Separate Opinion of Judge Simma

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090-20031106-JUD-01-10-EN
Parent Document Number
090-20031106-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SIMMA

Matters relating to United States use of force are at the heart of the case,
therefore the approach of dealing with Article XX before turning to Article X of
the 1955 Treaty is acceptable - The Court's position regarding the United
Statesattacks on the oil platforms, although correct as such, is marked through-
out by inappropriate self-restraint - While hostile military action not reaching
the threshold of an "armed attack" within the meaning of Article 51 of the
United Nations Charter may be countered by proportionate and imrnediate
defensive measures equally of a rnilitary character, the United States actions did
not qualzyy as such proportionate counter-measures - The Court's treatment of
Article X on "Jreedom of commerce" between the territories of the Parties fol-
lows a step-by-step approach which is correct up to a certain point but then

takes turns in two wrong directions: first, the platforms attacked in October
1987 did not Zoseprotection under Article X through being temporarily inopera-
tive because the freedorn under the Treaty ernbraces also the possibility of com-
merce in the future; secondly, the indirect commerce in Iranian oil going on
during the time of the United States embargo is also protected by the Treaty -
The Court'sjînding on the United States counter-claim is profoundly inadequate
particularly with regard to the so-called "generic" counter-claim which should
have been upheld - The problems of attribution and causality posed by the
existence of several tortfeasors in the case could have been solved by recourse
to a general principle of joint-and-several responsibility recognized by major

domestic legal systems - Neither would the "indispensable-third-party "doctrine
have stood in the way of declaring Iran responsible for breaches of Article X.

1 have voted in favour of the first part of the dispositz!j"of the present
Judgment with great hesitation. In fact, I see myself in a position to con-
cur - in principle - with the Court's treatment of only one of the two
issues dealt with there, namely that of the alleged security interests of the

United States measured against the international law on self-defence. As
to the remaining parts of the dispositif, neither can 1 agree with the
Court's decision that the United States attacks on the Iranian oil plat-
forms ultimately did not infringe upon Iran's treaty right to respect for its

freedom of commerce with the United States; nor do 1 consider that the
way in which the Court disposed of the so-called "generic" counter-claim
of the United States is correct. In my view, this counter-claim ought to
have been upheld. Regarding the part of the dispositif devoted to this
counter-claim, 1 thus had no choice but to dissent.

The reason why 1 have not done so also with regard to the first part ofthe dispositif, even though, as 1 have just pointed out, 1 concur with the
Court's decisions on only the first of the two issues decided therein ',lies

in a consideration of Rechtspolitik: 1 welcome that the Court has taken
the opportunity, offered by United States reliance on Article XX of the
1955 Treaty, to state its view on the legal limits on the use of force at
a moment when these limits find themselves under the greatest stress.
Although 1 am of the view that the Court has fulfilled what 1consider to
be its duty in this regard with inappropriate restraint, 1 do not want to
dissociate myself from what after al1 does result in a confirmation, albeit
too hesitant, of the jus cogens of the United Nations Charter.

A. Introduction

1. As paragraph 37 of the Judgment pertinently reminds us, the origi-
nal dispute between the Parties to the present case related to the legality
under the international law on the use of force, that is to Say, under the
Charter of the United Nations and customary international law, of the
attacks of the United States against the oil platforms. Paragraph 37 also
points out that, at the time of those attacks, neither Party made any ref-

erence to the 1955 Treaty of Amity. When subsequently that Treaty was
brought into play by Iran as a basis for the Court's jurisdiction, Iran
attempted to ground jurisdiction not only in Article X, paragraph 1, but
also Articles 1 and IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. In its 1996 Judgment
on the United States Preliminary Objection the Court accepted only
Article X, paragraph 1, as the basis of its jurisdiction2 - which might
seem surprising in the face of Article 1 of the Treaty which reads that
"[tlhere shall be firm and enduring peace and sincere friendship between
the United States . . . and Iran". In the Court's opinion, however,

Article 1 was not to be interpreted as incorporating into the Treaty al1 of
the provisions of international law concerning peaceful and friendly
relations. Rather, this Article would have to be regarded as fixing an
objective in the light of which the other treaty provisions are to be
interpreted and applied3. Thus, the Court concluded, Article 1 was "not
without legal significance" for the interpretation of other Treaty pro-
visions relevant in the case, in particular that of Article X, paragraph 14.

As well as the reason why 1 prefer to label the present opinion a "sepand not a
"dissenting"opinion despite disagreeing witthe majority of the Court's main findings in
the case.
Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America)Preliminary
Objection, Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), at pp. 817 ff., 821.
Zbid., p. 814, para. 28.
Zbid., p. 815, para. 31.In effect, the relevanceultimately assigned to Article 1by the present Judg-
ment can only be considered minimal 5.
2. Be this as it may, the 1996 Judgment did decide that "[mlatters

relating to the use of force are . . .not per se excluded from the reach of
the Treaty of 1955"6. As a result, the rather businesslike Article X, para-
graph 1, on freedom of commerce7 now serves as the proverbial eye of
the needle through which the Court's treatment of the question of the use
of armed force by the United States has to be squeezed. In effect, this
needle's eye has now been made even smaller, impenetrable in the present
case, in the Court's decision on the merits of Iran's claim of violation of
Article X, paragraph 1.

3. From the viewpoint of legal policy and political relevance, however,
there can be no doubt that in the present case the emphasis is squarely on
the question of the legality vel non of the use of armed force by the
United States against the oil platforms. 1 therefore accept the Judgment's
approach of dealing with Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty
before turning to Article X, paragraph 1, not only for the more technical

reasons advanced in the Judgment - al1 of which 1 consider convin-
cing -, but also out of this broader consideration. For the same reason,
1 see no problem in the fact that the part of the Judgment devoted to
the issue of United States use of armed force is considerably larger than
that dealing with the question of the violation of the Treaty as such.

4. Returning to the order in which these matters are taken up in the
Judgment, the United States itself has argued that there was no compel-

ling reason for the Court to examine the question of a breach of Article X
before turning to the question under Article XX. According to the
Respondent, therefore the order in which the issues are to be treated is a
matter for the discretion of the Court8. The manner in which the Court
has exercised such discretion thus appears to me to be indisputable.

B. Article XX, Paragraph I (d)

5. In accordance with what 1 stated at the outset, the reason why 1
decided to vote in favour of the first part of the Judgment's dispositz~is

Article 1 is only referred to in the Judgment once (in paragraph 41) to support a con-
clusion which1consider cogent for rather more obviousreasons, namely that Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty (onwhich infra) must not be read as allowing any use of
force between the partiesthat is not permissible, or justified,r the relevant rules of
internationallaw. Paragraph 41 considers the opposite view "hardly consistent with
Article1".

' Respectively freedom of navigation;see infra on the UniteStates counter-claim.that 1consider it of utmost importance, and a matter of principle, for the
Court to pronounce itself on questions of the threat or use of force in
international relations whenever it is given the opportunity to do so. In
this regard, the desirable standard of vigour and clarity was set already
in the Corfu Channel case where the Court condemned a right to self-
help by armed force claimed by the United Kingdom

"as the manifestation of a policy of force, such as has, in the past,
given rise to most serious abuses and such as cannot, whatever be

the present defects in international organization, find a place in
international law" 9.
Unfortunately, in the sombre light of developments over the 50 years that

have passed since the Corfu Channel case, but more particularly in the
recent past, this statement of the Court shows traits of a prophecy.

6. My agreement with the present position of the Court in principle
does not however keep me from criticizing the Judgment for what 1
consider the half-heartedness of the manner in which it deals with the
question of the use of force.
1 recognize of course that there are valid legal reasons for the Court to
keep what has to be said on the legality of United States military actions

against the oil platforms within the confines of the text of Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty. In fact, my criticism of the Court's treat-
ment of the issues arising under that provision does not stem from any
disagreement with what the text of the Judgment is saying. Rather, what
concerns me is what the Court has decided not to Say. 1find it regrettable
that the Court has not mustered the courage of restating, and thus re-
confirming, more fully fundamental principles of the law of the United
Nations as well as customary international law (principles that in my
view are of the nature of jus cogens) on the use of force, or rather the
prohibition on armed force, in a context and at a time when such a recon-

firmation is called for with the greatest urgency. 1 accept of course that,
since its jurisdictionis limited to the bases furnished by the 1955 Treaty,
it would not have been possible for the Court to go as far as stating in the
dispositif of its Judgment that, since the United States attacks on the oil
platforms involved a use of armed force that cannot be justified as self-
defence, these attacks must not only, for reasons of their own, be found
not to have been necessary to protect the essential security interests of the
United States within the meaning of Article XX of the Treaty; they must
also be found in breach of Article 2 (4) of the United Nations Charter.
What the Court could have done, without neglecting any jurisdictional

bounds as 1see them, is to restate the backbone of the Charter law on use
of force by way of strong, unequivocal obiter dicta. Everybody will be

Corfu Channel, Merits, JudgmentI. C.J. Repor1949, p. 35.aware of the current crisis of the United Nations system of maintenance
of peace and security, of which Articles 2 (4) and 51 are cornerstones. We
currently find ourselves at the outset of an extremely controversial debate
on the further viability of the limits on unilateral military force estab-
lished by the United Nations Charter 'O.In this debate, "supplied" with a
case allowing it to do so, the Court ought to take every opportunity to
secure that the voice of the law of the Charter rise above the current
cacophony. After all, the International Court of Justice is not an isolated
arbitral tribunal or some regional institution but the principal judicial

organ of the United Nations. What we cannot but see outside the court-
room is that, more and more, legal justification of use of force within the
system of the United Nations Charter is discarded even as a fig leaf, while
an increasing number of writers appear to prepare for the outright
funeral of international legal limitations on the use of force. If such
voices are an indication of the direction in which legal-political discourse
on use of force not authorized by the Charter might move, do we need

more to realize that for the Court to speak up as clearly and comprehen-
sively as possible on that issue is never more urgent than today? In effect,
what the Court has decided to say - or, rather, not to Say - in the
present Judgment is an exercise in inappropriate self-restraint.

7. Paragraph 78 of the Judgment concludes that the United States
attacks against the oil platforms cannot be justified, under Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty of 1955, as being measures necessary to
protect the essential security interests of the United States, since those
actions constituted recoursebto arrned force not qualifying as acts of self-
defence under "international law on the question" (see infra), and thus
did not fa11within the categary of measures that could be contemplated,

"upon its correct interpretation", by the said provision of the Treaty. 1
admit of course that this passage can be read - indeed, it must be read
- as stating by way of implication that the United States actions, con-
stituting unilateral use of "armed: force not qualifying, under interna-
tional law . . . as acts of self-defence", were therefore in breach of
Article 2 (4) of the United Nations Charter. Tertium non datur. It is a
great pity however that the reasoning of the Court does not draw this
necessary conclusion, and thus strengthen the Charter prohibition on the

threat or use of armed force, in straightforward, terms. To repeat, 1 can-
not see how in doing so the Court'would have gone beyond the bounds

ber 2003, General Assembly, 7th Plenary Meeting, 23 September 2003, A/58/PV.7, at p. 3.

171of its jurisdiction. The text of the Judgment should have included an

unambiguous statement to the effect that the United States military
operations against the oil platforms, since they were not conducted in jus-
tified self-defence against an armed attack by Iran, must be considered
breaches of the prohibition on the use of military force enshrined in the
United Nations Charter and in customary international law.

8. Instead of doing so, the text adopted by the majority of the Court

explains what is to be understood by the "international law on the ques-
tion" (para. 78) in a way that comes dangerously close to creating the
impression that the Court attempts to conceal the law of the Charter
rather than to emphasize it: it speaks throughout its extensive debate on
the United States attacks in light of Article XX of "international law on
the question" (Le., the question of the use of force), "international law
applicable in the case" or " the relevant rules of international law". What

these relevant, applicable etc. rules actually are is spelled out only once,
and then in the subordinate part of a sentence: in paragraph 42, the
Judgment states that its jurisdiction under Article XXI, paragraph 2, of
the 1955 Treaty to decide any question of interpretation or application of
(inter alia) Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty extends, where
appropriate, to the determination whether action alleged to be justified
under that paragraph was or was not an unlawful use of force "by refer-
ence to international law applicable to this question, that is to say, the

provisions of the Charter of the United Nations and customary interna-
tional law" (emphasis added). Again: nowhere else in the part of the
Judgment dealing with the United States attacks l1 is the United Nations
Charter expressly mentioned. It is difficult to viewsuch hiding of the law
of the Charter behind the veil of terms like those that 1 have quoted
above as a mere matter of style; it could unfortunately also be under-
stood as a most unwelcome downgrading of the relevance and impor-

tance of the rules of the United Nations Charter on the use of force - as
1just said, precisely at a time when the effectiveness of these rules is being
challenged to the breaking-point.

Having said this, 1 turn to a number of more specific issues raised by
the text of the Judgment devoted to Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the
1955 Treaty.

9. 1 agree with the Judgment's understanding of the relationship
between Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), and the limits of general interna-
tional law on unilateral use of force, according to which - in the words
of a former President of this Court - this Article "cannot have contem-

determining the meaning of "armed attacks".agraph 51 to Article 51 of the Charteasplated a measure which cannot, under general international law, be jus-
tified even as being part of an operation in legitimate self-defence" 12.The
Court, in paragraph 41 of the Judgment, thus accepts, and rightly so, the
principle according to which the provisions of any treaty have to be inter-
preted and applied in the light of the treaty law applicable between the
parties as well as of the rules of general international law "surrounding"
the treatyI3. If these general rules of international law are of a peremp-

tory nature, as they undeniably are in our case, then the principle of
interpretation just mentioned turns into a legally insurmountable limit to
permissible treaty interpretation.
10. The scope of measures taken to protect the essential security inter-
ests of a party according to Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), is wider than
that of measures taken in self-defence. There are many measures that a
party may take on that basis, like import bans, which have nothing to do

with the notion of self-defence. On the other hand, any measure taken in
self-defence would equally constitute a measure necessary to protect
essential security interests within the meaning of the 1955 Treaty. How-
ever, only measures which fulfil al1 of the conditions required for the
exercise of the right of self-defence can qualify as action that is permis-
sible under Article XX, paragraph 1 (d). In the present case, to interpret
Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), more "liberally" would be both absurd and

destructive: absurd, because our provision could then be read to mean
that parties to treaties of, among other things, "amity" could be allowed
to contract out of the most fundamental of al1 obligations under present
international law, namely the prohibition on the threat or use of force -
an obligation which States owe any other State even if they cannot mus-
ter any degree of "amity" for each other. Furthermore, such a reading of
Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), would be destructive because it would

allow a mutual "emancipation" from some of the most cogent of al1 rules
of international law.

Il. 1 also strongly subscribe to the view of the Court expressed in the
Judgrnent's paragraph 73 according to which the requirement of inter-
national law that action taken avowedly in self-defence must have been

necessary for that purpose, is strict and objective,leaving no room for any
"measure of discretion". In my view, this is also due to Article 1 of the
1955 Treaty ("There shall be firm and enduring peace and sincere friend-

I2 Dissenting opinion of Judge Sir Robert Jennings, Military and ParamilitaActivi-
ties in and against Nicaragua(Nicaragua v. United States of America),Merits, Judg-
ment, 1.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 541. Sir Robert referred to the exact counterpart of
gua. The remaining doubts in Sir Robert's mind (cf.id.) were, in my view, unnecessary.

l3Article 31, paragraph3 (c), of the 1969 Vienna Conventionon the Law of Treaties.ship between the United States . . . and Iran") which, according to the
Court's Judgment of 1996 on the Preliminary Objection of the United
States, must be regarded as fixing an objective, in the light of which the
other Treaty provisions are to be interpreted and applied14. The least
which this objective must lead to is a particularly high demand on the

standard of "necessity" embodied in Article XX, paragraph 1 (d) ;every
one of the words used in the text of that provision must be carefully
weighed and given its full import. Hence, in order to relieve a party from
its obligation under Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, a measure
must, first, be necessary, not just desirable or useful to protect that
State's essential security interests. Second, the measure must be necessary

to actually protect these interests, not just to advance or support them.
Third, the measure must be necessary to protect the security interests
of the State taking it. Fourth, the security interests destined to be pro-
tected must be essential. And last, of course, the measure must be con-
cerned with the security of the Respondent itself. Since Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955 Treaty is the exception to the rule of free-
dom of commerce and navigation enshrined in the same Treaty, and,

as stated, in light of Article 1, al1 these terms have to be subjected to
extremely careful scrutiny.

12. 1 am less satisfied with the argumentation used in the Judgment by
which the Court arrives at the - correct - conclusion that, since the

Iranian mine, gunboat or helicopter attacks on United States shipping
did not amount to an "armed attack" within the meaning of Article 51 of
the Charter, the United States actions cannot be justified as recourse to
self-defence under that provision. The text of paragraph 51 of the Judg-
ment might create the impression that, if offensivemilitary actions remain
below the - considerably high - threshold of Article 51 of the Charter,

the victim of such actions does not have the right to resort to - strictly
proportionate - defensive measures equally of a military nature. What
the present Judgment follows at this point are some of the less fortunate
statements in the Court's Nicaragua Judgment of 1986 15.In my view, the
permissibility of strictly defensive military action taken against attacks of
the type involving, for example, the Sea Isle City or the Samuel B. Rob-
erts cannot be denied. What we see in such instances is an unlawful use of

force "short of' an armed attack ("agression armée") within the meaning
of Article 51, as indeed "the most grave form of the use of force" 16.
Against such smaller-scale use of force, defensive action - by force also

l4 1.C.J. Reports1996 (II), p. 814, para. 28.
l5 Military and Paramilitary Activitiein and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua V.United
States of America),Merits, Judgment, I. C.J. Reports 1986, e.g., p. 101, para.;p. 103,
para. 194; p. 127, para. 249.
l6 Ibid., p. 101, para. 194."short of' Article 51 - is to be regarded as lawful 17.In other words, 1

would suggest a distinction between (full-scale) self-defence within the
meaning of Article 51 against an "armed attack" within the meaning of
the same Charter provision on the one hand and, on the other, the case of
hostile action, for instance against individual ships, below the level of
Article 5 1,justifying proportionate defensive measures on the part of the
victim, equally short of the quality and quantity of action in self-defence

expressly reserved in the United Nations Charter. Here 1 see a certain
analogy with the Nicaragua case, where the Court denied that the hostile
activities undertaken by Nicaragua against El Salvador amounted to an
"armed attack" within the meaning of Article 51, that would have given
the United States a right to engage in collective self-defence, and instead
qualified these activities as illegal military intervention. What the Court
did consider permissible against such unlawful acts were "proportionate

counter-measures", but only those resorted to by the immediate victim.
The Court said :

"While an armed attack would give rise to an entitlement to col-
lective self-defence, a use of force of a lesser degree of gravity
cannot . . . produce any entitlement to take collective counter-
measures involving the use of force. The acts of which Nicaragua is

accused . . could only have justified proportionate counter-measures
on the part of the State which had been the victim of these acts, . .."I8

Hence, the Court drew a distinction between measures taken in legitimate
self-defence on the basis of Article 51 of the Charter and lower-level,
smaller-scale proportionate counter-measures which do not need to be
based on that provision. In view of the context of the Court's above
dictum, by such proportionate counter-measures the Court cannot have
understood mere pacific reprisals, more recently, and also in the termi-

nology used by the International Law Commission, called "counter-
measures" lg. Rather, in the circumstances of the Nicaragua case, the
Court can only have meant what 1 have just referred to as defensive
military action "short of' full-scale self-defence. Unfortunately, the
present Judgment decided not to address this issue at all.

long as 20 years ago; see A. VerdrossandocB. Simma, Universelles Volkerrecht.eTheories
und Praxis, 3rd ed., 1984, p. 240, para. 472.
l 1C.J. Reports 1986, p. 127, para. 249.
l9 Cf. Articles 49-54 of the ILC's text on the ResponsibiliStatesfor Internationally
Wrongful Acts, adopted in 2001 ;cf. InternationaLaw Commission, Report on the Work
of its Fifty-ThirSession, OfJicial Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixSession,
Supplement No. 10 (Al56110). The Commission strictly excluded from its concept
of "counter-measures" any such measures amounting to a threat or use of force; cf.
Article 50, para.1 (a). 13. To sum up my view on the use of force/self-defence aspects of the
present case, there are two levels to be distinguished: there is, first, the
level of "armed attacks" in the substantial, massive sense of amounting to
"une agression armée", to quote the French authentic text of Article 51.
Against such armed attacks, self-defence in its not infinite, but still
considerable, variety would be justified. But we may encounter also a
lower level of hostile military action, not reaching the threshold of an

"armed attack" within the meaning of Article 51 of the United Nations
Charter. Against such hostile acts, a State may of course defend itself,
but only within a more limited range and quality of responses (the main
difference being that the possibility of collective self-defence does not
arise, cf. Nicaragua) and bound to necessity, proportionality and imme-
diacy in time in a particularly strict way.

14. In the present case, 1 agree with the Court that neither the broad
pattern of unlawful use of force by Iran against United States vessels and

their naval escorts nor the two specific attacks against the Sea Isle City
and the Samuel B. Roberts amounted to an "armed attack" within the
meaning of Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. These hostile
activities could, as 1 have pointed out, have been countered immediately
by "proportionate counter-measures" also of a military nature, consisting
of defensive measures designed to eliminate the specific source of the
threat or harm to affected ships in, and at the time of, the specific inci-
dents. The Iranian oil platforms and their possible non-commercial activi-
ties during the Gulf War were too remote from these incidents (in every
sense of this word) to provide a legitimate target for counter-measures

within the meaning given to this term in the Nicaragua Judgment. Also,
there is in the international law on the use of force no "qualitative jump"
from iterative activities remaining below the threshold of Article 51 of the
Charter to the type of "armed attack" envisaged there. However, as 1
read the facts of the present case, there was on the part of Iran no itera-
tive or continued pattern of armed attacks against United States ships to
begin with. Attacks on ships flying foreign flags could not be relied on by
the United States in order to trigger Article 51 action. Furthermore, not
a single Security Council resolution adopted at the material time deter-
mined that it was Iran (alone) which had engaged in "armed attacks"

against neutral shipping in the Gulf.

15. But even if we assume, for the sake of discussion, that the United
States had been the victim of an armed attack by Iran within the meaning
of Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, the United States attacks on
the oil platforms would not qualify as legitimate acts of self-defence
under that provision. The United States actions fulfilled neither the con-
dition of necessity nor that of proportionality. In the light of the material
before the Court relating to the political and military considerations onthe part of United States authorities that led to the attacks on the oil
platforms, the selection of these platforms as targets was made on the
basis of decisions by military commanders which may well be considered
state of the art from the viewpoint of military efficiency, etc., but to
which the notion of "self-defence" was quite foreign. It is possible, indeed

probable, that some monitoring of United States as well as any other
neutral shipping had actually taken place from aboard the oil platforms.
Obviously this was a nuisance to United States military decision-makers.
The United States authorities might also have been right in assuming a
connection between information flowing, as it were, from the oil plat-
forms and the harassing of neutral shipping in the Gulf. Thus, as 1 see it,
either following the incidents involving the Sea Isle City and the Samuel
B. Roberts, the United States military considered that enough was enough,
and thus decided to neutralize the oil platforms, or, rather, the United
States used these two incidents to teach Iran a broader lesson. The
material put before the Court by the United States contains several

more or less convincing reasons as to why it was the oil platforms and
not some other military targets that were chosen for the purpose of a
"reply" to the specific incidents involving the Sea Isle City and the
Samuel B. Roberts, respectively the broader pattern of unlawful force
engaged in by Iran. But nowhere in these materials do we encounter any
trace of the considerations that an international lawyer would regard
as necessary in order to justify action taken in self-defence.

16. 1 arrive at the conclusion that the United States military actions
against the oil platforms were not of the defensive nature required both

by Article 51 of the United Nations Charter and the general international
law governing "proportionate counter-measures", to refer again to the
Nicaragua Court's tantalizing phrase. As 1 interpret the law on the limits
of unilateral use of armed force as it has evolved since 1945, there is no
way to regard such actions as lawful or justified.

C. Article X, Paragraph 1

17. With regard to the question whether the United States attacks on
the oil platforms constitute a breach of Article X, paragraph 1, of the

1955 Treaty, the Judgment follows a step-by-step approach with which 1
am able to concur throughout several of its argumentative stages. For
instance, 1 agree with the statement of the Court in paragraph 82 accord-
ing to which it is oil exports from Iran to the United States that are rele-
vant to the case, not such exports in general. In the same paragraph the
Court rightly disposes of the United States argument calling for a distinc-
tion between oil produced on Iranian land territory or in the territorial
sea of Iran, on the one hand, and oil produced on the Iranian continental
shelf, on the other. 18. 1 also agree with the gist of paragraph 89 of the Judgment, in
which the Court considers that where a State destroys another State's
means of production and transport of goods destined for export, or
means ancillary or pertaining to such production or transport, there is an
interference with freedom of international commerce being carried on by
those means at that time. However, the Court relativizes this finding by
saying that this consideration is valid "in principle". The Court thus
introduces a distinction between "freedom of international commerce" in

the Treaty sense (which it interprets later on) and the same freedom "in
principle", that is, in some more general sense. This is the point from
which the present Judgment appears to begin its retreat from the Court's
position of 1996 or, to return to the metaphor used above, to close again
the needle's eye offered to Iran at that earlier stage. I will turn to this
change of course in more detail in paragraphs 21 ff. of my opinion.

19. In paragraph 91 of the Judgment, the Court reminds us that it
remains uncontested between the Parties that "oil exports from Iran to
the United States were - to some degree - ongoing at least until after

the destruction of the first set of oil platforms" on 19 October 1987. In
the same paragraph, the Court also points out that it is accepted by both
Parties that the oil or petroleum products reaching the United States
during this period were to some extent derived from crude oil produced
by the platforms that were later subjected to attack. Thus the Court
confirms that Iranian oil exports did right up to the beginning of the
United States oil embargo constitute "commerce between the territories
of the High Contracting Parties" within the meaning of Article X, para-
graph 1, of the 1955 Treaty.

20. 1 also draw attention to paragraph 96 of the Judgment, according

to which the Court sees no reason to question the view that, over the
period during which the United States embargo was in effect, petroleum
products that were derived in part from Iranian crude oil were reaching
the United States in considerable quantities. The Court continues:

"It could reasonably be argued that, had the platforms not been
attacked, some of the oil that they would have produced would have
been included in the consignments processed in Western Europe so
as to produce the petroleum products reaching the United States."
Thus far, 1 can agree with the Court's build-up of the arguments
21.
concerning Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. 1 have gone through
the relevant stages of these arguments in order to demonstrate more
clearly that from this point onwards the Court's reasoning begins to be
flawed.
Where these flaws are summarized, as it were, and where therefore 1
part Company with the reasoning of the Judgment, is at paragraph 98
which encapsulates the two main findings of the Court relating toArticle X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. Paragraph 98 states that the
two United States attacks cannot be said to have infringed upon Iran's
rights under Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty because

- at the time of the United States attack of 19 October
1987 on the
Reshadat platforms there was no commerce between the territories of
Iran and the United States in respect of oil produced by those plat-
forms and the Resalat platforms20, inasmuch as those platforms were
under repair and inoperative ;
- at the time of the attacks of 18 April 1988 on the Salman and Nasr
platforms, al1 direct commerce in oil between the territories of Iran

and the United States had been suspended in pursuance of the United
States embargo; consequently there was at that time no commerce
"between the territories" of the parties within the meaning of the
Treaty.

22. My disagreement with those two conclusions is as follows: as the
Permanent Court has observed in the Oscar Chinn case2', freedom of
trade consists in the right to engage in any commercial activity, such
activity comprising not only the purchase and sale of goods, but also

industry, and in particular the transport business. This observation was
the basis for the Court's 1996 Judgment on the United States Preliminary
Objection to arrive at what it calls the "natural interpretation" according
to which the word "commerce" in Article X, paragraph 1, includes com-
mercial activities in general - not merely the immediate act of purchase
and sale, but also the ancillary activities integrally related to commerce22.

In conformity with this finding, the present Judgment includes the oil
platforms among the installations performing such ancillary activities.

23. What 1 cannot agree with is that those oil platforms that at the
time of the 1987 attacks were under repair could have lost the protection
rendered by Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty by the fact of

their thus being temporarily inoperative. First, according to Iran, the
Reshadat platforms were at the time of the United States attacks close to
being recommi~sioned~~: according to Iran, it was contemplated that
production would resume several days before the United States embargo
set in. But even if the Reshadat platforms had taken up production again
at a later date, that is, during the period of the embargo, they would have

20Paragraph 47 of the Judgmentclarifies that, while the United Sattack was made
solely on two platformbelonging to the Reshadat complex, it affected also the operation
of the Resalat complex.
21Judgment, 1934, P. C.I. J., Series AIB, No. 63, p. 65.
22 Oil Platforms(Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of AmericaPreliminary
Objection, Judgment, I. C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 819, para. 49.
23Cf. paragraph 92 of the Judgment.participated in indirect commerce in oil (on which see infra), just like the
Salman and Nasr platforms.

24. Concerning the time needed for the repair of the platforms, 1 see

no reason to deny credibility to the Iranian claims as paragraph 93 of the
Judgment chooses to do: Iraqi attacks on the Reshadat platforms had
taken place way back in 1986 and 1 would not categorically exclude the
possibility that the United States, resolved to "teach Iran a lesson", timed
its attacks precisely so as to destroy the installations as imminently before
they could resume their function as possible.

25. More importantly, however, 1 consider, first, that "freedom of
commerce" within the meaning of Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty
implies the coverage by that Treaty provision not only of actual, ongoing
commerce but of commerce on a continuing basis. Secondly, with Iran, 1
read that freedom as embodying an undertaking by the Parties to refrain
from any action, not authorized by general international law or expressly
contemplated by the Treaty between them, which may be the source of
impediments on the other Party related to international commerce24.

Thus, according to this view, which 1consider to be correct on this point,
the key issue is not damage to commerce in practice but the violation of
the freedom to engage in commerce, whether or not there actually was
any commerce going on at the time of the violation.

26. To conclude from this interpretation of the Treaty-based "freedom
of commerce" that one party to a treaty stipulating such freedom would

be obligated to enhance the other party's capabilities to bring about
goods destined for such commerce would be absurd. But what certainly
follows from it is that the parties are prohibited to prevent each other's
use of existing capabilities, particularly by destroying respective installa-
tions altogether. 1 see no other way to interpret the Court's statement of
1996, according to which "any act which would impede that 'freedom' is
thereby pr~hibited"~~. Further, as a consequence of that - abstract, as it
were - understanding of freedom of commerce followed here, such free-

dom is not founded on momentary reality, it implies a possibility for the
f~ture*~. Thus the destruction of the Reshadat installations did impair
the freedom of Iran to engage in commerce in oil also with the United
States, irrespective of the fact that at the time of the attacks the platforms
were out of order. Even if it had taken Iran longer to render the instal-
lations attacked in 1987 operational again, reducing them to ruins is to

24Pellet, CR 200316, p. 28.
25 Oil Platforms(Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of AmericaPreliminary
Objection, Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 819, para. 50.
26Pellet, CR 200316, p. 33, paras. 68 and 70; p. 34, para. 73.me as obvious a violation of Iran's freedom of commerce as it could pos-
sibly be. Hence, for a violation of Article X, paragraph 1, to occur, no oil
must have been flowing at the time of the United States attacks; it issuf-
ficient that the attacks impeded the possibility of such flow. To give an

example: let us assume that a person is suffering from a sore throat,
depriving her of her voice, the chances being however that the person
would be fully able to speak again in a few hours' time. If somebody
gagged that person in order to prevent her from then speaking her mind,
would such action be seen as an infringement upon that person's respec-
tive rights or not? The answer would certainly be yes. Thus 1 would ven-
ture to disagree with the view expressed in paragraph 92 of the Judgrnent
according to which "[ilnjury to potential for future commerce is . . not

necessarily to be identified with injury to freedom of commerce, within
the meaning of Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty".

27. From the view taken here, the exact time of the projected resump-
tion of operation of the oil platforms is not really relevant.

28. Further, 1 find myself in disagreement with the view expressed in

paragraph 98 of the Judgment that, since at the time of the attacks on the
Salman and Nasr platforms in April 1988, commerce in oil between the
territories of Iran and the United States had been suspended through the
United States President's Executive Order 12613, these platforms had
lost protection under Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty as well.
Thus, in the view of the Court, even though it recognizes that during the
period of the United States embargo petroleum products were reaching

the United States in considerable quantities that were derived in part
from Iranian crude 0i1~~,commerce in such products did not constitute
"commerce between the territories of Iran and the United States", under-
stood exclusively as direct commerce. Also, the Judgment apparently
views the "directness" of commerce in oil and petroleum products as
eliminated not by the fact that, having been mixed with oil from other
destinations, refined or otherwise processed, for instance in Rotterdam,
Iranian crude oil could have lost its Iranian nationality, as it were, but

rather by the existence in the context of indirect commerce of a succes-
sion of commercial transactions involving in addition to an Iranian seller
and a United States buyer some intermediate participant(s) in a third
country 28.
29. 1 find this interpretation of Article X, paragraph 1, plainly wrong.
It is too formalistic and due to render the inter-State "commerce" pro-

27Cf. paragraph 96 of the present Judgment and infra paragrap30.
28Cf. Judgment, paras. 9ff. In the Courtview "[tlhis is not 'commerce' between Iran
and the United Statesbut commerce between Iran and an intermediate purchaser;and
'commerce' between an intermediateseller and the UniteStates"(ibid .ara. 97).tected under the Treaty a prey to private manipulations. In order to
assess the ambit of this protection correctly, 1 would submit that a sharp
distinction ought to be drawn between the level of international commer-
cial law, that is, the law and the contractual relationships governing
transactions in oil between private parties on the one hand and the level
of public international, i.e., treaty law on the other: the 1955 Treaty

intends to protect "commerce between the territories of the Parties" as a
value, or as a good, belonging, as it were, to the States parties to it; it in
no way focuses on the private transactions that make such commerce
flow from Iran to the United States. Thus, what the Treaty protection of
commerce aims at is the macro-economic aspect of oil trade. And in this
regard, the situation was as follows: according to the information before
the Court, Iran's economy benefited from an increase in sales of crude oil
to Western European markets during the period of the embargo, and this
corresponded to increased spending by United States importers on petro-
leum products in those markets. Just as there was, in some sense, a flow
of Iranian oil into the United States in the form of "mixed" crude oil or

refined products, so there was also a corresponding flow of capital out of
the United States and, ultimately, into Iran to pay for the products. In
my view, this is al1 there is needed to represent "commerce between the
territories" of the two Parties for the purposes of a commercial treaty of
the kind exemplified by the 1955 Treaty. Trade in oil has to be viewed in
light of the realities of that trade29. 1would presume that even before the
enactment of the embargo, indirect trade in oil (products), as such trade
is understood by the Judgment, was taking place. Subsequent to the
United States President's Executive Order 12613, what happened was

that al1 Iran-United States oil trade became indirect in that way.

30. The figures in that regard are quite telling. According to the report
by Professor Ode11 submitted by Iran, trade in oil between Iran and
Europe and Europe and the United States increased very significantly
around the time in which the embargo was enacted. Thus Iranian crude
exported to European OECD countries rapidly expanded from only
25.2 million tons in 1986 to 37.7 million in 1987, and to 43.0 million
tons in 1988: a 70 per cent increase in two years.

In the course of the same two years, exports of oil products from
Western Europe to the United States rose by 60 per cent, from 11.2 to
17.9 million tons, while exports of such products as a whole from
Europe increased much more modestly by 35 per cent from 24.3 to
32.7 million tons. In 1986, 46.1 per cent of Western Europe's exports
of relevant products went to the United States; in 1988, the United

29Crawford, CR 200315, pp. 3 ff.

182States was the destination for 54.7 per cent of the tota130. Professor
Odell concludes :
"One can reasonably presume that these much larger than previ-
ously reported levels of geographically non-specified destinations for

oil products ex-Europe for 1988 could have been related to actions
which sought to disguise an Iranian origin for large volumes of oil
going to the United States through E~rope."~'
Again according to Professor Odell, the "denationalization" process

that Iranian oil underwent in Europe was substantial so that it would be
very difficult to trace the oil to its origin. Odellstates that "it was thus an
ideal system into which US embargoed Iranian crude could be intro-
duced" 32.
31. Another critical observation in place would be that the Judgment
is rather oblique in its treatment of the exception made in Executive
Order 12613. After all, the Order provided that the embargo was not to
apply, inter alia, to "petroleum products refined from Iranian crude oil in

a third country". Must the very existence of this exception from the
embargo not be seen as an implicit acknowledgment by the United States
that indirect commerce was also to be regarded as "commerce" between
itself and Iran? If it had been taken to be otherwise, the exception would
not have been necessary at all.
32. The economic interests at the basis of indirect trade in oil (prod-
ucts) between Iran and the United States appear to me quite clear-cut:
Iran had an interest in sending its oil to Western Europe because there

the oil was mixed with crude from other geographical origins or refined
to some degree, so that it was impossible to determine whether oil prod-
ucts subsequently imported into the United States from Western Europe
had come from Iran or not. But it is apparent that the United States also
had an interest in maintaining this arrangement. It permitted the United
States to claim that it had placed an embargo on Iran while at the same
time allowing American companies to indirectly import oil products from
that country. It allowed Iran to hide the "nationality" of its oil by send-

ing it to a third country where it was mixed with oil from other sources
and then could be sold on to the United States without complaints. Thus
it seems that one of the main motives behind shipping the oil to Europe
before it went on to its final destination, the United States, was to cir-
cumvent the embargo rather than substantively change the product by
adding significantvalue to it. The United States clearly had knowledge of
these facts but its importers still bought greatly increased quantities of oil
from Europe, as described in the Odell Report.

30Reply and Defence to Counter-Claim submittedby Iran (RI), Vol. III, Odell Report,
p.31Ibid. p. 12.
32Ibid., p. 9. 33. Again, what 1 cannot but see here is "commerce between the ter-

ritories" of the two Parties, well within the meaning of Article X, para-
graph 1, of the 1955 Treaty. Nowhere does that Treaty require that such
commerce be carried on between Iranian and United States natural or
legal persons, without any foreign intermediaries, or that the oil should
be shipped between the territories of the Parties without any interruption.

Paragraph 97 of the Judgment seeks to strengthen the opposite point
of view by saying that:

"If, for example, the process of 'indirect commerce' in Iranian oil
through Western European refineries . . . were interfered with at
some stage subsequent to Iran's having parted with a consignment,
Iran's commitment and entitlement to freedom of commerce vis-à-
vis the United Statescould not be regarded as having been violated."

But let us assume that it would have been the United States itself that
would have thus interfered, would in such case Iran not have regarded its
entitlement to freedom of commerce as having been violated by the other
Contracting Party? The answer will be a clear no. Thus, the very example

chosen by the Court shows that the (as it were, "macro-" rather than
"micro-") economic link characterizing the "commerce between the
territories . . ." protected by the Treaty would not be severed by any
interrnediate private transactions involving third-country nationals.
34. With regard to the two groups of oil platforms attacked by the
United States 1 therefore reach the following result:

(a) as far as the Re~hadat~~ platforms attacked in October 1987 are
concerned, there is the possibility that they could even have returned
to contributing to direct commerce between the territories of the two
countries before the United States embargo set in. After resumption
of performance, they would with certainty have participated in
indirect commerce ;

(b) the same is valid for the Salman platform attacked in April 1988; as
far as the Nasr platform attacked at the same date is concerned, it
was operating at the time of the attack, that is, it was participating
in Treaty-protected commerce.
Thus, the destruction of the oil platforms violated Iran's freedom of
commerce

- given (correctly) what could be called the "abstract" meaning of such
freedom in the case of the Reshadat, Resalat and Salman platforms;

- also understood in the "concrete" sense (as done by the Judgment) in

case of the Nasr platform.

33 And Resalat, see supra, footnote 20.Since, in my view, indirect commerce is protected by Article X, para-
graph 1, of the Treaty, both United States attacks constituted breaches of
the Treaty. The Court should therefore have upheld Iran's respective
claim.

II. THE UNITEDSTATESCOUNTER-CLAIM

A. Introduction

35. While the Judgment discusses at length the issues of jurisdiction

and admissibility of the United States counter-claim, in comparison it
devotes very little attention to the substantive questions raised therein. In
particular, the reasons for the dismissal of the generic counter-claim
given in paragraph 123 of the Judgment appear to me to be plainly
inadequate :al1the Judgment has to say in this regard is that the high risk
for navigation in the Gulf during the Iraq-Iran war is not sufficient for

the Court to decide that Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty was
breached by Iran, and, further, that the United States was unable to
demonstrate an actual impediment to trade or navigation between the
territories of the Parties resulting from Iran's hostile activities. After all,
paragraph 123 of theJudgment tells us commerce and navigation between
Iran and the United States did continue during the ~ar~~. According to

the Court, in the circumstances of this case, a generic claim of breach of
Article X, paragraph 1, cannot be sustained independently of the specific
incidents involving a number of ships, the entirety of which the Court
found as not having led to an interference with the freedom of commerce
and navigation protected by the Treaty.

36. Thus far the Court's reasoning, contained in one single paragraph

34 More precisely, paragraph 123 States that
"according to the material before the Court the commerce and navigation between
Iran and the United Statescontinued during the war until the issuance of the United
Statesembargo on 29 October 1987, and subsequently at least to the extent permitted
by the exceptions to the embargo".

As setforth in paragraph 90 of the Judgment, the embargoprohibited theimport intothe
United States of most goods, includinoil, and services of Iranian origin. Most but not al1
goods were affected by the embargo, which means that certain goods could still be
which is not limited to commerce in oil, therefore contineven after the issuance of the
embargo. However, the fact that commerce between the two Parties continued during the
war does not, in and of itself, demonstrathat Iran's actions did not impede on the free-
dom of commerce and navigation between the two Parties. Had it not been for the
impediments resulting from Iranian actions, there might have been more commerce
between the two Parties. In other words, some commerce was still going on during the
war, but not as much as would have been the case absent Iran'sactions detrimentalto
commercial shipping between the Parties.of the Judgment, and the little there is is borrowed in part from the argu-
ments used by the Court before to dismiss the specific variant of the
United States counter-claims. Possibly such short shrift thus given to
the generic counter-claim can be explained as the Court's reaction to
the somewhat unpersuasive way in which it was pleaded. Indeed, what
1 would regard as a full-fledged reasoning in support of the generic
counter-claim was never really articulated by the United States. 1 would

submit however that there is more merit to this counter-claim than meets
the eye.
37. In the following, after a brief explanation of the meaning of
"generic counter-claim" underlying the present case, 1 will scrutinize the
main arguments in favour of the United States counter-claim of this
nature, as they can be developed on the modest basis of what the United
States did actually muster by way of reasoning. In doing so, 1 do

not assume to violate the ultra petita partium rule because the generic
counter-claim was actually made, if only insufficiently argued.

38. Iran, in its written pleadings on the counter-claim, made a distinc-
tion between the general context and worsening conditions for shipping
in the Persian Gulf during the period in question, and the specific inci-

dents referred to by the United States as constituting breaches of Iran's
obligations under the Treat~~~. Looking at the written pleadings of the
United States, however, one finds no mentioning of an express distinction
between a "generic" and a "specific" counter-~laim~~. Rather, in the
United States Counter-Memorial and Counter-Claim, the counter-claim
was formulated as a single claim. At the stage of the oral pleadings, the
United States actually seemed to reject the di~tinction~~. 1 use the word

"seemed" because the position of the United States was unclear: after
what could be regarded as a rejection of the distinction proposed by Iran,
counsel for the United States went on to Say that, in the Nicaragua case,

35 Iran found it
"useful to analyse the Us's claims in two ways: first, to the extent the United States
refers to attacks on specific vessels (the specific claims), and secondly, to the
that it refers to a more general impairmeof the freedom of commerce between the
territories of the High ContractinParties (the generic claim(RI, para.9.22).

Iran then proceeded to analyse both "claims".
36 Specific incidents were mentioned by the United States in order to illustrate the asser-
tion that
"Iran's actionresulted in extremeldangerous conditions foral1 vessels operating in
the Gulf, including a number of United States vessels which suffered sevproperty
damage and injury to their crews" (Counter-Memorial and Counter-Claim submitted
by the United States of America (CMUS), para. 6.09).

37 CR 2003113, pp. 42-43, paras. 21.61-21.63."[tlhe Court did not feel compelled to treat each of the incidents placed
before it as individual claims . .. We urge the Court to do the same in this
case."38 In thus requesting the Court not to examine the incidents indi-
vidually, the United States in fact embraced a more generic approach to

the counter-claim implicitly .

39. Regardless of what the position of the United States on this prob-
lem of nomenclature ultimately was, the Court found the distinction
suggested by Iran useful and took it up in its Judgment. 1 will therefore
also follow it in my analysis. The way in which the Judgment proceeds is
to reject the two types of counter-claims independently of each other, even

though applying to the generic counter-claim more or less the same cri-
teria that it applies earlier on to its specific variety. 1 submit that this
approach cannot do justice to the generic counter-claim. To be able to
stand on its own, the generic counter-claim must be given its distinct sub-
stance - a substance independent of that of the various specific incidents
referred to by the United States. The Court's way of dealing with the
matter in paragraph 123 reduces the generic counter-claim to an empty
shell, which is then summarily disposed of.

40. To delineate the contours of the generic counter-claim in an
adequate way, it is useful to refer to the 1986 Nicaragua Judgment. In the
Nicaragua case, the Court was faced with similar violations of a similar
treaty, which also protected the freedom of commerce and navigation
"between the territories" of the two parties. When the Court assessed the
impediment to the freedom of commerce and navigation caused by the
United States attacks on Nicaraguan ships, it did not consider it neces-
sary to establish whether the particular vessels harmed by mines were fly-

ing the Nicaraguan flag, and whether the ships in question were trans-
porting cargo between the United States and Nicarag~a~~ (even though
Article XIX, paragraph 1, of the FCN Treaty between the United States
and Nicaragua of 1956, like Article X of our Treaty, reads: "Between the
territories of the two parties there shall be freedom of commerce and
navigation").
41. Most importantly, in the Nicaragua case, the Court did not ana-
lyse each incident in detail. Rather, it gave a broad picture of the context
prevailing at the time, and assessed the nature and the extent of United

States involvement and, consequently, its responsibility for the resulting
violations of general international law and the FCN Treaty. Nowhere do
we find a specific account of what happened to each ship. The Court's

38 CR 2003113, p. 43, para. 21.64.
Statesof Arnerica), Merits, JudgmentI.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 48, para. 81.v. Unitedapproach, in this sense, was more "generic" than "specific". In our case
as well, the analysis of the generic counter-claim should not entai1 an
analysis of what happened to the specific ships named by the United
States.

42. One difference, of course, has to be pointed out at once: whereas,
in the Nicaragua case, responsibility for the military actions taken against
Nicaragua could be attributed only to the United States, in the present
case two States created the situation adverse to neutral shipping in the
Gulf: Iran and Iraq or, to be more precise, Iran or Iraq. 1 do not believe
however that this difference is determinant. With respect to the generic
counter-claim, al1 that matters is that Iran was responsible for a signifi-
cant portion of the actions that impaired the freedom of commerce and
navigation between the United States and Iran. This is sufficient to hold
Iran in breach of its obligations under Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955

Treaty, and it is not necessary to determine the particular extent to which
Iran was responsible for these actions.

43. Another point is of even greater importance: against the reasoning
that follows it cannot be argued that al1 the impediments to free com-
merce and navigation which neutral ships faced in the Gulf were caused
by legitimate acts of war carried out by the two belligerents, Iran and
Iraq, and that therefore neutral shipping had nothing to complain about,
so to speak, because it entered the maritime areas affected by the Gulf
war at its own risk - a risk which al1 neutrals must bear if they decide to

navigate and trade in such a dangerous environment. This argument
appears il1founded because it is well recognized that both Iran and Iraq
conducted their activities against neutral shipping in andaround the Gulf
that are at issue here widely in disregard of the rules of international jus
in bello, in particular the laws of maritime neutrality. 1 will exemplify
such illegal activities on the part of Iran in the following analysis, but
what has to be emphasized already at this point is that these activities
were not justified simply because a state of war existed between Iran and
Iraq.

B. Analysis

44. In my view, in the present case the purpose of the generic counter-
claim is to compensate the United States for the harm done by Iran
to commerce and navigation with the United States rather than for the
harm done to specific vessels. For the reasons now to be outlined, 1 will
argue (1) that Iran's actions constitute a violation of Article X, para-
graph 1,of the 1955 Treaty, and (2) that the impediment on the freedom

of commerce and navigation caused by those actions is evidenced by the
increase in labour, insurance, and other costs resulting for the partici-pants in commerce between the two countries during the relevant
period 40.

1. Iran's violation of Article X, paragraph 1

45. The United States described in detail the various actions taken
by Iran which caused damage to vessels, higher navigational risks, and
delayed passage41. Let us look at these hostile activities.
First, 1 consider undeniable that Iran laid mines for the purpose of

sinking and damaging ships - also United States-flagged ships and other
vessels engaged in commerce between Iran and the United States - sail-
ing in the Gulf and surrounding waters. In this regard, the Texaco Carib-
bean incident of 10 August 1987 is very instructive. A week after this
tanker had struck a mine, Iran assisted in minesweeping operations in the

area and destroyed a number of mines42. A Reuters wire report indicates
that six mines were found in the area in the three days following the inci-
dent43. It is striking that Iran did not identify any of the mines which it
found and destroyed; at least no such information appears in any of the
reports. Then, from 21 to 28 September 1987, France and the United

Kingdom conducted minesweeping operations in the area where the
Texaco Caribbean incident had taken place. In the course of these opera-
tions, no mines could be dete~ted~~. On 10 October 1987 (that is, two
months after the mining of the tanker), warships of the two countries
returned to the site and undertook a second minesweeping operation.

This time five mines were detected. The United Kingdom Ministry of
Defence identified those mines as Iranian-manufactured SADAF-02
mines, on the basis of the serial numbers and characteristics of these
~eapons~~. This evidence suggests that Iran had laid mines again, after it
had cleaned up the area following the Texaco Caribbean incident. It also

40 According to Iran, the UnitedStates had to prove the following with respectto the
generic claim:
1. the existence of commerce between the territories of the High Contracting Parties,
independently of any individually named ship or other instrumentality;
2. that conduct attributableto Iran violated thefreedom of that commerce, contrary to
Article X (1) of the Treaty of Amity; and
3. (eventually) theuantum of damages or compensation directly attributabto that vio-
lation.
Iran's response to the counter-claiat paragraph 9.24 (emphasis added).

41 CR 2003113, pp. 20-21, paras. 20.7-20.14.
42 Observations and Submissions of Iran on the United States Preliminary Objection,
Exhibit 27.
43 CMUS, Exhibit 52.

44 Ibid., Exhibit 53.
45 Ibid., Exhibit 43, para. 15, Exhibit 53.appears highly probable that the mines which Iran destroyed without
identifying them back in August were its ~wn~~.

46. To the evidence related to the Texaco Caribbean incident can be

added that resulting from minesweeping operations undertaken by the
United States Navy off the coast of Kuwait in June 198747, and such
operations undertaken by Kuwait itself in July 198748. The mines swept
during those operations were identified as Iranian following the boarding
and search of the Iran Ajr on 21 September 1987, because they were iden-
tical to the mines found on board that vessel. Then, in November 1987,

minesweeping operations detected Iranian mines in the location where
the Bridgeton had been hit. Those are only examples of the evidence
showing that Iran repeatedly laid mines in the Persian Gulf during the
relevant period.

47. Moreover, Iran gave no warning to ships travelling in the area that

mines had in fact been laid. When belligerents lay mines, Article 3 of the
1907 Hague Convention (VIII) Relating to the Laying of Automatic Sub-
marine Contact Mines requires that "every possible precaution must be
taken for the security of peaceful ~hipping"~~. Even States which did not
ratify or accede to the Hague Convention, among them Iranso, have a

duty of notification when laying miness1. This prohibition dating from
1907 was reconfirmed by the Court in its Nicaragua Judgment of 1986,
which stated that:

"if a State lays mines in any waters whatever in which the vessels of

another State have rights of access or passage, and fails to give any
warning or notification whatsoever, in disregard of the security of
peaceful shipping, it commits a breach of the principles of humani-

46The only response provided by Iran was that it could not have laid those mines there
since Iranian ships used that route too. See CR 2003114, p. 21, at para. 39.

47CMUS, Exhibit 37.

48Ibid., Exhibit 34.
49D. Schindler and J. Toman, Droit des conjlits armés, Comité Internationalde la
Croix Rouge & Institut Henry-Dunant (eds.), 1996, pp. 1 115-1120.
50Information available www.icrc.orglihl.nsf/WebNORM?OpenView&Start=l&Count=
1551CMUS, Annex, Vol. VI, Exhibit 172, p. 282:.

"It is probably alstrue that [the States which did not accede to the Hague Con-
vention (VIII)] may not lay mines off the enemycoast merely to intercept neutral
shipping, that they are bound to observe the duty to notify the Iaying of mines, that
they have to take additionalsafety measures to protect innocent shippiand that
they must also remove mines at the end of the war." (Emphasis added.)

See also ibid, Exhibit 173, pp. 168-169. tarian law underlying the specific provisions of Convention No. VI11
of 1907"52.

It is certainly not within the jurisdiction of the Court in the present
case to determine whether Iran's failure to notify ships travelling in the
Gulf of the existence of the mines it laid violated the above Hague Con-
vention, or even the principles of humanitarian law underlying that Con-
vention. Yet, it is obvious, and well within jurisdictional reach in the
present case, that, had Iran notified neutral ships of its minelaying activi-

ties, it would have mitigated the disruption to the freedom of commerce
and navigation. There can be no doubt that the laying of the mines,
aggravated by Iran's failure to notify, created dangerous conditions for
maritime commerce and navigation between Iran and the United States.

48. Secondly, ships engaged in commerce between Iran and the United
States were attacked by Iranian air~raft~~. Whether such attacks were

launched from or with the assistance of the oil platforms is irrelevant at
this stage. They were carried out by fixed-wing aircraft and helicopter-s54.
These attacks, like the mining attacks, disrupted maritime commerce in
the Gulf 55.
49. Thirdly, ships engaged in commerce between Iran and the United
States were also attacked by Iranian gunboats equipped with machine

guns and rocket la un cher^^^T .he United States listed three attacks of this
type in its counter-claim: the attacks on the Lucy, the Esso Freeport and
the Diane57. Iran argued that close to no damage had been caused by
those attacks. However, the impediment to freedom of commerce was
not caused by damage to the ships but rather by the insecure environ-
ment which these attacks created for merchant shipping, including
shipping between Iran and the United States.

2. Evidence of the impediment to freedom of commerce and navigation

50. Concerning, first, freedom of navigation, the Court stated in 1998
that it had jurisdiction "to entertain the United Statescounter-claim in so
far as the acts alleged may have prejudiced the freedoms guaranteed by
Article X, paragraph 1" 58,thereby including the freedom of navigation.
Al1 the vessels mentioned in the United States counter-claim had a right

States ofAtnerica),Merits, Judgment, I. C.J. Reports 198p. 112, para. 215.. United
53 CMUS, p. 64, paras. 1.91-1.95.

54 Ibid., p. 161, para. 6.04.
55 Ibid., Exhibit 6; Exhibit 17, pp. 3-4; Exhibit 19; Exhibit 52, p. 19.
56 Ibid., p. 161, para. 6.04. See also ibid., Exhibit 22, p. 2, and Exhibit 32, p. 3.
57 Ibid., p. 166, para. 6.08.
Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iranv. United States of America), Counter-
Clairn, Order of 10 March 1998, I.C. J. Reports 1998, p. 204, para. 36 (emphasis added).to pass innocently, and follow the route of their choice, through Iranian
territorial waters on their way to and from the United States, by virtue
of the 1955 Treaty. 1 do not believe that the fact that merchant ships

engaged in Treaty-protected commerce were in effect forced to navigate
in a narrow channel in the Gulf created an impediment to their freedom
of navigation, guaranteed by Article X, paragraph 1. In my view, this
was a result of the general military situation in the Gulf rather than due
to a deliberate hostile measure taken by Iran. It was simply advisable for
ships to keep out of the Iranian war zone. The ensuing factual restriction
to the passage of ships therefore does not amount to a violation of
Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty by Iran.

51. On the other hand, Iranian attacks on ships engaged in commerce
between the Parties through mining, and attacks by aircraft or patrol
boats, did very well prevent these vessels from navigating freely and
safely through the Gulf. Such vessels had to navigate so as to avoid the
areas where Iranian mines had been discovered or were suspected to
have been laid, thus effectively being forced to use indirect routes which
were lengthier and therefore more expensive. In addition, ships began
travelling at night for safety reasons. Thus, by creating conditions too
dangerous for ships to travel by daylight, Iran also impeded upon the

United States freedom of navigation.
52. Concerning, second, freedom of commerce, measuring the impact
of a given hostile measure or action on such freedom is a difficult task.
Nevertheless, there is substantial evidence supporting a finding that Iran's
actions impeded on the freedom of commerce between the two countries
guaranteed by Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty. Let me set out
this evidence .
53. As concerns, first, minelaying, the Court declared in the Nicaragua
case that, when a right of access to a port "is hindered by the laying of

mines, this constitutes an infringement of the freedom of communica-
tions and of maritime commerce" 59.In our case, as demonstrated above,
the evidence shows that Iran repeatedly laid mines in order to disrupt
neutral shipping in the Gulf, which necessarily included shipping between
Iran and the United States. Thus, through these minelaying activities,
Iran clearly infringed upon the freedom of commerce protected by
Article X, paragraph 1, or in the words of the Court in Nicaragua,
acted in "manifest contradiction" 60 to the freedom of commerce guaran-
teed by the 1955 Treaty.

5Wilitary and Paranzilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America),Merits, Judgment,I. C.J. Reports 1986, pp. 128 ff., para. 253.
60 Ibid., pp. 139 ff., para. 278. 54. The Iranian activities also led to an increase in labour costs. In
general, wages of crew members had to be raised in order to reflect the
increasingly dangerous sailing conditions in the Gulf. As travelling by
daylight became more dangerous, ships began travelling at night to avoid

attacks by Iranian helicopters, etc., resulting in a further increase of crew
members' wages61 .For instance, Chevron, an American oil Company
whose tankers transported crude oil from the Gulf to the United States
during the Tanker War62,

"gave each crewmember the option of disembarking before his or
her ship entered the Gulf. . .Virtually al1 crewmembers stayed with
their vessels, and they received a 100 percent pay bonus during the

time that they were in the

55. Further, because of the war raging between the two countries,

insurance premiums related to commerce in the Gulf also increased. For
instance, two days following the Texaco Caribbean incident, Lloyd's
underwriters in London decided to impose an immediately effective war-
risk premium charge equivalent to 0.125 per cent of the insured value of
the vessels' hull for ships visiting the United Arab Emirates ports before

entering the At the time, most shipping insurance policies did not
include damage caused by military hostilities in war zones, and com-
panies were compelled to purchase additional insurance policies covering
the risks the ships now faced in the These extra costs contributed
to making shipping between the countries of the Gulf (including Iran)
and the United States more e~pensive~~.

56. Iran dismissed this argument by saying that such costs are

61 "Our routing obviously cost KOTC considerable time and money. The day spent
waiting in Jubayl was an extra day of war zonebonuses to the crews and war risk
premiums, since war risk premiums had to be paid for the whole period the vesse1
was within the Arabian Gulf. . ."(CMUS, Exhibit 31, p. 3, para. 8; see also ibid.,
para. 6.)

62 Rejoinder of the United States (RUS),Exhibit 180, p. 1, paras. 1-3.
63 Ibid., para. 7.
64 CMUS, Exhibit 52.

65 RUS, Exhibit 180, p. 2, para. 8; see also CMUS, Exhibit 7.

66 It is instructive that in the Nicaragua case the Court also noted that the explosion of
mines created "risks causing a rise in marine insurarates" (I. C.J, Reports 1986, p. 48,
para. 80).Later, the Court stated again that "Nicaraguaclaim is justified not only asto
the physicaldamage to its vessels, but also the consequendamage to its trade and corn-
merce" (ibid., p. 139, para. 278).unrecoverable under international la^^^, Whether or not there is merit
to this claim is irrelevant in the present context. What is relevant, how-
ever, is that the increased cost of commerce constituted an impediment to
the freedom of such commerce between the two Parties.
57. In addition, Iran argued that evidence relating to ships travelling
to and from Kuwait and Saudi Arabia is "strictly irrelevant to any claim

based on Article X (1) of the 1955 Treat~"~~. This argument is to be dis-
missed since such evidence is indicative of the conditions - military, eco-
nomic, etc. - prevailing in the Persian Gulf at the time for al1its "users".
The fact that commercial shipping to and from Kuwait was disturbed
reflects a wider, more general context in which shipping in the Gulf was
made more dangerous and thus more costly. Since al1 ships took similar
routes within the Gulf, the conditions affecting commercial shipping

between the United States and Iran also affected shipping between the
United States and Kuwait or Saudi Arabia. As the Court stated in the
case concerning Military and Pararnilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua,

"it is clear that interference with a right of access to the ports of
Nicaragua is likely to have an adverse effect on Nicaragua's economy
and its trading relations with any State whose vessels enjoy the right
of access to its ports" 69.

58. To finally mention some other financial impact of Iran's actions
on commercial shipping between Iran and the United States, before
entering the Gulf, tankers had to remove any oil remaining on board for
fear of dangerous explosions that could occur if a ship carrying oil

struck a mine or was hit by a missile. The cost of such measures was
$50,000 for each voyage in the Gulf70. Further, ships travelling through
the Gulf had to sail at faster speed (17 knots instead of 12-14 knots),
resulting in significant penalties and, incidentally, higher navigational
risks71. In addition, while the passage through the Gulf was normally
made without stopping, many vessels actually stopped twice en route to

avoid a daylight passage and to allow management to assess the poten-
tial for attack. As a result, passage through the Gulf was longer, and
thus more expensive for shipping companies. Chevron, for instance,
incurred as much as $40,000 a day in additional operating costs while
ships were stranded in the Gulf, a loss to which had to be added the

67CR 2003114, p. 61, paras. 41-43.
RI, Vol. 1, p. 220, para. 11.5.

69 Military and Paramilitary Activitin and against Nicaragua(Nicaragua v. United
States of Americaj,Merits, Judgment, 1C.J. Reports 1986, p. 129, para. 253; emphasis
added.
70 RUS, Exhibit 180, para. 11.
71Ibid., para. 14.amount of capital (oil barrels) tied up on board (as high as $50,000,000
for a very large crude oil carrier)72. Other costs included escort protec-
tion for ships to help them avoiding striking mines73.

C. Conclusions

59. By laying mines without warning commercial ships, by not notify-
ing neutral ships of the presence of mines, and by harassing commercial
shipping of al1 nationalities in the Persian Gulf also in other ways, Iran
created dangerous and more onerous conditions for commercial shipping
also between the two Parties74. As 1 have emphasized at the outset, the

state of war between Iran and Iraq did not provide Iran with a general
justification for its hostile activities because these were, for the greatest
part, in violation of the laws of war and neutrality. Therefore, Iran ought
to have been found in violation of its obligations under the 1955 Treaty,
and the generic counter-claim of the United States should have been
upheld.

60. To emphasize once again: in order to reach this conclusion, we
need not look at each of the specific incidents described by the United
States independently, or prove that each of these incidents is attributable
to Iran. In fact, doing so would be inappropriate in the context of a
generic claim. As long as it is clear that, during the Tanker War, Iran and
Iraq were both engaging in actions detrimental to neutral commercial

shipping in the Gulf (including, of course, commercial shipping between
Iran and the United State~)~~, the particular extent to which Iran was
responsible for these actions need not be determined with precision. It is
sufficient to establish that Iran, because of the Iran-Iraq war, was respon-
sible for a significant portion of those actions, and that such actions
impaired the freedom of commerce between the United States and Iran

guaranteed by the 1955 Treaty in ways not justifiable simply because of
the existence of a state of war.

72 RUS, Exhibit 180, para. 15.
73 Ibid., para. 16. For Chevron, such protection amountedup to $40,000 a day.
74CMUS, p. 160. While 1 believe that Iran's actions were inconsistent with Article X of
the 1955 Treaty, it is not my view that such actions reached the level of an "armed attack"
against the United States in the meaning of Article 51 of the United Nations Charter.
There is thus no inconsistency between what 1 conclude here and what 1 have said on
ArticleXX of the 1955 Treaty (see the respective sectioof the present opinion).
75In this regardcf. paragraph 44 of the Judgment:

"the Court notes that it is not disputed between the Partthat neutral shipping in
the Persian Gulf was caused considerablinconvenience and Ioss, and grave damage,
during the Iran-Iraqwar. It notes also that this was to a great extent due to the
presence of minesand minefields laidby both sides." 61. An obstacle to admitting the United States counter-claim could be
seen in the argument that the acts alleged to have constituted an impedi-
ment to the freedom of commerce and navigation under the Treaty can-
not be attributed to Iran with certainty. Therefore, the argument would

go, it is impossible to find Iran responsible for those acts. I will now pro-
ceed to show how this obstacle may be overcome.

62. One remark is to be made right at the outset: in the present case
the problem of attribution poses itself almost exclusively with regard to
minelaying by the parties to the Gulf war. But as referred to above, in
addition to mine attacks, Iran also carried out attacks by helicopters,
other aircraft and patrol boats, which largely contributed to the unsafe
shipping conditions in the Gulf. Whereas identifying the State respon-
sible for particular minelaying activities is not an easy exercise, identify-
ing the State engaging in attacks by helicopters or patrol boats is much

less difficult. Attribution of responsibility therefore can only be prob-
lematic with respect to minelaying. As for attacks by helicopters, patrol
boats, etc., against ships engaged in commerce between Iran and the
United States, there is hardly any doubt that they were carried out by
Iran. Therefore, when we move away from the mines, so to speak, the
generic counter-claim becomes free of the problem of attribution. Hence,
the following reasoning is in essence devoted to the problem of attribu-
tion of minelaying in the Gulf.

63. As 1 have just demonstrated, attribution of responsibility for such

minelaying activities certainly represents the principal challenge to the
generic counter-claim. Against this challenge militates a sense of fairness.
Yet, the thought that Iran could be held responsible for acts that could
not be attributed to it beyond a certain threshold of proof is also
troubling. The question we face is thus the following: how can we hold
Iran responsible for acts which, even though they did create impediments
to the freedom of commerce and navigation, cannot be attributed to
Iran with certainty?

64. It is common knowledge that the Iran-Iraq war had a destabilizing
effect on the regional economy, including American commerce going

through the Gulf. This destabilizing effect is easily measurable by the
increase in costs for doing commerce in the Gulf, as the evidence dis-
cussed above shows. It is more difficult - if not impossible - to measure
with any exactitude the negative impact of individual Iraqi or Iranian
actions on the economic conditions of commerce, let alone on American
commerce specifically. The damage caused by these actions, i.e. the
impediment to the freedom of commerce and navigation protected by the
1955 Treaty, is indivisible and as such cannot be apportioned between
Iran and Iraq. 65. Responsibility, however, is another matter. It is clear that a series

of actions taken by each party to the war necessarily disturbed the eco-
nomic environment (even if unintentionally). But what conclusion is to
be drawn from this? Should we hold both States equally responsible for
the impediments caused to commerce and navigation? Or can neither of
the two States be held responsible because it is impossible to determine
precisely who did what?

66. In order to find a solution to our dilemma, 1have engaged in some
research in comparative law to see whether anything resembling a "gen-

eral principle of law" within the meaning of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c),
of the Statute of the Court can be developed from solutions arrived at in
domestic law to come to terms with the problem of multiple tortfeasors.
1 submit that we find ourselves here in what 1 would cal1 a textbook
situation calling for such an exercise in legal analogy. To state its
result forthwith: research into various common law jurisdictions as
well as French, Swiss and Gerrnan tort law indicates that the question
has been taken up and solved by these legal systems with a consistency

that is striking.
67. To begin with common law jurisprudence, in a well-known case
heard by the Supreme Court of Calif~rnia~~, the plaintiff sued two
defendants for injury to his right eye and face as a result of having been
struck by birdshot discharged from a shotgun while the two defendants
had been hunting in an open range. It was admitted that both defendants
had fired at a quail, and that one piece of birdshot had hit the plaintiffs
eye and another his lip. However, there was no means of determining

which injury had been caused by which defendant.The defendants argued
that they were not joint tortfeasors because they had not been acting in
concert, and that there was not sufficient evidence to show which of the
two was guilty of the negligence that caused the injuries77.

The trial court had determined that "the negligence of both defendants
was the legal cause of the injury - or that both were responsible" 78,even
though "the court was unable to ascertain whether the shots were from

the gun of one defendant or the other or one shot from each of them" 79.
The California Supreme Court went on to quote Dean Wigmore, a
United States authority on tort law:

"When two or more persons by their acts are possibly the sole
cause of a harm . .. and the plaintiff has introduced evidence that
the one of the two persons .. .is culpable, then the defendant has the

76Summe~s v. Tice ,3 Cal.2d 80 (1948).
77Ibid.p, 83.
78Ibid.p, 84.
79Ibid. burden of proving that the other person . .. was the sole cause of the
harm. The real reason for the rule that each joint tortfeasor is
responsible for the whole damage is the practical unfairness of deny-
ing the injured person redress simply because he cannot prove how
much damage each did, when it is certain that between them they did

all." 80

As a matter of fairness to the plaintiff, the court then reversed the

burden of proof: each defendant had to prove that he had not caused the
injury. Since such proof could not be put forward, the court held both
defendants liable. The court dismissed the defendants' argument that
causation was lacking between their acts and the plaintiff's damagesl.
Most importantly, the court also dismissed the argument that the plain-
tiff should establish the portion of the damage caused by each tortfeasor

in cases where there is a plurality of tortfeasors and where the damage
cannot be apportioned among thems2.

68. This solution, which has since been embodied in the Restatement
of Tortss3, is interesting in many ways. On the one hand, it recognizes the
difficulty of a finding of responsibility where apportionment is impos-
sible. On the other hand, it excludes as unfair a solution in which no one

would be held responsible. Finally, this provides an answer by shifting
the burden of proof on to each defendant. The solution provides the
wrongdoer a way out - acknowledging the peculiarity of a situation
where facts cannot be ascertained with certainty -, while at the same
time ensuring the plaintiff recovery for his injury if the defendant fails to
show his innocence.

69. The same solution was adopted by Canadian courts in Cook v.
Lewiss4. According to Markesinis and Deakin, English courts faced with
the question of multiple tortfeasors are likely to take a similar approach 85.

70. In French law, too, multiple tortfeasors (irrespective of whether

they are acting in concert) causing an indivisible damage are each respon-
sible for the entirety of such damage. Each tortfeasor is considered as
having caused the entire prejudice to the victim, who can recover in full

*O Summers v. Tice, 33 Cal. 2d 80 (1948), p. 85.
*l Ibid., p. 87.
82 Ibid., p. 88.
83 Rest. 2d Torts, s. 433B, subsec. (3).
s4 119511SCR 830. On Canadian law, see also Jean-Louis Baudoin,La responsabilité
civiledélictuelle, 1973, p. 164, para. 235.

s5 Markesinis and Deakin, Tort Laiv, 4th ed., 1999, p. 185.from any of themS6. In any event, when French courts dealt with this
question in the past, they typically discussed the extent of each tort-
feasor's responsibility (partial or total) rather than responsibility as such.
When unable to hold each defendant liable on the basis of a specific dam-
age, French courts resorted to interpretations such as "collective breach

of duty" or "collective duty to look after the object which caused the
damage" even when tortfeasors had evidently not been acting with a
common motive, merely out of fairness for the injured plaintiffS7. In fact,
this solution had already been adopted in Roman law in the form of the
cause of action concerning "effusis et dejectis" (things spilled or thrown
out): whenever someone was injured by an object that had fallen from

the unidentified window of an apartment building, al1 residents of such
building were considered liable for the damage causeds8.

71. The same principles can be found in Swiss law, where Article 51 of

the Code des Obligations states that, when multiple tortfeasors acting
independently of each other cause a damage that cannot be divided
among them, any of the tortfeasors can be held responsible in full - just
like in the case of tortfeasors acting in concerts9. A commentary reads as
follows :

"Whether the unlawful acts have been committed by a number of
persons knowingly acting in concert (Art. 50, 'solidaritéparfaite . ..'),
or acting independently of each other, and even where liability is

based on different legal grounds (Art. 51, 'solidarité imparfaite'),
the injured party enjoys an entitlement to concurrent claims, with-
out being concerned by any relationship between the joint tort-
feasors; he can only make a single claim to reparation, but each tort-
feasor will be liable towards him in respect of that claim as a whole
and, if he so wishes, the action need only be brought against any one

tortfeasor." 90
72. The way, finally, in which German tort law addresses our issue is

tuelle et contractuelle, Vol. II, 6th ed., 1970, p. 1078, para. 1952; see also Boris Starck,
Henri Roland and Laurent Boyer, Obligations: 1. Responsabilité délictuelle, 5th ed.,
1996, p. 468, para. 1142; René Rodière,La responsabilité délictuelle dans lajurisprudence
(1978), pp. 346-348, para. 119. In particular, Rodireproduces a decision of the Cour de
Cassation dating from 1892, which, as he notes, has been consistently followbyvarious
jurisdictionsand approved by doctrine (Civ. 11juillet 1892).
87Boris Starck et al. (ibid.), p. 454, para. 1102.
8s Ibid., p. 455, para. 1104.
89Georges Scyboz and Pierre-Robert Gilliéron, Code civil suisse et Code des Obliga-
tions annotés,5th ed., 1993; see also Danielle Gauthey Ladner, Solidarité et consorité en
matière délictuelle en droit suisse et américain, en particulier new-yorkai2002, p. 57,
para. 2.5, and p. 70, para. 4.
90Georges Scyboz and Pierre-Robert Gilliéron, op. cit., commentary on Articles 50 and
51. [Translation by the Registry.]virtually identical with the domestic solutions hitherto outlined. The
pertinent provision of the German Civil Code (BürgerlichesGesetzbuch),
$830, reads as follows :

"1. If several persons through a jointly committed delict have
caused damage, each is responsible for the damage. The same applies
if it cannot be discovered which of several participants has caused
the damage through his action.

2. Instigators and accomplices are in the same position as joint
actors."

The first sentence of $830, paragraph 1, is not relevant to our case
because it presupposes the pursuance of a common design by the tort-
feasors. The same is valid regarding the provision's paragraph 2. However,
the rule contained in the second sentence of 5830, paragraph 1, is to the
point: its function is precisely to spare the victim the difficult, indeed

impossible, task of proving which one of several tortfeasors actually
caused the damage. The rule's applicability depends upon three condi-
tions: first, each of the participants must have engaged in the activity
leading to loss or damage (irrespective of causality); second, one of the
participants must necessarily have caused such loss or damage; but,
third, it is impossible to determine which one of the participants did so,
in whole or in partg1.

73. Elevating the joint-and-several liability doctrine thus described to
the level of international law in the present case would lead to a finding
that Iran is responsible for damages, or impediments, that it did not
directly causeg2. Personally, 1 would find it more objectionable not to
hold Iran liable than to hold Iran liable for the entire damage caused to
the United States as a result of actions taken during the Iran-Iraq war. In

fact, 1 see no objection to holding Iran responsible for the entire damage
even though it did not directly cause it all. Remember that the question
before us is whether Iran can be found in breach of its treaty obligations

91 Palandt-Thomas, 62nd ed., 2003,5 830 BGB Rn 7. For some of the precedents in
German jurisprudence see BGH NJW 1960, 862 (responsibility omultiple tortfeasors for
injuring aperson by throwing stones), and BGH NJW 1994, 932 (responsibility of several
producers of sweetened teafor the so-called "baby bottlsyndrome").
92 AS Markesinis and Deakin point out,
"by treating thecluster of theoreticalapportionable injuries that cannoas a prac-
tical matter be apportionedas though they constituted single indivisible injury, the
law of joint andseveral liability means that each tortfeasor can be made to pay for
more harm that he actually caused"(op. cit.,. 234).

It is interesting to note that the Michigan SupreCourt, in Maddux v. Donaldson (362
Mich. 425, at 433), accepted this not only as an inevitable but also as a just consequence
when division of liability among tortfeasors is impossible.or not; in the present context 1do not discuss any question of reparation.
This issue would only have arisen at a later stage. With regard to that -

now theoretical - issue and looking back at the range of solutions found
in domestic tort laws, 1find very pertinent the compromise course steered
by the Supreme Court of California in the Sindell v. Abbott Laboratories
case. In that case, the court did not feel compelled to dismiss al1 respon-
sibilityclaims on the ground that some potential defendants were absent 93.
To the contrary, the court, following Summers v. Tice, held each of the
defendants responsible and attempted, to the best it could, to approxi-
mate each defendant's responsibility. The compromise found by the court

to account for the absence of interested parties was to hold the defend-
ants liable only for part of the damage suffered by plaintiff, not for its
entirety (1 will return to the particular problems posed by the absence of
a potential respondent in the present case in the final part of this section).

74. On the basis of the (admittedly modest) study of comparative tort
law thus provided, 1 venture to conclude that the principle of joint-and-
several responsibility common to the jurisdictions that 1 have considered
can properly be regarded as a "general principle of law" within the mean-
ing of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Court's Statute. 1 submit that
this principle should have been applied in our present case to the effect
that, even though responsibility for the impediment caused to United

States commerce with Iran cannot (and ought not, see infra) be appor-
tioned between Iran and Iraq, Iran should nevertheless have been held in
breach of its treaty obligations.
75. Another authoritative source addressing the issue of a plurality of
responsible States can be found in the Articles on Responsibility of States
for Internationally Wrongful Acts adopted by the International Law
Commission in 2001 94. The ILC's solution is in conformity with the
result of the comparative research 1have just presented. Article 47 states :

"Where several States are responsible for the same internationally wrong-
ful act, the responsibility of each State may be invoked in relation to that
act."
76. In the context of the specific variant of the United States counter-
claim, Article 47 would apply only if both Iran and Iraq were responsible
for a given action - for instance, if Iran had carried out an attack
against a ship engaged in treaty-protected commerce, jointly planning

and CO-ordinating the operation with Iraq. However, in the present case,

93 Sindell v. Abbott Laboratories, 607 P. 2d 924 (1980).
94 See supra footnote19.the reality is such that the two States never acted in concert with respect
to a specific incident, and thus it always was either Iran or Iraq which
was responsible for a given incident. As a result, Article 47, which
requires both States to be responsible for the same internationally wrong-
ful act, cannot be applied to the specific counter-claim.

77. Applied to the generic counter-claim, on the other hand, Article 47
is very helpful. In the context of the generic counter-claim, the "interna-
tionally wrongful act" is constituted by the creation of negative eco-
nomic, political and safety conditions in the Gulf rather than by a specific
incident. The bringing about of this environment, taken as a whole, is
attributable to both States, as it is common knowledge that they both
participated in the worsening of the conditions prevailing in the Gulf at
the time. The difference is clear :unlike the specific claim, where only one
State is responsible for the act of violating international law, the generic

claim falls within the scope of ILC Article 47 because the two States are
responsible for the same act. It is the creation of dangerous conditions
for shipping and doing commerce in the Gulf which constitutes the inter-
nationally wrongful act within the meaning of Article 47.

By application of Article 47 to the generic counter-claim, the United
States could invoke the responsibility of either State, that is, also of Iran,

individually. Thus, in the principle underlying Article 47, and in the
"generic" identification of the internationally wrongful act, lies another
basis on which Iran should have been held in violation of its Treaty obli-
gations and the generic counter-claim upheld by the Court.

78. As a result, the problem of attributing responsibility in the face of
factually "indivisible" wrongful acts - which 1 presented earlier as the
principal obstacle to the admission of the counter-claim - could have
been overcome pursuant both to the general principle that multiple tort-

feasors can be held responsible individually even when the damage can-
not be apportioned among them, and the principles embodied in ILC
Article 47.

79. There remains one last question: it could be argued that dealing
with the United States generic counter-claim in the direction indicated
would by necessity lead the Court to finding that Iraq, too, violated inter-
national law - a pronouncement for which the Court has no jurisdiction
in the present case. This is the essence of the so-called "indispensable-

third-party" doctrine, consecutively accepted and rejected by the Court
depending on the circumstances of the cases at hand.

80. The doctrine, first spelled out in the Monetary Gold case, holds
that the Court has no jurisdiction to decide a case where a third State's
"legal interests would not only be affected by the decision, but wouldform the very-subject matter of the de~ision"~~. Since then, the Court dis-
missed the argument in some cases as one which could not prevent the
Court from exercising jurisdiction among the parties, such as in the Nica-
ragua case, the Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salva-

dorlHonduras) or the case of Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru
v. Australia). In other instances, the Court did apply the Monetary Gold
principle and refused to adjudicate absent the consent of the interested
third State, such as in East Timor (Portugal v. Australia).

81. Taking a closer look at the factual circumstances of each of these

cases, it appears that the concept of "indispensable third parties" has
been interpreted restrictively by the Court. In the present case, the role of
Iraq in impeding the freedom of commerce and navigation between the
United States and Iran certainly does not constitute the subject-matter of
the dispute. Moreover, any findings by the Court as to Iraq's behaviour
would only rely on common knowledge and there would be no need for
additional evidence (i.e., proving that, because of the war, Iraq, like Iran,
contributed to the deterioration of the shipping conditions in the Gulf).

For this reason, the present case would not have fallen within the restric-
tive ambit of the doctrine of the "indispensable third party". The mere
fact that the war in the region involved a State not party to the present
proceedings or, for that matter, to the bilateral treaty between Iran and
the United States, could not have prevented the Court from deciding
upon Iran's responsibility under this Treaty. The Court could have found
Iran responsible without engaging in any detailed assessment of Iraq's

actions, or rendering any decision as to Iraq's responsibility per se96.

82. Even more convincing, 1 believe, is the Court's dismissal in the
Nauru case of Australia's argument that, Australia being only one of
three States making up the Administering Authority under the Trustee-
ship Agreement, a claim could only be brought against the three of
them "jointly" but not against each of them individually. The Court
distinguished the issue of reparation in full from the question whether

Australia could be sued al~ne~~, and continued:

95 Case of Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943 (Preliminary Question), Judg-
ment, I. C.J. Reports 1954, p. 32. A similar prinhad already been developed by the
P.C.I.J. in the Advisory Opinion on Status of Eastern Carelia (1923, P. C.I.J., Series B,
No965In East Timor the Court clearly stated that "it is not necessarily prevented from adju-
dicating when the judgment it is asked to give might affect the legal interests of a State
which is not party to the case" (I. C.J. Reports 1995, p. 104, para. 34).

97 AS 1 have also done, cf. supra paragra73. "The Court does not consider that any reason has been shown
why a claim brought against only one of the three States should be
declared inadmissible in limine litis merely because that claim raises
questions of the administration of the Territory, which was shared
with two other State~."~~

In the present case, where two States contributed to a single, indivisible
damage without having acted in concert (unlike the three States in the
Nauru case), the holding of the Court in the Nauru case applies with even
greater strength: if the Court did not see fit to declare the Nauru case
inadmissible on the basis that States acting "jointly" were absent from

the proceedings, it could not have held inadmissible the United States
counter-claim, in the context of which States were acting independently
of each other.

83. In any case, 1 have already mentioned that, in contrast to mine-
laying, helicopter and patrol boats attacks were clearly attributable to
Iran and also contributed to creating an impediment to the freedom of
commerce and navigation owed to the United States. Those attacks do
not raise any issue pertaining to attribution of responsibility or the absence

of Iraq from the proceedings. Had the Court rejected al1 other arguments,
it should at least have upheld the United States counter-claim on that
basis.

(Signed) Bruno SIMMA.

98Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. AustraEia), Preliminary Objections,
I. C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 258-259, para. 48.

204

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SIMMA

Matters relating to United States use of force are at the heart of the case,
therefore the approach of dealing with Article XX before turning to Article X of
the 1955 Treaty is acceptable - The Court's position regarding the United
Statesattacks on the oil platforms, although correct as such, is marked through-
out by inappropriate self-restraint - While hostile military action not reaching
the threshold of an "armed attack" within the meaning of Article 51 of the
United Nations Charter may be countered by proportionate and imrnediate
defensive measures equally of a rnilitary character, the United States actions did
not qualzyy as such proportionate counter-measures - The Court's treatment of
Article X on "Jreedom of commerce" between the territories of the Parties fol-
lows a step-by-step approach which is correct up to a certain point but then

takes turns in two wrong directions: first, the platforms attacked in October
1987 did not Zoseprotection under Article X through being temporarily inopera-
tive because the freedorn under the Treaty ernbraces also the possibility of com-
merce in the future; secondly, the indirect commerce in Iranian oil going on
during the time of the United States embargo is also protected by the Treaty -
The Court'sjînding on the United States counter-claim is profoundly inadequate
particularly with regard to the so-called "generic" counter-claim which should
have been upheld - The problems of attribution and causality posed by the
existence of several tortfeasors in the case could have been solved by recourse
to a general principle of joint-and-several responsibility recognized by major

domestic legal systems - Neither would the "indispensable-third-party "doctrine
have stood in the way of declaring Iran responsible for breaches of Article X.

1 have voted in favour of the first part of the dispositz!j"of the present
Judgment with great hesitation. In fact, I see myself in a position to con-
cur - in principle - with the Court's treatment of only one of the two
issues dealt with there, namely that of the alleged security interests of the

United States measured against the international law on self-defence. As
to the remaining parts of the dispositif, neither can 1 agree with the
Court's decision that the United States attacks on the Iranian oil plat-
forms ultimately did not infringe upon Iran's treaty right to respect for its

freedom of commerce with the United States; nor do 1 consider that the
way in which the Court disposed of the so-called "generic" counter-claim
of the United States is correct. In my view, this counter-claim ought to
have been upheld. Regarding the part of the dispositif devoted to this
counter-claim, 1 thus had no choice but to dissent.

The reason why 1 have not done so also with regard to the first part of OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE SIMMA

[Traduction]

Les questions concernant l'emploi de laforce par les Etats-Unis étant au cŒur
de l'affaire, la méthode consistant à examiner l'article XX du traité de 1955
avant l'article X est acceptable - La position de la Cour concernant les at-
taques menées par les Etats-Unis contre les plates-formes pétrolières, bien que
correcte en soi, procède d'une retenue excessive - Bien qu'une action militaire
hostile n'atteignant pas le seuil de l'«agression armée)) au sens de l'article 51 de
la Charte des Nations Unies puisse donner lieu à des mesures défensives pro-

portionnées et immédiates ayant aussi un caractère militaire, les actes des
Etats-Unis ne peuvent pas être qualifiés de contre-mesures proportionnées -
Pour analyser l'article X sur la ((liberté de commerce)) entre les territoires des
Parties, la Cour suit une approche par étapes qui est bonne jusqu'à un certain
point, mais qui s'oriente ensuite dans deux directions erronées: premièrement,
les plates-formes attaquées en octobre 1987 n'ont pas perdu la protection garan-
tie par l'article X dufait qu'elles étaient temporairement hors service, puisque la
liberté protégéepar le traité comprend aussi la possibilité defaire du commerce
à l'avenir; deuxièmement, le commerce indirect de pétrole iranien qui s'est pour-
suivipendant l'embargo américain était aussiprotégépar le traité - La conclu-
sion de la Cour concernant la demande reconventionnelle des Etats-Unis est

profondément inadéquate, en particulier en ce qui concerne la demande recon-
ventionnelle dite «de caractère général)) à laquelle la Cour aurait dû faire droit
- Les problèmes relatifs à l'attribution de la responsabilité et à la causalité
résultant du concours de responsabilités en l'espèce auraient pu êtrerésoluspar
le recours à un principe général de responsabilité in solidum reconnu par les
princigaux systèmes de droit interne - La doctrine dite de la ((tierce partie
indispensable » n'aurait pas non plus empêchéla Cour de déclarer l'Iran respon-
sable de violations de l'article X.

C'est avec beaucoup d'hésitation que j'ai voté pour la première partie
du dispositif de l'arrêt. En fait, je ne suis en mesure d'approuver - sur le

principe - la solution donnée par la Cour que sur un seul des deux
points qui y sont réglés, celui qui concerne les prétendus intérêts des
Etats-Unis sur le plan de la sécuritéau regard du droit international de la
légitime défense. Quant au reste du dispositif, je ne peux ni souscrire à la
décision de la Cour selon laquelle les attaques menées par les Etats-Unis

contre les plates-formes pétrolières iraniennes ne constituaient pas fina-
lement une violation du droit au respect de la liberté de commerce avec
les Etats-Unis que l'Iran tirait du traité, ni considérer que la manière
dont la Cour a traité la demande reconventionnelle«générale >>des Etats-
Unis soitjuste. Selon moi, la Cour aurait dû faire droit à cette demande

reconventionnelle et je ne pouvais donc que me déclarer en désaccord
avec la partie du dispositif consacrée à cette demande.
Sije ne l'ai pas fait aussi pour la première partie du dispositif bien que,the dispositif, even though, as 1 have just pointed out, 1 concur with the
Court's decisions on only the first of the two issues decided therein ',lies

in a consideration of Rechtspolitik: 1 welcome that the Court has taken
the opportunity, offered by United States reliance on Article XX of the
1955 Treaty, to state its view on the legal limits on the use of force at
a moment when these limits find themselves under the greatest stress.
Although 1 am of the view that the Court has fulfilled what 1consider to
be its duty in this regard with inappropriate restraint, 1 do not want to
dissociate myself from what after al1 does result in a confirmation, albeit
too hesitant, of the jus cogens of the United Nations Charter.

A. Introduction

1. As paragraph 37 of the Judgment pertinently reminds us, the origi-
nal dispute between the Parties to the present case related to the legality
under the international law on the use of force, that is to Say, under the
Charter of the United Nations and customary international law, of the
attacks of the United States against the oil platforms. Paragraph 37 also
points out that, at the time of those attacks, neither Party made any ref-

erence to the 1955 Treaty of Amity. When subsequently that Treaty was
brought into play by Iran as a basis for the Court's jurisdiction, Iran
attempted to ground jurisdiction not only in Article X, paragraph 1, but
also Articles 1 and IV, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. In its 1996 Judgment
on the United States Preliminary Objection the Court accepted only
Article X, paragraph 1, as the basis of its jurisdiction2 - which might
seem surprising in the face of Article 1 of the Treaty which reads that
"[tlhere shall be firm and enduring peace and sincere friendship between
the United States . . . and Iran". In the Court's opinion, however,

Article 1 was not to be interpreted as incorporating into the Treaty al1 of
the provisions of international law concerning peaceful and friendly
relations. Rather, this Article would have to be regarded as fixing an
objective in the light of which the other treaty provisions are to be
interpreted and applied3. Thus, the Court concluded, Article 1 was "not
without legal significance" for the interpretation of other Treaty pro-
visions relevant in the case, in particular that of Article X, paragraph 14.

As well as the reason why 1 prefer to label the present opinion a "sepand not a
"dissenting"opinion despite disagreeing witthe majority of the Court's main findings in
the case.
Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of America)Preliminary
Objection, Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), at pp. 817 ff., 821.
Zbid., p. 814, para. 28.
Zbid., p. 815, para. 31. PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.IND.SIMMA) 325

comme je viens de le dire, je ne souscrive aux décisions de la Cour que sur
le premier des deux points qui y sont tranchés1, c'est pour une considé-
ration de Rechtspolitik: je me félicite en effet que la Cour ait saisi l'occa-
sion offerte par le fait que les Etats-Unis avaient invoqué l'article XX du
traité de 1955 pour se prononcer sur les limites juridiques du recours à la
force à un moment où ces limites sont extrêmement fragilisées. Même si,
à mon avis, la Cour a fait preuve d'une retenue excessive en s'acquittant

de ce que je considère comme sa mission, je ne veux pas me dissocier de
ce qui est tout de mêmeune confirmation, certes trop hésitante, du jus
cogens de la Charte des Nations Unies.

A. Introduction

1. Commenous le rappelleopportunément le paragraphe 37 de l'arrêt,le
différend initialentre les Parties àla présenteespèceportait sur la licéité,au
regard du droit international relatif à l'emploi de la force, autrement dit de
la Charte des Nations Unies et du droit international coutumier, des at-
taques menées par les Etats-Unis contre les plates-formes pétrolières. Le
paragraphe 37 indique aussi que, au moment de ces attaques, aucune des
deux Parties n'avait mentionné le traité d'amitié de 1955. Lorsque, par la
suite, l'Iran invoqua le traité comme base de la compétence de la Cour, il
tenta d'asseoir cette compétence non seulement sur le paragraphe 1 de
l'article X du traité, mais aussi sur l'article premier et le paragraphe 1 de
l'article IV. Dans son arrêtde 1996 sur l'exception préliminaire des Etats-

Unis, la Cour ne retint comme base de compétence que le paragraphe 1 de
l'articleX2 - ce qui pourrait paraître surprenant compte tenu de l'article
premier du traité, qui dispose qu'«[il1y aura paix stableet durable et amitié
sincère entre les Etats-Unis ...et l'Iran». Selon la Cour, cependant, l'article
premier ne devait pas être interprétécomme incorporant dans le traité
l'ensemble des dispositions du droit international concernant les relations
pacifiques et amicales. Il fallait plutôt le regarder comme fixant un objectif
à la lumière duquel les autres dispositions du traité devaient être interpré-
tées et appliquées 3.Ainsi, la Cour conclut-elle, l'article premier n'était«pas
sansportéejuridique)) pour l'interprétation des autres dispositions du traité
pertinentes en l'espèce, notamment celles du paragraphe 1 de l'article X4.

C'est aussi pour cela que je préfère qualifier cette opinion d'«in» et non de
«dissidente» bien que je sois en désaccord avec les principales conclusions de la majorité
de la Cour en l'espèce.
exception préliminaire, arrêt,.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 8 17 et suiv., 821.Amérique),
Ibid., p. 814, par. 28.
Ibid., p. 815, par. 31.In effect, the relevanceultimately assigned to Article 1by the present Judg-
ment can only be considered minimal 5.
2. Be this as it may, the 1996 Judgment did decide that "[mlatters

relating to the use of force are . . .not per se excluded from the reach of
the Treaty of 1955"6. As a result, the rather businesslike Article X, para-
graph 1, on freedom of commerce7 now serves as the proverbial eye of
the needle through which the Court's treatment of the question of the use
of armed force by the United States has to be squeezed. In effect, this
needle's eye has now been made even smaller, impenetrable in the present
case, in the Court's decision on the merits of Iran's claim of violation of
Article X, paragraph 1.

3. From the viewpoint of legal policy and political relevance, however,
there can be no doubt that in the present case the emphasis is squarely on
the question of the legality vel non of the use of armed force by the
United States against the oil platforms. 1 therefore accept the Judgment's
approach of dealing with Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty
before turning to Article X, paragraph 1, not only for the more technical

reasons advanced in the Judgment - al1 of which 1 consider convin-
cing -, but also out of this broader consideration. For the same reason,
1 see no problem in the fact that the part of the Judgment devoted to
the issue of United States use of armed force is considerably larger than
that dealing with the question of the violation of the Treaty as such.

4. Returning to the order in which these matters are taken up in the
Judgment, the United States itself has argued that there was no compel-

ling reason for the Court to examine the question of a breach of Article X
before turning to the question under Article XX. According to the
Respondent, therefore the order in which the issues are to be treated is a
matter for the discretion of the Court8. The manner in which the Court
has exercised such discretion thus appears to me to be indisputable.

B. Article XX, Paragraph I (d)

5. In accordance with what 1 stated at the outset, the reason why 1
decided to vote in favour of the first part of the Judgment's dispositz~is

Article 1 is only referred to in the Judgment once (in paragraph 41) to support a con-
clusion which1consider cogent for rather more obviousreasons, namely that Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty (onwhich infra) must not be read as allowing any use of
force between the partiesthat is not permissible, or justified,r the relevant rules of
internationallaw. Paragraph 41 considers the opposite view "hardly consistent with
Article1".

' Respectively freedom of navigation;see infra on the UniteStates counter-claim.En fait, la pertinence que reconnaît le présent arrêt à l'article premier ne
peut êtreconsidérée que comme minimale 5.
2. Quoi qu'il en soit, l'arrêtde 1996 a bien décidéque «[l]es questions
relatives à l'emploi de la force ne sont ..pas exclues en tant que telles du
champ d'application du traité de 1955)k6. En conséquence, le para-

graphe 1de l'article X, sur la libertéde commerce7, qui a un caractèreplutôt
pratique, constitue aujourd'hui le proverbial chas de l'aiguille par lequel
la Cour doit faire passer son analysede la question de l'emploi de la force
armée par les Etats-Unis. Et le chas de l'aiguille a en fait été encore
rétrécien l'espèce, jusqu'à devenir impénétrable, par la décision rendue
au fond par la Cour sur la demande de l'Iran fondée sur la violation du
paragraphe 1 de l'article X.

3. Du point de vue de la politique juridique et de la pertinence poli-
tique, cependant, il ne fait pas de doute que ce qui compte surtout en
l'espèce, c'est la question de la licéitéde l'emploi de la force armée par les
Etats-Unis contre les plates-formespétrolières. J'accepte donc la méthode
suivie par l'arrêt consistant à examiner l'alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de
l'article XX du traité avant le paragraphe 1 de l'article X, non seulement
pour les raisons techniques avancées dans l'arrêt - qui toutes me

semblent convaincantes - mais aussi à cause de cette considération plus
large. C'est aussi pourquoi je ne trouve rien à redire au fait que la partie
de l'arrêt consacrée à la question de l'emploi de la force armée par les
Etats-Unis est beaucoup plus longue que celle qui porte sur la question
de la violation du traité proprement dite.
4. Pour en revenir à l'ordre dans lequel ces questions sont abordées
dans l'arrêt, les Etats-Unis eux-mêmes ont dit qu'il n'y avait pas de rai-

son impérieuse pour que la Cour examine la question de la violation de
l'article X avant d'aborder celle de l'article XX. Selon le défendeur, en
conséquence, l'ordre dans lequel les questions doivent être abordées
relève de la discrétion de la Cour8. La manière dont la Cour a exercé
cette discrétion me paraît donc inattaquable.

B. L'alinéa d) du paragraphe I de l'article XX

5. Comme je l'ai dit en commençant, la raison pour laquelle j'ai décidé
de voter pour la première partie du dispositif de l'arrêt est que, pour moi,

L'article premier n'est mentionndans l'arrêt qu'une seule fois (par. 41) à l'appui
d'une conclusion qui,à mon sens, s'impose pour des raisons plus évidentà savoir que
l'alinéad) du paragraphe 1 de l'article XX du traité (dont il sera question plusneoin)
doit pas être interprété comme autorisantemploi de la force entre les parties qui ne soit
pas permis, ou justifié, en vertu des règles pertinentes du droit internatAu para-
graphe 41, il est dit que le point de vue contraire ne serait «guère compatible avec l'article
premier D.
C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 812, par. 21.
Etats-Unis.rté de navigationoir plus loinàpropos de la demande reconventionnelledes
CR 2003111, p. 16; CR 2003112, p. 14.that 1consider it of utmost importance, and a matter of principle, for the
Court to pronounce itself on questions of the threat or use of force in
international relations whenever it is given the opportunity to do so. In
this regard, the desirable standard of vigour and clarity was set already
in the Corfu Channel case where the Court condemned a right to self-
help by armed force claimed by the United Kingdom

"as the manifestation of a policy of force, such as has, in the past,
given rise to most serious abuses and such as cannot, whatever be

the present defects in international organization, find a place in
international law" 9.
Unfortunately, in the sombre light of developments over the 50 years that

have passed since the Corfu Channel case, but more particularly in the
recent past, this statement of the Court shows traits of a prophecy.

6. My agreement with the present position of the Court in principle
does not however keep me from criticizing the Judgment for what 1
consider the half-heartedness of the manner in which it deals with the
question of the use of force.
1 recognize of course that there are valid legal reasons for the Court to
keep what has to be said on the legality of United States military actions

against the oil platforms within the confines of the text of Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty. In fact, my criticism of the Court's treat-
ment of the issues arising under that provision does not stem from any
disagreement with what the text of the Judgment is saying. Rather, what
concerns me is what the Court has decided not to Say. 1find it regrettable
that the Court has not mustered the courage of restating, and thus re-
confirming, more fully fundamental principles of the law of the United
Nations as well as customary international law (principles that in my
view are of the nature of jus cogens) on the use of force, or rather the
prohibition on armed force, in a context and at a time when such a recon-

firmation is called for with the greatest urgency. 1 accept of course that,
since its jurisdictionis limited to the bases furnished by the 1955 Treaty,
it would not have been possible for the Court to go as far as stating in the
dispositif of its Judgment that, since the United States attacks on the oil
platforms involved a use of armed force that cannot be justified as self-
defence, these attacks must not only, for reasons of their own, be found
not to have been necessary to protect the essential security interests of the
United States within the meaning of Article XX of the Treaty; they must
also be found in breach of Article 2 (4) of the United Nations Charter.
What the Court could have done, without neglecting any jurisdictional

bounds as 1see them, is to restate the backbone of the Charter law on use
of force by way of strong, unequivocal obiter dicta. Everybody will be

Corfu Channel, Merits, JudgmentI. C.J. Repor1949, p. 35. il est de la plus haute importance, et c'est une question de principe, que la
Cour se prononce sur des questions touchant à la menace ou à l'emploi
de la force dans les relations internationales chaque fois qu'elle a l'occa-
sion de le faire. A cet égard, elle a déjà fait preuve de la vigueur et de la
clarté souhaitables dans l'affaire du Détroit de Corfou, lorsqu'elle a
condamné le droit d'autoprotection par la force armée que revendiquait
le Royaume-Uni

«comme la manifestation d'une politique de force, politique qui,
dans le passé, a donné lieu aux abus les plus graves et qui ne saurait,
quelles que soient les déficiences présentes de l'organisation interna-
tionale, trouver aucune place dans le droit international^^.
Malheureusement, au vu des sombres événementssurvenus au cours des
cinquante années qui se sont écouléesdepuis l'affaire du Détroit de Cor-
fou, mais plus particulièrement dans le passé récent, cette déclaration de
la Cour revêtun caractère prophétique.
6. Mon accord de principe avec la position actuelle de la Cour ne
m'empêche cependant pas de critiquer l'arrêt pour ce que je considère
comme un manque de conviction dans la manière dont il traite de
l'emploi de la force.
Je reconnais bien sûr que la Cour a des raisons juridiques valables de
contenir dans les limites de l'alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l'article XX du
traité ce qui doit êtredit de la licéité desactions militaires des Etats-Unis
contre les plates-formespétrolières. En fait, sije critique la manière dont
la Cour a traité les questions que soulève cette disposition, ce n'est pas

parce que je n'approuve pas ce qu'en dit le texte de l'arrêt. Ce qui me
préoccupe, c'est plutôt ce que la Cour a décidéde ne pas dire. Je trouve
regrettable que la Cour n'ait pas trouvé le courage de réaffirmer, et donc
de reconfirmer, de façon plus explicite les principes fondamentaux du
droit des Nations Unies et du droit international coutumier (principes
qui, à mon avis, relèvent du jus cogens) sur l'emploi de la force, ou plutôt
sur l'interdiction de la force armée, dans un contexte et à un moment où
il serait on ne peut plus urgent de le faire. J'admets bien entendu que, sa
compétence étant limitée aux bases fournies par le traité de 1955, la Cour
ne pouvait pas aller jusqu'à dire dans le dispositif de son arrêt que,
puisque les attaques menéespar les Etats-Unis contre les plates-formes pé-
trolières comportaient un emploi de la force armée qui ne pourrait être
justifié en tant qu'acte de légitime défense, il fallait juger non seulement
que ces attaques, en elles-mêmes, n'étaient pas nécessaires pour protéger
les intérêts vitaux des Etats-Unis sur le plan de la sécuritéau sens de
l'article XX du traité, mais aussi qu'elles violaient le paragraphe 4 de
l'article2 de la Charte des Nations Unies. Ce que la Cour aurait pu faire
toutefois, sans outrepasser à mon sens sa compétence, c'est réaffirmer le
caractère fondamental des dispositions de la Charte sur l'emploi de la

Détroit de Corfou,fonarrêt, C.I. J. Recueil 1949, p. 35.aware of the current crisis of the United Nations system of maintenance
of peace and security, of which Articles 2 (4) and 51 are cornerstones. We
currently find ourselves at the outset of an extremely controversial debate
on the further viability of the limits on unilateral military force estab-
lished by the United Nations Charter 'O.In this debate, "supplied" with a
case allowing it to do so, the Court ought to take every opportunity to
secure that the voice of the law of the Charter rise above the current
cacophony. After all, the International Court of Justice is not an isolated
arbitral tribunal or some regional institution but the principal judicial

organ of the United Nations. What we cannot but see outside the court-
room is that, more and more, legal justification of use of force within the
system of the United Nations Charter is discarded even as a fig leaf, while
an increasing number of writers appear to prepare for the outright
funeral of international legal limitations on the use of force. If such
voices are an indication of the direction in which legal-political discourse
on use of force not authorized by the Charter might move, do we need

more to realize that for the Court to speak up as clearly and comprehen-
sively as possible on that issue is never more urgent than today? In effect,
what the Court has decided to say - or, rather, not to Say - in the
present Judgment is an exercise in inappropriate self-restraint.

7. Paragraph 78 of the Judgment concludes that the United States
attacks against the oil platforms cannot be justified, under Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty of 1955, as being measures necessary to
protect the essential security interests of the United States, since those
actions constituted recoursebto arrned force not qualifying as acts of self-
defence under "international law on the question" (see infra), and thus
did not fa11within the categary of measures that could be contemplated,

"upon its correct interpretation", by the said provision of the Treaty. 1
admit of course that this passage can be read - indeed, it must be read
- as stating by way of implication that the United States actions, con-
stituting unilateral use of "armed: force not qualifying, under interna-
tional law . . . as acts of self-defence", were therefore in breach of
Article 2 (4) of the United Nations Charter. Tertium non datur. It is a
great pity however that the reasoning of the Court does not draw this
necessary conclusion, and thus strengthen the Charter prohibition on the

threat or use of armed force, in straightforward, terms. To repeat, 1 can-
not see how in doing so the Court'would have gone beyond the bounds

ber 2003, General Assembly, 7th Plenary Meeting, 23 September 2003, A/58/PV.7, at p. 3.

171 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. SIMMA) 328

force par des obiter dicta fermes et sans équivoque. Tout le monde est
conscient de la crise que traverse actuellement le système de maintien de
la paix et de la sécuritédes Nations Unies, système dont le paragraphe 4
de l'article 2 et l'article 51 de la Charte sont les pierres angulaires. Nous
nous trouvons actuellement au seuil d'un débat extrêmement polémique
sur la question de savoir si les limites fixées par la Charte des Nations
Unies à l'emploi unilatéral de la force armée resteront valables pour

l'avenir 1°.Dans ce débat, ayant à juger une affaire qui s'y prête, la Cour
devrait saisir toutes les occasions pour que la voix du droit de la Charte
s'élèveau-dessus de la cacophonie ambiante. Après tout, la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice n'est pas un tribunal arbitral ou une institution régio-
nale quelconque : elle est l'organe judiciaire principaldes Nations Unies.
Ce que nous sommes bien obligés de constater en dehors de la Cour, c'est
que, de plus en plus, on rejette ne serait-ce que l'apparence d'une justifi-

cation juridique de l'emploi de la force à l'intérieur du système établi par
la Charte des Nations Unies, en même temps qu'un nombre croissant
d'auteurs semblent se préparer à voir enterrer purement et simplement les
restrictions qu'impose le droit international à cet égard. S'il y a là une
indication de la direction dans laquelle pourrait s'orienter le discours
juridico-politique sur l'emploi de la force non autorisé par la Charte, que
nous faut-il de plus pour comprendre qu'il n'y a jamais eu autant
d'urgence à ce que la Cour s'exprime aussiclairement et de manière aussi

explicite que possible sur cette question? En fait, ce que la Cour a décidé
de dire - ou plutôt de ne pas dire - dans le présent arrêtest le résultat
de la retenue excessive dont elle a inopportunément fait preuve.
7. Le paragraphe 78 de l'arrêt conclut que les attaques menées par les
Etats-Unis contre les plates-formespétrolières ne sauraient êtrejustifiées,
en vertu de l'alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l'articleXX du traité de 1955,
en tant que mesures nécessaires à la protection des intérêts vitaux des
Etats-Unis sur le plan de la sécurité, dès lors qu'elles constituaient un

recours à la force armée et ne pouvaient êtreconsidérées, au regard du
«droit international relatif à cette question » (voir ci-dessous),comme des
actes de légitime défense, et ne relevaient donc pas de la catégorie des
mesures pouvant être prévues par cette disposition du traité ((telle qu'elle
doit être interprétée». J'admets évidemment que ce passage peut - et
même doit - être interprété comme indiquant implicitement que les
actions des Etats-Unis, constituant un recours unilatéral à la force armée

qui ne pouvait être considéré «au regard du droit international ..comme
des actes de légitime défense», violaient le paragraphe 4 de l'article 2 de
la Charte des Nations Unies. Tertium non datur. Il est très regrettable
cependant que le raisonnement de la Cour ne l'amène pas à tirer cette
nécessaire conclusion en renforçant du mêmecoup sanséquivoque l'inter-

'OVoir l'allocution faite par M. Kofi Annan, Secrétairegénéraldes Nations Unies.
devant l'Assembléegénéral-ele23 septembre 2003: ~ssembléegénérale,7"séanceplénière;
A/58/PV.7, p. 3.of its jurisdiction. The text of the Judgment should have included an

unambiguous statement to the effect that the United States military
operations against the oil platforms, since they were not conducted in jus-
tified self-defence against an armed attack by Iran, must be considered
breaches of the prohibition on the use of military force enshrined in the
United Nations Charter and in customary international law.

8. Instead of doing so, the text adopted by the majority of the Court

explains what is to be understood by the "international law on the ques-
tion" (para. 78) in a way that comes dangerously close to creating the
impression that the Court attempts to conceal the law of the Charter
rather than to emphasize it: it speaks throughout its extensive debate on
the United States attacks in light of Article XX of "international law on
the question" (Le., the question of the use of force), "international law
applicable in the case" or " the relevant rules of international law". What

these relevant, applicable etc. rules actually are is spelled out only once,
and then in the subordinate part of a sentence: in paragraph 42, the
Judgment states that its jurisdiction under Article XXI, paragraph 2, of
the 1955 Treaty to decide any question of interpretation or application of
(inter alia) Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty extends, where
appropriate, to the determination whether action alleged to be justified
under that paragraph was or was not an unlawful use of force "by refer-
ence to international law applicable to this question, that is to say, the

provisions of the Charter of the United Nations and customary interna-
tional law" (emphasis added). Again: nowhere else in the part of the
Judgment dealing with the United States attacks l1 is the United Nations
Charter expressly mentioned. It is difficult to viewsuch hiding of the law
of the Charter behind the veil of terms like those that 1 have quoted
above as a mere matter of style; it could unfortunately also be under-
stood as a most unwelcome downgrading of the relevance and impor-

tance of the rules of the United Nations Charter on the use of force - as
1just said, precisely at a time when the effectiveness of these rules is being
challenged to the breaking-point.

Having said this, 1 turn to a number of more specific issues raised by
the text of the Judgment devoted to Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the
1955 Treaty.

9. 1 agree with the Judgment's understanding of the relationship
between Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), and the limits of general interna-
tional law on unilateral use of force, according to which - in the words
of a former President of this Court - this Article "cannot have contem-

determining the meaning of "armed attacks".agraph 51 to Article 51 of the Charteasdiction de la menace ou de l'emploi de la force armée contenue dans la
Charte. Je le répète,je ne vois pas comment, ce faisant, la Cour aurait
outrepassé sa compétence. Le texte de l'arrêt aurait dû énoncer sans
ambiguïté que les opérations militaires menées par les Etats-Unis contre
les plates-formes pétrolières, dès lors qu'elles n'étaient pas des actes de
légitime défense contre une agression armée de l'Iran, devaient êtreconsi-

dérées comme violant l'interdiction de l'emploi de la force armée consa-
créepar la Charte des Nations Unies et le droit international coutumier.
8. Au lieu de quoi, le texte adopté par la majorité de la Cour explique
ce qu'il faut entendre par le «droit international relatif à cette question»
(arrêt, par. 78) d'une manière qui n'est pas loin de donner l'impression
qu'elle s'efforce de laisser dans l'ombre le droit de la Charte au lieu de le
mettre en lumière : tout au long des développementsconsacrés à l'examen
des attaques des Etats-Unis à la lumière de l'article XX, il est question du

«droit international relatif à cette question)) (celle de l'emploi de la
force), du «droit international applicable en l'espèce ))ou des «règles per-
tinentes du droit international». Ce que sont ces règles pertinentes, appli-
cables, etc., n'est dit en toutes lettres qu'une seule fois, et encore, dans
une proposition incidente: au paragraphe 42 de l'arrêt, la Cour déclare
que la compétence que lui confère le paragraphe 2 de l'article XXI du
traité de 1955 pour régler toute question concernant l'interprétation ou

l'application de (notamment) l'alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l'article XX
l'autorise aussi, en tant que de besoin, à déterminer si une action présen-
tée comme justifiée par ce paragraphe constituait ou non un recours illi-
cite à la force «au regard du droit international applicable en la matière,
à savoir les dispositions de la Charte des Nations Unies et du droit inter-
national coutumier» (les italiques sont de moi). Je le répète: nulle part
ailleurs, dans la partie de l'arrêt consacrée aux attaques américaines ll, la
Charte des Nations Unies n'est expressément mentionnée. Il est difficile

de voir dans cette façon de recouvrir le droit de la Charte d'un voile de
mots du genre de ceux que j'ai cités plus haut une simple question de
style : cela pourrait apparaître aussi, malheureusement, comme une déva-
lorisation on ne peut plus regrettable de la pertinence et de l'importance
des règles de la Charte des Nations Unies sur l'emploi de la force - et
cela précisément, comme je l'ai dit, au moment où la validité de ces règles
est mise à très rude épreuve.
Cela dit, je vais maintenant aborder plusieurs questions plus particu-

lières soulevées par la partie de l'arrêt consacrée à l'alinéa d) du para-
graphe 1 de l'article XX du traité de 1955.
9. Je souscris à l'analyse que fait l'arrêtdes liens entre l'alinéad) du pa-
ragraphe l de l'article XX et les limites du droit international généralsur
l'emploi unilatéral de la force, analyse selon laquelle - pour reprendre
les termes d'un ancien président de la Cour - cet article «ne peut avoir

'1A l'exception d'un renvoià l'article 51 de la Charte comme déterminant le sens de
l'expression«agression armée » (arrêt, par. 51).plated a measure which cannot, under general international law, be jus-
tified even as being part of an operation in legitimate self-defence" 12.The
Court, in paragraph 41 of the Judgment, thus accepts, and rightly so, the
principle according to which the provisions of any treaty have to be inter-
preted and applied in the light of the treaty law applicable between the
parties as well as of the rules of general international law "surrounding"
the treatyI3. If these general rules of international law are of a peremp-

tory nature, as they undeniably are in our case, then the principle of
interpretation just mentioned turns into a legally insurmountable limit to
permissible treaty interpretation.
10. The scope of measures taken to protect the essential security inter-
ests of a party according to Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), is wider than
that of measures taken in self-defence. There are many measures that a
party may take on that basis, like import bans, which have nothing to do

with the notion of self-defence. On the other hand, any measure taken in
self-defence would equally constitute a measure necessary to protect
essential security interests within the meaning of the 1955 Treaty. How-
ever, only measures which fulfil al1 of the conditions required for the
exercise of the right of self-defence can qualify as action that is permis-
sible under Article XX, paragraph 1 (d). In the present case, to interpret
Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), more "liberally" would be both absurd and

destructive: absurd, because our provision could then be read to mean
that parties to treaties of, among other things, "amity" could be allowed
to contract out of the most fundamental of al1 obligations under present
international law, namely the prohibition on the threat or use of force -
an obligation which States owe any other State even if they cannot mus-
ter any degree of "amity" for each other. Furthermore, such a reading of
Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), would be destructive because it would

allow a mutual "emancipation" from some of the most cogent of al1 rules
of international law.

Il. 1 also strongly subscribe to the view of the Court expressed in the
Judgrnent's paragraph 73 according to which the requirement of inter-
national law that action taken avowedly in self-defence must have been

necessary for that purpose, is strict and objective,leaving no room for any
"measure of discretion". In my view, this is also due to Article 1 of the
1955 Treaty ("There shall be firm and enduring peace and sincere friend-

I2 Dissenting opinion of Judge Sir Robert Jennings, Military and ParamilitaActivi-
ties in and against Nicaragua(Nicaragua v. United States of America),Merits, Judg-
ment, 1.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 541. Sir Robert referred to the exact counterpart of
gua. The remaining doubts in Sir Robert's mind (cf.id.) were, in my view, unnecessary.

l3Article 31, paragraph3 (c), of the 1969 Vienna Conventionon the Law of Treaties.envisagé une mesure qui ne peut pas, en droit international général,se
justifier mêmecomme entrant dans le cadre de la légitime défense»12.
La Cour, au paragraphe 41 de l'arrêt, admet donc àjuste titre le principe

selon lequel les dispositions d'un traité doivent êtreinterprétées et appli-
quées à la lumière du droit conventionnelapplicableentre les parties ainsi
que des règles de droit international général«entourant» le traité13.Et si
ces règles générales de droit international ont un caractère impératif,
comme c'est indéniablement le cas en l'espèce, alors le principe d'inter-
prétation qui vient d'être mentionné devient une limite juridiquement
infranchissable pour l'interprète.
10. La portée des mesures prises pour protéger les intérêts vitaux d'une
partie sur le plan de la sécuritéen vertu de l'alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de
l'articleXX est plus large que celle des mesures prises dans le cadre de la
légitime défense. En effet, une partie peut prendre au titre de cette dispo-
sition de nombreuses mesures, par exemple des interdictions à l'importa-

tion, qui n'ont rien à voir avec la notion de légitime défense. Par contre,
toute mesure de légitime défense constituerait également une mesure
nécessaire à la protection des intérêts vitaux sur le plan de la sécuritéau
sens du traité de 1955. Cependant, seules les mesures remplissant toutes
les conditions mises à l'exercice du droit de légitime défense peuvent être
considérées comme autorisées en vertu de l'alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de
l'article XX. En l'espèce, interpréter cette disposition de façon plus ((libé-
rale» serait à la fois absurde et destructeur: absurde, parce qu'elle pour-
rait alors être interprétée comme permettant aux parties à un traité qui
établit des relations d'«amitié», entre autres, de se soustraire à la plus
fondamentale de toutes les obligations découlant du droit international
contemporain, à savoir l'interdiction du recours ou de la menace du

recours à la force - obligation qui existe entre tous les Etats mêmes'il
n'existe aucune espèce d'«amitié » entre eux. Cette interprétation serait en
outre destructrice parce qu'elle permettrait aux Etats de s'«affranchir»
mutuellementde certaines des règles de droit international ayant le carac-
tère le plus impératif.
11. Je souscris aussi fermement à l'opinion que la Cour a exprimée au
paragraphe 73 de l'arrêt, disant que l'exigence que pose le droit interna-
tional, selon laquelle des mesures prises au nom de la légitime défense
doivent avoir été nécessaires à cette fin, est rigoureuse et objective et ne
laisse aucune place à «une certaine libertéd'appréciation ». A mon avis, il
en est ainsi également en raison de l'article premier du traité de 1955 («Il

l2Opinion dissidente de siRobert Jennings, Activités militaiet paramilitairau
Nicaragua et contrecelui-ci (Nicaraguac. Etats- Unis d'Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1986, p. 541. Sir Robert parlait d'un article du traité d'amitié entre les Etats-Unis
l'article XX. Les autres doutexprimés par sir Robert (cf. ibid.) étaient, à mon avis,
superflus.
l3Alinéa c) du paragraphe3 de l'article 31 de la conventioVienne de 1969 sur le
droit des traités.ship between the United States . . . and Iran") which, according to the
Court's Judgment of 1996 on the Preliminary Objection of the United
States, must be regarded as fixing an objective, in the light of which the
other Treaty provisions are to be interpreted and applied14. The least
which this objective must lead to is a particularly high demand on the

standard of "necessity" embodied in Article XX, paragraph 1 (d) ;every
one of the words used in the text of that provision must be carefully
weighed and given its full import. Hence, in order to relieve a party from
its obligation under Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty, a measure
must, first, be necessary, not just desirable or useful to protect that
State's essential security interests. Second, the measure must be necessary

to actually protect these interests, not just to advance or support them.
Third, the measure must be necessary to protect the security interests
of the State taking it. Fourth, the security interests destined to be pro-
tected must be essential. And last, of course, the measure must be con-
cerned with the security of the Respondent itself. Since Article XX,
paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955 Treaty is the exception to the rule of free-
dom of commerce and navigation enshrined in the same Treaty, and,

as stated, in light of Article 1, al1 these terms have to be subjected to
extremely careful scrutiny.

12. 1 am less satisfied with the argumentation used in the Judgment by
which the Court arrives at the - correct - conclusion that, since the

Iranian mine, gunboat or helicopter attacks on United States shipping
did not amount to an "armed attack" within the meaning of Article 51 of
the Charter, the United States actions cannot be justified as recourse to
self-defence under that provision. The text of paragraph 51 of the Judg-
ment might create the impression that, if offensivemilitary actions remain
below the - considerably high - threshold of Article 51 of the Charter,

the victim of such actions does not have the right to resort to - strictly
proportionate - defensive measures equally of a military nature. What
the present Judgment follows at this point are some of the less fortunate
statements in the Court's Nicaragua Judgment of 1986 15.In my view, the
permissibility of strictly defensive military action taken against attacks of
the type involving, for example, the Sea Isle City or the Samuel B. Rob-
erts cannot be denied. What we see in such instances is an unlawful use of

force "short of' an armed attack ("agression armée") within the meaning
of Article 51, as indeed "the most grave form of the use of force" 16.
Against such smaller-scale use of force, defensive action - by force also

l4 1.C.J. Reports1996 (II), p. 814, para. 28.
l5 Military and Paramilitary Activitiein and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua V.United
States of America),Merits, Judgment, I. C.J. Reports 1986, e.g., p. 101, para.;p. 103,
para. 194; p. 127, para. 249.
l6 Ibid., p. 101, para. 194. PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. SIMMA) 331

y aura paix stable et durable et amitié sincère entre les Etats-Unis ...et
l'Iran») qui, selon l'arrêtrendu en 1996 par la Cour sur l'exception pré-
liminaire des Etats-Unis, doit être regardé comme fixant un objectif à la
lumière duquel les autres dispositions du traité doivent êtreinterprétéeset
appliquées 14.Le minimum auquel cet objectif doit conduire est une appli-

cation particulièrement stricte du critère de ((nécessité» prévu à l'ali-
néa d) du paragraphe 1 de l'article XX: chacun des mots utilisés dans le
texte de cette disposition doit êtresoigneusement peséet recevoir tout son
sens. En conséquence, pour qu'une partie soit libérée de l'obligation
découlant pour elle du paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité, la mesure
qu'elle prend doit être,premièrement, nécessaire et pas seulement souhai-

table ou utile pour protéger ses intérêts vitaux sur le plan de la sécurité.
Deuxièmement, elle doit êtrenécessaire pour protéger vraiment ces inté-
rêts,et pas seulement pour les favoriser ou les promouvoir. Troisième-
ment, elle doit êtrenécessaire pour protéger les intérêtsen matière de
sécuritéde 1'Etat qui les prend. Quatrièmement, les intérêtsen matière de
sécuritépouvant ainsi êtreprotégésdoivent êtrevitaux. Enfin, il va de soi

que la mesure doit concerner la sécuritéde 1'Etat défendeur lui-même.
Puisque l'alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l'article XX instaure une excep-
tion au principe dela liberté de commerce et de navigation inscrit dans ce
mêmetraité et compte tenu, comme on l'a dit, de l'article premier, toutes
ces conditions doivent faire l'objet d'un examen particulièrement attentif.
12. Je suis moins convaincu par l'argumentation par laquelle la Cour
arrive dans son arrêtà la conclusion - correcte - que, puisque les attaques

qu'avait menéesl'Iran au moyen de mines, de canonnières ou d'hélicoptères
contre les navires marchands des Etats-Unis ne constituaient pas «une
agression armée))au sens de l'article 51 de la Charte, les actions des Etats-
Unis ne peuvent sejustifier en tant que mesures de légitimedéfense en vertu
de cette disposition. Le texte du paragraphe 51 de l'arrêt risque de donner
l'impression que, si des actions militaires offensives restent en deçà du seuil

- extrêmementélevé - de l'article 51 de la Charte, la victime de ces actions
n'a pas le droit de recourir à des mesures défensives également de nature
militaire et strictement proportionnées. Le présent arrêtreprend sur ce point
certains des énoncés les moins heureux de la Cour dans l'arrêt Nicaragua en
1986 15.A mon sens, on ne peut nier que des mesures militaires strictement
défensives peuvent êtrelégitimement prises contre des attaques du type de

celles qui ont frappé par exemple le Sea Isle City ou le Samuel B. Roberts.
Ce que nous voyons dans ces exemples, c'est un usage illicite de la force qui
reste ((en deçà » de 1'«agressionarmée » au sens de l'article 51,c'est-à-dire en
deçà des ((formes les plus graves de l'emploi de la force» 16. Face à un

l4 C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 814, par. 28.
l5Activités militaireet paramilitaires aNicaragua et contre celui-c(Nicaragua c.
Etats- Unis d'Amérique), fond, arrêt,.I.J. Recueil 1986, par exemple aux pages 101,
par. 191, 103, par. 194, et 127, par. 249.
l6Ibid., p. 101, par. 194."short of' Article 51 - is to be regarded as lawful 17.In other words, 1

would suggest a distinction between (full-scale) self-defence within the
meaning of Article 51 against an "armed attack" within the meaning of
the same Charter provision on the one hand and, on the other, the case of
hostile action, for instance against individual ships, below the level of
Article 5 1,justifying proportionate defensive measures on the part of the
victim, equally short of the quality and quantity of action in self-defence

expressly reserved in the United Nations Charter. Here 1 see a certain
analogy with the Nicaragua case, where the Court denied that the hostile
activities undertaken by Nicaragua against El Salvador amounted to an
"armed attack" within the meaning of Article 51, that would have given
the United States a right to engage in collective self-defence, and instead
qualified these activities as illegal military intervention. What the Court
did consider permissible against such unlawful acts were "proportionate

counter-measures", but only those resorted to by the immediate victim.
The Court said :

"While an armed attack would give rise to an entitlement to col-
lective self-defence, a use of force of a lesser degree of gravity
cannot . . . produce any entitlement to take collective counter-
measures involving the use of force. The acts of which Nicaragua is

accused . . could only have justified proportionate counter-measures
on the part of the State which had been the victim of these acts, . .."I8

Hence, the Court drew a distinction between measures taken in legitimate
self-defence on the basis of Article 51 of the Charter and lower-level,
smaller-scale proportionate counter-measures which do not need to be
based on that provision. In view of the context of the Court's above
dictum, by such proportionate counter-measures the Court cannot have
understood mere pacific reprisals, more recently, and also in the termi-

nology used by the International Law Commission, called "counter-
measures" lg. Rather, in the circumstances of the Nicaragua case, the
Court can only have meant what 1 have just referred to as defensive
military action "short of' full-scale self-defence. Unfortunately, the
present Judgment decided not to address this issue at all.

long as 20 years ago; see A. VerdrossandocB. Simma, Universelles Volkerrecht.eTheories
und Praxis, 3rd ed., 1984, p. 240, para. 472.
l 1C.J. Reports 1986, p. 127, para. 249.
l9 Cf. Articles 49-54 of the ILC's text on the ResponsibiliStatesfor Internationally
Wrongful Acts, adopted in 2001 ;cf. InternationaLaw Commission, Report on the Work
of its Fifty-ThirSession, OfJicial Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-sixSession,
Supplement No. 10 (Al56110). The Commission strictly excluded from its concept
of "counter-measures" any such measures amounting to a threat or use of force; cf.
Article 50, para.1 (a). PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.IND.SIMMA) 332

recours à la force plus limité comme celui-ci, une mesure défensive - res-
tant nécessairement aussi «en deçà» de ce que prévoit l'article 51 - doit
êtreconsidérée comme licite 17.En d'autres termes, je pense qu'il faudrait

distinguerentre, d'une part, le (plein) recours à la légitime défenseau sens
de l'article 51 de la Charte face à une ((agressionarmée » au sens de cette
même disposition et, d'autre part, le cas d'un acte hostile, dirigé par
exemple contre des navires isolés, d'un degré «en deçà» de celui qui est
visé à l'article 51 etjustifiant que la victime prenne des mesures défensives
proportionnées, dont la nature et la quantité seront également «en deçà»
de celles des mesures de légitime défense expressément autorisées par la
Charte des Nations Unies. Je vois ici une certaine similitude avec l'affaire
Nicaragua, dans laquelle la Cour a niéque les activités hostiles du Nica-

ragua contre El Salvador eussent constitué une ((agression armée» au
sens de l'article 51, susceptible d'ouvrir aux Etats-Unis le droit de légi-
time défense collective, préférant qualifier ces activités d'intervention
militaire illicite. La Cour a estimé que, face à de tels actes illicites, seules
des ((contre-mesuresproportionnées » étaient autorisées. Elle a déclaré :

((L'agressionarmée ouvrirait un droit à la légitime défense collec-
tive, mais un recours à la force d'une moindre gravité ne saurait ...
autoriser des contre-mesures collectives impliquant l'emploi de la
force. Les faits reprochés au Nicaragua ..n'auraient pu justifier des
contre-mesuresproportionnées que de la part de 1'Etat qui en aurait
étévictime ..» l8

Ainsi, la Cour a établi une distinction entre les mesures prises au titre de
la légitime défense sur la base de l'article 51 de la Charte et les contre-
mesures proportionnées, d'un degré moindre et d'une moindre ampleur,
qui n'ont pas besoin d'être fondéessur cette disposition. Compte tenu du
contexte de ce dictum, la Cour ne peut pas avoir entendu par l'expression

« contre-mesures proportionnées » de simples représailles pacifiques plus
récemment appelées, y compris dans la terminologie de la Commission
du droit international, «contre-mesures» 19. Dans les circonstances de
l'affaire Nicaragua, la Cour ne pouvait penser qu'à ce que j'ai appelé tout
à l'heure une mesure militaire défensive d'un degré«en deçà» de celui du
plein recours à la légitime défense. Malheureusement, elle a décidédans le
présent arrêtde ne pas aborder du tout cette question.

'7 Je n'ai pas développé ce point de vue spécialement pour les besoins de la cause, mais
il y a près de vingt ans: voirVerdross et B. Simma, Universelles Volkerrecht. Theorie
und Praxis,3"éd., 1984, p. 240, par. 472.
l8 C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 127, par. 249.
l9 Voir les articles à954 du texte de la Commission du droit internationalsur la
de la Commissione'du droit international,cinquante-troisièmesession, NationsUnies,t
Documents ofJiciels de l'Assemblée générale, cinquante-sixième session, supplément no 10
(Al56110). La Commission a exclu strictement de lanotion de «contre-mesures» toute
mesure de ce type constituant une menace d'emploi de la force ou un emploi de la force;
voir l'article 50, par. 1 a). 13. To sum up my view on the use of force/self-defence aspects of the
present case, there are two levels to be distinguished: there is, first, the
level of "armed attacks" in the substantial, massive sense of amounting to
"une agression armée", to quote the French authentic text of Article 51.
Against such armed attacks, self-defence in its not infinite, but still
considerable, variety would be justified. But we may encounter also a
lower level of hostile military action, not reaching the threshold of an

"armed attack" within the meaning of Article 51 of the United Nations
Charter. Against such hostile acts, a State may of course defend itself,
but only within a more limited range and quality of responses (the main
difference being that the possibility of collective self-defence does not
arise, cf. Nicaragua) and bound to necessity, proportionality and imme-
diacy in time in a particularly strict way.

14. In the present case, 1 agree with the Court that neither the broad
pattern of unlawful use of force by Iran against United States vessels and

their naval escorts nor the two specific attacks against the Sea Isle City
and the Samuel B. Roberts amounted to an "armed attack" within the
meaning of Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. These hostile
activities could, as 1 have pointed out, have been countered immediately
by "proportionate counter-measures" also of a military nature, consisting
of defensive measures designed to eliminate the specific source of the
threat or harm to affected ships in, and at the time of, the specific inci-
dents. The Iranian oil platforms and their possible non-commercial activi-
ties during the Gulf War were too remote from these incidents (in every
sense of this word) to provide a legitimate target for counter-measures

within the meaning given to this term in the Nicaragua Judgment. Also,
there is in the international law on the use of force no "qualitative jump"
from iterative activities remaining below the threshold of Article 51 of the
Charter to the type of "armed attack" envisaged there. However, as 1
read the facts of the present case, there was on the part of Iran no itera-
tive or continued pattern of armed attacks against United States ships to
begin with. Attacks on ships flying foreign flags could not be relied on by
the United States in order to trigger Article 51 action. Furthermore, not
a single Security Council resolution adopted at the material time deter-
mined that it was Iran (alone) which had engaged in "armed attacks"

against neutral shipping in the Gulf.

15. But even if we assume, for the sake of discussion, that the United
States had been the victim of an armed attack by Iran within the meaning
of Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, the United States attacks on
the oil platforms would not qualify as legitimate acts of self-defence
under that provision. The United States actions fulfilled neither the con-
dition of necessity nor that of proportionality. In the light of the material
before the Court relating to the political and military considerations on 13. Pour résumer mes vues sur les questions du recours à la force et de
la légitime défense telles qu'elles se posent en l'espèce, il convient de dis-
tinguer deux degrés : il y a d'abord le degré des attaques armées massives
et de grande ampleur, qui constituent ((une agression armée» pour re-
prendre les termes de l'article 51. Face à une telle agression, la légi-

time défense, dans ses formes non pas infinimentmais néanmoins considé-
rablement variées, serait justifiée. Mais il existe aussi des actes militaires
hostiles d'un degré inférieur, qui n'atteignent pas le seuil de l'«agression
armée)) au sens de l'article 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies. Contre les
actes hostiles de ce genre, un Etat peut bien entendu se défendre, mais
uniquement par des mesures dont la portée et la nature sont plus res-
treintes (la principale différence résidant dans le fait que la possibilité de
légitime défense collective n'existe pas dans ce cas, voir Nicaragua), et qui
doivent aussi être très rigoureusement nécessaires et proportionnées, et

suivre immédiatement l'acte qui les a motivées.
14. En l'espèce, je suis d'accord avec la Cour pour penser que ni la
série des actes illicites de recours à la force par l'Iran contre les navires
des Etats-Unis et les bâtiments qui les escortaient, ni les deux attaques
visant spécifiquement le Sea Isle City et le Samuel B. Roberts ne consti-
tuaient une ((agression armée» au sens de l'article 51 de la Charte des
Nations Unies. Comme je l'ai indiqué, il aurait étépossible de riposter
immédiatement à ces actes d'hostilité par des ((contre-mesures propor-
tionnées )>également de nature militaire, consistant en mesures défensives
conçues pour éliminer la source précise de la menace ou du dommage
subi par les navires lors des incidentsen cause, au moment de ceux-ci. Les

plates-formespétrolièresiranienneset les activités non commerciales aux-
quelles elles se livraient peut-être pendant la guerre du Golfe étaient trop
lointaines (dans tous les sens du terme) pour constituer légitimement la
cible de contre-mesures au sens donné à cette expression dans l'arrêt
Nicaragua. En outre, rien dans le droit international sur le recours à la
force n'autorise le ((saut qualitatif)) par lequel des activités répétéesd'un
degré restant inférieur au seuil visé à l'article 51 de la Charte devien-
draient l'«agression armée)) envisagée dans cette disposition. De toute
façon, selon mon interprétation des faits, il n'y a pas eu d'attaque armée
répétéeou continue de l'Iran à l'encontre des navires américains. Les

Etats-Unis ne pouvaient pas invoquer les attaques dirigées contre des
navires battant pavillon étranger pour prendre les mesures envisagées à
l'article 51. De plus, aucune résolution du Conseil de sécuritédatant de la
période considérée n'a établi que l'Iran (seul) avait mené une ((agression
armée))contre les navires neutres dans le Golfe.
15. Mais à supposer même,pour les besoins du raisonnement, que les
Etats-Unis aient étévictimes d'une agression armée de l'Iran au sens de
l'article 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies, leurs attaques contre les
plates-formes pétrolières ne pourraient pas êtrequalifiées d'actes de légi-
time défense au titre de cette disposition. Les actions des Etats-Unis ne sa-
tisfaisaient ni à la condition de la nécessité nià celle de la proportionnalité.

Au vu des éléments soumis à la Cour concernant les considérations poli-the part of United States authorities that led to the attacks on the oil
platforms, the selection of these platforms as targets was made on the
basis of decisions by military commanders which may well be considered
state of the art from the viewpoint of military efficiency, etc., but to
which the notion of "self-defence" was quite foreign. It is possible, indeed

probable, that some monitoring of United States as well as any other
neutral shipping had actually taken place from aboard the oil platforms.
Obviously this was a nuisance to United States military decision-makers.
The United States authorities might also have been right in assuming a
connection between information flowing, as it were, from the oil plat-
forms and the harassing of neutral shipping in the Gulf. Thus, as 1 see it,
either following the incidents involving the Sea Isle City and the Samuel
B. Roberts, the United States military considered that enough was enough,
and thus decided to neutralize the oil platforms, or, rather, the United
States used these two incidents to teach Iran a broader lesson. The
material put before the Court by the United States contains several

more or less convincing reasons as to why it was the oil platforms and
not some other military targets that were chosen for the purpose of a
"reply" to the specific incidents involving the Sea Isle City and the
Samuel B. Roberts, respectively the broader pattern of unlawful force
engaged in by Iran. But nowhere in these materials do we encounter any
trace of the considerations that an international lawyer would regard
as necessary in order to justify action taken in self-defence.

16. 1 arrive at the conclusion that the United States military actions
against the oil platforms were not of the defensive nature required both

by Article 51 of the United Nations Charter and the general international
law governing "proportionate counter-measures", to refer again to the
Nicaragua Court's tantalizing phrase. As 1 interpret the law on the limits
of unilateral use of armed force as it has evolved since 1945, there is no
way to regard such actions as lawful or justified.

C. Article X, Paragraph 1

17. With regard to the question whether the United States attacks on
the oil platforms constitute a breach of Article X, paragraph 1, of the

1955 Treaty, the Judgment follows a step-by-step approach with which 1
am able to concur throughout several of its argumentative stages. For
instance, 1 agree with the statement of the Court in paragraph 82 accord-
ing to which it is oil exports from Iran to the United States that are rele-
vant to the case, not such exports in general. In the same paragraph the
Court rightly disposes of the United States argument calling for a distinc-
tion between oil produced on Iranian land territory or in the territorial
sea of Iran, on the one hand, and oil produced on the Iranian continental
shelf, on the other.tiques et militaires qui avaient conduit les autorités américaines à lancer
des attaques contre les plates-formespétrolières, c'est sur la base de déci-
sions du commandement militaire que les plates-formes avaient étéchoi-
sies comme cibles, décisions sans doute justifiées du point de vue de l'effi-
cacité militaire,etc., mais auxquelles la notion de ((légitime défense» était
tout à fait étrangère. Il est possible que les plates-formespétrolières aient
étéutilisées pour surveiller les navires américains et d'autres navires mar-

chands neutres; cela est même probable. De toute évidence, cela gênait
les hauts responsables militaires américains. Peut-être les autorités amé-
ricaines avaient-elles aussi raison de penser qu'il y avait un lien entre les
informations venant des plates-formes pétrolières et le harcèlement des
navires neutres dans le Golfe. C'est pourquoi je crois que, ou bien après
les incidentsimpliquant le Sea Isle City et le Samuel B. Roberts, les auto-
rités militaires américaines, estimant que les choses étaient allées assez
loin, ont décidéde neutraliser les plates-formespétrolières, ou bien plutôt
les Etats-Unis se sont servis de ces deux incidents pour donner à l'Iran
une leçon plus générale. Les pièces produites par les Etats-Unis devant la
Cour indiquent plusieurs raisons plus ou moins convaincantesexpliquant
pourquoi ce sont les plates-formes pétrolières et non pas d'autres cibles

militaires qui avaient été choisies pour riposter aux incidents impliquant
le Sea Isle City et le Samuel B. Roberts ou à l'ensemble des actes illicites
de recours à la force de l'Iran. Mais, dans aucune de ces pièces, nous ne
trouvons trace des considérations qui, pour un juriste international,
seraient nécessaires pour justifier une mesure de légitime défense.
16. J'en conclus que les actions militaires des Etats-Unis contre les
plates-formes pétrolières n'avaient pas le caractère défensif exigéà la fois
par l'article 51 de la Charte des Nations Unies et les règles de droit interna-
tional général régissant les «contre-mesures proportionnées », pour re-
prendre une fois de plus l'expression énigmatique utilisée par la Cour
dans l'affaire Nicaragua. Selon mon interprétation des règles relatives aux li-
mites de l'emploi unilatéral de la force arméetelles qu'elles ont évoluédepuis

1945, rien ne permet de considérer ces actions comme licites ou justifiées.

C. Le paragraphe 1 de l'article X

17. En ce qui concernela question de savoir si les attaques menées par
les Etats-Unis contre les plates-formes pétrolières constituent une viola-
tion du paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité de 1955, l'arrêt procède par
étapes, et je peux accepter sans réserve plusieurs phases de son argumen-
tation. Par exemple, je suis d'accord avec la Cour lorsqu'elle dit, au para-
graphe 82, que ce sont les exportations de pétrole de l'Iran vers les Etats-
Unis qui sont pertinentes en l'espèce, et non pas les exportations
iraniennes de pétrole en général. Dans le même paragraphe, la Cour

rejette avec raison l'argument des Etats-Unis cherchant à établir une dis-
tinction entre le pétrole produit sur le territoire terrestre ou dans la mer
territoriale de l'Iran, d'une part, et le pétrole produit sur son plateau
continental, de l'autre. 18. 1 also agree with the gist of paragraph 89 of the Judgment, in
which the Court considers that where a State destroys another State's
means of production and transport of goods destined for export, or
means ancillary or pertaining to such production or transport, there is an
interference with freedom of international commerce being carried on by
those means at that time. However, the Court relativizes this finding by
saying that this consideration is valid "in principle". The Court thus
introduces a distinction between "freedom of international commerce" in

the Treaty sense (which it interprets later on) and the same freedom "in
principle", that is, in some more general sense. This is the point from
which the present Judgment appears to begin its retreat from the Court's
position of 1996 or, to return to the metaphor used above, to close again
the needle's eye offered to Iran at that earlier stage. I will turn to this
change of course in more detail in paragraphs 21 ff. of my opinion.

19. In paragraph 91 of the Judgment, the Court reminds us that it
remains uncontested between the Parties that "oil exports from Iran to
the United States were - to some degree - ongoing at least until after

the destruction of the first set of oil platforms" on 19 October 1987. In
the same paragraph, the Court also points out that it is accepted by both
Parties that the oil or petroleum products reaching the United States
during this period were to some extent derived from crude oil produced
by the platforms that were later subjected to attack. Thus the Court
confirms that Iranian oil exports did right up to the beginning of the
United States oil embargo constitute "commerce between the territories
of the High Contracting Parties" within the meaning of Article X, para-
graph 1, of the 1955 Treaty.

20. 1 also draw attention to paragraph 96 of the Judgment, according

to which the Court sees no reason to question the view that, over the
period during which the United States embargo was in effect, petroleum
products that were derived in part from Iranian crude oil were reaching
the United States in considerable quantities. The Court continues:

"It could reasonably be argued that, had the platforms not been
attacked, some of the oil that they would have produced would have
been included in the consignments processed in Western Europe so
as to produce the petroleum products reaching the United States."
Thus far, 1 can agree with the Court's build-up of the arguments
21.
concerning Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. 1 have gone through
the relevant stages of these arguments in order to demonstrate more
clearly that from this point onwards the Court's reasoning begins to be
flawed.
Where these flaws are summarized, as it were, and where therefore 1
part Company with the reasoning of the Judgment, is at paragraph 98
which encapsulates the two main findings of the Court relating to 18. J'approuve aussi dans l'ensemble le paragraphe 89 de l'arrêt, dans
lequel la Cour estime que, lorsqu'un Etat détruit des moyens de produc-
tion et de transport de biens destinés à l'exportation d'un autre Etat, ou
des moyens accessoires ou ayant trait à cette production ou à ce trans-

port, il y a en principe atteintà la liberté du commerce international uti-
lisant ces moyens à ce moment. Cependant, la Cour relativise sa conclu-
sion en disant que cette considération est valable «en principe)). Elle
introduit donc une distinction entre la ((liberté du commerce internatio-
nal» au sens du traité (qu'elle interprète ensuite) et cette mêmeliberté «en
principe)), c'est-à-dire dans un sens plus général.C'est le point à partir
duquel le présent arrêtsemble amorcer son retrait par rapport à la posi-
tion prise par la Cour en 1996 ou, pour reprendre la métaphore utilisée
ci-dessus, àrefermer le chas d'aiguille qu'elle avaità l'époque ouvert pour
l'Iran. J'examinerai ce changement d'attitude plus en détail dans les para-
graphes 21 et suivants de mon opinion.
19. Au paragraphe 91 de l'arrêt, la Cour nous rappelle qu'il n'est pas
contesté par les Parties que «les exportations de pétrole de l'Iran vers les
Etats-Unis se [soient]- dans une certaine mesure - poursuivies au
moinsjusqu'à une date postérieure à la destruction du premier ensemble
de plates-formespétrolières)),survenue le 19 octobre 1987. Dans ce même
paragraphe, la Cour souligne aussi que les deux Parties admettent que le
pétrole ou les produits pétroliers acheminés aux Etats-Unis durant cette
période étaient dans une certaine mesure des dérivés du pétrole brut pro-
duit par les plates-formesqui furent attaquées par la suite. Ainsi, la Cour
confirme que les exportations iraniennes de pétrole, jusqu'au début de
l'embargo pétrolier des Etats-Unis, constituaient bien un ((commerce
entre les territoires des deux Hautes Parties contractantes)) au sens du
paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité de 1955.
20. J'appelle aussi l'attention sur le paragraphe 96 de l'arrêt, dans
lequel la Cour dit ne voir aucune raison de douter que, au cours de la
période durant laquelle l'embargo des Etats-Unis était en vigueur, des

produits pétroliers dérivésen partie de pétrole brut iranien soient parve-
nus aux Etats-Unis en très grandes quantités. La Cour poursuit en ces
termes :
Il pourrait être raisonnablement soutenu que, si les plates-formes
n'avaient pas étéattaquées, une partie du pétrole qu'elles auraient
produit aurait étéincluse dans les quantités de brut transformé en
Europe occidentale en produits pétroliers exportés aux Etats-Unis. »

21. Jusqu'ici, je peux approuver l'exposé par la Cour des arguments
concernant le paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité. J'ai repris l'un après
l'autre ces arguments pour démontrer plus clairement que c'est à partir
de là que le raisonnement de la Cour commence à être faussé.

Le passage où les défauts de l'argumentation sont pour ainsi dire résu-
més,et à partir duquel je me dissocie donc du raisonnement de l'arrêt, est
le paragraphe 98, qui récapitule les deux principales conclusions de laArticle X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty. Paragraph 98 states that the
two United States attacks cannot be said to have infringed upon Iran's
rights under Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty because

- at the time of the United States attack of 19 October
1987 on the
Reshadat platforms there was no commerce between the territories of
Iran and the United States in respect of oil produced by those plat-
forms and the Resalat platforms20, inasmuch as those platforms were
under repair and inoperative ;
- at the time of the attacks of 18 April 1988 on the Salman and Nasr
platforms, al1 direct commerce in oil between the territories of Iran

and the United States had been suspended in pursuance of the United
States embargo; consequently there was at that time no commerce
"between the territories" of the parties within the meaning of the
Treaty.

22. My disagreement with those two conclusions is as follows: as the
Permanent Court has observed in the Oscar Chinn case2', freedom of
trade consists in the right to engage in any commercial activity, such
activity comprising not only the purchase and sale of goods, but also

industry, and in particular the transport business. This observation was
the basis for the Court's 1996 Judgment on the United States Preliminary
Objection to arrive at what it calls the "natural interpretation" according
to which the word "commerce" in Article X, paragraph 1, includes com-
mercial activities in general - not merely the immediate act of purchase
and sale, but also the ancillary activities integrally related to commerce22.

In conformity with this finding, the present Judgment includes the oil
platforms among the installations performing such ancillary activities.

23. What 1 cannot agree with is that those oil platforms that at the
time of the 1987 attacks were under repair could have lost the protection
rendered by Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty by the fact of

their thus being temporarily inoperative. First, according to Iran, the
Reshadat platforms were at the time of the United States attacks close to
being recommi~sioned~~: according to Iran, it was contemplated that
production would resume several days before the United States embargo
set in. But even if the Reshadat platforms had taken up production again
at a later date, that is, during the period of the embargo, they would have

20Paragraph 47 of the Judgmentclarifies that, while the United Sattack was made
solely on two platformbelonging to the Reshadat complex, it affected also the operation
of the Resalat complex.
21Judgment, 1934, P. C.I. J., Series AIB, No. 63, p. 65.
22 Oil Platforms(Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of AmericaPreliminary
Objection, Judgment, I. C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 819, para. 49.
23Cf. paragraph 92 of the Judgment.Cour concernant le paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité. Il est dit au
paragraphe 98 que les deux attaques menées par les Etats-Unis ne sau-
raient être considérées comme ayant porté atteinte aux droits garantis à
l'Iran par le paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité parce que

- au moment de l'attaque lancée par les Etats-Unis contre les plates-

formesde Reshadat - le 19 octobre 1987 -, il n'existait pas de com-
merce entre les territoires de l'Iran et des Etats-Unis s'agissant du
pétrole produit par ces plates-formes et celles de Resalat20, dans la
mesure où celles-ci étaient en réparation et hors d'usage;
- au moment des attaques contre les plates-formes de Salman et de
Nasr, le 18 avril 1988, tout commerce direct de pétrole entre les ter-
ritoires de l'Iran et des Etats-Unis était suspendu en raison de
l'embargo américain, et il n'y avait donc pas alors de commerce

((entre les territoires)) des parties au sens du traité.

22. Je suis en désaccord avec ces deux conclusions pour les raisons sui-
vantes: comme la Cour permanente l'a fait observer dans l'affaire Oscar
Chinn21, la liberté de commerce est la faculté de se livrer à toute activité
commerciale, celle-ci ne comprenant pas seulement la vente et l'achat des
marchandises, mais aussi l'industrie, et notamment l'industrie des trans-
ports. C'est sur la base de cette observation que la Cour, dans son arrêt
de 1996 sur l'exception préliminaire des Etats-Unis, a retenu ce qu'elle
appelle l'ainterprétation naturelle » selon laquelle le mot ((commerce », au

paragraphe 1 de l'article X, inclut des activités commerciales en général,
non seulement les activités d'achat et de vente proprement dites, mais
également les activités accessoires qui sont intrinsèquement liéesau com-
mer~e~~. Conformément à cette conclusion, le présent arrêt inclut les
plates-formes pétrolières dans les installations se livrant à de telles acti-
vités accessoires.
23. Ce dont je ne peux pas convenir, c'est que ces plates-formespétro-
lières qui, au moment des attaques de 1987, étaient en réparation auraient
pu perdre la protection garantie par le paragraphe 1 de l'article X du

traité de 1955 du fait qu'elles étaient ainsi temporairement hors service.
Premièrement, selon l'Iran, au moment des attaques des Etats-Unis, les
plates-formesde Reshadat étaient sur le point d'êtreremises en service23 :
d'après l'Iran, il était envisagé de reprendre la production quelquesjours
avant le début de l'embargo américain. Mais, même si lesplates-formes
de Reshadat avaient repris la production plus tard, c'est-à-dire pendant

-
20 Il est précisé au paragrap47 de l'arrêt que, bien que l'attaque des Etats-Unis ait
visé seulement deux plates-formesdu complexe de Reshadat, elle avait aussi affecté les
opérations du complexe de Resalat.
21Arrêt, I934, C.P.J.I. série AIB no 63, p. 65.
22Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d'Iran c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique),
ex23Voir le paragraphe,92 de l'arrêt.cueil 1996 (II), p. 819, par. 49.participated in indirect commerce in oil (on which see infra), just like the
Salman and Nasr platforms.

24. Concerning the time needed for the repair of the platforms, 1 see

no reason to deny credibility to the Iranian claims as paragraph 93 of the
Judgment chooses to do: Iraqi attacks on the Reshadat platforms had
taken place way back in 1986 and 1 would not categorically exclude the
possibility that the United States, resolved to "teach Iran a lesson", timed
its attacks precisely so as to destroy the installations as imminently before
they could resume their function as possible.

25. More importantly, however, 1 consider, first, that "freedom of
commerce" within the meaning of Article X, paragraph 1, of the Treaty
implies the coverage by that Treaty provision not only of actual, ongoing
commerce but of commerce on a continuing basis. Secondly, with Iran, 1
read that freedom as embodying an undertaking by the Parties to refrain
from any action, not authorized by general international law or expressly
contemplated by the Treaty between them, which may be the source of
impediments on the other Party related to international commerce24.

Thus, according to this view, which 1consider to be correct on this point,
the key issue is not damage to commerce in practice but the violation of
the freedom to engage in commerce, whether or not there actually was
any commerce going on at the time of the violation.

26. To conclude from this interpretation of the Treaty-based "freedom
of commerce" that one party to a treaty stipulating such freedom would

be obligated to enhance the other party's capabilities to bring about
goods destined for such commerce would be absurd. But what certainly
follows from it is that the parties are prohibited to prevent each other's
use of existing capabilities, particularly by destroying respective installa-
tions altogether. 1 see no other way to interpret the Court's statement of
1996, according to which "any act which would impede that 'freedom' is
thereby pr~hibited"~~. Further, as a consequence of that - abstract, as it
were - understanding of freedom of commerce followed here, such free-

dom is not founded on momentary reality, it implies a possibility for the
f~ture*~. Thus the destruction of the Reshadat installations did impair
the freedom of Iran to engage in commerce in oil also with the United
States, irrespective of the fact that at the time of the attacks the platforms
were out of order. Even if it had taken Iran longer to render the instal-
lations attacked in 1987 operational again, reducing them to ruins is to

24Pellet, CR 200316, p. 28.
25 Oil Platforms(Islamic Republic of Iran v. United States of AmericaPreliminary
Objection, Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 819, para. 50.
26Pellet, CR 200316, p. 33, paras. 68 and 70; p. 34, para. 73. PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. SIMMA) 337

la période de l'embargo, elles auraient néanmoins participé au commerce

indirect du pétrole (voir ci-dessous), tout comme celles de Salman et de
Nasr.
24. En ce qui concerne le temps nécessaire à la réparation des plates-
formes, je ne vois pas de raison de contester la crédibilité des affirmations
de l'Iran, comme le fait la Cour au paragraphe 93 de son arrêt: les at-
taques iraquiennes contre les plates-formes de Reshadat avaient eu lieu
longtemps auparavant, en 1986, et je ne voudrais pas exclure catégori-

quement la possibilité que les Etats-Unis, résolus à ((donner une leçon à
l'Iran», aient choisi le moment de leurs attaques précisément de manière
à détruire les installations alors que leur remise en marche était immi-
nente.
25. Il y a plus important cependant: premièrement, je considère que la
((liberté de commerce)) au sens du paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité
implique que cette disposition s'applique non seulement au commerce

effectif, en cours, mais aussi à la continuité du commerce. Deuxième-
ment, je comprends, comme l'Iran, que cette liberté suppose que les par-
tenaires s'engagent à s'abstenir de toute action non autorisée par le droit
international généralou expressément prévue par le traité qui les lie, qui
pourrait créer pour l'autre partie des difficultés liéesau commerce inter-
national24. Ainsi, selon cette thèse, que je juge exacte sur ce point, la

question fondamentale n'est pas celle du préjudice causé au commerce
dans la pratique, mais la violation de la liberté de se livrer au commerce,
qu'il y ait eu ou non effectivement des échangescommerciaux au moment
de la violation.
26. Conclure de cette interprétation dela ((libertéde commerce ))garan-
tie par un traité qu'une partie à un traité prévoyant cette liberté aurait
l'obligation d'accroître les capacités de l'autre partie à produire des biens

destinés à ce commerce serait absurde. Mais ce qui en découle certaine-
ment, c'est qu'une partie ne doit pas empêcher l'autre d'utiliser ses capa-
cités existantes, en particulier en les détruisant purement et simplement.
Je ne vois pas d'autre façon d'interpréter ce qu'a dit la Cour en 1996, à
savoir que «tout acte qui entraverait cette ((liberté)) s'en trouve pro-
hibé~~~. En outre, en conséquence de l'interprétation - in abstracto
pour ainsi dire - de la liberté de commerce que nous retenons ici, cette

liberté n'est pas fondée sur une réalité de l'instant, elle implique une
faculté pour l'avenir26. Aussi la destruction des installations de Reshadat
a-t-elle bien entravé la liberté qu'avait l'Iran de se livrer au commerce pé-
trolier aussi avec les Etats-Unis, peu important à cet égard que, à l'époque,
les plates-formes eussent été hors d'état de fonctionner. Même s'il
avait fallu à l'Iran plus de temps qu'il n'a dit pour remettre en état les

24Pellet, CR 200316, p. 28.
25Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d'Iran c. Etats-Und'Amérique),
exception préliminaire, arrêt,I.J. Recueil 1996 (II), p. 819, par. 50.
26Pellet, CR 200316, p. 33, par. 68 et 70; p. 34, par. 73.

180me as obvious a violation of Iran's freedom of commerce as it could pos-
sibly be. Hence, for a violation of Article X, paragraph 1, to occur, no oil
must have been flowing at the time of the United States attacks; it issuf-
ficient that the attacks impeded the possibility of such flow. To give an

example: let us assume that a person is suffering from a sore throat,
depriving her of her voice, the chances being however that the person
would be fully able to speak again in a few hours' time. If somebody
gagged that person in order to prevent her from then speaking her mind,
would such action be seen as an infringement upon that person's respec-
tive rights or not? The answer would certainly be yes. Thus 1 would ven-
ture to disagree with the view expressed in paragraph 92 of the Judgrnent
according to which "[ilnjury to potential for future commerce is . . not

necessarily to be identified with injury to freedom of commerce, within
the meaning of Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty".

27. From the view taken here, the exact time of the projected resump-
tion of operation of the oil platforms is not really relevant.

28. Further, 1 find myself in disagreement with the view expressed in

paragraph 98 of the Judgment that, since at the time of the attacks on the
Salman and Nasr platforms in April 1988, commerce in oil between the
territories of Iran and the United States had been suspended through the
United States President's Executive Order 12613, these platforms had
lost protection under Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty as well.
Thus, in the view of the Court, even though it recognizes that during the
period of the United States embargo petroleum products were reaching

the United States in considerable quantities that were derived in part
from Iranian crude 0i1~~,commerce in such products did not constitute
"commerce between the territories of Iran and the United States", under-
stood exclusively as direct commerce. Also, the Judgment apparently
views the "directness" of commerce in oil and petroleum products as
eliminated not by the fact that, having been mixed with oil from other
destinations, refined or otherwise processed, for instance in Rotterdam,
Iranian crude oil could have lost its Iranian nationality, as it were, but

rather by the existence in the context of indirect commerce of a succes-
sion of commercial transactions involving in addition to an Iranian seller
and a United States buyer some intermediate participant(s) in a third
country 28.
29. 1 find this interpretation of Article X, paragraph 1, plainly wrong.
It is too formalistic and due to render the inter-State "commerce" pro-

27Cf. paragraph 96 of the present Judgment and infra paragrap30.
28Cf. Judgment, paras. 9ff. In the Courtview "[tlhis is not 'commerce' between Iran
and the United Statesbut commerce between Iran and an intermediate purchaser;and
'commerce' between an intermediateseller and the UniteStates"(ibid .ara. 97). PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. SIMMA) 338

installations attaquées en 1987, l'acte consistant à les réduire en ruines

constitue à mon avis la violation la plus évidente qui soit de sa liberté de
commerce. Par conséquent, pour qu'il y ait eu violation du paragraphe 1
de l'article X, il n'était pas nécessaire qu'il y ait eu un flux de pétrole au
moment des attaques des Etats-Unis, il suffisait que ces attaques aient
rendu ce flux impossible. Prenons un exemple: supposon,s qu'une per-
sonne souffre d'un mal de gorge qui la rend aphone, la probabilité étant
cependant qu'elle retrouvera sa voix au bout de quelques heures. Si

quelqu'un bâillonnait cette personne pour l'empêcher de s'exprimer
lorsqu'elle aurait recouvré l'usage de la parole, cet acte serait-ilconsidéré
comme une violation des droits de cette personne ou non? La réponse ne
pourrait êtrequ'affirmative. C'est pourquoi je ne souscris pas à l'opinion
exprimée au paragraphe 92 de l'arrêtselon lequel «une atteinte à la pos-
sibilité d'un commerce futur n'est pas nécessairement assimilable à une
atteinte à la liberté de commerce au sens du paragraphe 1 de l'articleX
du traité de 1955 ».

27. Si l'on adopte ce point de vue, la question du moment exact où
était prévue la reprise du fonctionnement des plates-formes n'est pas vrai-
ment pertinente.
28. En outre, je suis en désaccord avec le point de vue exprimé au
paragraphe 98 de l'arrêt où il est dit que, puisque, au moment des at-
taques contre les plates-formes de Salman et de Nasr en avril 1988, le com-
merce du pétrole entre les territoires de l'Iran et les Etats-Unis avait été
suspendu par 1'Executive Order 12613 du président des Etats-Unis, ces

plates-formes n'étaient plus non plus protégéesen vertu du paragraphe 1
de l'articleX du traité de 1955. Ainsi la Cour, tout en reconnaissant que,
pendant l'embargo américain, des produits pétroliers dérivés enpartie de
pétrole brut iranien parvenaient aux Etats-Unis en très grandes quanti-
té~~~j,uge que le commerce de ces produits ne constituait pas «un com-
merce entre les territoires de l'Iran et des Etats-Unis)) entendu exclusive-
ment au sens de commerce direct. En outre, l'arrêtconsidère apparemment

que le commerce du pétrole et des produits pétroliers a perdu son ((carac-
tère direct)) non pas parce que, ayant étémélangé avec du pétrole
d'autres destinations, raffiné ou transformé, à Rotterdam par exemple, le
pétrole brut iranien aurait pu perdre sa nationalité iranienne, en quelque
sorte, mais parce que le commerce indirect comporte une succession de
transactions commerciales faisant intervenir, outre un vendeur iranien et
un acheteur américain, un ou plusieurs participants intermédiaires dans
un pays tiers28.

29. Cette interprétation du paragraphe 1 de l'article X est, à mon sens,
tout à fait erronée. Elle est trop formaliste et, si on la suit, le «commerce))

27Voir paragraphe 96 de l'arrêt et ci-dessous paragr30.e
28Voir arrêt, par. 96 et suiv. De l'avis de la Cour, s'agit pas là de ((commerce »
et de ((commerce» entre un vendeur intermédiaet les Etats-Unis ».eteur intermédiairetected under the Treaty a prey to private manipulations. In order to
assess the ambit of this protection correctly, 1 would submit that a sharp
distinction ought to be drawn between the level of international commer-
cial law, that is, the law and the contractual relationships governing
transactions in oil between private parties on the one hand and the level
of public international, i.e., treaty law on the other: the 1955 Treaty

intends to protect "commerce between the territories of the Parties" as a
value, or as a good, belonging, as it were, to the States parties to it; it in
no way focuses on the private transactions that make such commerce
flow from Iran to the United States. Thus, what the Treaty protection of
commerce aims at is the macro-economic aspect of oil trade. And in this
regard, the situation was as follows: according to the information before
the Court, Iran's economy benefited from an increase in sales of crude oil
to Western European markets during the period of the embargo, and this
corresponded to increased spending by United States importers on petro-
leum products in those markets. Just as there was, in some sense, a flow
of Iranian oil into the United States in the form of "mixed" crude oil or

refined products, so there was also a corresponding flow of capital out of
the United States and, ultimately, into Iran to pay for the products. In
my view, this is al1 there is needed to represent "commerce between the
territories" of the two Parties for the purposes of a commercial treaty of
the kind exemplified by the 1955 Treaty. Trade in oil has to be viewed in
light of the realities of that trade29. 1would presume that even before the
enactment of the embargo, indirect trade in oil (products), as such trade
is understood by the Judgment, was taking place. Subsequent to the
United States President's Executive Order 12613, what happened was

that al1 Iran-United States oil trade became indirect in that way.

30. The figures in that regard are quite telling. According to the report
by Professor Ode11 submitted by Iran, trade in oil between Iran and
Europe and Europe and the United States increased very significantly
around the time in which the embargo was enacted. Thus Iranian crude
exported to European OECD countries rapidly expanded from only
25.2 million tons in 1986 to 37.7 million in 1987, and to 43.0 million
tons in 1988: a 70 per cent increase in two years.

In the course of the same two years, exports of oil products from
Western Europe to the United States rose by 60 per cent, from 11.2 to
17.9 million tons, while exports of such products as a whole from
Europe increased much more modestly by 35 per cent from 24.3 to
32.7 million tons. In 1986, 46.1 per cent of Western Europe's exports
of relevant products went to the United States; in 1988, the United

29Crawford, CR 200315, pp. 3 ff.

182interétatique protégépar le traité ne peut que devenir la proie de mani-
pulations privées. Pour apprécier correctement l'étendue de la protection,
il faudrait selon moi établir une distinction nette entre le niveau du droit
commercial international, c'est-à-dire du droit et des relations contrac-
tuelles régissant les transactions pétrolières entre parties privées d'une
part, et celui du droit international public, c'est-à-dire du droit conven-
tionnel, d'autre part: le traité de 1955vise à protéger le «commerce entre
les territoires des Parties» en tant que valeur ou bien appartenant, pour

ainsi dire, aux Etats parties; il ne s'intéresse en aucune manière aux tran-
sactions privées qui réalisent ce commerce entre l'Iran et les Etats-Unis.
Ainsi, ce sur quoi porte la protection du commerce prévue par le traité,
c'est l'aspect macro-économique du commerce pétrolier. Et, à cet égard,
la situation est la suivante: selon les renseignements fournis à la Cour,
l'économie iranienne a bénéficié d'un accroissement des ventes de pétrole
brut aux marchés d'Europe occidentale pendant la durée de l'embargo et,
parallèlement, les importateurs américains ont accru leurs dépenses consa-

crées à des produits pétroliers sur ces marchés. Tout comme il y avait,
dans un certain sens, un flux de pétrole iranien vers les Etats-Unis sous
forme de pétrole brut «mélangé» ou de produits raffinés, il y avait aussi
un flux correspondant de capitaux partant des Etats-Unis pour arriver
finalement en Iran pour payer ces produits. A mon avis, cela suffit plei-
nement à constituer un «commerce entre les territoires)) des deux Parties
aux fins d'un traité commercial du type du traité de 1955. Il faut consi-
dérer le commerce du pétrole compte tenu des réalités de ce commerce29.
J'ai tendance à croire que, mêmeavant la promulgation de l'embargo, il

existait un commerce indirect de pétrole (ou de produits pétroliers), au
sens où l'entend l'arrêt. Ce qui s'est passé après I'Executive Order 12613
du président des Etats-Unis, c'est que tout le commerce pétrolier entre
l'Iran et les Etats-Unis est ainsi devenu indirect.
30. Les chiffres à cet égard sont parlants. Selon le rapport du profes-
seur Ode11 soumis par l'Iran, les échanges de pétrole entre l'Iran et
l'Europe et entre l'Europe et les Etats-Unis ont augmenté très sensible-
ment vers l'époque à laquelle l'embargo a été promulgué. Ainsi, la quan-
tité de brut iranien exporté vers les pays européens de l'OCDE est passée

rapidement de 25'2 millions de tonnes seulement en 1986 à 37'7 millions
en 1987, et à 43 millions en 1988, soit une augmentation de 70 % en deux
ans.
Pendant ces deux mêmesannées, les exportations de produits pétroliers
d'Europe occidentale vers les Etats-Unis ont augmenté de 60%, passant
de 11,2 à 17,9 millions de tonnes, alors que les exportations européennes
totales de ces produits ont augmenté beaucoup plus modestement de
35%' passant de 24,3 à 32,7 millions de tonnes. En 1986, 46,1% des
exportations de ces produits venant d'Europe occidentale allaient aux

29Crawford, CR 200315,p. 30 et suiv.States was the destination for 54.7 per cent of the tota130. Professor
Odell concludes :
"One can reasonably presume that these much larger than previ-
ously reported levels of geographically non-specified destinations for

oil products ex-Europe for 1988 could have been related to actions
which sought to disguise an Iranian origin for large volumes of oil
going to the United States through E~rope."~'
Again according to Professor Odell, the "denationalization" process

that Iranian oil underwent in Europe was substantial so that it would be
very difficult to trace the oil to its origin. Odellstates that "it was thus an
ideal system into which US embargoed Iranian crude could be intro-
duced" 32.
31. Another critical observation in place would be that the Judgment
is rather oblique in its treatment of the exception made in Executive
Order 12613. After all, the Order provided that the embargo was not to
apply, inter alia, to "petroleum products refined from Iranian crude oil in

a third country". Must the very existence of this exception from the
embargo not be seen as an implicit acknowledgment by the United States
that indirect commerce was also to be regarded as "commerce" between
itself and Iran? If it had been taken to be otherwise, the exception would
not have been necessary at all.
32. The economic interests at the basis of indirect trade in oil (prod-
ucts) between Iran and the United States appear to me quite clear-cut:
Iran had an interest in sending its oil to Western Europe because there

the oil was mixed with crude from other geographical origins or refined
to some degree, so that it was impossible to determine whether oil prod-
ucts subsequently imported into the United States from Western Europe
had come from Iran or not. But it is apparent that the United States also
had an interest in maintaining this arrangement. It permitted the United
States to claim that it had placed an embargo on Iran while at the same
time allowing American companies to indirectly import oil products from
that country. It allowed Iran to hide the "nationality" of its oil by send-

ing it to a third country where it was mixed with oil from other sources
and then could be sold on to the United States without complaints. Thus
it seems that one of the main motives behind shipping the oil to Europe
before it went on to its final destination, the United States, was to cir-
cumvent the embargo rather than substantively change the product by
adding significantvalue to it. The United States clearly had knowledge of
these facts but its importers still bought greatly increased quantities of oil
from Europe, as described in the Odell Report.

30Reply and Defence to Counter-Claim submittedby Iran (RI), Vol. III, Odell Report,
p.31Ibid. p. 12.
32Ibid., p. 9. PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. SIMMA) 340

Etats-Unis; en 1988, les Etats-Unis recevaient 54'7% du total ". Le pro-
fesseur Odell conclut :

«On peut donc raisonnablement supposer que l'augmentation du
volume des exportations sans destination spécifique [il s'agit des pro-
duits pétroliers exportés par l'Europe en 19881 recouvre en réalité
d'importantes exportations de pétrole iranien aux Etats-Unis via
l'Europe. » 31

Toujours selon le professeur Odell, le processus de ((dénationalisation))
subi par le pétrole iranien en Europe était substantiel, de sorte qu'il
aurait ététrès difficile de remonter jusqu'à l'origine du pétrole. Odell

déclare que c'était donc «un lieu de transit idéal pour le brut iranien
frappé par l'embargo américain » 32.
31. Une autre remarque critique qui pourrait être faite ici concerne la
manière relativement détournée dont l'arrêttraite l'exception prévue dans
1'Executive Order 12613. Après tout, celui-ci prévoyait que l'embargo
n'était pas applicable, entre autres, aux ((produits pétroliers raffinés à par-
tir du pétrole brut iranien dans un pays tiers». L'existence mêmede cette

exception à l'embargo ne doit-elle pas êtreconsidéréecomme la reconnais-
sance implicite par les Etats-Unis du fait que le commerce indirect devait
aussi être considérécomme un «commerce» entre eux-mêmeset l'Iran? Si
tel n'avait pas étéle cas, l'exception n'aurait pas éténécessaire.
32. Les intérêts économiquesqui étaient à la base du commerce indirect
du pétrole ou des produits pétroliers entre l'Iran et les Etats-Unis me
paraissent tout à fait clairs: l'Iran avait intérêtà envoyer son pétrole en

Europe occidentale où il étaitmélangéavec du brut d'une autre origine géo-
graphique ou subissait certaines opérations de raffinage, si bien qu'il était
impossible de déterminer si les produits pétroliers importés ensuite par les
Etats-Unis à partir de l'Europe occidentale venaient ou non d'Iran. Mais,
apparemment, les Etats-Unis aussi avaient intérêt à maintenir cet arrange-
ment, qui permettait aux Etats-Unis de proclamer qu'ils avaient décrété un
embargo contre l'Iran, tout en laissant les sociétésaméricaines importer

indirectement des produits pétroliers à partir de ce pays: l'Iran pouvait dis-
simuler la ((nationalité)) de son pétrole en l'envoyant vers un pays tiers où
il était mélangé avec du pétrole d'autres sources et pouvait alors être
revendu aux Etats-Unis sans protestation. Il semble donc que l'un des prin-
cipaux motifs du transport du pétrole vers l'Europe avant sa destination
finale, les Etats-Unis, était de contourner l'embargo, et non de transformer
le produit de manière substantielle par une valeur ajoutée importante. Les

Etats-Unis avaient manifestement connaissancede ces faits, mais les impor-
tateurs américains n'en ont pas moins acheté des quantités beaucoup plus
grandes de pétrole provenant d'Europe, comme l'explique le rapport Odell.

30Réplique et réponse à la demande reconventionnelle présentéepar la République
islamique d'Iran, vol. III, rapport Odell, p. 10.
31Zbid., p. 12.
32Zbid., p. 9. 33. Again, what 1 cannot but see here is "commerce between the ter-

ritories" of the two Parties, well within the meaning of Article X, para-
graph 1, of the 1955 Treaty. Nowhere does that Treaty require that such
commerce be carried on between Iranian and United States natural or
legal persons, without any foreign intermediaries, or that the oil should
be shipped between the territories of the Parties without any interruption.

Paragraph 97 of the Judgment seeks to strengthen the opposite point
of view by saying that:

"If, for example, the process of 'indirect commerce' in Iranian oil
through Western European refineries . . . were interfered with at
some stage subsequent to Iran's having parted with a consignment,
Iran's commitment and entitlement to freedom of commerce vis-à-
vis the United Statescould not be regarded as having been violated."

But let us assume that it would have been the United States itself that
would have thus interfered, would in such case Iran not have regarded its
entitlement to freedom of commerce as having been violated by the other
Contracting Party? The answer will be a clear no. Thus, the very example

chosen by the Court shows that the (as it were, "macro-" rather than
"micro-") economic link characterizing the "commerce between the
territories . . ." protected by the Treaty would not be severed by any
interrnediate private transactions involving third-country nationals.
34. With regard to the two groups of oil platforms attacked by the
United States 1 therefore reach the following result:

(a) as far as the Re~hadat~~ platforms attacked in October 1987 are
concerned, there is the possibility that they could even have returned
to contributing to direct commerce between the territories of the two
countries before the United States embargo set in. After resumption
of performance, they would with certainty have participated in
indirect commerce ;

(b) the same is valid for the Salman platform attacked in April 1988; as
far as the Nasr platform attacked at the same date is concerned, it
was operating at the time of the attack, that is, it was participating
in Treaty-protected commerce.
Thus, the destruction of the oil platforms violated Iran's freedom of
commerce

- given (correctly) what could be called the "abstract" meaning of such
freedom in the case of the Reshadat, Resalat and Salman platforms;

- also understood in the "concrete" sense (as done by the Judgment) in

case of the Nasr platform.

33 And Resalat, see supra, footnote 20. PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. SIMMA) 341

33. En cela encore, je ne peux voir autre chose qu'un ((commerce entre

les territoires)) des deux Parties, tout à fait au sens où le paragraphe 1 de
l'articleX du traité de 1955 entend cette expression. Aucune disposition
de ce traité n'exige que ce commerce soit effectué entre des personnes
physiques ou morales d'Iran et des Etats-Unis sans aucun intermédiaire
étranger, ni que le pétrole soit acheminé sans aucune interruption du ter-
ritoire d'une des Parties jusqu'au territoire de l'autre.
Le paragraphe 97 de l'arrêt cherche à renforcer le point de vue contraire
en disant:

«Si, par exemple, le circuit du ((commerceindirect » de pétrole ira-
nien par l'intermédiaire de raffineries d'Europe occidentale ...était
entravé après que l'Iran se fut dessaisi d'une cargaison, les droits et
obligations de l'Iran vis-à-vis des Etats-Unis en ce qui concerne la

liberté de commerce ne pourraient être considérés comme ayant été
violés.»
Mais supposons que les Etats-Unis eux-mêmes aient entravé ce circuit:
dans un tel cas, peut-on penser que l'Iran n'aurait pas considéré que son

droit à la liberté de commerce avait été violé par l'autre partie contrac-
tante? Bien sûr que non. Ainsi, l'exemple même choisi par la Cour
montre que le lien économique (((macre-économique» plutôt que
«micro-économique ») caractérisant le ((commerce entre les territoires.. .>)
protégépar le traité ne serait pas interrompu par des transactions privées
faisant intervenir des intermédiaires de ressortissants de pays tiers.
34. En ce qui concerne les deux groupes de plates-formes pétrolières
attaquées par les Etats-Unis, je parviens donc au résultat suivant:

a) en ce qui concerne les plates-formes de Reshadat 33 attaquées en 1987,
il est possible que celles-ci auraient mêmepu recommencer à partici-
per au commerce direct entre les territoires des deux pays avant
l'entrée en vigueur de l'embargo américain. Après leur remise en ser-
vice, il est certain qu'elles auraient participé au commerce indirect;

b) il en va de mêmede la plate-forme de Salman attaquée en avril 1988;
quant à celle de Nasr attaquée à la même date, elle fonctionnait au
moment de l'attaque, c'est-à-dire qu'elle participait au commerce
protégé par le traité.

Ainsi, la destruction des plates-formes pétrolières a violé la liberté de
commerce de l'Iran
- le terme «liberté» étant (comme il doit l'être) pris dans son sens «ab-
strait», pourrait-on dire, en ce qui concerne les plates-formes de

Reshadat, Resalat et Salman ;
- et aussi interprété dans son sens «concret» (comme c'est le cas dans
l'arrêt) en ce qui concerne la plate-forme de Nasr.

33 Et de Resalat, voir ci-dessus, note 20.Since, in my view, indirect commerce is protected by Article X, para-
graph 1, of the Treaty, both United States attacks constituted breaches of
the Treaty. The Court should therefore have upheld Iran's respective
claim.

II. THE UNITEDSTATESCOUNTER-CLAIM

A. Introduction

35. While the Judgment discusses at length the issues of jurisdiction

and admissibility of the United States counter-claim, in comparison it
devotes very little attention to the substantive questions raised therein. In
particular, the reasons for the dismissal of the generic counter-claim
given in paragraph 123 of the Judgment appear to me to be plainly
inadequate :al1the Judgment has to say in this regard is that the high risk
for navigation in the Gulf during the Iraq-Iran war is not sufficient for

the Court to decide that Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty was
breached by Iran, and, further, that the United States was unable to
demonstrate an actual impediment to trade or navigation between the
territories of the Parties resulting from Iran's hostile activities. After all,
paragraph 123 of theJudgment tells us commerce and navigation between
Iran and the United States did continue during the ~ar~~. According to

the Court, in the circumstances of this case, a generic claim of breach of
Article X, paragraph 1, cannot be sustained independently of the specific
incidents involving a number of ships, the entirety of which the Court
found as not having led to an interference with the freedom of commerce
and navigation protected by the Treaty.

36. Thus far the Court's reasoning, contained in one single paragraph

34 More precisely, paragraph 123 States that
"according to the material before the Court the commerce and navigation between
Iran and the United Statescontinued during the war until the issuance of the United
Statesembargo on 29 October 1987, and subsequently at least to the extent permitted
by the exceptions to the embargo".

As setforth in paragraph 90 of the Judgment, the embargoprohibited theimport intothe
United States of most goods, includinoil, and services of Iranian origin. Most but not al1
goods were affected by the embargo, which means that certain goods could still be
which is not limited to commerce in oil, therefore contineven after the issuance of the
embargo. However, the fact that commerce between the two Parties continued during the
war does not, in and of itself, demonstrathat Iran's actions did not impede on the free-
dom of commerce and navigation between the two Parties. Had it not been for the
impediments resulting from Iranian actions, there might have been more commerce
between the two Parties. In other words, some commerce was still going on during the
war, but not as much as would have been the case absent Iran'sactions detrimentalto
commercial shipping between the Parties.Puisque, à mon avis, le commerce indirect est protégé par le paragraphe 1
de l'article X du traité, les deux attaques des Etats-Unis constituaient des
violations du traité. La Cour aurait dû donc faire droit à la demande de

l'Iran sur ce point.

II. LA DEMANDE RECONVENTIONNELLE DES ÉTATS-UNIS

A. Introduction

35. Alors que l'arrêt analyse longuement la question de la compétence

et celle de la recevabilité de la demande reconventionnelle des Etats-Unis,
il fait comparativement peu de place aux questions de fond qui y sont
soulevées. En particulier, les raisons données au paragraphe 123 de l'arrêt
pour rejeter la demande reconventionnelle de caractère général me pa-
raissent manifestement inadéquates: tout ce que l'arrêt trouve à dire à

cet égard, c'est que les risques élevésque comportait la navigation dans le
Golfe pendant la guerre Iraq-Iran ne sauraient suffire pour que la Cour
décide que l'Iran a violé le paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité de 1955,
et aussi que les Etats-Unis n'ont pas pu démontrer que les activités hos-
tiles de l'Iran aient constitué une entrave effective au commerce ou à la
navigation entre les territoires des Parties. Après tout, nous dit le para-

graphe 123 de l'arrêt, le commerce et la navigation entre l'Iran et les
Etats-Unis se sont poursuivis pendant la guerre34. Selon la Cour, dans les
circonstances de la présente espèce, il n'est pas possible d'examiner une
réclamation de caractère général alléguant la violation du paragraphe 1
de l'article X du traité de 1955 sans tenir compte des incidents précis met-
tant en cause un certain nombre de navires, incidents dont aucun, selon

la Cour, n'a entraîné une atteinte à la liberté de commerce et de naviga-
tion protégée par le traité.
36. Jusqu'ici, le raisonnement de la Cour tient en un seul paragraphe

34 Plus précisément, il est dit au paragra123 que

«il ressort des élémentssoumis à la Cour que le commerce et la navigation entre
Unis décrètent un embargo le 29 octobre 1987 et, par la suite, au moins dans les-
limites permises au titre des exceptionscet embargo».

Comme il est expliqué au paragraphe 90 de l'arrêt, l'embargo interdisait l'importation aux
Etats-Unis de la plupart des produits compris le pétrole) et services d'origine iranienne.
La plupart des produits, mais pas tous, étaienvisés par l'embargo, ce qui signifie que
certains produits pouvaient continuerêtreimportés librement d'Iran aux Etats-UnisLe
commerce entre les deux Parties, qui ne se limite pas au commerce du pétrole, s'est donc
entre les deux Partiesait continué pendant la guerre nedémontre pas, en soi, queeles
actions de l'Iran n'aient pas entravé la liberté de commerce et de navigation entre les deux
Parties. Sans les entraves résultant des actions iranieil y aurait peut-être eu davan-
tage de commerce entre les deux Parties. En d'autres termes, du commerce se produisait
encore pendant la guerre, mais pasautant que cela aurait étéle cas sans les actions ira-
niennes préjudiciables la navigation commercialeentre les Parties.of the Judgment, and the little there is is borrowed in part from the argu-
ments used by the Court before to dismiss the specific variant of the
United States counter-claims. Possibly such short shrift thus given to
the generic counter-claim can be explained as the Court's reaction to
the somewhat unpersuasive way in which it was pleaded. Indeed, what
1 would regard as a full-fledged reasoning in support of the generic
counter-claim was never really articulated by the United States. 1 would

submit however that there is more merit to this counter-claim than meets
the eye.
37. In the following, after a brief explanation of the meaning of
"generic counter-claim" underlying the present case, 1 will scrutinize the
main arguments in favour of the United States counter-claim of this
nature, as they can be developed on the modest basis of what the United
States did actually muster by way of reasoning. In doing so, 1 do

not assume to violate the ultra petita partium rule because the generic
counter-claim was actually made, if only insufficiently argued.

38. Iran, in its written pleadings on the counter-claim, made a distinc-
tion between the general context and worsening conditions for shipping
in the Persian Gulf during the period in question, and the specific inci-

dents referred to by the United States as constituting breaches of Iran's
obligations under the Treat~~~. Looking at the written pleadings of the
United States, however, one finds no mentioning of an express distinction
between a "generic" and a "specific" counter-~laim~~. Rather, in the
United States Counter-Memorial and Counter-Claim, the counter-claim
was formulated as a single claim. At the stage of the oral pleadings, the
United States actually seemed to reject the di~tinction~~. 1 use the word

"seemed" because the position of the United States was unclear: after
what could be regarded as a rejection of the distinction proposed by Iran,
counsel for the United States went on to Say that, in the Nicaragua case,

35 Iran found it
"useful to analyse the Us's claims in two ways: first, to the extent the United States
refers to attacks on specific vessels (the specific claims), and secondly, to the
that it refers to a more general impairmeof the freedom of commerce between the
territories of the High ContractinParties (the generic claim(RI, para.9.22).

Iran then proceeded to analyse both "claims".
36 Specific incidents were mentioned by the United States in order to illustrate the asser-
tion that
"Iran's actionresulted in extremeldangerous conditions foral1 vessels operating in
the Gulf, including a number of United States vessels which suffered sevproperty
damage and injury to their crews" (Counter-Memorial and Counter-Claim submitted
by the United States of America (CMUS), para. 6.09).

37 CR 2003113, pp. 42-43, paras. 21.61-21.63.de l'arrêt et le peu qui y figure reprend en partie les arguments déjà uti-
liséspar la Cour pour rejeter la variante spécifique des demandes recon-
ventionnelles des Etats-Unis. Le traitement expéditif ainsi réservépar la
Cour à la demande reconventionnelle de caractère général s'explique
peut-être par le manque de conviction avec laquelle cette demande a été
argumentée. En fait, les Etats-Unis n'ont jamais vraiment développéce
que j'appellerais un raisonnement complet à l'appui de leur demande
reconventionnelle générale.Je pense cependant que celle-ci est mieux fon-

déequ'on pourrait le croire à première vue.
37. Dans les paragraphes qui suivent, après avoir brièvement expliqué
ce qu'il faut entendre par ((demande reconventionnelle générale » dans la
présente affaire, j'examinerai les principaux arguments en faveur de cette
demande reconventionnelle des Etats-Unis, tels qu'ils peuvent êtredéve-
loppés à partir de l'ensemble modeste des élémentsque les Etats-Unis ont
assemblés en guise de raisonnement. Ce faisant, je ne pense pas violer la

règle ultra petita partium, parce que la demande reconventionnelle géné-
rale a été effectivementprésentée, mêmesi elle a étéinsuffisamment argu-
mentée.
38. L'Iran, dans ses écritures sur la demande reconventionnelle, a éta-
bli une distinction entre le contexte et la détérioration des conditions de
la navigation dans le golfe Persique pendant la période en question, en
général,et les incidents spécifiques cités par les Etats-Unis comme des
violations des obligations découlant pour l'Iran du traité35. Lorsqu'on

regarde les écritures des Etats-Unis, cependant, on ne trouve pas trace
d'une distinction expresse entre une demande reconventionnelle «géné-
rale >>et une demande reconventionnelle « spécifique » 36: au contraire,
dans le contre-mémoireet la demande reconventionnelle présentés par les
Etats-Unis, la demande reconventionnelle est présentée sous forme d'une
demande unique. Au stade des plaidoiries, les Etats-Unis ont en fait Sem-
blé rejeter cette di~tinction~~. J'emploie le mot «semblé» parce que la

position des Etats-Unis n'était pas claire: après avoir, à ce qu'il parais-

35L'Iran a jugé
((utile d'analyser les demandes deEtats-Unis de deux manières:d'abord, dans la
mesure où les Etats-Unis invoquent des attaques contrdes navires spécifiques (les
demandes spécifiques) et, deuxièmement, dans la mesure où ils invoquent une atteinte
plus générale à la liberté de commerce entre les territoires desHautes Parties
tionnelle présentée par la République islamiqd'Iran, par. 9.22).demande reconven-

L'Iran a alors entrepris d'analyles deux types de ((demandeD.
selon laquelleUnis ont mentionné des incidentsspécifiques pour illustrer l'affirmation

«les actions iranienneont crééune situation extrêmement dangereusepour tous les
navires naviguantdans le Golfe, y compris un certain nombre de navires dEtats-
(contre-mémoirebiete demande reconventionnelle présentés'éqparagles Etats-Unis»
d'Amérique, par. 6.09).

37CR 2003113, p. 42-43, par. 21.61-21.63."[tlhe Court did not feel compelled to treat each of the incidents placed
before it as individual claims . .. We urge the Court to do the same in this
case."38 In thus requesting the Court not to examine the incidents indi-
vidually, the United States in fact embraced a more generic approach to

the counter-claim implicitly .

39. Regardless of what the position of the United States on this prob-
lem of nomenclature ultimately was, the Court found the distinction
suggested by Iran useful and took it up in its Judgment. 1 will therefore
also follow it in my analysis. The way in which the Judgment proceeds is
to reject the two types of counter-claims independently of each other, even

though applying to the generic counter-claim more or less the same cri-
teria that it applies earlier on to its specific variety. 1 submit that this
approach cannot do justice to the generic counter-claim. To be able to
stand on its own, the generic counter-claim must be given its distinct sub-
stance - a substance independent of that of the various specific incidents
referred to by the United States. The Court's way of dealing with the
matter in paragraph 123 reduces the generic counter-claim to an empty
shell, which is then summarily disposed of.

40. To delineate the contours of the generic counter-claim in an
adequate way, it is useful to refer to the 1986 Nicaragua Judgment. In the
Nicaragua case, the Court was faced with similar violations of a similar
treaty, which also protected the freedom of commerce and navigation
"between the territories" of the two parties. When the Court assessed the
impediment to the freedom of commerce and navigation caused by the
United States attacks on Nicaraguan ships, it did not consider it neces-
sary to establish whether the particular vessels harmed by mines were fly-

ing the Nicaraguan flag, and whether the ships in question were trans-
porting cargo between the United States and Nicarag~a~~ (even though
Article XIX, paragraph 1, of the FCN Treaty between the United States
and Nicaragua of 1956, like Article X of our Treaty, reads: "Between the
territories of the two parties there shall be freedom of commerce and
navigation").
41. Most importantly, in the Nicaragua case, the Court did not ana-
lyse each incident in detail. Rather, it gave a broad picture of the context
prevailing at the time, and assessed the nature and the extent of United

States involvement and, consequently, its responsibility for the resulting
violations of general international law and the FCN Treaty. Nowhere do
we find a specific account of what happened to each ship. The Court's

38 CR 2003113, p. 43, para. 21.64.
Statesof Arnerica), Merits, JudgmentI.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 48, para. 81.v. Unitedsait, rejeté la distinction proposée par l'Iran, les conseils des Etats-Unis
ont poursuivi en disant que, dans l'affaire Nicaragua, «[l]a Cour n'a pas
éprouvéle besoin de traiter chacun des incidents qui lui ont été présentés
comme des demandes individuelles ...Nous prions la Cour de faire de
mêmeen l'espèce. ))3g En priant ainsi la Cour de ne pas examiner les inci-
dents individuellement, les Etats-Unis ont en fait implicitement adopté
une conception plus généralede la demande reconventionnelle.

39. Quelle que soit la position finalement adoptée par les Etats-Unis
sur cette question, la Cour a jugé que cette distinction suggéréepar l'Iran
était utile et elle l'a retenue dans son arrêt.Je vais donc la reprendre aussi
dans mon analyse. La méthode suivie dans l'arrêt consiste à rejeter les
deux types de demandes reconventionnelles indépendamment l'un de
l'autre, tout en appliquant à la demande reconventionnelle générale des
critères plus ou moins identiques à ceux qui ont été appliquésauparavant
aux demandes spécifiques. A mon sens, cette méthode ne permet pas

d'apprécier comme il convient la demande reconventionnelle générale.
Celle-ci, pour exister de manière autonome, doit se voir reconnaître sa
substance particulière - une substance indépendante de celle des diffé-
rents incidents spécifiques citéspar les Etats-Unis. En traitant la question
comme elle le fait au paragraphe 123, la Cour réduit la demande recon-
ventionnelle générale à une enveloppe vide, dont elle disposeensuite som-
mairement.

40. Pour bien délimiter les contours de la demande reconventionnelle
générale, il est utile de se reporter à l'arrêt Nicaragua de 1986. Dans
l'affaire Nicaragua, la Cour avait à examiner des violations analogues
d'un traité semblable, qui protégeait aussi la liberté de commerce et de
navigation ((entre les territoires » des deux Parties. Pour apprécier
l'entrave à la liberté de commerce et de navigation résultant des attaques
des Etats-Unis contre les navires nicaraguayens, elle n'a pas jugé utile
d'établir si les navires particuliers endommagés par des mines battaient

pavillon nicaraguayen, et s'ils transportaient des marchandises entre les
Etats-Unis et le Ni~aragua~~ (et pourtant le paragraphe 1 de l'article XIX
du traité d'amitié de 1956 entre les Etats-Unis et le Nicaragua, comme
l'article X de notre traité, dispose: ((11y aura liberté de commerce et de
navigation entre les territoires des deux Parties))).

41. Mais surtout, dans l'affaire Nicaragua, la Cour n'a pas analysé
chaque incident en détail; elle a au contraire brossé un tableau général

des circonstances qui existaient à l'époque, et elle a évaluéla nature et
l'étendue de l'implication des Etats-Unis et, en conséquence, de leur res-
ponsabilité dans les violations du droit international général et du traité
d'amitié. Nulle part dans l'arrêt nous ne trouvons de rappel précis des

38Ibid., p. 43, par. 21.64.
39Activités militaireet paramilitaireau Nicaragua et contre celui-c(Nicaragua c.
Etats-Unis d'Amérique),fond, arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 48, pa1. 8approach, in this sense, was more "generic" than "specific". In our case
as well, the analysis of the generic counter-claim should not entai1 an
analysis of what happened to the specific ships named by the United
States.

42. One difference, of course, has to be pointed out at once: whereas,
in the Nicaragua case, responsibility for the military actions taken against
Nicaragua could be attributed only to the United States, in the present
case two States created the situation adverse to neutral shipping in the
Gulf: Iran and Iraq or, to be more precise, Iran or Iraq. 1 do not believe
however that this difference is determinant. With respect to the generic
counter-claim, al1 that matters is that Iran was responsible for a signifi-
cant portion of the actions that impaired the freedom of commerce and
navigation between the United States and Iran. This is sufficient to hold
Iran in breach of its obligations under Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955

Treaty, and it is not necessary to determine the particular extent to which
Iran was responsible for these actions.

43. Another point is of even greater importance: against the reasoning
that follows it cannot be argued that al1 the impediments to free com-
merce and navigation which neutral ships faced in the Gulf were caused
by legitimate acts of war carried out by the two belligerents, Iran and
Iraq, and that therefore neutral shipping had nothing to complain about,
so to speak, because it entered the maritime areas affected by the Gulf
war at its own risk - a risk which al1 neutrals must bear if they decide to

navigate and trade in such a dangerous environment. This argument
appears il1founded because it is well recognized that both Iran and Iraq
conducted their activities against neutral shipping in andaround the Gulf
that are at issue here widely in disregard of the rules of international jus
in bello, in particular the laws of maritime neutrality. 1 will exemplify
such illegal activities on the part of Iran in the following analysis, but
what has to be emphasized already at this point is that these activities
were not justified simply because a state of war existed between Iran and
Iraq.

B. Analysis

44. In my view, in the present case the purpose of the generic counter-
claim is to compensate the United States for the harm done by Iran
to commerce and navigation with the United States rather than for the
harm done to specific vessels. For the reasons now to be outlined, 1 will
argue (1) that Iran's actions constitute a violation of Article X, para-
graph 1,of the 1955 Treaty, and (2) that the impediment on the freedom

of commerce and navigation caused by those actions is evidenced by the
increase in labour, insurance, and other costs resulting for the partici-faits concernant chaque navire. La méthode de la Cour, en ce sens, était
plus «générale» que «spécifique ». Dans la présente espèce non plus,

l'analyse de la demande reconventionnelle générale ne devrait pas entraî-
ner l'analyse de ce qui est arrivé aux navires spécifiquement mentionnés
par les Etats-Unis.
42. Bien sûr, il y a une différence qui doit êtresoulignée immédiate-
ment: alors que, dans l'affaire Nicaragua, la responsabilité des actions
militaires prises contre le Nicaragua ne pouvait être imputée qu'aux seuls
Etats-Unis, deux Etats étaient cette fois-ci à l'origine des difficultés de la
navigation neutre dans le Golfe: l'Iran et l'Iraq ou, plus précisément,
l'Iran ou l'Iraq. Je ne crois pas, cependant, que cette différence soit déter-
minante. En ce qui concerne la demande reconventionnellegénérale, tout

ce qui compte, c'est que l'Iran était responsable d'une part importante
des actions qui ont entravé la liberté de commerce et de navigation entre
les Etats-Unis et l'Iran. Cela suffit pour considérer que l'Iran avait man-
quéà ses obligations découlant du paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité de
1955, et il n'est pas nécessaire de déterminer exactement dans quelle
mesure l'Iran était responsable de ces actions.
43. Il y a plus important encore: il est impossible de soutenir,
à l'encontre du raisonnement qui va suivre, que toutes les entraves
à la liberté du commerce et de la navigation des navires neutres dans le
Golfe étaient dues à des actes de guerre entrepris légitimement par les

deux belligérants, l'Iran et l'Iraq, et donc que les navires marchands
neutres n'avaient pas lieu de se plaindre, si l'on peut dire, puisqu'ilpéné-
traient dans les zones maritimes touchées par la guerre du Golfe à leurs
propres risques - risques que toutes les personnes neutres doivent
assumer si elles décident de naviguer et de pratiquer le commerce dans
un environnement dangereux comme celui-là. Cet argument paraît mal
fondé, parce qu'il est largement admis que l'Iran comme l'Iraq ont mené
ces activités contre les navires marchands neutres dans le Golfe et aux
alentours largement au mépris des règles du jus in bello international,
en particulier des principes de la neutralité maritime. Je donnerai dans

l'analyse qui suit des exemples de ces activités illicites menées par l'Iran,
mais ce qu'il faut souligner d'emblée, c'est que ces activités n'étaient
pas justifiées par la simple existence d'un état de guerre entre l'Iran et
l'Iraq.

B. Analyse

44. Dans la présente espèce, à mon avis, le but de la demande recon-
ventionnelle générale des Etats-Unis est d'obtenir réparation du dom-
mage causé par l'Iran au commerce et à la navigation avec les Etats-Unis
et non pas des dommages causés à tel ou tel navire. Pour les raisons que

je vais indiquer maintenant, je considère 1) que les actes de l'Iran cons-
tituent une violation du paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité de 1955 et 2)
que le fait que ces actes ont entravé la liberté de commerce et de naviga-
tion est démontré par l'accroissement des coûts de la main-d'Œuvre,pants in commerce between the two countries during the relevant
period 40.

1. Iran's violation of Article X, paragraph 1

45. The United States described in detail the various actions taken
by Iran which caused damage to vessels, higher navigational risks, and
delayed passage41. Let us look at these hostile activities.
First, 1 consider undeniable that Iran laid mines for the purpose of

sinking and damaging ships - also United States-flagged ships and other
vessels engaged in commerce between Iran and the United States - sail-
ing in the Gulf and surrounding waters. In this regard, the Texaco Carib-
bean incident of 10 August 1987 is very instructive. A week after this
tanker had struck a mine, Iran assisted in minesweeping operations in the

area and destroyed a number of mines42. A Reuters wire report indicates
that six mines were found in the area in the three days following the inci-
dent43. It is striking that Iran did not identify any of the mines which it
found and destroyed; at least no such information appears in any of the
reports. Then, from 21 to 28 September 1987, France and the United

Kingdom conducted minesweeping operations in the area where the
Texaco Caribbean incident had taken place. In the course of these opera-
tions, no mines could be dete~ted~~. On 10 October 1987 (that is, two
months after the mining of the tanker), warships of the two countries
returned to the site and undertook a second minesweeping operation.

This time five mines were detected. The United Kingdom Ministry of
Defence identified those mines as Iranian-manufactured SADAF-02
mines, on the basis of the serial numbers and characteristics of these
~eapons~~. This evidence suggests that Iran had laid mines again, after it
had cleaned up the area following the Texaco Caribbean incident. It also

40 According to Iran, the UnitedStates had to prove the following with respectto the
generic claim:
1. the existence of commerce between the territories of the High Contracting Parties,
independently of any individually named ship or other instrumentality;
2. that conduct attributableto Iran violated thefreedom of that commerce, contrary to
Article X (1) of the Treaty of Amity; and
3. (eventually) theuantum of damages or compensation directly attributabto that vio-
lation.
Iran's response to the counter-claiat paragraph 9.24 (emphasis added).

41 CR 2003113, pp. 20-21, paras. 20.7-20.14.
42 Observations and Submissions of Iran on the United States Preliminary Objection,
Exhibit 27.
43 CMUS, Exhibit 52.

44 Ibid., Exhibit 53.
45 Ibid., Exhibit 43, para. 15, Exhibit 53. PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.IND.SIMMA) 346

des assurances, etc., qui en a résultépour tous ceux qui ont pris part au
commerce entre les deux pays pendant la période considérée40.

1. La violation par l'Iran du paragraphe 1 de l'article X

45. Les Etats-Unis ont décrit en détail les diverses actions menées par
l'Iran qui ont endommagé des navires, rendu la navigation plus dange-
reuse et ralenti le passage41. Examinons ces activités hostiles.

Premièrement, je considère comme certain que l'Iran a posé des mines
pour couler et endommager des navires - y compris des navires battant
pavillon des Etats-Unis et d'autres navires faisant du commerce entre
l'Iran et les Etats-Unis - qui naviguaient dans le Golfe et à proximité. A
cet égard, l'incident du Texaco Caribbean, du 10 août 1987, est très ins-
tructif. Une semaine après que ce pétrolier eut heurté une mine, l'Iran a

participé aux opérations de déminage dans cettezone et détruit un certain
nombre de mines42. Une dépêchede l'agence Reuters indique que six
mines y ont étédécouvertes pendant les trois jours qui ont suivi l'inci-
dent43. Il est frappant que l'Iran n'ait identifié aucune des mines qu'il a
trouvées et détruites; du moins, on n'en trouve pas d'indication dans le

dossier. Ensuite, du 21 au 28 septembre 1987, la France et le Royaume-
Uni ont mené des opérations de déminage dans la zone où s'étaitproduit
l'incident du Texaco Caribbean. Au cours de ces opérations, aucune mine
n'a étédétectée44.Le 10 octobre 1987 (c'est-à-dire deux mois après l'inci-
dent du pétrolier), des bâtiments de guerre des deux pays sont retournés
sur les lieux pour une seconde opération de déminage. Cette fois, cinq

mines furent détectées,que le ministère de la défense du Royaume-Uni
identifia comme des mines de type SADAF-02de fabrication iranienne, à
partir de leurs numéros de série et de leurs caractéristique^^^. Cela in-
dique que l'Iran avait à nouveau mouillé des mines après avoir déminéla

40 Selon l'Iran, les Etats-Unis devaient prouvce qui suit dans le cadre de la demande
générale:

1. qu'il existaitdu commerce entre les territoires des Hautes Parties contractantes,
2. qu'un comportement timputablee àul'Iran avait violé la liberté de ce commerce, en
contravention du paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité d'amitié; et
3. (finalement) le montant des dommages et intérêtsou de l'indemnisation découlant
directement de cette violation.

Réplique et réponseà la demande reconventionnelleprésentée par la République islamique
d'Iran, par. 9.24 les italiques sont de moi.
41 CR 2003113, p. 21-21, par. 20.7-20.14.
Etats-Unis,apièce 27.conclusions de l'Iran sur l'exception préliminaire soulevée par les
43 Contre-mémoire et demande reconventionnelle présentés par les Etats-Unis
d'Amérique, pièce 52.
* Ibid., pièce 53.
45 Ibid., pièce 43, par. 15, pièce 53.appears highly probable that the mines which Iran destroyed without
identifying them back in August were its ~wn~~.

46. To the evidence related to the Texaco Caribbean incident can be

added that resulting from minesweeping operations undertaken by the
United States Navy off the coast of Kuwait in June 198747, and such
operations undertaken by Kuwait itself in July 198748. The mines swept
during those operations were identified as Iranian following the boarding
and search of the Iran Ajr on 21 September 1987, because they were iden-
tical to the mines found on board that vessel. Then, in November 1987,

minesweeping operations detected Iranian mines in the location where
the Bridgeton had been hit. Those are only examples of the evidence
showing that Iran repeatedly laid mines in the Persian Gulf during the
relevant period.

47. Moreover, Iran gave no warning to ships travelling in the area that

mines had in fact been laid. When belligerents lay mines, Article 3 of the
1907 Hague Convention (VIII) Relating to the Laying of Automatic Sub-
marine Contact Mines requires that "every possible precaution must be
taken for the security of peaceful ~hipping"~~. Even States which did not
ratify or accede to the Hague Convention, among them Iranso, have a

duty of notification when laying miness1. This prohibition dating from
1907 was reconfirmed by the Court in its Nicaragua Judgment of 1986,
which stated that:

"if a State lays mines in any waters whatever in which the vessels of

another State have rights of access or passage, and fails to give any
warning or notification whatsoever, in disregard of the security of
peaceful shipping, it commits a breach of the principles of humani-

46The only response provided by Iran was that it could not have laid those mines there
since Iranian ships used that route too. See CR 2003114, p. 21, at para. 39.

47CMUS, Exhibit 37.

48Ibid., Exhibit 34.
49D. Schindler and J. Toman, Droit des conjlits armés, Comité Internationalde la
Croix Rouge & Institut Henry-Dunant (eds.), 1996, pp. 1 115-1120.
50Information available www.icrc.orglihl.nsf/WebNORM?OpenView&Start=l&Count=
1551CMUS, Annex, Vol. VI, Exhibit 172, p. 282:.

"It is probably alstrue that [the States which did not accede to the Hague Con-
vention (VIII)] may not lay mines off the enemycoast merely to intercept neutral
shipping, that they are bound to observe the duty to notify the Iaying of mines, that
they have to take additionalsafety measures to protect innocent shippiand that
they must also remove mines at the end of the war." (Emphasis added.)

See also ibid, Exhibit 173, pp. 168-169.zone à la suite de l'incident du Texaco Caribbean. Il paraît aussi extrê-
mement probable que les mines que l'Iran avait détruites sans les identi-
fier au mois d'août étaient iranienne^^^.
46. Aux éléments de preuve concernant l'incident du Texaco Carib-
bean, on peut ajouter ceux qui résultaient des opérations de déminage

entreprises par la marine des Etats-Unis au large du Koweït en juin
198747, ainsi que les opérations entreprises par le Koweït lui-même en
juin 198748. Les mines retirées au cours de ces opérations ont été identi-
fiéescomme iraniennes après l'arraisonnement de l'Iran Ajr le 21 sep-
tembre 1987, parce qu'elles étaient identiques aux mines trouvées à bord
de ce navire. Puis, en novembre 1987, les opérations de déminage ont permis

de détecter des mines iraniennes à l'endroit où le Bridgeton avait été
heurté. Ce ne sont là que quelques exemples des éléments de preuve mon-
trant que l'Iran avait à maintes reprises mouillé des mines dans le golfe
Persique pendant la période pertinente.
47. En outre, l'Iran n'a pas signalé aux navires circulant dans la zone
en question qu'il avait posé des mines. Or, l'article 3 de la convention de

La Haye (VIII) de 1907 relative à la pose de mines sous-marines auto-
matiques de contact dispose que « toutes les précautions possibles doivent
êtreprises pour la sécurité de la navigation pacifique»49. Mêmeles Etats
qui n'ont pas ratifiéla convention de La Haye ou qui n'y ont pas adhéré,
comme l'IranS0, ont une obligation de notification lorsqu'ils posent des
miness1.Cette interdiction datant de 1907 a étéreconfirmée par la Cour

dans son arrêtNicaragua de 1986, où elle dit:

«si ...un Etat mouille des mines dans des eaux - quelles qu'elles
soient - où les navires d'un autre Etat peuvent avoir un droit
d'accès ou de passage, sans avertissement ni notification, au mépris
de la sécurité de la navigation pacifique, cet Etat viole les principes

46 La seule réponse donnée par l'Iran était qu'il ne pouvait pas avoir mouces mines
p. 21, par. 39.ires iraniens empruntaient eux-mêmes cet itinéraire. Voir CR 2003114,
47 Contre-mémoire et demande reconventionnelle présentés par les Etats-Unis
d'Amérique, pièce 37.
48 Ibid., pièce 34.
49 D. Schindler et J. Toman, Droit des conflits armés, Comité internatide la Croix-
Rouge et Institut Henry-Dunant (dir. publ.)1996, p. 1115-120.
50 Information figurant surle sitewww.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/WebNORM?OpenView&Start
= l&Count= 150&Expand= 1919 (visitépour la dernière fois le 28 octobre 2003).
Contre-mémoire et demande reconventionnelle présentés par les Etats-Unis
d'Amérique, annexes, vol VI, pièce 172, p. 282:
«Il est probablement également vrai que [les Etats qui n'ont pas adhéré à la
convention de La Haye (VIII)] ne peuvent mouiller dmines au large des côtes enne-
mies simplement pour intercepterdesnaviresmarchands, [qu'ils] sont [tenus] d'obser-
ver leur devoir d'avertir du mouillage des mines,'ils] sont [tenus] de prendre des
mesures supplémentaires pour protéger les navires innocentet [qu'ils] doivent égale-
ment déminer après la fin des hostilités. » (Les italiques sont de moi.)
Voir aussiibid., pièce 173, p. 168-169. tarian law underlying the specific provisions of Convention No. VI11
of 1907"52.

It is certainly not within the jurisdiction of the Court in the present
case to determine whether Iran's failure to notify ships travelling in the
Gulf of the existence of the mines it laid violated the above Hague Con-
vention, or even the principles of humanitarian law underlying that Con-
vention. Yet, it is obvious, and well within jurisdictional reach in the
present case, that, had Iran notified neutral ships of its minelaying activi-

ties, it would have mitigated the disruption to the freedom of commerce
and navigation. There can be no doubt that the laying of the mines,
aggravated by Iran's failure to notify, created dangerous conditions for
maritime commerce and navigation between Iran and the United States.

48. Secondly, ships engaged in commerce between Iran and the United
States were attacked by Iranian air~raft~~. Whether such attacks were

launched from or with the assistance of the oil platforms is irrelevant at
this stage. They were carried out by fixed-wing aircraft and helicopter-s54.
These attacks, like the mining attacks, disrupted maritime commerce in
the Gulf 55.
49. Thirdly, ships engaged in commerce between Iran and the United
States were also attacked by Iranian gunboats equipped with machine

guns and rocket la un cher^^^T .he United States listed three attacks of this
type in its counter-claim: the attacks on the Lucy, the Esso Freeport and
the Diane57. Iran argued that close to no damage had been caused by
those attacks. However, the impediment to freedom of commerce was
not caused by damage to the ships but rather by the insecure environ-
ment which these attacks created for merchant shipping, including
shipping between Iran and the United States.

2. Evidence of the impediment to freedom of commerce and navigation

50. Concerning, first, freedom of navigation, the Court stated in 1998
that it had jurisdiction "to entertain the United Statescounter-claim in so
far as the acts alleged may have prejudiced the freedoms guaranteed by
Article X, paragraph 1" 58,thereby including the freedom of navigation.
Al1 the vessels mentioned in the United States counter-claim had a right

States ofAtnerica),Merits, Judgment, I. C.J. Reports 198p. 112, para. 215.. United
53 CMUS, p. 64, paras. 1.91-1.95.

54 Ibid., p. 161, para. 6.04.
55 Ibid., Exhibit 6; Exhibit 17, pp. 3-4; Exhibit 19; Exhibit 52, p. 19.
56 Ibid., p. 161, para. 6.04. See also ibid., Exhibit 22, p. 2, and Exhibit 32, p. 3.
57 Ibid., p. 166, para. 6.08.
Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iranv. United States of America), Counter-
Clairn, Order of 10 March 1998, I.C. J. Reports 1998, p. 204, para. 36 (emphasis added). PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. SIMMA) 348

du droit humanitaire sur lesquels reposent les dispositions spéci-

fiques de la convention no VI11 de 1907~~~.
Il n'entre certainement pas dans la compétence de la Cour en la pré-
sente espèce de déterminer si le fait que l'Iran n'a pas averti les navires

naviguant dans le Golfe de la présence des mines qu'il y avait mouillées
violait cette convention de La Haye, ou même les principes du droit
humanitaire sur lesquels elle repose. Il est évident cependant, et cette cons-
tatation entre bien dans le champ de la compétence de la Cour, que, si
l'Iran avait aviséles navires neutres de ses activités de mouillage de mines,
il aurait atténuéles perturbations de la liberté de commerce et de naviga-
tion. Il est hors de doute que le mouillage des mines, aggravé par le défaut
de notification de la part de l'Iran, a créédes conditions dangereuses pour

le commerce maritime et la navigation entre l'Iran et les Etats-Unis.
48. Deuxièmement, les navires faisant le commerce entre l'Iran et les
Etats-Unis ont subi des attaques aériennes de Que ces attaques
aient étélancées à partir des plates-formes pétrolières, ou avec leur assis-
tance, est sans pertinence à ce stade. Elles ont étémenées par des avions
et par des hélicoptère^^^. Comme les attaques par mines, elles ont per-
turbé le commerce maritime dans le Golfe55.
49. Troisièmement, les navires faisant le commerce entre l'Iran et les
Etats-Unis ont aussi étéattaqués par des canonnières iraniennes équipées

de mitrailleuses et de lance- roquette^^^. Les Etats-Unis ont citétrois at-
taques de ce type dans leur demande reconventionnelle :les attaques menées
contre le Lucy, 1'Esso Freeport et le Diane57. L'Iran a prétendu que ces
attaques n'avaient pour ainsi dire pas causé de dégâts. Cependant,
l'entrave à la liberté de commerce a résulténon pas des dégâts causés aux
navires, mais plutôt de l'insécuritéque ces attaques créaient pour la navi-
gation marchande, y compris entre l'Iran et les Etats-Unis.

2. Les preuves de l'entrave à la liberté de commerce et de navigation
50. En ce qui concerne tout d'abord la liberté de navigation, la Cour a

déclaré en 1998 qu'elle était compétente ((pour connaître de la demande
reconventionnelle des Etats-Unis dans la mesure où les faits allégués
ont pu porter atteinte aux libertés garanties par le paragraphe 1 de l'ar-
ticle X»58, au nombre desquelles elle comptait la liberté de navigation.

52 Activités militaires et paramilitaau Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c.
Etats-Unis d'Amérique), fond, arrêt,C.I. Recueil 1986, p. 112, par. 215.
53 Contre-mémoire et demande reconventionnelle présentés par les Etats-Unis
d'54Ibid., p. 161, par. 6.04..95.
55Ibid., pièce 6; pièce 17, p. 3-4; pièce 19; pièce 52, p. 19.
56Ibid., p. 161, par. 6.04. Voir aussi ibid., pièce 22, p. 2, et pièce 32, p. 3.
57Ibid., p. 166, par. 6.08.
58Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d'Iran c. Etats-Unis d'Amérique),
demande reconventionnelle, ordonnance du 10 mars 1998, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 204,
par. 36; les italiques sont de moi.to pass innocently, and follow the route of their choice, through Iranian
territorial waters on their way to and from the United States, by virtue
of the 1955 Treaty. 1 do not believe that the fact that merchant ships

engaged in Treaty-protected commerce were in effect forced to navigate
in a narrow channel in the Gulf created an impediment to their freedom
of navigation, guaranteed by Article X, paragraph 1. In my view, this
was a result of the general military situation in the Gulf rather than due
to a deliberate hostile measure taken by Iran. It was simply advisable for
ships to keep out of the Iranian war zone. The ensuing factual restriction
to the passage of ships therefore does not amount to a violation of
Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty by Iran.

51. On the other hand, Iranian attacks on ships engaged in commerce
between the Parties through mining, and attacks by aircraft or patrol
boats, did very well prevent these vessels from navigating freely and
safely through the Gulf. Such vessels had to navigate so as to avoid the
areas where Iranian mines had been discovered or were suspected to
have been laid, thus effectively being forced to use indirect routes which
were lengthier and therefore more expensive. In addition, ships began
travelling at night for safety reasons. Thus, by creating conditions too
dangerous for ships to travel by daylight, Iran also impeded upon the

United States freedom of navigation.
52. Concerning, second, freedom of commerce, measuring the impact
of a given hostile measure or action on such freedom is a difficult task.
Nevertheless, there is substantial evidence supporting a finding that Iran's
actions impeded on the freedom of commerce between the two countries
guaranteed by Article X, paragraph 1, of the 1955 Treaty. Let me set out
this evidence .
53. As concerns, first, minelaying, the Court declared in the Nicaragua
case that, when a right of access to a port "is hindered by the laying of

mines, this constitutes an infringement of the freedom of communica-
tions and of maritime commerce" 59.In our case, as demonstrated above,
the evidence shows that Iran repeatedly laid mines in order to disrupt
neutral shipping in the Gulf, which necessarily included shipping between
Iran and the United States. Thus, through these minelaying activities,
Iran clearly infringed upon the freedom of commerce protected by
Article X, paragraph 1, or in the words of the Court in Nicaragua,
acted in "manifest contradiction" 60 to the freedom of commerce guaran-
teed by the 1955 Treaty.

5Wilitary and Paranzilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United
States of America),Merits, Judgment,I. C.J. Reports 1986, pp. 128 ff., para. 253.
60 Ibid., pp. 139 ff., para. 278.Tous les navires mentionnés dansla demande reconventionnelle des Etats-

Unis avaient en vertu du traité de 1955 un droit de passage innocent et le
droit de suivre l'itinéraire de leur choix dans les eaux territoriales ira-
niennes lorsqu'ils venaient des Etats-Unis ou s'y rendaient. Je ne crois pas
que le fait que les navires marchands qui se livraient au commerceprotégé
par le traité étaient effectivement obligés de naviguer dansun chenal étroit
dans le Golfe ait entravé leur liberté de navigation garantie par le para-
graphe 1 de l'article X. A mon avis, ce fait résultait de la situation mili-

taire généraledans le Golfe, et non pas d'une mesure hostile prise délibé-
rément par l'Iran. Il était simplement conseillé pour les navires de rester
en dehors de la zone de guerre iranienne. La restriction qui en a résulté
dans la pratique pour le passage des navires ne constitue donc pas une
violation du paragraphe 1 de l'articleX du traité de 1955 par l'Iran.
51. Par contre, les attaques lancées par l'Iran contre les navires faisant
du commerce entre les Parties, à l'aide de mines ou à partir d'aéronefs ou

de vedettes, ont bel et bien empêchéces navires de naviguer librement et
en toute sécurité dans le Golfe. Ils devaient naviguer de manière à
contourner les zones dans lesquelles la présence de mines avait étédécou-
verte ou était suspectée, et étaient ainsi obligés d'emprunter des itiné-
raires indirects plus longs et donc plus coûteux. En outre, ils se mirent à
naviguer de nuit pour des raisons de sécurité. Ainsi, en créant des condi-
tions trop dangereuses pour que la navigation puisse se faire de jour,
l'Iran a aussi entravé la liberté de navigation des Etats-Unis.
52. En ce qui concerne ensuite la liberté de commerce, il est difficile de

mesurer les incidences qu'une certaine mesure ou action hostile a sur cette
liberté. De nombreux éléments incitent néanmoins à conclure que les
actions de l'Iran ont entravé la liberté de commerce entre les deux pays
qui était garantie par le paragraphe 1 de l'articleX du traité de 1955. Per-
mettez-moi d'énumérer ces éléments.
53. Tout d'abord, en ce qui concerne le mouillage des mines, la Cour a
déclarédans l'affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicara-

gua et contre celui-ci que, lorsque le droit d'accès à un port «est gêné par
le mouillage de mines, il en résulte une atteinte à la liberté des commu-
nications et du commerce maritime)) 59. Dans notre espèce, comme je l'ai
montré plus haut, le dossier montre que l'Iran avait à maintes reprises
posé des mines pour perturber la navigation neutre dans le Golfe, c'est-
à-dire nécessairement aussi la navigation entre l'Iran et les Etats-Unis.
Ainsi, par ces activités de mouillage de mines, l'Iran a manifestement
porté atteinte à la liberté de commerce protégée par le paragraphe 1 de

l'articleX, ou, pour reprendre les termes de la Cour dans l'arrêtNicara-
gua, il a agi en ((contradiction manifeste)) 60 avec les dispositions du traité
de 1955 garantissant la liberté de commerce.

59Activités militaires et paramilitaireNicaragua et contre celui-(Nicaragua c.
Et60Ibid., p. 139 et suiv., par. 278..J. Recueil 1986, p. 128 et suiv., par. 253.

192 54. The Iranian activities also led to an increase in labour costs. In
general, wages of crew members had to be raised in order to reflect the
increasingly dangerous sailing conditions in the Gulf. As travelling by
daylight became more dangerous, ships began travelling at night to avoid

attacks by Iranian helicopters, etc., resulting in a further increase of crew
members' wages61 .For instance, Chevron, an American oil Company
whose tankers transported crude oil from the Gulf to the United States
during the Tanker War62,

"gave each crewmember the option of disembarking before his or
her ship entered the Gulf. . .Virtually al1 crewmembers stayed with
their vessels, and they received a 100 percent pay bonus during the

time that they were in the

55. Further, because of the war raging between the two countries,

insurance premiums related to commerce in the Gulf also increased. For
instance, two days following the Texaco Caribbean incident, Lloyd's
underwriters in London decided to impose an immediately effective war-
risk premium charge equivalent to 0.125 per cent of the insured value of
the vessels' hull for ships visiting the United Arab Emirates ports before

entering the At the time, most shipping insurance policies did not
include damage caused by military hostilities in war zones, and com-
panies were compelled to purchase additional insurance policies covering
the risks the ships now faced in the These extra costs contributed
to making shipping between the countries of the Gulf (including Iran)
and the United States more e~pensive~~.

56. Iran dismissed this argument by saying that such costs are

61 "Our routing obviously cost KOTC considerable time and money. The day spent
waiting in Jubayl was an extra day of war zonebonuses to the crews and war risk
premiums, since war risk premiums had to be paid for the whole period the vesse1
was within the Arabian Gulf. . ."(CMUS, Exhibit 31, p. 3, para. 8; see also ibid.,
para. 6.)

62 Rejoinder of the United States (RUS),Exhibit 180, p. 1, paras. 1-3.
63 Ibid., para. 7.
64 CMUS, Exhibit 52.

65 RUS, Exhibit 180, p. 2, para. 8; see also CMUS, Exhibit 7.

66 It is instructive that in the Nicaragua case the Court also noted that the explosion of
mines created "risks causing a rise in marine insurarates" (I. C.J, Reports 1986, p. 48,
para. 80).Later, the Court stated again that "Nicaraguaclaim is justified not only asto
the physicaldamage to its vessels, but also the consequendamage to its trade and corn-
merce" (ibid., p. 139, para. 278). 54. Les activités iraniennes ont aussi entraîné un accroissement des
coûts de main-d'Œuvre. De manière générale, la rémunération des

membres d'équipage a dû êtreaugmentée compte tenu des conditions de na-
vigation de plus en plus dangereuses dans le Golfe. La navigation dejour
devenant dangereuse, les navires commencèrent à naviguer de nuit pour
éviter les attaques des hélicoptères iraniens, etc., ce qui a entraîné une
nouvelle hausse de la rémunération de 1'équipage6l. C'est ainsi que la

Chevron, société pétrolière américaine dont les pétroliers transportaient
du pétrole brut entre le Golfe et les Etats-Unis pendant la guerre des
pétroliers, 62 avait donné à

«tous les employés ... le droit de débarquer avant que leur navire
n'entre dans le Golfe ... Dans la pratique, la quasi-totalité des
membres d'équipage de la compagnie restaient à bord et touchaient
alors une prime correspondant à 100%de leur salaire pendant tout

leur séjour dans le Golfe. »63
55. En outre, à cause de la guerre qui faisait rage entre les deux pays,

les primes des assurances relatives au commerce dans le Golfe augmen-
tèrent aussi. Par exemple, deux jours après l'incident du Texaco Carib-
bean, le Lloyd's de Londres décida d'imposer une surprime immédiate
pour risque de guerre équivalant à 0,125% de la valeur assurée de la
coque des navires pour les navires mouillant dans les ports des Emirats

arabes unis avant d'entrer dans le Golfe64. A l'époque, la plupart des
polices d'assurance maritime ne couvraient pas les dommages causés par
les hostilités militaires dans les zones de guerre, et les compagnies étaient
obligées de contracter des polices complémentaires couvrant le risque que
couraient alors leurs navires dans le Golfe65. Ces frais supplémentaires

contribuaient à augmenter le coût de la navigation entre les pays du
Golfe (y compris l'Iran) et les Etats-Uni~~~.
56. L'Iran a rejeté cet argument en disant que ce type de dépenses

61 «Ces itinéraires coûtaientévidemment du temps et de l'argent à la KOTC. Une
journée supplémentaire à Al Jubayl signifiait une journée supplémentairde prime
pour risque de guerre à verser aux équipages; cela augmentait aussi la surprime
d'assurance pour risque de guerre, qui devait êtrepayée pour la totalité du séjour du
navire dans le golfe Persique..» (Contre-mémoire et demande reconventionnelle
présentés par les Etats-Unisd'Amérique, pièce 31, p. 3, par. 8; voir aussi ibid.,
par. 6.)
62 Duplique des Etats-Unis,pièce 180, p. 1, par. 1-3.
63 Ibid., par. 7.
64 Contre-mémoire et demande reconventionnelle présentés par les Etats-Unis
d'Amérique, annexe 52.
65 Duplique des Etats-Unis, annexe 180, p. 2, par. 8; voir aussi contre-mémoire et
demande reconventionnelle présentés par les Etats-Unis d'Amérique, annexe7.
66 Il est intéressant que, dans l'affaire Nicarala Cour ait aussi relevé que l'explo-
sion des mines avait((créédes risques ayant entraîné la hausse des taux d'assurance mari-
time » (C.I. J. Recueil 1986, p. 48, par. 80). Plus loin, la Cour a redit: «la demdude
Nicaragua est justifiée non seulement par les dommages matériels subis par ses navires,
mais aussi par les pertes économiquesqui en sont résultées pour son commerce)) (ibid.,
p. 139, par. 278).unrecoverable under international la^^^, Whether or not there is merit
to this claim is irrelevant in the present context. What is relevant, how-
ever, is that the increased cost of commerce constituted an impediment to
the freedom of such commerce between the two Parties.
57. In addition, Iran argued that evidence relating to ships travelling
to and from Kuwait and Saudi Arabia is "strictly irrelevant to any claim

based on Article X (1) of the 1955 Treat~"~~. This argument is to be dis-
missed since such evidence is indicative of the conditions - military, eco-
nomic, etc. - prevailing in the Persian Gulf at the time for al1its "users".
The fact that commercial shipping to and from Kuwait was disturbed
reflects a wider, more general context in which shipping in the Gulf was
made more dangerous and thus more costly. Since al1 ships took similar
routes within the Gulf, the conditions affecting commercial shipping

between the United States and Iran also affected shipping between the
United States and Kuwait or Saudi Arabia. As the Court stated in the
case concerning Military and Pararnilitary Activities in and against
Nicaragua,

"it is clear that interference with a right of access to the ports of
Nicaragua is likely to have an adverse effect on Nicaragua's economy
and its trading relations with any State whose vessels enjoy the right
of access to its ports" 69.

58. To finally mention some other financial impact of Iran's actions
on commercial shipping between Iran and the United States, before
entering the Gulf, tankers had to remove any oil remaining on board for
fear of dangerous explosions that could occur if a ship carrying oil

struck a mine or was hit by a missile. The cost of such measures was
$50,000 for each voyage in the Gulf70. Further, ships travelling through
the Gulf had to sail at faster speed (17 knots instead of 12-14 knots),
resulting in significant penalties and, incidentally, higher navigational
risks71. In addition, while the passage through the Gulf was normally
made without stopping, many vessels actually stopped twice en route to

avoid a daylight passage and to allow management to assess the poten-
tial for attack. As a result, passage through the Gulf was longer, and
thus more expensive for shipping companies. Chevron, for instance,
incurred as much as $40,000 a day in additional operating costs while
ships were stranded in the Gulf, a loss to which had to be added the

67CR 2003114, p. 61, paras. 41-43.
RI, Vol. 1, p. 220, para. 11.5.

69 Military and Paramilitary Activitin and against Nicaragua(Nicaragua v. United
States of Americaj,Merits, Judgment, 1C.J. Reports 1986, p. 129, para. 253; emphasis
added.
70 RUS, Exhibit 180, para. 11.
71Ibid., para. 14. PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.IND.SIMMA) 351

n'était pas susceptible de réparation en droit internati~nal~~. Que cet
argument soit fondé ou non, cela n'est pas pertinent dans le présent
contexte. Ce qui l'est, en revanche, c'est que l'augmentation des coûts du
commerce a entravé la liberté de ce commerce entre les deux Parties.

57. En outre, l'Iran a fait valoir que les élémentsde preuve concernant
les navires naviguant à destination ou en provenance du Koweït ou de
l'Arabie saoudite étaient «sans pertinence aucune s'agissant d'une
demande fondée sur le paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité de 1955~~~.
Cet argument doit être écarté, puisque ces élémentsde preuve montrent
les conditions - militaires, économiques, et autres - qui régnaient dans

le golfe Persique pour tous les «usagers». Le fait que la navigation com-
merciale à destination ou en provenance du Koweït était perturbée est le
reflet d'un contexte plus large et plus général dans lequel la navigation
dans le Golfe était rendue plus dangereuse et donc plus coûteuse. Puisque
tous les navires suivaient des itinéraires semblables dans le Golfe, les
conditions de la navigation commerciale entre les Etats-Unis et l'Iran

étaient aussi celles de la navigation entre les Etats-Unis et le Koweït ou
l'Arabie saoudite. Comme la Cour l'a déclarédans l'affaire des Activités
militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci,

«il est cependant clair que les entraves au droit de libre accès aux
ports du Nicaragua sont de nature à affecter l'économie de ce pays et
ses relations de commerce avec tout Etat dont les navires ont un droit
d'accès à ses ports ». 69

58. Voyons pour finir quelques autres incidences financières qu'ont
eues les actions de l'Iran sur la navigation commerciale entre l'Iran et les
Etats-Unis: avant d'entrer dans le Golfe, les pétroliers devaient se débar-
rasser de tous leurs résidus de pétrole à bord par crainte des dangereuses
explosions qui risquaient de se produire si un navire transportant du
pétrole heurtait une mine ou était touché par un missile. Le coût de ces

mesures était d'environ 50000 dollars pour chaque voyage dans
le Golfe70. En outre, les navires passant dans le Golfe devaient naviguer
plus rapidement (17 nŒuds au lieu de 12-14 nŒuds), ce qui les pénalisait
lourdement et, incidemment,rendait la navigation plus dangereuse 71.En
outre, alors que, en temps normal, la traversée du Golfe se faisait sans
escale, de nombreux navires devaient souvent s'arrêter deux fois en cours

de route, pour éviter de naviguer de jour et permettre à la direction
d'apprécier les risques d'attaque. En conséquence, la traversée du Golfe
était plus longue et donc plus coûteuse pour les compagnies maritimes.

67CR 2003114, p. 61, par. 41-43.
68Réplique et réponse à la demande reconventionnelle présentéepar la République
islamique d'Iran, p. 220, par. 11.5.
69Activités militaires et paramilitaireNicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c.
Etats-Unis d'Amérique),fond,arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 129, par. ;les italiques
sont de moi.
71Ibid., par. 14., par. 11.amount of capital (oil barrels) tied up on board (as high as $50,000,000
for a very large crude oil carrier)72. Other costs included escort protec-
tion for ships to help them avoiding striking mines73.

C. Conclusions

59. By laying mines without warning commercial ships, by not notify-
ing neutral ships of the presence of mines, and by harassing commercial
shipping of al1 nationalities in the Persian Gulf also in other ways, Iran
created dangerous and more onerous conditions for commercial shipping
also between the two Parties74. As 1 have emphasized at the outset, the

state of war between Iran and Iraq did not provide Iran with a general
justification for its hostile activities because these were, for the greatest
part, in violation of the laws of war and neutrality. Therefore, Iran ought
to have been found in violation of its obligations under the 1955 Treaty,
and the generic counter-claim of the United States should have been
upheld.

60. To emphasize once again: in order to reach this conclusion, we
need not look at each of the specific incidents described by the United
States independently, or prove that each of these incidents is attributable
to Iran. In fact, doing so would be inappropriate in the context of a
generic claim. As long as it is clear that, during the Tanker War, Iran and
Iraq were both engaging in actions detrimental to neutral commercial

shipping in the Gulf (including, of course, commercial shipping between
Iran and the United State~)~~, the particular extent to which Iran was
responsible for these actions need not be determined with precision. It is
sufficient to establish that Iran, because of the Iran-Iraq war, was respon-
sible for a significant portion of those actions, and that such actions
impaired the freedom of commerce between the United States and Iran

guaranteed by the 1955 Treaty in ways not justifiable simply because of
the existence of a state of war.

72 RUS, Exhibit 180, para. 15.
73 Ibid., para. 16. For Chevron, such protection amountedup to $40,000 a day.
74CMUS, p. 160. While 1 believe that Iran's actions were inconsistent with Article X of
the 1955 Treaty, it is not my view that such actions reached the level of an "armed attack"
against the United States in the meaning of Article 51 of the United Nations Charter.
There is thus no inconsistency between what 1 conclude here and what 1 have said on
ArticleXX of the 1955 Treaty (see the respective sectioof the present opinion).
75In this regardcf. paragraph 44 of the Judgment:

"the Court notes that it is not disputed between the Partthat neutral shipping in
the Persian Gulf was caused considerablinconvenience and Ioss, and grave damage,
during the Iran-Iraqwar. It notes also that this was to a great extent due to the
presence of minesand minefields laidby both sides."Ainsi, la Chevron dépensaitjusqu'à 40 000 dollars par jour en frais sup-
plémentaires pendant que les navires étaient bloqués dans le Golfe, perte
à laquelle il fallait ajouter le coût du capital investi (barils de pétrole)

immobilisé à bord (jusqu'à 50 millions de dollars pour un superpétro-
lier)72. D'autres coûts venaient encore s'ajouter à ceux-là, notamment le
coût des escortes qui aidaient les navires à éviter les mines73.

C. Conclusions

59. En posant des mines sansen avertir les navires commerciaux, en ne
notifiant pas la présence des mines aux navires neutres et en harcelant de

diverses façons les navires commerciaux de toutes les nationalités dans le
golfe Persique, l'Iran a créédes conditions dangereuseset plus onéreuses
pour la navigation commerciale entre les Parties74. Comme je l'ai souli-
gné en commençant, l'état de guerre entre l'Iran et l'Iraq ne justifiait pas
de manière généraleles activités hostiles de l'Iran parce que celles-ci, dans

leur grande majorité, constituaient une violation du droit de la guerre et
de la neutralité. En conséquence, la Cour aurait dû conclure que l'Iran
avait violé ses obligations découlant du traité de 1955 et faire droit à la
demande reconventionnelle générale des Etats-Unis.
60. Je le répète: pour parvenir à cette conclusion, nous n'avons pas

besoin d'examiner l'un après l'autre chacun des incidents spécifiques
décrits par les Etats-Unis, ni de prouver que chacun de ces incidents était
imputable à l'Iran. Cela serait en fait inapproprié dans le cadre d'une
demande de caractère général. Tant qu'il est clair que, pendant la guerre
des pétroliers, l'Iran et l'Iraq menaient l'un et l'autre des actions nuisant

à la navigation commerciale dans le Golfe (y compris, bien sûr, à la navi-
gation commerciale entre l'Iran et les Etats-Unis) 75,il n'est pas nécessaire
de déterminer avec précision dans quelle mesure l'Iran était responsable
de ces actions. Il suffit d'établir que l'Iran, à cause de la guerre Iran-Iraq,
était responsable d'une part importante de ces actions, et que celles-ci
entravaient la liberté de commerce entre les Etats-Unis et l'Iran garantie

par le traité de 1955 d'une façon que ne pouvait justifier la simple exis-
tence d'un état de guerre.

72DEU, annexe 180, par. 15.
73 Ibid .ar. 16.Pour la Chevron,cetteprotectiocoûtait a peu près40 000dollars par jour.
74 Contre-mémoire et demande reconventionnelle présentés par les Etats-Unis
d'Amérique, p. 160. Bien que je considère que les actions de l'Iran étaient contrairàs
l'article X du traité de 1955, ces actions, à mon avis, n'atteignaient le niveau d'une
«agression armée)) contre les Etats-Unis au sens de l'article 51 de la Charte des Nations
Unies. Il n'y a donc pas de contradiction entla conclusion à laquelle j'arrive ici et ce que
j'ai dit sur l'article XX du traité de 1955 (voir la partie pertinente de mon opinion).
75 A cet égard, voir le paragraphe44 de l'arrêt:
«La Cour observe à cet égard qu'il n'est pas contesté par les Parties que, durant la
guerre entre l'Iran et l'Iraq, la navigation neutdans le golfe Persique avait été
considérablement entravée et avait subi des pertes et de graves dommages.Elle re-
lèveégalement que cette situatioétait dans une large mesure le résultat de la présence
de mines et de champs de mines posés par les deux parties au conflit. 61. An obstacle to admitting the United States counter-claim could be
seen in the argument that the acts alleged to have constituted an impedi-
ment to the freedom of commerce and navigation under the Treaty can-
not be attributed to Iran with certainty. Therefore, the argument would

go, it is impossible to find Iran responsible for those acts. I will now pro-
ceed to show how this obstacle may be overcome.

62. One remark is to be made right at the outset: in the present case
the problem of attribution poses itself almost exclusively with regard to
minelaying by the parties to the Gulf war. But as referred to above, in
addition to mine attacks, Iran also carried out attacks by helicopters,
other aircraft and patrol boats, which largely contributed to the unsafe
shipping conditions in the Gulf. Whereas identifying the State respon-
sible for particular minelaying activities is not an easy exercise, identify-
ing the State engaging in attacks by helicopters or patrol boats is much

less difficult. Attribution of responsibility therefore can only be prob-
lematic with respect to minelaying. As for attacks by helicopters, patrol
boats, etc., against ships engaged in commerce between Iran and the
United States, there is hardly any doubt that they were carried out by
Iran. Therefore, when we move away from the mines, so to speak, the
generic counter-claim becomes free of the problem of attribution. Hence,
the following reasoning is in essence devoted to the problem of attribu-
tion of minelaying in the Gulf.

63. As 1 have just demonstrated, attribution of responsibility for such

minelaying activities certainly represents the principal challenge to the
generic counter-claim. Against this challenge militates a sense of fairness.
Yet, the thought that Iran could be held responsible for acts that could
not be attributed to it beyond a certain threshold of proof is also
troubling. The question we face is thus the following: how can we hold
Iran responsible for acts which, even though they did create impediments
to the freedom of commerce and navigation, cannot be attributed to
Iran with certainty?

64. It is common knowledge that the Iran-Iraq war had a destabilizing
effect on the regional economy, including American commerce going

through the Gulf. This destabilizing effect is easily measurable by the
increase in costs for doing commerce in the Gulf, as the evidence dis-
cussed above shows. It is more difficult - if not impossible - to measure
with any exactitude the negative impact of individual Iraqi or Iranian
actions on the economic conditions of commerce, let alone on American
commerce specifically. The damage caused by these actions, i.e. the
impediment to the freedom of commerce and navigation protected by the
1955 Treaty, is indivisible and as such cannot be apportioned between
Iran and Iraq. 61. On pourrait considérer comme un obstacle empêchant d'accueillir
la demande reconventionnelle des Etats-Unis le fait que les actes qui
avaient prétendument constitué une entrave à la liberté de commerce et
de navigation prévue par le traité ne peuvent pas être imputés de façon
certaine à l'Iran. En conséquence, pourrait-on alors faire valoir, il est
impossible de rendre l'Iran responsable de ces actes. Je vais maintenant
entreprendre de montrer comment cet obstacle peut êtresurmonté.
62. Une remarque s'impose d'emblée: en l'espèce, le problème de
l'imputabilité se pose presque exclusivement en ce qui concerne le
mouillage de mines par les belligérants de la guerre du Golfe. Mais,
comme on l'a vu plus haut, outre les mines, l'Iran a aussi utilisé des aé-
ronefs, notamment des hélicoptères, et des vedettes pour mener des at-
taques qui ont beaucoup contribué à l'insécuritéde la navigation dans le
Golfe. Et, s'il n'est pas facile d'identifier 1'Etat responsable d'avoiposé
telle ou telle mine, il est beaucoup plus facile d'identifier'Etat qui lance
des attaques avec des hélicoptères ou des vedettes. L'attribution de la res-
ponsabilité ne pose donc de problèmes que pour le mouillage des mines.
Pour ce qui est des attaques avec des hélicoptères, vedettes, etc., contre
des navires participant au commerce entre l'Iran et les Etats-Unis, il ne
fait pour ainsidire aucun doute qu'elles étaient le fait de l'Iran. En consé-
quence, lorsque nous laissons de côté les mines, la demande reconven-
tionnelle généralene soulève plus de problème d'attribution de la respon-
sabilité. C'est pourquoi le raisonnement qui suit sera essentiellement
consacré au problème de la responsabilité du mouillage des mines dans le
Golfe.
63. Comme je viens de le démontrer, la difficulté d'attribuer la respon-
sabilité de ces activités de mouillage de mines constitue certainement le
principal obstacle à la demande reconventionnelle générale, obstacle
auquel le sens de l'équitéincite àpasser outre. En mêmetemps, l'idéeque
l'Iran pourrait être tenu pour responsable d'actes qui ne pourraient pas
lui être imputésavec un degré suffisant de certitude est aussi gênante. La
question qui se pose à nous est donc la suivante: Comment pouvons-
nous considérer l'Iran comme responsabled'actes qui, s'ils ont bien cons-
titué une entrave à la liberté de commerce et de navigation, ne peuvent
pas être imputés de façon certaine à l'Iran?
64. Chacun sait que la guerre Iran-Iraq a eu un effet déstabilisant sur
l'économie dela région, y compris sur le commerce américainpassant par
le Golfe. Cet effet déstabilisant se mesure facilement àl'accroissement des
coûts liésau commerce dans le Golfe, comme le montrent les élémentsde
preuve que nous avons examinés ci-dessus. Il est plus difficile- sinon
impossible - de mesurer de manière quelque peu exacte les incidences

négatives qu'ont eues telle ou telle action de l'Iraq ou de l'Iran sur les
conditions économiques du commerce, et encoremoins sur celles du com-
merce américain spécifiquement. Le dommage causé par ces actions,
c'est-à-dire l'entraveà la liberté de commerce et de navigation protégée
par le traité de 1955, est indivisible, c'est-à-dire qu'il estimpossible de
déterminer quelle part est due à l'Iran et quelle part à l'Iraq. 65. Responsibility, however, is another matter. It is clear that a series

of actions taken by each party to the war necessarily disturbed the eco-
nomic environment (even if unintentionally). But what conclusion is to
be drawn from this? Should we hold both States equally responsible for
the impediments caused to commerce and navigation? Or can neither of
the two States be held responsible because it is impossible to determine
precisely who did what?

66. In order to find a solution to our dilemma, 1have engaged in some
research in comparative law to see whether anything resembling a "gen-

eral principle of law" within the meaning of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c),
of the Statute of the Court can be developed from solutions arrived at in
domestic law to come to terms with the problem of multiple tortfeasors.
1 submit that we find ourselves here in what 1 would cal1 a textbook
situation calling for such an exercise in legal analogy. To state its
result forthwith: research into various common law jurisdictions as
well as French, Swiss and Gerrnan tort law indicates that the question
has been taken up and solved by these legal systems with a consistency

that is striking.
67. To begin with common law jurisprudence, in a well-known case
heard by the Supreme Court of Calif~rnia~~, the plaintiff sued two
defendants for injury to his right eye and face as a result of having been
struck by birdshot discharged from a shotgun while the two defendants
had been hunting in an open range. It was admitted that both defendants
had fired at a quail, and that one piece of birdshot had hit the plaintiffs
eye and another his lip. However, there was no means of determining

which injury had been caused by which defendant.The defendants argued
that they were not joint tortfeasors because they had not been acting in
concert, and that there was not sufficient evidence to show which of the
two was guilty of the negligence that caused the injuries77.

The trial court had determined that "the negligence of both defendants
was the legal cause of the injury - or that both were responsible" 78,even
though "the court was unable to ascertain whether the shots were from

the gun of one defendant or the other or one shot from each of them" 79.
The California Supreme Court went on to quote Dean Wigmore, a
United States authority on tort law:

"When two or more persons by their acts are possibly the sole
cause of a harm . .. and the plaintiff has introduced evidence that
the one of the two persons .. .is culpable, then the defendant has the

76Summe~s v. Tice ,3 Cal.2d 80 (1948).
77Ibid.p, 83.
78Ibid.p, 84.
79Ibid. PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND. SIMMA) 354

65. La responsabilité, cependant, est une autre affaire. Il est clair
qu'une série d'actions menées par chacun des belligérants a nécessaire-
ment perturbé l'environnement économique (mêmesi cela n'était pas leur

intention). Mais quelle conclusion faut-il en tirer? Devons-nous considé-
rer les deux Etats comme également responsables de l'entrave au com-
merce et à la navigation? Ou bien ne peut-on les considérer ni l'un ni
l'autre comme responsables,parce qu'il est impossible de déterminer pré-
cisément ce que chacun a fait?
66. Pour trouver une solution à notre problème, je me suis livré à une
petite étude de droit comparé pour voir s'il est possible de dégager une
espèce de ((principe généralde droit» au sens de l'alinéa c) du para-
graphe 1 de l'article 38 du Statut de la Cour à partir des solutions qui ont
étéapportées par différents systèmes de droit interne au problème du
concours de responsabilités. Selon moi, nous nous trouvons ici face à un
cas d'école qui justifie ce type d'exercice. Pour donner la réponse sans

attendre : l'examen des décisions de diverses juridictions de common law,
ainsi que du droit français, suisse et allemand de la responsabilité montre
que la question a étéexaminée et résolue dans ces systèmes de droit avec
une constance frappante.
67. Commençons par la jurisprudence de la common law : dans une
affaire célèbrejugée par la Cour suprême de Californie 76,le demandeur
avait assigné les deux défendeurs pour les blessures que lui avait causées
au visage et à l'Œildroit une décharge de plombs tiréealors que les deux
défendeursétaient en train de chasser. Il était reconnu que les défendeurs
avaient tous les deux tiré sur une caille, et qu'un plomb avait touché le
demandeur à l'Œil et un autre à la lèvre. Il n'y avait cependant aucun
moyen de déterminer quel défendeur était à l'origine de quelle blessure.

Les défendeurs soutenaient qu'ils n'étaient pas coresponsables puisqu'ils
n'avaient pas agi de concert et qu'il n'y avait pas d'éléments suffisants
pour établir lequel des deux était coupable de la négligence qui avait
causé les blessures 77.
Le tribunal de première instance avait jugé que ((la négligence des deux
défendeursétaitjuridiquement la cause de la blessure - et que tous deux
étaient responsables»78, même si «le tribunal n'était pas en mesure de
déterminer si les coups provenaient du fusil d'un défendeur ou de l'autre,
ou des deux à la fois»79. La Cour suprême de Californie, citant le doyen
Wigmore, qui faisait autorité en matière de droit de la responsabilité aux
Etats-Unis, déclara :

((Lorsque plusieurs personnes par leurs actes peuvent êtrela cause
unique d'un dommage ...et que le demandeur a rapporté la preuve
que l'une de ces personnes ...a commis une faute, il appartient au

76Summers c.Tice, 33 Cal. 2d 80 (1948).
77Ibid.p,. 83.
78Ibid.p. 84.
79Ibid.p. 84. burden of proving that the other person . .. was the sole cause of the
harm. The real reason for the rule that each joint tortfeasor is
responsible for the whole damage is the practical unfairness of deny-
ing the injured person redress simply because he cannot prove how
much damage each did, when it is certain that between them they did

all." 80

As a matter of fairness to the plaintiff, the court then reversed the

burden of proof: each defendant had to prove that he had not caused the
injury. Since such proof could not be put forward, the court held both
defendants liable. The court dismissed the defendants' argument that
causation was lacking between their acts and the plaintiff's damagesl.
Most importantly, the court also dismissed the argument that the plain-
tiff should establish the portion of the damage caused by each tortfeasor

in cases where there is a plurality of tortfeasors and where the damage
cannot be apportioned among thems2.

68. This solution, which has since been embodied in the Restatement
of Tortss3, is interesting in many ways. On the one hand, it recognizes the
difficulty of a finding of responsibility where apportionment is impos-
sible. On the other hand, it excludes as unfair a solution in which no one

would be held responsible. Finally, this provides an answer by shifting
the burden of proof on to each defendant. The solution provides the
wrongdoer a way out - acknowledging the peculiarity of a situation
where facts cannot be ascertained with certainty -, while at the same
time ensuring the plaintiff recovery for his injury if the defendant fails to
show his innocence.

69. The same solution was adopted by Canadian courts in Cook v.
Lewiss4. According to Markesinis and Deakin, English courts faced with
the question of multiple tortfeasors are likely to take a similar approach 85.

70. In French law, too, multiple tortfeasors (irrespective of whether

they are acting in concert) causing an indivisible damage are each respon-
sible for the entirety of such damage. Each tortfeasor is considered as
having caused the entire prejudice to the victim, who can recover in full

*O Summers v. Tice, 33 Cal. 2d 80 (1948), p. 85.
*l Ibid., p. 87.
82 Ibid., p. 88.
83 Rest. 2d Torts, s. 433B, subsec. (3).
s4 119511SCR 830. On Canadian law, see also Jean-Louis Baudoin,La responsabilité
civiledélictuelle, 1973, p. 164, para. 235.

s5 Markesinis and Deakin, Tort Laiv, 4th ed., 1999, p. 185. défendeur de prouver que l'autre personne ...était seule auteur du
dommage. La véritable raison de la règle selon laquelle chaquecoau-
teur est responsable de l'intégralité du dommage est l'injustice qu'il y
aurait en pratique à refuser réparation à la victime seulement parce
qu'elle ne peut pas prouver quelle part du préjudice a été causéepar

chaque coauteur, alors qu'il est certain qu'ensemble ils ont causé le
préjudice tout entier. nS0
Par souci de justice à l'égard du demandeur, la Cour renversa alors la

charge de la preuve, demandant à chaque défendeur de prouver qu'il
n'avait pas causé le préjudice. Cette preuve ne pouvant êtrerapportée, la
Cour conclut à la responsabilité de l'un et de l'autre, et rejeta l'argument
des défendeurs selon lequel il n'avait pas été établi de lien de causalité
entre leurs actes et le préjudice du demandeurs1. Mais surtout, elle rejeta
aussi l'argument selon lequel le demandeur doit établir quelle part du

dommage a étécausée par chaque coauteur lorsqu'un dommage a été
causé par plusieurs personnes et qu'il n'est pas possible de déterminer
quelle part du dommage est imputable à chacunes2.
68. Cette solution, qui a été incorporée depuis dans le Restatement of
Tortsg3, est intéressante à de nombreux égards. D'une part, elle reconnaît
la difficultéqu'il y a à attribuer la responsabilité lorsque la part du dom-
mage causée par chaque coauteur est impossible à déterminer. D'autre

part, elle écarte comme injuste la solution dans laquelle aucun des coau-
teurs ne serait tenu pour responsable. Enfin, elle fournit une réponse
consistant à faire peser sur chaque défendeur la charge de la preuve.
Cette solution offre une porte de sortie à l'auteur du dommage - en
reconnaissant les particularités de la situation dans laquelle les faits ne
peuvent être établisavec certitude -, tout en garantissant à la victime la
réparation de son préjudice si le défendeur ne peut pas prouver son inno-

cence.
69. Cette même solution a été adoptée par les tribunaux canadiens
dans l'affaire Cook c. Lewiss4. Et selon Markesinis et Deakin, les tribu-
naux anglais, devant la question du concours de responsabilités, adopte-
ront vraisemblablement la mêmeapproches5.
70. En droit français aussi, lorsque plusieurs personnes (agissant ou
non de concert) ont produit un dommage indivisible, chacune est res-

ponsable pour le tout. Chaque coauteur est considéré comme étant la
cause de tout le dommage et la victime peut en réclamer la réparation

80 Summers c. Tice, 33 Cal. 2d 80 (1948), p. 85.
Ibid.,p. 87.
82Ibid.,p. 88.
83 Rest. 2d Torts, S. 433B, subsec. (3).
84 Cook C.Lewis [1951], Recueil des arrêtsde la Cour suprême du Canada, 830. Sur le
droit canadien, voir aussi Jean-Louis Baudoin,a responsabilité civile délictuelle, 1973,
p. 164, par. 235.
85 Markesinis et Deakin, Tort Law, 4e éd., 1999, p. 185.from any of themS6. In any event, when French courts dealt with this
question in the past, they typically discussed the extent of each tort-
feasor's responsibility (partial or total) rather than responsibility as such.
When unable to hold each defendant liable on the basis of a specific dam-
age, French courts resorted to interpretations such as "collective breach

of duty" or "collective duty to look after the object which caused the
damage" even when tortfeasors had evidently not been acting with a
common motive, merely out of fairness for the injured plaintiffS7. In fact,
this solution had already been adopted in Roman law in the form of the
cause of action concerning "effusis et dejectis" (things spilled or thrown
out): whenever someone was injured by an object that had fallen from

the unidentified window of an apartment building, al1 residents of such
building were considered liable for the damage causeds8.

71. The same principles can be found in Swiss law, where Article 51 of

the Code des Obligations states that, when multiple tortfeasors acting
independently of each other cause a damage that cannot be divided
among them, any of the tortfeasors can be held responsible in full - just
like in the case of tortfeasors acting in concerts9. A commentary reads as
follows :

"Whether the unlawful acts have been committed by a number of
persons knowingly acting in concert (Art. 50, 'solidaritéparfaite . ..'),
or acting independently of each other, and even where liability is

based on different legal grounds (Art. 51, 'solidarité imparfaite'),
the injured party enjoys an entitlement to concurrent claims, with-
out being concerned by any relationship between the joint tort-
feasors; he can only make a single claim to reparation, but each tort-
feasor will be liable towards him in respect of that claim as a whole
and, if he so wishes, the action need only be brought against any one

tortfeasor." 90
72. The way, finally, in which German tort law addresses our issue is

tuelle et contractuelle, Vol. II, 6th ed., 1970, p. 1078, para. 1952; see also Boris Starck,
Henri Roland and Laurent Boyer, Obligations: 1. Responsabilité délictuelle, 5th ed.,
1996, p. 468, para. 1142; René Rodière,La responsabilité délictuelle dans lajurisprudence
(1978), pp. 346-348, para. 119. In particular, Rodireproduces a decision of the Cour de
Cassation dating from 1892, which, as he notes, has been consistently followbyvarious
jurisdictionsand approved by doctrine (Civ. 11juillet 1892).
87Boris Starck et al. (ibid.), p. 454, para. 1102.
8s Ibid., p. 455, para. 1104.
89Georges Scyboz and Pierre-Robert Gilliéron, Code civil suisse et Code des Obliga-
tions annotés,5th ed., 1993; see also Danielle Gauthey Ladner, Solidarité et consorité en
matière délictuelle en droit suisse et américain, en particulier new-yorkai2002, p. 57,
para. 2.5, and p. 70, para. 4.
90Georges Scyboz and Pierre-Robert Gilliéron, op. cit., commentary on Articles 50 and
51. [Translation by the Registry.] PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP. IND.SIMMA) 356

intégrale à n'importe lequel d'entre eux86. De toute façon, lorsque les

tribunaux français ont eu à régler cette question dans le passé, ils ont
normalement examiné l'étendue de la responsabilité (partielle ou totale)
de chaque coauteur, et non pas la responsabilité en tant que telle.
Lorsqu'ils ne pouvaient pas attribuer à chacun la responsabilité d'un
dommage particulier, ils ont fait appel à des notions comme celles de
((violation collective d'une obligation » ou ((d'obligation collective de
garde)) à l'égard de la chose qui avait causé le dommage, mêmelorsque
les coauteurs n'avaient manifestement pas agi de manière concertée, sim-

plement par souci de justice pour la victime87. En fait, cette solution
avait déjà étéadoptée en droit romain sous la forme de l'action effusis et
dejectis (action concernant les choses versées ou jetées): lorsque
quelqu'un avait été blessépar un objet tombant d'une fenêtre non iden-
tifiéed'un immeuble, tous les habitants de cet immeuble étaient considé-
réscomme responsables du dommage88.
71. On retrouve les mêmes principes en droit suisse: l'article 51 du
Code des obligations dispose que, lorsque plusieurs personnes agissant

indépendamment l'une de l'autre causent un dommage dont il n'est pas
possible d'attribuer à chacune sa part, chacun des coauteurs peut être
rendu responsable du tout - exactement comme dans le cas d'actes illi-
cites commis de concert 89.Un commentateur s'exprime ainsi :

«Qu'il s'agisse d'actes illicites commis consciemment en commun
(art. 50, solidaritéparfaite.. .)ou indépendamment l'un de l'autre, ou
encore de responsabilitésen vertu de causes différentes (art. 51, soli-
darité imparfaite), la victime jouit d'un concours d'actions et le rap-
port interne entre les coresponsables ne la concerne pas; elle ne sau-
rait prétendre qu'une fois à la réparation, mais envers elle chacun
répond en entier d'une dette autonome et elle peut ne rechercher
qu'une personne, à son choix. » 90

72. Enfin, la solution que le droit allemand de la responsabilité délic-

86 H., L. et J. Mazeaud, Traité théorique et pratique de la responsabilité civile délic-
tuelle et contractuelle, vol. II, 6" éd., 1970, p. 1078, par. 1952; voir aussi Boris Starck,
Henri Roland et Laurent Boyer, Obligations: 1. Responsabilité délictuelle, 5"éd., 1996,
p. 468, par. 1142; René Rodière, responsabilité délictuelle dans lajurisprudence, 1978,
p. 346-348, par. 119. Rodièreen particulier reproduit une décision de la Cour de cassation
datant de 1892 qui, note-t-il, constamment suivie par diversesjuridictions et approu-
véepar la doctrine (Civ.l juillet 1892).
88Ibid., p. 455, par. 1104.., p. 454, par. 1102.
89Georges Scyboz et Pierre-Robert Gilliéron, Code civil suisse et Code des obligations
annotés,5' éd., 1993; voir aussi Danielle Gauthey Ladner, Solidarité et consorité en ma-
tière délictuelle en droit suisse et américain, en particnew-yorkais,2002, p. 57,
par. 2.5, et p. 70, par. 4.
90Georges Scyboz et Pierre-Robert Gilliéron, op. cit., commentaire des articles 50
et 51.virtually identical with the domestic solutions hitherto outlined. The
pertinent provision of the German Civil Code (BürgerlichesGesetzbuch),
$830, reads as follows :

"1. If several persons through a jointly committed delict have
caused damage, each is responsible for the damage. The same applies
if it cannot be discovered which of several participants has caused
the damage through his action.

2. Instigators and accomplices are in the same position as joint
actors."

The first sentence of $830, paragraph 1, is not relevant to our case
because it presupposes the pursuance of a common design by the tort-
feasors. The same is valid regarding the provision's paragraph 2. However,
the rule contained in the second sentence of 5830, paragraph 1, is to the
point: its function is precisely to spare the victim the difficult, indeed

impossible, task of proving which one of several tortfeasors actually
caused the damage. The rule's applicability depends upon three condi-
tions: first, each of the participants must have engaged in the activity
leading to loss or damage (irrespective of causality); second, one of the
participants must necessarily have caused such loss or damage; but,
third, it is impossible to determine which one of the participants did so,
in whole or in partg1.

73. Elevating the joint-and-several liability doctrine thus described to
the level of international law in the present case would lead to a finding
that Iran is responsible for damages, or impediments, that it did not
directly causeg2. Personally, 1 would find it more objectionable not to
hold Iran liable than to hold Iran liable for the entire damage caused to
the United States as a result of actions taken during the Iran-Iraq war. In

fact, 1 see no objection to holding Iran responsible for the entire damage
even though it did not directly cause it all. Remember that the question
before us is whether Iran can be found in breach of its treaty obligations

91 Palandt-Thomas, 62nd ed., 2003,5 830 BGB Rn 7. For some of the precedents in
German jurisprudence see BGH NJW 1960, 862 (responsibility omultiple tortfeasors for
injuring aperson by throwing stones), and BGH NJW 1994, 932 (responsibility of several
producers of sweetened teafor the so-called "baby bottlsyndrome").
92 AS Markesinis and Deakin point out,
"by treating thecluster of theoreticalapportionable injuries that cannoas a prac-
tical matter be apportionedas though they constituted single indivisible injury, the
law of joint andseveral liability means that each tortfeasor can be made to pay for
more harm that he actually caused"(op. cit.,. 234).

It is interesting to note that the Michigan SupreCourt, in Maddux v. Donaldson (362
Mich. 425, at 433), accepted this not only as an inevitable but also as a just consequence
when division of liability among tortfeasors is impossible. tuelle apporte à la question est pour ainsi dire identique aux solutions
exposéesjusqu'ici. Les dispositions pertinentes, à savoir l'article 830 du
Code civil allemand (Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch) [traduction: Imprimerie
nationale, Paris, 19061, sont ainsi conçues:

«1. Lorsque plusieurs personnes ont causé un dommage par un

fait illicite réaliséen commun, chacune d'elles est responsable du
dommage. Il en est de mêmesi l'on ne peut découvrir lequel,de plu-
sieurs intéressés, a causé le dommage par son fait.
2. Instigateurs et auxiliaires sont assimilés aux coauteurs. ))

La première phrase du paragraphe 1 de l'article 830 n'est pas pertinente

ici parce qu'elle présuppose que les coauteurs poursuivaient un dessein
commun, ce qui est aussi le cas du paragraphe 2. Par contre, la règle
énoncéedans la seconde phrase du paragraphe 1 de l'article 830 est tout
à fait pertinente, puisque sa fonction est précisément d'épargner à la vic-
time la tâche difficile, sinon impossible, de prouver lequel de plusieurs
coauteurs est effectivement à l'origine du dommage. L'applicabilité de

cette règle est subordonnée à trois conditions: il faut, premièrement,
que chacun des participants ait pris part à l'activité qui a entraîné la
perte ou le dommage (indépendamment de la causalité) ; deuxièmement,
que l'un d'eux ait causé cette perte ou ce dommage; troisièmement,
qu'il soit impossible de déterminer lequel l'a fait, en totalité ou en
partie 91.
73. En élevant les règles de la responsabilité in solidum décrites plus

haut au niveau du droit international dans notre espèce, on serait amené
à conclure que l'Iran est responsable des dommages, ou des entraves,
qu'il n'a pas causés directement 92. Personnellement, je trouverais plus cri-
tiquable de ne pas du tout considérer l'Iran comme responsable que de le
considérer comme responsable de tout le dommage causé aux Etats-Unis
en conséquence des actions menées pendant la guerre Iran-Iraq. En fait,

je ne vois pas d'objection à considérer l'Iran comme responsable du dom-
mage tout entier, même s'il ne l'a pas causé directement dans son inté-

91 Palandt-Thomas, 62" éd., 2003, art. 830 BGB Rn 7. Pour quelques exemples de la
jurisprudence allemande, voirBGH NJW 1960, 862 (coresponsabilité poiir des blessures
causées par des jets de pierres), et BNJW 1994, 932 (responsabilité de plusieurpro-
ducteurs de thé sucrépour le«syndrome du biberon))).
92 Comme le soulignent Markesinis et Deakin,
«en traitant l'ensemble des préjudices dont la responsabilité peut être partagée en
théorie, mais ne peut pas l'étre dans la pratique, comme s'ils constituun seul
préjudice indivisible, le droit de la responsabilitéidum signifie que chaque coau-
teur peut être tenu de répaun dommage plus grand que celui qu'il a effectivement
causé», op. cit,. 234.
Il est intéressant de noter que la Cour suprême du Michigan, dans l'affaire Maddux c.
Donaldson (362 Mich. 425, p. 433), a reconnu qucela était non seulementinévitablemais
aussijuste lorsqu'il est impossiblerépartir les responsabilités entre les coauteurs.or not; in the present context 1do not discuss any question of reparation.
This issue would only have arisen at a later stage. With regard to that -

now theoretical - issue and looking back at the range of solutions found
in domestic tort laws, 1find very pertinent the compromise course steered
by the Supreme Court of California in the Sindell v. Abbott Laboratories
case. In that case, the court did not feel compelled to dismiss al1 respon-
sibilityclaims on the ground that some potential defendants were absent 93.
To the contrary, the court, following Summers v. Tice, held each of the
defendants responsible and attempted, to the best it could, to approxi-
mate each defendant's responsibility. The compromise found by the court

to account for the absence of interested parties was to hold the defend-
ants liable only for part of the damage suffered by plaintiff, not for its
entirety (1 will return to the particular problems posed by the absence of
a potential respondent in the present case in the final part of this section).

74. On the basis of the (admittedly modest) study of comparative tort
law thus provided, 1 venture to conclude that the principle of joint-and-
several responsibility common to the jurisdictions that 1 have considered
can properly be regarded as a "general principle of law" within the mean-
ing of Article 38, paragraph 1 (c), of the Court's Statute. 1 submit that
this principle should have been applied in our present case to the effect
that, even though responsibility for the impediment caused to United

States commerce with Iran cannot (and ought not, see infra) be appor-
tioned between Iran and Iraq, Iran should nevertheless have been held in
breach of its treaty obligations.
75. Another authoritative source addressing the issue of a plurality of
responsible States can be found in the Articles on Responsibility of States
for Internationally Wrongful Acts adopted by the International Law
Commission in 2001 94. The ILC's solution is in conformity with the
result of the comparative research 1have just presented. Article 47 states :

"Where several States are responsible for the same internationally wrong-
ful act, the responsibility of each State may be invoked in relation to that
act."
76. In the context of the specific variant of the United States counter-
claim, Article 47 would apply only if both Iran and Iraq were responsible
for a given action - for instance, if Iran had carried out an attack
against a ship engaged in treaty-protected commerce, jointly planning

and CO-ordinating the operation with Iraq. However, in the present case,

93 Sindell v. Abbott Laboratories, 607 P. 2d 924 (1980).
94 See supra footnote19.gralité. Que la Cour se rappelle que la question dont elle est saisie est de
savoir si l'on peut considérer que l'Iran a violé ses obligations conven-
tionnelles ou non; dans ce cadre, je ne parle pas du tout de la question de
la réparation, qui ne se poserait qu'à un stade ultérieur. En ce qui
concerne cette question - devenue théorique - et en examinant les
diverses solutions qui ont été trouvéesen droit interne dans le cadre de la
responsabilité civile délictuelle, je trouve très pertinente la solution de
compromis adoptée par la Cour suprêmede Californie dans l'affaire Sin-
del1 c. Abbott Laboratories. Dans cette affaire, la Cour suprême ne s'est
pas jugée obligée de rejeter toutes les demandes au motif que certains
défendeurs potentiels étaient absents93. Au contraire, suivant en cela le

précédent Summers c. Tice, elle a considéréque chacun des défendeurs
était responsable et essayé de déterminer le plus exactement possible la
responsabilité de chacun. Le compromis qu'elle a trouvé pour tenir
compte de l'absence de certaines parties intéresséesa étéde rendre les
défendeurs responsables d'une partie seulement du préjudice subi par le
demandeur, et non de sa totalité (je reviendrai à la fin de la présente sec-
tion sur les problèmes particuliers que pose l'absence d'un responsable
potentiel dans la présente espèce).
74. Sur la base de cette étude (certes modeste) de droit comparé de la
responsabilité, je me risquerai à conclure que le principe de la responsa-
bilité in solidum commun aux juridictions dont j'ai parlé peut légitime-
ment êtreconsidéré comme un «principe généralde droit)) au sens de
l'alinéa c) du paragraphe 1 de l'article 38 du Statut de la Cour. J'estime
que ce principe aurait dû trouver application dans notre espèce et que,
même sila responsabilité de l'entrave au commerce des Etats-Unis avec

l'Iran ne peut pas (et ne doit pas, voir ci-dessous) êtrepartagée entre
l'Iran et l'Iraq, il aurait néanmoins fallu considérer que l'Iran n'avait pas
respecté ses obligations conventionnelles.
75. Il existe une autre source faisant autorité et traitant de la question
de la pluralité d'Etats responsables: il s'agit des articles sur la responsa-
bilitéde 1'Etat pour fait internationalement illicite, que la Commission du
droit international a adoptés en 200194. La solution de la CD1 est
conforme aux résultats de l'étude de droit comparée que je viens de pré-
senter. L'article 47 dispose :« Lorsque plusieurs Etats sont responsables
du mêmefait internationalement illicite, la responsabilité de chaque Etat
peut être invoquée par rapport à ce fait))
76. Dans le contexte de la demande reconventionnelle spécifique des
Etats-Unis, l'article 47 ne s'appliquerait que si l'Iran et l'Iraq étaient tous
deux responsables d'un acte donné - par exemple, si l'Iran avait mené
une attaque contre un navire se livrant au commerce protégépar le traité
en préparant et en coordonnant l'opération avec l'Iraq. Mais en réalité,

93Sindell c. Abbott Laboratorie607 P. 2d 924 (1980).
94Voir ci-dessus note 19.the reality is such that the two States never acted in concert with respect
to a specific incident, and thus it always was either Iran or Iraq which
was responsible for a given incident. As a result, Article 47, which
requires both States to be responsible for the same internationally wrong-
ful act, cannot be applied to the specific counter-claim.

77. Applied to the generic counter-claim, on the other hand, Article 47
is very helpful. In the context of the generic counter-claim, the "interna-
tionally wrongful act" is constituted by the creation of negative eco-
nomic, political and safety conditions in the Gulf rather than by a specific
incident. The bringing about of this environment, taken as a whole, is
attributable to both States, as it is common knowledge that they both
participated in the worsening of the conditions prevailing in the Gulf at
the time. The difference is clear :unlike the specific claim, where only one
State is responsible for the act of violating international law, the generic

claim falls within the scope of ILC Article 47 because the two States are
responsible for the same act. It is the creation of dangerous conditions
for shipping and doing commerce in the Gulf which constitutes the inter-
nationally wrongful act within the meaning of Article 47.

By application of Article 47 to the generic counter-claim, the United
States could invoke the responsibility of either State, that is, also of Iran,

individually. Thus, in the principle underlying Article 47, and in the
"generic" identification of the internationally wrongful act, lies another
basis on which Iran should have been held in violation of its Treaty obli-
gations and the generic counter-claim upheld by the Court.

78. As a result, the problem of attributing responsibility in the face of
factually "indivisible" wrongful acts - which 1 presented earlier as the
principal obstacle to the admission of the counter-claim - could have
been overcome pursuant both to the general principle that multiple tort-

feasors can be held responsible individually even when the damage can-
not be apportioned among them, and the principles embodied in ILC
Article 47.

79. There remains one last question: it could be argued that dealing
with the United States generic counter-claim in the direction indicated
would by necessity lead the Court to finding that Iraq, too, violated inter-
national law - a pronouncement for which the Court has no jurisdiction
in the present case. This is the essence of the so-called "indispensable-

third-party" doctrine, consecutively accepted and rejected by the Court
depending on the circumstances of the cases at hand.

80. The doctrine, first spelled out in the Monetary Gold case, holds
that the Court has no jurisdiction to decide a case where a third State's
"legal interests would not only be affected by the decision, but woulddans la présente affaire,jamais les deux Etats n'ont agi de concert dans le
cadre d'un incident spécifique, et c'est donc toujours soit l'Iran, soit l'Iraq
qui était responsable d'un incident donné. En conséquence, l'article 47,
selon lequel les deux Etats doivent être responsables du mêmefait inter-
nationalement illicite, ne peut pas s'appliquer à la demande reconven-
tionnelle spécifique.
77. Appliqué à la demande reconventionnelle générale, en revanche,
l'article 47 est très utile. Dans le contexte de cet article, le ((fait interna-
tionalement illicite» est constitué, non pas par un incident spécifique,
mais par la création de conditions négatives sur le plan économique, poli-
tique et de la sécuritédans le Golfe. L'apparition d'un tel environnement,
dans son ensemble, est imputable aux deux Etats, car tout le monde sait
que tous les deux ont eu leur part dans la dégradation des conditions
existant dans le Golfe à l'époque. La différence est claire : contrairement
à la demande reconventionnelle spécifique dans le cadre de laquelle un
seul Etat est responsable de laviolation du droit international, la demande
reconventionnelle généraletombe dans le champ d'application de l'ar-
ticle 47 de la Commission du droit international parce que les deux Etats
sont responsables du mêmefait: c'est la création de conditions dange-
reuses pour la navigation et le commerce dans le Golfe qui constitue le
fait internationalement illicite au sens de l'article 47.
En appliquant l'article 47à la demande reconventionnelle générale,les
Etats-Unis pourraient invoquer la responsabilité de l'un ou l'autre des
deux Etats, c'est-à-dire également la responsabilité individuelle de l'Iran.
Sur ce fondement aussi - le principe sous-jacent à l'article 47 et l'iden-

tification ((générique » du fait internationalement illicit- la Cour aurait
dû considérer que l'Iran avait violé ses obligations conventionnelles, et
accueillir la demande reconventionnelle générale.
78. En conséquence, le problème que pose l'attribution de la respon-
sabilité d'actes illicites en fait «indivisibles» - que j'ai présentétout à
l'heure comme le principal obstacle empêchant d'accueillir la demande
reconventionnelle - aurait pu être surmonté conformément au principe
général selon lequel les coauteurs d'un fait illicite peuvent êtreconsidérés
comme individuellement responsables même s'il n'est pas possible de
déterminer la part du dommage due à chacun d'eux, et conformément
aux principes consacrés dans l'article 47 de la Commission.
79. Il subsiste encore une question: on pourrait faire valoir que, en
examinant la demande reconventionnelle générale des Etats-Unis dans le
sens que j'ai indiqué, la Cour devrait nécessairement être amenée à
conclure que l'Iraq, lui aussi, a violéle droit international - or, elle n'a
pas compétence en l'espèce pour le dire. Cela, en essence, constitue la
doctrine dite de «la tierce partie indispensable», doctrine que la Cour a
alternativement suivie ou rejetée selon les circonstances des espèces sur
lesquelles elle était appelée à statuer.
80. Selon cette doctrine, énoncéepour la première fois dans l'affaire de
l'Or monétaire, la Cour n'a pas compétence pour trancher un différend
lorsque les intérêtsjuridiques d'un Etat tiers ((seraient non seulement tou-form the very-subject matter of the de~ision"~~. Since then, the Court dis-
missed the argument in some cases as one which could not prevent the
Court from exercising jurisdiction among the parties, such as in the Nica-
ragua case, the Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salva-

dorlHonduras) or the case of Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru
v. Australia). In other instances, the Court did apply the Monetary Gold
principle and refused to adjudicate absent the consent of the interested
third State, such as in East Timor (Portugal v. Australia).

81. Taking a closer look at the factual circumstances of each of these

cases, it appears that the concept of "indispensable third parties" has
been interpreted restrictively by the Court. In the present case, the role of
Iraq in impeding the freedom of commerce and navigation between the
United States and Iran certainly does not constitute the subject-matter of
the dispute. Moreover, any findings by the Court as to Iraq's behaviour
would only rely on common knowledge and there would be no need for
additional evidence (i.e., proving that, because of the war, Iraq, like Iran,
contributed to the deterioration of the shipping conditions in the Gulf).

For this reason, the present case would not have fallen within the restric-
tive ambit of the doctrine of the "indispensable third party". The mere
fact that the war in the region involved a State not party to the present
proceedings or, for that matter, to the bilateral treaty between Iran and
the United States, could not have prevented the Court from deciding
upon Iran's responsibility under this Treaty. The Court could have found
Iran responsible without engaging in any detailed assessment of Iraq's

actions, or rendering any decision as to Iraq's responsibility per se96.

82. Even more convincing, 1 believe, is the Court's dismissal in the
Nauru case of Australia's argument that, Australia being only one of
three States making up the Administering Authority under the Trustee-
ship Agreement, a claim could only be brought against the three of
them "jointly" but not against each of them individually. The Court
distinguished the issue of reparation in full from the question whether

Australia could be sued al~ne~~, and continued:

95 Case of Monetary Gold Removed from Rome in 1943 (Preliminary Question), Judg-
ment, I. C.J. Reports 1954, p. 32. A similar prinhad already been developed by the
P.C.I.J. in the Advisory Opinion on Status of Eastern Carelia (1923, P. C.I.J., Series B,
No965In East Timor the Court clearly stated that "it is not necessarily prevented from adju-
dicating when the judgment it is asked to give might affect the legal interests of a State
which is not party to the case" (I. C.J. Reports 1995, p. 104, para. 34).

97 AS 1 have also done, cf. supra paragra73.chés par une décision, mais constitueraient l'objet même de ladite déci-
si~n))~~. Depuis, la Cour a parfois rejeté cet argument en disant qu'il
n'était pas de nature à l'empêcher d'exercer sa compétence entre les
parties: elle l'a fait par exemple dans l'affaire des Activités militaires et
paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci, dans celle du Différend
frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El SalvadorlHonduras) ou

dans celle de Certaines terres à phosphates à Nauru (Nauru c. Australie).
Dans d'autres cas, la Cour a effectivement appliqué le principe de l'affaire
de l'Or monétaire en refusant de se prononcer sans le consentement de
1'Etat tiers intéressé, par exemple dans l'affaire du Timor oriental (Por-
tugal c. Australie).
81. Si l'on regarde de plus près les circonstances de fait de chacune de

ces affaires, on voit que la notion de ((tiercepartie indispensable)) a été
interprétée par la Cour de manière restrictive. Dans la présente espèce, le
rôle qu'a joué l'Iraq dans l'entrave à la liberté de commerce et de naviga-
tion entre les Etats-Unis et l'Iran ne constitue certainement pas l'objet du
différend. De plus, toute conclusion de la Cour concernant le comporte-
ment de l'Iraq reposerait uniquement sur des faits de notoriété publique

et il n'y aurait pas besoin de preuves supplémentaires (c'est-à-dire de
preuves montrant que, à cause de la guerre, l'Iraq, comme l'Iran, a
contribué à la détérioration des conditions de navigation dans le Golfe).
Pour cette raison, la présente espèce ne serait pas tombée dans le champ
restrictif de la doctrine de «la tierce partie indispensable)). Le simple fait
que la guerre dans la région impliquait un Etat qui n'était pas partie à

l'instance, ni d'ailleurs au traité bilatéral entre l'Iran et les Etats-Unis,
n'aurait pas pu empêcher la Cour de statuer sur la responsabilitéde l'Iran
en vertu de ce traité. La Cour aurait pu juger l'Iran responsable sans pro-
céder à un examen détaillédes actes de l'Iraq, et sans se prononcer sur la
responsabilité de l'Iraq per se 96.
82. Est encore plus convaincant, selon moi, le rejet par la Cour, dans

l'affaire Certaines terres à phosphates à Nauru, de l'argument australien
selon lequel, l'Australie n'étant que l'un des trois Etats constituant l'auto-
rité administrante en vertu de l'accord de tutelle, une demande ne pouvait
êtreprésentée que contre les trois «pris conjointement », mais non contre
l'un d'entre eux à titre individuel. La Cour, après avoir distinguéla ques-
tion de la réparation intégrale de la question de savoir si l'Australie pou-
vait être assignée seule 97,a déclaré:

95Affaire de l'Or monétaireprià Rome en 1943 (question préliminaire), arrêt,C.I.J
avis consultatif sur le Statut de la Carélie orientale (1923, C.rieB no 5) et par la
présente Cour dans l'affaire du Détroit defou en 1949 (C.I.J. Recueil 1949).
96Dans l'affaire du Timor oriental, la Cour a déclaréclairement qu'«elle n'est pas
nécessairement empêchédee statuer lorsque l'art u'il lui est demandéde rendre est sus-
ceptible d'avoir des incidences sur les intérêts juridiquesd'un Etat qui n'est pas partie
l'instance » 1J. Recueil 1995, p. 104, par. 34).
97Cornme je l'ai fait moi-même,voir ci-dessus paragraphe 73. "The Court does not consider that any reason has been shown
why a claim brought against only one of the three States should be
declared inadmissible in limine litis merely because that claim raises
questions of the administration of the Territory, which was shared
with two other State~."~~

In the present case, where two States contributed to a single, indivisible
damage without having acted in concert (unlike the three States in the
Nauru case), the holding of the Court in the Nauru case applies with even
greater strength: if the Court did not see fit to declare the Nauru case
inadmissible on the basis that States acting "jointly" were absent from

the proceedings, it could not have held inadmissible the United States
counter-claim, in the context of which States were acting independently
of each other.

83. In any case, 1 have already mentioned that, in contrast to mine-
laying, helicopter and patrol boats attacks were clearly attributable to
Iran and also contributed to creating an impediment to the freedom of
commerce and navigation owed to the United States. Those attacks do
not raise any issue pertaining to attribution of responsibility or the absence

of Iraq from the proceedings. Had the Court rejected al1 other arguments,
it should at least have upheld the United States counter-claim on that
basis.

(Signed) Bruno SIMMA.

98Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. AustraEia), Preliminary Objections,
I. C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 258-259, para. 48.

204 PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.IND. SIMMA) 361

((La Cour n'estime pas qu'il ait été démontré qu'une demande
formée contre l'un des trois Etats doive êtredéclarée irrecevable in
limine litis au seul motif qu'elle soulève des questions relatives à
l'administration du Territoire à laquelle participaient deux autres

Etats.» 98
Dans la présente espèce, ou deux Etats ont contribué à un dommage
unique, indivisible, sans avoir agi de concert (contrairement aux trois
Etats dans l'affaire de Certaines terres à phosphates à Nauru), la conclu-

sion à laquelle est parvenue la Cour dans l'affaire Nauru s'applique avec
encore plus de force: si la Cour n'a pas jugé bon de déclarer l'affaire
Nauru irrecevable au motif que des Etats agissant((conjointement » étaient
absents de la procédure, elle ne pouvait pas juger irrecevable la demande
reconventionnelle des Etats-Unis, dans le contexte de laquelle les Etats
concernés avaient agi indépendamment l'un de l'autre.
83. De toute façon, j'ai déjà dit que, contrairement au mouillage de
mines, les attaques menées par des hélicoptères et des vedettes étaient
clairement imputables à l'Iran et avaient aussi contribué à créer une
entrave à la libertéde commerce et de navigation àlaquelle les Etats-Unis

avaient droit. Ces attaques ne soulèvent aucune question quant à l'attri-
bution de la responsabilité ou à l'absence de l'Iraq à la procédure. Même
en rejetant tous les autres arguments, la Cour aurait dû faire droit à la
demande reconventionnelle des Etats-Unis au moins sur cette base.

(Signé) Bruno SIMMA.

98Certaines terreà phosphatesà Nauru (Nauru c. Australie), exceptionprélimi-
naires,.I.J. Recueil 1992, 258-259par. 48.

204

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