond in two ways to the question

whether vessels having the nationality of a third State fa11 within the
scope of the jurisdictional clause in the 1955 Treaty. First, it argues that
it had assumed responsibility for protecting freedom of navigation in gen-
eral in the Persian Gulf during the war between Iran and Iraq. It is true
that nothing prohibited the United States from taking this initiative, but
it cannot be relied on against Iran for purposes of applying and inter-
preting the 1955 Treaty. Moreover, none of the States appearing on the
list- neither the Bahamas, Liberia, Panama nor the United Kingdom -

gave notice to Iran of any claim and none of them entrusted the defence
of its interests to the United States. In paragraph 123of the Judgment the
Court considered that,

"in the circumstances of this case, a generic claim of breach of
Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty cannot be made out
independently of the specific incidents whereby, it is alleged, the
actions of Iran made the Persian Gulf unsafe for commerce and
navigation, and specifically for commerce and navigation between
the territories of the parties".

In the second sentence of the second subparagraph of paragraph 123,
and in paragraph 124, the Judgment finds that for this reason it must dis-
miss the United States claim.
10. Another justification offered by the United States consists in an

attempt to identify an "American interest" in making good flag States'
failure to act. It is sufficient to point out, without addressing in detail the
arguments made in this regard, that they run directly counter to the very
firm position which the Court took more than 30 years ago in the Bar-
celona Traction case and has never repudiated, i.e., that by forming a
Company under the laws of a particular State (or, as in the present case,
by registering a ship in a particular country), the shareholders in the com-
pany (or the shipowners) had sought certain advantages for which there

was a countervailing consideration, i.e., that that State alone was per-

Judgment of 24 November 1992, case C-286190, Anklagemyndighedenv. Peter Michael
Poulsen and Diva Navigation Corp., ECR, p. 1-6019, cited by Rosalyn Higgins, "The ICJ,
the ECJ and the Integrity of InternationLaw", 52 International and Comparative Law
Quarterly (2003), pp. 6-7. Paragraph13 of that judgment recalls that: "under interna-
tional law a vessel in principle has only one nationalthat of the State in which it is
registered"The judgment goes on to hold that, for purposes of an EEC Regulation,
a vessel cannot be treated as a vessel of a Member State "on the groundthatit has a
genuine link with that Member State"(para. 16).mitted to grant its diplomatic protection to the Company (or to rely on
a bilateral treaty in its favour). One of the reasons given by the Court for
not "adopt[ing] ... the theory of diplomaticprotection of shareholders as
such", that it would open "the door to competingdiplomatic claims" and
"could create an atmosphere of confusion and insecurity in international
and economicrelations" (case concerning Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Limited, Second Phase, Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1970,
p. 49, para. 96), applies just as strongly to the right of protection of ships,
which could potentially be exercised concurrently by the flag State, the
national State of the individual or undertaking holding a majority of the
ownership interests in the undertaking owning the vessel, by the State of
the cargo owner, etc. In respect of the counter-claim brought by the

United States, the principle deriving from the Judgment in the Barcelona
Traction case is of particularly compelling force because the freedom of
navigation protected by Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty is not
freedom of navigation in general, on al1seas throughout the world and in
favour of al1 vessels whatever their flag, but freedom of navigation of
"[v]essels under the flag of either High Contracting Party" exercising that
freedom "[bletween the territories of two High Contracting Parties". If
both of these conditions are not satisfied and one of them remains unmet,
the claim does not fa11within the jurisdiction of the Court as defined in
Article XXI, paragraph 2, of the Treaty. In respect of vessels not meeting
the conditions laid down in Article X, paragraph 1, the Court lacksjuris-
diction to decide whether the damage they suffered is imputable to Iran.

Three of the vessels referred to in the above-mentioned list merit
special attention. The Samuel B. Roberts is excluded as a warship
(see paragraph 9 above).
Equally, the reflagging of the two Kuwaiti tankers does not bring

the alleged damage within the scope of Article X, paragraph 1. Such
reflagging, carried out during the war between Iran and Iraq in order to
place under the aegis of the United States vessels having the nationality
of a State which supported Iraq in its war effort against Iran, cannot be
relied upon against Iran. It should be noted that by 1989 the Kuwaiti
ships which had temporarily adopted the United States flag had already
recovered their original registration ("deflagging") lo.Moreover, since
this change occurred before the date on which the counter-claim was sub-
mitted, that claim fails to satisfy the rule requiring continuity of the
bond of nationality. Further, the terms under which these two vessels

'OSee George K. Walker, op. cit, p.;George P. Politakis, "From Action Stations to
Year of the Iran-Iraq War",5 Ocean Development and International Law (1994), p. 40.nalwere reflagged with a United States flag of convenience prevent the
counter-claim from satisfying another condition laid down by Article X,

paragraph 1, i.e., it cannot claim the benefit of freedom of commerce
and navigation "[bletween the territories of the two High Contracting
Parties", because under the United States own domestic law, vessels
having thus obtained United States registration are not granted access
to United States ports.
11. Several passages in the Judgment refer to the "context of the gen-
eral events that took place in the Persian Gulf between 1980 and 1988, in
particular the armed conflict that opposed Iran and Iraq" (para. 23 of the
Judgment). It is only in veiled terms that in the following sentence the
Court implies that Iraq was the aggressor State. The truth of this is gen-

erally accepted today, and 1 feel it would be not unhelpful to indicate
what the attitude of third States was, and in particular the United States,
in the course of the conflict.
At the start of the war, the United States and the other western Powers
adopted a wait-and-see attitude marked by a certain cynicism: after the
fa11of the régime of the Shah of Iran, the alliance with whom had been
one of the key elements in America's Middle East policy, there was a
vacuum in the region. At the start of the war, neither the United States
nor the other western Powers wished to see a total victory by either of the
two belligerents. They were waiting - and hoping - to see the two

adversaries exhaust themselves without either being able to achieve
hegemony in the region. The fact that neither of the two belligerents was
named as aggressor by the Security Council enabled the other States to
sel1them arms, whereas it would have been unlawful to provide military
aid to a State defined as the aggressor. The relations between the United
States and Iran had just gone thorough a particularly severe crisis fol-
lowing the hostage-taking at the United States embassy in Tehran, and
the Court had condemned Iran for this 'l. For their part, the Arab States
of the Gulf had no particular sympathy for the anti-monarchist views of
the Islamic Republic of Iran. Al1 of these circumstancesencouraged Iraq

to attack Iran.

After Iraq's initialsuccesses, which enabledit to occupy part of Iranian
territory, Iran succeeded in reversing the position, and it was then that
the United States began its about-turn. Compliance with the obligations
of neutrality was not incompatible with American interests in the Middle
East as long as an Iranian victory appeared out of reach. By contrast, as
soon as Iraq's chances appeared to be fading, it became necessary to
restore the balance between the opposing forces. It was also from then on
that American aid to the Iraqi war effort increased substantially, a
phenomenon hardly compatible with the maintenance of strict neutrality

l1 United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v.
Iran), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980, p. 3.in relation to the two belligerents : the launching of "Operation Staunch",
a campaign seeking to dissuade the western allies from selling arms to

Iran (El-Shazly, p. 21 5); the transmission to Iraq of satellite intelligence
(El-Shazly, p.323); authorization for the sale of 60 helicopters "for agri-
cultural purposes", and a loan of $460 million for the purchase of rice
(Walker, p. 47). In addition, there was significant diplomatic support: in
1982, Iraq was removed from the list of countries supporting interna-
tional terrorism and in November 1984 diplomatic relations were resumed
(Walker, pp. 48, 55). Ms El-Shazly summarizes American policy during
the war between Iran and Iraq in the following terms:

"Washington conducted a realpolitik strategy. It repeatedly pro-
claimed its neutrality, stated its interests and clear objectives in the

Gulf, hand in hand with a concealed agenda, the blueprint of which
combined the leaning toward Iraq with the yet undisclosed licensing
of amis sales." (P. 207.)

While Iran may have failed to establish decisively the relationship
between the American attack on Sassan and Sirri and Iraq's reconquest
of the al-Faw area close to Basra, the coincidence of the two events is
disturbing to say the least. The operation termed "Praying Mantis"
resulted in the destruction of the two platforms and of two Iranian
frigates and was considered by Professor Walker as "[tlhe largest com-
bined air and surface engagement in war at sea for the US Navy since
World War II" (p. 69).

While it is admittedly not for the Court to rule on the support given to
the Iraqi war effort by Saudi Arabia or by Kuwait, who are absent from
the present proceedings, yet the case of Kuwait deserves special mention
because of the aid provided by the United States to that State, in par-
ticular by authorizing the American reflagging of 11 Kuwaiti tankers. On
this point, 1 cannot do better than quote a distinguishedAmerican inter-
national lawyer, Professor Louis Henkin :

"In the Gulf, some spokesman said recently, the United States
remain formally neutral. But even if the concept of neutrality can
apply in some cases, can the United States be neutral here? No one
would accuse us of being a friend of Iran, but there is a strong case
that Iraq is probably the aggressor. No one has mentioned that for
some years now. It is true that the Security Council refrained from

so holding, in part because the United States would not permit it, or
because the Russians would not permit it. That raises some ques-
tions, but that doesn't change the law; in the absence of a Security
Council determination that one party was the aggressor, do the laws
of the Charter not apply? In the absence of such a finding by the Security Council, are States free to be neutral even if it is clear that
one side launched the war in violation of the Charter? 1s Kuwait
neutral, or is it, as the first speaker suggested, perhaps a co-belliger-
ent? 1s the United States supporting Kuwait, and, if so, are we also
CO-belligerents? If so, we may not be only supporting the aggressor

but if the old laws of war apply - we may also be violating the law
of war.

1 suggest we may not only have slipped into the war but, from the
international lawyer's point of view, we seem to have slipped into a

particular position of international law without much thought about
it and without any thought to the long-term consequences. In fact,
we seem to be taking seriously the outdated law of war, but not the
contemporary law against war. In the process we may have eroded
both. At least it cannot be said that the law on neutrality and
belligerency is what it was before 1945." l2

12. On 9 December 1991 the supplementary report of the United

Nations Secretary-General on the implementation of Security Council
resolution 598 (1987) (doc. Sl23273) expressed in unequivocal terms the
view that Iraq was responsible:

"6. The Iraqi reply to my letter of 14 August 1991 is not a substan-
tial one; therefore 1 am bound to rely on explanations given by Iraq
earlier. That these explanations do not appear sufficient or accept-
able to the international community is a fact. Accordingly, the out-
standing event under the violations referred to in paragraph 5 above
is the attack of 22 September 1980 against Iran, which cannot be jus-
tified under the Charter of the United Nations, any recognized rules

and principles of international law or any principles of international
morality and entails the responsibility for the conflict.

7. Even if before the outbreak of the conflict there had been some
encroachment by Iran on Iraqi territory, such encroachment did not
justify Iraq's aggression against Iran - which was followed by
Iraq's continuous occupation of Iranian territory during the conflict

- in violation of the prohibition of the use of force, which is
regarded as one of the rules of jus cogens."

l2 "The PersianIArabian Gulf Tanker War :InternationalLaw or InternationalChaos",
26 January 1988, 19 Ocean Development and International Law (1988), pp. 309-310. Cf.
Tod A. Phillips, "Exchanging Excuses for Usesf Force - The Tug of War in the Persian
Gulf', 10 Houston Journal ofInternational Law (1987), pp. 275-293. The supplementary report confines itself to responsibility for land
operations; it contains no observation regarding the war at sea, and in

particular the Tanker War.
13. Thus there were two grounds for dismissal of the counter-claim
that were not invoked by the Court. The first is that the claim was not
justified in terms offact (paras. 5-7 above), the second being that it did
not satisfy the nationality requirement in respect of the vessels attacked
during the war between Iran and Iraq. Yet either of these two grounds
should logically have taken precedence over the sole ground relied on in
the Judgment, namely that none of the vessels "was engaged in commerce
or navigation 'between the territories of the two High Contracting

Parties'" (para. 121 of the Judgment).
The choice of this ground alone is doubtless explicable by the Court's
desire to establish an artificial parallel between the two claims, both being
rejected for the same reason.

III. OBSERVATIONS ON THE REASONING UNDERLYING DISMISSAL
OF THE ORIGINAC LLAIM

(a) The Distinction Drawn between the Defence Based on Article XX,
Paragraph I (d), of the 1955 Treaty and That Based on the Right of
Self-defence

14. In paragraph 78 of the Judgment the Court finds that the actions
carried out by United States forces against Iranian oil installations can-
not be justified either under Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955
Treaty or as acts of self-defence. This is a situation analogous to that in
criminal law where one and the same act is covered by two offences, and
thus falls to be assessed by reference to the terrns of each of those
offences.

Paragraph 41 of the Judgment fails to do proper justice to this dual
characterization. Thus in that paragraph the Court interprets subpara-
graph (d) in light of general international law without first addressing
the issue of the High Contracting Parties' intention. And yet this is a pro-
vision which occurs in a number of treaties of friendship similar to that
signed in 1955 by Iran with the United States and also in Article XXI of
the GATT, and on which there exists a substantial body of comment in
the literature.
Paragraph 1 (d) reads as follows:

"Article XX
1. The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of
measures :
.............................

(d) [French translation: Ou nécessaires à l'exécution des obliga-
tions de l'une ou l'autre des Hautes Parties contractantes rela-
tives au maintien ou au rétablissement de la paix et de la sécu- rité internationales ou à la protection des intérêts vitaux de
cette Haute Partie contractante sur le plan de la sécurité.]"

This translation, which is taken from the United Nations Recueil des
traités, does not correspond entirely to the English-language text of the
Treaty, which is equally authoritative with the original Farsi. The English
text reads as follows:
"(d) necessary to fulfil the obligations of a High Contracting Party
for the maintenance or restoration of international peace and
security, or necessary to protect its essential securityinterests".

In repeating the adjective "necessary", the original text avoids an
ambiguity to which the French translation could lead. The repetition
brings out more clearly the distinction between what is necessary to fulfil
a State's international obligations and what is necessary to protect the
essential (or vital) interests of the State itself. In the French translation,
the repetition of the conjunction "ou" ("or") could suggest that the State is
under a duty to protect its own interests. On the other hand, the distinc-
tion between the adjective "essential" and the French translation "vitaux"

("vital") appears to be of little significance. In any event, in case of doubt
we should rely on the English text.
15. The question of interpretation faced by the Court today was also
addressed by it in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activi-
ties in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) in
relation to Article XXI, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty of Friendship,
Commerce and Navigation concluded in 1956 between the United States
and Nicaragua, which was drafted in similar terms to Article XX, para-
graph 1 (d), of the 1955 Treaty with Iran13.
A passage from the 1986 Judgment has been given differing interpre-
tations by the Parties to the present dispute. What is the relationship
between the use of force exceptionally permitted in exercise of the right of
self-defence and the measures which a State may take because they are
"nécessaires à la protection de ses intérêtsvitaux sur le plan de la sécu-
ritélnecessary to protect its essential security interests"? (The English text
is clearer and more concise.)
According to the 1986 Judgment :

"224. On the other hand, action taken in self-defence, individual
or collective, might be considered as part of the wider category of
measures qualifiedin Article XXI as 'necessary to protect' the 'essen-
tial security interests' of a Party.

It is difficult to deny that self-defence against an armed attack cor-

'3See Military and Paramilitary Activitiein and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), Merits, JudgmentC.J. Reports 1986, pp.15-116,para. 221. responds to measures necessary to protect essential securityinterests.

But the concepts of essential security interests certainly extends
beyond the concept of an armed attack, and has been subject to very
broad interpretations in the past. The Court has therefore to assess
whether the risk run by these 'essential security interests' is reason-
able, and secondly, whether the measures presented as being designed
to protect these interests are not merely useful but 'necessary'." l4

In reality, there are three issues here: what are the circumstances in
which, respectively, Article 51 of the Charter and Article XX of the 1955
Treaty apply? What measures is it lawful to take in either case? What
power of review does the Court have over the lawfulness of action taken
by a State having accepted a jurisdictional clause?

16. The answer to the first question can be gleaned more clearly from
Article 51 of the Charter than from paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX of the
1955 Treaty. Exercise of the "inherent right of individual or collective
self-defence" is authorized only where a Member of the United Nations
has been the subject of "an armed attack". It is necessary, but suffices,
that the facts alleged in support of the exercise of self-defence satisfy this
requirement. The situation referred to in paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX
of the 1955 Treaty is described in much vaguer terms: in order for the
measure taken to satisfy the requirements of this provision, it must be
necessary to protect a State's essential security interests.This requirement

contains three undefined or poorly defined concepts: "necessary to pro-
tect", "essential" and "security".

There is a similar difference in regard to the form and scope of the
authorized response. In a system where self-defence constitutes the sole
exception to the prohibition of the use of force laid down in Article 2,
paragraph 4, of the Charter, Article 51 authorizes, to the extent necessary
and subject to compliance with the principle of proportionality, a reac-
tion to an "armed attack" by the use of force which, in other circum-

stances, would have been prohibited. In paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX
of the 1955 Treaty, the lack of definition in regard to the relevant circum-
stances is matched by a vagueness in respect to the "measures" which a
State may take where its security is at risk.

What measures may be considered "necessary" (subject always to
respect for the principle of proportionality) to protect a State's essential
security interests? More specifically, the lack of a clear definition of

l41.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 117, para. 224."necessity" operates at two levels: the characterization of the situation
and the measures which it justifies.
Of the three questions, the third is the easiest. If the application of
Article 51 of the Charter or of Article XX of the 1955 Treaty becomes the
subject of a judicial dispute, then the competent court undoubtedly has
the power - and indeed the duty - to verify that the rules of interna-
tional law have been applied correctly. The Court had already reached
this conclusion in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activi-
ties in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) :

"But by the terms of the Treaty itself, whether a measure is
necessary to protect the essential security interests of a party is
not, as the Court has emphasized (paragraph 222 above), purely a
question for the subjective judgment of the party; the text does not

refer to what the party 'considers necessary' for that purpose." l5
This explanation is necessary in order to dispel an apparent ambiguity
in the text of paragraph 224 of the 1986 Judgment: action taken in self-
defence may be considered as part of the wider category of measures

described in Article XXI only on the implied condition that the State
exercising its right of self-defence has a choice from among various types
of forcible action, some more far-going than others. In the case concern-
ing Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nica-
ragua v. United States of America), the Court itself stated that it was
"necessary to distinguish the most grave forms of the use of force (those
constituting an armed attack) from other less grave forms"16. By the
same token, the proposition that "the concept of essential security inter-
ests certainly extends beyond the concept of an armed attack" is accept-
able only if it signifies that there is a difference in kind (rather than the
one of degree suggested by the phrase "extends beyond") between an
armed attack and the various other kinds of conduct of a State against
which another State considers it "necessary", by appropriate measures,
to protect its essential security interests.
17. The question to be answered for purposes of applying and inter-
preting Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955 Treaty is whether the
use of force falls within the "measures" that a State may take to protect
its essential security interests. Or, in other words, do the measures from
which a State may choose in order to protect its essential security inter-
ests include the use of armed force against another State? For that was

certainly what the attack on the oil platforms was, since these, being
located on Iran's continental shelf, fa11within the exclusive jurisdiction of
that State.
There are two ways of answeringthe question as posed in these specific
terms. Either we accept that paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX falls to be

l6Ibid., p. 101, para. 191.41, para. 282.considered in some form of isolation which cuts it off from the other
rules of international law, in particular the United Nations Charter and
the noms of customary international law prohibiting the use of force, or
we accept that the prohibition of the use of force in accordance with the
terms of Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter and with customary inter-
national law forms part of jus cogens, which would prohibit States from
derogating therefrom in their bilateral treaty relations. For that would
indeed be the consequence to which the first reply to the question would
lead : paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX would permit either of the contract-
ing States to use arrned force against the other State in circumstances

which would not have to satisfy the requirements of Article 51 of the
Charter but which it would be entitled to take under the - undefined -
guise of "measures to protect its essential security interests".

18. In its 1986 Judgrnent in the case concerningMilitary and Paramili-
tary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), the Court did indeed reject the United States defence based on
paragraph 1 (d) of Article XXI of the Treaty of Friendship with Nica-
ragua (having first rejected the self-defence argument). However, in hold-
ing that "the mining of Nicaraguan ports, and the direct attacks on ports
and oil installations, cannot possibly be justified as 'necessary' to protect
the essential security interests of the United States" 17the Court does not
expressly explain the reason for its decision: is it because the actions
attributed to the United States go beyond the nature and scope of
measures which may be taken under Article XXI of the Treaty of Friend-
ship, or, more simply, because such actions were not necessary to protect
essential security interests, but would not have been unlawful if they had
satisfied that requirement? Point 2 of the operative paragraph of the 1986
Judgment expressly rejects "the justification of collective self-defence
maintained by the United States of America", whilst no other part of that
operative paragraph refers to Article XXI of the Treaty of Friendship.

In order to decide that the measures which a State is authorized to take
under paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX of the 1955 Treaty and numerous
similar provisions in other bilateral treaties of friendship and commerce
do not include the use of force, the Court need not have recourse to the
United Nations Charter or the customary rules of international law on
the use of force. It is open to the Court, while confining itself to inter-
preting and applyingthe bilateral treaty - its sole basis of jurisdiction-
to conclude, simply by interpreting paragraph 1 (d), that the High Con-
tracting Parties did not intend to confer upon one another a mutual
freedom to have recourse to armed force in the context of a measure
necessary to protect essential security interests.

l7I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 141, para. 282. American jurists who have written commentaries on treaties of friend-
ship or on the GATT article which similarly authorizes derogations from
the Agreement's other provisions where this is necessary to protect a
State's essential security interests categorically reject the idea that the use

of armed force can be one of the "measures" envisaged by such a provi-
sion 18. M. J. Hahn very clearly excludes the use of forcein the context of
measures authorized under Article XXI (d) of the GATT Rules. He then
gives a list of examples, taken from State practice, of the implementation
of that Article, but not one of them includes the use of force. An
embargo or measures of economic retaliation are what are generally
used, such as the United States embargo on Cuba (Hahn, p. 571).

Not one of the recent works on GATT even suggests that Article XXI
of the GATT would authorize a State to use force to protect a serious
security interest. According to Andreas F. Lowenfeld:

"Well before the United Nations Security Council began to use
economicsanctions as a primary tool, individual countries used eco-
nomic sanctions as an important instrument of foreign policy, less
dangerous than military force, but more serious - and sometimes
more effective - than diplomacy alone . . .A variety of sanctions
have been employed, from total embargoes to selective controls on

exports and imports, to freezing of assets, blocking of financial
transactions, and restrictions on shipping and aviation." l9

The same applies to measures of retaliation or reprisal, with which
the American action against the oil platforms would bear a certain com-
parison, if armed reprisals were not prohibited by general international
law20 (see also the resolution of the Institut de droit international,

l8See inter alia Pamela B. Gann, "The U.S. Bilateral Investment Treaty Program",
Hahn, "Vital Interests and the Law of GATT: An Analysis of GATT's Security Excep-l J.
tion", 12Michigan Journal of International Law (1991), pp. 558-620. See also Olivia Q.
Swaak-Goldman, "Who Defines Members' Security Interest in the WTO?", 9 Leiden
Journal of International Law (1996), pp. 361-371. Thelatter, moreover, cites only embargo
cases, in particulaat the time of the Falklands War (pp. 365-366) or under the Helms-
Burton Act (pp. 367-368).
l9 Andreas F. Lowenfeld, International Economic Law, 2002, p. 764. See similarly
Legal Problems of International Economic Relations, Cases, Materialsand Text ...,4th
ed. by John H. Jackson, William J. Davey and Alan O. Sykes, Jr., 2002, Section 21.5,
pp. 1045 et seq;Raj Bhala, International Trade Law, Theory and Practice, 2nd ed., 2001,
pp. 594-604.
How We Use It,exa1994, pp. 240-241, 244-245; Michel Virally"Le principe de réciprocité"Régime des représaillesen temps de paix", Art. 4, Annuaire de l'Institut
de droit international, 1934, p. 709).
19. It may be concluded on this point that the Court could have better
distinguished between the arguments deriving from the exception pro-
vided for in Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955 Treaty and those
based on the right of self-defence. While the Court did indeed reject both
defences relied on by the United States, it failed to rule expressly on the
specific nature of subparagraph (d). Only in the event of a finding that
the High Contracting Parties had intended to authorize each other to

derogate from the provisions of the Charter concerning the use of force
should the Court have decided that such an attempt to circumvent a
peremptory norm of international law (jus cogens) was outside their
treaty-making power.
This analysis is not at variance with the solutions reached by the Court
in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua. The 1986 Judgment is neither clear nor decisive on issues con-
cerning the relationship between the clause in the Treaty of Friendship
and the Charter rules on self-defence.

(b) Observations on the Interpretation and Application of Article X,
Paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty

20. The Judgment devotes lengthy passages to the issue of whether
Iran's claim falls within the terms of Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955
Treaty (paras. 79-98 of the Judgment). The questions of interpretation
on which 1 feel myself bound to differ from the Court's decision and its
reasoning relate to the following points:

(i) in respect of the Reshadat platforms, the finding that, because the
damage which they had suffered as a result of an attack by Iraq had
rendered them inoperative, there was no activity capable of being
interrupted by the subsequent American attack;

(ii) in respect of the Salman and Nasr platforms, the finding that the
export of Iranian oil to the United States was in any event pre-
vented for a different reason, namely the embargo on imports of

dans le droit international contemporain", Recueil des cours de l'Académie de droit inter-
national de La Haye,Vol. 122 (1967), pp. 51-54; Avra Constantinou, The Right of Self-
Defence under Contemporary International Law under Article 51 of the United Nations
Charter,2000, pp. 129-155, in regard to counter-measures, which are lawful only in so far
as they are not accompanied by the use of force; D. W. Bowett, "Reprisals Involving
Recourse to Armed Force", 66 American Journal of International Law (1972), pp. 1-36;
594; Richard A. Falk, "The Beirut Raid and the International Law of Retaliation", 63
American Journal of International Law (1969), pp. 415-443; Serge Regourd, "Raids 'anti-
terroristes' et développements récentsdes atteintes illicites au principe de non-interven-
tion", 32Annuaire français de droit international (1986), p. 88. Iranian oil imposed by Executive Order 12613 of 29 October
1987;
(iii) the finding that Iranhad not succeeded in showing that the damage
to the Iranian oil platforms had interfered with freedom of trade
"between the territories of the High Contracting Parties".

(i) The causal link between the damage to the Reshadat platforms and
the length of the period during which they remained out of commis-
sion

21. At the time when the Iranian oil platforms were attacked by the
United States armed forces, some of them were already temporarily out
of commission because of damage previously caused by Iraqi attacks.
According to the statements of Mr. Zeinoddin and Mr. Sellers at the

hearing on 18 February 2003 (CR 200316, pp. 39 et seq.), the R-7 plat-
form of the Reshadat complex was attacked by Iraq on 19 October 1986
and this temporarily stopped oil production at the Reshadat and Resalat
complexes. A second Iraqi attack occurred on 15 July 1987, when repair
work was under way, but it was anticipated that production would
resume at the end of October 1987 at a level of 20,000 barrels per day.
The Salman complex, made up of seven interconnected platforms, was
also attacked by Iraq on 16 October 1986 but suffered only light damage
and production resumed three days later.

The United States attacks on 19 October 1987 completely destroyed
the Reshadat production complex and R-7 at a time when engineers were
busy repairing it. The R-4 platform was also attacked. Production could
only resume at a lower level three years later and did not reach its normal
level until 1993. On 18 April 1988 the United States attacked the Salman
and Nasr complexes. The Americans had left explosives on the power
generating platform but the detonator failed. The damage was however
substantial enough that production could not return to its normal level
until 1993. According to the information provided by Mr. Zeinoddin at
the hearing on 18 February 2003 (CR 200316, pp. 32 et seq.), the Resha-

dat and Resalat complexes, according to the diagram at tab No. 7 in the
judges' folder submitted by the Applicant, worked together in the follow-
ing way. The Reshadat complex consisted of three drillingand produc-
tion platforms (R-3, R-4 and R-7) linked to a total of 27 oil wells. The oil
produced by the R-3 platform was transported by submarine pipeline to
the R-4 platform and thence, together with the crude oil extracted at the
R-4 platform, to the R-7 platform, from which the oil, after initial water
and gas separation, was transported by submarine pipeline to Lavan
Island, 108 km away.

22. The Resalat offshore complex consisted of three linked drilling andproduction platforms, referred to as R-1, to which 14 wells were con-
nected. The crude oil produced by them was transported by a 29-km sub-
marine pipeline to the Reshadat R-7 platform, where it underwent the
same treatment as the oil produced by the R-3, R-4 and R-7 platforms.

Thus, R-7 was the key platform on which the whole of the Reshadat and
Resalat fields depended.

The Salman complex, a diagram of which appears at tab No. 9, con-
sisted of seven interconnected platforrns, including one drilling and two
production platforrns. Oil from 21 wells was transported by pipeline to
this complex and from there to Lavan Island after initial water and gas
separation. Like the crude oil from Reshadat and Resalat, oil from Sal-
man underwent further water and gas separation on Lavan Island and
was either refined there for domestic consumption or exported.

The Nasr complex, a diagram of which appears at tab No. Il, com-
prised a central platform (A), a flaming point and six oil producing plat-
forms grouped around the central platform, supplied by 44 wells in the
Sirri field and four wells in the Nosrat field. Crude oil from al1 of these
wells was transported by submarine pipeline to the central platform and
from there to Sirri Island for secondary processing and export, as there
are no refineries on Sirri Island. Unlike the two complexes previously
described, the Nasr complex was not attacked by Iraq and was function-

ing normally at the time of the United States attack.

Normal daily production at Reshadat-Resalat was 20,000 barrels, at
Salman 125,000 barrels. At the time of the United States attack, the Nasr
complex was producing some 36,000 barrels daily, although it was
capable of producing 120,000 barrels per day.

23. In order for Article X, paragraph 1, to apply to the.destruction of
the three oil complexes of Reshadat-Resalat, Salman and Nasr, three

conditions must be satisfied: the platforms must have been the site of
commercial activity, freedom of commerce must have been prejudiced
and that freedom must have been exercised, or been capable of being
exercised, between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties.
By their very nature, the three oil platform complexes.were intended
for the production, processing and transport of oil to a place where it
could be "placed in commerce". The fact that platforms,-are artificially
erected on the continental shelf of a State for the purpose of extracting
oil resources lying in that State's exclusive economic zone and that
advanced technology is applied to produce crude oil with a view to its

commercialization unquestionably places the resultant activities within
the realm of the exercise of "freedom of commerce". To this must be
added the vulnerability and therefore fragility of the effective enjoymentof that freedom. The damage inflicted on just one part of facilities which
are necessarily interconnected unavoidably breaks the chain of produc-
tion and, consequently,the chain of commercialization.When, moreover,
the destruction takes place during a war in which those same installations

are under constant threat of attack by enemy forces, their repair requires
particularly arduous efforts.

24. The second condition concerns the notion of freedom of com-
merce. In order for such a freedom to be prejudiced, it is not necessary
for the actual or immediate conduct of the commercial activity, in the
present case the protected oil production activity, to be brought to a halt.
It is no defence to argue that two of the oil complexes were temporarily
out of commission as a result of the Iraqi attacks, since repair work was

in progress. Even in a country like Iran, which possesses abundant oil
resources and numerous production centres, the disabling of even one
part of the machinery of production prejudices freedom of commerce,
that is to Say, the ability to choose from production sites for purposes of
commercialization.
1 cannot in particular subscribe to the following statement by the
Court in paragraph 92 of the Judgment: "Injury to potential for future
commerce is however, in the Court's view, not necessarily to be identified
with injury to freedom of commerce, within the meeting of Article X,
paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty."
Freedom of commerce implies not only freedom for Iran to choose

where it will produce and sel1its petroleum wealth, but also includes con-
trol over the future development of that commerce.

25. The third and last question concerns the spatial or relational ele-
ment of freedom of commerce :that freedom is protected in so far as it is
exercised between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties.
Having been built on the Iranian continental shelf, the oil platforms are
part of Iranian territory. The same is true of Lavan Island, to which oil
from the Salman complex is transported, and of Sirri Island, through
which oil from the Nasr complex passes. But was there infringement of

freedom of commerce between this territory and the territory of the
United States? The response to this question is bound up with that just
given to the preceding question. Throughout the war between Iran and
Iraq, Iran never stopped supplying oil to the United States. The tempo-
rary disabling of the facilities of the three oil complexes prejudiced Iran's
freedom of commerce because it was restricted in its freedom to choose
the centres of production from which oil was to be exported to the
United States.

(ii) The effect on freedom of commerce of Executive Order 12613 of
29 October 1987

26. In its Rejoinder of 23 March 2001 (Nos. 3.55 to 3.59) the UnitedStates puts forward two arguments in justification, one erroneous and the
other audacious. The first has already been refuted: the fact that produc-
tion at some installations had to be halted as a result of the Iraqi attacks
is irrelevant because the subsequent destruction of those installations by
United States forces destroyed the repair work being completed and
delayed the resumption of operations. The justification which must be

adjudged audacious seeks to found itself on the United States President's
Executive Order of 29 October 1987, as a result of which al1 Iranian oil
imports by the United States purportedly ceased. The Court is wrong in
accepting this ground for holding Article X, paragraph 1, inapplicable
(see paras. 93 and 94 of the Judgment). In so doing, it upholds the right
of a State party to a bilateral treaty to exonerate itself by a unilateral
administrative act from responsibility engaged by an earlier act commit-
ted in violation of that treaty. In the case concerning Military and Para-
military Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States
of America), the Court found that the unilateral decision to impose an
embargo on ships registered in Nicaragua constituted per se a violation
of the Treaty of Friendship between the United States and Nicaragua
(I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 140, para. 279). Whether viewed as cumulative to
the use of force, as in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), or as potentially exonerating the State from responsibility
incurred as a result of the use of force, as is claimed in the present case,
a unilateral administrative measure adopted by a State party to a treaty
has to be assessed in the light of the treaty obligations of both parties; it
cannot have the effect of discharging one of the States from any of those
obligations.
According Ltorthe Judgment :
"The Iranian contention rests on the hypothesis that the embargo

was a breach of the 1955 Treaty, and not justified under Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), thereof; but these are questions which Iran has
chosen not to put formally in issue, and on which the Court has thus
not heard full argument." (Para. 94.)
This is to misrepresentthe "Iranian contention". It is not a question of
determiningwhether the embargo "was a breach of the 1955 Treaty" but,
which is something altogether differont, whether the embargo could be
invoked in order to escape the consequences of a prior illegal act, the
destruction of the Iranian oil platforms.

(iii)territories of the two High Contracting Partiesmmerce between the

27. Both in their oral statements and in their written pleadings, the
two Parties referred to the report drawn up by Mr. Peter Ode11at Iran's
request, which explained that the embargo did not prevent continued
Iranian oil exports to the United States, but that this was done .indirectly,Iranian crude oil being exported to Western Europe and then re-exported
to the United States after refining. The report by Mr. Odell, a British
expert, confirms the statement by Mr. Seyed-Hossein Hosseini, NIOC
Director of International Affairs. The statement and report appear,
together with their annexes, in Volume III of Iran's Reply of 10 March
1999. This commerce, characterized as "indirect", raises two questions
concerning the interpretation of Article X, paragraph 1 : if a product
originating in Iran transits through a third country before arriving in the
United States, does it fa11 within the scope of freedom of commerce
"[bletween the territories of the two High Contracting Parties"? Did the
refining process carried out in the third country result in changing the
nature of the oil to the point of breaking the flow of commerce between
the two States?
28. The beginnings of a response, if not the response itself, to these
two questions can be found in the Judgment delivered on 12 December
1996 by the Court on the PreliminaryObjection of the United States. The
extremely broad conception of the notion of commerce which emerges
from the long discussion devoted by the Judgment to this point (1.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), pp. 817-820, paras. 42-52) enables it to encompassthe
multiple, diversified operations characterizing contemporaryinternational
commerce and the myriad participants therein. Paragraph 42 of the 1996
Judgment is particularly significantin this respect, notably when it refers
to "the entire range of activities dealt with in the Treaty" ("toute la
gamme d'activités auxquelles le traité s'étend"). Today, a product typi-
cally passes through several countries before reaching its final destination
and undergoes successive transformations adapting it for the use to
which it is to be put by the end-user.The transformation of crude oil into
a refined product does not result in a product of a nature different from
that which it had at the outset. Oil production comprises successive
phases leading to the final product and it would be artificial to draw lines
between them. To decide otherwise would be to introduce a metaphysical
distinction in objects of international commerce between substance and
treatment, the successive stages in the processing of the initial "crude"
product resulting in the identification of different "substances" depend-
ing on the form of the final product.
29. The reasoning in the Judgrnent focuses not so much on the "suc-

cessive technical processes that [the oil] underwent" as on the "nature of
the successive commercial transactions relating to the oil". The Judgment
continues :
"What Iran regards as 'indirect' commerce in oil between itself

and the United States involved a series of commercial transactions:
a sale by Iran of crude oil to a customer in Western Europe, or some
third country other than the United States; possibly a series of inter-
mediate transactions; and ultimately the sale of petroleum products
Iran andtomthe United States,tatbut commerce between Iran and antween intermediate purchaser; and 'commerce' between an intermediate
seller and the United States." (Para. 97.)
This is a plausible scenario, but the Court presents it as if it had been
verified in practice. However, there is nothing either in the Parties' writ-
ten pleadings or in their oral statements which lends any support for
what can only be regarded as pure speculation, to which the Judgment
appears to accord a substance which it does not merit.
It could equally well be assumed that "indirect" commerce took the
form of the sale of crude oil to an American customer, with the contract
providing for refining to take place in a third State. Such a hypothesis is
indeed more plausible than that assumed by the Court in its reasoning,
since it relieves the "intermediary" of the risk of purchasing crude oil
without any assurance of finding a market for the finished product.
"Direct" commerce of this kind is al1 the more credible in that Sec-
tion 2 (b) of Executive Order 12613 contained an exception whereby the
embargo was not to apply to "petroleum products refined from Iranian
crude oil in a third country" (para. 96 of the Judgment). The consequence
of this exception is twofold. First, it means that, in its absence, such an
operation would have been caught by Section 1 and accordingly been
prohibited. Secondly, it implies that the Iranian origin of a product
refined in a third State could have been detected, making the exception
necessary so as to forestall a consequence which the President of the
United States wished to avoid in light of his country's energy needs.

(c) 1s There Not a Contradiction between the Reasons for the Dismissal
of the Original Claim and the Terms of the Operative Paragraph?
30. In paragraph 42 of the Judgment the Court declares itself compe-
tent to rule on the compatibility of the American military actions against
the oil platforms with international law regarding the use of force. After
examining the factual and legal issues enabling it to reach its decision
(paras. 43-77 of the Judgment), the Court concludes in paragraph 78 that
those actions

"cannot be justified, under Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955
Treaty, as being measures necessary to protect the essential security
interests of the United States, since those actionsconstituted recourse
to armed force not qualifying, under international law on the ques-
tion, as acts of self-defence, and thus did not fa11within the category
of measures contemplated, upon its correct interpretation, by that
provision of the Treaty".

This purely negative conclusion is reproduced in the first part of
point 1 of the Judgrnent's operative paragraph. In paragraphs 96 to 98,
the Court absolves from al1 responsibility a State which it has found
guilty of violation of a principle of international law as fundamental asthe prohibition on the use of force in relations between States. Even if
one were to accept - contrary to what has been demonstrated above -
that the destruction of the Iranian oil platforms did not violate freedom
of commerce between the two High Contracting Parties, it would still be
illogical to find that the destructioof those platforms was carried out by

an unlawful use of armed force and yet did not entitle the State victim of
that wrongful act to reparation. Already in paragraph 41 of the Judg-
ment, the Court States:
"The application of the relevant rules of internationallaw relating

to this question thus forms an integral part of the task of interpreta-
tion entrusted to the Court by Article XXI, paragraph 2, of the 1955
Treaty ."
Having, in execution of that task, found that there has been a breach

of the prohibition on the use of force in connection with Iran's claim
based on Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, the Court has failed to
complete its mission in leaving that breach uncompensated.

IV. THE PROHIBITION OF THE USE OF FORCE1s A FUNDAMENTAL
PRINCIPLE OF INTERNATIONA LLAW

31. If, notwithstanding my reservations as set out above, 1 voted in

favour of the first point in the operative paragraph, it was because, not
being offered the possibility of choosing between the Court's conclusion
on the use of force and its refusa1 to uphold Iran'slegitimate claim, 1con-
sidered that 1 must in al1 conscience give preference to the first of these
two limbs of point 1 of the operative paragraph.
In recent decades, some distinguished American jurists have deplored
the retreat from support for the principle on the prohibition on the use of
force. Among many others, 1 would cite: Thomas M. Franck, "Who
Killed Article 2, Paragraph 4? Or: Changing Norms Governing the Use
of Force by States", 64 American Journal of International Law (1970),

pp. 809-837; Oscar Schachter, "In Defence of International Rules on the
Use of Force", 53 University of Chicago Law Review (1986), pp. 113-146;
Oscar Schachter, "The Role of Power in International Law", Proceedings
of the 93rd Annual Meeting of the American Society of International Law
(1999), pp. 200-205. These two eminentjurists have stressed in particular
the perverse effect of a justificationfounded on a misconception of the
"inherent right of self-defence". It cannot, however, be said that everyone
subscribes today to the view that Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter
still remains in force. Thus we find published works which categorically
deny this. See, for example, the recent article by John. R. Bolton, "1s
There Really 'Law' in International Affairs?", 10 Transnational Law and

Contemporary Problems (2000), pp. 1-48. Such a position carries a certain weight, for its author was for five

years (1989-1993) Assistant Secretary of State for International Organi-
zation Affairs. The article begins with a theoretical discussion of the legal
status of international law: "1s it Law or isn't it?" This is a piece of out-
dated dogma, for it is based on a restrictive definition of the notion of
"law" or legal order. The author then proceeds to base his argument on
the United States Supreme Court's application of the "last-in-time rule",
under which courts must apply a domestic statute in preference to a prior
treaty, from which the legislator is deemed to have derogated. This con-
stitutional doctrine is presented in fax too summary a manner, failing to
mention the efforts of jurisprudence t-O reconcile two contradictory

sources of law. One means employed to this end is the principle that
courts should seek to interpret a statute conflicting with a directly appli-
cable provision of an international treaty in a manner rendering it com-
patible with the treaty21. Moreover, the status of international law within
a State's domestic order tells us nothing about the nature of the legal
order governing inter-State relations. Finally, the dismissal of interna-
tional law as not being "law", which is based inter alia on the proposition
that no court exists capable of settling inter-State disputes, is contra-
dicted by the circumstances of the present case: there is an international
court, and it has clearly ruled on the respect owed to the prohibition of

the use of force.
32. In reality, this "doctrine" defended by Mr. Bolton is a grievously
outdated one. It seeks, without daring to say so, to restore to the agenda
the teachings of Hobbes and Spinoza.
The two leading works of Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) are : De Cive
(1642) and Leviathan, seu de civitate ecclesiastica et civili (1651). The
author has a conception of natural law diametrically opposed to that
offered by scholastic tradition. The state of nature (status naturae) is the
site of an unending struggle, bellum omnium in omnes (De Cive, 1, XII),
which the establishment of civil society has failed to bring to an end. The

modern State has succeeded in imposing peace thanks to the power
exercised by its rulers, the citizens having agreed to give up their natural
freedom in return for peace. States as between themselves remain in this
state of nature. The strongest dominates by conquest, subjecting other
peoples to its rule.

"To this war of every man, against every man, this also is conse-
quent; that nothing can be unjust. The notions of right and wrong,
justice and injustice have there no place. Where there is no common
power, there is no law: where no law, no injustice. Force, and fraud,
are in war the two cardinal virtues. Justice, and injustice are none of
the faculties neither of the body, nor mind. If they were, they might
be in a man that were alone in the world, as well as his senses, and

21Since Murray v. The Charming Betsy, 6 US (2 Cranch) 64 (1804), pp. 117-118.

231 passions. They are qualities, that relate to men in society, not in soli-
tude. It is consequent also to the same condition, that there be no

propriety no dominion, no mine and thine distinct; but only that to
be every man's, that he can get: and for so long, as he can keep it.
And thus much for the il1 condition, which man by mere nature is
actually placed in; though with a possibility to come out of it, con-
sisting partly in the passions, partly in his reason." (Leviathan,
Chap. XIII.)

"The liberty, whereof there is so frequent and honourable men-
tion, in the histories, and philosophy of the ancient Greeks, and
Romans, and in the writings, and discourse of those that from them
have received al1 their learning in the politics, is not the liberty of
particular men; but the liberty of the commonwealth: which is the
same with that which every man then should have, if there were no
civil laws, nor commonwealth at all. And the effects of it also be the
same. For as amongst masterless men, there is perpetual war, of

every man against his neighbour; no inheritance, to transmit to the
son, nor to expect from the father; no propriety of goods, or lands;
no security; but a full and absolute liberty in every particular man: so
in states, and cornmonwealths not dependent on one another, every
commonwealth, not every man, has an absolute liberty, to do what it
shall judge, that is to say,what that man, or assembly that represen-
teth it, shall judge most conducing to their benefit. But withal, they
live in the condition of a perpetual war, and upon the confines of
battle, with their frontiers armed, and cannons planted against their
neighbours round about." (Leviathan, Chap. XXI.)22

Since the community of States lacks any superior power, any govern-

ing authority, the notions of justice and injustice can have no currency
there, being the product of a duly constituted society. Hobbes's view of
international law was a voluntarist one: jus gentium is totally distinct
from natural law, the law of nature (rather than natural law) being that
of the triumph of force, of the domination of the weak by the strong.

We find an echo of certain of Hobbes's ideas in Spinoza (1632-1677).
According to the Tractatus politicus and the Tractatus theologico-politi-
cus, published posthumously in 1677, the irresistiblepower of the supreme
authority (summa potestas) within the State is reflected in the State's
external sovereignty.

22Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme and Power of A Commonwealth
Ecclesiasticall and Civil, Michael Oakeshott, 1946. Hence, if a nation wishes to make war on another nation and is
prepared to have recourse to any appropriate means in order to force
that nation into dependency, it is perfectly entitled to attack it. For
al1it requires, in order to find itself in a state of war, is to have the will
to do so (Tractatus politicus, Chap. III, para. 13).
33. The legal régime to which the United Nations Charter has sub-
jected the use of force between States must be regarded as the "funda-
mental norm" (Grundnorm) of international law in Kelsen's sense of the
term. The principal judicial organ of the United Nations should have

taken the opportunity offered it by the present case to recall that
Article 2, paragraph 4,of the Charter is a provision possessing binding
force. The Court had jurisdiction to do so, for the two actions of which
it was seised both had as their subject-matter a claim based on a use
of force alleged to have been unlawful, the focus of the dispute being
the nature and extent of the right of self-defence.

(Signed) François RIGAUX.

Bilingual Content

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE RIGAUX

Position asymétrique des deux Parties - Motivation du rejet de la demande
reconventionnelle - Insuffisance des moyens de preuve de l'imputabilité des
faits à l'Iran - Nationalité non américaine des navires victimes des attaques -

Motivation du rejet de l'action originaire - Moyen tiré de l'alinéa d) du para-
graphe I de l'article XX du traité de 1955 - Légitime défense - Incidence des
dommages infligés aux plates-formes par les attaques iraquiennes - Argument
tiré de I'Executive Order 12613 du 27 octobre 1987 - Commerce «indirect»
entre les territoires des hautes parties contractantes - Contradiction entre

les motifs du rejet de la demande originaire et le dispositif qui y est relatif
- Prohibition du recours à la force armée, principe fondamental du droit
international.

Paragraphes

II. OBSERVATION RELATIVES À LA MOTIVATION DU DISPOSITIF DE REJET DE
LA DEMANDE RECONVENTIONNELLE 4-13

III. OBSERVATION RELATIVES À LA MOTIVATION DU REJET DE LA DEMANDE
ORIGINAIRE 14-30

a) La distinction entre le moyen tiré de l'alinéa d) du para-
graphe 1 de l'article XX du traité de 1955 et celui qui est fondé
sur la légitime défense 14-19

b) Observations relatives à l'interprétation et à l'application du
paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité de 1955 20-29

i) Le lien de causalité entre les dommages causés aux plates-
formes de Reshadat et la prolongation de leur mise hors
service 21-25
ii) L'incidence de 1'Executive Order 12613 du 29 octobre
1987 sur la liberté de commerce 26
iii) L'existence et la pertinence d'un commerce ((indirect »

entre les territoires des deux hautes parties contrac-
tantes 27-29

c) N'y a-t-il pas une contradiction entre les motifs du rejet de la
demande originaire et le dispositif qui y est relatif? 3O

IV. LA PROHIBITION DU RECOURS À LA FORCE, PRINCIPE FONDAMENTAL DU
DROIT INTERNATIONAL 31-33 SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE RIGAUX

[Translation]

Asymmetry of the two Parties' positions- Reasoning underlying dismissal of
the counter-claim - Absence of proof of Iran's responsibility- Non-American
nationality of vessels attacked- Reasoning underlying dismissal of the original
claim - Defence based on paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX of the 1955 Treaty -
Self-defence - Impact of the damage to the platforms from the Iraqi attacks -
Effect of Executive Order 12613 of 29 October 1987 - "Indirect" commerce
between the territories of the High ContractingParties - Contradictionbetween

the reasons for dismissal of the original claim and the terms of the operative
paragraph - Prohibition of the use of force as fundamental principle of inter-
national law.

Paragraphs

II. OBSERVATION ON THE REASONING UNDERLYING DISMISSAL OF THE
COUNTER-CLAIM 4-13

III. OBSERVATIONS ON THE REASONING UNDERLYING DISMISSAL OF THE
ORIGINAL CLAIM 14-30

(a) The distinction drawn between the defence based on Ar-
ticle XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955 Treaty and that
based on the right of self-defence 14-19
(b) Observations on the interpretation and application of
Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty 20-29

(i) The causal link between the damage to the Reshadat
platforms and the length of the period during which
they remained out of commission 21-25
(ii) The effect on freedom of commerce of Executive Order
12613 of 29 October 1987 26

(iii) The existence and relevance of "indirect" commerce
between the territories of the two High Contracting
Parties 27-29

(c) 1s there not a contradiction between the reasons for the dis-
missal of the original claim and the terms of the operative
paragraph?

IV. THE PROHIBITION OF THE USE OF FORCE1s A FUNDAMENTA LRIN-
CIPLE OF INTERNATIONA LLAW 1. Saisie de deux actions croisées, respectivement la demande intro-
duite par la République islamique d'Iran contre les Etats-Unis et une
demande reconventionnelle émanant de 1'Etat défendeur à l'action origi-
naire, la Cour conclut au rejet de l'une comme de l'autre de ces de-

mandes. En renvoyant les deux Parties dos à dos, le dispositif de l'arrêt
reflète une image simplificatrice des griefs respectifs de l'une et de l'autre
Parties. Je puis me rallier au point 2 et à la première partie du point 1 du
dispositif sans être d'accord sur tous les aspects de la motivation qui les
soutient. En revanche, je me sépare plus radicalement de la décision de
la Cour formulée dans la seconde partie du point 1 du dispositif. En consé-
quence, la présente opinion est dissidente sur cette seule partie et concor-
dante (concurring) sur les autres élémentsdu dispositif.
2. L'adoption de deux dispositifs sensiblement équivalents trahit la
dissymétrie des positions respectives des Parties et des enjeux du diffé-

rend. Bien que chacune des Parties accuse l'autre d'un usage illicite de la
force armée, lequel constitue l'objet juridique commun aux deux actions,
la vérification des faits et la détermination du titre de compétence procuré
par le paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité de 1955 sont radicalement dif-
férentes selon qu'il faut y procéder à propos de la demande originaire et
de l'action reconventionnelle.
En ce qui concerne les faits, il n'est pas contesté et, au demeurant, il
serait incontestable, que trois plates-formes pétrolières appartenant à la
NIOC ont étéintentionnellement détruites ou endommagées par des at-
taques armées américaines (voir par. 66 à 68 de l'arrêt). En revanche, les
accusations lancées contre l'Iran ayant trait soit au mouillage de mines,

soit au lancement de missiles sur des navires naviguant dans le golfe Per-
sique n'ont pas été appuyées d'une démonstration entraînant la convic-
tion de la Cour.
A pareille asymétrie en ce qui concerne les faits s'ajoute un défaut ana-
logue de symétrie en ce qui concerne la nationalité du bien ayant fait
l'objet d'une agression vérifiéeou alléguée. Les plates-formes pétrolières
étaient un bien public iranien, alors que les navires atteints par une mine
ou par un missile ne satisfaisaient pas à la condition de nationalité exigée
par l'article X du traité de 1955 (voir par. 9 et 10 ci-après), l'un d'eux
étant en outre exclu du champ d'application de cet article en sa qualité de

navire de guerre.
3. De cette double dissymétrie, il résulte que l'Iran aurait pu se borner
à contester la réalité et la pertinence de faits dont le demandeur sur
reconvention n'avait pas administré une preuve satisfaisante, tandis que
les Etats-Unis d'Amérique ont étécontraints de rechercher des justifica-
tions juridiques de nature à dépouiller les faits établis de leur caractère
illicite. Leur position a varié sur ce point. Dans la période qui a suivi
immédiatement les attaques armées, le Gouvernement américain s'est
prévalu de son ((droit naturel de légitime défense)) (voir par. 67 et 72 de
l'arrêt). Plus tard, et notamment devant la Cour, la justification a été 1. THE ASYMMETRY OF THE TWO PARTI ES ^OSITIONS

1. Seised of two crossing actions, the claim brought by the Islamic
Republic of Iran against the United States and a counter-claim by the
Respondent to the original proceedings, the Court has found that both
claims must be rejected. In even-handedly dismissing both Parties, the
operative paragraph of the Judgment presents a simplified image of their
respective claims. 1 can accept point 2 and the first part of point 1 of the
operative paragraph without being in agreement on al1 aspects of their
underlying reasoning. On the other hand, 1 must distance myself more
radically from the Court's finding set out in the second part of point 1.
This opinion is thus a dissenting one only in relation to that part and

concurring on the other elements of the operative paragraph.

2. In adopting two substantiallyequivalent dispositi tfesCourt ignores
the asymmetry in the Parties7 respective positions and in the dispute's
underlying issues. Although each Party accuses the other of illegal use of
armed force, which constitutes the legal subject-matter common to the
two actions, the approach to verification of the facts and determination
of jurisdiction under paragraph 1 of Article X of the 1955 Treaty will be
radically different according to whether those issues are addressed in
relation to the original claim or to the counter-claim.

As regards the facts, it is not disputed - and moreover could not be
disputed - that three oil platforms belonging to the NIOC were inten-
tionally destroyed or damaged by American armed attacks (see paras. 66
to 68 of the Judgment). By contrast, the charges against Iran, whether in
regard to the laying of mines or to the firing of missiles at vessels navi-
gating in the Persian Gulf, have not been proved to the satisfaction of the
Court.

In addition to this asymmetry as to the facts, there is a comparable
lack of symmetry in terms of the nationality of the objects of verified or

alleged attacks. The oil platforms were an Iranian public asset, whereas
the ships damaged by mines or missiles did not satisfy the condition of
nationality required by Article X of the 1955 Treaty (see paras. 9 and 10
below), one of them being moreover excluded from the scope of that
Article because it was a warship.

3. It follows from this dual asymmetry that Iran could have confined
itself to disputing the truth and relevance of facts in respect of which the
counter-claimant had failed to provide adequate proof, whereas the
United States was obliged to seek out legal grounds which would strip the
proven facts of their illegal character. The United States position varied

on this point. In the period immediately following the armed attacks,
the American Government relied on its "inherent right of self-defence"
(see paras. 67 and 72 of the Judgment). Later, and in particular before
the Court, justification was sought in paragraph 1 of Article XX of thecherchée dans le paragraphe 1 de l'articlXX du traité de 1955, sans que
l'argument tiré de la légitime défense ait jamais ététotalement aban-

donné. En réalité et comme le confirme le déclinatoire de compétence
soulevé devant la Cour, le Gouvernement américain n'a pas eu dès
l'abord l'intention de placer son action militaire sous le couvert d'une dis-
position du traité de 1955. Quoi qu'il en soit, la Cour ne saurait manquer
de soumettre la légalitéinternationale des attaques armées des Etats-Unis
au paragraphe 1 de l'articleXX précité, ainsi qu'au droit international
général régissant l'emploi de la force (voir par. 41 de l'arrêt). C'est pour
rencontrer les moyens de défense soulevés par les Etats-Unis que la Cour
est conduite à interpréter et à appliquer l'articlXX du traité de 1955 à la

lumière du droit international général.

II. OBSERVATION RSELATIVES À LA MOTIVATION DU DISPOSITIF DE REJET DE
LA DEMANDE RECONVENTIONNELLE

4. La demande reconventionnelle fait l'objet des paragraphes 101 à
124 de l'arrêt. Sous réserve des observations qui vont suivre et qui
concernent notamment le paragraphe 123, je me rallie sans difficulté à la

conclusion de la Cour et au point 2 du dispositif. Je regrette cependant les
limites trop étroites dans lesquelles la Cour a enfermé les motifs de sa
décision. Comme l'annonce le paragraphe 120 de l'arrêt, la Cour énumère
«dans l'ordre chronologique » les attaques attribuées à l'Iran et à propos
de chacune de celles-ci elle se borne à vérifier si le navire désigné dans la
demande reconventionnelle se livrait au commerce ou à la navigation
entre les territoires des deux hautes parties contractantes (par. 120 de
l'arrêt). Telle qu'elle apparaîtsous le paragraphe 121, la conclusion glo-
bale est négative: ((Aucun des navires dont les Etats-Unis indiquent

qu'ils auraient étéendommagés par des attaques iraniennes ne se livrait
au commerce ou à la navigation «entre les territoires des deux Hautes
Parties contractantes ». )>
5. Deux autres motifs, dont chacun desquels eût suffi à faire rejeter la
demande reconventionnelle, ont été omis par la Cour.
Le premier porte sur l'imputabilité des faits dont l'Iran était accusé. La
matérialité de ces faits ne prêtait pas au doute, encore fallait-il démontrer
qu'ils étaient imputables à un organe de 1'Etat défendeur sur reconven-
tion. Non seulement l'Iran n'a pas cessé de contester que sa responsabi-

litéfût établie pour aucun des incidents énumérés dans la demande amé-
ricaine, mais la Cour elle-même n'a pas étéconvaincue des arguments
présentés par le Gouvernement américain sur ce point (voir notamment
par. 58 et 59 et 71 et 72 de l'arrêt). Toutefois, les élémentssur lesquels la
Cour se fonde pour écarter les causes de justification ou d'excuse invo-
quées par le défendeur à l'action originaire ne sont pas repris lors de
l'examen de la demande reconventionnelle.
6. Durant la guerre entre l'Iran et l'Iraq, ce qu'on a appelé ((guerre des

pétroliers)) (Tanker War) a consisté en l'usage de la force contre des1955 Treaty, although the self-defence argument was never totally aban-
doned. In reality, as is confirmed by the objection to jurisdiction raised
before the Court, it was not initially the intention of the American

Government to justify its military action under a provision of the 1955
Treaty. However, the Court was in any event bound to consider the inter-
national legality of the United States armed attacksboth in light of para-
graph 1 of the above-mentioned Article XX and of general international
law governing the use of force (see para. 41 of the Judgment). It was to
address the defences raised by the United States that the Court was com-
pelled to interpret and apply Article XX of the 1955 Treaty in light of
general international law.

II. OBSERVATIONS ON THE REASONING UNDERLYING DISMISSAL
OF THE COUNTER-CLAIM

4. The counter-claim is dealt with in paragraphs 101 to 124 of the
Judgment. Subject to the following observations, which relate in particu-
lar to paragraph 123, 1 have no difficulty in subscribing to the Court's
findings and to point 2 of the operative paragraph. 1 do, however, regret
the excessively narrow limits within which the Court confined the grounds
for its decision. As it explains in paragraph 120 of the Judgment, the
Court sets out "in chronological order" Iran's alleged attacks and, in

relation to each of them, confines itself to examining whether the vesse1
mentioned in the counter-claim was engaged in commerce or navigation
between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties (para. 120 of
the Judgment). The overall conclusion, as set out in paragraph 121, is
negative: "none of the vessels described by the United States as being
damaged by Iran's alleged attacks was engaged in commerce or naviga-
tion 'between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties'".

5. Two further grounds, either of which would have sufficed for the
counter-claim to be dismissed, were omitted by the Court.

The first concerns the attributability of the acts alleged against Iran.
That the events in question occurred was not in doubt, but it still
remained to be shown that they were attributable to an agency of the
Respondent to the counter-claim. Not only did Iran consistently dispute
that its responsibility had been established for any of the incidents set out
in the American claim, but the Court itself was not convinced by the
arguments presented by the American Government on this point (see in
particular paras. 58-59 and 71-72 of the Judgment). However, the argu-
ments relied on by the Court to dismiss the grounds of justificationor
defence put forward by the Respondent to the original action are not re-

addressed when the counter-claim is considered.
6. During the war between Iran and Iraq, what became known as the
"Tanker War" consisted in the use of force against ships, mainly oilnavires, principalement des pétroliers, battant pavillon d'Etats autres que
les deux belligérants. Pour ceux-ci, l'exportation de produits pétroliers,
principale ressource de l'économie tant de l'un que de l'autre Etats, était
indispensable à la poursuite de la guerre qui requérait de considérables
moyens financiers. La nécessité en était particulièrement contraignante
pour l'Iran qui, à la différence de l'Iraq, ne bénéficiaitd'aucune aide exté-

rieure. Une autre différence entre les deux Etats portait sur les moyens de
transporter le pétrole vers les pays étrangers: alors qu'une partie au
moins du pétrole iraquien était exportée par la voie terrestre, tout le
pétrole iranien devait nécessairement emprunter la voie maritime du golfe
Persique.
La guerre des pétroliers est analysée dans deux ouvrages, dont les don-

nées concordent le plus souvent, l'un d'une chercheuse égyptienne,
MmeNadia El-Sayed El-Shazly l,l'autre d'un professeur américain, George
K. Walker2. Durant les premières années du conflit entre l'Iran et l'Iraq
(1981 - 1984)' le principal protagoniste de la guerre des pétroliers fut l'Iraq
(Walker, p. 46)' qui s'efforça de rompre le flux d'exportation du pétrole
iranien, et obtint quelques succès à cet égard (Walker, p. 51). Les at-

taques iraniennes ne débutèrent qu'en février 1984 (El-Shazly, p. 202). Le
nombre de navires, presque tous des pétroliers, touchés par les forces de
l'un ou l'autre Etat dépasse le chiffre de quatre cents (Walker, p. 74)' il
atteindrait le chiffre de quatre cent soixante-trois (El-Shazly, p. 307).
Selon d'autres sources qui ne contredisent pas les précédentes, l'Iraq
aurait attaqué deux cent trente-quatre navires et l'Iran cent soixante-

trois 3.Mme El-Shazly et M. Walker procurent des indications pertinentes
sur la composition des flottes de pétroliers évoluant dans le golfe Per-
sique. D'après Walker:

«En 1986, il n'y avait pratiquement plus aucun navire marchand
étranger battant pavillon des Etats-Unis; des navires d'autres nations
avaient pris le relais, notamment ceux battant pavillon de complai-
sance, qui appartenaient souvent à des intérêtscommerciaux améri-
cains.» (P. 37.) [Traductid onGreff e..

Cette observation est corroborée par Mme El-Shazly :

lNadia El-Sayed El-Shazly, The Gulf Tanker War, Iran and Iraq's Maritime Sword-
play, 1998.
George K. Walker, The Tanker War, 1980-88: Law and Policy, InternationalLaw
Studies, 2000, vol. 74.
David L. Peace, «Major Maritime Events in the Persian Gulf War», document
présentéle 21 avril 1988 lors de la quatre-vingt-deuxième réunion annudele7American
Law of Naval Operations, InternationalpLaw Studies, vol. 64, Horace B. Robertson Jr.The
(dir. publ.), p. 150. Le chiffre approximatquatre cents est également avancé par Fran-
cisV. Russo Jr., ((Neutralitat Sea: State Practice in the Gulf War as Emerging Inter-
national Customary Law », Ocean Development InternationalLaw, 1988,vol. 19, p. 381.
Seul F. L. Wiswall, ~Neutralitythe Rights of Shipping and the Use of Force in the Per-
sian Gulf», Virginia Journalof InternationaLaw, 1991, vol. 31, p. 620, avance le chiffre
de cinq cent trente-six attaques.tankers, flying the flag of States other than the two belligerents. For the
latter, the export of petroleumproducts, theirprincipal economicresource,
was indispensable to the pursuit of the war, which required substantial
financial resources. This was particularly so for Iran, which, unlike Iraq,

was receiving no outside aid. Another difference between the two States
concerned the means used to transport the oil abroad: whilst a part at
least of the Iraqi oil was exported overland, the entirety of the Iranian
oil had to be shipped by sea through the Persian Gulf.

The Tanker War has been analysed in two studies, which largely con-
cur on the facts, one by an Egyptian researcher, Ms Nadia El-Sayed El-
Shazlyl, the other by an American professor, George K. Walker2.
During the initial years of the war between Iran and Iraq (1981-1984),
the main protagonist in the Tanker War was Iraq (Walker, p. 46), which

sought to interrupt the export flow of Iranian oil and achieved a degree
of success (Walker, p. 51). The Iranian attacks began only in February
1984 (El-Shazly, p. 202). The number of vessels, almost al1 of them
tankers, hit by attacks by one or other of the two States exceeded 400
(Walker, p. 74), and according to El-Shazly (p. 307) reached a total of
463. Other sources, consistent with these, report that Iraq attacked 234
vessels and Iran 1633. Ms El-Shazly and Professor Walker provide rele-

vant data regarding the composition of tanker traffic in the Persian Gulf.
According to Walker :

"By 1986, US-flag foreign-trade tankers were almost non-existent ;
their role had been taken by other nations' vessels, particularly
those flying flags of convenience but often beneficially owned by US
business interests." (P. 37.)

This is confirmed by Ms El-Shazly:

lNadia El-Sayed El-Shazly, The GuIf Tanker War, Iran and Iraq's Maritime Sword-
play, 1998.
George K. Walker, The Tanker War, 1980-88: Law and Policy, International Law
Studies, 2000, Vol. 74.
David L. Peace, "Major Maritime Events in the Persian Gulf War", paper presented
at the 82ndAnnual Meeting of the American Society of InternationaLaw, 21 April 1988,
p. 3, cited by Mark W. Janis, "Neutrality"Chap. VI of The Law of Naval Operations,
InternationalLaw Studies, 1991, Vol. 64, ed. Horace B. Robertson Jrp. 150. The figure
of approximately 400 is also quoted by Francis V. Russo, Jr., "Neutraliat Sea: State
Practice in the GulfWar as Emerging International Customary Law", 19 Ocean Devel-
Shipping and the Use of Force in the Persian Gulf', 31irginia Journal of International
Law (1991), p. 620, is alone in proposa figure of 536 attacks. «Les propriétaires de flottes de pétroliers vieillissants, immatricu-
lésdans des pays à la réglementation quasi inexistante, les incitèrent
à envoyer leurs vieux pétroliers dans le Golfe. Ceux-ci battaient pour

la plupart pavillon de complaisance, étaient pourvus d'équipages
peu rémunérés et peu formés, et présentaient des défauts structu-
rels. » (P. 44.) [Traduction du Greffe. J
Les deux observations convergent et elles expliquent pourquoi les

Etats-Unis assumèrent, durant la guerre des pétroliers, la fonction de
protéger la liberté de navigation en général,y incluant celle de navires ne
battant pas leur pavillon. Parmi les pétroliers apparaissant sur les listes
successivement produites par la Partie américaine, on ne s'étonnera dès
lors pas de trouver deux navires panaméens (Texaco Caribbean, Grand
Wisdom), cinq navires libériens (Lucy, Diane, Stena Explorer, Stena
Concordia, Sungari) , un navire bahamien (Esso Freeport) . Hormis les
deux pétroliers koweïtiens ayant obtenu un pavillon de complaisance
américain, sur lesquels on reviendra, seul 1'Esso Demetia battait pavillon

d'un Etat (le Royaume-Uni) n'appartenant pas à la catégorie des Etats
connus pour la facilité avec laquelle ils immatriculent des navires dépour-
vus de lien réel et pour le laxisme du contrôle exercé sur ces navires.
7. L'incident le plus grave de la guerre des pétroliers, celui qui fit le
plus de victimes humaines (trente-six tués et vingt et un blessés graves),
est la destruction du navire de guerre américain USS Stark par deux mis-
siles Exocet iraquiens le 17 mai 1987. Le Gouvernement iraquien exprima
ses regrets au Gouvernement des Etats-Unis et indemnisa celui-ci en 1989
(Walker, p. 60; El-Shazly, p. 282-292). D'une manière qui doit êtrejugée

paradoxale, après cette attaque (qui n'avait peut-être d'autre intention
que de la rendre imputable à l'Iran et d'entraîner l'internationalisation de
la guerre), la position des Etats-Unis continua à s'infléchir en faveur de
l'Iraq. C'est à la fin du même mois (le 29 mai) que l'Assistant Secretary
of Defense, Richard Armitage, déclara : «Nous ne pouvons accepter une
défaite de [Traduction du Greffe. J Mme El-Shazly à qui est
empruntée cette citation ajoute: «C'est ainsi qu'il mit un terme à la neu-
tralité des Etats-Unis dans la guerre Iran-Iraq et que ce mythe fut offi-
ciellement enterré. » (P. 291 .)[Traduction du Greffe. J

Une conséquence non moins paradoxale de l'attaque iraquienne contre
I'USS Stark est qu'elle accéléra la décision de faire passer sous pavillon
américain des pétroliers appartenant à une sociétéde droit public koweï-
tienne, la Kuwaiti Oil Tanker Company (KOTC). Les pourparlers du-
rèrent plusieurs mois car le projet rencontra des résistances aux Etats-Unis,

Cf. les informations données par le quotidien Le Monde, sous la signaturLeser,ic
«Les Etats-Unis ont lourdementarmé l'Iraq dans les années 1980», le 8 mars 2003, p. 4,
et par le mêmequotidien, le 27 mars 2003, p. 8. Voir encore Francisoyle, ((Interna-
tional Crisis and NeutralitUnited States Foreign Policy toward theIran-IraqWar»,
citées par. Bundy, CR 200315, p. 4 et suiv.2. Voir aussi les déclarations américaines "Owners of ageing tanker fleets, registered with poorly regulated
countries, motivated them to send their old tankers to the Gulf.
They were mostly flying flags of convenience, manned by cheap and
poorly trained crews, and had structural defects." (P. 44.)

These two statements are mutually corroborative and explain why,
during the Tanker War, the United Statesassumedthe duty of protecting

freedom of navigation in general, including that of vessels not flying its
own flag. Thus it is no surprise to find on the successive lists produced by
the United States in this case two Panamanian vessels (Texaco Carib-
bean, Grand Wisdom) ,five Liberian vessels (Lucy, Diane, Stena Explorer,
Stena Concordia, Sungari) , and a Bahamian vesse1 (Esso Freeport) .
Apart from the two Kuwaiti tankers flying an American flag of conven-
ience, to which 1 shall return, only the Esso Demetia bore the flag of
a State (the United Kingdom) not belonging to the category of States
notorious for the ease with which they register ships not having any
real link with them and for the laxity of the control exercised by them
over such vessels.
7. The most serious incident in the Tanker War, that which resulted in
the greatest number of victims (36 killed and 21 seriously injured), was
the destruction of the American warship USS Stark by two Iraqi Exocet
missiles on 17 May 1987. The Iraqi Government expressed its regrets to
the United StatesGovernment and in 1989 paid it compensation (Walker,
p. 60; El-Shazly, pp. 282-292). Ironically, after this attack (whose only
purpose may well have been to make it appear attributable to Iran andto
provoke the internationalization of the war), the position of the United
States continued to be favourable to Iraq. It was at the end of that same
month (29 May) that Assistant Secretary of Defense, Richard Armitage,
stated: "We can't stand to see Iraq defeated."4 Ms El-Shazly, who
cites this statement, adds: "Thus he sealed the death certificate of US
neutrality in the Iran-Iraq war, and this myth was officially laid to
rest." (P. 291 .)

A no less paradoxical consequence of the Iraqi attack on the USS
Stark is that it accelerated the decision to reflag under American colours
tankers belonging to a Kuwaiti State Company, the Kuwaiti Oil Tanker

Company (KOTC). Negotiations lasted several months, because the pro-
posa1 met with resistance in the United States, particularly in Congress.

Compare the information in an article by Eric Leser in Le :"The United States
heavily armed Iraqduring the 1980s" (8 March 2003, p. 4), and again in the same news-
paper on 27 March 2003, p. 8. See also Francis A. Boyle, "International Crisis and Neu-
(1992), pp. 523-562. See also the American statements cited by Mr. Bundy, CR 200315,
pp. 4 et seq.notamment au Congrès. Ce qui emporta la décision est que durant la
mêmepériode l'Union soviétique avait offert au Koweït de lui rendre le
même service. La décision américaine se laisse analyser comme l'expres-

sion de la volonté de ne pas laisser l'URSS prendre place dans le golfe
Persique (El-Shazly, p. 237, 271-282 et 301 ;Walker, p. 60-62)5. L'un des
deux navires passés sous pavillon américain repris dans l'action recon-
ventionnelle, le Bridgeton, avait aussi changé de nom (il était dénommé
Al Rekkah, quand il battait pavillon koweïtien, El-Shazly, p. 292). On
notera encore que la Chine et la France avaient refusé de donner leur
pavillon à des pétroliers koweïtiens, tandis que le Royaume-Uni s'était
déclaré disposé à les protéger sans changement de pavillon (El-Shazly,
p. 273). La nature totalement artificielle de pareil changement, mesure

d'opportunité inspirée par les circonstances, est démontrée par le fait que
dès janvier 1989 il fut procédé au retour de ces navires sous le pavillon
koweïtien (((deflagging)), Walker, p. 73; Wiswall, p. 623, note 13).
Pour convaincre la commission des relations étrangères du sénat du
bien-fondé de l'attribution du pavillon américain à onze pétroliers koweï-
tiens, Michael H. Armacost, Under Secretaryfor Political Affairs, fit un
exposé circonstancié de la politique américaine dans le golfe Persique:

«C'est pour contrer les aspirations hégémoniques de l'Iran que les
Etats arabes du Golfe continuent à soutenir l'Iraq. C'est pour des
raisons similaires que d'autres puissances alliées proches, telles que
1'Egypte et la Jordanie, soutiennent elles aussi l'Iraq..»

L'aide apportée au Koweït est ensuite justifiée par le soutien financier
consenti à l'Iraq par cet Etat et par d'autres pays arabes.

«Nous comprenons pourquoi le Koweït et de nombreuses autres
nations arabes considèrent que, si l'Iraq devait s'effondrer face à
l'Iran, leur sécurité et leur stabilité ne seraient plus garanties. Nous
ne souhaitons pas que l'Iran sorte vainqueur de ce terrible conflit.
Toutefois, les Etats-Unis demeureront officiellement neutres dans
cette guerre. »

8. Seule une lecture rapide et superficielle de la résolution 552 (1984) du
le' juin 1984 du Conseil de sécurité de l'Organisation des Nations Unies
permet d'y discernerune condamnation mêmeimplicite des attaques impu-
téesà l'Iran. La résolution a étéadoptée à la suite d'une lettre du 21 mai
1984, «dans laquelle les représentants de l'Arabie saoudite, de Bahreïn, des

Emirats arabes unis, du Koweït, de l'Oman et du Qatar se plaignaient des
attaques lancées par l'Iran contre des navires marchands à destination ou
en provenance de ports d'Arabie saoudite et du Koweït ». Toutefois, l'iden-

En ce qui concerne le rôle joué par la concurrence soviétique, voir en outre Ademuni-
Odeka, ((Merchant Shipping and the Gulf War», Marine Policy Reports, 1988, vol. 10,
no 3, p. 8-9, qui qualifie l'offre soviétique de «blackmail».
Ibid.,. 1430. [Traduction du Greffe.]. 26, p. 1429. [Traduction du Greffe.]What was ultimately decisive was the fact that during the same period the

Soviet Union had offered Kuwait a similar service. The American deci-
sion may be seen as the expression of its determination not to allow the
USSR to gain a foothold in the Persian Gulf (El-Shazly, pp. 237, 271-
282, 301 ; Walker, pp. 60-62)5. One of the two United States-reflagged
vessels mentioned in the counter-claim, the Bridgeton, had also changed
its name (when flying the Kuwaiti flag, it had been called the Al Rekkah;
El-Shazly, p. 292). It should further be noted that China and France had
refused to allow Kuwaiti tankers to fly their flags, whilst the United

Kingdom had stated that it was prepared to protect them without any
change of flag (El-Shazly, p. 273). The totally artificial nature of the
reflagging, an act of expediency inspired by the circumstances, can be
shown by the fact that from January 1989 these vessels were returned
to the Kuwaiti flag ("deflagging": see Walker, p. 73; Wiswall, p. 623,
note 13).
In order to persuade the Senate Foreign Relations Committee that
the American reflagging of 11 Kuwaiti tankers was justified, Michael H.
Armacost, Under Secretary for Political Affairs, gave a detailed explana-

tion of American policy in the Persian Gulf:
"It is to frustrate Iranian hegemonic aspirations that the Arab gulf
states continue to support Iraq. It is for similar reasons that other

close friends, such as Egypt and Jordan, also assist Iraq .. ."6

The aid to Kuwait was subsequently justified by the financial support
provided by that State and by other Arab countries to Iraq.

"We understand why Kuwait and many Arab nations believe their
own security and stability depend on Iraq not collapsing before Iran.
We do not wish to see an Iranian victory in that terrible conflict.

Nevertheless, the United States remains formally neutral in the
war."
8. Only from a rapid and superficial reading of Security Council reso-

lution 552 (1984) of 1 January 1984 can any condemnation, even an
implicit one, of the attacks attributed to Iran be inferred. The resolution
was adopted following a letter of 21 May 1984, "in which the Repre-
sentatives of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the
United Arab Emirates complain[ed] against Iranian attacks on commer-
cial ships en route to and from the ports of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia".
However, the State accused of these attacks is identified only in the first

As regards the roleplayed by Soviet competitionsee, apart from El-Shazly and
Walker, Ademuni-Odeka, "Merchant Shipping and the Gulf War", 10 Marine Policy
Reports (1988), Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 8-9, who describes the Soviet offer as "blackmail".
26 International Legal Materials (1987), p. 1429.
Ibid., p. 1430.tification de 1'Etat accusé de ces attaques n'apparaît que dans le premier
considérant du préambule de la résolution, auquel est emprunté le texte
reproduit ci-dessus. Le dispositif de la résolution se borne à réaffirmer «le
droit de libre navigation)) (point 1) et à appliquer ce principe aux «navires
marchands àdestination ou en provenance de ports et installations d'Etats
riverains qui ne sont pas parties aux hostilités))(point 2)'à demander «à
tous les Etats)) de ((s'abstenir de tout acte qui pourrait avoir pour effet
d'aggraver ou d'étendre le conflit » (point 3), à condamner «les attaques

lancées récemment contre des navires marchands à destination ou en pro-
venance de ports d'Arabie saoudite et du Koweït)) (point 4). Nulle trace
d'une condamnation de l'Iran, cependant clairement visé par la lettre du
21 mai 1984, et l'on conçoit assez bien que le Conseil de sécuritéqui n'avait
pas pu ou pas osédésigner l'agresseur de la guerre déclenchéeen 1980 ne
pouvait davantage porter condamnation de l'Iran alors que, en 1984, la
responsabilité initiale et quasi exclusive de la guerre des pétroliers incom-
bait à l'Iraq. Il serait dès lors erroné de confondre la reproduction dans le

premier considérant de la résolution des termes de la demande formulée
par les Etats riverains du golfe Persique avec une appréciation du Conseil
lui-même. Il est permis d'estimer a contrario que, en s'abstenant decondam-
ner nommément 1'Etat désignédans le document qui l'avait saisi, le Conseil
de sécurités'est délibérémentabstenu de porter la condamnation précise
sollicitée par les Etats signataires de la lettre8.
9. Il y avait encore un autre motif de rejet de l'action reconvention-
nelle, à savoir celui qui aurait pu - et dû - êtredéduit de la nationalité

des navires victimes d'attaques à tort imputées à l'Iran.
Appliquant à la liste reproduite sous le paragraphe 6 le critère du rat-
tachement d'un navire à un Etat par son pavillon, c'est-à-dire par son
immatriculation, on constate qu'un seul navire, I'USS Samuel B. Roberts,
satisfait incontestablement à cette condition, mais il s'agit d'un navire de
guerre qui, en raison de cette qualité, doit être soustrait àl'application du
traité de 1955, ainsi que la Cour l'a elle-même constaté (par. 120, ali-
néa i), de l'arrêt). Hormis deux navires koweïtiens réimmatriculés aux

Etats-Unis, le Bridgeton et le Sea Isle City, qui méritent aussi un examen
particulier, aucun des pétroliers dont l'attaque est imputée à l'Iran ne bat-
tait pavillon américain. Il s'agit du Texaco Carribean, panaméen, du Lucy et
du Diane, immatriculés au Libéria, et de 1'Esso Freeport battant pavillon
des Bahamas. En acceptant l'allongement de la liste, pour la première fois
proposée dans la duplique du 23 mars 2001, on ne trouve pas davantage
de navire satisfaisant à la condition de nationalité requise. Trois de ces

navires battaient pavillon du Libéria, le Stena Explorer, le Stena Concor-
dia et le Sungari, un est panaméen, le Grand Wisdom, et le dernier, 1'Esso
Demetia, britannique.

Cf. dans le même sens Russo, op. cit., p. 395-396; W. J. Fenrick, «The Exclusion
Law, 1986, vol. XXIV, p. 120.val Warfaren, The Canadian Yearbook of Internationalrecital of the preamble to the resolution, from which the text cited above
is taken. The operative part of the resolution confines itself to reaffirming
"the right of free navigation" (point l), and applying this principle to
"shipping en route to and from al1 ports and installations of the littoral
States that are not parties to the hostilities" (point 2), to calling upon "al1
States .. .to refrain from any act which may lead to a further escalation
and widening of the conflict" (point 3), and to condemning "the recent
attacks on commercial ships en route to and from the ports of Kuwait
and Saudi Arabia" (point 4). There is no trace of any condemnation of

Iran, despite its being clearly named in the letter of 1 June 1984, and it
can well be appreciated that the Security Council, which had not named
- or not dared to name - the aggressor in the war launched in 1980,
could hardly condemn Iran at a time when, in 1984, the initial and almost
exclusive responsibility for the Tanker War lay with Iraq. It would thus
be wrong to confuse the re-statement in the resolution's first recital of
the text of the complaint by the littoral States of the Persian Gulf with
the Council's own assessment. It may be considered, a contrario, that,

inasmuch as it did not expressly condemn the State named in the docu-
ment whereby it had been seised, the Security Council was deliberately
refraining from issuing the specific condemnation sought by the States
which had signed the letter8.

9. There was a further ground for rejecting the counter-claim, namely
that which could - and should - have been derived from the national-
ity of the vessels victim of the attacks wrongly attributed to Iran.
If we apply the factor connecting a ship to a State by virtue of its flag,

i.e. its registration,to the list referred to in paragraph 6, we observe that
only one vessel, the USS Samuel B. Roberts, indisputably satisfied that
condition, but this was a warship, which, as such, must be exempted from
application of the 1955 Treaty, as the Court found (para. 120 (i) of the
Judgrnent). Apart from two Kuwaiti ships reflagged in the United States,
the Bridgeton and the Sea Isle City, which also merit special attention,
none of the tankers which Iran is accused of attacking was under the
United States flag. These were the Texaco Caribbean, a Panamanian
vessel, the Lucy and the Diane, registered in Liberia, and the Esso Freeport,

flying the Bahamian flag. Even if we accept the expanded list, first pro-
vided in the Rejoinder of 23 March 2001, we find that it does not include
any vessel satisfying the nationality requirement. Three of these vessels,
the Stena Explorer, the Stena Concordia and the Sungari, flew the
Liberian flag, one was Panamanian, the Grand Wisdom, and the last, the
Esso Demetia, British.

Cf., similarly, Russo, op. cit., pp. 395-396; W. J. Fenrick, "The Exclusion Zone
Device in the Law of Naval Warfare", XXIV The Canadian Yearbook of International
Law (1986), p. 120.369 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. RIGAUX)

Tant l'article 6 de la convention de Genève du 29 avril 1958 sur la
haute mer que l'article 92 de la convention de Montego Bay du 10 dé-
cembre 1982 ne reconnaissent à un navire que la nationalité d'un seul Etat,
celui du pavillon. Il a étéfait application de ce principe par la Cour de
justice des Communautés européennes 9.
A la question de savoir si les navires ayant la nationalité d'Etats tiers

entrent dans les prévisions de la clause de juridiction du traité de 1955, la
Partie américaine apporte deux tentatives de réponse. Selon la première,
les Etats-Unis auraient assumé la protection de la liberté de navigation en
généraldans les eaux du golfe Persique durant la guerre entre l'Iran et
l'Iraq. Pareille initiative n'était certes pas interdite aux Etats-Unis mais
elle ne saurait être opposée à l'Iran pour l'application et l'interprétation
du traité de 1955. Au surplus, aucun des Etats repris sur la liste, ni les

Bahamas, ni le Libéria, ni le Panama, ni le Royaume-Uni, n'a adressé à
l'Iran une réclamation quelconque et aucun des ces Etats n'a confié aux
Etats-Unis la défense de ses intérêts.Dans le paragraphe 123 de l'arrêtla
Cour a considéré que,

«dans les circonstances de la présente espèce, une réclamation
de caractère généralalléguant la violation du paragraphe 1 de l'ar-
ticleX du traité de 1955 ne peut êtreexaminée sans tenir compte des
incidents précis par lesquels les actions de l'Iran auraient rendu le
golfe Persique périlleux pour le commerce ou la navigation, et spé-
cialement pour le commerce et la navigation entre les territoires des

parties ».
La seconde phrase du second alinéa du paragraphe 123 et le para-
graphe 124 de l'arrêt concluent, pour ce motif, au rejet de la demande des

Etats-Unis.
10. Une autre justification avancée par les Etats-Unis consiste en la
tentative d'identifier un ((intérêtaméricain » prenant le relais du pavillon
défaillant. Sans entrer dans le détail des arguments avancés à cette fin, il
suffit de faire observer qu'ils vont directement à l'encontre de la position
très ferme prise par la Cour il y a plus de trente ans dans l'affaire de la

Barcelona Traction et qu'elle n'a jamais répudiée depuis, à savoir qu'en
constituant une société selon les lois d'un Etat déterminé (ou, comme en
l'espèce, en faisant immatriculer un navire dans un pays déterminé) les
actionnaires de la société(ou les propriétaires du navire) ont recherché
certains avantages comportant une contrepartie, à savoir que cet Etat est

Arrêt du 24 novembre 1992, aff. C-286190, Anklagemyndigheden v. Peter Micltael
Poulsen et Diva NavigationCorp., ECR, p. 1-6019, cité par Rosalyn Higgins, «The ICJ,
the ECJ, and the Integrityof InternationalLaw)), International and ComparativeLaw
Quartevly, 2003, vol. 52, p. 6-7. Le paragrap13 de cet arrêt rappelle «qu'en vertu du
droit international, un batean'a en principe qu'une seule nationalité,avoir celle de
1'Etat dans lequel il est enregistré)). Il conclut plus loin que pour l'application d'un règle-
lien substantiel avec cet Etat Membre(par. 16).t Membre «au motif qu'il présente un Both Article 6 of the Geneva Convention on the High Seas of 29 April
1958 and Article 92 of the Montego Bay Convention of 10 December
1982 recognize only one nationality for a ship, that of the flag State. This
principle has been applied by the Court of Justice of the European Com-
munities 9.
The United States attempts to respond in two ways to the question

whether vessels having the nationality of a third State fa11 within the
scope of the jurisdictional clause in the 1955 Treaty. First, it argues that
it had assumed responsibility for protecting freedom of navigation in gen-
eral in the Persian Gulf during the war between Iran and Iraq. It is true
that nothing prohibited the United States from taking this initiative, but
it cannot be relied on against Iran for purposes of applying and inter-
preting the 1955 Treaty. Moreover, none of the States appearing on the
list- neither the Bahamas, Liberia, Panama nor the United Kingdom -

gave notice to Iran of any claim and none of them entrusted the defence
of its interests to the United States. In paragraph 123of the Judgment the
Court considered that,

"in the circumstances of this case, a generic claim of breach of
Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty cannot be made out
independently of the specific incidents whereby, it is alleged, the
actions of Iran made the Persian Gulf unsafe for commerce and
navigation, and specifically for commerce and navigation between
the territories of the parties".

In the second sentence of the second subparagraph of paragraph 123,
and in paragraph 124, the Judgment finds that for this reason it must dis-
miss the United States claim.
10. Another justification offered by the United States consists in an

attempt to identify an "American interest" in making good flag States'
failure to act. It is sufficient to point out, without addressing in detail the
arguments made in this regard, that they run directly counter to the very
firm position which the Court took more than 30 years ago in the Bar-
celona Traction case and has never repudiated, i.e., that by forming a
Company under the laws of a particular State (or, as in the present case,
by registering a ship in a particular country), the shareholders in the com-
pany (or the shipowners) had sought certain advantages for which there

was a countervailing consideration, i.e., that that State alone was per-

Judgment of 24 November 1992, case C-286190, Anklagemyndighedenv. Peter Michael
Poulsen and Diva Navigation Corp., ECR, p. 1-6019, cited by Rosalyn Higgins, "The ICJ,
the ECJ and the Integrity of InternationLaw", 52 International and Comparative Law
Quarterly (2003), pp. 6-7. Paragraph13 of that judgment recalls that: "under interna-
tional law a vessel in principle has only one nationalthat of the State in which it is
registered"The judgment goes on to hold that, for purposes of an EEC Regulation,
a vessel cannot be treated as a vessel of a Member State "on the groundthatit has a
genuine link with that Member State"(para. 16).le seul autorisé à accorder sa protection diplomatique à la société(ou à se
prévaloir d'un traité bilatéral en sa faveur). L'un des motifs retenus par la
Cour à l'encontre de ((l'adoption de la thèse de la protection diploma-
tique des actionnaires comme tels)), à savoir que cela ouvrirait ((la voie à
des réclamations diplomatiques concurrentes)) et ((pourrait créer un cli-
mat de confusion et d'insécurité dans les relations économiques interna-
tionales » (affaire de la Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company,

Limited, deuxième phase, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1970, p. 49, par. 96)' ne
vaut pas moins en ce qui concerne la protection des navires qui pourrait
êtreexercée concurremment par 1'Etat du pavillon, par 1'Etat de la natio-
nalité de la personne ou de l'entreprise détenant la majorité des parts de
l'entreprise propriétaire du bâtiment, par 1'Etat auquel ressortit le pro-
priétaire de la cargaison, etc. En ce qui concerne l'action reconvention-
nelle exercée par les Etats-Unis, le maintien de la doctrine issue de l'arrêt
rendu en l'affaire de la Barcelona Traction s'impose d'autant plus que la

liberté de navigation protégée par le paragraphe 1 de l'articleX du traité
de 1955 n'est pas la liberté de navigation tout court, sur toutes les mers
du monde et en faveur de tous les navires quel que soit leur pavillon, mais
la liberté de navigation des ((navires battant pavillon de l'une des Hautes
Parties contractantes)) et exerçant cette liberté centre les territoires des
deux Hautes Parties contractantes)). Si ces deux conditions ne sont pas
l'une et l'autre satisfaites et que l'une d'entre elles fasse défaut, la demande
n'entre pas dans la compétence de la Cour telle qu'elle est déterminée en

vertu du paragraphe 2 de l'article XXI du traité. A l'égard des navires ne
répondant pas aux conditions posées par le paragraphe 1 de l'article X, la
Cour n'a pas compétence pour décider si les dommages qu'ils ont subis
sont imputables à l'Iran.
Trois des navires repris dans la liste reproduite ci-dessus méritent un
examen particulier. Le Samuel B. Roberts est exclu en sa qualité de
navire de guerre (paragraphe 9 ci-dessus).
Le changement de pavillon dont ont bénéficiédeux pétroliers koweï-

tiens ne justifie pas davantage que les dommages alléguésentrent dans les
prévisions du paragraphe 1 de l'article X. Opérédurant la guerre entre
l'Iran et l'Iraq, afin de faire passer sous l'allégeance américaine des na-
vires ayant la nationalité d'un Etat ayant soutenu contre l'Iran l'effort de
guerre de l'Iraq, pareil changement de pavillon ne saurait être opposable
au premier de ces deux Etats. On rappellera que, dès 1989, les navires
koweïtiens ayant temporairement adopté le pavillon américain recou-

vrèrent leur immatriculation d'origine (dej?agging) 'O. Pareil changement
intervenu avant la date à laquelle a été forméela demande reconvention-
nelle permet en outre d'exclure que celle-ci satisfasse à la règle de la conti-

IoVoir George K. Walker, op. cit., p. ;George P. Politakis, «From Action Stations
to Action:US Naval Deployment, «Non-Belligerency » and «Defensive Reprisals » in the
Final Year of the Iran-IraqWar», Ocean Development and InternationalLaw, 1994,
vol. 25, p. 40.mitted to grant its diplomatic protection to the Company (or to rely on
a bilateral treaty in its favour). One of the reasons given by the Court for
not "adopt[ing] ... the theory of diplomaticprotection of shareholders as
such", that it would open "the door to competingdiplomatic claims" and
"could create an atmosphere of confusion and insecurity in international
and economicrelations" (case concerning Barcelona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Limited, Second Phase, Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1970,
p. 49, para. 96), applies just as strongly to the right of protection of ships,
which could potentially be exercised concurrently by the flag State, the
national State of the individual or undertaking holding a majority of the
ownership interests in the undertaking owning the vessel, by the State of
the cargo owner, etc. In respect of the counter-claim brought by the

United States, the principle deriving from the Judgment in the Barcelona
Traction case is of particularly compelling force because the freedom of
navigation protected by Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty is not
freedom of navigation in general, on al1seas throughout the world and in
favour of al1 vessels whatever their flag, but freedom of navigation of
"[v]essels under the flag of either High Contracting Party" exercising that
freedom "[bletween the territories of two High Contracting Parties". If
both of these conditions are not satisfied and one of them remains unmet,
the claim does not fa11within the jurisdiction of the Court as defined in
Article XXI, paragraph 2, of the Treaty. In respect of vessels not meeting
the conditions laid down in Article X, paragraph 1, the Court lacksjuris-
diction to decide whether the damage they suffered is imputable to Iran.

Three of the vessels referred to in the above-mentioned list merit
special attention. The Samuel B. Roberts is excluded as a warship
(see paragraph 9 above).
Equally, the reflagging of the two Kuwaiti tankers does not bring

the alleged damage within the scope of Article X, paragraph 1. Such
reflagging, carried out during the war between Iran and Iraq in order to
place under the aegis of the United States vessels having the nationality
of a State which supported Iraq in its war effort against Iran, cannot be
relied upon against Iran. It should be noted that by 1989 the Kuwaiti
ships which had temporarily adopted the United States flag had already
recovered their original registration ("deflagging") lo.Moreover, since
this change occurred before the date on which the counter-claim was sub-
mitted, that claim fails to satisfy the rule requiring continuity of the
bond of nationality. Further, the terms under which these two vessels

'OSee George K. Walker, op. cit, p.;George P. Politakis, "From Action Stations to
Year of the Iran-Iraq War",5 Ocean Development and International Law (1994), p. 40.nal371 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. RIGAUX)

nuité du lien de nationalité. Au surplus, le pavillon américain de com-
plaisance accordé à deux navires ne leur permet pas de satisfaire à une
autre condition portée par le paragraphe 1 de l'article X, à savoir de
bénéficierde la liberté de commerce et de navigation ((entre les territoires
des deux Hautes Parties contractantes », puisque, selon la législation amé-
ricaine elle-même, les navires ayant ainsi obtenu une immatriculation aux
Etats-Unis n'ont pas accès aux ports américains.
Il. Plusieurs passages de l'arrêt se réfèrent au ((contexte des événe-

ments survenus dans le golfe Persique entre 1980 et 1988, en particulier
du conflit armé entre l'Iran et l'Iraq» (par. 23 de l'arrêt). Ce n'est qu'en
termes allusifs que dans la phrase suivante la Cour laisse entendre que
l'Iraq était 1'Etat agresseur. La réalité de ce fait n'est guère contestée
aujourd'hui et il n'est pas inutile d'indiquer quelle fut l'attitude des Etats
tiers et notamment des Etats-Unis d'Amérique durant le déroulement du
conflit.
Au début de la guerre, les Etats-Unis et les autres puissances occiden-

tales adoptèrent une attitude expectante qui n'était pas dépourvue de
cynisme: après le renversement du régime du shah d'Iran, dont l'alliance
était une des pièces maîtresses de la politique américaine au Moyen-
Orient, il s'était opéréun vide dans la région. Au début de cette guerre, ni
les Etats-Unis ni les autres puissances occidentales ne souhaitaient une
victoire totale d'aucun des deux belligérants. Ils attendaient - ils espé-
raient - l'épuisement des deux adversaires sans que ni l'un ni l'autre ne

pût acquérir une position hégémonique dans la région. Qu'aucun des
deux belligérants n'eût été désigné comme agresseur par le Conseil de
sécuritépermettait aux autres Etats de leur vendre des armes, alors qu'il
aurait fallu tenir pour illicite l'aide militaire apportée à 1'Etat défini
comme agresseur. Les relations entre les Etats-Unis et l'Iran venaient de
traverser une crise particulièrement aiguë à la suite de la prise d'otages à
l'ambassade des Etats-Unis à Téhéran, et la Cour avait condamné l'Iran
de ce chef ll.Quant aux Etats arabes du golfe Persique, ils n'avaient guère

de sympathie pour les positions antimonarchistes de la République isla-
mique d'Iran. Ces circonstances ne manquèrent pas d'encourager l'Iraq à
attaquer l'Iran.
Après les premiers succès iraquiens qui permirent l'occupation d'une
fraction du territoire iranien, l'Iran réussit à renverser la situation à son
profit et c'està ce moment que commença aussi une volte-face des Etats-
Unis. Le respect des devoirs de la neutralité n'était pas incompatible avec
les intérêtsaméricains au Moyen-Orient aussi longtemps qu'une victoire

iranienne paraissait hors d'atteinte. Dès le moment, au contraire, où les
chances de l'Iraq paraissaient décliner, il parut nécessaire de redresser
l'équilibre des forces en présence. Dès ce moment aussi, se multiplient les
aides américaines à l'effort de guerre iraquien, qui ne paraissent guère

d'Amérique c. Iran), arrêt, C.Z.J. Recueil 1980, p. 3.is à Téhéran (Etats-Unis

214were reflagged with a United States flag of convenience prevent the
counter-claim from satisfying another condition laid down by Article X,

paragraph 1, i.e., it cannot claim the benefit of freedom of commerce
and navigation "[bletween the territories of the two High Contracting
Parties", because under the United States own domestic law, vessels
having thus obtained United States registration are not granted access
to United States ports.
11. Several passages in the Judgment refer to the "context of the gen-
eral events that took place in the Persian Gulf between 1980 and 1988, in
particular the armed conflict that opposed Iran and Iraq" (para. 23 of the
Judgment). It is only in veiled terms that in the following sentence the
Court implies that Iraq was the aggressor State. The truth of this is gen-

erally accepted today, and 1 feel it would be not unhelpful to indicate
what the attitude of third States was, and in particular the United States,
in the course of the conflict.
At the start of the war, the United States and the other western Powers
adopted a wait-and-see attitude marked by a certain cynicism: after the
fa11of the régime of the Shah of Iran, the alliance with whom had been
one of the key elements in America's Middle East policy, there was a
vacuum in the region. At the start of the war, neither the United States
nor the other western Powers wished to see a total victory by either of the
two belligerents. They were waiting - and hoping - to see the two

adversaries exhaust themselves without either being able to achieve
hegemony in the region. The fact that neither of the two belligerents was
named as aggressor by the Security Council enabled the other States to
sel1them arms, whereas it would have been unlawful to provide military
aid to a State defined as the aggressor. The relations between the United
States and Iran had just gone thorough a particularly severe crisis fol-
lowing the hostage-taking at the United States embassy in Tehran, and
the Court had condemned Iran for this 'l. For their part, the Arab States
of the Gulf had no particular sympathy for the anti-monarchist views of
the Islamic Republic of Iran. Al1 of these circumstancesencouraged Iraq

to attack Iran.

After Iraq's initialsuccesses, which enabledit to occupy part of Iranian
territory, Iran succeeded in reversing the position, and it was then that
the United States began its about-turn. Compliance with the obligations
of neutrality was not incompatible with American interests in the Middle
East as long as an Iranian victory appeared out of reach. By contrast, as
soon as Iraq's chances appeared to be fading, it became necessary to
restore the balance between the opposing forces. It was also from then on
that American aid to the Iraqi war effort increased substantially, a
phenomenon hardly compatible with the maintenance of strict neutrality

l1 United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United States of America v.
Iran), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1980, p. 3.372 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND.RIGAUX)

compatibles avec le maintien d'une stricte neutralité à l'égard des deux
belligérants: lancement de l'operation Staunch, campagne tendant à dis-
suader les alliés occidentaux de vendre des armes à l'Iran (El-Shazly,

p. 21 5);transmission à l'Iraq d'information par satellite (satellite intelli-
gence, El-Shazly, p. 323); autorisation de la vente de soixante hélicoptères
pour «agricultural purPoses» et attribution d'un crédit de quatre cent
soixante millions de dollars pour l'achat de riz (Walker, p. 47). A cela
s'ajoutent des soutiens diplomatiques non négligeables :en 1982, la radia-
tion de l'Iraq de la liste de pays soutenant le terrorisme international et le
rétablissement de relations diplomatiques en novembre 1984 (Walker,
p. 48 et 55). Mme El-Shazly synthétise la politique américaine durant la
guerre entre l'Iran et l'Iraq dans les termes suivants:

«Washington mena une stratégie empreinte de realpolitik, procla-
mant à plusieurs reprises sa neutralité, indiquant ses intérêts et ses
objectifs précis dans le Golfe, tout en suivant les étapes d'un calen-
drier secret alliant sympathies pour l'Iraq et autorisation de vente

d'armes non encore révélée à l'époque.» (P. 207.) [Traduction du
Greffe. ]
Sans que l'Iran ait réussi à apporter une preuve décisive de la conjonc-

tion de l'attaque américaine contre Sassan et Sirri avec la reconquête par
l'Iraq de la région d'al-Faw aux environs de Basra, la contemporanéité
des deux événements est pour le moins troublante. Ce qui fut appelé
l'operation Praying Mantis («mante religieuse ») aboutit à la destruction
des deux plates-formes et de deux frégates iraniennes et fut considéré par
M. Walker comme «[l]a plus grande intervention aéromaritime menée
par la marine des Etats-Unis depuis la seconde guerre mondiale» (p. 69)
[traduction du Greffe].
La Cour n'avait certes pas à se prononcer sur le soutien donné à
l'effort de guerre iraquien par l'Arabie saoudite ou par le Koweït, qui ne

sont pas parties à la présente instance; seul le cas du Koweït mérite d'être
mentionné en raison de l'aide que les Etats-Unis ont apportée à cet Etat,
notamment en autorisant le passage de onze pétroliers koweïtiens sous
pavillon américain. Sur ce point, on ne saurait mieux faire que de citer un
éminent internationaliste américain, M. Louis Henkin :

«Selon les déclarations récentes de certains porte-parole, les Etats-
Unis restent officiellement neutres dans le Golfe. Mais, même si le
concept de neutralité est encore applicable dans certains cas, les
Etats-Unis peuvent-ils être neutres en l'espèce? Personne ne nous
accusera d'êtreun alliéde l'Iran, mais il existe des arguments solides
indiquant que l'Iraq est probablement l'agresseur. Cela fait quelques
années que plus personne n'en parle. Il est vrai que le Conseil de

sécurité s'est abstenu de le faire, en partie parce que les Etats-Unis
s'y opposaient, ou parce que les Russes s'y opposaient. Cette situa-
tion soulève quelques questions, mais le droit n'a pas changé. Même
si aucune des Parties n'a étédésignée en tant qu'agresseur par lein relation to the two belligerents : the launching of "Operation Staunch",
a campaign seeking to dissuade the western allies from selling arms to

Iran (El-Shazly, p. 21 5); the transmission to Iraq of satellite intelligence
(El-Shazly, p.323); authorization for the sale of 60 helicopters "for agri-
cultural purposes", and a loan of $460 million for the purchase of rice
(Walker, p. 47). In addition, there was significant diplomatic support: in
1982, Iraq was removed from the list of countries supporting interna-
tional terrorism and in November 1984 diplomatic relations were resumed
(Walker, pp. 48, 55). Ms El-Shazly summarizes American policy during
the war between Iran and Iraq in the following terms:

"Washington conducted a realpolitik strategy. It repeatedly pro-
claimed its neutrality, stated its interests and clear objectives in the

Gulf, hand in hand with a concealed agenda, the blueprint of which
combined the leaning toward Iraq with the yet undisclosed licensing
of amis sales." (P. 207.)

While Iran may have failed to establish decisively the relationship
between the American attack on Sassan and Sirri and Iraq's reconquest
of the al-Faw area close to Basra, the coincidence of the two events is
disturbing to say the least. The operation termed "Praying Mantis"
resulted in the destruction of the two platforms and of two Iranian
frigates and was considered by Professor Walker as "[tlhe largest com-
bined air and surface engagement in war at sea for the US Navy since
World War II" (p. 69).

While it is admittedly not for the Court to rule on the support given to
the Iraqi war effort by Saudi Arabia or by Kuwait, who are absent from
the present proceedings, yet the case of Kuwait deserves special mention
because of the aid provided by the United States to that State, in par-
ticular by authorizing the American reflagging of 11 Kuwaiti tankers. On
this point, 1 cannot do better than quote a distinguishedAmerican inter-
national lawyer, Professor Louis Henkin :

"In the Gulf, some spokesman said recently, the United States
remain formally neutral. But even if the concept of neutrality can
apply in some cases, can the United States be neutral here? No one
would accuse us of being a friend of Iran, but there is a strong case
that Iraq is probably the aggressor. No one has mentioned that for
some years now. It is true that the Security Council refrained from

so holding, in part because the United States would not permit it, or
because the Russians would not permit it. That raises some ques-
tions, but that doesn't change the law; in the absence of a Security
Council determination that one party was the aggressor, do the laws
of the Charter not apply? In the absence of such a finding by the373 PLATES-FORME SÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. RIGAUX)

Conseil de sécurité, les dispositions de la Charte ne sont-elles pas
applicables? En l'absence d'une telle conclusion du Conseil de sécu-
rité, les Etats ont-ils la faculté de rester neutres, mêmes'il est patent
que l'une des Parties a ouvert les hostilités en violation de la
Charte? ...Le Koweït est-il neutre, ou bien, comme l'a indiqué le
premier intervenant, est-il un cobelligérant? Les Etats-Unis sou-

tiennent-ils le Koweït, et, dans ce cas, sommes-nous aussi des
cobelligérants? Dans l'affirmative, nous risquons non seulement
de soutenir l'agresseur, mais aussi, si les anciennes règles du droit
de la guerre sont applicables, de violer ce dernier.
Je veux dire que non seulement nous nous sommes peu à peu
engagés dans la guerre, mais que, du point de vue d'un internatio-
naliste, nous avons fini par nous retrouver dans une position parti-

culière au regard du droit international sans y avoir mûrement réflé-
chi et sans avoir du tout pensé aux conséquences à long terme. En
fait, nous semblons prendre au sérieux un droit de la guerre qui est
révolu, et non le droit contemporain contre la guerre. Par là même,
nous avons peut-être érodé les deux. Le moins que l'on puisse dire,
c'est que le droit en matière de neutralité et de belligérance n'est plus
ce qu'il était avant 1945.»12

12. Le 9 décembre 1991, le rapport complémentaire du Secrétaire
général des Nations Unies sur l'application de la résolution 598 (1987) du

Conseil de sécurité (doc. Sl23273) exprime de manière non équivoque une
opinion constatant la responsabilité de l'Iraq :
((6. L'Iraq n'ayant pas répondu quant au fond à ma lettre du

14 août 1991, je suis contraint de m'en tenir aux explications fournies
antérieurement par ce pays. Il est un fait que, pour la communauté
internationale, ces explications ne paraissent ni suffisantes ni accep-
tables. C'est pourquoi le fait saillant parmi les violations visées au
paragraphe 5 ci-dessus est l'attaque lancée le 22 septembre 1980
contre l'Iran, que l'on ne saura justifier en invoquant la Charte des

Nations Unies, des règles et principes reconnus du droit internatio-
nal ou des principes quelconques de la morale internationale et qui
entraîne donc la responsabilité du conflit.
7. Même si l'Iran avait quelque peu empiété sur le territoire ira-
quien avant l'éclatement du conflit, cet empiétement ne justifiait pas
l'agression de l'Iraq contre l'Iran - à laquelle a fait suite l'occupa-
tion par l'Iraq de territoires iraniens pendant toute la durée du

conflit - en violation de l'interdiction de l'usage de la force, qui est
considéré comme l'une des règles du jus cogens. »

l2 ((The PersianIArabiaGulf TankerWar InternationalLaw or InternationalChaos »,
26 janvier 1988, Ocean Developinent and InternationalLaw, 1988, vol. 19, p. 309-310.
Cf. Tod A. Phillips, ((Exchanging Excuses for Uses of Forc- The Tug of War in the
tion du Greffe.ouston Journal of International Law, 1987, vol. 10, p. 275-293. [Traduc- Security Council, are States free to be neutral even if it is clear that
one side launched the war in violation of the Charter? 1s Kuwait
neutral, or is it, as the first speaker suggested, perhaps a co-belliger-
ent? 1s the United States supporting Kuwait, and, if so, are we also
CO-belligerents? If so, we may not be only supporting the aggressor

but if the old laws of war apply - we may also be violating the law
of war.

1 suggest we may not only have slipped into the war but, from the
international lawyer's point of view, we seem to have slipped into a

particular position of international law without much thought about
it and without any thought to the long-term consequences. In fact,
we seem to be taking seriously the outdated law of war, but not the
contemporary law against war. In the process we may have eroded
both. At least it cannot be said that the law on neutrality and
belligerency is what it was before 1945." l2

12. On 9 December 1991 the supplementary report of the United

Nations Secretary-General on the implementation of Security Council
resolution 598 (1987) (doc. Sl23273) expressed in unequivocal terms the
view that Iraq was responsible:

"6. The Iraqi reply to my letter of 14 August 1991 is not a substan-
tial one; therefore 1 am bound to rely on explanations given by Iraq
earlier. That these explanations do not appear sufficient or accept-
able to the international community is a fact. Accordingly, the out-
standing event under the violations referred to in paragraph 5 above
is the attack of 22 September 1980 against Iran, which cannot be jus-
tified under the Charter of the United Nations, any recognized rules

and principles of international law or any principles of international
morality and entails the responsibility for the conflict.

7. Even if before the outbreak of the conflict there had been some
encroachment by Iran on Iraqi territory, such encroachment did not
justify Iraq's aggression against Iran - which was followed by
Iraq's continuous occupation of Iranian territory during the conflict

- in violation of the prohibition of the use of force, which is
regarded as one of the rules of jus cogens."

l2 "The PersianIArabian Gulf Tanker War :InternationalLaw or InternationalChaos",
26 January 1988, 19 Ocean Development and International Law (1988), pp. 309-310. Cf.
Tod A. Phillips, "Exchanging Excuses for Usesf Force - The Tug of War in the Persian
Gulf', 10 Houston Journal ofInternational Law (1987), pp. 275-293. Le rapport complémentaire se limite à la responsabilité des opérations

armées terrestres, il ne contient aucune considération relative à la guerre
sur mer et, notamment, à la guerre des pétroliers.
13. Ainsi, la Cour s'est abstenue d'invoquer deux motifs de rejet de la
demande reconventionnelle. Le premier est que celle-ci n'était pas fondée
en fait (par. 5-7 ci-dessus), le second étant qu'elle ne satisfaisait par à la
condition de nationalité des navires attaqués durant la guerre entre l'Iran
et l'Iraq. Or chacun de ces deux motifs aurait dû bénéficier d'une pri-
mauté logique par rapport au seul motif retenu par l'arrêt, à savoir
qu'aucun des navires «ne se livrait au commerce ou à la navigation

((entre les territoiresdes deux Hautes Parties contractantes »» (par. 121
de l'arrêt).
Le choix de ce seul motif s'explique sans doute par la volonté de la
Cour d'établir un parallélisme artificiel entre les deux actions, l'une et
l'autre rejetées pour le mêmemotif.

III. OBSERVATIONS RELATIVES À LA MOTIVATION DU REJET DE LA DEMANDE
ORIGINAIRE

a) La distinction entre le moyen tiré de l'alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de
l'article XX du traité de 1955 et celui qui est fondé sur la légitime
défense

14. Dans le paragraphe 78 de l'arrêt, la Cour constate que les actions
menées par les forces américaines contre les installations pétrolières ira-
niennes ne sauraient être justifiées ni par application de l'alinéa d) du

paragraphe 1 de l'article XX du traité de 1955 ni en vertu du droit de
légitime défense. Il s'agit d'une situation analogue au concours idéal
d'infractions en droit pénal, le même comportement devant êtreévalué
conformément à l'une et à l'autre des deux qualifications.
Le paragraphe 41 de l'arrêt rend insuffisamment justice à cette dualité
de qualifications. En effet, la Cour y interprète l'alinéa d) précité à la
lumière du droit international généralsansd'abord s'interroger sur l'inten-
tion des hautes parties contractantes. Or, il s'agit d'une dispositionrepro-
duite dans bon nombre de traités d'amitié similaires au traité conclu en

1955 par l'Iran avec les Etats-Unis mais aussi dans l'article XXI du
GATT, lesquels ont donné lieu à un grand nombre de commentaires doc-
trinaux.
Le paragraphe 1, alinéa d), précité est rédigécomme suit:
((Article XX

1. Le présent traité ne fera pas obstacle à l'application de mesures :

.............................

d) Ou nécessaires à l'exécution des obligations de l'une ou l'autre
des Hautes Parties contractantes relatives au maintien ou au
rétablissement de la paix et de la sécurité internationales ou à The supplementary report confines itself to responsibility for land
operations; it contains no observation regarding the war at sea, and in

particular the Tanker War.
13. Thus there were two grounds for dismissal of the counter-claim
that were not invoked by the Court. The first is that the claim was not
justified in terms offact (paras. 5-7 above), the second being that it did
not satisfy the nationality requirement in respect of the vessels attacked
during the war between Iran and Iraq. Yet either of these two grounds
should logically have taken precedence over the sole ground relied on in
the Judgment, namely that none of the vessels "was engaged in commerce
or navigation 'between the territories of the two High Contracting

Parties'" (para. 121 of the Judgment).
The choice of this ground alone is doubtless explicable by the Court's
desire to establish an artificial parallel between the two claims, both being
rejected for the same reason.

III. OBSERVATIONS ON THE REASONING UNDERLYING DISMISSAL
OF THE ORIGINAC LLAIM

(a) The Distinction Drawn between the Defence Based on Article XX,
Paragraph I (d), of the 1955 Treaty and That Based on the Right of
Self-defence

14. In paragraph 78 of the Judgment the Court finds that the actions
carried out by United States forces against Iranian oil installations can-
not be justified either under Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955
Treaty or as acts of self-defence. This is a situation analogous to that in
criminal law where one and the same act is covered by two offences, and
thus falls to be assessed by reference to the terrns of each of those
offences.

Paragraph 41 of the Judgment fails to do proper justice to this dual
characterization. Thus in that paragraph the Court interprets subpara-
graph (d) in light of general international law without first addressing
the issue of the High Contracting Parties' intention. And yet this is a pro-
vision which occurs in a number of treaties of friendship similar to that
signed in 1955 by Iran with the United States and also in Article XXI of
the GATT, and on which there exists a substantial body of comment in
the literature.
Paragraph 1 (d) reads as follows:

"Article XX
1. The present Treaty shall not preclude the application of
measures :
.............................

(d) [French translation: Ou nécessaires à l'exécution des obliga-
tions de l'une ou l'autre des Hautes Parties contractantes rela-
tives au maintien ou au rétablissement de la paix et de la sécu-375 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. RIGAUX)

la protection des intérêts vitaux de cette Haute Partie contrac-
tante sur le plan de la sécurité.))

Cette traduction qui est reprise du Recueil des traités de l'organisation
des Nations Unies ne correspond pas fidèlement à la version américaine
du traité qui fait foi avecl'original farsi. Le texte américain est le suivant:

((dj necessary to fulfil the obligations of a High Contracting Party
for the maintenance or restoration of international peace and
security, or necessary to protect its essential security interests)).

En répétant l'adjectif «necessary», le texte original évite l'ambiguïté à
laquelle pourrait conduire la traduction française. La répétition marque
plus clairement la différence entre ce qui est nécessaire à l'exécution des
obligations internationales de 1'Etat et ce qui est nécessaire à la protec-
tion d'intérêts essentiels (ou vitaux) de 1'Etat lui-même. Dans la traduc-
tion française, la répétition de la particule «ou)) pourrait donner à en-
tendre que 1'Etat est dans l'obligation de protéger ses propres intérêts.En

revanche, la distinction entre l'adjectif «essential)) et la traduction fran-
çaise «vitaux» ne paraît guère significative. En cas d'hésitation, il faut en
tout cas se reporter au texte américain.
15. La question d'interprétation qui se pose aujourd'hui à la Cour a
aussi étérencontrée par elle dans l'affaire des Activités militaires et para-
militaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats- Unis d'Amé-
rique), à propos de l'article XXI, paragraphe 1, alinéa dj, du traité
d'amitié, de commerce et de navigation conclu en 1956 entre les Etats-

Unis et le Nicaragua, rédigé dans les mêmes termes que l'article XX,
paragraphe 1, alinéa dj, du traité de 1955 avec l'Iran 13.
Un passage de l'arrêtde 1986 a reçu des interprétations divergentes des
Parties dont le différend est actuellement soumis à la Cour. Quel est le
rapport entre le recours à la force exceptionnellement autorisé en vertu
du droit de légitime défense et les mesures qu'un Etat peut prendre parce
qu'elles sont ((nécessaires à la protection de ses intérêtsvitaux sur le plan
de la sécurité))? (Le texte américain ((necessary to protect its essential

security interests)) est plus concis et plus clair.)
Selon l'arrêt de 1986 :
((224. En revanche, des mesures de légitime défense, individuelle

ou collective, peuvent êtreconsidérées comme entrant dans la caté-
gorie plus vaste des mesures qualifiées à l'article XXI de ((nécessaires
à la protection des intérêts vitaux)) d'une partie «en ce qui concerne
sa sécurité.. .

Il est difficile de contester que la légitime défense contre une agres-

l3 Voir Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua
c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique), fond,rrêt, C1 J. Recueil 1986, p. 115-116, par. 221.

218 rité internationales ou à la protection des intérêts vitaux de
cette Haute Partie contractante sur le plan de la sécurité.]"

This translation, which is taken from the United Nations Recueil des
traités, does not correspond entirely to the English-language text of the
Treaty, which is equally authoritative with the original Farsi. The English
text reads as follows:
"(d) necessary to fulfil the obligations of a High Contracting Party
for the maintenance or restoration of international peace and
security, or necessary to protect its essential securityinterests".

In repeating the adjective "necessary", the original text avoids an
ambiguity to which the French translation could lead. The repetition
brings out more clearly the distinction between what is necessary to fulfil
a State's international obligations and what is necessary to protect the
essential (or vital) interests of the State itself. In the French translation,
the repetition of the conjunction "ou" ("or") could suggest that the State is
under a duty to protect its own interests. On the other hand, the distinc-
tion between the adjective "essential" and the French translation "vitaux"

("vital") appears to be of little significance. In any event, in case of doubt
we should rely on the English text.
15. The question of interpretation faced by the Court today was also
addressed by it in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activi-
ties in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) in
relation to Article XXI, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty of Friendship,
Commerce and Navigation concluded in 1956 between the United States
and Nicaragua, which was drafted in similar terms to Article XX, para-
graph 1 (d), of the 1955 Treaty with Iran13.
A passage from the 1986 Judgment has been given differing interpre-
tations by the Parties to the present dispute. What is the relationship
between the use of force exceptionally permitted in exercise of the right of
self-defence and the measures which a State may take because they are
"nécessaires à la protection de ses intérêtsvitaux sur le plan de la sécu-
ritélnecessary to protect its essential security interests"? (The English text
is clearer and more concise.)
According to the 1986 Judgment :

"224. On the other hand, action taken in self-defence, individual
or collective, might be considered as part of the wider category of
measures qualifiedin Article XXI as 'necessary to protect' the 'essen-
tial security interests' of a Party.

It is difficult to deny that self-defence against an armed attack cor-

'3See Military and Paramilitary Activitiein and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v.
United States of America), Merits, JudgmentC.J. Reports 1986, pp.15-116,para. 221.376 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. RIGAUX)

sion armée correspond à des mesures nécessaires à la protection

d'intérêts vitaux dans le domaine de la sécurité.Toutefois la notion
d'intérêts vitaux en matière de sécurité déborde certainement la
notion d'agression armée et a reçu dans l'histoire des interprétations
fort extensives. La Cour doit donc se prononcer sur le caractère rai-
sonnable du péril encouru par ces «intérêtsvitaux en ce qui concerne
la sécurité)) et ensuite sur le caractère non seulement utile mais
((nécessaire)) des mesures présentées comme destinées à en assurer la
protection. » I4

A la vérité, il faut distinguer trois questions: Quelles sont les hypo-
thèses dans lesquelles jouent, respectivement, l'article 51 de la Charte et
l'article XX du traité de 1955? Quelles sont les mesures qu'il est licite

d'adopter dans l'une et l'autre hypothèses? Quel est le contrôle exercé par
la Cour sur la conformité au droit international de la mesure prise par
1'Etat ayant adhéré à une clause de juridiction?
16. La réponse à la première question résulte plus clairement de l'ar-
ticle 51 de la Charte que du paragraphe 1, alinéa d), de l'article XX du
traité de 1955. La mise en Œuvre du «droit naturel de légitime défense,
individuelle ou collective» n'est autorisée qu'au profit du Membre des
Nations Unies qui a été «l'objet d'une agression armée)). Il faut mais il
suffit que les faits allégués à l'appui de la légitime défense satisfassent à

cette qualification. L'hypothèse désignéepar le paragraphe 1, alinéa d),
de l'article XX du traité de 1955 est conçue d'une manière beaucoup plus
vague: pour que la mesure prise réponde aux exigences de cette disposi-
tion, il faut qu'elle soit nécessaire à la protection d'un intérêt vital de
1'Etat sur le plan de la sécurité (necessary to protect [a State's] essential
security interests) .Trois concepts indéterminés ou peu déterminés contri-
buent à qualifier l'hypothèse : «nécessaire à la protection », intérêtvital
(ou essentiel), relatifà la «sécurité» de 1'Etat.

Une différence de même nature sépare la forme et l'étendue de la ri-
poste autorisée. Dans un système où la légitime défense constitue
l'unique exception à la prohibition du recours à la force portée par
l'article 2, paragraphe 4, de la Charte, l'article 51 permet, dans la
mesure de la nécessitéet moyennant le respect du principe de proportion-
nalité, de réagir à une «attaque armée» par un emploi de la force qui,
en d'autres circonstances, aurait étéprohibé. Dans le paragraphe 1,
alinéa d), de l'article XX du traité de 1955, à l'indétermination de

l'hypothèse correspond une égaleincertitude quant à l'étendue et au choix
des «mesures» pouvant être mises en Œuvre par 1'Etat dont la sécurité
est en péril.
Quelles sont les mesures jugées «nécessaires» (et dans le respect du
principe de proportionnalité) à la protection des intérêts essentiels de
sécurité de l'Etat? Plus exactement, l'indétermination du concept de

l4 C.1.J. Recueil 1986,117, par. 224.

219 responds to measures necessary to protect essential securityinterests.

But the concepts of essential security interests certainly extends
beyond the concept of an armed attack, and has been subject to very
broad interpretations in the past. The Court has therefore to assess
whether the risk run by these 'essential security interests' is reason-
able, and secondly, whether the measures presented as being designed
to protect these interests are not merely useful but 'necessary'." l4

In reality, there are three issues here: what are the circumstances in
which, respectively, Article 51 of the Charter and Article XX of the 1955
Treaty apply? What measures is it lawful to take in either case? What
power of review does the Court have over the lawfulness of action taken
by a State having accepted a jurisdictional clause?

16. The answer to the first question can be gleaned more clearly from
Article 51 of the Charter than from paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX of the
1955 Treaty. Exercise of the "inherent right of individual or collective
self-defence" is authorized only where a Member of the United Nations
has been the subject of "an armed attack". It is necessary, but suffices,
that the facts alleged in support of the exercise of self-defence satisfy this
requirement. The situation referred to in paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX
of the 1955 Treaty is described in much vaguer terms: in order for the
measure taken to satisfy the requirements of this provision, it must be
necessary to protect a State's essential security interests.This requirement

contains three undefined or poorly defined concepts: "necessary to pro-
tect", "essential" and "security".

There is a similar difference in regard to the form and scope of the
authorized response. In a system where self-defence constitutes the sole
exception to the prohibition of the use of force laid down in Article 2,
paragraph 4, of the Charter, Article 51 authorizes, to the extent necessary
and subject to compliance with the principle of proportionality, a reac-
tion to an "armed attack" by the use of force which, in other circum-

stances, would have been prohibited. In paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX
of the 1955 Treaty, the lack of definition in regard to the relevant circum-
stances is matched by a vagueness in respect to the "measures" which a
State may take where its security is at risk.

What measures may be considered "necessary" (subject always to
respect for the principle of proportionality) to protect a State's essential
security interests? More specifically, the lack of a clear definition of

l41.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 117, para. 224.377 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND.RIGAUX)

((nécessité» joue sur les deux registres :la qualification de l'hypothèse et
la mesure qu'elle autorise.
Des trois questions, la troisième est la plus facile à résoudre. Si l'appli-
cation de l'article 51 de la Charte ou de l'article XX du traité de 1955 fait
l'objet d'un différend judiciaire, lajuridiction compétente a certes le pou-

voir - et mêmele devoir - de vérifier si la norme de droit international
a étécorrectement appliquée. Telle fut déjà la solution de la Cour dans
l'affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats- Unis d'Amérique) :

«Mais, d'après les termes du traité lui-même, la question de savoir
si une mesure est nécessaire à la protection des intérêtsvitaux de
sécuritéd'une partie ne relève pas de l'appréciation subjective de la
partie intéressée, ainsi que la Cour l'a déjà souligné (paragraphe 222
ci-dessus); le texte ne vise pas ce que la partie ((estime nécessaire ». » l5

Ces explications sont requises pour écarter une apparente ambiguïté

dans le texte du paragraphe 224 de l'arrêt de 1986: la catégorie de me-
sures de légitime défense n'entre dans la catégorie plus vaste des mesures
qualifiées par l'article XXI que si l'on sous-entend que 1'Etat exerçant son
droit de légitime défense peut choisir entre diverses variétés, plus ou
moins radicales, de l'emploi de la force. Dans l'affaire des Activités mili-
taires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c.
Etats-Unis d'Amérique), la Cour a elle-même constaté qu'il y a «lieu de

distinguer entre les formes les plus graves de l'emploi de la force (celles
qui constituent une agression armée) et d'autres modalités moins bru-
tales» 16.Que «la notion d'intérêtsvitaux en matière de sécurité déborde
certainement la notion d'agression armée » est une proposition acceptable
si elle signifie qu'ily a une différence de nature (plutôt que la gradation
indiquée par le verbe «déborde») entre l'agression armée et les multiples
comportements d'un Etat contre lesquels un autre Etat estime ((néces-

saire» de protéger, par les mesures appropriées, ses intérêtsessentiels en
matière de sécurité.
17. La question qui se pose pour l'application et l'interprétation du
paragraphe 1, alinéa d), de l'article XX du traité de 1955 est de savoir si
l'emploi de la force appartient aux «mesures» qu'un Etat peut prendre
pour la protection de ses intérêts vitaux de sécurité. Ou, en d'autres
termes, les mesures entre lesquelles 1'Etat peut faire un choix pour laprotec-

tion de ses intérêtsvitaux de sécurité incluent-elles le recours à la force
armée contre un autre Etat? Car telle est bien la nature de l'attaque des
plates-formes pétrolières qui, reposant sur le plateau continentalde l'Iran,
relèvent de la compétence exclusive de cet Etat.
Il y a deux manières de répondre à la question posée dans les termes
qui viennent d'être précités. Ou bien on admet une forme d'insularité du

l5 C.I.J.Recueil1986, p. 141, par. 282.
l6 Ibid., p. 101, par. 191."necessity" operates at two levels: the characterization of the situation
and the measures which it justifies.
Of the three questions, the third is the easiest. If the application of
Article 51 of the Charter or of Article XX of the 1955 Treaty becomes the
subject of a judicial dispute, then the competent court undoubtedly has
the power - and indeed the duty - to verify that the rules of interna-
tional law have been applied correctly. The Court had already reached
this conclusion in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activi-
ties in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America) :

"But by the terms of the Treaty itself, whether a measure is
necessary to protect the essential security interests of a party is
not, as the Court has emphasized (paragraph 222 above), purely a
question for the subjective judgment of the party; the text does not

refer to what the party 'considers necessary' for that purpose." l5
This explanation is necessary in order to dispel an apparent ambiguity
in the text of paragraph 224 of the 1986 Judgment: action taken in self-
defence may be considered as part of the wider category of measures

described in Article XXI only on the implied condition that the State
exercising its right of self-defence has a choice from among various types
of forcible action, some more far-going than others. In the case concern-
ing Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nica-
ragua v. United States of America), the Court itself stated that it was
"necessary to distinguish the most grave forms of the use of force (those
constituting an armed attack) from other less grave forms"16. By the
same token, the proposition that "the concept of essential security inter-
ests certainly extends beyond the concept of an armed attack" is accept-
able only if it signifies that there is a difference in kind (rather than the
one of degree suggested by the phrase "extends beyond") between an
armed attack and the various other kinds of conduct of a State against
which another State considers it "necessary", by appropriate measures,
to protect its essential security interests.
17. The question to be answered for purposes of applying and inter-
preting Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955 Treaty is whether the
use of force falls within the "measures" that a State may take to protect
its essential security interests. Or, in other words, do the measures from
which a State may choose in order to protect its essential security inter-
ests include the use of armed force against another State? For that was

certainly what the attack on the oil platforms was, since these, being
located on Iran's continental shelf, fa11within the exclusive jurisdiction of
that State.
There are two ways of answeringthe question as posed in these specific
terms. Either we accept that paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX falls to be

l6Ibid., p. 101, para. 191.41, para. 282.378 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. RIGAUX)

paragraphe 1, alinéa d), de l'article XX, laquelle le tient séparédes autres
règles de droit international, notamment de la Charte des Nations Unies
et des normes de droit international coutumier prohibant le recours à la
force, ou bien on admet que la prohibition du recours à la force aux
conditions fixéespar l'article 2, paragraphe 4, de la Charte, et par le droit
international coutumier appartient au jus cogens, ce qui in.terdit aux
Etats d'y déroger dans leurs relations bilatérales régléespar la voie d'un
traité. Car telle serait bien la conséquence à laquelle aboutirait la pre-
mière réponse à la question: le paragraphe 1, alinéa d), de l'article XX

permettrait à chacun des Etats contractants l'emploi de la force armée
contre l'autre Etat à des conditions ne devant pas satisfaire aux exigences
de l'article 51 de la Charte mais pouvant être habillées de la notion indé-
terminée de «mesures nécessaires à la protection d'intérêts vitaux de sécu-
rité» du premier Etat.
18. Dans son arrêt de 1986 relatif à l'affaire des Activités militaires et
paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats Unis
d'Amérique), la Cour a certes rejeté le moyen tiré par les Etats-Unis du
paragraphe 1, alinéa d), de l'article XXI du traité d'amitié avec le Nica-

ragua (après avoir d'abord rejeté le moyen tiré de la légitime défense).
Toutefois, en considérant «que le minage de ports nicaraguayens et les
attaques directes contre des ports et des dépôts de pétrole ne sauraient en
'aucun cas êtrejustifiés par la nécessitéde protéger les intérêts vitaux de
sécurité des Etats-Unis» 17,la Cour n'énonce pas explicitement le motif
de sa décision: est-ce parce que les faits imputés aux Etats-Unis excé-
daient l'étendue et la nature des mesures pouvant être prises en vertu de
l'article XXI du traité d'amitié ou, plus simplement, parce que ces me-
suresn'étaient pas nécessaires à la protection des intérêts vitaux de sécurité

sans qu'elles eussent été illicites si elles avaient satisfaità cette nécessité.
Le point 2 du dispositif de l'arrêt de 1986 rejette expressément «la justi-
fication de légitime défense collective avancée par les Etats-Unis d'Amé-
rique» tandis qu'aucune autre partie du même dispositif ne se réfère à
l'article XXI du traité d'amitié.
Que les mesures qu'un Etat est autorisé à prendre en vertu du para-
graphe 1, alinéa d), de l'article XX du traité de 1955, et de nombreuses
dispositions similaires d'autres traités bilatéraux d'amitié et de commerce
ne puissent inclure l'emploi de la force ne requiert pas qu'il soit fait appli-

cation de la Charte des Nations Unies ou des normes coutumières de
droit international sur l'emploi de la force. En admettant de rester dans
les limites de l'interprétation et de l'application du traité bilatéral, titre de
la compétence de la Cour, il est permis de déduire de la seule interpréta-
tion du paragraphe 1, alinéa d), précité que les hautes parties contrac-
tantes n'ont pas eu l'intention de se conférer, sur le fondement de la
réciprocité, la licence de recourir à la force armée l'une contre l'autre au
titre de mesure nécessaire à la protection d'un intérêt vital de sécuritéde
chacun des deux Etats.

l7C.Z.J. Recueil 198p. 141,par. 282.considered in some form of isolation which cuts it off from the other
rules of international law, in particular the United Nations Charter and
the noms of customary international law prohibiting the use of force, or
we accept that the prohibition of the use of force in accordance with the
terms of Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter and with customary inter-
national law forms part of jus cogens, which would prohibit States from
derogating therefrom in their bilateral treaty relations. For that would
indeed be the consequence to which the first reply to the question would
lead : paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX would permit either of the contract-
ing States to use arrned force against the other State in circumstances

which would not have to satisfy the requirements of Article 51 of the
Charter but which it would be entitled to take under the - undefined -
guise of "measures to protect its essential security interests".

18. In its 1986 Judgrnent in the case concerningMilitary and Paramili-
tary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), the Court did indeed reject the United States defence based on
paragraph 1 (d) of Article XXI of the Treaty of Friendship with Nica-
ragua (having first rejected the self-defence argument). However, in hold-
ing that "the mining of Nicaraguan ports, and the direct attacks on ports
and oil installations, cannot possibly be justified as 'necessary' to protect
the essential security interests of the United States" 17the Court does not
expressly explain the reason for its decision: is it because the actions
attributed to the United States go beyond the nature and scope of
measures which may be taken under Article XXI of the Treaty of Friend-
ship, or, more simply, because such actions were not necessary to protect
essential security interests, but would not have been unlawful if they had
satisfied that requirement? Point 2 of the operative paragraph of the 1986
Judgment expressly rejects "the justification of collective self-defence
maintained by the United States of America", whilst no other part of that
operative paragraph refers to Article XXI of the Treaty of Friendship.

In order to decide that the measures which a State is authorized to take
under paragraph 1 (d) of Article XX of the 1955 Treaty and numerous
similar provisions in other bilateral treaties of friendship and commerce
do not include the use of force, the Court need not have recourse to the
United Nations Charter or the customary rules of international law on
the use of force. It is open to the Court, while confining itself to inter-
preting and applyingthe bilateral treaty - its sole basis of jurisdiction-
to conclude, simply by interpreting paragraph 1 (d), that the High Con-
tracting Parties did not intend to confer upon one another a mutual
freedom to have recourse to armed force in the context of a measure
necessary to protect essential security interests.

l7I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 141, para. 282.379 PLATES-FORME SÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. RIGAUX)

Les juristes américains ayant publié le commentaire des traités d'amitié
ou de l'article du GATT, qui autorise également d'écarter l'application

d'autres dispositions de l'accord international si cela est nécessaire à la
protection d'un intérêt vital de sécuritéde 17Etat, écartent formellement
l'idée que l'emploi de la force armée puisse appartenir aux <<mesures»
prévues par la disposition conventionnelle 18.M. J. Hahn exclut très clai-
rement l'usage de la force des mesures autorisées conformément à l'ar-

ticle XXI, alinéa d), des règles du GATT. Il donne ensuite une liste
d'exemples, tirés de la pratique des Etats, de la mise en Œuvre de cet ar-
ticle, mais aucun n'inclut le recours à l'usage de la force. L'embargo ou des
mesures de rétorsion économiques sont généralement utilisés, tel
l'embargo décrété par les Etats-Unis contre Cuba (Hahn, p. 571).
Aucun des ouvrages récents sur le GATT ne laisse mêmesupposer que

l'article XXI du GATT autoriserait un Etat à prendre une mesure
d'emploi de la force pour la protection d'un intérêtsérieux de sécurité.
Selon M. Andreas F. Lowenfeld:

«Bien avant que le Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies ne fasse
des sanctions économiques son instrument de pression privilégié,
celles-ci constituaient déjà un élément important de la politique
étrangère des Etats, moins dangereux que la force militaire, mais
plus lourd de conséquences - et parfois plus efficace - que la diplo-

matie seule ...Une large gamme de sanctions ont été appliquées, de
l'embargo le plus strict au contrôle sélectifdes exportations et impor-
tations, en passant par le gel des avoirs, le blocage des opérations
financières et les restrictions imposées au transport maritime et
aérien. » l9

11en va de même des mesures de rétorsion ou de représailles avec les-
quelles l'action américaine contre les plates-formes pétrolières ne serait

pas sans analogie: toutefois les représailles armées sont interdites par le
droit international général 20 (voir notamment la résolution de l'Institut

l8 Voir notamment Pamela B. Gann, «The U.S. Bilateral Investment Treaty Program)),
Stanford Journal of International Law, 1985, vol. XXI, p. 373-457, p. 425;
Michael J. Hahn, «Vital Interests and the Law of GATT: An Analysis of GATT's Secu-
rity Exception)), Michigan Journal of International Law, 1991, vol. 12, p. 558-620. Voir
encore Olivia Q. Swaak-Goldman, «Who Defines Members' Security Interest in the
WTO?)), Leiden Journal of International Law, 1996, vol. 9, p. 361-371. Ce dernauteur
ne cite aussi que des exemples d'embargo, notamment lors de la guerre des Falklands
(p. 365-366) ou par I'application du Helms-Burton Act (p367-368).
l9 Andreas F. Lowenfeld, International Economic Law, 2002, p. 764. Dans le même
sens,Legal Problems of International EconomicRelations, Cases, Materials and Text...,
John H. Jackson, William J. Davey et Alan O. Sykes Jr. (dir. publ.), 4" éd., 2002, sec-
tion 21.5, p. 1045 et suiv.; Raj Bhala,InternationalTrade Law, Tlzeory and Practice,
2" éd., 2001, p. 594-604.
20 Voir par exemple: Rosalyn Higgins, Problems and Process, InternationalLaw and
HOW We Use It, 1994, p. 240-241, 244-245; Michel Virally«Le principe de réciprocité American jurists who have written commentaries on treaties of friend-
ship or on the GATT article which similarly authorizes derogations from
the Agreement's other provisions where this is necessary to protect a
State's essential security interests categorically reject the idea that the use

of armed force can be one of the "measures" envisaged by such a provi-
sion 18. M. J. Hahn very clearly excludes the use of forcein the context of
measures authorized under Article XXI (d) of the GATT Rules. He then
gives a list of examples, taken from State practice, of the implementation
of that Article, but not one of them includes the use of force. An
embargo or measures of economic retaliation are what are generally
used, such as the United States embargo on Cuba (Hahn, p. 571).

Not one of the recent works on GATT even suggests that Article XXI
of the GATT would authorize a State to use force to protect a serious
security interest. According to Andreas F. Lowenfeld:

"Well before the United Nations Security Council began to use
economicsanctions as a primary tool, individual countries used eco-
nomic sanctions as an important instrument of foreign policy, less
dangerous than military force, but more serious - and sometimes
more effective - than diplomacy alone . . .A variety of sanctions
have been employed, from total embargoes to selective controls on

exports and imports, to freezing of assets, blocking of financial
transactions, and restrictions on shipping and aviation." l9

The same applies to measures of retaliation or reprisal, with which
the American action against the oil platforms would bear a certain com-
parison, if armed reprisals were not prohibited by general international
law20 (see also the resolution of the Institut de droit international,

l8See inter alia Pamela B. Gann, "The U.S. Bilateral Investment Treaty Program",
Hahn, "Vital Interests and the Law of GATT: An Analysis of GATT's Security Excep-l J.
tion", 12Michigan Journal of International Law (1991), pp. 558-620. See also Olivia Q.
Swaak-Goldman, "Who Defines Members' Security Interest in the WTO?", 9 Leiden
Journal of International Law (1996), pp. 361-371. Thelatter, moreover, cites only embargo
cases, in particulaat the time of the Falklands War (pp. 365-366) or under the Helms-
Burton Act (pp. 367-368).
l9 Andreas F. Lowenfeld, International Economic Law, 2002, p. 764. See similarly
Legal Problems of International Economic Relations, Cases, Materialsand Text ...,4th
ed. by John H. Jackson, William J. Davey and Alan O. Sykes, Jr., 2002, Section 21.5,
pp. 1045 et seq;Raj Bhala, International Trade Law, Theory and Practice, 2nd ed., 2001,
pp. 594-604.
How We Use It,exa1994, pp. 240-241, 244-245; Michel Virally"Le principe de réciprocitéde droit international, «Régime des représailles en temps de paix », art. 4,
Annuaire de l'Institut de droit international, 1934, p. 709).
19. Il est permis de conclure sur ce point que la Cour aurait pu mieux
distinguer les arguments tirés de la clause d'exception de l'alinéa d) du

paragraphe 1 de l'article XX du traité de 1955 de ceux qui se fondent sur
le droit de légitime défense. Sans doute la Cour a-t-elle rejeté tant l'un
que l'autre des moyens de défense des Etats-Unis, mais sans se prononcer
explicitement sur le caractère spécifique de l'alinéa d) précité. Ce n'est
que si la volonté des hautes parties contractantes avait étéde s'autoriser
mutuellement à déroger aux dispositions de la Charte sur le recours à la

force, que la Cour aurait dû décider que pareille tentative d'écarter une
norme impérative de droit international (jus cogens) était soustraite au
pouvoir contractuel des Parties.
L'analyse qui précède ne contredit pas les solutions données par la
Cour dans l'affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua
et contre celui-ci. L'arrêt de 1986 n'est ni clair ni décisif sur les questions
relatives au concours de la disposition du traité d'amitié et des règles de

la Charte des Nations Unies sur la légitime défense.

b) Observations relatives à l'interprétation et à l'application du para-
graphe 1 de l'article X du traité de 1955

20. L'arrêt contient de longs développements sur l'application du para-
graphe 1 de l'article X du traité de 1955 à la demande de l'Iran (par. 79
à 98 de l'arrêt). Les questions d'interprétation sur lesquelles j'estime

devoir m'écarter de la décision de la Cour et de sa motivation portent sur
les points suivants :

i) quant aux plates-formes de Reshadat, les dommages qu'elles
avaient subis à la suite d'une attaque menée par l'Iraq les ren-
daient impropres à une activité que l'attaque américaine ulté-
rieure n'aurait, dès lors, pas interrompue;

ii) en ce qui concerne les plates-formes de Salman et de Nasr,
l'exportation du pétrole iranien vers les Etats-Unis aurait, de
toute manière, été empêchéepour une autre cause, à savoir

dans le droit international contemporai», Recueil des cours de l'Académie de droit inter-
national de La Haye, 1967, vol. 122, p. 51-54;Avra Constantinou, The Right of Self-
Defence under Contemporary InternationalLaw under Article 51 of the United Nations
Charter, 2000, p. 129-155«A propos des contre-mesures,qui ne sont licites que si elles ne
sont pas accompagnées de l'usage de la forces; D. W. Bowett, ((Reprisais Involving
36c;Robert W. Tucker,ce))Reprisals and Self-Defence:The Customary, 1Law », eod. loco,1-
p. 586-594; Richard A. Falk, «The Beirut Raid and the International Law of Retalia-
tion», American Journal of International Law, 1969, vol. 63, p. 415-443; Serge Regourd,
«Raids «anti-terroristeset développements récents des atteinteillicites au principe de
non-intervention», Annuaire français de droit internationa1986, vol. 32, p. 88."Régime des représaillesen temps de paix", Art. 4, Annuaire de l'Institut
de droit international, 1934, p. 709).
19. It may be concluded on this point that the Court could have better
distinguished between the arguments deriving from the exception pro-
vided for in Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955 Treaty and those
based on the right of self-defence. While the Court did indeed reject both
defences relied on by the United States, it failed to rule expressly on the
specific nature of subparagraph (d). Only in the event of a finding that
the High Contracting Parties had intended to authorize each other to

derogate from the provisions of the Charter concerning the use of force
should the Court have decided that such an attempt to circumvent a
peremptory norm of international law (jus cogens) was outside their
treaty-making power.
This analysis is not at variance with the solutions reached by the Court
in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua. The 1986 Judgment is neither clear nor decisive on issues con-
cerning the relationship between the clause in the Treaty of Friendship
and the Charter rules on self-defence.

(b) Observations on the Interpretation and Application of Article X,
Paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty

20. The Judgment devotes lengthy passages to the issue of whether
Iran's claim falls within the terms of Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955
Treaty (paras. 79-98 of the Judgment). The questions of interpretation
on which 1 feel myself bound to differ from the Court's decision and its
reasoning relate to the following points:

(i) in respect of the Reshadat platforms, the finding that, because the
damage which they had suffered as a result of an attack by Iraq had
rendered them inoperative, there was no activity capable of being
interrupted by the subsequent American attack;

(ii) in respect of the Salman and Nasr platforms, the finding that the
export of Iranian oil to the United States was in any event pre-
vented for a different reason, namely the embargo on imports of

dans le droit international contemporain", Recueil des cours de l'Académie de droit inter-
national de La Haye,Vol. 122 (1967), pp. 51-54; Avra Constantinou, The Right of Self-
Defence under Contemporary International Law under Article 51 of the United Nations
Charter,2000, pp. 129-155, in regard to counter-measures, which are lawful only in so far
as they are not accompanied by the use of force; D. W. Bowett, "Reprisals Involving
Recourse to Armed Force", 66 American Journal of International Law (1972), pp. 1-36;
594; Richard A. Falk, "The Beirut Raid and the International Law of Retaliation", 63
American Journal of International Law (1969), pp. 415-443; Serge Regourd, "Raids 'anti-
terroristes' et développements récentsdes atteintes illicites au principe de non-interven-
tion", 32Annuaire français de droit international (1986), p. 88.381 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. RIGAUX)

l'interdiction d'importation de pétrole iranien portée par 1'Exe-
cutive Order 12613 du 29 octobre 1987 ;
iii) l'Iran n'aurait pas réussià démontrer que les dommages infligés
aux plates-formes pétrolières iraniennes auraient fait obstacle à
la liberté de commerce «entre les territoires des deux Hautes

Parties contractantes ».

i) Le lien de causalité entre les dommages causés aux plates-formes de
Reshadat et la prolongation de leur mise hors service

21. Au moment où les plates-formes pétrolières iraniennes ont étéatta-
quées par les forces armées américaines, l'activité de certaines d'entre
elles avait été temporairement interrompue en raison des dommages pré-
cédemment causés par des attaques iraquiennes. Selon les exposés de

M. Zeinoddin et de M. Sellers à l'audience du 18 février 2003 (CR 200316,
p. 39 et suiv.), la plate-forme R-7 du complexe de Reshadat fut attaquée
par l'Iraq le 19 octobre 1986, ce qui interrompit la production de pétrole
du complexe de Reshadat et Resalat. Pendant les travaux de réparation,
une seconde attaque iraquienne eut lieu le 15juillet 1987, mais on pouvait
espérer une reprise de la production à la fin du mois d'octobre 1987, à un
rythme de 20 000 barils par jour. Le complexe de Salman qui se compose
de sept plates-formes reliées entre elles fut attaqué également par l'Iraq le
16 octobre 1986 mais ne fut que légèrement endommagé, et la production
put reprendre trois jours plus tard.
Les attaques américaines du 19 octobre 1987 détruisirent complète-

ment le complexe de production de Reshadat et R-7 alors que les techni-
ciens étaient occupés à le remettre en état. La plate-forme R-4 fut aussi
attaquée. La production ne put reprendre à un rythme moindre que trois
ans plus tard et elle n'atteignit un niveau normal qu'en 1993. Le 18 avril
1988,les Etats-Unis attaquèrent les complexes de Salman et de Nasr. Sur
la plate-forme électrogène, les Américains avaient laissé des explosifs
dont le détonateur ne fonctionna pas. Les dégâts furent cependant assez
considérables pour que la production ne pût reprendre à son rythme nor-
mal qu'en 1993. Selon les explications données par M. Zeinoddin à
l'audience du 18 février 2003 (CR 200316, p. 32 et suiv.), les complexes de

Reshadat et de Resalat, dont un schéma figure sous l'onglet no 7 du dos-
sier d'audience déposé par le demandeur, étaient en interaction de la ma-
nière suivante. Le complexe de Reshadat comprenait trois plates-formes
de forage et de production (R-3, R-4 et R-7) reliées au total à vingt-
sept puits de pétrole. Le pétrole produit par la plate-forme R-3 était ache-
miné par un oléoduc sous-marin jusqu'à la plate-forme R-4 et, de là, en
même temps que le pétrole brut extrait à partir de la plate-forme R-4,
jusqu'à la plate-forme R-7, de laquelle, après séparation initiale de l'eau
et du gaz, le pétrole était acheminé par un oléoduc sous-marin jusqu'à
l'île deLavan, à 108 kilomètres de là.

22. Quant au complexe offshore de Resalat, il comprenait trois plates- Iranian oil imposed by Executive Order 12613 of 29 October
1987;
(iii) the finding that Iranhad not succeeded in showing that the damage
to the Iranian oil platforms had interfered with freedom of trade
"between the territories of the High Contracting Parties".

(i) The causal link between the damage to the Reshadat platforms and
the length of the period during which they remained out of commis-
sion

21. At the time when the Iranian oil platforms were attacked by the
United States armed forces, some of them were already temporarily out
of commission because of damage previously caused by Iraqi attacks.
According to the statements of Mr. Zeinoddin and Mr. Sellers at the

hearing on 18 February 2003 (CR 200316, pp. 39 et seq.), the R-7 plat-
form of the Reshadat complex was attacked by Iraq on 19 October 1986
and this temporarily stopped oil production at the Reshadat and Resalat
complexes. A second Iraqi attack occurred on 15 July 1987, when repair
work was under way, but it was anticipated that production would
resume at the end of October 1987 at a level of 20,000 barrels per day.
The Salman complex, made up of seven interconnected platforms, was
also attacked by Iraq on 16 October 1986 but suffered only light damage
and production resumed three days later.

The United States attacks on 19 October 1987 completely destroyed
the Reshadat production complex and R-7 at a time when engineers were
busy repairing it. The R-4 platform was also attacked. Production could
only resume at a lower level three years later and did not reach its normal
level until 1993. On 18 April 1988 the United States attacked the Salman
and Nasr complexes. The Americans had left explosives on the power
generating platform but the detonator failed. The damage was however
substantial enough that production could not return to its normal level
until 1993. According to the information provided by Mr. Zeinoddin at
the hearing on 18 February 2003 (CR 200316, pp. 32 et seq.), the Resha-

dat and Resalat complexes, according to the diagram at tab No. 7 in the
judges' folder submitted by the Applicant, worked together in the follow-
ing way. The Reshadat complex consisted of three drillingand produc-
tion platforms (R-3, R-4 and R-7) linked to a total of 27 oil wells. The oil
produced by the R-3 platform was transported by submarine pipeline to
the R-4 platform and thence, together with the crude oil extracted at the
R-4 platform, to the R-7 platform, from which the oil, after initial water
and gas separation, was transported by submarine pipeline to Lavan
Island, 108 km away.

22. The Resalat offshore complex consisted of three linked drilling andformes de forage et de production reliées entre elles et désignéessous le
sigle R-1, auxquelles étaient reliés quatorze puits. Le pétrole brut qui en
était extrait était acheminé par un oléoduc sous-marin d'une longueur de
29 kilomètres jusqu'à la plate-forme R-7 de Reshadat où il subissait le
même traitement que le pétrole extrait par les plates-formes R-3, R-4 et
R-7. Ainsi, R-7 était la plate-forme principale dont dépendait l'ensemble

des champs de Reshadat et de Resalat.
Le complexe de Salman, dont un schéma est placé sous l'onglet no 9, se
composait de sept plates-formes reliées entre elles, dont une de forage
et deux de production. Le pétrole provenant de vingt et un puits était
acheminé par oléoduc jusqu'à ce complexe et, de là, après séparation
initiale de l'eau et du gaz, jusqu'à l'île de Lavan. Tout comme le brut
extrait de Reshadat et de Resalat, le pétrole de Salman était traité pour
une nouvelle séparation du gaz et de l'eau sur l'île de Lavan, et il était
ou bien raffiné sur place en vue de la consommation intérieure ou bien
exporté.

Le complexe de Nasr, dont un schéma figure sous l'onglet no 11, com-
prenait une plate-forme centrale (A), une série de torchères et six plates-
formes de production pétrolière situées autour de la plate-forme centrale,
alimentées par quarante-quatre puits situés dans le champ de Sirri et
quatre puits situés dans le champ de Nosrat. Le pétrole brut provenant
de l'ensemble de ces puits était transporté par un oléoduc sous-marin jusqu'à
la plate-forme centrale et, de là, jusqu'à l'île de Sirri pour traitement
secondaire et exportation, l'île deSirri ne disposant pas de raffineries. A
la différence des deux complexes précédemment décrits, le complexe de
Nasr n'avait pas subi d'attaque de l'Iraq et il fonctionnait normalement
au moment de l'attaque américaine.

La production quotidienne normale de Reshadat-Resalat était de
20 000 barils, celle de Salman de 125 000 barils. Au moment de l'attaque
américaine, le complexe de Nasr produisait environ 36 000 barils par jour
alors que sa capacité de production pouvait atteindre 120 000 barils par
jour.
23. Pour que le paragraphe 1 de l'articleX s'applique à la destruction
des trois complexes pétroliers de Reshadat-Resalat, Salman et Nasr, trois
conditions doivent être réunies: que les plates-formes étaient le siège
d'une activité de commerce, que la liberté de commerce avait subi une
atteinte et que ette liberté s'exerçait ou pouvait s'exercer entre les terri-

toires des deux hautes parties contractantes.
Les trois complexes de plates-formes pétrolières étaient, par leur nature
même, destinés 3 la production, au traitement et au transport du pétrole
vers un lieu d'oii il pourrait être mis «dans le commerce)). Le caractère
artificiel de l'érection de plates-formes sur le plateau continental d'un
Etat afin d'extraire les ressources pétrolières contenues dans la zone éco-
nomique exclusive de cet Etat ainsi que la mise en oeuvre d'une techno-
logie de pointe pour produire le pétrole brut en vue de sa commercialisa-
tion insèrent indubitablement les activités ainsi rendues possibles dans
l'exercice de la «liberté de commerce ». A cela s'ajoutent la vulnérabilitéproduction platforms, referred to as R-1, to which 14 wells were con-
nected. The crude oil produced by them was transported by a 29-km sub-
marine pipeline to the Reshadat R-7 platform, where it underwent the
same treatment as the oil produced by the R-3, R-4 and R-7 platforms.

Thus, R-7 was the key platform on which the whole of the Reshadat and
Resalat fields depended.

The Salman complex, a diagram of which appears at tab No. 9, con-
sisted of seven interconnected platforrns, including one drilling and two
production platforrns. Oil from 21 wells was transported by pipeline to
this complex and from there to Lavan Island after initial water and gas
separation. Like the crude oil from Reshadat and Resalat, oil from Sal-
man underwent further water and gas separation on Lavan Island and
was either refined there for domestic consumption or exported.

The Nasr complex, a diagram of which appears at tab No. Il, com-
prised a central platform (A), a flaming point and six oil producing plat-
forms grouped around the central platform, supplied by 44 wells in the
Sirri field and four wells in the Nosrat field. Crude oil from al1 of these
wells was transported by submarine pipeline to the central platform and
from there to Sirri Island for secondary processing and export, as there
are no refineries on Sirri Island. Unlike the two complexes previously
described, the Nasr complex was not attacked by Iraq and was function-

ing normally at the time of the United States attack.

Normal daily production at Reshadat-Resalat was 20,000 barrels, at
Salman 125,000 barrels. At the time of the United States attack, the Nasr
complex was producing some 36,000 barrels daily, although it was
capable of producing 120,000 barrels per day.

23. In order for Article X, paragraph 1, to apply to the.destruction of
the three oil complexes of Reshadat-Resalat, Salman and Nasr, three

conditions must be satisfied: the platforms must have been the site of
commercial activity, freedom of commerce must have been prejudiced
and that freedom must have been exercised, or been capable of being
exercised, between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties.
By their very nature, the three oil platform complexes.were intended
for the production, processing and transport of oil to a place where it
could be "placed in commerce". The fact that platforms,-are artificially
erected on the continental shelf of a State for the purpose of extracting
oil resources lying in that State's exclusive economic zone and that
advanced technology is applied to produce crude oil with a view to its

commercialization unquestionably places the resultant activities within
the realm of the exercise of "freedom of commerce". To this must be
added the vulnerability and therefore fragility of the effective enjoyment383 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. RIGAUX)

et, par conséquent, la fragilité de la jouissance effective de cette liberté.
Les dommages infligésà une partie seulement d'installations en néces-
saire interaction ont pour effet inéluctable de rompre la chaîne de pro-
duction et, par voie de conséquence, celle de la commercialisation. Quand,
en outre, les destructions ont lieu durant une guerre où les mêmes instal-
lations sont incessamment sous la menace d'une attaque par les forces

ennemies, leur remise en état exige des efforts particulièrement ardus.
24. La deuxième condition a pour objet la notion de liberté de com-
merce. Pour qu'une telle liberté soit enfreinte, il n'est pas nécessaire qu'il
soit mis fin à un exercice effectif ou immédiat de l'activité commerciale,
en l'espèce de l'activité de production pétrolière protégée. On ne saurait
retenir l'objection selon laquelle deux des complexes pétroliers avaient été
temporairement mis hors d'usage par les attaques iraquiennes, alors que
les réparations étaient en cours. Même dans un pays qui, tel l'Iran, pos-
sède d'abondantes ressources pétrolières et dispose de multiples centres
de production, la mise hors service d'une partie seulement de l'appareil

productif porte atteinte à la liberté de commerce, c'est-à-dire à la faculté
de choisir les lieux de production aux fins de commercialisation.
Je ne puis, en particulier, me rallier à la considération faitepar la Cour
sous le paragraphe 92 de l'arrêt dans les termes suivants: «Pour la Cour
cependant, une atteinte à la possibilité d'un commerce futur n'est pas
nécessairement assimilable à une atteinte à la liberté de commerce au sens
du paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité de 1955.~
La liberté de commerce n'implique pas seulement le choix, librement
fait par l'Iran, des lieux de production et de commercialisation de ses
richesses pétrolières, elle inclut aussi la maîtrise du développement futur
de ce commerce.

25. La troisième et dernière question porte sur l'élément spatial ou
relationnel de la liberté de commerce :celle-ci est protégée dans la mesure
où elle s'exerce entre les territoires des deux hautes parties contractantes.
Erigées sur le plateau continental iranien, les plates-formes pétrolières
font partie du territoire iranien. Il en est de mêmede l'île de Lavan vers
laquelle est acheminé le pétrole provenant du complexe de Salman et de
l'île de Sirri par laquelle transite le pétrole originaire du complexe de
Nasr. Mais y a-t-il atteinte à la liberté de commerce entre ce territoire et
le territoire des Etats-Unis? La réponse donnée à cette question est liéeà
celle que la question précédente vient de recevoir. Durant toute la guerre

entre l'Iran et l'Iraq, l'Iran n'a pas cessé de livrer du pétrole aux Etats-
Unis. La mise hors service temporaire des installations pétrolières des
trois complexes pétroliers a porté atteinte à la liberté de commerce de
l'Iran puisque cet Etat a étérestreint dans sa liberté de choisir les centres
de production du pétrole à exporter vers les Etats-Unis.

ii) L'incidence de I'Executive Order 12613 du 29 octobre 1987 sur la
liberté de commerce

26. Dans leur duplique du 23 mars 2001 (nos 3.55-3.59)' les Etats-Unisof that freedom. The damage inflicted on just one part of facilities which
are necessarily interconnected unavoidably breaks the chain of produc-
tion and, consequently,the chain of commercialization.When, moreover,
the destruction takes place during a war in which those same installations

are under constant threat of attack by enemy forces, their repair requires
particularly arduous efforts.

24. The second condition concerns the notion of freedom of com-
merce. In order for such a freedom to be prejudiced, it is not necessary
for the actual or immediate conduct of the commercial activity, in the
present case the protected oil production activity, to be brought to a halt.
It is no defence to argue that two of the oil complexes were temporarily
out of commission as a result of the Iraqi attacks, since repair work was

in progress. Even in a country like Iran, which possesses abundant oil
resources and numerous production centres, the disabling of even one
part of the machinery of production prejudices freedom of commerce,
that is to Say, the ability to choose from production sites for purposes of
commercialization.
1 cannot in particular subscribe to the following statement by the
Court in paragraph 92 of the Judgment: "Injury to potential for future
commerce is however, in the Court's view, not necessarily to be identified
with injury to freedom of commerce, within the meeting of Article X,
paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty."
Freedom of commerce implies not only freedom for Iran to choose

where it will produce and sel1its petroleum wealth, but also includes con-
trol over the future development of that commerce.

25. The third and last question concerns the spatial or relational ele-
ment of freedom of commerce :that freedom is protected in so far as it is
exercised between the territories of the two High Contracting Parties.
Having been built on the Iranian continental shelf, the oil platforms are
part of Iranian territory. The same is true of Lavan Island, to which oil
from the Salman complex is transported, and of Sirri Island, through
which oil from the Nasr complex passes. But was there infringement of

freedom of commerce between this territory and the territory of the
United States? The response to this question is bound up with that just
given to the preceding question. Throughout the war between Iran and
Iraq, Iran never stopped supplying oil to the United States. The tempo-
rary disabling of the facilities of the three oil complexes prejudiced Iran's
freedom of commerce because it was restricted in its freedom to choose
the centres of production from which oil was to be exported to the
United States.

(ii) The effect on freedom of commerce of Executive Order 12613 of
29 October 1987

26. In its Rejoinder of 23 March 2001 (Nos. 3.55 to 3.59) the United384 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. RIGAUX)

avancent deux justifications, l'une erronée, l'autre audacieuse. La pre-
mière a déjà étéréfutée: que la production de certaines installations ait
dû êtreinterrompue à la suite des attaques iraquiennes est sans pertinence
puisque la destruction ultérieure de ces installations par les forces armées
américaines a eu pour effet d'anéantir les réparations en voie d'achève-

ment et de retarder la remise en service. La justification qui doit être
jugée audacieuse serait tirée de I'Executive Order du 29 octobre 1987 du
président des Etats-Unis, lequel aurait mis fin à toutes les importations
du pétrole iranien par les Etats-Unis. C'est à tort que la Cour retient
pareil motif d'écarter l'application du paragraphe 1 de l'article X (voir
par. 93 et 94 de l'arrêt). Ce faisant, elle reconnaît à un Etat partie à un
traité bilatéral la faculté de s'exonérer par un acte administratif unilatéral
d'une responsabilité engagée par un acte antérieur, commis en violation
du traité. Déjà dans l'affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au
Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique), la

Cour a constaté que la décision unilatérale de frapper d'un embargo les
navires immatriculés au Nicaragua constituait par elle-même la violation
du traité d'amitié entre les Etats-Unis et le Nicaragua (C.I. J. Recueil
1986, p. 140, par. 279). Qu'elle s'ajoute à l'emploi de la force comme dans
l'affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre
celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique), ou qu'il lui soit attribué
la valeur d'exonérer de la responsabilité encourue à la suite d'un tel
emploi, ainsi qu'il est alléguédans la présente affaire, l'acte administratif
unilatéral décrétépar un Etat partie à un traité doit, le cas échéant, être
évalué à la lumière des obligations conventionnelles des deux parties; il

ne saurait avoir pour effet de décharger un des Etats de l'une de ces obli-
gations.
Selon l'arrêt :
«La thèse iranienne postule que l'embargo constituait une viola-
tion du traité de 1955, et qu'il n'était pas justifié par l'alinéa d) du

paragraphe 1 de l'article XX dudit traité; mais il s'agit là de questions
que l'Iran a choisi de ne pas soulever formellement,et sur lesquelles la
Cour n'a donc pas entendu pleinement les Parties.))(Par. 94.)
Pareille présentation de la «thèse iranienne)) dénature celle-ci. Il ne
s'agit pas de savoir si l'embargo «constituait une violation du traité de

1955)) mais, ce qui est tout différent, si l'embargo pouvait êtreinvoqué
pour évincer les conséquences d'un acte illicite antérieur, la destruction
des plates-formes pétrolières iraniennes.

iii) L'existence et la pertinence d'un commerce «indirect» entre les ter-
ritoires des deux hautes parties contractantes

27. Tant en plaidoirie que dans leurs écritures, les deux Parties se sont
référéesau rapport établi par M. Peter Ode11 à la demande de l'Iran et

aux termes duquel l'embargo n'avait pas fait obstacle à la poursuite de
l'exportation de pétrole iranien vers les Etats-Unis, mais de manière indi-States puts forward two arguments in justification, one erroneous and the
other audacious. The first has already been refuted: the fact that produc-
tion at some installations had to be halted as a result of the Iraqi attacks
is irrelevant because the subsequent destruction of those installations by
United States forces destroyed the repair work being completed and
delayed the resumption of operations. The justification which must be

adjudged audacious seeks to found itself on the United States President's
Executive Order of 29 October 1987, as a result of which al1 Iranian oil
imports by the United States purportedly ceased. The Court is wrong in
accepting this ground for holding Article X, paragraph 1, inapplicable
(see paras. 93 and 94 of the Judgment). In so doing, it upholds the right
of a State party to a bilateral treaty to exonerate itself by a unilateral
administrative act from responsibility engaged by an earlier act commit-
ted in violation of that treaty. In the case concerning Military and Para-
military Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States
of America), the Court found that the unilateral decision to impose an
embargo on ships registered in Nicaragua constituted per se a violation
of the Treaty of Friendship between the United States and Nicaragua
(I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 140, para. 279). Whether viewed as cumulative to
the use of force, as in the case concerning Military and Paramilitary
Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of
America), or as potentially exonerating the State from responsibility
incurred as a result of the use of force, as is claimed in the present case,
a unilateral administrative measure adopted by a State party to a treaty
has to be assessed in the light of the treaty obligations of both parties; it
cannot have the effect of discharging one of the States from any of those
obligations.
According Ltorthe Judgment :
"The Iranian contention rests on the hypothesis that the embargo

was a breach of the 1955 Treaty, and not justified under Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), thereof; but these are questions which Iran has
chosen not to put formally in issue, and on which the Court has thus
not heard full argument." (Para. 94.)
This is to misrepresentthe "Iranian contention". It is not a question of
determiningwhether the embargo "was a breach of the 1955 Treaty" but,
which is something altogether differont, whether the embargo could be
invoked in order to escape the consequences of a prior illegal act, the
destruction of the Iranian oil platforms.

(iii)territories of the two High Contracting Partiesmmerce between the

27. Both in their oral statements and in their written pleadings, the
two Parties referred to the report drawn up by Mr. Peter Ode11at Iran's
request, which explained that the embargo did not prevent continued
Iranian oil exports to the United States, but that this was done .indirectly,385 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. RIGAUX)

recte, le pétrole brut iranien étant exporté vers un pays d'Europe occi-
dentale et ensuite réexporté aux Etats-Unis après raffinage. Le rapport de
M. Odell, expert britannique, confirme la déclaration de M. Seyed-
Hossein Hosseini, directeur des affaires internationales de la NIOC. La dé-
claration et le rapport sont reproduits,avec leurs annexes, dans le volume III
de la réplique iranienne du 10 mars 1999. Pareil commerce qualifiéd'indi-
rect suscite deux questions relatives à l'interprétation du paragraphe 1 de

l'articleX: si un produit originaire de l'Iran transite par un pays tiers
avant d'atteindre les Etats-Unis, entre-t-il dans les prévisions de la liberté
de commerce «entre les territoires des deux Hautes Parties contrac-
tantes))? Les opérations de raffinage auxquelles il a étéprocédé dans le
pays tiers ont-elles eu pour effet de dénaturer le pétrole brut au point de
rompre le courant commercial entre les deux Etats?
28. Les embryons de la réponse à ces deux questions sinon la réponse
elle-même peuvent être trouvés dans l'arrêt prononcé par la Cour le
12 décembre 1996 sur l'exception préliminaire des Etats-Unis. La concep-
tion extrêmement large de la notion de commerce qui se dégagedes longs dé-
veloppements que l'arrêt précitéy a consacrés (C. 1.J. Recueil 1996 (II),

p. 817-820, par. 42-52) permet d'y inclure les opérations multiples et
diversifiées qui caractérisent le commerce international contemporain et
les agents multiples qui y participent. Le paragraphe 42 de l'arrêtde 1996
est particulièrement significatif à cet égard, notamment quand il vise
«toute la gamme d'activités auxquelles le traité s'étend)) («the entire
range of activities dealt with in the Treaty))). Il est usuel aujourd'hui
qu'un produit traverse plusieurs pays avant d'atteindre sa destination
finale et qu'il subisse des opérations successives afin d'être adapté à
l'usage qui en sera fait par son utilisateur. La transformation d'un pétrole
brut en produit raffiné ne confère pas à celui-ci une nature différente de

celle qu'il avait à l'origine. La production pétrolière comporte des phases
successives d'élaboration du produit final entre lesquelles tout découpage
serait artificiel. En décider autrement introduit dans les objets du com-
merce international une distinction métaphysique entre la substance et
l'accident, les opérations successives de traitement du produit initial qua-
lifiéde «brut » ayant pour conséquence l'identification de «substances »
différentes au gré de l'élaboration du produit final.
29. La motivation de l'arrêt s'attache moins aux ((traitements
techniques successifs qu'a subis ledit produit» qu'à «la nature des tran-
sactions commerciales successives liées au pétrole)). Et l'arrêt de pour-

suivre :

«Ce que l'Iran considère comme un commerce «indirect» de
pétrole entre lui et les Etats-Unis impliquait une sériede transactions
commerciales: la vente par l'Iran de pétrole brut à un client en
Europe occidentale, ou à un pays tiers autre que les Etats-Unis;
peut-être une série de transactions intermédiaires; et pour finir la
vente de produits pétroliers à un client aux Etats-Unis. Il ne s'agit
pas là de «commerce» entre l'Iran et les Etats-Unis, mais de com-Iranian crude oil being exported to Western Europe and then re-exported
to the United States after refining. The report by Mr. Odell, a British
expert, confirms the statement by Mr. Seyed-Hossein Hosseini, NIOC
Director of International Affairs. The statement and report appear,
together with their annexes, in Volume III of Iran's Reply of 10 March
1999. This commerce, characterized as "indirect", raises two questions
concerning the interpretation of Article X, paragraph 1 : if a product
originating in Iran transits through a third country before arriving in the
United States, does it fa11 within the scope of freedom of commerce
"[bletween the territories of the two High Contracting Parties"? Did the
refining process carried out in the third country result in changing the
nature of the oil to the point of breaking the flow of commerce between
the two States?
28. The beginnings of a response, if not the response itself, to these
two questions can be found in the Judgment delivered on 12 December
1996 by the Court on the PreliminaryObjection of the United States. The
extremely broad conception of the notion of commerce which emerges
from the long discussion devoted by the Judgment to this point (1.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), pp. 817-820, paras. 42-52) enables it to encompassthe
multiple, diversified operations characterizing contemporaryinternational
commerce and the myriad participants therein. Paragraph 42 of the 1996
Judgment is particularly significantin this respect, notably when it refers
to "the entire range of activities dealt with in the Treaty" ("toute la
gamme d'activités auxquelles le traité s'étend"). Today, a product typi-
cally passes through several countries before reaching its final destination
and undergoes successive transformations adapting it for the use to
which it is to be put by the end-user.The transformation of crude oil into
a refined product does not result in a product of a nature different from
that which it had at the outset. Oil production comprises successive
phases leading to the final product and it would be artificial to draw lines
between them. To decide otherwise would be to introduce a metaphysical
distinction in objects of international commerce between substance and
treatment, the successive stages in the processing of the initial "crude"
product resulting in the identification of different "substances" depend-
ing on the form of the final product.
29. The reasoning in the Judgrnent focuses not so much on the "suc-

cessive technical processes that [the oil] underwent" as on the "nature of
the successive commercial transactions relating to the oil". The Judgment
continues :
"What Iran regards as 'indirect' commerce in oil between itself

and the United States involved a series of commercial transactions:
a sale by Iran of crude oil to a customer in Western Europe, or some
third country other than the United States; possibly a series of inter-
mediate transactions; and ultimately the sale of petroleum products
Iran andtomthe United States,tatbut commerce between Iran and antween386 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND.RIGAUX)

merce entre l'Iran et un acheteur intermédiaire, et de «commerce»
entre un vendeur intermédiaire et lesEtats-Unis.» (Par. 97.)

Pareil schéma est plausible, mais la Cour le présente comme s'il avait
étévérifiéen fait. Or, ni les écritures des Parties ni les exposés oraux ne
procurent un soutien à ce qui doit être tenu pour une pure hypothèse à
laquelle l'arrêt paraît conférer une solidité qui n'y appartient pas.

On pourrait aussi bien supposer que le commerce «indirect» a pris la
forme de la vente du pétrole brut à un client américain, le contrat
incluant le raffinage du pétrole dans un Etat tiers. Pareil schéma est
même plus plausible que celui qui a motivé la décision de la Cour
puisqu'il évite à ((l'intermédiaire » le risque d'acheter du pétrole brut sans

être assuré de trouver sur le marché l'acquéreur du produit raffiné.
Pareil commerce «direct» est d'autant plus vraisemblable que la sec-
tion 2 b) de l'Executive Order 12613 contient une exception selon laquelle
l'embargo ne devait pas s'appliquer aux ((produits pétroliers raffinés à
partir de brut iranien dansun pays tiers)) (par. 96 de l'arrêt). La portée de
l'exception est double. Elle signifie d'abord qu'à défaut de cette exception
une telle opération serait tombée sous l'application de la section 1 et, en
conséquence, aurait été interdite. Elle implique aussi que l'origine ira-
nienne du produit raffiné dans un Etat tiers aurait pu être décelée,ce qui
rendait l'exception nécessaire pour éviter une conséquence que le prési-
dent des Etats-Unis avait décidéd'écarter en raison des besoins énergé-

tiques du pays.

c) N'y a-t-il pas une contradiction entre les motifs du rejet de la
demande originaire et le dispositif qui y est relatif?

30. Dans le paragraphe 42 de l'arrêt, la Cour s'est déclaréecompétente
pour se prononcer sur la compatibilité des actions militaires américaines
contre les plates-formes pétrolières avec le droit international relatifà
l'emploi de la force. Après l'examen des éléments de fait et de droit per-
mettant d'arrêter sa décision (par. 43 à 77 de l'arrêt), la Cour conclut
dans le paragraphe 78 que ces actions

((ne sauraient être justifiées, en vertu de l'alinéa d) du paragraphe 1
de l'articleXX du traité de 1955, en tant que mesures nécessaires à la
protection des intérêtsvitaux des Etats-Unis sur le plan de la sécu-
rité, dès lors qu'elles constituaient un recours à la force armée et ne
pouvaient êtreconsidérées, au regard du droit international relatifà
cette question, comme des actes de légitime défense, et ne relevaient
donc pas de la catégorie des mesures prévues par cette disposition du

traité telle qu'elle doit êtreinterprétée ».
Cette conclusion purement négative est reprise dans la première partie
du point 1 du dispositif de l'arrêt. Dans les paragraphes 96 à 98, la Cour
a écarté toute responsabilité de 1'Etat déclaré coupable de la transgres-
sion d'un principe de droit international aussi fondamental que la prohi- intermediate purchaser; and 'commerce' between an intermediate
seller and the United States." (Para. 97.)
This is a plausible scenario, but the Court presents it as if it had been
verified in practice. However, there is nothing either in the Parties' writ-
ten pleadings or in their oral statements which lends any support for
what can only be regarded as pure speculation, to which the Judgment
appears to accord a substance which it does not merit.
It could equally well be assumed that "indirect" commerce took the
form of the sale of crude oil to an American customer, with the contract
providing for refining to take place in a third State. Such a hypothesis is
indeed more plausible than that assumed by the Court in its reasoning,
since it relieves the "intermediary" of the risk of purchasing crude oil
without any assurance of finding a market for the finished product.
"Direct" commerce of this kind is al1 the more credible in that Sec-
tion 2 (b) of Executive Order 12613 contained an exception whereby the
embargo was not to apply to "petroleum products refined from Iranian
crude oil in a third country" (para. 96 of the Judgment). The consequence
of this exception is twofold. First, it means that, in its absence, such an
operation would have been caught by Section 1 and accordingly been
prohibited. Secondly, it implies that the Iranian origin of a product
refined in a third State could have been detected, making the exception
necessary so as to forestall a consequence which the President of the
United States wished to avoid in light of his country's energy needs.

(c) 1s There Not a Contradiction between the Reasons for the Dismissal
of the Original Claim and the Terms of the Operative Paragraph?
30. In paragraph 42 of the Judgment the Court declares itself compe-
tent to rule on the compatibility of the American military actions against
the oil platforms with international law regarding the use of force. After
examining the factual and legal issues enabling it to reach its decision
(paras. 43-77 of the Judgment), the Court concludes in paragraph 78 that
those actions

"cannot be justified, under Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955
Treaty, as being measures necessary to protect the essential security
interests of the United States, since those actionsconstituted recourse
to armed force not qualifying, under international law on the ques-
tion, as acts of self-defence, and thus did not fa11within the category
of measures contemplated, upon its correct interpretation, by that
provision of the Treaty".

This purely negative conclusion is reproduced in the first part of
point 1 of the Judgrnent's operative paragraph. In paragraphs 96 to 98,
the Court absolves from al1 responsibility a State which it has found
guilty of violation of a principle of international law as fundamental as387 PLATES-FORME ÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND.RIGAUX)

bition du recours à la force dans les relations entre Etats. Même si l'on

devait admettre - ce qui a étécontredit ci-dessus - que la destruction
des plates-formes pétrolières iraniennes n'aurait pas porté atteinte à la
liberté de commerce entre les hautes parties contractantes, encore serait-il
illogique de constater que la destruction de ces plates-formes a été accom-
plie en exécution d'un usage illicite de la force armée sans ouvrir un droit
à réparation à 1'Etat victime de cette transgression. Déjà dans le para-
graphe 41 de l'arrêt, la Cour a déclaré:

((L'application des règles pertinentes du droit international relatif
à la question fait donc partie intégrante de la tâche d'interprétation
confiée à la Cour par le paragraphe 2 de l'article XXI du traité de
1955. »

Après qu'elle a, dans l'exercice de cette compétence, constaté la trans-
gression de la prohibition du recours à la force armée en liaison avec la
demande iranienne fondée sur le paragraphe 1 de l'articleX du traité, la
Cour n'accomplit pas jusqu'au bout sa mission alors qu'elle laisse une

telle transgression sans réparation.

IV. LA PROHIBITION DU RECOURS A LA FORCE, PRINCIPE FONDAMENTAL DU
DROIT INTERNATIONAL

31. Si, en dépit des réserves précédemment formulées, j'ai voté en
faveur du premier point du dispositif, c'est parce que, ne pouvant choisir

entre le jugement de la Cour sur l'emploi de la force et son refus de faire
droit à la demande légitime de l'Iran, j'ai estimé en conscience devoir
donner la préférence à la première de ces deux branches du point 1 du
dispositif.
Au cours des dernières décennies, d'excellents juristes américains ont
déploré le recul de l'adhésion au principe de prohibition du recours à la
force. Parmi beaucoup d'autres, je citerais: Thomas M. Franck, «Who

Killed Article 2, Paragraph 4? Or: Changing Norms Governing the Use
of Force by States», American Journal of International Law, 1970,
vol. 64, p. 809-837; Oscar Schachter, «In Defence of International Rules
on the Use of Force», University of Chicago Law Review, 1986,
vol. 53, p. 113-146; Oscar Schachter, «The Role of Power in Internatio-
nal Law», Proceedings of the 93rd Annual Meeting of the American
Society of International Law, 1999, p. 200-205. Ces deux éminents ju-
ristes ont notamment souligné l'effet pervers de la justification abusivement

tirée du «droit naturel de légitime défense ». On ne saurait cependant sou-
tenir que l'affirmation du maintien en vigueur de l'article 2, paragraphe 4,
de la Charte est aujourd'hui universellement acceptée. On trouve en effet
des publications adoptant des positions totalement antinomiques. Tel le
récent article de John R. Bolton, «1s there Really «Law » in International
Affairs?», Transnational Law and Contemporary Problems, 2000, vol. 10,
p. 1-48.the prohibition on the use of force in relations between States. Even if
one were to accept - contrary to what has been demonstrated above -
that the destruction of the Iranian oil platforms did not violate freedom
of commerce between the two High Contracting Parties, it would still be
illogical to find that the destructioof those platforms was carried out by

an unlawful use of armed force and yet did not entitle the State victim of
that wrongful act to reparation. Already in paragraph 41 of the Judg-
ment, the Court States:
"The application of the relevant rules of internationallaw relating

to this question thus forms an integral part of the task of interpreta-
tion entrusted to the Court by Article XXI, paragraph 2, of the 1955
Treaty ."
Having, in execution of that task, found that there has been a breach

of the prohibition on the use of force in connection with Iran's claim
based on Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, the Court has failed to
complete its mission in leaving that breach uncompensated.

IV. THE PROHIBITION OF THE USE OF FORCE1s A FUNDAMENTAL
PRINCIPLE OF INTERNATIONA LLAW

31. If, notwithstanding my reservations as set out above, 1 voted in

favour of the first point in the operative paragraph, it was because, not
being offered the possibility of choosing between the Court's conclusion
on the use of force and its refusa1 to uphold Iran'slegitimate claim, 1con-
sidered that 1 must in al1 conscience give preference to the first of these
two limbs of point 1 of the operative paragraph.
In recent decades, some distinguished American jurists have deplored
the retreat from support for the principle on the prohibition on the use of
force. Among many others, 1 would cite: Thomas M. Franck, "Who
Killed Article 2, Paragraph 4? Or: Changing Norms Governing the Use
of Force by States", 64 American Journal of International Law (1970),

pp. 809-837; Oscar Schachter, "In Defence of International Rules on the
Use of Force", 53 University of Chicago Law Review (1986), pp. 113-146;
Oscar Schachter, "The Role of Power in International Law", Proceedings
of the 93rd Annual Meeting of the American Society of International Law
(1999), pp. 200-205. These two eminentjurists have stressed in particular
the perverse effect of a justificationfounded on a misconception of the
"inherent right of self-defence". It cannot, however, be said that everyone
subscribes today to the view that Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter
still remains in force. Thus we find published works which categorically
deny this. See, for example, the recent article by John. R. Bolton, "1s
There Really 'Law' in International Affairs?", 10 Transnational Law and

Contemporary Problems (2000), pp. 1-48. Pareille prise de position n'est pas négligeable car son auteur a été
durant cinq années (1989-1993) Assistant Secretary of State for Interna-
tional Organization Affairs. L'article commence par une discussion théo-
rique de la qualité juridique du droit international: ((1s it Law or isn't
it?» Il s'agit d'une dogmatique dépasséecar elle repose sur une définition
restrictive du concept de «droit » ou d'ordre juridique. L'auteur se fonde

ensuite sur l'application par la Cour suprême des Etats-Unis de la ((last-
in-time rule», en vertu de laquelle les cours et tribunaux doivent appli-
quer une loi interne de préférence à un traité antérieur, auquel le législa-
teur aurait dérogé.La présentation de cette doctrine constitutionnelle est
trop sommaire en ce qu'elle passe sous silence les efforts accomplis par la
jurisprudence pour concilier les deux sources de droit antinomiques. L'un
des moyens suivis à cette fin recommande au juge de donner à la loi en
conflit avec la disposition directement applicable d'un traité international
une interprétation qui la rende compatible avec le traité21. En outre, le
statut du droit international dans l'ordre interne d'un Etat ne nous
apprend rien sur la nature de l'ordre juridique réglant les rapports inter-

étatiques. Enfin, le rejet du droit international en dehors du «droit », qui
se fonde notamment sur la prétendue inexistence d'un juge apte à tran-
cher les différends interétatiques, est démenti par les circonstances de la
présente espèce :il existe une juridiction internationale et elle s'est claire-
ment prononcée sur le respect dû à la prohibition de l'emploi de la force.
32. A la vérité,la «doctrine» défendue par M. Bolton pèche par son
archaïsme. Elle s'efforce, sans oser le dire, de remettre à l'ordre du jour
l'enseignement de Hobbes et de Spinoza.
Les deux principaux ouvrages de Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) sont:
De Cive (1642) et Leviathan, seu de civitate ecclesiastica et civili (1651).

L'auteur a de la loi de la nature une conception diamétralement opposée
à celle que livre la tradition scolastique. L'état de nature (status natuvae)
est le lieu d'une lutte perpétuelle, bellum omnium in omnes (De Cive, 1,
XII), à laquelle il n'a étémis fin que par l'institution de la sociétécivile.
L'Etat moderne a réussi à instaurer la paix grâce au pouvoir exercé par
ceux qui le dirigent, les citoyens ayant accepté de faire abandon de leur
liberté naturelle en faveur de la paix. Les Etats entre eux ne sont pas sor-
tis de l'état de nature. C'est le plus fort qui domine par la conquête : il
subjugue d'autres peuples à sa loi.

«De cette guerre de tout homme contre tout homme résulte aussi
que rien ne peut êtreinjuste. Les notions de bien et de mal, justice et
injustice, n'ont pas leur place ici. Là où n'existe aucun pouvoir com-
mun, il n'y a pas de loi. Là où n'existe pas de loi, il n'y a aucune
injustice. La force et la ruse sont en temps de guerre les deux vertus
cardinales. La justice et l'injustice ne sont aucunement des facultés

du corps ou de l'esprit. Si elles l'étaient, elles pourraient se trouver

*lA partir de Murray v. The Charming Betsy, 6 US (2 Cranch) 64 (1804), p. 117-118.

231 Such a position carries a certain weight, for its author was for five

years (1989-1993) Assistant Secretary of State for International Organi-
zation Affairs. The article begins with a theoretical discussion of the legal
status of international law: "1s it Law or isn't it?" This is a piece of out-
dated dogma, for it is based on a restrictive definition of the notion of
"law" or legal order. The author then proceeds to base his argument on
the United States Supreme Court's application of the "last-in-time rule",
under which courts must apply a domestic statute in preference to a prior
treaty, from which the legislator is deemed to have derogated. This con-
stitutional doctrine is presented in fax too summary a manner, failing to
mention the efforts of jurisprudence t-O reconcile two contradictory

sources of law. One means employed to this end is the principle that
courts should seek to interpret a statute conflicting with a directly appli-
cable provision of an international treaty in a manner rendering it com-
patible with the treaty21. Moreover, the status of international law within
a State's domestic order tells us nothing about the nature of the legal
order governing inter-State relations. Finally, the dismissal of interna-
tional law as not being "law", which is based inter alia on the proposition
that no court exists capable of settling inter-State disputes, is contra-
dicted by the circumstances of the present case: there is an international
court, and it has clearly ruled on the respect owed to the prohibition of

the use of force.
32. In reality, this "doctrine" defended by Mr. Bolton is a grievously
outdated one. It seeks, without daring to say so, to restore to the agenda
the teachings of Hobbes and Spinoza.
The two leading works of Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) are : De Cive
(1642) and Leviathan, seu de civitate ecclesiastica et civili (1651). The
author has a conception of natural law diametrically opposed to that
offered by scholastic tradition. The state of nature (status naturae) is the
site of an unending struggle, bellum omnium in omnes (De Cive, 1, XII),
which the establishment of civil society has failed to bring to an end. The

modern State has succeeded in imposing peace thanks to the power
exercised by its rulers, the citizens having agreed to give up their natural
freedom in return for peace. States as between themselves remain in this
state of nature. The strongest dominates by conquest, subjecting other
peoples to its rule.

"To this war of every man, against every man, this also is conse-
quent; that nothing can be unjust. The notions of right and wrong,
justice and injustice have there no place. Where there is no common
power, there is no law: where no law, no injustice. Force, and fraud,
are in war the two cardinal virtues. Justice, and injustice are none of
the faculties neither of the body, nor mind. If they were, they might
be in a man that were alone in the world, as well as his senses, and

21Since Murray v. The Charming Betsy, 6 US (2 Cranch) 64 (1804), pp. 117-118.

231 en un homme qui serait seul dans le monde, aussi bien que ses sen-

sations et ses passions. Ce sont des qualités relatives aux hommes en
société,non dans la solitude. Il résulte aussi de ce mêmeétat qu'il ne
s'y trouve pas de propriété, de domination, de distinction du mien et
du tien, mais qu'il n'y a que ce que chaque homme peut obtenir,
et aussi longtemps qu'il peut le conserver. Et en voilà assez pour
le malheureux état où l'homme se trouve placé par simple nature,
quoique avec une possibilité d'en sortir, qui consiste en partie dans
les passions, en partie dans sa raison.)) (Leviathan, chap. XIII.)

«La liberté qui est si fréquemment mentionnée et avec tant d'hon-
neur dans les livres d'histoire et de philosophie des anciens Grecs et
Romains, et dans les écrits et paroles de ceux qui ont reçu d'eux tout
ce qu'ils ont appris chez les auteurs politiques, n'est pas la liberté des

particuliers, mais la liberté de la république, qui est la même que
celle qu'aurait chacun s'il n'y avait pas du tout de lois civiles et de
républiques. Et les effets seraient aussi les mêmes.Car, de mêmeque
parmi des hommes sans maître, il y a une guerre permanente de
chaque homme contre son voisin, aucun héritage à transmettre au fils,
ou à attendre du père, aucune propriété des biens et des terres,
aucune sécurité, mais [seulement] une liberté pleine et absolue en
chaque particulier, de même, dans les Etats et Républiques qui ne

dépendent pas l'un de l'autre, chaque république, non chaque
homme, a une liberté absolue de faire ce qu'elle jugera, c'est-à-dire
ce que cet homme ou cette assemblée qui la représente jugera contri-
buer à son avantage. Mais en même temps, les républiques vivent
dans un état de guerre permanente, [toujours] à la limite de se battre,
avec leurs frontières armées, et les canons pointés en direction des
voisins. » (Leviathan, chap. XXI.) 22

Comme la société des Etats est privée d'un pouvoir qui leur est supé-
rieur, d'une autorité régulatrice, les notions de juste et d'injuste ne sau-

raient y avoir cours, étant le produit d'une sociétéconstituée. Hobbes a
orienté le droit international dans une perspective volontariste :le ius gen-
tium est totalement séparé du droit naturel, la loi de la nature (plutôt que
la loi naturelle) étant celle du triomphe de la force, de la domination du
faible par le fort.
On trouve un écho de certaines idées de Hobbes chez Spinoza (1632-
1677). Selon le Tractatus politicus et le Tractatus theologico-politicus qui
reçurent une publication posthume en 1677, au pouvoir irrésistible de

l'autorité suprême (summa potestas) dans 1'Etat correspond la souverai-
neté externe de 1'Etat.

22Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, «La matière, la forme et le pouvoir d'une république
ecclésiastique et civileraduit de l'anglais par Philippe Folliot, professeur de philosophie
A CommonwealthngoEcclesiasticall and Ciby Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury, anLondon, of
printed for Andrew Crooke, at the Green Dragon InSt.Pauls Church-yard,1651). passions. They are qualities, that relate to men in society, not in soli-
tude. It is consequent also to the same condition, that there be no

propriety no dominion, no mine and thine distinct; but only that to
be every man's, that he can get: and for so long, as he can keep it.
And thus much for the il1 condition, which man by mere nature is
actually placed in; though with a possibility to come out of it, con-
sisting partly in the passions, partly in his reason." (Leviathan,
Chap. XIII.)

"The liberty, whereof there is so frequent and honourable men-
tion, in the histories, and philosophy of the ancient Greeks, and
Romans, and in the writings, and discourse of those that from them
have received al1 their learning in the politics, is not the liberty of
particular men; but the liberty of the commonwealth: which is the
same with that which every man then should have, if there were no
civil laws, nor commonwealth at all. And the effects of it also be the
same. For as amongst masterless men, there is perpetual war, of

every man against his neighbour; no inheritance, to transmit to the
son, nor to expect from the father; no propriety of goods, or lands;
no security; but a full and absolute liberty in every particular man: so
in states, and cornmonwealths not dependent on one another, every
commonwealth, not every man, has an absolute liberty, to do what it
shall judge, that is to say,what that man, or assembly that represen-
teth it, shall judge most conducing to their benefit. But withal, they
live in the condition of a perpetual war, and upon the confines of
battle, with their frontiers armed, and cannons planted against their
neighbours round about." (Leviathan, Chap. XXI.)22

Since the community of States lacks any superior power, any govern-

ing authority, the notions of justice and injustice can have no currency
there, being the product of a duly constituted society. Hobbes's view of
international law was a voluntarist one: jus gentium is totally distinct
from natural law, the law of nature (rather than natural law) being that
of the triumph of force, of the domination of the weak by the strong.

We find an echo of certain of Hobbes's ideas in Spinoza (1632-1677).
According to the Tractatus politicus and the Tractatus theologico-politi-
cus, published posthumously in 1677, the irresistiblepower of the supreme
authority (summa potestas) within the State is reflected in the State's
external sovereignty.

22Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme and Power of A Commonwealth
Ecclesiasticall and Civil, Michael Oakeshott, 1946.390 PLATES-FORME PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.IND. RIGAUX)

A supposer, par suite, qu'une nation veuille faire la guerre à une autre
nation et ne recule devant aucun moyen apte à faire entrer cette nation

sous sa dépendance, elle a parfaitement le droit de l'attaquer. Car il lui
suffit, pour se trouver en état d'hostilité, d'en avoir la volonté (Tractatus
politicus, chap. III, par. 13).
33. Le régime juridique auquel la Charte des Nations Unies a soumis
l'exercice du recours à la force entre Etats doit êtreconsidéré comme la
((norme fondamentale » (Grundnorm) du droit international au sens kel-
sénien. Il appartenait à l'organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies de
saisir l'opportunité que lui offrait la présente espèce pour rappeler la
force contraignante de l'article2, paragraphe 4, de la Charte. La Cour

avait compétence pour ce faire car les deux actions dont elle était saisie
avaient l'une et l'autrepour objet une demande fondée sur un usage de la
force,. dont il était allégué qu'il était illicite, la contestation portant
notamment sur la nature et l'étendue du droit de légitime défense.

(Signé) François RIGAUX. Hence, if a nation wishes to make war on another nation and is
prepared to have recourse to any appropriate means in order to force
that nation into dependency, it is perfectly entitled to attack it. For
al1it requires, in order to find itself in a state of war, is to have the will
to do so (Tractatus politicus, Chap. III, para. 13).
33. The legal régime to which the United Nations Charter has sub-
jected the use of force between States must be regarded as the "funda-
mental norm" (Grundnorm) of international law in Kelsen's sense of the
term. The principal judicial organ of the United Nations should have

taken the opportunity offered it by the present case to recall that
Article 2, paragraph 4,of the Charter is a provision possessing binding
force. The Court had jurisdiction to do so, for the two actions of which
it was seised both had as their subject-matter a claim based on a use
of force alleged to have been unlawful, the focus of the dispute being
the nature and extent of the right of self-defence.

(Signed) François RIGAUX.

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Separate Opinion of Judge ad hoc Rigaux (translation)

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