Dissenting Opinion of Judge Al-Khasawneh

Document Number
090-20031106-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
090-20031106-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AL-KHASAWNEH

Putting two distinct findings in one paragraph unusual and unfortunate -
Leaves no choice but to accept paragraph as a whole or reject it - Vote against
operative paragraph because reasoning and conclusion on freedom of commerce
unpersuasive and incorrect - Nevertheless accepts in principle finding relating
to essential security measures - Majority approach too formalistic - 1955
Treaty protects freedom of commerce - Factually oil continued to jîow to the
United States after embargo - Indirect trade law concepts ill-suited as a yard-
stick for measuring treaty-protected commerce - No basis for distinction
between direct and indirect commerce - relevance of Article VIII of the 1955
Treaty - United States counter-claim admissible subject to problems of attri-

butability to Iran - Asymmetry of evidence - Appropriate to deal with non-
use of force - Judgment should be more concerned with clarity than presenta-
tional aspects.

1. It is unusual from the point of view of established drafting tech-
nique and unfortunate from that of logical coherence that the dispositif

of the present Judgment amalgamates in a single paragraph (para-
graph 125 (1)) two separate findings that do not depend on each other for
their validity or soundness and hence leaves us with no choice but to
accept the paragraph as a whole or to reject it.

2. Those findings are :

(a) That the United States actions against Iranian oil platforms in 1987
and 1988 cannot be justified as measures necessary to protect the
essential security interests of the United States under Article XX,

paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations
and Consular Rights between the United States and Iran as inter-
preted in the light of international law on the non-use of force.

(b) That nevertheless, those actions do not constitute a violation of the
obligations of the United States under Article X, paragraph 1, of the
1955 Treaty regarding freedom of commerce between the territories
of the two parties.

This, being the forma1 structure of the operative paragraph, 1 have no
choice but to vote against the paragraph as a whole, for whilst 1 concur
in principle with the first finding regarding Article XX, paragraph 1 (d),1 find the reasoning and the finding regarding Article X, paragraph 1, of
the Treaty unpersuasive and, with respect, incorrect.

3. In the first place, what is at issue here is not whether oil from the

destroyed platforms was impeded from being traded between the territo-
ries of the two Parties at the time of the attacks, but rather that the pos-
sibility of such oil flowing and being traded was impeded. The 1955
Treaty protects the freedom of commerce, which must mean commerce
actual and potential. The Court could not have been clearer when it said
in the 1996 Judgment :

"50. The Court should not in any event overlook that Article X,
paragraph 1, of the Treaty of 1955 does not strictly speaking protect
'commerce' but 'freedom of commerce'. Any act which would impede
that 'freedom' is thereby prohibited. Unless such freedom is to be
rendered illusory, the possibility must be entertained that it could
actually be impeded as a result of acts entailing the destruction of
goods destined to be exported, or capable of affecting their transport
and their storage with a view to export." (Oil Platforms (Islamic

Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objec-
tion, Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 8 19, para. 50.)

4. Secondly, it seems that, factually, Iranian oil continued to flow to

the United States even after the adoption of Executive Order 12613 dated
29 October 1987, for an exception was made in that Order in Section 2 (b)
which reads: "[tlhe prohibition contained in Section 1 shall not apply
to: . . .(b) petroleum products refined from Iranian crude oil in a third
country". It has been argued that such oil undergoes a metamorphosis
upon being refined and mixed in third countries so that the final product
could no longer be regarded as Iranian, but the Executive Order itself by
speaking of "petroleum products refined from Iranian crude oil" clearly
shows that this final product was viewed by the United States as easily
traceable back to its Iranian origin. Moreover, international trade law
concepts are ill-suited to be used as a yardstick against which a treaty-

protected freedom of commerce can be measured. For such a treaty-
protected freedom to be infringed it is sufficient to show that a flow of
Iranian oil into the United States in the form of refined products and a
correspondent outflow of capital that ultimately reached Iran to pay for
such products took place. There is ample evidence that this was the case.

5. Thirdly, the reasoning is singularly unpersuasive in its attempts at
showing a distinction between protected direct commerce and unpro-
tected indirect commerce. There is nothing in the 1955 Treaty or in simi-

lar treaties to which the United States is party to suggest that only direct
commerce was protected. Indeed a simple textual analysis of the provi-
sions of the 1955 Treaty with the aim of ascertaining the definition of theconcept of freedom of commerce used therein would reveal that the
Treaty contemplated the possibility of the products of one State reaching
the territory of the other indirectly. Thus Article VI11 provides:

"1. Each High Contracting Party shall accord to products of the
other High Contracting Party, from whatever place and by whatever
type of carrier arriving, and to products destined for exportation to
the territories of such other High Contracting Party, by whatever
route and by whatever type of carrier, treatment no less favourable
than that . . ." (emphasis added).

6, 1 believe the arguments just made will show that the majority in this
Court have followed a formalistic and disconnected approach in their
reasoning with regard to the violation of the United States of its obliga-
tions under Article X, paragraph 1, on the freedom of commerce. Such
an approach is not supported by the text of the 1955 Treaty, and seems to
be based on assumptions that are factually wrong and do not correspond
to the realities of trade in oil. Moreover, such an approach seems to
detract from aspects of the Court's jurisprudence and 1 have in mind
both the Oscar Chinn case (Judgment, P. C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 63, p. 65)
and the 1996 Judgment (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v.

United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, 1.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), p. 819, para. 50.)

7. A consequence of the narrow approach that the majority followed
was that the United States counter-claim was also rejected. It would have
been much better had the Court admitted both the Iranian claim and the
United States counter-claim. Having said this 1 should hasten to add that
the problems relating to the United States counter-claim stem from prob-
lems of attributability to Iran, problems that emanate in part from an
asymmetry in the Iranian and United States position with regard to evi-
dence, for in the case of the latter, there is no question of the attribution
of attacks against the oil platforms to the United States, while in the case

of Iran, its denial of responsibility for specific acts and the presence of
another actor, Iraq, would compound problems of attribution. Be this as
it may, there is no reason why specific elements of the United States claim
cannot be upheld if the hurdle of attribution is overcome.

8. Lastly, I stated above (para. 2) that 1 concurred with the first find-
ing of the Court, namely that the United States actions cannot be justi-
fied as measures necessary to protect the essential security interestsof the
United States under Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty as inter-
preted in the light of international law on the non-use of force. It has
been suggested that devoting a large part of the Judgment to a discussion
of the concept of non-use of force is inappropriate and unnecessary for

disposing of the case besides the risk this runs of going beyond the limitsof the Court's jurisdiction which are extremely narrow. Nothing is more
debatable.

9. The determining factor is the United States resort to armed force as
distinct from other measures such as the imposition of an embargo that
fa11short of armed force. Whilst the legality of measures short of armed
force are open to scrutiny against the twin criteria of whether they were

essential and reasonable to the risk perceived, when armed force is
resorted to a discussion of that concept in terms of proportionality and
necessity becomes interwoven with the concept of necessary measures. 1
find therefore that it was appropriate for the Court to have clarified those
aspects in its reasoning. 1 do not feel that the ultra petita rule was
infringed nor that the concept of lexspecialis (assuming that the 1955
Treaty was one) would operate to exclude the operation of rules of inter-
national law that have a peremptory character.

10. What 1 find both regrettable and disconcerting is that the Court

has pronounced on those central questions of international law in the
best traditions of oratio obliqua, thus the United States resort to armed
force resulting in the destruction of the oil platforms is referred to as
"actions". Similarly while the Court makes it clear that what is meant by
international law on the non-use of force is both Charter law and cus-
tomary law (Judgment, para. 42), a careful reading of the Judgment is
needed to find the link between the reasoning and the operative para-
graph. A court of law should be more concerned with the clarity of its
judgments than with the presentational aspects of those judgments.

(Signed) Awn AL-KHASAWNEH.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE AL-KHASAWNEH

Putting two distinct findings in one paragraph unusual and unfortunate -
Leaves no choice but to accept paragraph as a whole or reject it - Vote against
operative paragraph because reasoning and conclusion on freedom of commerce
unpersuasive and incorrect - Nevertheless accepts in principle finding relating
to essential security measures - Majority approach too formalistic - 1955
Treaty protects freedom of commerce - Factually oil continued to jîow to the
United States after embargo - Indirect trade law concepts ill-suited as a yard-
stick for measuring treaty-protected commerce - No basis for distinction
between direct and indirect commerce - relevance of Article VIII of the 1955
Treaty - United States counter-claim admissible subject to problems of attri-

butability to Iran - Asymmetry of evidence - Appropriate to deal with non-
use of force - Judgment should be more concerned with clarity than presenta-
tional aspects.

1. It is unusual from the point of view of established drafting tech-
nique and unfortunate from that of logical coherence that the dispositif

of the present Judgment amalgamates in a single paragraph (para-
graph 125 (1)) two separate findings that do not depend on each other for
their validity or soundness and hence leaves us with no choice but to
accept the paragraph as a whole or to reject it.

2. Those findings are :

(a) That the United States actions against Iranian oil platforms in 1987
and 1988 cannot be justified as measures necessary to protect the
essential security interests of the United States under Article XX,

paragraph 1 (d), of the 1955 Treaty of Amity, Economic Relations
and Consular Rights between the United States and Iran as inter-
preted in the light of international law on the non-use of force.

(b) That nevertheless, those actions do not constitute a violation of the
obligations of the United States under Article X, paragraph 1, of the
1955 Treaty regarding freedom of commerce between the territories
of the two parties.

This, being the forma1 structure of the operative paragraph, 1 have no
choice but to vote against the paragraph as a whole, for whilst 1 concur
in principle with the first finding regarding Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE AL-KHASAWNEH

[Traduction]

Il est inhabituel et malencontreux de formuler deux conclusions distinctes
dans le mêmeparagraphe - On nepeut plus qu'accepter le paragraphe dans son
ensemble ou bien le rejeter - Voté contre le dispositif car les motifs et les
conclusions relatives à la liberté de commerce n'emportent pas la conviction et
ne sont pas justes - Accepte néanmoins en principe la conclusion relative aux
intérêtsvitaux sur le plan de la sécurité - L'approche adoptée par la majorité
est tropformaliste - Le traité de 1955 garantit la liberté de commerce - Dans
les faits, le pétrole est toujours écouléaux Etats-Unis après l'embargo - Les
principes juridiques du commerce indirect ne peuvent guère jouer le rôle de cri-
tère d'évaluation du commerce protégépar le traité - La distinction entre com-
merce direct et commerce indirect n'est pas fondée - Pertinence de l'ar-

ticle VIII du traité de 1955 - La demande reconventionnelle des Etats-Unis est
recevable sous réserve des problèmes liés à l'imputabilité à l'Iran - Asymétrie
de la preuve - Il convient de traiter la question de l'emploi de la force -
L'arrêtdevrait viser la clarté et non pas tant s'attacher à la présentation.

1. Il est inhabituel du point de vue de la technique de rédaction telle
qu'elle est fixéeet malencontreux du point de vue de la cohérence logique
d'amalgamer dans un mêmeparagraphe du dispositif de l'arrêt (le para-

graphe 125, point 1)) deux conclusions distinctes qui ne sont pas liées
l'une à l'autre quant à leur validité ni quant à leur bien-fondé, ce qui ne
nous laisse pas d'autre choix que d'accepter le paragraphe dans son
ensemble ou bien de le rejeter.
2. Lesdites conclusions sont les suivantes:

a) il n'est pas possible de justifier les actions dirigées par les Etats-Unis
d'Amérique contre les plates-formespétrolières iraniennes en 1987 et
1988 comme s'il s'agissait de mesures nécessaires à la protection des
intérêts vitaux des Etats-Unis sur le plan de la sécuritésous l'effet de
l'alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l'article XX du traité d'amitié, de com-

merce et de droits consulaires de 1955 conclu entre les Etats-Unis et
l'Iran tel qu'interprété à la lumière du droit international relatif au
non-recours à la force;
b) toutefois ces actions ne constituent pas de violation par les Etats-
Unis des obligations que leur impose le paragraphe 1 de l'articleX du

mêmetraité et qui ont trait à la liberté de commerce entre les terri-
toires des deux parties.

Telle étant la construction de ce paragraphe du dispositif, je n'ai pas
d'autre choix que de voter contre le paragraphe dans son ensemble car, si
je souscris en principe à la première conclusion relative à l'alinéa d) du1 find the reasoning and the finding regarding Article X, paragraph 1, of
the Treaty unpersuasive and, with respect, incorrect.

3. In the first place, what is at issue here is not whether oil from the

destroyed platforms was impeded from being traded between the territo-
ries of the two Parties at the time of the attacks, but rather that the pos-
sibility of such oil flowing and being traded was impeded. The 1955
Treaty protects the freedom of commerce, which must mean commerce
actual and potential. The Court could not have been clearer when it said
in the 1996 Judgment :

"50. The Court should not in any event overlook that Article X,
paragraph 1, of the Treaty of 1955 does not strictly speaking protect
'commerce' but 'freedom of commerce'. Any act which would impede
that 'freedom' is thereby prohibited. Unless such freedom is to be
rendered illusory, the possibility must be entertained that it could
actually be impeded as a result of acts entailing the destruction of
goods destined to be exported, or capable of affecting their transport
and their storage with a view to export." (Oil Platforms (Islamic

Republic of Iran v. United States of America), Preliminary Objec-
tion, Judgment, 1.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 8 19, para. 50.)

4. Secondly, it seems that, factually, Iranian oil continued to flow to

the United States even after the adoption of Executive Order 12613 dated
29 October 1987, for an exception was made in that Order in Section 2 (b)
which reads: "[tlhe prohibition contained in Section 1 shall not apply
to: . . .(b) petroleum products refined from Iranian crude oil in a third
country". It has been argued that such oil undergoes a metamorphosis
upon being refined and mixed in third countries so that the final product
could no longer be regarded as Iranian, but the Executive Order itself by
speaking of "petroleum products refined from Iranian crude oil" clearly
shows that this final product was viewed by the United States as easily
traceable back to its Iranian origin. Moreover, international trade law
concepts are ill-suited to be used as a yardstick against which a treaty-

protected freedom of commerce can be measured. For such a treaty-
protected freedom to be infringed it is sufficient to show that a flow of
Iranian oil into the United States in the form of refined products and a
correspondent outflow of capital that ultimately reached Iran to pay for
such products took place. There is ample evidence that this was the case.

5. Thirdly, the reasoning is singularly unpersuasive in its attempts at
showing a distinction between protected direct commerce and unpro-
tected indirect commerce. There is nothing in the 1955 Treaty or in simi-

lar treaties to which the United States is party to suggest that only direct
commerce was protected. Indeed a simple textual analysis of the provi-
sions of the 1955 Treaty with the aim of ascertaining the definition of theparagraphe 1 de l'article XX, je considère que le motif et la conclusion
relatifs au paragraphe 1 de l'article X du traité ne sont pas convaincants
et, si je puis me permettre, ils ne sont pas non plus fondés.
3. Premièrement, la question est ici non de savoir si la destruction des
plates-formesfaisait obstacle au commerce du pétrole entre les territoires
de deux Parties à l'époque des attaques, mais plutôt de savoir si ladite

destruction faisait obstacle à la possibilité qui s'offrait de produire du
pétrole et d'en pratiquer le commerce. Le traité de 1955 garantit la liberté
de commerce, ce qui doit s'entendre du commerce effectif comme du
commerce potentiel. La Cour n'aurait pu être plus claire quand elle a dit
dans son arrêt de 1996 :

50. La Cour ne saurait en tout état de cause perdre de vue que le
paragraphe 1 de l'articleX du traité de 1955 ne protège pas à pro-
prement parler le «commerce » mais la «liberté de commerce ». Tout
acte qui entraverait cette «liberté» s'en trouve prohibé. Hors, sauf à
rendre une telle liberté illusoire, il faut considérer qu'elle pourrait
êtreeffectivement entravée du fait d'actes qui emporteraient destruc-
tion de biens destinés à êtreexportés, ou qui seraient susceptibles
d'en affecter le transport et le stockage en vue de l'exportation.))
(Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d'Iran c. Etats-
Unis d'Amérique), exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
1996 (II), p. 819, par. 50.)

4. Deuxièmement, il semble qu'en réalitédu pétrole iranien a continué
d'êtreécouléaux Etats-Unis mêmeaprès l'adoption de I'Executive Order
12613 en date du 29 octobre 1987, car une exception est prévue dans cette
ordonnance à la section 2 b) qui dispose: (([ll'interdiction prévue à la sec-
tion 1 ne s'applique pas: ...b) aux produits pétroliers raffinés à partir de
pétrole brut iranien dans un pays tiers». On a soutenu que le pétrole brut

se métamorphose lors du raffinage et du mélange avec d'autres produits
dans des pays tiers de sorte que le produit final ne peut plus êtreconsidéré
comme iranien, mais l'ordonnance en question elle-même, quand elle
parle de ((produits pétroliers raffinés à partir de pétrole brut iranien»,
montre clairement que, pour les Etats-Unis, l'origine iranienne du produit
final était facilement identifiable. De plus,les notions propres au droit du
commerce international peuvent difficilement servir à évaluer une liberté
de commerce qui est protégéepar voie de traité. Pour qu'une telle liberté
soit violée, il suffit de démontrer que du pétrole iranien est entré aux
Etats-Unis sous forme de produits raffinés et que des fonds sont sortis des
Etats-Unis pour atteindre finalement l'Iran et couvrir le prix de ces pro-
duits. Les preuves abondent en ce qui concerne ce double mouvement.
5. Troisièmement, l'exposédes motifs est particulièrement peu convain-

cant quand il cherche à établir une distinction entre le commerce direct
protégéet le commerce indirect non protégé.Il n'y a rien dans le traité de
1955 ni dans des traités similaires auxquels les Etats-Unis sont parties qui
donne à penser que seul le commerce direct était protégé. En effet, il suffit
d'une simple analyse du texte des dispositions du traité de 1955 visant àconcept of freedom of commerce used therein would reveal that the
Treaty contemplated the possibility of the products of one State reaching
the territory of the other indirectly. Thus Article VI11 provides:

"1. Each High Contracting Party shall accord to products of the
other High Contracting Party, from whatever place and by whatever
type of carrier arriving, and to products destined for exportation to
the territories of such other High Contracting Party, by whatever
route and by whatever type of carrier, treatment no less favourable
than that . . ." (emphasis added).

6, 1 believe the arguments just made will show that the majority in this
Court have followed a formalistic and disconnected approach in their
reasoning with regard to the violation of the United States of its obliga-
tions under Article X, paragraph 1, on the freedom of commerce. Such
an approach is not supported by the text of the 1955 Treaty, and seems to
be based on assumptions that are factually wrong and do not correspond
to the realities of trade in oil. Moreover, such an approach seems to
detract from aspects of the Court's jurisprudence and 1 have in mind
both the Oscar Chinn case (Judgment, P. C.I.J., Series AIB, No. 63, p. 65)
and the 1996 Judgment (Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v.

United States of America), Preliminary Objection, Judgment, 1.C.J.
Reports 1996 (II), p. 819, para. 50.)

7. A consequence of the narrow approach that the majority followed
was that the United States counter-claim was also rejected. It would have
been much better had the Court admitted both the Iranian claim and the
United States counter-claim. Having said this 1 should hasten to add that
the problems relating to the United States counter-claim stem from prob-
lems of attributability to Iran, problems that emanate in part from an
asymmetry in the Iranian and United States position with regard to evi-
dence, for in the case of the latter, there is no question of the attribution
of attacks against the oil platforms to the United States, while in the case

of Iran, its denial of responsibility for specific acts and the presence of
another actor, Iraq, would compound problems of attribution. Be this as
it may, there is no reason why specific elements of the United States claim
cannot be upheld if the hurdle of attribution is overcome.

8. Lastly, I stated above (para. 2) that 1 concurred with the first find-
ing of the Court, namely that the United States actions cannot be justi-
fied as measures necessary to protect the essential security interestsof the
United States under Article XX, paragraph 1 (d), of the Treaty as inter-
preted in the light of international law on the non-use of force. It has
been suggested that devoting a large part of the Judgment to a discussion
of the concept of non-use of force is inappropriate and unnecessary for

disposing of the case besides the risk this runs of going beyond the limits PLATES-FORMES PÉTROLIÈRES (OP.DISS.AL.KHASAWNEH) 268

permettre de savoir quelle définition de la liberté de commerce le traité
retient pour constater qu'il a été prévuque des produits originaires d'un
Etat puissent éventuellement gagner indirectement le territoire de l'autre
Etat. Ainsi, l'article VI11 du traité dispose:

« 1. Chacune des Hautes Parties contractantes accordera aux pro-
duits de l'autre Haute Partie contractante, quelle qu'en soit la pro-
venance et indépendamment du mode de transport utilisé, ainsi qu'aux
produits destinés à l'exportation vers les territoires de cette autre
Haute Partie contractante, quels que soient l'itinéraire et le mode de

transport utilisé, un traitement non moins favorable que ..» (Les ita-
liques sont de moi.)
6. J'estime que les arguments ci-dessus démontrent qu'au sein de la
Cour la majorité a adopté une approche formaliste, sans lien avec la

réalité, en ce qui concerne la violation par les Etats-Unis des obliga-
tions leur incombant en vertu du paragraphe 1 de l'articleX relatif à la
liberté de commerce. Le texte même du traité de 1955 ne conforte guère
cette approche qui paraît fondée sur des présomptions dénoncées par
les faits qui sont sans rapport avec le commerce du pétrole sous son
aspect concret. De plus, une telle approche semble déroger sous cer-
tains aspects à la jurisprudence de la Cour et j'ai à l'esprit tant l'affaire
Oscar Chinn (arrêt, C.P.J. 1. série AIB no 63, p. 65) que l'arrêt de 1996
(Plates-formes pétrolières (République islamique d'Iran c. Etats- Unis
d'Amérique), exception préliminaire, arrêt, C.I. J. Recueil 1996 (II),

p. 819, par. 50).
7. L'approche étroite que la majorité a retenue a eu pour conséquence
que la demande reconventionnelle des Etats-Unis a également étérejetée.
Il eût étépréférable que la Cour accueille à la fois la demande de l'Iran et
la demande reconventionnelle des Etats-Unis. Cela étant, je m'empresse
d'ajouter que les problèmes relatifs à la demande reconventionnelle ont
pour origine des problèmes liésà l'imputation à l'Iran, problèmes décou-
lant en partie d'une asymétrie entre les positions respectives des deux
Etats en matière de preuve, car, pour les Etats-Unis, il n'est pas question
de leur imputer les attaques dirigées contre les plates-formes pétrolières

alors que, pour l'Iran, le refus qu'il oppose à la reconnaissance de sa res-
ponsabilité d'actes précis et la présence d'un autre protagoniste, l'Iraq,
compliqueraient beaucoup les problèmes d'imputation. Quoi qu'il en
soit, rien n'empêche d'accueillir certains éléments de la demande des
Etats-Unis si l'obstacle de l'imputabilité est surmonté.
8. En dernier lieu, j'ai dit ci-dessus (au paragraphe 2) que je souscrivais
à la première conclusion de la Cour, qui est qu'on ne peut pasjustifier les
actions des Etats-Unis en disant que ce sont des mesures nécessaires à la
protection d'intérêts vitaux en matière de sécurité, conformément aux
prescriptions de l'alinéa d) du paragraphe 1 de l'articleXX du traité,

celui-ci étant interprété à la lumière du droit international sur le non-
recours à la force.On a dit qu'il n'était ni opportun ni indispensable, pour
statuer en l'espèce, de consacrer une grande partie de l'arrêt à l'examenof the Court's jurisdiction which are extremely narrow. Nothing is more
debatable.

9. The determining factor is the United States resort to armed force as
distinct from other measures such as the imposition of an embargo that
fa11short of armed force. Whilst the legality of measures short of armed
force are open to scrutiny against the twin criteria of whether they were

essential and reasonable to the risk perceived, when armed force is
resorted to a discussion of that concept in terms of proportionality and
necessity becomes interwoven with the concept of necessary measures. 1
find therefore that it was appropriate for the Court to have clarified those
aspects in its reasoning. 1 do not feel that the ultra petita rule was
infringed nor that the concept of lexspecialis (assuming that the 1955
Treaty was one) would operate to exclude the operation of rules of inter-
national law that have a peremptory character.

10. What 1 find both regrettable and disconcerting is that the Court

has pronounced on those central questions of international law in the
best traditions of oratio obliqua, thus the United States resort to armed
force resulting in the destruction of the oil platforms is referred to as
"actions". Similarly while the Court makes it clear that what is meant by
international law on the non-use of force is both Charter law and cus-
tomary law (Judgment, para. 42), a careful reading of the Judgment is
needed to find the link between the reasoning and the operative para-
graph. A court of law should be more concerned with the clarity of its
judgments than with the presentational aspects of those judgments.

(Signed) Awn AL-KHASAWNEH.du concept du non-recours à la force, d'autant que cela risquait d'amener
la Cour à franchir les limites de sa compétence, laquelle est extrêmement
étroite. La question est très largement ouverte à contestation.
9. Le facteur déterminant est que les Etats-Unis recourent à la force
armée par opposition à d'autres mesures telles que l'imposition d'un
embargo, lesquelles ne vont pas jusqu'à la force armée. Alors que la
licéité desmesures qui ne vont pas jusqu'à la force armée est sujetteà un
double examen consistant à chercher si ces mesures sont essentielles et
raisonnables par rapport aux risques ressentis, quand il est fait emploi de
la forcearmée, il faut examiner la notion de recours à la force du point de
vue de la proportionnalité et de la nécessitéen mêmetemps qu'il faut
chercher si les mesures en question étaient nécessaires. Je considère en
conséquence qu'il était bon que la Cour éclaireces différentsaspects dans
sa motivation. A mon sens la règle ultra petita n'a pas étéviolée et

l'adoption de la notion de lex specialis (àcondition que le traité de 1955
ait bien ce caractère) n'aurait pas non plus pour effet d'exclure l'applica-
tion des règles de droit international de caractère impératif.
10. Ce que j'estime à la fois regrettable et prêtant à confusion, c'est
que la Cour se soit prononcée sur ces questions fondamentales du droit
international en pratiquant l'euphémisme dans la meilleure tradition, de
telle sorte que, lorsque les Etats-Unis recourent à la force et détruisent
des plates-formespétrolières, la Cour dit qu'ils mènent des ((actions ».De
même,quand la Cour dit clairement que le droit international applicable
en matière de non-recours à la force correspond au droit de la Charte et
au droit coutumier (arrêt, par. 42)' il faut procéder à une lecture très
attentive de l'arrêtpour trouver le lien entre les motifs et le dispositif. Un
tribunal qui dit le droit doit se soucier plus de la clarté de ses décisions
que de leur présentation.

(Signé) Awn AL-KHASAWNEH.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Dissenting Opinion of Judge Al-Khasawneh

Links