Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

Document Number
148-20140331-JUD-01-05-EN
Parent Document Number
148-20140331-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

348

SEPARATE OPINION

OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. The Object and Purpose oéf the ICRW 2-9

1. The teleological approach 4-7
2. Response of New Zealand to questions from the Bench 8-9

II. Collective Guarantee aénd Collective Regulatiéon 10-19

1. Collective decision-making under the ICRW 10-12

2. Review of proposed special permits under the Schedule 13-19

III. The Limited Scope of ArtiécleVIII (1) of the ICRW 20-24

IV. The Evolving Law relatinég to Conservation : Inter-
actions between Systeéms 25-26

V. The ICRW as a “Living Instruément”: The Evolving O piniO
Juris C Ommunis 27-40

VI. Inter-Generational Equity 41-47

VII. Conservation of Livingé Species (Marine Mammals)é 48-59
1. The tension between conservation and exploitation : Argu

ments of the Parties 48-51
2. Whale stocks — conservation and development : Response
of the Parties and the intervenor to questions from the

Bench 52-56
3. General assessment 57-59

VIII. Principle of Preventioén and the Precautionaéry Principl:e
Arguments of the Partieés and the Intervenor 60-71

IX. Responses from the Experéts, and Remaining Uncerétainties
around “Scientific Reésearch” (under JARPAII) 72-74

X. Reiterated Calls undeér the ICRW for Non-Lethal Use of
Cetaceans 75-79

XI. Concluding Observatioéns, on the JarpaII Programme and
the Requirements of thée ICRW and Its Schedule 80-90

*

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1. I have accompanied the Court’s majority, in voting in favour of the
adoption of the present Judgment in the case Whaling in the Antarctic

(Australia v. Japan: New Zealand intervening). Yet, I would have wished
certain points to be further developed by the Court. I feel thus obligedé to
leave on the records, in the present separate opinion, the foundations of
my personal position thereon. To this effect, I shall address the folléowing
points : (a) the object and purpose of the International Convention on

the Regulation of Whaling (the teleological approach) ; (b) collective
guarantee and collective regulation ; (c) the limited scope of Arti -
cle VIII (1) of the ICRW ; (d) the evolving law relating to conservation :
interactions between systems; (e) the ICRW as a “living instrument”: the
evolving opinio juris communis ; (f) inter-generational equity ; (g) conser -
vation of living species (marine mammals) ; (h) principle of prevention

and the precautionary principle ; (i) remaining uncertainties around “sci -
entific research” (under the JARPA II programme). The way will then be
paved for my concluding observations, on the JARPA II programme and
the requirements of the ICRW and its Schedule.

I. The Object and Purpose oéf the ICRW

2. I find it necessary, to start with, to dwell upon the object and purpose
of the International Convention on Regulation of Whaling (hereinafter
the “ICRW”), so as to set the context for the consideration of thée inter -
pretation of Article VIII of the ICRW, and of the question whether Japan
complied with its obligations under the ICRW and its Schedule (cf. infra).

Both contending Parties, Australia and Japan, and the intervenor,
New Zealand, have in fact dedicated some attention to the object and
purpose of the ICRW. The adoption of a Convention like the ICRW,
endowed with a supervisory organ of its own, evidences that the goal of é
conservation integrates its object and purpose, certainly not limited toé the

development of the whaling industry.

3. To try to reduce the object and purpose of the ICRW to the protec -
tion or development of the whaling industry would be at odds with the
rationale and structure of the ICRW as a whole. If the main goal of the é

ICRW were only to protect and develop the whaling industry, the entire
framework of the ICRW would have been structured differently. More -
over, the fact that the ICRW is a multilateral treaty, encompassing mem -
ber States that do not practice whaling, also speaks to the understanding
that the ICRW’s object and purpose cannot be limited to the develop -
ment of the whaling industry. Furthermore, in the same line of reasoningé,

the adoption of a moratorium on commercial whaling within the frame -
work of the ICRW also seems to indicate that the conservation of whale

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stocks is an important component of the object and purpose of the
ICRW.

1. The Teleological Approach

4. May I turn briefly to the Preamble of the ICRW, which contains

indications as to the object and purpose of the Convention. First, the
Preamble recognizes “the interest of the nations of the world in safeé -
guarding for future generations the great natural resources represented éby
the whale stocks” ; this seems, in my view, to be in line with the purpose

of conserving and protecting whales. Secondly, other preambular para -
graphs mention “regulation” of whaling to ensure conservation and
development of whale stocks. Then, the Preamble also posits that the
States parties “decided to conclude a convention to provide for the proper
conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly develop -

ment of the whaling industry”.

5. It appears that the primary object and purpose of the ICRW can be
found in the conservation and recovery of whale populations. The ICRW

provides for a mechanism to ensure its own evolution in face of changingé
conditions and new challenges. The International Whaling Commission
(IWC) has a specific role (under Article VI) to make recommendations to
States parties, in the form of resolutions, to which they are to give coénsid -

eration in good faith. The practice of the IWC, conformed by its succes -
sive resolutions, seems to indicate that conservation of whale stocks isé an
important objective of the ICRW : for example, in a number of resolu -
tions, the IWC has focused on non-lethal methods of research concerning
whales, disclosing a concern with the conservation of whale stocks 1.

Thus, in my perception, the use of whales cannot take place to the detrié -
ment of the conservation of whale stocks.

6. The Schedule of regulations annexed to the ICRW is an integral
part of it, with equal legal force ; amendments have regularly been made
to the Schedule, so as to cope with international environmental develop -
ments. States parties thus count on a scheme to act together in the com -

mon interest, setting a proper balance between conservation and the use é
of whale resources. The ICRW, adopted in 1946 to stop the overexploita -
tion of whales, presented thus two novelties in comparison with the first
treaties on whaling : the creation of the IWC (under Article III), and the
inclusion of the Schedule, controlling whaling so as to achieve conservaé -

1E.g., resolution 2007-3 (Resolution on the Non-Lethal Use of Cetacean; resolu-

tion 2007-1 (Resolution on JARPA).

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tion and recovery of whale stocks. It became a multilateral scheme, seeké-
ing to avoid unilateral action so as to foster conservation.

7. The object and purpose of the ICRW are to be construed in light of
its text, its supervisory mechanism, and its nature as a multilateral tréeaty

encompassing both whaling and non-whaling States. The object and pur -
pose of the Convention point to, as a guiding principle, the conservatioén
and recovery of whale stocks ; not to be seen on an equal footing with the
sustainable development of the whaling industry or the protection of
commercial whaling. A State party — Japan or any other — cannot act

unilaterally to decide whether its programme is fulfilling the object and
purpose of the ICRW, or the objective of conservation.

2. Response of New Zealand to Questions from the Bench

8. In this connection, in the course of the oral pleadings before the

Court (on 8 July 2013), I deemed it fit to put the following questions to
the intervenor, New Zealand :

“1. In your view, does the fact that the International Convention
for the Regulation of Whaling is a multilateral treaty, with a super -
visory organ of its own, have an impact on the interpretation of its
object and purpose ?

2. You have stated in your written observations (of 4 April 2013)
that the object and purpose of the International Convention for the
Regulation of Whaling is: ‘to replace unregulated, unilateral whaling
by States with collective regulation as a mechanism to provide for the

interests of the parties in the proper conservation and management
of whales’ (p. 16, para. 33). In your view, is this a widely accepted
interpretation nowadays of the object and purpose of the Interna -
tional Convention for the Regulation of Whaling ?” 2

9. As to these questions, New Zealand at first recalled that, distinctly
from the 1937 International Agreement for the Regulation of Whaling,

the 1946 ICRW counts on a permanent Commission (the IWC) endowed
with a supervisory role, evidencing a “collective enterprise”, andé acknowl -
edging that whale conservation “must be an international endeavour”é. In
sum, in New Zealand’s view, the object and purpose of the ICRW ought
to be approached in the light of the collective interest of States parties in

2 CR 2013/17, of 8 July 2013, pp. 49-50.

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3
the conservation and management of whale stocks . Secondly, New Zea-
land argued that the IWC had recognizedly become the appropriate organ
for the conservation and management of whales. Such role of collective

regulation of the IWC — New Zealand added — was in the line of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which requires States
(Art. 65) to co-operate with a view to the conservation of marine mam -
mals and to work through the appropriate international organs. Such

endeavours of conservation have become a “collective responsibility”,
and the IWC — New Zealand added — would “work co-operatively to
improve the conservation and management of whale populations and
stocks on a scientific basis and through agreed policy measures” 4.

II. Collective Guarantee aénd Collective Regulatiéon

1. Collective Decision-Making under the ICRW

10. The collective system established by the ICRW is crucial to the
understanding and proper handling of the present case of Whaling in the
Antarctic (Australia v. Japan: New Zealand intervening). In my view, the

system created by the Convention aims at replacing a system of unilateraél
unregulated whaling, with a system of collective guarantee and regulatioén
so as to provide for the interests of the States parties in the proper céon -
servation and management of whales. To my mind, the structure of the

Convention evidences that one of its aims is to achieve collective guaraén -
tee through collective regulation, in relation to all activities associated
with whaling. This collective regulation is achieved through a process of
collective decision-making by the IWC, which adopts regulations and

resolutions (supra).
11. In addition, it may be recalled that the IWC may also adopt rec -
ommendations addressed to any or all of the States parties on any mat -
ters which relate to whales or whaling and to the objective and purpose éof

the Convention. These recommendations and resolutions, in my under -
standing, express the collective views of the parties under the Conventiéon
concerning the protection of their interests in the proper conservation é
and management of whales. Furthermore, membership of the IWC

has grown along the years, with many members having no whaling indus -
try or history of whaling activities; their common interest would arguably
be the conservation and management of whales themselves, rather than
solely the preservation of the whaling industry.

3 Written Responses of New Zealand to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade
at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 8 July 2013 at 10 a.m., of 12 July 2013, pp. 6-7,
paras. 1-3.
4 Ibid., pp. 8-9, paras. 1-4.

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12. Thus, the nature and structure of the ICRW, the fact that it is a
multilateral Convention (comprising both whaling and non-whaling
States) with a supervisory organ of its own, which adopts resolutions aénd

recommendations, highlights the collective decision-making process under
the Convention and the collective guarantee provided thereunder. In the é
light of the object and purpose of the ICRW, clearly a system of collectéive
guarantee and collective regulation operates thereunder.

2. Review of Proposed Special Permits
under the Schedule

13. In fact, in numerous resolutions, the IWC has provided guidance
to the Scientific Committee for its review of special permits under paraé -
graph 30 of the Schedule. This is aimed at amending proposed special
permit programmes that do not meet the conditions. The expectation

ensues therefrom that, e.g., non-lethal methods will be used whenever
possible, on the basis of successive resolutions of the IWC stressing thée
relevance of obtaining scientific information without needing to kill
whales for “scientific research”. In accordance with the IWC resoléutions,

the Scientific Committee has, for its part, elaborated a series of Guide -
lines to enable it to undertake its function of review of special permits
(under paragraph 30 of the Schedule).

14. In the present proceedings before the ICJ, this practice has been 5
brought to the attention of the Court, in particular by New Zealand ,
who has further pointed out that over 25 resolutions of the IWC, issued
after the Scientific Committee’s review of proposed special permits (éunder

Article VIII of the ICRW), have been consistently requesting the States
parties concerned “not to proceed where the Scientific Committee had é
determined that the proposed activity did not satisfy the Scientific Com -
mittee’s criteria” . Such is the case of IWC resolutions 1987-1, 1987-2,

1987-3, 1987-4, 1989-1, 1989-2, 1989-3, 1990-1, 1990-2, 1991-2, 1991-3,
1993-7, 1993-8, 1994-9, 1994-10, 1994-11, 1995-9, 1996-7, 1997-5, 1997-6,
2000-4, 2000-5, 2001-7, 2001-8, 2003-2, 2003-3, 2005-1, and 2007-1 7.
Hence, it is clear that one counts nowadays on a system of collective

guarantee and collective regulation under the ICRW (cf. also infra).

15. Bearing the IWC resolutions in mind, the Scientific Committee’s
Guidelines have endeavoured to assist it in undertaking adequately its

function of review of special permit proposals and of research results
from existing and completed special permits. In its most recent Guide -
lines, adopted in 2008 (Annex P), the Scientific Committee’s review pro -

5
Both in its written observations, of 4 April 2013, and in its oral arguments; cf. written
observations of New Zealand, of 4 April 2013, pp. 30-33, paras. 55-60 ; and CR 2013/17,
of 8 July 2013, pp. 30-31 and 39, paras. 50-54 and 14.
6 Written observations of New Zealand, of 4 April 2013, p. 56, para. 98.
7 Ibid., p. 56, para. 98, note 195.

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cess focuses on, inter alia, the possibility of using non-lethal research

methods, the aims and the methodology and the sample size, the point
whether the catches will have an adverse effect on the stocks (paras.é 2-3).
Moreover, the proposed activity is to be subject to periodic and final

reviews. It is clear that there is here not much room for State unilateréal
action and free will.

8
16. It clearly appears, from paragraph 30 of the Schedule , that a State
party issuing a special permit is under the obligation to provide the IWéC
Secretary with proposed scientific permits before they are issued, and in

sufficient time so as to allow the Scientific Committee to review and céom-
ment on them. Paragraph 30 of the Schedule thus plays an important role
in the overall structure of the ICRW and in the pursuit of the fulfilmenét
of its object and purpose. It establishes a review procedure that must bée

followed in relation to the granting of special permits, and that servesé as
a mechanism through which the granting of special permits may be mon -
itored by the IWC. Accordingly, States granting special permits do not
have an unfettered freedom to issue such permits.

17. It follows therefrom that, even if the recommendations of the Sci -
entific Committee and the IWC are not per se legally binding on States,
States willing to issue special permits should consider the comments of é

the IWC and the recommendations of the Scientific Committee in good
faith (principle of bona fide). The terms of paragraph 30 make it clear
that the particular duty to provide proposed special permits in advance to
the IWC is set forth so as to enable the Scientific Committee to “revéiew

and comment” on them. It seems that, if States were to decide, at theéir
free will, whether or not to take into account the comments and recom -
mendations of the IWC and the Scientific Committee, that provision

would be rendered meaningless, dead letter ; the review procedure would
then become a sort of unacceptable “rubber stamp” mechanism, whereby
States issuing permits would be able to disregard completely the com -
ments and recommendations whenever they wished.

8 Paragraph 30 of the Schedule states that a State party shall provide the IWC Secreé -
tary with proposed scientific permits

“before they are issued and in sufficient time to allow the Scientifiéc Committee to
review and comment on them. The proposed permits should specify : (a) objec-
tives of the research ; (b) number, sex, size and stock of the animals to be ;aken
(c) opportunities for participation in the research by scientists of other néations; and
(d) possible effect on conservation of stock.”

Paragraph 30 adds that proposed permits
“shall be reviewed and commented on by the Scientific Committee at Anénual
Meetings when possible. When permits would be granted prior to the next éAnnual
Meeting, the Secretary shall send the proposed permits to members of theé Scientific
Committee by mail for their comment and review. Preliminary results of aény research
resulting from the permits should be made available at the next Annual Méeeting of
the Scientific Committee.”

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9
18. Paragraph 30 thus creates a positive (procedural) obligation of the
State willing to issue a special permit to co-operate with the IWC and the

Scientific Committee. It would seem inconsistent with the purpose of
paragraph 30 if a State party would feel entitled to issue a special permit
without having co-operated with the IWC and the Scientific Committee,

or without having given any consideration whatsoever to the views of
other States parties expressed through the comments of the IWC and the
recommendations of the Scientific Committee.

19. In its 2006 Report (p. 50), the Scientific Committee was of the view
that the JARPA II proposed programme provided the specifications
required by paragraph 30 of the Schedule. One has here, as already indi -

cated, a system of collective guarantee and collective regulation under éthe
ICRW. In the framework of this latter, the Court has determined, on
distinct points, that the respondent State has not acted in conformity wéith
10
paragraph 10 (d) and (e), and paragraph 7 (b), of the Schedule to the
ICRW (resolutory points 3-5).

III. The Limited Scope of ArtiécleVIII (1)

of the ICRW

20. Keeping the review system in mind, and given the arguments of the
11
contending Parties and of the intervenor as to the scope of Article VIII
within the ICRW as a whole, a point to be addressed is that of the requiére -
ments for a whaling programme to be considered “for purposes of scien-

tific research”. The key point seems to be whether a whaling programmée
carried out under a special permit must be exclusively for scientific

9
On the conceptualization of positive obligations in a distinct context, écf., e.g.,
D. Xenos, The Positive Obligations of the State under the European Convention of H▯uman
Rights, London/N.Y., Routledge, 2012, pp. 57-141.
10Paragraph 10 (d) of the Schedule establishes a moratorium on the taking, killing
or treating of (sperm, killer and baleen) whales, except minke whales,é by factory ships
or whale catchers attached to factory ships. And paragraph 10 (e) provides in addition
for a “comprehensive assessment” of the effects of catches on whéale stocks and the estab-
lishment of new catch limits. And paragraph 7 (b) of the Schedule prohibits commercial

whaling in the Southern Ocean Sanctuary (a prohibition to be reviewed eévery ten years).

11Article VIII (1) of the ICRW reads as follows :

“Notwithstanding anything contained in this Convention any Contractinég
Government may grant to any of its nationals a special permit authorizinég that
national to kill, take and treat whales for purposes of scientific reseaérch subject to
such restrictions as to number and subject to such other conditions as the Contracting
Government thinks fit, and the killing, taking, and treating of whales in accordance
with the provisions of this Article shall be exempt from the operation oéf this Conven
tion. Each Contracting Government shall report at once to the Commissioné all such

authorizations which it has granted. Each Contracting Government may at any time
revoke any such special permit which it has granted.”

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research and not for any other purpose. In other words, the question is

whether the same programme may be carried out under a special permit
for the purpose of “scientific research” and, e.g., for purpose ofé selling the
whale meat.

21. In my understanding, Article VIII (1) of the ICRW is not to be

interpreted broadly, so as to go against the object and purpose of the
normative framework of the Convention as a whole. Article VIII (1)
appears as an exception to the normative framework of the ICRW, to be
thus interpreted restrictively. The purpose, in particular, of granting éspe -
cial permits, is, to my mind, to allow for scientific research to be undéer -

taken; other purposes do not seem to be allowed under Article VIII, and
should not fall under the exception of Article VIII (1), which, in my
understanding, applies solely and specifically to scientific research préo -
grammes. If a programme with multiple purposes (including a “scientiéfic
research” purpose) could be qualified for a special permit under

Article VIII (1), the provision would not have been drafted in the way it
was. Article VIII (1) is phrased in terms (“for purposes of”) which seem
to make it clear that the sole purpose for which a special permit shall ébe
granted is the conduct of scientific research. Otherwise, it could be
expected that the expression “or other purposes” would also have béeen

included.

22. The Court has determined that the special permits granted by
Japan in connection with JARPA II “do not fall within the provisions of

Article VIII (1)” of the ICRW (resolutory point 2). As to whether a State
issuing a special permit under Article VIII (1) has the discretion to deter -
mine whether a whaling programme is “for purposes of scientific
research”, such a question can only be properly considered within theé
whole framework of the ICRW as a multilateral treaty, nowadays endowed

with a supervisory mechanism of its own. Accordingly, a State issuing a é
permit does not have carte blanche to dictate that a given programme
is “for purposes of scientific research”. It is not sufficient for aé State
party to describe its whaling programme as “for purposes of scientific
research”, without demonstrating it.

23. In my view, such an unfettered discretion would not be in line with
the object and purpose of the ICRW, nor with the idea of multilateral

regulation. The State issuing a special permit should take into consider -
ation the resolutions of the IWC which provide the views of other Statesé
parties as to what constitutes “scientific research”. There is no époint in
seeking to define “scientific research” for all purposes. When decéiding
whether a programme is “for purposes of scientific research” so asé to

issue a special permit under Article VIII (1), the State party concerned

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has, in my understanding, a duty to abide by the principle of preventioné
and the precautionary principle (cf. infra).
24. In my perception, Article VIII, part and parcel of the ICRW as a
whole, is to be interpreted taking into account its object and purpose. é
This discards any pretence of devising in it a so-called “self-contained”

regime or system, which would go unduly against the ICRW’s object andé
purpose. In sum, in my understanding, in line with the object and purposée
of the ICRW (supra), a State party does not have an unfettered discre -
tion to decide the meaning of “scientific research” and whether a égiven
whaling programme is “for purposes of scientific research”. The inéterpre -

tation and application of the ICRW in recent decades bear witness of a
gradual move away from unilateralism and towards multilateral conser -
vation of living marine resources, thus clarifying the limited scope of
Article VIII (1) of the ICRW.

IV. The Evolving Law relatinég to Conservation:
Interactions betweené Systems

25. With the growth in recent decades of international instruments
related to conservation, not a single one of them is approached in isola -
tion from the others ; not surprisingly, the co-existence of international

treaties of the kind has called for a systemic outlook, which has been pur -
sued in recent years. Reference can here be made to e.g., the 1973 Con -
vention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES Convention), the 1979 Convention on Migratory Species
of Wild Animals, the 1980 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic

Marine Living Resources, the 1982 United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea, the 1992 United Nations Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD Convention).

26. The systemic outlook seems to be flourishing in recent years.

For example, at its fifth meeting, in 2000, the Conference of States
parties to the CBD Convention referred to “the interactions between
climate change and the conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity in a number of thematic and cross-cutting areas”, includingé,
12
inter alia, marine and coastal biodiversity . As for the ICRW, the most
complete academic work produced to date, on its legal regime,
that of Patricia W. Birnie, supports the teleological interpretation of
the ICRW, stressing the growing importance of conservation in the
evolving interpretation and application of the ICRW ; she further

points out that related treaties (e.g., the CITES Convention) have
helped to identify the wide range of matters of concern to the inter-

12CBD, Scientific Assessments — Note by the Executive Secretary, doc. UNEP/CBD/

SBSTTA/10/7, of 5 November 2004, p. 8, para. 29.

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national community as a whole, such as, e.g., inter alia, the protection of
wild fauna and flora 1.

V. The ICRW as a “Living Instruément”: The Evolving
O piniO J uris C Ommunis

27. The interpretation and application of the aforementioned treaties,

in the light of the systemic outlook, have been contributing to the gradual
formation of an opinio juris communis in the present domain of contem -
porary international law. The present Judgment of the ICJ in the Whaling
in the Antarctic case has recalled the establishment, in 1950, by the IWC,

of the Scientific Committee to assist it in discharging its functions ; as
from the mid-1980s, the Scientific Committee has conducted its review of
special permits on the basis of Guidelines, issued or endorsed by the IWéC
(para. 47). Moreover, the IWC is entitled to adopt recommendations

(under Article VI of the ICRW), which may be relevant (when adopted
by consensus or unanimity) for the interpretation of the Convention or éits
Schedule (para. 46). As the ICJ itself has put it, the functions conferred
upon the IWC “have made the Convention an evolving instrument”

(para. 45).
28. The present Judgment of the ICJ proceeds to assert that States par -
ties to the ICRW “have a duty to co-operate with the IWC and the Scien -

tific Committee” and to “give due regard to recommendations callinég for
an assessment of the feasibility of non-lethal” research methods (para. 83).
In this respect, it further recalls, inter alia, that “the two experts called by
Australia referred to significant advances in a wide range of non-lethal

research techniques over the past 20 years” (para. 137). The Judgment the
Court has just adopted today, 31 March 2014, is likely to be of impor -
tance to the future of the IWC, and to secure the survival of the ICRW
itself, as a “living instrument” capable of keeping on responding éto needs

of the international community and new challenges that it faces in the
present domain.
29. This is not the first time that the Court acknowledges that interna -
tional treaties and conventions are “living instruments”. In its célèbre

Advisory Opinion (of 21 June 1971) on Namibia, for example, the ICJ
referring to the mandates system of the League of Nations era, stated théat

13
P. W. Birnie, International Regulation of Whaling : From Conservation of Whaling to
Conservation of Whales and Regulation of Whale Watching, VII, N.Y./London/Rome,
Oceana Publs., 1985, pp. 583 and 635. She further singles out the continuing work of the
IWC, with several resolutions addressing “a wide variety of new issueés”, such as, inter alia,
criteria for aboriginal subsistence whaling, small cetaceans, creation oéf sanctuary areas,
preservation of habitats, “humane killing”, discouragement of whaléing, among o;hers
cf. ibid., Vol. II, p. 641.

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“the concepts embodied in Article 22 of the Covenant (. . .) were not
static, but were by definition evolutionary (. . .). [V]iewing the insti -

tutions of 1919, the Court must take into consideration the changes
which have occurred in the supervening half-century, and its interpre -
tation cannot remain unaffected by the subsequent development of
law, through the Charter of the United Nations or by way of custom -
ary law. Moreover, an international instrument has to be interpreted

and applied within the framework of the entire legal system prevailing
at the time of its interpretation. In the domain to which the present
proceedings relate, the last fifty years, as indicated above, have
brought important developments. (. . .) In this domain, as elsewhere,
the corpus iuris gentium has been considerably enriched, and this the

Court, if it is faithfully to discharge its functions, may not ignore.ӎ
(Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security
Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971,
pp. 31-32, para. 53.)

30. Subsequently, in its Judgment (of 25 September 1997) in the case
concerning the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), the

ICJ pondered that “newly developed norms of environmental law are relé -
evant for the implementation of the [1977] Treaty” in force between Héun-
gary and Slovakia, that was the object of the dispute. The Court proceedéed
that the contending Parties are required, “in carrying out their obliéga -
tions to ensure that the quality of water in the Danube is not impaired é

and that nature is protected, to take new environmental norms into con -
sideration”. Accordingly, the Court added, the 1977 Treaty “is not static,
and is open to adapt to emerging norms of international law”
(I.C.J. Reports 1997, pp. 67-68, para. 112).
31. Other contemporary international tribunals have pursued the same

evolutionary interpretation. For example, the European Court of Human
Rights, in its judgment (of 25 April 1978) in the Tyrer v. The United King -
dom case, asserted that the European Convention on Human Rights “is a
living instrument”, to be “interpreted in the light of present-day conditions”
(para. 31). Subsequently, the European Court reiterated, expressis verbis,

this obiter dictum, in its judgment (on preliminary objections, of 23 March
1995) in the case of Loizidou v. Turkey, wherein it added that, accordingly,
the provisions of the European Convention, as a “living instrument”é,

“cannot be interpreted solely in accordance with the intentions of
their authors as expressed more than forty years ago. (. . .) In addition,
the object and purpose of the Convention as an instrument for the
protection of individual human beings requires that its provisions be

interpreted and applied so as to make its safeguards practical and
effective.” (Application No. 5856/72, paras. 71-72.)

32. Likewise, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, in its Judg -
ment (of 31 August 2001) in the case of the Mayagna (Sumo) Awas

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Tingni Community v. Nicaragua, stated that “human rights treaties are
living instruments, the interpretation of which ought to adapt to the evéo-

lution of times, and, in particular, to current living conditions” (épara1.46).
In the same line of thinking, in its earlier Advisory Opinion (of 1 October
1999) on The Right to Information on Consular Assistance in the Frame -
work of the Guarantees of the Due Process of Law, the Inter-American

Court observed that the International Law of Human Rights
“has made great headway thanks to an evolutive interpretation of

international instruments of protection. That evolutive interpretation
is consistent with the general rules of treaty interpretation establisheéd
in the 1969 Vienna Convention. (. . .) [H]uman rights treaties are liv -
ing instruments whose interpretation must consider the changes over

time and present-day conditions.” (Para. 114.)

33. The experience of supervisory organs of various international trea -
ties and conventions points to this direction as well. Not seldom they
have been faced with new challenges, requiring new responses from them, é

which could never have been anticipated, not even imagined, by the
draftsmen of the respective treaties and conventions. In sum, interna -
tional treaties and conventions are a product of their time, being also
living instruments. They evolve with time ; otherwise, they fall into desue -

tude. The ICRW is no exception to that. Those treaties endowed with
supervisory organs of their own (like the ICRW) disclose more aptitudeé
to face changing circumstances.

34. Moreover, in distinct domains of international law, treaties
endowed with a supervisory mechanism of their own have pursued a
hermeneutics of their own 14, facing the corresponding treaties and con -

ventions as living instruments. International treaties and conventions are
products of their time, and their interpretation and application in time,
with a temporal dimension, bears witness that they are indeed living
instruments. This happens not only in the present domain of conservationé

and management of li15ng marine resources, but likewise in other areas of
international law .
35. By the time of the adoption of the 1946 ICRW, in the mid-twenti -
eth century, there did not yet exist an awareness that the living marine

resources were not inexhaustible. Three and a half decades later, the
adoption of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS) — a major international law achievement in the nine -

14
Cf., for example, in the domain of the international protection of the réights of the
human person, A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos
Humanos, Vol. II, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S. A. Fabris Ed., 1999, Chap. XI, pp. 23-200.
15Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, International Law for Humankind — Towards a New
Jus Gentium, 2nd rev. ed., Leiden/The Hague, Nijhoff, 2013, Chap. II (“Time and Law
Revisited: International Law and the Temporal Dimension”), pp. 31-51.

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teenth century — contributed to the public order of the oceans, and to
the growing awareness that their living resources were not inexhaustible.
Unilateralism gradually yielded to collective regulation towards conservéa -

tion. An example to this effect is provided, under the 1946 ICRW, by the
1982 general moratorium on commercial whaling.

36. Another example can be found in the establishment by the IWC of
whale sanctuaries (under Article V (1) of the ICRW) (infra). The IWC
has so far adopted three whale sanctuaries : first, the Southern Ocean
Sanctuary (1948-1955) ; secondly, the Indian Ocean Sanctuary (1979,

renewed in 1989, and indefinitely as from 1992) ; thirdly, the new South -
ern Ocean Sanctuary (from 1994 onwards). Moreover, in its meetings
of 2001-2004, the IWC was lodged with a proposal (revised in 2005) of a
new sanctuary, the South Atlantic Sanctuary 1, so as to reassert the need

of conservation of whales.

37. Over the last three decades, the IWC has repeatedly made clear
that lethal research methods are not in line with the aforementioned moré -

atorium. In its resolution 2003-2, for example, the IWC calls for a limita -
tion of “scientific research” to “non-lethal methods only”, and expresses
its opposition to commercial whaling, “contrary to the spirit of the émora -
torium”, and presents an annotated compilation of its “Conservatioén
Work”, with a systematization of resolutions to this effect (Anns.é I-II).

It is nowadays reckoned that States parties to the ICRW that wish to
issue special permits are bound to co-operate with the IWC and the Sci -
entific Committee, and to give consideration to the views of other Stateés
parties expressed through the comments of the IWC and the recommen -

dations of the Scientific Committee.
38. Parallel to this, multilateral conventions (such as UNCLOS and
CBD) have established a framework for the conservation and manage -
ment of living marine resources. The UNCLOS Convention contains a
17
series of provisions to that effect . As to the CBD Convention, the Con -
ference of the parties held in Jakarta in 1995, for example, adopted the
Jakarta Mandate on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity, reasserting the rel -
evance of conservation and ecologically sustainable use of coastal and

marine biodiversity, and, in particular, linking conservation, sustainabéle
use of biodiversity and fishing activities.

39. Furthermore, in its meeting of 2002, the States parties to the Con -

vention on Migratory Species (CMS) pointed out the need to give greater
protection to six species of whales (including the Antarctic minke whalées)

16Propounded mainly by Brazil, Argentina, South Africa and Uruguay in the éambit of
the IWC. On the proposal, cf. “Chair’s Report of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Interna-
tional Whaling Commission”, pp. 33-34.
17Such as Articles 61, 64-67, 192, 194 and 204 (2).

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and their habitats, breeding grounds and migratory routes. These are
clear illustrations of the evolving opinio juris communis on the matter. In
18
its 2010 meeting, held in Agadir, Morocco, the “Buenos Aires Group”
reiterated support for the creation of a new South Atlantic Sanctuary for
whales, and positioned itself in favour of conservation and non-lethal use
of whales 19, and against so-called “scientific whaling” (in particular in the

cases of endangered or severely depleted species).

40. The “Buenos Aires Group” stressed the needed implementation of
the moratorium, and recalled the achievements of the IWC since the earlyé
1980s. It further called for a reform of Articles V (whaling under objec -
tion) and VIII (scientific whaling) of the ICRW, so that their interpreta -

tion and application do not go against the principle of conservation of é
whales underlying the Convention. More recently, on 4 February 2013,
the same “Buenos Aires Group” expressed its “strongest rejectioén” of the
ongoing whale hunting (including species classified as endangered) in éthe

Southern Ocean Sanctuary (para. 1), with catches pointing to “an opera -
tion of a commercial nature which lacks any scientific justificationӎ
(para. 2). After calling for non-lethal methods and “the maintenance of
the commercial moratorium in place since 1986”, the “Buenos Aires

Group” stated that the ongoing whale hunting was in breach of “theé
spirit and the text” of the 1946 ICRW, and failed to respect “the integrity
of the whale sanctuaries recognized by the IWC” (paras. 3-4).

VI. Inter-Generational Equity

41. The 1946 ICRW was indeed pioneering, in acknowledging, in its

Preamble, “the interest of the nations of the world in safeguarding for
future generations the great natural resources represented by the whale é
stocks”. At that time, shortly after World War II, its draftsmen could
hardly have anticipated that this concern would achieve the dimension ité

did, in the international agenda and in international law-making (in par -
ticular in the domain of international environmental law) in the decadeés
that followed. The long-term temporal dimension, underlying the
inter-generational equity, was properly acknowledged. And the concep -

tual construction of inter-generational equity (in the process of which I

18
Formed by Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Repuéblic,
Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru and Uruguay.
19Cf. Chair’s Report of the 62nd Annual Meeting of the International Whalinég
Commission, pp. 7-8.

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had the privilege to take part) was to take place, in international legéal
doctrine, four decades later, from the mid-1980s onwards.

42. Within this Court, I had in fact the occasion to address the
long-term temporal dimension, in relation to inter-generational equity, in

my separate opinion in the case of the Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay
(Argentina v. Uruguay) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), p. 14). I pon -
dered therein that

“The long-term temporal dimension marks its presence, in a noto -

rious way, in the domain of environmental protection. The concern
for the prevalence of the element of conservation (over the simple
exploitation of natural resources) reflects a cultural manifestation éof

the integration of the human being with nature and the world wherein
he or she lives. Such understanding is, in my view, projected both in
space and in time, as human beings relate themselves, in space, with

the natural system of which they form part (and ought to treat with
diligence and care), and, in time, with other generations (past and
future) 20, in respect of which they have obligations. (. . .)

In fact, concern with future generations underlies some environ -
mental law conventions . In addition, in the same line of reasoning,
the 1997 UNESCO Declaration on the Responsibilities of Present

Generations Towards Future Generations, after invoking, inter alia,
the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the two 1966
United Nations Covenants on Human Rights, recalls the responsibil -

ities of present generations to ensure that ‘the needs and interests éof
present and future generations are fully safeguarded’ (Article 1 and
Preamble). The 1997 Declaration added, inter alia, that ‘the present

generations should strive to ensure the maintenance and perpetuation

20Future generations promptly began to attract the attention of the conteméporary
doctrine of international law : cf., e.g., A.-Ch. Kiss, “La notion de patrimoine commun
de l’humanité”, 175 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye
(RCADI) (1982), pp. 109-253 ; E. Brown Weiss, In Fairness to Future Generations : Inter-
national Law, Common Patrimony and Intergenerational Equity, Tokyo/Dobbs Ferry

N.Y., United Nations University/Transnational Publs., 1989, pp. 1-351 ; A.-Ch. Kiss,
“The Rights and Interests of Future Generations and the Precautionaryé Principle”, The
Precautionary Principle and International Law — The Challenge of Implementation (eds.
D. Freestone and E. Hey), The Hague, Kluwer, 1996, pp. 19-28; [Various Authors], Future
Generations and International Law (eds. E. Agius and S. Busuttil et al.), London, E-rth
scan, 1998, pp. 3-197 ; [Various Authors], Human Rights : New Dimensions and Challenges
(J. Symonides, ed.), Paris/Aldershot, UNESCO/Dartmouth, 1998, pp. 1-153 ; [Various
Authors], Handbook of Intergenerational Justice (J. C. Tremmel, ed.), Cheltenham,

E. 21gar Publ., 2006, pp. 23-332.
E.g., the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the
1997 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the 1987 Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, among others.

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of humankind with due respect for the dignity of the human person’

(Art. 3). Almost two decades earlier, the United Nations General
Assembly adopted, on 30 October 1980, its resolution proclaiming
‘the historical responsibility of States for the preservation of natuére
for present and future generations’ (para. 1) ; it further called upon

States, in ‘the interests of present and future generations’, to téake
‘measures (. . .) necessary for preserving nature’ (para. 3). (. . .)

May I recall that the subject at issue was originally taken up by the
Advisory Committee to the United Nations University (UNU) on a

project on the matter, in early 1988, so as to provide an innovative
response to rising and growing concerns over the depletion of natural
resources and the degradation of environmental quality and the rec -

ognition of the need to conserve the natural and cultural heritage (at
all levels, national, regional and international ; and governmental as
well as non-governmental). The Advisory Committee, composed of
22 23
professors from distinct continents , met in Goa, India , and issued,
on 15 February 1988, a final document titled ‘Goa Guidelines on
Intergenerational Equity’ 24, which stated :

‘Th[e] temporal dimension is articulated through the formula -
tion of the theory of ‘intergenerational equity’ ; all members of

each generation of human beings, as a species, inherit a natural
and cultural patrimony from past generations, both as beneficia -
ries and as custodians under the duty to pass on this heritage to
future generations. As a central point of this theory the right of

each generation to benefit from this natural and cultural heritage
is inseparably coupled with the obligation to use this heritage in
such a manner that it can be passed on to future generations in no

worse condition than it was received from past generations. This
requires conservation and, as appropriate, enhancement of the
quality and of the diversity of this heritage. The conservation of

cultural diversity is as important as the conservation of environ -
mental diversity to ensure options for future generations.

22 Namely, Professors E. Brown Weiss, A. A. Cançado Trindade, A.-Ch. Kiss,
R. S. Pathak, Lai Peng Cheng and E. W. Ploman.
23 In the meeting held in Goa, India, convened by the United Nations Univerésity (UNU),
the members of the UNU Advisory Committee acted in their own personal caépacity.
24 These Guidelines, adopted on 15 February 1988, were the outcome of prolonged
discussions, which formed part of a major study sponsored by the UNU. It is not my
intention to recall, in the present separate opinion, the points raised éin those discussions,

annotated in the unpublished UNU dossiers and working documents, on fileé with me since
February 1988.

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Specifically, the principle of intergenerational equity requires

conserving the diversity and the quality of biological resources.
(. . .)
The principles of equity governing the relationship between
generations (. . .) pertain to valued interests of past, present and

future generations, covering natural and cultural resources. (. . .)
There is a complementarity between recognized human rights and
the proposed intergenerational rights. (. . .)’ 25

And the aforementioned UNU document moved on to propose
strategies to implement inter-generational rights and obligations.

From then onwards, the first studies on this specific topic of inter-
generational equity, in the framework of the conceptual universe of
International Environmental Law, began to flourish 2. From the late
1980s onwards, inter-generational equity has been articulated amidst

the growing awareness of the vulnerability of the environment, of
the threat and gravity of sudden and global changes, and, ultimately,
of one’s own mortality.” 27

43. Inter-generational equity comes again to the fore in the present
case of Whaling in the Antarctic. The factual context of the cas d’espèce is
of course quite distinct from that of the Pulp Mills case ; yet, significantly,
in one and the other, inter-generational equity (with its long-term tempo -

ral dimension) marks its presence. It does so in distinct internationalé
instruments of international environmental law, and in its domain as a
whole. And this cannot pass unnoticed here.

44. In this respect, the 1973 CITES Convention, e.g., states in its Pre -
amble that wild fauna and flora “must be protected for this and theé gen -
erations to come”, and adds that “peoples and States are and shouléd be

the best protectors of their own wild fauna and flora”. The CITES Céon -
vention provides for control of trade, and prevention or restriction of
exploitation of species (Art. II). The 1979 Convention on the Conserva -

tion of Migratory Species of Wild Animals asserts in its Preamble the
awareness that each generation “holds the resources of the earth for é
future generations and has an obligation to ensure that this legacy is céon -
served and, where utilized, is used wisely”. Furthermore, it recognizées in

25 The full text of the “Goa Guidelines on Intergenerational Equity” éis reproduced in
Annexes to the two following books, whose authors participated in the elaboration of the
document: E. Brown Weiss, In Fairness to Future Generations: International Law, Common
Patrimony and Intergenerational Equity, op. cit. supra note 20, Appendix A, pp. 293-295 ;
A. A. Cançado Trindade, Direitos Humanos e Meio Ambiente : Paralelo dos Sistemas de
Proteção Internacional, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S. A. Fabris Ed., 1993, Ann. IX, pp. 296-298.

26Cf., inter alia, supra note 20.
27
Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2010 (I), pp. 177-180, paras. 114, 118, 120 and 121 of my aforementioned separate opinion.

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the Preamble that “wild animals in their innumerable forms are an irre -
placeable part of the earth’s natural system which must be conserved éfor

the good of mankind”.

45. The 1992 CBD Convention expresses, in its Preamble, the determi -

nation “to conserve and sustainably use biological diversity for the bene -
fit of present and future generations”. It further asserts in its Preéamble
that “the conservation of biological diversity is a common concern ofé
humankind”, and calls for “the conservation of biological diversitéy and

the sustainable use of its components”, also to “contribute to peaéce for
humankind”. In its operative part, the CBD Convention then proceeds, é
in detail, to provide for conservation of biological diversity and its séus -
tainable use (Arts. 1, 6-10, 11-13, and 17-18).

46. In the course of a meeting of a UNEP Group of Legal Experts —
of which I keep a good memory — which took place in Malta before the
holding of the 1992 UNCED Conference in Rio de Janeiro in the period

of the travaux préparatoires of the CBD Convention — the need was
stressed of relating “preventive with corrective measures, with preveéntive
measures seeming “to lend themselves more easily to an inter-generational
perspective” 28. The Group of Legal Experts then identified “the constitu -

tive elements” of common concern of humankind, namely :

“involvement of all countries, all societies, and all classes of peopéle
within countries and societies; long-term temporal dimension, encom -
passing present as well as future generations ; and some sort of shar -
29
ing of burdens of environmental protection” .

47. In effect, inter-generational equity marks presence nowadays in a
wide range of instruments of international environmental law, and indeedé
of contemporary public international law. It goes beyond the scope of thée

present separate opinion to dwell extensively upon them. Suffice it herée to
refer to yet another illustration. The 2001 UNESCO Universal Declara-
tion on Cultural Diversity, e.g., after expressing, in its Preamble, theé aspir-
ation to “greater solidarity” on the basis of “recognition of céultural

diversity, of awareness of the unity of humankind, and of the develop -
ment of intercultural exchanges”, adds, in Article 1, that “cultural diver -
sity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature” ; in this

28
UNEP, “Report on the Proceedings of the Meeting Prepared by the Co-Raéppor -
teurs, Profs. A. A. Cançado Trindade and D. J. Attard”, The Meeting of the Group of Legal
Experts to Examine the Concept of the Common Concern of Mankind in Relation to Global
Environmental Issues (D. J. Attard, ed. — Malta, University of Malta, 13-15 December
1990), Nairobi, UNEP, 1991, p. 22, para. 6.
29 Ibid., p. 21, para. 4.

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sense, “it is the common heritage of humanity and should be recognized

and affirmed for the benefit of present and future generations”.

VII. Conservation of Livingé Species (Marine Mammals)é

1. The Tension between Conservation and Exploitation :
Arguments of the Parties

48. In the course of the proceedings (written phase) of the present case

Whaling in the Antarctic, both Australia and Japan referred, in distinct
terms to the conservation of marine mammals. To start with, Australia’és
Memorial devoted some attention to the development, from the mid-1970s
onwards, of a treaty-based regime for the conservation of marine mam -
mals. It observed that, from then onwards, “the international communiéty

has adopted an increasingly conservation-oriented approach in the devel -
opment of treaty regimes, including those covering marine mammals”
(para. 4.84). This, in its view, has led to “significant developments in thée
law relating to conservation” (para. 4.85).
49. In Australia’s view, those international instruments recognize “thée

intrinsic value” of all living species, and “the importance of conéservation
of migratory species and biological diversity as common concerns of
mankind”. They are directly relevant to the conservation and manage -
ment of whales, and support an interpretation of Article VIII of the

ICRW that “contributes to, rather than undermines, the conservation of
whales” (para. 4.86). Australia then advances “a restrictive interpretation
of the Article VIII exception, and a stringent limitation on the use of
lethal methods of scientific research if non-lethal means are available”
(para. 4.86). Australia further refers to the recognition of the “precau -

tionary approach” in several “international environmental agreemenéts,
concerning both broader environmental matters, and, more particularly,
the conservation and protection of marine mammals” (para. 4.89).

50. For its part, Japan, in its Counter-Memorial, argued that, in its
view, there is “no contradiction” between the conservation and theé exploi -
tation of whales, not even under the ICRW (para. 6.15). In the same line
of thinking — Japan added — the United Nations Convention on

Biological Diversity (CBD) “permits the use of biological resourcesé” in a
manner that avoids or minimizes “adverse impacts” on biological diéver -
sity (para. 6.17). In Japan’s view, the term “use” includes “both commeér-
cial exploitation and use for the purposes of scientific research”
(para. 6.18). Japan then recalled that the concept of “sustainable use” éhas

been further developed by the Conference of the States parties to the

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CBD, which, in 2004, adopted the Addis Ababa Principles and Guide -
lines for the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity, recognizing that :

“Sustainable use is a valuable tool to promote conservation of bio-
logical diversity, since in many instances it provides incentives for
conservation and restoration because of social, cultural and economic
benefits that people derive from that use. In turn, sustainable use

cannot be achieved without effective conservation measures. In this
context, and as recognized in the Plan of Implementation of the
World Summit on Sustainable Development, sustainable use is an
effective tool to combat poverty, and consequently, to achieve sus -

tainable development.” (Memorial of Australia, para. 6.19.)
51. Japan further argued that the policy of “combination of conserva -

tion and sustainable use” under the CBD has been a “matter of practical
necessity”, and “what types and levels of utilization are sustainaéble will
depend on the status of the species and the demands upon it at any par -
ticular time” (ibid., para. 6.20). As the “level of exploitation” would
depend on “the conservation status of the species in question” — Japan

added — it followed that “the measures adopted to promote sustainable
use of biological resources should be adjusted according to the informa -
tion available about a species, bearing in mind the precautionary
approach” (ibid., para. 6.22).

2. Whale Stocks — Conservation and Development :
Responses of the Parties and the Intervenor
to Questions from the Bench

52. There has been growing awareness in recent years that the ICRW

does not allow the use of whales to take place to the detriment of the
conservation of whale stocks. The general membership of the ICRW
(encompassing both whaling and non-whaling States) has been attentive
to the growing emphasis on conservation, with more protective measures

(by the IWC), and the gradual crystallization of the precautionary prin -
ciple (cf. infra). In the present case of Whaling in the Antarctic, in the
course of the oral pleadings before the Court (on 8 July 2013), I deemed
it fit to put the following questions to Japan, Australia and New Zealand
together :

“[1.] How do you interpret the terms ‘conservation and development’
of whale stocks under the International Convention for the Reg -

ulation of Whaling ?
[2.] In your view, can a programme that utilizes lethal methods be
considered ‘scientific research’, in line with the object and purpéose
of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whalin?g” 30

30
CR 2013/17, of 8 July 2013, p. 49.

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And then, I addressed the following additional questions only to Japan :

“1. To what extent would the use of alternative non-lethal methods

affect the objectives of the JARPA II programme ?

2. What would happen to whale stocks if many, or even all States
parties to the International Convention for the Regulation of

Whaling, decide to undertake ‘scientific research’ using lethal
methods, upon their own initiative, similarly to the modus oper -
andi of JARPA II ?” 31

53. The questions I put to Australia, Japan and New Zealand together
pertained to the interpretation of the terms “conservation and develoép -

ment” of whale stocks under the ICRW, and to the methods to be used in
“scientific research” in the light of the object and purpose of thée ICRW.
In its answer, Australia drew attention to quotas for “aboriginal subésis -

tence whaling”, and to measures for purposes other than consumption
(e.g., whale watching) 32. For its part, Japan referred to the co-existence
between “conservationist measures” (e.g., moratorium and sanctuaréies)
33
and “scientific whaling” under Article VIII of the ICRW .

54. In its response, the intervenor, New Zealand, warned against the

excesses of commercial whaling (also referring to the sustainable use of
whale stocks), invoking the Preamble of the ICRW’s provision, to the
effect that whale capture cannot endanger those “natural resources”.

New Zealand further referred to the duty of co-operation and “the needs
of conservation for the benefit of all”. Invoking the precautionary
approach, New Zealand ascribed a limited role to Article VIII for the
conduct of scientific research, adding that lethal methods could only beé
34
used when they created no risk of an adverse effect on the whales stock .

55. As to one of the questions I addressed to Japan, pertaining to the
objectives of a programme (supra), the argument advanced by Japan was
that the research objectives (of JARPA II) dictated the methods, and not
vice versa. If certain data could only be collected by using lethal methods, é

in its view there would be no alternative non-lethal methods. Japan then
added that there were limitations to the use of non-lethal methods of
biopsy sampling and satellite tagging 35.

31 CR 2013/17, of 8 July 2013, p. 49.
32 CR 2013/19, of 10 July 2013, p. 54, para. 79.
33 CR 2013/21, of 15 July 2013, pp. 40-41, paras. 20-21.
34 Written Responses of New Zealand, op. cit. supra note 3, pp. 4-5, paras. 1-4.

35
CR 2013/22, of 15 July 2013, p. 48, para. 20.

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56. Australia retorted that the objectives of JARPA II were, in its
view, rather vague and general, and seemed to have been adopted and
applied so as to allow the killing of whales ; thus, the methods (of

JARPA II) dictated the objectives, and not vice versa. After criticizing the
stated objectives of JARPA II, Australia advocated the use of non-lethal
methods under that programme. And it added that, if many of the States
parties to the ICRW felt entirely free — as Japan does — to decide for

itself to issue special permits under Article VIII for the taking of any
number of whales, this would certainly have adverse effects on the finé,
humpback and other whale stocks 36. Australia expressed its concern that,
as the situation stands at present, “an unknown and indefinite numberé of
37
whales will be taken under JARPA II” .

3. General Assessment

57. It has been made clear, in recent decades, that the international
community has adopted a conservation-oriented approach in treaty
regimes, including treaties covering marine mammals. The ICRW is to be
properly interpreted in this context ; it does not stand alone as a single

international Convention aimed at conservation and management of
marine mammals. The ICRW is part of a plethora of international instru -
ments adopted in recent years, aiming at conservation with a precaution -
ary approach. Amongst these instruments stands the United Nations

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), adopted at the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), in
Rio de Janeiro, on 5 June 1992, which can here be recalled as an interna -
tional instrument aiming at conservation of living species.

58. The CBD is directly pertinent to conservation and management of
whales. For example, in its Preamble, it asserts inter alia its determination
“to conserve and sustainably use biological diversity for the benefité

of present and future generations”. In this respect, the ICRW should be é
read in the light of other international instruments that follow a
conservation-oriented approach and the precautionary principle. The
existence of the ICRW in relation to Conventions aimed at conserva -

tion of living resources supports a narrow interpretation of Article VIII
of the ICRW.
59. Accordingly, Article VIII (1), as already pointed out, cannot be
broadly interpreted, and cannot at all be taken as a so-called “self-

contained” regime or system. It is not a free-standing platform, not a
carte blanche given to States to do as they freely wish. It is part and parcel
of a system of collective guarantee and collective regulation oriented

36Written Comments of Australia on Japan’s Responses to Questions Put béy Judges
during the Oral Proceedings, of 19 July 2013, pp. 8-13.
37CR 2013/20, of 10 July 2013, p. 16, para. 37.

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towards the conservation of living species. Thus, Article VIII (1) can only
be interpreted in a restrictive way ; all States parties to the ICRW have
recognizedly a common interest in the conservation and in the long-term
future of whale stocks.

VIII. Principle of Preventioén and the Precautionaéry Principl:e
Arguments of the Partieés and the Intervenor

60. Although the Court does not dwell upon the precautionary princi -
ple or approach in the present Judgment in the case of Whaling in the
Antarctic (Australia v. Japan: New Zealand intervening), I deem it fit to
recall and point out herein that, in the course of the proceedings in thée

present case, the two contending Parties as well as New Zealand addressed
the principle of prevention and the precautionary principle as related téo
the cas d’espèce. In its oral arguments, Australia stressed conservation
under contemporary international environmental law, invoking its “thréee
main legal pillars”, namely, “intergenerational equity, the principle of

prevention and the precautionary approach”, principles that are to “gov -
ern the interpretation and the application of the 1946 Convention régime,
as they make it possible for its object and purpose to be achieved” 3.
61. In the same line of thinking, in its Memorial Australia upheld the

precautionary principle, asserting that, for example, “[t]he establiséhment
of sanctuaries reflects also the increasing importance of the precautiéonary
approach in the IWC’s management and conservation of whales” (p. 42,
para. 2.80). It has then added that

“[t]he IWC now pursues conservation of whales as an end itself. In
so doing, it places greater reliance on a precautionary approach to

conservation and management combined with a focus on non-con -
sumptive use” (p. 52, para. 2.99).

62. Australia, in sum, identified an “increasingly conservation-oriented
approach” (p. 172, para. 4.83). This is so in view of the growing pursu -
ance of the precautionary approach. In Australia’s perception,

“This development, which has been recognized by the IWC, must
be taken into account in interpreting the Article VIII exception. In
practical terms, and in the face of uncertainty as to the status of whalée

stocks and the effect of any lethal take, precaution directs an inter -
pretation of Article VIII that limits the killing of whales.

The precautionary approach specifically is intended to provide
guidance in the development and application of international environ-

38
CR 2013/7, of 26 June 2013, pp. 56-58, paras. 50, 55 and 57-58.

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mental law where there is scientific uncertainty. The core of this

approach is reflected in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration (. . .). The
approach requires caution and vigilance in decision-making in the
face of such uncertainty.

The precautionary approach has been recognized in a number of
international policy documents and international environmental
agreements, concerning both broader environmental matters and,

more particularly, the conservation and protection of marine mam -
mals. (. . .)
The Contracting Governments to the ICRW have agreed to the adop -
tion of a precautionary approach in a wide range of matters. As applied

to Article VIII, this means that the uncertainty regarding the status of
whale stocks requires Contracting Governments to act with prudence
and caution by strictly limiting the grant of special permits under Artié -
39
cle VIII.” (Memorial of Australia, pp. 173-176, paras. 4.87-4.91.)

63. In sum, in Australia’s understanding, developments in international
law confirm that “Article VIII is to be interpreted as an exception that is
only available in limited circumstances”; Article VIII “is not self-judging”,
and its application is to be “determined by reference to objective créiteria,

consistent with those adopted by the Commission established under the
ICRW”. Such an approach — Australia added — is consistent with “the
broader international legal framework in which the ICRW now rests”,

which promotes a “conservation-oriented focus” that is consistent with the
precautionary approach (ibid., pp. 173-176, paras. 4.87-4.91). Australia
concluded on this point that “the Article VIII exception” had a “strictly
limited application”, in particular where there is “uncertainty reégarding

the status of the relevant whale stocks” (ibid., p. 187, paras. 4.118). Also in
its oral arguments, Australia insisted that “the aim of the precautionary
approach is conservation (. . .)”, and this latter applies in particular “where
40
there is scientific uncertainty” .
64. For its part, in its arguments (in the written and oral phases) Japan
did not elaborate on the principle of prevention. Furthermore, in its
41
Counter-Memorial, it somehow minimized the precautionary approach ,
but it conceded that such an approach entailed “the conduct of furtheér
special permit whaling for scientific purposes as a means of improving

39
Australia recalled, still in its Memorial, not only the incorporation ofé the -recau
tionary approach (as propounded in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development) in “a growing number of international treaties”,é but also the contem
porary case law on the subject, of the International Court of Justice (écase of the Pulp
Mills on the River Uruguay), as well as of the International Tribunal for the Law of the
Sea (ITLOS) (the Southern Bluefin Tuna cases, and the Advisory Opinion of its Sea-Bed
Disputes Chamber, on the Responsibilities and Obligations of States Sponsoring Persons
and Entities with Respect to Activities in the Area) (pp. 173-176, paras. 4.87-4.91).

40
41CR 2013/7, of 26 June 2013, p. 47, paras. 53-54.
Counter-Memorial of Japan, p. 132, para. 3.92.

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understanding of marine ecosystems and the sustainability of whale
stocks”; it was on that basis, Japan added, “that JARPA and JARPA II

have been designed and carried out”, in a “prudent and cautious” way,
posing “no risk to the survival of abundant minke whale stocks” 4.

65. In its oral arguments, Japan further stated that it was conducting
“scientific research” in such a way that “no harm to stocks”é would occur
“in full application of the precautionary approach”. It added thaté “[l]ittle

is known of the ecosystem in the Antarctic Ocean”, and it was “preécisely
to supply the Scientific Committee with necessary scientific data that
Japan is pursuing research whaling”, and, together with “other natéions’

contribution, conservation and management based on science under the
IWC has been making progress” 43. In invoking the precautionary
approach (as expressed in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environ-

ment and Development),Japan asserted that the JARPA II programme was
“consistent” with its requirements ; Japan then called for “a permissive
interpretation and application of Article VIII of the ICRW, so as to render
44
it effective” .

66. For its part, New Zealand, in its oral arguments, in addressing the
principle of prevention, stated that “consultations and negotiations” — in
pursuance of the duty of co-operation — are to be “meaningful” 45, also
46
taking into account “the views and legitimate interests of others”é . Turn-
ing to the precautionary principle or approach, New Zealand argued, in
its written observations, that States parties to the ICRW do not have fuéll

discretion, in the form of a “blank cheque”, to “determine the énumber of
whales to be killed under special permit under Article VIII” ; they have to
proceed reasonably, so as to achieve the object and purpose of the Con -
47
vention as a whole .

67. That number of whales, New Zealand proceeded in its written

observations, ought to be “necessary and proportionate to the objectives
of the scientific research”, pursuant to the precautionary approach aés
related to “the conservation and management of living marine resourceés”.

42Japan added that “possible effects ofJARPA II catches on whale stocks were analysed
and submitted to the IWC Scientific Committee in 2005”, and those analyses concluded
that “there would be no adverse effects on the long-term status of any of the targeted whale

species in the Antarctic”. Japan concluded that, if there was “sciéentific uncertainty about
the conservation status and population dynamics of whale stocks”, theén further research
would become necessary, and it would keep on “acting prudently in conétinuing to conduct
JARPA II” (Counter-Memorial of Japan, pp. 424-426, paras. 9.33-9.36).

43CR 2013/12, of 2 July 2013, pp. 15-16, para. 9.
44CR 2013/16, of 4 July 2013, pp. 29-35, para. 19, and cf. also paras. 11-12, 15-16,

and450-21.
46CR 2013/17, of 8 July 2013, p. 45, para. 30.
Ibid., p. 46, para. 33.
47Ibid., pp. 25-27, paras. 34-38.

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New Zealand added in its written observations, that States parties are
required to act with “prudence and caution”, particularly when “éinforma -
tion is uncertain, unreliable or inadequate”, so as to avoid “any éharm”

(CR 2013/17, of 8 July 2013, pp. 40-41, paras. 73-74). In issuing a special
permit, a State party to the ICRW is to demonstrate that it “will avoéid
any adverse effect on the conservation of the stock” (ibid., p. 41, para. 75).

68. Again in its oral arguments, New Zealand sustained that the issue

here in contention is the number of whales to be killed, which, in its view,
cannot be “entirely self-judging”, nor completely without review 48. In its
view, the determination of that number should take into account certain é
factors, namely :

“(a) first, the number of whales killed must be the lowest necessary

for, and proportionate to, the purposes of scientific research ;
(b) as a consequence, there is an expectation that non-lethal methods
of research will be used ;
(c) third, the number of whales to be killed must be set at a level
which takes into account the precautionary approach ; and

(d) finally, the discretion to set the number of whales to be killed must
be exercised reasonably and consistent with the object and pur -
pose of the Convention” 4.

69. Insisting on the relevance of the precautionary approach, New Zea-
land added that States parties to the ICRW “should act with prudence
and caution when applying provisions, such as Article VIII, which may

have an effect on the conservation of natural resources”. Such “éprudence
and caution” are even more needed “when the information is uncertaéin,
unreliable or inadequate” (ibid., para. 15). A “prudent and cautious”
approach would ensure that the number of whales to be taken “is neces -
sary and proportionate”, and would “give preference to the conducté of

non-lethal methods of re50arch. (. . .) [U]ncertainty is the very reason for
acting with caution.”

70. Even if the Court, in the present Judgment in the Whaling in the

Antarctic case, has not seen it fit to pronounce on the principle of preven -
tion and the precautionary principle, it is, in my view, significant thaét the
contending Parties, Australia and Japan, and the intervenor, New Zea -
land, have cared to refer to these principles, in general, in their arguments
as to whether or not Japan’s whaling practices under special permits écon-

form to them. Such principles are to inform and conform any programmes
under special permits within the limited scope of Article VIII of the ICRW.
Furthermore, the principles of prevention and precaution appear inter-
related in the present case of Whaling in the Antarctic.

48CR 2013/17, of 8 July 2013, p. 35, para. 3.
49Ibid., pp. 35-36, para. 3.
50Ibid., p. 40, para. 17.

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71. May I add just one final remark in this respect. Despite the hesita -

tion of the ICJ (and of other international tribunals in general) to péro -
nounce and dwell upon the precautionary principle, expert writing
increasingly examines it, drawing attention to its incidence when there éis
need to take protective measures in face of risks, even in the absence oéf

corresponding scientific proof. The precautionary principle, in turn,
draws attention to the time factor, the temporal dimension, which marks
a noticeable presence in the interpretation and application of treaties éand
51
instruments of international environmental law . In this domain in gen -
eral, and in respect of the ICRW in particular, there has occurred, withé
the passing of time, a move towards conservation of living marine
resources as a common interest, prevailing over State unilateral action in
52
search of commercial profitability . This move has taken place by the
operation of the system of collective guarantee, collective decision-making
and collective regulation under the ICRW (cf. item II, supra).

IX. Responses from the Experéts, and Remaining Uncerétainties
around “Scientific Reésearch” (under JARPA II)

72. During the public sittings of the Court, I deemed it fit to put sev -

eral questions to the experts of Australia and Japan. In response to my é
five questions put to him, the expert of Australia (M. Mangel) addressed
the availability of non-lethal research techniques to States parties to the

1946 ICRW in the context of conservation and management of whales,
pointing out that their use (so as to replace lethal methods) would deépend
on “having a relevant question”, as there is “always a tension éin the sci -
entific community about the exact question” 53. Satellite tagging, e.g., has

become a non-lethal tool, with the technological development as from the
early 1990s, for the collection of information (e.g., on the movement oéf
whales) 54.

73. In response to my three questions put to him, the expert of Japan
(L. Walløe) compared biopsy sampling with lethal sampling. He admitted
that he could not determine the total of whales to be killed to attain the

objectives of “scientific research” (as under JARPA II), as that, in his
view, would depend on the question one would be focusing on ; but, “for
the time being”, he added, and “for some years”, it would “be justified to

51 Cf., generally, e.g., Y. Tanaka, “Reflections on Time Elements in the International
Law of the Environment”, 73 Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Vö-ker
recht (2013), pp. 143-147, 150-156, 165-167 and 170-175.
52 Cf. M. Bowman, “‘Normalizing’ the International Convention for the Regéulation of
Whaling”, 29 Michigan Journal of International Law (2008), pp. 139, 163, 175-177 and 199.

53
54 CR 2013/9, of 27 June 2013, pp. 64-66.
Ibid., pp. 66-67.

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kill 850” 5. He submitted that, for certain purposes, “lethal research”
(e.g., on the amount of stomach contents) continued to be necessary 56.

Yet, despite these responses, there remained, in my perception, the
impression of a lack of general criteria for the determination of the
total whales to be killed, and for how long, for the purposes of so-called
“scientific research”.

74. “Scientific research” is surrounded by uncertainties ; it is under -

taken on the basis of uncertainties. Suffice it here to recall the legaécy of
Karl Popper, who used to ponder wisely that scientific knowledge can
only be uncertain or conjectural, while ignorance is infinite. Scientifiéc
research is a search for truth, amidst conjectures, and, given one’s éfalli-

bility, one has to learn with mistakes incurred into. One can hope to be
coming closer to truth, but without knowing for sure whether one is dis -
tant from, or near it. Without the ineluctable refutations, science would
fall into stagnation, losing its empirical character. Conjectures and reéfuta -
57
tions are needed, for science to keep on advancing in its empirical path .
As for the cas d’espèce, would this mean that whales could keep on being
killed, and increasingly so, for “scientific purposes” and amidst éscientific
uncertainty? I do not think so ; there are also non-lethal methods, and,

after all, living marine resources are not inexhaustible.

X. Reiterated Calls undeér the ICRW for
Non-Lethal Use of Cetaceansé

75. The reiterated calls for non-lethal use of cetaceans, under the

ICRW, cannot pass unnoticed here. In its resolution 1995-9, on whaling
under special permit, the IWC recommended that “scientific research”é
intended to assist the comprehensive assessment of whale stocks should
be undertaken by non-lethal means ; furthermore, it recalled that the

ICRW recognizes the common interest of all “the nations of the world”é
in safeguarding the “great natural resources” of whale stocks “éfor future
generations”. Subsequently, in its resolution 2005-I, on JARPA II, the
IWC began by recalling (second preambular paragraph) that

“since the moratorium on commercial whaling came into force
in 1985-1986, the IWC has adopted over 30 resolutions on special

55
56 CR 2013/14, of 3 July 2013, pp. 50-51.
57 Ibid., pp. 51-52.
Cf. Karl R. Popper, Conjecturas e Refutações — O Progresso do Conhecimento
Científico [Conjectures and Refutations — The Growth of Scientific Knowledge], ed.,
Brasília, Editora Universidade de Brasília, 2008, pp. 255, 257, 260, 269 and 271.

154

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permit whaling in which it has generally expressed its opinion that

special permit whaling should : be terminated and scientific research
limited to non-lethal methods only (2003-2) ; refrain from involving
the killing of cetaceans in sanctuaries (1998-4); ensure that the recov-
ery of populations is not impeded (1987) ; and take account of the
comments of the Scientific Committee (1987)”.

76. Resolution 2005-I of the IWC proceeded to express concern (sixth
preambular paragraph) that “more than 6,800 Antarctic minke whales
(Balaenoptera bonaerensis) have been killed in Antarctic waters under the
18 years of JARPA, compared with a total of 840 whales killed globally

by Japan for scientific research in the 31-year period prior to the morato -
rium”. It then noted (tenth preambular paragraph) that “some humépback
whales which will be targeted by JARPA II belong to small, vulnerable
breeding populations around small island States in the South Pacific”,
and “even small takes could have a detrimental effect on the recovery and

survival of such populations”. The IWC further expressed concern (eléev-
enth preambular paragraph) that “JARPA II may have an adverse impact
on established long-term whale research projects involving humpback
whales”. At last, the operative part of resolution 2005-I “strongly” urged

Japan to withdraw its JARPA II proposal, or else to revise it to consider
using non-lethal means.

77. Two years later, the IWC adopted two new resolutions on the

non-lethal use of whale resources. In resolution 2007-1, the IWC recalled
that paragraph 7 (b) of the Schedule establishes the Southern Ocean
Sanctuary; it further recalled its repeated requests to States parties to
refrain from issuing special permits for research involving the killing of
whales within the Southern Ocean Sanctuary. It then expressed concern

at continuing lethal “research” within the Southern Ocean Sanctuaréy. In
relation to JARPA II in particular, the IWC noted that, thereunder, “the
take of minke whales has been more than doubled, and fin whales and
humpback whales have been added to the list of targeted species” (foéurth

preambular paragraph). Convinced that “the aims of JARPA II do
not address critically important research needs” (six preambular para -
graph), resolution 2007-I, in its operative part, called upon Japan 31 rec -
ommendations of the Scientific Committee and “to suspend indefinitelyé
the lethal aspects of JARPA II conducted within the Southern Ocean

Whale Sanctuary”.

78. In addition, the IWC recalled, in resolution 2007-3 (on Non-Lethal
Use of Cetaceans), the ICRW’s aim to safeguard “the natural resouérces
represented by whale stocks for the benefit of future generations” (éfirst

preambular paragraph). It noted that many coastal States adopted poli -

155

8 CIJ1062.indb 438 18/05/15 09:29 378 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

cies of non-lethal use of cetaceans in the waters under their jurisdiction,
in the light of relevant provisions of the 1982 United Nations Conventioén

on the Law of the Sea and the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development (second preambular paragraph). It pondered that “most
whale species are highly migratory” and are “thus shared biodiversity
resources” (third preambular paragraph). Calling for the non-lethal use
of whales, it further noted that “the moratorium on commercial whalinég

has been in effect since 1986 and has contributed to the recovery of some
cetacean populations essential for the promotion of non-lethal uses in
many countries” (sixth preambular paragraph).

79. Next, in the same resolution 2007-3, the IWC expressed its concern
that whales in the twenty-first century “face a wider range of threats than

those envisaged when the ICRW was concluded in 1946” (seventh pream -
bular paragraph). The IWC further notes that the Buenos Aires Declara -
tion states that “high quality and well managed implementation of whaéle
watching tourism promotes economic growth and social and cultural
development of local communities, bringing educational and scientific

benefits, whilst contributing to the protection of cetacean populationsӎ
(eighth preambular paragraph). Accordingly, in the operative part of rées -
olution 2007-3, the IWC recognized, first, the valuable benefits to be
derived from “the non-lethal uses of cetaceans as a resource, both in
terms of socio-economic and scientific development”, and secondly, the

non-lethal use as “a legitimate management strategy”. Thus, the IWC
encouraged member States “to work constructively” towards “the incor -
poration” of the needs of non-lethal uses of whale resources in “any
future decisions and agreements”.

XI. Concluding Observatioéns, on the JARPA II Programme
and the Requirements oéf the ICRW
and Its Schedule

80. Last but not least, as to the central question of the present case,

that is, whether JARPA II is in conformity with the ICRW and its Sched -
ule, — object of the main controversy between Australia and Japan — in
my perception JARPA II does not meet the requirements of a programme
“for purposes of scientific research” and does not fall under the éexception
contained in Article VIII of the ICRW. There are a few characteristics of

JARPA II which do not allow it to qualify under the exception of Arti -
cle VIII, to be restrictively interpreted ; in effect, the programme at issue
does not seem to be genuinely and solely motivated by the purpose of
conducting scientific research.

81. This is so, keeping in mind the relation between JARPA II’s stated

objectives and the methods used to achieve these objectives : lethal meth -
ods, which JARPA II widely applies in its operations, are, in my view,

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only to be used, first, where it is unavoidable to achieve a crucial objéective
of the scientific research ; secondly, where no other methods would be
available; and thirdly, where the number of whales killed corresponds to
those necessary to conduct the research. In practice, the use of lethal é

methods by JARPA II in relation to what seems to be a large number of
whales does not appear justifiable as “scientific research”.
82. Furthermore, the fact that JARPA II runs for an indefinite duration
also militates against its professed purpose of “scientific research”é. To my

mind, a scientific programme, when being devised, should have objectivesé
which go along a specific time frame for their achievement. To prolong téhe
killing of whales indefinitely does not seem to be in line with scientifiéc
research, nor justifiable. In addition, there subsists the concern with éthe
possible adverse effects of JARPA II on whale stocks. As just indicated,

JARPA II utilizes lethal methods and runs for an indefinite time. It is not
entirely convincing that, under these parameters, whale stocks subject téo
the programme will not be adversely affected. This is exacerbated in téhe
hypothesis that other States parties to the ICRW decide to follow the saéme

approach and methodology of Japan, and start likewise killing whales
allegedly for similar purposes of “scientific research”.
83. There could be an adverse impact on whale stocks if other States
parties to the ICRW decided to kill as many whales as Japan, within an

unlimited time frame, for purposes of “scientific research”. JARPA II, in
the manner it is being currently conducted, can have adverse effects oén
whale stocks. Even if there is a minor scientific purpose in the JARPA II
programme, it is clearly not the main purpose of the programme. In my
view, given the methodologies used (widely employing lethal methods —

cf. supra), the structure of the programme and its duration, “scientific
research” is not the sole purpose of the programme, nor the main one.é

84. As to the question whether commercial aspects are permissible
58
under Article VIII (2) of the Convention , the text of this provision
seems clear: it does not seem expressly to allow for commercial aspects of
a whaling programme under special permit. Article VIII (2) is aimed, in
my perception, solely to avoid waste. The commercialization of whale

meat does not seem to be in line with the purpose of granting special peér -
mits and should not be validated under this provision. Permitting com -
mercial aspects of a special permit whaling programme under this
provision would go against Article VIII as a whole, and the object and
purpose of the ICRW (cf. supra). Commercial whaling, pure and simple,

is not permissible under Article VIII (2).

58 Which reads as follows: “Any whales taken under these special permits shall so far as
practicable be processed and the proceeds shall be dealt with in accordaénce with directions
issued by the Government by which the permit was granted.”

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85. As to the Schedule, paragraph 30 sets forth a positive procedural
obligation of States parties to the ICRW, whereby Japan’s co-operation

with the IWC and the Scientific Committee is expected. The Court has
found, in the present Judgment in the Whaling in the Antarctic case, that

Japan has not acted in conformity with paragraph 10 (d) and (e) (whaling
moratorium, and assessment of effects of whale catches on stocks), and
paragraph7 (b) (prohibition of commercial whaling in the Southern Ocean

Sanctuary), of the Schedule (resolutory points 3-5). Japan does not appear
to have fulfilled this obligation to take into account comments, resolutions
and recommendations of the IWC and the Scientific Committee.

86. For example, I note that many resolutions 59have been issued over
the years concerning JARPA II and its use of lethal methods, which Japan

does not seem to have fully taken into account, given its continued use éof
lethal methods. The Court itself has drawn attention, in the present Judég -
ment (para. 144), to the paucity of analysis by Japan of the feasibility of

non-lethal methods to achieve JARPA II objectives; and it has added that

“Given the expanded use of lethal methods in JARPA II, as com -

pared to JARPA, this is difficult to reconcile with Japan’s duty to give
due regard to IWC resolutions and Guidelines and its statement that
JARPA II uses lethal methods only to the extent necessary to meet

its scientific objectives.” (Judgment, para. 144.)

59Cf., e.g., Resolution on Japanese Proposal for Special Permits, App. 4, Chairman’s

Report of the 39th Annual Meeting, Report of the International Whaling Commission[Rep.
Int. Whal. Commn] 38, 1988, p. 29 (resolution 1987-4) ; Resolution on the Proposed Take
by Japan of Whales in the Southern Hemisphere under Special Permit, App.é 3, Chair -
man’s Report of the 41st Annual Meeting, Rep. Int. Whal. Commn 40, 1990, p. 36 (reso -
lution 1989-3) ; Resolution on Special Permit Catches by Japan in the Southern Hemi -
sphere, App. 2, Chairman’s Report of the 42nd Meeting, Rep. Int. Whal. Commn 41,
1991, pp. 47-48 (resolution 1990-2) ; Resolution on Special Permit Catches by Japan in the

Southern Hemisphere, App. 2, Chairman’s Report of the 43rd Meeting, Rep. Int. Whal.
Commn 42, 1992, p. 46 (resolution1991-2); Resolution on Special Permit Catches by Japan
in the Southern Hemisphere, App. 5, Chairman’s Report of the 44th Meeting, Rep. Int.
Whal. Commn 43, 1993, 71 (resolution 1992-5) ; Resolution on Special Permit Catches
by Japan in the Southern Hemisphere, App. 7, Chairman’s Report of the 45th Annual
Meeting, Rep. Int. Whal. Commn 44, 1994, p. 33 (resolution 1993-7); Resolution on Special
Permit Catches by Japan in the North Pacific, Resolution 1994-9, App. 15, Chairman’s

Report of the 46th Annual Meeting, Rep. Int. Whal. Commn 45, 1995, p. 47 (resolu -
tion 1994-9); Resolution on Special Permit Catches by Japan in the Southern Hemispheére,
resolution 1994-10, App. 15, Chairman’s Report of the 46th Annual Meeting, Rep. Int.
Whal. Commn 45, 1995, p. 47 (resolution 1994-10); Resolution on Special Permit Catches
by Japan, resolution 1996-7, App. 7, Chairman’s Report of the 48th Meeting, Rep. Int.
Whal. Commn 47, 1997, pp. 51-52 (resolution 1996-7); cited in CR 2013/8, of 26 June 2013,
pp. 34-35.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 444 18/05/15 09:29 381 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

87. Moreover, it could hardly be claimed that the sole purpose of the
JARPA II programme is “scientific research”, as it appears that some comé -
mercial aspects permeate the programme. The JARPA II programme does

not seem to fall under the exception of Article VIII of the ICRW. In the
present Judgment, the Court has found that the special permits granted béy
Japan in connection with JARPA II do not fall under Article VIII (1) of the
ICRW (resolutory point 2). The present case has provided a unique occa -

sion for the Court to pronounce upon a system of collective regulation oéf
the environment for the benefit of future generations. The notion of collec -
tive guarantee has been developed, and put in practice, to date in distinct
domains of contemporary international law. The Court’s present Judgmeént

in theWhaling in the Antarcticcase may have wider implications than solely
the peaceful settlement of the present dispute between the contending Paér -
ties, to the benefit of all.
88. Last but not least, may I observe that international treaties and

conventions are a product of their time; yet, they have an aptitude to face
changing conditions, and their interpretation and application in time
bears witness that they are living instruments. They evolve with time, other-
wise they would fall into desuetude. The 1946 ICRW is no exception to

that, and, endowed with a mechanism of supervision of its own, it has
proven to be a living instrument. Moreover, in distinct domains of inter -
national law, treaties and conventions — especially those setting foréth a
mechanism of protection — have required the pursuance of a hermeneu -
tics of their own, as living instruments. This happens not only in the pres-

ent domain of conservation and sustainable use of living marine resources,
but likewise in other areas of international law.

89. The present case on Whaling in the Antarctic has brought to the

fore the evolving law on the conservation and sustainable use of living é
marine resources, which, in turn, has disclosed what I perceive as its céon -
tribution to the gradual formation of an opinio juris communis in the pres-
ent domain of contemporary international law. Opinio juris, in my

conception, becomes a key factor in the formation itself of internationaél
law (here, conservation and sustainable use of living marine resources)é ;
its incidence is no longer that of only one of the constitutive elementsé of
one of its “formal” sources 6. The formation of international law in

domains of public or common interest, such as that of conservation and
sustainable use of living marine resources, is a much wider process thané
the formulation of its “formal sources”, above all in seeking the legiti -
macy of norms to govern international life 6.

60 These latter being only means or vehicles for the formation of internatiéonal legal
norms.
61 For the conceptualization of this outlook, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, International
Law for Humankind . . ., op. cit. supra note 15, pp. 134-138, esp. p. 137.

159

8 CIJ1062.indb 446 18/05/15 09:29 382 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

90. Opinio juris communis, in this way, comes to assume a considerably
broader dimension than that of the subjective element constitutive of cués -
tom, and to exert a key role in the emergence and gradual evolution of
international legal norms. After all, juridical conscience of what is neéces -
sary (jus necessarium) stands above the “free will” of individual States

(jus voluntarium), rendering possible the evolution of international law
governing conservation and sustainable use of living marine resources. Ién
this domain, State voluntarism yields to the jus necessarium, and notably
so in the present era of international tribunals, amidst increasing endeéav -
ours to secure the long-awaited primacy of the jus necessarium over the

jus voluntarium. Ultimately, this becomes of key importance to the real -
ization of the pursued common good.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 448 18/05/15 09:29

Bilingual Content

348

SEPARATE OPINION

OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. The Object and Purpose oéf the ICRW 2-9

1. The teleological approach 4-7
2. Response of New Zealand to questions from the Bench 8-9

II. Collective Guarantee aénd Collective Regulatiéon 10-19

1. Collective decision-making under the ICRW 10-12

2. Review of proposed special permits under the Schedule 13-19

III. The Limited Scope of ArtiécleVIII (1) of the ICRW 20-24

IV. The Evolving Law relatinég to Conservation : Inter-
actions between Systeéms 25-26

V. The ICRW as a “Living Instruément”: The Evolving O piniO
Juris C Ommunis 27-40

VI. Inter-Generational Equity 41-47

VII. Conservation of Livingé Species (Marine Mammals)é 48-59
1. The tension between conservation and exploitation : Argu

ments of the Parties 48-51
2. Whale stocks — conservation and development : Response
of the Parties and the intervenor to questions from the

Bench 52-56
3. General assessment 57-59

VIII. Principle of Preventioén and the Precautionaéry Principl:e
Arguments of the Partieés and the Intervenor 60-71

IX. Responses from the Experéts, and Remaining Uncerétainties
around “Scientific Reésearch” (under JARPAII) 72-74

X. Reiterated Calls undeér the ICRW for Non-Lethal Use of
Cetaceans 75-79

XI. Concluding Observatioéns, on the JarpaII Programme and
the Requirements of thée ICRW and Its Schedule 80-90

*

126

8 CIJ1062.indb 380 18/05/15 09:29 348

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE

DE M. LE JUGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

[Traduction]

table des matières

Paragraphes

I. L’objet et le but de laé convention 2-9

1. Approche téléologique 4-7
2. Réponse de la Nouvelle-Zélande aux questions posées par
un membre de la Cour 8-9

II. Un système de réglementéation et de garantiesé collectives 10-19

1. Le processus collectif de prise de décisions prévu par la
convention 10-12
2. Examen des propositions de permis spéciaux à la lumière du

règlement 13-19
III. La portée limitée du paraégraphe1 de l’article VIII de la

convention 20-24
IV. L’évolution du droit réelatif à la conservatéion : inter-

actions entre les diféférents systèmes 25-26
V. La convention en tant qéu’« instrument vivant »:

l’évolution de l’OpiniO Juris COmmunis 27-40
VI. L’équité intergénératiéonnelle 41-47

VII. La conservation des esépèces vivantes (mammifèéres marins) 48-59

1. Antagonisme entre conservation et exploitation : les argu
ments des Parties 48-51
2. Stocks de baleines — conservation et développement :

réponses des Parties et de l’Etat intervenant aux questions
d’un membre de la Cour 52-56
3. Appréciation générale 57-59

VIII. Les principes de prévention et de précaution : arguments
des Parties et de l’Étéat intervenant 60-71

IX. Les réponses des expertés et les incertitudesé demeurant
autour de la « recherche scientifiéque» (au titre de

JARPA II) 72-74
X. Des appels réitérés, sousé les auspices de la conévention de

1946, en faveur d’une utiléisation non létale deés cétacés 75-79
XI. Observations finalesé sur le programme JARPA II et les

exigences de la conveéntion de 1946 et du règleément qui
lui est annexé 80-90

*

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8 CIJ1062.indb 381 18/05/15 09:29 349 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

1. I have accompanied the Court’s majority, in voting in favour of the
adoption of the present Judgment in the case Whaling in the Antarctic

(Australia v. Japan: New Zealand intervening). Yet, I would have wished
certain points to be further developed by the Court. I feel thus obligedé to
leave on the records, in the present separate opinion, the foundations of
my personal position thereon. To this effect, I shall address the folléowing
points : (a) the object and purpose of the International Convention on

the Regulation of Whaling (the teleological approach) ; (b) collective
guarantee and collective regulation ; (c) the limited scope of Arti -
cle VIII (1) of the ICRW ; (d) the evolving law relating to conservation :
interactions between systems; (e) the ICRW as a “living instrument”: the
evolving opinio juris communis ; (f) inter-generational equity ; (g) conser -
vation of living species (marine mammals) ; (h) principle of prevention

and the precautionary principle ; (i) remaining uncertainties around “sci -
entific research” (under the JARPA II programme). The way will then be
paved for my concluding observations, on the JARPA II programme and
the requirements of the ICRW and its Schedule.

I. The Object and Purpose oéf the ICRW

2. I find it necessary, to start with, to dwell upon the object and purpose
of the International Convention on Regulation of Whaling (hereinafter
the “ICRW”), so as to set the context for the consideration of thée inter -
pretation of Article VIII of the ICRW, and of the question whether Japan
complied with its obligations under the ICRW and its Schedule (cf. infra).

Both contending Parties, Australia and Japan, and the intervenor,
New Zealand, have in fact dedicated some attention to the object and
purpose of the ICRW. The adoption of a Convention like the ICRW,
endowed with a supervisory organ of its own, evidences that the goal of é
conservation integrates its object and purpose, certainly not limited toé the

development of the whaling industry.

3. To try to reduce the object and purpose of the ICRW to the protec -
tion or development of the whaling industry would be at odds with the
rationale and structure of the ICRW as a whole. If the main goal of the é

ICRW were only to protect and develop the whaling industry, the entire
framework of the ICRW would have been structured differently. More -
over, the fact that the ICRW is a multilateral treaty, encompassing mem -
ber States that do not practice whaling, also speaks to the understanding
that the ICRW’s object and purpose cannot be limited to the develop -
ment of the whaling industry. Furthermore, in the same line of reasoningé,

the adoption of a moratorium on commercial whaling within the frame -
work of the ICRW also seems to indicate that the conservation of whale

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8 CIJ1062.indb 382 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée )49

1. Si je me suis associé à la majorité en votant en faveur de l’éadoption
du présent arrêt en l’affaire relative à la Chasse à la baleine dans l’Antarc -

tique (Australie c. Japon ; Nouvelles-Zélande (intervenant)), j’aurais
néanmoins souhaité voir approfondir certains points. J’estime déonc
devoir, dans la présente opinion individuelle, faire état des fondéements de
ma position personnelle à cet égard, et je reviendrai à cet efféet sur les points
suivants :a) l’objet et le but de la convention internationale pour la régle -

mentation de la chasse à la baleine (dénommée ci-après la « convention
de 1946 » ou la « convention») (approche téléologique) ; b) l’existence
d’un système de réglementation et de garanties collectives ; c) la portée
limitée du paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII de la convention ; d) l’évolution
du droit relatif à la conservation et les inter actions entre les différents
systèmes ; e) la convention en tant qu’« instrument vivant » et l’évolution

de l’opinio juris communis; f) l’équité intergénérationnelle; g) la conserva -
tion des espèces vivantes (mammifères marins) ; h) le principe de préven -
tion et le principe de précaution ; i) les incertitudes qui demeurent autour
de la « recherche scientifique » (pratiquée dans le cadre du programme
JARPA II). Je pourrai à partir de là formuler certaines conclusions suré le

programme JARPA II et les prescriptions de la convention et du règle -
ment qui lui est annexé.

I. L’objet et le but de laé convention

2. J’estime nécessaire de commencer par examiner l’objet et le but de la
convention de 1946, afin d’établir le contexte dans lequel s’inscriront
l’interprétation de l’article VIII de la convention et l’analyse de la ques -
tion de savoir si le Japon s’est acquitté des obligations que lui éimposent
cette convention et le règlement qui lui est annexé (voir ci-dessous).

Les deux Parties en litige — l’Australie et le Japon — et l’Etat interve -
nant, la Nouvelle–Zélande, ont de fait accordé beaucoup d’attention àé
cette question. Quant à moi, il m’apparaît que le choix d’adopter éun
instrument doté de son propre organe de contrôle accrédite l’éidée que
la conservation était l’un des objectifs visés, l’objet et le béut de la conven -

tion ne se réduisant certainement pas au développement du secteur é
baleinier.
3. Tenter de réduire cet objet et ce but à la protection ou au dévéelop -
pement de l’industrie baleinière irait du reste à l’encontreé de la logique
qui sous-tend la convention dans son ensemble, et de son économie

générale. Si son but premier s’était résumé à assuréer la protection et le
développement du secteur baleinier, la convention aurait, globalementé,
été structurée de manière différente. Le fait qu’il és’agisse d’un traité
multilatéral auquel sont parties des Etats qui ne pratiquent pas la
chasse à la baleine incite également à considérer que l’objet et le béut
de la convention ne sauraient être limités au développement de l’iéndustrie

baleinière. Dans la même logique, l’adoption, dans le cadre de éla
convention, d’un moratoire sur la chasse commerciale accrédite l’éidée

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8 CIJ1062.indb 383 18/05/15 09:29 350 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

stocks is an important component of the object and purpose of the
ICRW.

1. The Teleological Approach

4. May I turn briefly to the Preamble of the ICRW, which contains

indications as to the object and purpose of the Convention. First, the
Preamble recognizes “the interest of the nations of the world in safeé -
guarding for future generations the great natural resources represented éby
the whale stocks” ; this seems, in my view, to be in line with the purpose

of conserving and protecting whales. Secondly, other preambular para -
graphs mention “regulation” of whaling to ensure conservation and
development of whale stocks. Then, the Preamble also posits that the
States parties “decided to conclude a convention to provide for the proper
conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly develop -

ment of the whaling industry”.

5. It appears that the primary object and purpose of the ICRW can be
found in the conservation and recovery of whale populations. The ICRW

provides for a mechanism to ensure its own evolution in face of changingé
conditions and new challenges. The International Whaling Commission
(IWC) has a specific role (under Article VI) to make recommendations to
States parties, in the form of resolutions, to which they are to give coénsid -

eration in good faith. The practice of the IWC, conformed by its succes -
sive resolutions, seems to indicate that conservation of whale stocks isé an
important objective of the ICRW : for example, in a number of resolu -
tions, the IWC has focused on non-lethal methods of research concerning
whales, disclosing a concern with the conservation of whale stocks 1.

Thus, in my perception, the use of whales cannot take place to the detrié -
ment of the conservation of whale stocks.

6. The Schedule of regulations annexed to the ICRW is an integral
part of it, with equal legal force ; amendments have regularly been made
to the Schedule, so as to cope with international environmental develop -
ments. States parties thus count on a scheme to act together in the com -

mon interest, setting a proper balance between conservation and the use é
of whale resources. The ICRW, adopted in 1946 to stop the overexploita -
tion of whales, presented thus two novelties in comparison with the first
treaties on whaling : the creation of the IWC (under Article III), and the
inclusion of the Schedule, controlling whaling so as to achieve conservaé -

1E.g., resolution 2007-3 (Resolution on the Non-Lethal Use of Cetacean; resolu-

tion 2007-1 (Resolution on JARPA).

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8 CIJ1062.indb 384 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée ) 50

que la conservation des populations baleinières en est une composante
essentielle.

1. Approche téléologique

4. Je voudrais maintenant me pencher brièvement sur le préambule de

la convention, qui contient des indications quant à l’objet et au but de
celle-ci. Tout d’abord, il y est pris acte de l’« intérêt» qu’ont « les nations
du monde … à sauvegarder, au profit des générations futures, les granédes
ressources naturelles représentées par les stocks de baleines », ce qui me

semble conforter l’idée d’un objectif consistant à assurer la conservation et
la protection des baleines. Ensuite, d’autres alinéas renvoient àé une « régle-
mentation» de la chasse à la baleine visant à assurer la conservation
et l’accroissement des stocks de baleines. Enfin, il est précisé déans le pré -
ambule que les Etats parties ont « décidé de conclure une convention des-

tinée à assurer la conservation appropriée des stocks de baleines et … ainsi
donner à l’industrie baleinière la possibilité de se déveélopper d’une manière
méthodique ».
5. Il apparaît ainsi que la conservation et la reconstitution des stocksé
de baleines constituent bien l’objet et le but premiers de la conventéion.

Celle-ci prévoit par ailleurs un mécanisme apte à lui permettre d’éévoluer
au gré des changements et des nouveaux défis. La commission baleinéière
internationale (dénommée ci-après la « CBI» ou la « commission») a en
effet pour vocation expresse (aux termes de l’article VI) de faire des

recommandations aux Etats parties, sous forme de résolutions que ceuxé-ci
sont tenus de prendre en considération de bonne foi. Or la pratique dée
la CBI, telle que constituée par les résolutions successives qu’eléle a adop -
tées, semble venir conforter l’idée que la conservation des stoécks de
baleines est un objectif central de la convention. La CBI a en effet, édans

un certain nombre de ces résolutions, mis l’accent sur les méthodes de
recherche non létales, ce qui témoigne d’un souci d’assurer éla conserva -
tion des peuplements baleiniers . Dès lors, les ressources baleinières ne
sauraient, à mon sens, être utilisées au détriment de la conéservation des

stocks de baleines.
6. Le règlement annexé à la convention fait partie intégrante de celle-ci,
et a la même valeur juridique : il a été régulièrement modifié pour suivre
les évolutions internationales en matière de protection de l’environne -
ment. Les Etats parties ont ainsi à leur disposition un régime quié leur

permet d’agir ensemble dans l’intérêt commun, établissanté un juste équi -
libre entre conservation et exploitation des ressources baleinières.
La convention, adoptée en 1946 pour mettre fin à la surexploitation de
ces ressources, présentait deux nouveautés par rapport aux premierés
traités régissant la chasse à la baleine : la création de la CBI (en vertu

1Voir, par exemple, la résolution 2007-3 (résolution sur l’utilisation non létale des

cétacés) ; résolution 2007-1 (résolution sur JARPA).

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8 CIJ1062.indb 385 18/05/15 09:29 351 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

tion and recovery of whale stocks. It became a multilateral scheme, seeké-
ing to avoid unilateral action so as to foster conservation.

7. The object and purpose of the ICRW are to be construed in light of
its text, its supervisory mechanism, and its nature as a multilateral tréeaty

encompassing both whaling and non-whaling States. The object and pur -
pose of the Convention point to, as a guiding principle, the conservatioén
and recovery of whale stocks ; not to be seen on an equal footing with the
sustainable development of the whaling industry or the protection of
commercial whaling. A State party — Japan or any other — cannot act

unilaterally to decide whether its programme is fulfilling the object and
purpose of the ICRW, or the objective of conservation.

2. Response of New Zealand to Questions from the Bench

8. In this connection, in the course of the oral pleadings before the

Court (on 8 July 2013), I deemed it fit to put the following questions to
the intervenor, New Zealand :

“1. In your view, does the fact that the International Convention
for the Regulation of Whaling is a multilateral treaty, with a super -
visory organ of its own, have an impact on the interpretation of its
object and purpose ?

2. You have stated in your written observations (of 4 April 2013)
that the object and purpose of the International Convention for the
Regulation of Whaling is: ‘to replace unregulated, unilateral whaling
by States with collective regulation as a mechanism to provide for the

interests of the parties in the proper conservation and management
of whales’ (p. 16, para. 33). In your view, is this a widely accepted
interpretation nowadays of the object and purpose of the Interna -
tional Convention for the Regulation of Whaling ?” 2

9. As to these questions, New Zealand at first recalled that, distinctly
from the 1937 International Agreement for the Regulation of Whaling,

the 1946 ICRW counts on a permanent Commission (the IWC) endowed
with a supervisory role, evidencing a “collective enterprise”, andé acknowl -
edging that whale conservation “must be an international endeavour”é. In
sum, in New Zealand’s view, the object and purpose of the ICRW ought
to be approached in the light of the collective interest of States parties in

2 CR 2013/17, of 8 July 2013, pp. 49-50.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 386 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée )51

de l’article III) et l’insertion, en annexe, d’un règlement garantissant
ainsi un contrôle destiné à assurer la conservation et la reconstitu -
tion des stocks de baleines. La communauté internationale était ainsi
désormais dotée d’un dispositif multilatéral dont la vocatioén était
d’empêcher les Etats d’agir unilatéralement, aux fins de favéoriser la

conservation.
7. L’objet et le but de la convention doivent être interprétés éà la lumière
de son libellé, de l’organe de contrôle qu’elle a établi,é et de son statut
de traité multilatéral regroupant aussi bien des nations baleinièrées que
des nations non baleinières. Il en ressort que le principe directeur de

cette convention est la conservation et la reconstitution des stocks de
baleines — éléments qui ne sauraient être mis sur un pied d’égaélité avec le
développement durable de l’industrie baleinière ou la protectioén de la
chasse commerciale. Un Etat partie — qu’il s’agisse du Japon ou d’un

autre — ne peut déterminer de manière unilatérale si son programmeé
satisfait réellement à l’objet ou au but de la convention, ou àé l’objectif de
conservation.

2. Réponse de la Nouvelle-Zélande aux questions posées
par un membre de la Cour

8. A cet égard, à l’audience qui s’est tenue devant la Cour le 8 juil-
let 2013, il m’a semblé utile de poser à l’Etat intervenant, la éNouvelle-
Zélande, les questions suivantes :

«1. Selon vous, le fait que la convention soit un traité multilatéral é
ayant institué un organe de contrôle a-t-il une incidence sur l’inter -

prétation de son objet et de son but ?

2. Dans vos observations écrites (du 4 avril 2013), vous avez dit
que la convention avait pour objet et pour but « de remplacer la
chasse à la baleine non réglementée menée de façon unilatéérale par

les Etats par un mécanisme de réglementation collective destinéé à
servir les intérêts des parties en matière de conservation et dée gestion
appropriées des baleines » (p. 16, par. 33). S’agit-il là, selon vous,
d’une interprétation aujourd’hui largement admise de l’objet et du
2
but de la convention ?»
9. En réponse, la Nouvelle-Zélande a commencé par rappeler que, à la

différence de l’accord international pour la réglementation dée la chasse à la
baleine de 1937, la convention de 1946 s’appuyait sur une commission per -
manente (la CBI) investie d’un rôle de contrôle, ce qui téémoignait selon elle
d’une volonté de mener à bien une « entreprise collective» et d’une recon -
naissance du fait que la conservation des baleines devait «s’inscrire dans le

cadre d’un effort international». Pour la Nouvelle-Zélande, il convient en

2
CR 2013/17, 8 juillet 2013, p. 49-50.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 387 18/05/15 09:29 352 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

3
the conservation and management of whale stocks . Secondly, New Zea-
land argued that the IWC had recognizedly become the appropriate organ
for the conservation and management of whales. Such role of collective

regulation of the IWC — New Zealand added — was in the line of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, which requires States
(Art. 65) to co-operate with a view to the conservation of marine mam -
mals and to work through the appropriate international organs. Such

endeavours of conservation have become a “collective responsibility”,
and the IWC — New Zealand added — would “work co-operatively to
improve the conservation and management of whale populations and
stocks on a scientific basis and through agreed policy measures” 4.

II. Collective Guarantee aénd Collective Regulatiéon

1. Collective Decision-Making under the ICRW

10. The collective system established by the ICRW is crucial to the
understanding and proper handling of the present case of Whaling in the
Antarctic (Australia v. Japan: New Zealand intervening). In my view, the

system created by the Convention aims at replacing a system of unilateraél
unregulated whaling, with a system of collective guarantee and regulatioén
so as to provide for the interests of the States parties in the proper céon -
servation and management of whales. To my mind, the structure of the

Convention evidences that one of its aims is to achieve collective guaraén -
tee through collective regulation, in relation to all activities associated
with whaling. This collective regulation is achieved through a process of
collective decision-making by the IWC, which adopts regulations and

resolutions (supra).
11. In addition, it may be recalled that the IWC may also adopt rec -
ommendations addressed to any or all of the States parties on any mat -
ters which relate to whales or whaling and to the objective and purpose éof

the Convention. These recommendations and resolutions, in my under -
standing, express the collective views of the parties under the Conventiéon
concerning the protection of their interests in the proper conservation é
and management of whales. Furthermore, membership of the IWC

has grown along the years, with many members having no whaling indus -
try or history of whaling activities; their common interest would arguably
be the conservation and management of whales themselves, rather than
solely the preservation of the whaling industry.

3 Written Responses of New Zealand to the Questions Put by Judge Cançado Trindade
at the End of the Public Sitting Held on 8 July 2013 at 10 a.m., of 12 July 2013, pp. 6-7,
paras. 1-3.
4 Ibid., pp. 8-9, paras. 1-4.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 388 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée )52

somme d’examiner l’objet et le but de la convention de 1946 à la lumière de
l’intérêt collectif en matière de conservation et de gestion des stocks de
baleines . La Nouvelle-Zélande affirme ensuite que la CBI est désormais

reconnue comme l’organe ayant vocation à assurer cette conservatioén et
cette gestion. Le rôle de réglementation collective qui lui a éété dévolu s’ins -
crit selon elle dans le droit fil de la convention des Nations Unies sur le
droit de la mer, qui impose aux Etats (en son article 65) de coopérer en vue

d’assurer la protection des mammifères marins, par l’interméédiaire des
organisations internationales appropriées. A son sens, cet effort dée conser -
vation relève désormais d’une «responsabilité collective» et les membres de
la CBI doivent « œuvrer collectivement à l’amélioration des conditions de

conservation et de gestion des populations et des stocks de baleines suré l4
base d’éléments scientifiques et par le biais de mesures concerétée» s .

II. Un système de réglementéation et de garantiesé collectives

1. Le processus collectif de prise de décisions prévu par la conventi▯on

10. Une juste analyse du régime collectif établi par la convention est
essentielle pour bien comprendre et traiter les questions en jeu en la pré -
sente affaire. Selon moi, le mécanisme créé par la conventioné vise en effet

à remplacer un modèle unilatéral et non réglementé de chaésse à la baleine
par un système de réglementation et de garanties collectives destiéné à pro -
téger les intérêts des Etats parties en matière de conservatéion et de gestion
appropriées des stocks. A mon sens, la structure de la convention attéeste

que l’un des buts recherchés est d’apporter des garanties à tous, par l’effet
d’une réglementation collective, pour l’ensemble des activitéés associées à
la chasse à la baleine. Cette réglementation collective passe par éun proces -
sus collectif de prise de décisions mis en œuvre au sein de la CBIé, qui

adopte des réglementations et des résolutions (voir ci-dessus).
11. Il convient en outre de rappeler que la CBI peut également adopter,
à l’intention de l’un quelconque ou de l’ensemble des gouverénements
contractants, des recommandations à propos de questions ayant trait séoit

aux baleines et à la chasse à la baleine, soit aux objectifs et auéx buts de la
convention. A mes yeux, ces recommandations et résolutions témoignent
de la conception qu’ont collectivement les parties à la conventioné de la
protection de leurs intérêts en matière de conservation et de géestion appro -

priées des stocks de baleines. En outre, le nombre d’Etats membresé de la
CBI a augmenté au fil des ans, beaucoup d’entre eux n’ayant aucéune tra -
dition ou industrie baleinière ; aussi y a-t-il lieu de penser que leur intérêt
commun serait la conservation et la gestion des populations baleinièrées

elles-mêmes, et non le seul maintien de l’industrie baleinière.

3 Voir réponses de la Nouvelle-Zélande aux questions posées par le juge Cançado Trin-
dade à la fin de l’audience publique qui s’est tenue le 8 juillet 2013 à 10heures et le 12 juillet
2013, p. 4-5, par. 1-3.
4 Ibid., p. 8-9, par. 1-4.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 389 18/05/15 09:29 353 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

12. Thus, the nature and structure of the ICRW, the fact that it is a
multilateral Convention (comprising both whaling and non-whaling
States) with a supervisory organ of its own, which adopts resolutions aénd

recommendations, highlights the collective decision-making process under
the Convention and the collective guarantee provided thereunder. In the é
light of the object and purpose of the ICRW, clearly a system of collectéive
guarantee and collective regulation operates thereunder.

2. Review of Proposed Special Permits
under the Schedule

13. In fact, in numerous resolutions, the IWC has provided guidance
to the Scientific Committee for its review of special permits under paraé -
graph 30 of the Schedule. This is aimed at amending proposed special
permit programmes that do not meet the conditions. The expectation

ensues therefrom that, e.g., non-lethal methods will be used whenever
possible, on the basis of successive resolutions of the IWC stressing thée
relevance of obtaining scientific information without needing to kill
whales for “scientific research”. In accordance with the IWC resoléutions,

the Scientific Committee has, for its part, elaborated a series of Guide -
lines to enable it to undertake its function of review of special permits
(under paragraph 30 of the Schedule).

14. In the present proceedings before the ICJ, this practice has been 5
brought to the attention of the Court, in particular by New Zealand ,
who has further pointed out that over 25 resolutions of the IWC, issued
after the Scientific Committee’s review of proposed special permits (éunder

Article VIII of the ICRW), have been consistently requesting the States
parties concerned “not to proceed where the Scientific Committee had é
determined that the proposed activity did not satisfy the Scientific Com -
mittee’s criteria” . Such is the case of IWC resolutions 1987-1, 1987-2,

1987-3, 1987-4, 1989-1, 1989-2, 1989-3, 1990-1, 1990-2, 1991-2, 1991-3,
1993-7, 1993-8, 1994-9, 1994-10, 1994-11, 1995-9, 1996-7, 1997-5, 1997-6,
2000-4, 2000-5, 2001-7, 2001-8, 2003-2, 2003-3, 2005-1, and 2007-1 7.
Hence, it is clear that one counts nowadays on a system of collective

guarantee and collective regulation under the ICRW (cf. also infra).

15. Bearing the IWC resolutions in mind, the Scientific Committee’s
Guidelines have endeavoured to assist it in undertaking adequately its

function of review of special permit proposals and of research results
from existing and completed special permits. In its most recent Guide -
lines, adopted in 2008 (Annex P), the Scientific Committee’s review pro -

5
Both in its written observations, of 4 April 2013, and in its oral arguments; cf. written
observations of New Zealand, of 4 April 2013, pp. 30-33, paras. 55-60 ; and CR 2013/17,
of 8 July 2013, pp. 30-31 and 39, paras. 50-54 and 14.
6 Written observations of New Zealand, of 4 April 2013, p. 56, para. 98.
7 Ibid., p. 56, para. 98, note 195.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 390 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée )53

12. Ainsi, la nature et la structure de la convention de 1946, et le fait qu’il
s’agisse d’un instrument multilatéral (auquel sont parties tanét des nations
baleinières que des nations non baleinières), doté d’un orgéane de contrôle

qui émet des résolutions et des recommandations, témoignent du écaractère
collectif du processus décisionnel et des garanties offertes par laé convention.
A la lumière de son objet et de son but, il est de même clair que éla conven -
tion prévoit un système de réglementation et de garanties colleéctives.

2. Examen des propositions de permis spéciaux
à la lumière du règlement

13. De fait, la CBI a, dans maintes résolutions, fourni au comité scieénti -
fique des lignes directrices en vue de l’examen des permis spéciaux auquel il
lui faut procéder en vertu du paragraphe 30 du règlement annexé à la
convention. Cet examen est destiné à modifier les projets qui ne satisfont pas

aux conditions requises. L’on est donc en droit d’espérer, notaémment, que
des méthodes non létales seront utilisées chaque fois que possiéble, sur la base
des résolutions successives par lesquelles la CBI a formulé le souhait que les
informations scientifiques soient recueillies sans qu’il soit besoin éde mettre à

mort des baleines «en vue de recherches scientifiques». Conformément aux
résolutions de la CBI, le comité scientifique a, pour sa part, éélaboré un
ensemble de lignes directrices qu’il applique dans le cadre de sa misésion
d’évaluation des permis spéciaux (en vertu du paragraphe 30 du règlement).

14. Dans la présente instance, cette pratique a été 5ortée à él’attention
de la Cour par, notamment, la Nouvelle-Zélande , qui a également relevé
que, dans plus de vingt-cinq résolutions adoptées à la suite de l’examen
par le comité scientifique de propositions de permis spéciaux (déélivrés au

titre de l’article VIII de la convention), la CBI a systématiquement recom -
mandé aux Etats parties concernés de ne « pas donner suite à l’activité
envisagée lorsque le comité scientifique consid[érait] qu’eléle ne répond[ait]
pas aux critères du comité » 6. Tel est le cas des résolutions de la CBI

1987-1, 1987-2, 1987-3, 1987-4, 1989-1, 1989-2, 1989-3, 1990-1, 1990-2,
1991-2, 1991-3, 1993-7, 1993-8, 1994-9, 1994-10, 1994-11, 1995-9, 1996-7,
1997-5, 1997-6, 2000-4, 2000-5, 2001-7, 2001-8, 2003-2, 2003-3, 2005-1 et
2007-1 7. Il est donc clair que la communauté internationale peut

aujourd’hui se prévaloir d’un régime de réglementation eté de garanties
collectives, sous les auspices de la convention (voir également ci-déessous).
15. Fondées sur les résolutions de la CBI, les lignes directrices du céomité
scientifique visent à aider celui-ci à s’acquitter correctement de sa mission

d’examen des propositions de permis spéciaux et des résultats sécientifiques
obtenus dans le cadre des programmes en cours ou échus. Conformémeént
aux plus récentes de ses lignes directrices, adoptées en 2008 (annexe P), le

5
Aussi bien dans ses observations écrites du 4 avril 2013 que dans ses plaidoiries ;
cf. observations écrites de la Nouvelle-Zélande, 4 avril 2013, p. 30-33, par. 55-60, et
CR 2013/17, 8 juillet 2013, p. 30-31, par. 50-54, et p. 39, par. 14.
6 Observations écrites de la Nouvelle-Zélande du 4 avril 2013, p. 56, par. 98.
7 Ibid., p. 56, par. 98, note 195.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 391 18/05/15 09:29 354 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

cess focuses on, inter alia, the possibility of using non-lethal research

methods, the aims and the methodology and the sample size, the point
whether the catches will have an adverse effect on the stocks (paras.é 2-3).
Moreover, the proposed activity is to be subject to periodic and final

reviews. It is clear that there is here not much room for State unilateréal
action and free will.

8
16. It clearly appears, from paragraph 30 of the Schedule , that a State
party issuing a special permit is under the obligation to provide the IWéC
Secretary with proposed scientific permits before they are issued, and in

sufficient time so as to allow the Scientific Committee to review and céom-
ment on them. Paragraph 30 of the Schedule thus plays an important role
in the overall structure of the ICRW and in the pursuit of the fulfilmenét
of its object and purpose. It establishes a review procedure that must bée

followed in relation to the granting of special permits, and that servesé as
a mechanism through which the granting of special permits may be mon -
itored by the IWC. Accordingly, States granting special permits do not
have an unfettered freedom to issue such permits.

17. It follows therefrom that, even if the recommendations of the Sci -
entific Committee and the IWC are not per se legally binding on States,
States willing to issue special permits should consider the comments of é

the IWC and the recommendations of the Scientific Committee in good
faith (principle of bona fide). The terms of paragraph 30 make it clear
that the particular duty to provide proposed special permits in advance to
the IWC is set forth so as to enable the Scientific Committee to “revéiew

and comment” on them. It seems that, if States were to decide, at theéir
free will, whether or not to take into account the comments and recom -
mendations of the IWC and the Scientific Committee, that provision

would be rendered meaningless, dead letter ; the review procedure would
then become a sort of unacceptable “rubber stamp” mechanism, whereby
States issuing permits would be able to disregard completely the com -
ments and recommendations whenever they wished.

8 Paragraph 30 of the Schedule states that a State party shall provide the IWC Secreé -
tary with proposed scientific permits

“before they are issued and in sufficient time to allow the Scientifiéc Committee to
review and comment on them. The proposed permits should specify : (a) objec-
tives of the research ; (b) number, sex, size and stock of the animals to be ;aken
(c) opportunities for participation in the research by scientists of other néations; and
(d) possible effect on conservation of stock.”

Paragraph 30 adds that proposed permits
“shall be reviewed and commented on by the Scientific Committee at Anénual
Meetings when possible. When permits would be granted prior to the next éAnnual
Meeting, the Secretary shall send the proposed permits to members of theé Scientific
Committee by mail for their comment and review. Preliminary results of aény research
resulting from the permits should be made available at the next Annual Méeeting of
the Scientific Committee.”

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comité scientifique met notamment l’accent, lors du processus d’éexamen,

sur la possibilité de recourir à des méthodes de recherche non élétales, sur
les objectifs, la méthodologie et les tailles des échantillons, aiénsi que sur la
question de savoir si les prises risquent d’avoir pour les stocks desé effets
dommageables (par. 2-3). En outre, l’activité proposée doit faire l’objet

d’un suivi sous forme d’examens périodiques et finaux. Les Etatés disposent
donc, à l’évidence, d’une très faible marge de manœuvrée pour prendre des
mesures unilatérales et exercer librement leur volonté.
16. Il ressort clairement des termes du paragraphe 30 du règlement 8

qu’un Etat partie envisageant d’octroyer un permis spécial a l’éobligation
d’en communiquer la teneur au secrétariat de la CBI avant sa délivrance,
et ce, en temps suffisamment opportun pour permettre au comité scienéti-
fique de l’examiner et de formuler ses observations. Ce paragraphe joue

ainsi un rôle important dans tout l’édifice de la convention, eét aux fins de
la réalisation de l’objet et du but de celle-ci. Il établit une procédure
d’examen qui doit être suivie lorsque l’octroi de permis spéciaux est envi -

sagé et qui sert de mécanisme permettant à la CBI d’encadreré la déli -
vrance de tels permis.

17. Il s’ensuit que, même si les recommandations et les avis du comitéé

scientifique de la CBI ne leur sont pas opposables en eux-mêmes, les Etats
souhaitant délivrer un permis spécial doivent les prendre en consiédération
bona fide. Il ressort clairement du libellé du paragraphe 30 que l’obliga -
tion de soumettre préalablement à la CBI les propositions de permiés spé-

ciaux a été spécifiquement établie pour permettre au comitéé scientifique
de les « examiner et de formuler un avis » à leur égard. Il me semble que,
si les Etats pouvaient décider à leur guise de prendre ou non en céonsidé -
ration les avis et les recommandations de la CBI et du comité scientiéfique,

cette disposition serait privée de tout sens et appelée à resteér lettre morte;
la procédure d’examen se trouverait en quelque sorte réduite àé un système
de blanc-seing dans le cadre duquel les Etats souhaitant délivrer un per -

mis pourraient, à leur convenance, choisir de ne tenir aucun compte dées
avis et recommandations de ces organes.

8 Le paragraphe 30 du règlement énonce qu’il appartient à tout Etat partie dée fournir
au secrétaire de la CBI ses propositions de permis scientifiques

«avant leur délivrance et dans un délai suffisant pour permettre aéu comité scienti
fique de les examiner et de formuler un avis à ce sujLes propositions de permis
doivent préciser : a) les objectifs de la recherche ; b) le nombre, le sexe, la taille et la
population des animaux à capturer ;c) les possibilités de participation aux recherches
de scientifiques provenant d’autres pays ; et d) les effets potentiels de cette chasse sur
la conservation de la population concernée. »

En outre, est-il précisé, les propositions de permis
«font l’objet d’un examen et de commentaires du comité scientifiéque lors des réunions
annuelles dans la mesure du possible. Si des permis sont octroyés avaént la réunion
annuelle suivante, le Secrétaire envoie les propositions de permis auéx membres du
comité scientifique par courrier afin qu’elles puissent être coémmentées et examinées.

Les résultats préliminaires de toute recherche issue des permis soént présentés lors de
la réunion annuelle suivante du comité scientifique. »

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8 CIJ1062.indb 393 18/05/15 09:29 355 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

9
18. Paragraph 30 thus creates a positive (procedural) obligation of the
State willing to issue a special permit to co-operate with the IWC and the

Scientific Committee. It would seem inconsistent with the purpose of
paragraph 30 if a State party would feel entitled to issue a special permit
without having co-operated with the IWC and the Scientific Committee,

or without having given any consideration whatsoever to the views of
other States parties expressed through the comments of the IWC and the
recommendations of the Scientific Committee.

19. In its 2006 Report (p. 50), the Scientific Committee was of the view
that the JARPA II proposed programme provided the specifications
required by paragraph 30 of the Schedule. One has here, as already indi -

cated, a system of collective guarantee and collective regulation under éthe
ICRW. In the framework of this latter, the Court has determined, on
distinct points, that the respondent State has not acted in conformity wéith
10
paragraph 10 (d) and (e), and paragraph 7 (b), of the Schedule to the
ICRW (resolutory points 3-5).

III. The Limited Scope of ArtiécleVIII (1)

of the ICRW

20. Keeping the review system in mind, and given the arguments of the
11
contending Parties and of the intervenor as to the scope of Article VIII
within the ICRW as a whole, a point to be addressed is that of the requiére -
ments for a whaling programme to be considered “for purposes of scien-

tific research”. The key point seems to be whether a whaling programmée
carried out under a special permit must be exclusively for scientific

9
On the conceptualization of positive obligations in a distinct context, écf., e.g.,
D. Xenos, The Positive Obligations of the State under the European Convention of H▯uman
Rights, London/N.Y., Routledge, 2012, pp. 57-141.
10Paragraph 10 (d) of the Schedule establishes a moratorium on the taking, killing
or treating of (sperm, killer and baleen) whales, except minke whales,é by factory ships
or whale catchers attached to factory ships. And paragraph 10 (e) provides in addition
for a “comprehensive assessment” of the effects of catches on whéale stocks and the estab-
lishment of new catch limits. And paragraph 7 (b) of the Schedule prohibits commercial

whaling in the Southern Ocean Sanctuary (a prohibition to be reviewed eévery ten years).

11Article VIII (1) of the ICRW reads as follows :

“Notwithstanding anything contained in this Convention any Contractinég
Government may grant to any of its nationals a special permit authorizinég that
national to kill, take and treat whales for purposes of scientific reseaérch subject to
such restrictions as to number and subject to such other conditions as the Contracting
Government thinks fit, and the killing, taking, and treating of whales in accordance
with the provisions of this Article shall be exempt from the operation oéf this Conven
tion. Each Contracting Government shall report at once to the Commissioné all such

authorizations which it has granted. Each Contracting Government may at any time
revoke any such special permit which it has granted.”

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18. Le paragraphe 30 crée donc, à la charge de l’Etat qui souhaite
délivrer un permis spécial, une obligation positive (de nature procédu -
9
rale) de coopérer avec la CBI et le comité scientifique. Il serait contéraire
au but du paragraphe 30, me semble-t-il, qu’un Etat partie puisse s’esti -
mer en droit de délivrer un permis spécial sans avoir coopéréé avec la CBI

et le comité scientifique, ou sans tenir le moindre compte des vues eéxpri -
mées par d’autres Etats parties à travers les avis et les recomémandations
de ces organes.

19. Dans son rapport de 2006 (p. 50), le comité scientifique a estimé
que la proposition de programme de JARPA II fournissait les précisions
exigées par le paragraphe 30 du règlement. L’on est ici en présence,

comme je l’ai déjà indiqué, d’un système de réglementation et de garanties
collectives instauré par la convention de 1946. Dans ce contexte, la Cour
a jugé, à propos d’autres questions, que l’Etat défendeuré n’avait pas agi
10
en conformité avec les paragraphes 10 d), 10 e) et 7 b) du règlement
annexé à la convention (points 3-5 du dispositif).

III. La portée limitée du paraégraphe1

de l’article VIII de la convention

20. Il convient de déterminer quelles sont les conditions qu’un pro -

gramme de chasse à la baleine doit remplir pour pouvoir être consiédéré
comme ayant été conçu «en vue de recherches scientifiques», à la lumière,
d’une part, de l’existence d’un mécanisme de contrôle et, d’autre part, des

arguments développés par les Parties en litige et par l’Etat inétervenant
quant à la portée de l’article VIII 11. A cet égard, la principale question

9
Au sujet de la notion d’obligation positive dans un autre contexte, véoir, par exemple,
D. Xenos, The Positive Obligations of the State under the European Convention of H▯uman
Rights, Londres/New York, Routledge, 2012, p. 57-141.
10 Le paragraphe 10 d) du règlement instaure un moratoire interdisant aux usines flot -
tantes ou aux navires baleiniers attachés à des usines flottanteés de capturer, tuer ou traiter
des baleines (cachalots, orques et baleines à fanons), à l’exéception des petits rorquals. Le
paragraphe 10 e) prévoit en outre la réalisation d’une « évaluation exhaustive » des effets
des captures sur les populations de baleines et la fixation d’autres élimites de . uanteQ

au paragraphe 7 b), il interdit de chasser la baleine à des fins commerciales dans le séanc -
tuaire de l’océan Austral (interdiction qui doit faire l’objet d’un examen tous lesé dix ans).
11 Le paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII de la convention se lit comme suit :

«Nonobstant toute disposition contraire de la présente convention, chaéque
gouvernement contractant pourra accorder à l’un quelconque de ses éressortissants
un permis spécial autorisant l’intéressé à tuer, captureré et traiter des baleines en vue
de recherches scientifiques et subordonnant cette autorisation aux restréictions en ce
qui concerne le nombre et à telles autres conditions que le gouverneméent contractant
jugera opportunes ; les baleines pourront être tuées, capturées ou traitées coénformé
ment aux prévisions du présent article sans qu’il y ait lieu deé se conformer aux-dispo

sitions de la présente convention. Chaque gouvernement contractant deévra porter
immédiatement à la connaissance de la commission toutes les autorisations de cette
nature qu’il aura accordées. Un gouvernement contractant pourra réévoquer à tout
moment un permis spécial par lui accordé. »

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research and not for any other purpose. In other words, the question is

whether the same programme may be carried out under a special permit
for the purpose of “scientific research” and, e.g., for purpose ofé selling the
whale meat.

21. In my understanding, Article VIII (1) of the ICRW is not to be

interpreted broadly, so as to go against the object and purpose of the
normative framework of the Convention as a whole. Article VIII (1)
appears as an exception to the normative framework of the ICRW, to be
thus interpreted restrictively. The purpose, in particular, of granting éspe -
cial permits, is, to my mind, to allow for scientific research to be undéer -

taken; other purposes do not seem to be allowed under Article VIII, and
should not fall under the exception of Article VIII (1), which, in my
understanding, applies solely and specifically to scientific research préo -
grammes. If a programme with multiple purposes (including a “scientiéfic
research” purpose) could be qualified for a special permit under

Article VIII (1), the provision would not have been drafted in the way it
was. Article VIII (1) is phrased in terms (“for purposes of”) which seem
to make it clear that the sole purpose for which a special permit shall ébe
granted is the conduct of scientific research. Otherwise, it could be
expected that the expression “or other purposes” would also have béeen

included.

22. The Court has determined that the special permits granted by
Japan in connection with JARPA II “do not fall within the provisions of

Article VIII (1)” of the ICRW (resolutory point 2). As to whether a State
issuing a special permit under Article VIII (1) has the discretion to deter -
mine whether a whaling programme is “for purposes of scientific
research”, such a question can only be properly considered within theé
whole framework of the ICRW as a multilateral treaty, nowadays endowed

with a supervisory mechanism of its own. Accordingly, a State issuing a é
permit does not have carte blanche to dictate that a given programme
is “for purposes of scientific research”. It is not sufficient for aé State
party to describe its whaling programme as “for purposes of scientific
research”, without demonstrating it.

23. In my view, such an unfettered discretion would not be in line with
the object and purpose of the ICRW, nor with the idea of multilateral

regulation. The State issuing a special permit should take into consider -
ation the resolutions of the IWC which provide the views of other Statesé
parties as to what constitutes “scientific research”. There is no époint in
seeking to define “scientific research” for all purposes. When decéiding
whether a programme is “for purposes of scientific research” so asé to

issue a special permit under Article VIII (1), the State party concerned

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8 CIJ1062.indb 396 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée ) 56

qui se pose est celle de savoir si le programme soumis à un permis spéécial
doit être mené uniquement en vue de recherches scientifiques, àé l’exclu -

sion de toute autre fin. En d’autres termes, un même programme peuét-il,
outre la recherche scientifique, avoir — par exemple — pour objectif la
vente de viande de baleine ?
21. De mon point de vue, le paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII de la conven -
tion ne doit pas être interprété en un sens si large qu’il péuisse aller à

l’encontre de l’objet et du but du cadre normatif constitué paré la conven -
tion dans son ensemble. Il semble faire exception audit cadre normatif
et devrait donc être interprété de manière restrictive. La déélivrance
de permis spéciaux répond, à mon sens, à un objectif particulieér, qui est
de ménager la possibilité d’entreprendre des recherches scientiéfiques ;
aucune autre finalité ne semble admise par l’article VIII et ne sau -

rait être couverte par l’exception prévue en son paragraphe 1, qui, selon
moi, s’applique uniquement et spécifiquement aux programmes de
recherche scientifique. Si un programme ayant des objectifs multiples
(dont celui de mener des « recherches scientifiques ») pouvait faire l’ob -
jet d’un permis spécial au titre du paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII,

cette disposition n’aurait pas été rédigée comme elle l’a été : le para -
graphe 1 de l’article VIII est en effet libellé en des termes (« en vue de »)
qui semblent indiquer clairement qu’un permis spécial ne doit être déli -
vré qu’aux fins de la recherche scientifique ; si tel n’était pas le cas, l’ex -
pression « ou en vue d’autres activités » aurait vraisemblablement été

ajoutée.
22. La Cour a conclu que les permis spéciaux délivrés par le Japon
dans le cadre de JARPA II « n’entr[aient] pas dans les prévisions du
paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII » de la convention (point 2 du dispositif).
Quant à la question de savoir si l’Etat qui souhaite délivrer uén per -
mis spécial au titre du paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII jouit d’un pouvoir

discrétionnaire pour déterminer si le programme de chasse à la ébaleine
est conçu « en vue de recherches scientifiques », elle ne peut être tran -
chée à bon escient qu’eu égard au cadre global dans lequel s’inscrit léa
convention en tant que traité multilatéral, désormais doté dée son
propre mécanisme de contrôle. Un Etat habilité à délivrer un perémis n’a

donc pas carte blanche pour décider que tel ou tel programme de
chasse à la baleine est mené « en vue de recherches scientifiques ». Il
ne suffit pas à un Etat partie de présenter son programme comme «é mené
en vue de recherches scientifiques » — encore lui faut-il en apporter la
preuve.

23. Selon moi, un pouvoir discrétionnaire qui ne serait soumis à aucune
restriction serait contraire à l’objet et au but de la convention,é ainsi qu’à
l’idée d’une réglementation multilatérale. L’Etat qui édélivre un permis spé -
cial doit prendre en considération les résolutions de la CBI, qui éreflètent
les vues d’autres Etats parties sur ce que recouvre la « recherche scienti -
fique». S’il est inutile de chercher à donner une définition univéerselle de

cette notion, un Etat partie qui cherche à déterminer si un prograémme est
mené «en vue de recherches scientifiques » afin de délivrer un permis spé -

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has, in my understanding, a duty to abide by the principle of preventioné
and the precautionary principle (cf. infra).
24. In my perception, Article VIII, part and parcel of the ICRW as a
whole, is to be interpreted taking into account its object and purpose. é
This discards any pretence of devising in it a so-called “self-contained”

regime or system, which would go unduly against the ICRW’s object andé
purpose. In sum, in my understanding, in line with the object and purposée
of the ICRW (supra), a State party does not have an unfettered discre -
tion to decide the meaning of “scientific research” and whether a égiven
whaling programme is “for purposes of scientific research”. The inéterpre -

tation and application of the ICRW in recent decades bear witness of a
gradual move away from unilateralism and towards multilateral conser -
vation of living marine resources, thus clarifying the limited scope of
Article VIII (1) of the ICRW.

IV. The Evolving Law relatinég to Conservation:
Interactions betweené Systems

25. With the growth in recent decades of international instruments
related to conservation, not a single one of them is approached in isola -
tion from the others ; not surprisingly, the co-existence of international

treaties of the kind has called for a systemic outlook, which has been pur -
sued in recent years. Reference can here be made to e.g., the 1973 Con -
vention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES Convention), the 1979 Convention on Migratory Species
of Wild Animals, the 1980 Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic

Marine Living Resources, the 1982 United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea, the 1992 United Nations Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD Convention).

26. The systemic outlook seems to be flourishing in recent years.

For example, at its fifth meeting, in 2000, the Conference of States
parties to the CBD Convention referred to “the interactions between
climate change and the conservation and sustainable use of biological
diversity in a number of thematic and cross-cutting areas”, includingé,
12
inter alia, marine and coastal biodiversity . As for the ICRW, the most
complete academic work produced to date, on its legal regime,
that of Patricia W. Birnie, supports the teleological interpretation of
the ICRW, stressing the growing importance of conservation in the
evolving interpretation and application of the ICRW ; she further

points out that related treaties (e.g., the CITES Convention) have
helped to identify the wide range of matters of concern to the inter-

12CBD, Scientific Assessments — Note by the Executive Secretary, doc. UNEP/CBD/

SBSTTA/10/7, of 5 November 2004, p. 8, para. 29.

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cial au titre du paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII a, à mon sens, le devoir de
respecter les principes de prévention et de précaution (voir ci-déessous).
24. L’article VIII devant selon moi être interprété à la lumière de l’éobjet
et du but de la convention dans son ensemble, dont il fait partie intéégrante,
on ne saurait y voir un régime ou un système « se suffisant à lui-même »,

car cela ferait échec à ces mêmes objet et but. En résuméé, il m’apparaît que,
conformément à ces derniers (voir ci-dessus), un Etat partie ne dispose pas
d’un pouvoir discrétionnaire absolu, qui lui permettrait de choisiér le sens
à donner à la « recherche scientifique » ou de décider que tel ou tel pro -
gramme de chasse à la baleine est mené « en vue de recherches scienti -

fiques». L’interprétation et l’application de la convention au couérs de ces
dernières années témoignent de l’abandon progressif de l’unilatéralisme au
profit de la conservation multilatérale des ressources marines vivantées, ne
laissant aucun doute sur le caractère limité de la portée du paragraphe 1

de l’article VIII de la convention.

IV. L’évolution du droit réelatif à la conservatéion :
interactions entre lées différents systèmeés

25. Aucun des instruments internationaux relatifs à la conservation
— qui se sont multipliés au cours des dernières décennies — n’est envisa -
geable séparément des autres : la coexistence de traités internationaux

d’un genre similaire appelait une vision systémique, qui, en toute logique,
s’est imposée au cours de ces dernières années. L’on citeéra ici la conven -
tion sur le commerce international des espèces de faune et de floreé sau -
vages menacées d’extinction de 1973 (CITES), la convention sur la
conservation des espèces migratrices appartenant à la faune sauvagée

de 1979, la convention sur la conservation de la faune et la flore marineés
de l’Antarctique de 1980, la convention des Nations Unies sur le droit
de la mer de 1982 ou encore la convention sur la diversité biologique
de 1992.
26. Cette vision systémique semble gagner du terrain depuis quelques

années. Ainsi, lors de sa cinquième réunion, en 2000, la conférence des
Etats parties à la convention sur la diversité biologique a fait aéllusion aux
«interactions entre les changements climatiques et la conservation et l’éutili -
sation durable de la diversité biologique dans un certain nombre de

domaines thématiques et inters12toriels », dont, notamment, la diversité
biologique marine et côtière . En ce qui concerne la convention internatio -
nale pour la réglementation de la chasse à la baleine, l’ouvragée académique
le plus complet à ce jour consacré au régime juridique qu’eléle a institué
— le livre de Patricia W. Birnie — va dans le sens d’une interprétation

téléologique de la convention, mettant en avant l’importance créoissante de
la conservationdans l’interprétation et l’application, en constante évolutiéon,

12Convention sur la diversité biologique, Evaluations scientifiques — Note du secrétaire

exécutif, doc. UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA/10/7, du 5 novembre 2004, p. 8, par. 29.

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national community as a whole, such as, e.g., inter alia, the protection of
wild fauna and flora 1.

V. The ICRW as a “Living Instruément”: The Evolving
O piniO J uris C Ommunis

27. The interpretation and application of the aforementioned treaties,

in the light of the systemic outlook, have been contributing to the gradual
formation of an opinio juris communis in the present domain of contem -
porary international law. The present Judgment of the ICJ in the Whaling
in the Antarctic case has recalled the establishment, in 1950, by the IWC,

of the Scientific Committee to assist it in discharging its functions ; as
from the mid-1980s, the Scientific Committee has conducted its review of
special permits on the basis of Guidelines, issued or endorsed by the IWéC
(para. 47). Moreover, the IWC is entitled to adopt recommendations

(under Article VI of the ICRW), which may be relevant (when adopted
by consensus or unanimity) for the interpretation of the Convention or éits
Schedule (para. 46). As the ICJ itself has put it, the functions conferred
upon the IWC “have made the Convention an evolving instrument”

(para. 45).
28. The present Judgment of the ICJ proceeds to assert that States par -
ties to the ICRW “have a duty to co-operate with the IWC and the Scien -

tific Committee” and to “give due regard to recommendations callinég for
an assessment of the feasibility of non-lethal” research methods (para. 83).
In this respect, it further recalls, inter alia, that “the two experts called by
Australia referred to significant advances in a wide range of non-lethal

research techniques over the past 20 years” (para. 137). The Judgment the
Court has just adopted today, 31 March 2014, is likely to be of impor -
tance to the future of the IWC, and to secure the survival of the ICRW
itself, as a “living instrument” capable of keeping on responding éto needs

of the international community and new challenges that it faces in the
present domain.
29. This is not the first time that the Court acknowledges that interna -
tional treaties and conventions are “living instruments”. In its célèbre

Advisory Opinion (of 21 June 1971) on Namibia, for example, the ICJ
referring to the mandates system of the League of Nations era, stated théat

13
P. W. Birnie, International Regulation of Whaling : From Conservation of Whaling to
Conservation of Whales and Regulation of Whale Watching, VII, N.Y./London/Rome,
Oceana Publs., 1985, pp. 583 and 635. She further singles out the continuing work of the
IWC, with several resolutions addressing “a wide variety of new issueés”, such as, inter alia,
criteria for aboriginal subsistence whaling, small cetaceans, creation oéf sanctuary areas,
preservation of habitats, “humane killing”, discouragement of whaléing, among o;hers
cf. ibid., Vol. II, p. 641.

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de cet instrument; l’auteur relève en outre que des traités d’un genre simi -
laire (tels que la convention CITES) ont aidé à identifier les néombreuses
questions intéressant la communauté internationale dans son ensembéle,
13
dont, par exemple, la protection de la faune et de la flore sauvages .

V. La convention en tant qéu’«instrument vivant»:

l’évolution de l’ OpiniO Juris COmmunis

27. L’interprétation et l’application des traités précitésé à la lumière de
cette vision systémique ont contribué à la formation graduelle éd’une opi -

nio juris communis dans ce domaine du droit international contemporain.
Dans son arrêt en la présente affaire, la Cour rappelle que, en 1950, la
CBI a établi un comité scientifique, qui l’aide à s’acquiétter de ses fonc -
tions; depuis le milieu des années 1980, le comité scientifique procède à

l’examen des permis spéciaux sur la base de lignes directrices établies ou
approuvées par la commission (par. 47). En outre, la CBI est habilitée à
émettre des recommandations (en vertu de l’article VI de la convention)
qui peuvent (lorsqu’elles sont adoptées par consensus ou à l’éunanimité)

être pertinentes aux fins de l’interprétation de la convention éou du règle -
ment qui lui est annexé (par. 46). Comme la Cour elle-même l’a dit, la
convention, du fait des fonctions conférées à la commission, esét un « ins -
trument en constante évolution » (par. 45).
28. Dans l’arrêt, la Cour affirme ensuite que les Etats parties à éla

convention sont «tenus de coopérer avec la CBI et le comité scientifique »
et qu’«ils doivent tenir dûment compte des recommandations les invitant
à évaluer la faisabilité d’autres méthodes [de recherche], non létales »
(par. 83). A cet égard, elle rappelle notamment que « les deux experts cités

par l’Australie ont fait état d’importantes avancées réaléisées dans le
domaine des techniques non létales au cours des vingt dernières anénées »
(par. 137). L’arrêt adopté en ce 31 mars 2014 est donc susceptible de jouer
un rôle important pour l’avenir de la CBI, et de garantir la surviée de la

convention elle-même en tant qu’« instrument vivant » capable de conti -
nuer à répondre aux besoins de la communauté internationale et éaux nou -
veaux défis auxquels elle doit aujourd’hui faire face dans ce domaéine.
29. Ce n’est pas la première fois que la Cour reconnaît que les conéven -

tions et traités internationaux sont des « instruments vivants ». Dans son
célèbre avis consultatif du 21 juin 1971 en l’affaire de la Namibie, la Cour,
faisant référence au système des mandats de l’ère de la Séociété des Nations,
avait ainsi jugé que

13 P. W. Birnie, International Regulation of Whaling : From Conservation of Whaling to
Conservation of Whales and Regulation of Whale Watching, vol. II, New York/Londres/
Rome, Oceana Publications, 1985, p. 583 et 635. L’auteur met en outre en avant le travail
que ne cesse d’accomplir la CBI, plusieurs de ses résolutions traiétant d’un « vaste éventail
de nouvelles questions », telles que les critères relatifs à la chasse de subsistance aboréigène,
les petits cétacés, la création de sanctuaires, la préservatéion des habitats, la « mise à mort
sans cruauté », les moyens de décourager la chasse ; cf. ibid., vol. II, p. 641.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 401 18/05/15 09:29 359 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

“the concepts embodied in Article 22 of the Covenant (. . .) were not
static, but were by definition evolutionary (. . .). [V]iewing the insti -

tutions of 1919, the Court must take into consideration the changes
which have occurred in the supervening half-century, and its interpre -
tation cannot remain unaffected by the subsequent development of
law, through the Charter of the United Nations or by way of custom -
ary law. Moreover, an international instrument has to be interpreted

and applied within the framework of the entire legal system prevailing
at the time of its interpretation. In the domain to which the present
proceedings relate, the last fifty years, as indicated above, have
brought important developments. (. . .) In this domain, as elsewhere,
the corpus iuris gentium has been considerably enriched, and this the

Court, if it is faithfully to discharge its functions, may not ignore.ӎ
(Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security
Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971,
pp. 31-32, para. 53.)

30. Subsequently, in its Judgment (of 25 September 1997) in the case
concerning the Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia), the

ICJ pondered that “newly developed norms of environmental law are relé -
evant for the implementation of the [1977] Treaty” in force between Héun-
gary and Slovakia, that was the object of the dispute. The Court proceedéed
that the contending Parties are required, “in carrying out their obliéga -
tions to ensure that the quality of water in the Danube is not impaired é

and that nature is protected, to take new environmental norms into con -
sideration”. Accordingly, the Court added, the 1977 Treaty “is not static,
and is open to adapt to emerging norms of international law”
(I.C.J. Reports 1997, pp. 67-68, para. 112).
31. Other contemporary international tribunals have pursued the same

evolutionary interpretation. For example, the European Court of Human
Rights, in its judgment (of 25 April 1978) in the Tyrer v. The United King -
dom case, asserted that the European Convention on Human Rights “is a
living instrument”, to be “interpreted in the light of present-day conditions”
(para. 31). Subsequently, the European Court reiterated, expressis verbis,

this obiter dictum, in its judgment (on preliminary objections, of 23 March
1995) in the case of Loizidou v. Turkey, wherein it added that, accordingly,
the provisions of the European Convention, as a “living instrument”é,

“cannot be interpreted solely in accordance with the intentions of
their authors as expressed more than forty years ago. (. . .) In addition,
the object and purpose of the Convention as an instrument for the
protection of individual human beings requires that its provisions be

interpreted and applied so as to make its safeguards practical and
effective.” (Application No. 5856/72, paras. 71-72.)

32. Likewise, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, in its Judg -
ment (of 31 August 2001) in the case of the Mayagna (Sumo) Awas

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«les notions consacrées par l’article 22 du Pacte … n’étaient pas

statiques mais par définition évolutives … [Q]uand elle envisage les
institutions de 1919, la Cour doit prendre en considération les
transformations survenues dans le demi-siècle qui a suivi et son inter -
prétation ne peut manquer de tenir compte de l’évolution que leé droit
a ultérieurement connue grâce à la Charte des Nations Unies et à la

coutume. De plus, tout instrument international doit être interpréété
et appliqué dans le cadre de l’ensemble du système juridique ené
vigueur au moment où l’interprétation a lieu. Dans le domaine
auquel se rattache la présente procédure, les cinquante dernières

années ont marqué, comme il est dit plus haut, une évolution imépor -
tante… Dans ce domaine comme dans les autres, le corpus juris gen -
tium s’est beaucoup enrichi et, pour pouvoir s’acquitter fidèlementé de
ses fonctions, la Cour ne peut l’ignorer. » (Conséquences juridiques
pour les Etats de la présence continue de l’Afrique du Sud en Nami▯bie

(Sud-Ouest africain) nonobstant la résolution 276 (1970) du Conse▯il
de sécurité, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 31-32, par. 53.)

30. Dans son arrêt du 25 septembre 1997 en l’affaire relative au Projet
Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros (Hongrie/Slovaquie), la CIJ a jugé que « de nou -
velles normes du droit de l’environnement, récemment apparues, [éétaient]
pertinentes pour l’exécution du traité» de 1977 en vigueur entre la Hongrie

et la Slovaquie, qui se trouvait en cause, et précisé que les parties à cette
affaire étaient tenues, « en s’acquittant de leurs obligations de veiller à ce
que la qualité des eaux du Danube ne soit pas compromise et à ce que la
protection de la nature soit assurée, de tenir compte des nouvelles néormes
en matière d’environnement». Ainsi, le traité en question n’était « pas un

instrument figé [mais était] susceptible de s’adapter à de néouvelles normes
du droit international» (C.I.J. Recueil 1997, p. 67-68, par. 112).
31. D’autres juridictions internationales contemporaines ont adopté unée
même interprétation évolutive. La Cour européenne des droits de l’homme
a ainsi, dans son arrêt du 25 avril 1978 en l’affaire Tyrer c. Royaume-Uni,

affirmé que la convention européenne des droits de l’homme éétait un « ins-
trument vivant à interpréter … à la lumière des conditions de vie actuelles»
(par. 31). Par la suite, elle a réitéré expressis verbis cet obiter dictum dans
l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu le 23 mars 1995 sur les exceptions préliminaires en

l’affaire Loizidou c. Turquie, ajoutant que les dispositions de la convention
européenne, en tant qu’il s’agissait d’un «instrument vivant»,

«ne [pouvaient] s’interpréter uniquement en conformité avec les é
intentions de leurs auteurs telles qu’elles [avaient été] expriémées voici
plus de quarante ans … En outre, l’objet et le but de la convention,
instrument de protection des êtres humains, appel[ai]ent à interprééter
et à appliquer ses dispositions d’une manière qui en rende les éexi -
o
gences concrètes et effectives. » (Requête n 5856/72, par. 71-72.)
32. La Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme (CIDH), dans son

arrêt du 31 août 2001 en l’affaire Communauté Mayagna (Sumo) Awas

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8 CIJ1062.indb 403 18/05/15 09:29 360 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

Tingni Community v. Nicaragua, stated that “human rights treaties are
living instruments, the interpretation of which ought to adapt to the evéo-

lution of times, and, in particular, to current living conditions” (épara1.46).
In the same line of thinking, in its earlier Advisory Opinion (of 1 October
1999) on The Right to Information on Consular Assistance in the Frame -
work of the Guarantees of the Due Process of Law, the Inter-American

Court observed that the International Law of Human Rights
“has made great headway thanks to an evolutive interpretation of

international instruments of protection. That evolutive interpretation
is consistent with the general rules of treaty interpretation establisheéd
in the 1969 Vienna Convention. (. . .) [H]uman rights treaties are liv -
ing instruments whose interpretation must consider the changes over

time and present-day conditions.” (Para. 114.)

33. The experience of supervisory organs of various international trea -
ties and conventions points to this direction as well. Not seldom they
have been faced with new challenges, requiring new responses from them, é

which could never have been anticipated, not even imagined, by the
draftsmen of the respective treaties and conventions. In sum, interna -
tional treaties and conventions are a product of their time, being also
living instruments. They evolve with time ; otherwise, they fall into desue -

tude. The ICRW is no exception to that. Those treaties endowed with
supervisory organs of their own (like the ICRW) disclose more aptitudeé
to face changing circumstances.

34. Moreover, in distinct domains of international law, treaties
endowed with a supervisory mechanism of their own have pursued a
hermeneutics of their own 14, facing the corresponding treaties and con -

ventions as living instruments. International treaties and conventions are
products of their time, and their interpretation and application in time,
with a temporal dimension, bears witness that they are indeed living
instruments. This happens not only in the present domain of conservationé

and management of li15ng marine resources, but likewise in other areas of
international law .
35. By the time of the adoption of the 1946 ICRW, in the mid-twenti -
eth century, there did not yet exist an awareness that the living marine

resources were not inexhaustible. Three and a half decades later, the
adoption of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS) — a major international law achievement in the nine -

14
Cf., for example, in the domain of the international protection of the réights of the
human person, A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos
Humanos, Vol. II, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S. A. Fabris Ed., 1999, Chap. XI, pp. 23-200.
15Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, International Law for Humankind — Towards a New
Jus Gentium, 2nd rev. ed., Leiden/The Hague, Nijhoff, 2013, Chap. II (“Time and Law
Revisited: International Law and the Temporal Dimension”), pp. 31-51.

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Tingni c. Nicaragua, écrivait que : « [l]es traités relatifs aux droits de
l’homme sont des instruments vivants, dont l’interprétation doiét s’adapter

à l’évolution des temps et, en particulier, aux conditions de véie présentes»
(par. 146). Dans la même logique, elle avait déjà, dans un avis conséultatif
relatif au droit à l’information sur l’assistance consulaire daéns le cadre
er
d’une procédure régulière, rendu le 1 octobre 1999, déclaré que le droit
international relatif aux droits de l’homme avait

«beaucoup progressé grâce à l’interprétation évolutive édes instru -
ments internationaux de protection. Pareille interprétation est
conforme aux règles générales d’interprétation des traitéés énoncées

par la convention de Vienne de 1969 … Les traités relatifs aux droits
de l’homme sont des instruments vivants, dont l’interprétation édoit
tenir compte de l’évolution des temps et des conditions de vie préé -
sentes.» (Par. 114.)

33. La pratique des organes de contrôle de divers traités et conventions

internationaux va dans le même sens. Il n’est pas rare que ces orgéanes
soient confrontés à de nouveaux défis, appelant de leur part des réponses
d’un genre nouveau, que les rédacteurs de ces traités et conventions
n’avaient nullement prévues, ni même imaginées. En résuméé, les traités et

les conventions internationaux sont les produits de leur temps, puisqu’ils
sont aussi des instruments vivants. Ils évoluent avec le temps ou bien
tombent en désuétude. La convention de 1946 ne fait pas exception. Les
instruments dotés, à l’instar de cette convention, d’organes de contrôle

qui leur sont propres révèlent une plus grande capacité d’adéaptation au
changement.
34. En outre, dans différents domaines du droit international, les traié -

tés dotés d’un mécanisme de contrôle se prêtent à uéne herméneutique14ui
generis, qui leur reconnaît le caractère d’instruments vivants . Les traités
et les conventions internationaux étant des produits de leur temps, léeur
interprétation et leur application dans le temps, eu égard à cette dimen -

sion temporelle, témoignent de ce qu’il s’agit bien d’instruéments vivants.
Cela est vrai non seulement dans le domaine de la conservation et de la é
gestion des ressources marines vivantes qui nous occupe ici, mais aussi
dans d’autres sphères du droit international 15.

35. A l’époque où a été adoptée la convention de 1946, au milieu du
siècle dernier, le monde n’avait pas encore pris conscience du faiét que les
ressources marines vivantes n’étaient pas inépuisables. Trois déécennies et

demie plus tard, en 1982, l’adoption de la convention des Nations Unies
sur le droit de la mer (CNUDM) — un événement qui a fait époque dans

14 Voir, par exemple, dans le domaine de la protection internationale des déroits de la

personne humaine, A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos
Hum15os, vol. II, Porto Alegre/Brésil, éd. S. A. Fabris, 1999, chap. XI, p. 23-200.
Voir A. Ae Cançado Trindade, International Law for Humankind — Towards a New
Jus Gentium, 2 éd. rev., Leyde/La Haye, Nijhoff, 2013, chap. II Time and Law Revi -
sited : International Law and the Temporal Dimension »), p. 31-51.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 405 18/05/15 09:29 361 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

teenth century — contributed to the public order of the oceans, and to
the growing awareness that their living resources were not inexhaustible.
Unilateralism gradually yielded to collective regulation towards conservéa -

tion. An example to this effect is provided, under the 1946 ICRW, by the
1982 general moratorium on commercial whaling.

36. Another example can be found in the establishment by the IWC of
whale sanctuaries (under Article V (1) of the ICRW) (infra). The IWC
has so far adopted three whale sanctuaries : first, the Southern Ocean
Sanctuary (1948-1955) ; secondly, the Indian Ocean Sanctuary (1979,

renewed in 1989, and indefinitely as from 1992) ; thirdly, the new South -
ern Ocean Sanctuary (from 1994 onwards). Moreover, in its meetings
of 2001-2004, the IWC was lodged with a proposal (revised in 2005) of a
new sanctuary, the South Atlantic Sanctuary 1, so as to reassert the need

of conservation of whales.

37. Over the last three decades, the IWC has repeatedly made clear
that lethal research methods are not in line with the aforementioned moré -

atorium. In its resolution 2003-2, for example, the IWC calls for a limita -
tion of “scientific research” to “non-lethal methods only”, and expresses
its opposition to commercial whaling, “contrary to the spirit of the émora -
torium”, and presents an annotated compilation of its “Conservatioén
Work”, with a systematization of resolutions to this effect (Anns.é I-II).

It is nowadays reckoned that States parties to the ICRW that wish to
issue special permits are bound to co-operate with the IWC and the Sci -
entific Committee, and to give consideration to the views of other Stateés
parties expressed through the comments of the IWC and the recommen -

dations of the Scientific Committee.
38. Parallel to this, multilateral conventions (such as UNCLOS and
CBD) have established a framework for the conservation and manage -
ment of living marine resources. The UNCLOS Convention contains a
17
series of provisions to that effect . As to the CBD Convention, the Con -
ference of the parties held in Jakarta in 1995, for example, adopted the
Jakarta Mandate on Coastal and Marine Biodiversity, reasserting the rel -
evance of conservation and ecologically sustainable use of coastal and

marine biodiversity, and, in particular, linking conservation, sustainabéle
use of biodiversity and fishing activities.

39. Furthermore, in its meeting of 2002, the States parties to the Con -

vention on Migratory Species (CMS) pointed out the need to give greater
protection to six species of whales (including the Antarctic minke whalées)

16Propounded mainly by Brazil, Argentina, South Africa and Uruguay in the éambit of
the IWC. On the proposal, cf. “Chair’s Report of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Interna-
tional Whaling Commission”, pp. 33-34.
17Such as Articles 61, 64-67, 192, 194 and 204 (2).

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l’histoire du droit international — a contribué à une gestion ordonnée des
océans et à une prise de conscience toujours plus grande de la vulénérabi -
lité des ressources marines vivantes. L’unilatéralisme a progreéssivement

cédé la place à un régime collectif de réglementation souécieux de la
conservation, comme l’illustre le moratoire général de 1982 sur la chasse
à la baleine à des fins commerciales instauré en vertu de la coénvention
de 1946.

36. Les sanctuaires baleiniers établis par la CBI (au titre du para -
graphe 1 de l’article V de la convention) en constituent une autre illustra -
tion (ci-dessous). A ce jour, la CBI en a institué trois : le sanctuaire de
l’océan Austral (1948-1955), puis le sanctuaire de l’océan Indien (créé

en 1979 et maintenu en 1989, pour une durée d’abord déterminée puis, à
partir de 1992, indéterminée) ; et, enfin, le nouveau sanctuaire de
l’océan Austral (à partir de 1994). En outre, lors des sessions qu’elle a
tenues de 2001 à 2004, la CBI a examiné un projet (revisé en 2005) de
16
création d’un nouveau sanctuaire, cette fois dans l’Atlantique ésud , afin
de réaffirmer la nécessité d’assurer la conservation des baéleines.
37. Au cours des trois dernières décennies, la CBI a indiqué claireément,
et à plusieurs reprises, que les méthodes de recherche létales éallaient à

l’encontre de ce moratoire. Dans sa résolution 2003-2, elle préconise « le
recours exclusif aux méthodes non létales » pour la recherche scientifique,
exprime son opposition à la chasse commerciale « contrair[e] à l’esprit du
moratoire», et présente une compilation annotée de ses « activités de
conservation», en classant les résolutions à cet effet (annexes I-II). Il est

aujourd’hui considéré que les Etats parties à la convention équi souhaitent
délivrer des permis spéciaux sont tenus de coopérer avec la CBIé et le
comité scientifique, et de prendre en compte les vues des autres Etatés par -
ties telles que reflétées dans les avis de la CBI et les recommaéndations du

comité scientifique.
38. En parallèle, certaines conventions multilatérales (telles que laé
CNUDM et la convention sur la diversité biologique) ont été adéoptées
pour encadrer la conservation et la gestion des ressources marines
17
vivantes. La CNUDM contient une série de dispositions à cet effeét ;
s’agissant de la convention sur la diversité biologique, la conférence des
parties tenue à Jakarta en 1995 a ainsi adopté le mandat de Jakarta sur la
biodiversité côtière et marine, dans lequel elle a réaffirméé l’importance

d’assurer la conservation et une utilisation durable de la diversité biolo -
gique marine et côtière, et établi plus particulièrement un élien entre ces
deux notions et les activités halieutiques.
39. Par ailleurs, lors de leur conférence de 2002, les Etats parties à la

convention sur la conservation des espèces migratrices ont mis l’accent
sur la nécessité d’accorder une protection plus grande à sixé espèces de

16 Essentiellement défendu par le Brésil, l’Afrique du Sud, l’Aérgentine et l’Uruguay
dans le cadre de la CBI. Sur cette proposition, cf. «Rapport du président de la 57 réunion
annuelle de la commission baleinière internationale », p. 33-34.
17 Voir par exemple les articles 61, 64-67, 192, 194 et 204 2).

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8 CIJ1062.indb 407 18/05/15 09:29 362 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

and their habitats, breeding grounds and migratory routes. These are
clear illustrations of the evolving opinio juris communis on the matter. In
18
its 2010 meeting, held in Agadir, Morocco, the “Buenos Aires Group”
reiterated support for the creation of a new South Atlantic Sanctuary for
whales, and positioned itself in favour of conservation and non-lethal use
of whales 19, and against so-called “scientific whaling” (in particular in the

cases of endangered or severely depleted species).

40. The “Buenos Aires Group” stressed the needed implementation of
the moratorium, and recalled the achievements of the IWC since the earlyé
1980s. It further called for a reform of Articles V (whaling under objec -
tion) and VIII (scientific whaling) of the ICRW, so that their interpreta -

tion and application do not go against the principle of conservation of é
whales underlying the Convention. More recently, on 4 February 2013,
the same “Buenos Aires Group” expressed its “strongest rejectioén” of the
ongoing whale hunting (including species classified as endangered) in éthe

Southern Ocean Sanctuary (para. 1), with catches pointing to “an opera -
tion of a commercial nature which lacks any scientific justificationӎ
(para. 2). After calling for non-lethal methods and “the maintenance of
the commercial moratorium in place since 1986”, the “Buenos Aires

Group” stated that the ongoing whale hunting was in breach of “theé
spirit and the text” of the 1946 ICRW, and failed to respect “the integrity
of the whale sanctuaries recognized by the IWC” (paras. 3-4).

VI. Inter-Generational Equity

41. The 1946 ICRW was indeed pioneering, in acknowledging, in its

Preamble, “the interest of the nations of the world in safeguarding for
future generations the great natural resources represented by the whale é
stocks”. At that time, shortly after World War II, its draftsmen could
hardly have anticipated that this concern would achieve the dimension ité

did, in the international agenda and in international law-making (in par -
ticular in the domain of international environmental law) in the decadeés
that followed. The long-term temporal dimension, underlying the
inter-generational equity, was properly acknowledged. And the concep -

tual construction of inter-generational equity (in the process of which I

18
Formed by Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Repuéblic,
Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, Peru and Uruguay.
19Cf. Chair’s Report of the 62nd Annual Meeting of the International Whalinég
Commission, pp. 7-8.

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baleines (au nombre desquelles figuraient les petits rorquals de l’Aéntarc -
tique) ainsi qu’à leurs habitats, aires de reproduction et routesé migra -
toires. Tous ces exemples témoignent clairement de l’évolution équ’a

connue l’opinio juris communis en la matière. Lorsqu’il s’est r18ni à
Agadir (Maroc) en 2010, le « groupe de Buenos Aires » a réaffirmé son
soutien au projet tendant à créer un nouveau sanctuaire baleinier dans
l’Atlantique sud, et s’est prononcé en faveur de la conservatioén et d’une
19
utilisation non létale des baleines , et contre la prétendue « chasse scien-
tifique» (en particulier dans le cas des espèces en danger ou connaissanét
un grave déclin).
40. Le « groupe de Buenos Aires » a mis en avant la nécessité de faire

respecter le moratoire, et rappelé les résultats obtenus par la CBéI depuis
le début des années 1980. Il a en outre appelé à une réforme de l’article V
(chasse pratiquée au titre d’une objection) et de l’article VIII (chasse
scientifique) de la convention afin que leur interprétation et leur éapplica -

tion n’aillent pas à l’encontre du principe de conservation qui sous-tend
cette dernière. Plus récemment, le 4 février 2013, ce même groupe a
exprimé son «opposition catégorique» aux activités de chasse à la baleine
(notamment d’espèces reconnues comme étant en danger) qui se poursui -

vaient dans le sanctuaire de l’océan Austral (par. 1), et déclaré que les
prises étaient révélatrices de la « nature commerciale d’une opération
dépourvue de toute justification scientifique » (par. 2). Après avoir préco -
nisé le recours à des méthodes non létales et le « maintien du moratoire
sur la chasse commerciale institué en 1986», le «groupe de Buenos Aires»

a déclaré que les activités de chasse à la baleine qui se poéursuivaient dans
le sanctuaire de l’océan Austral non seulement étaient contrairées « à l’es -
prit et à la lettre» de la convention de 1946, mais encore portaient atteinte
à «l’intégrité des sanctuaires baleiniers » reconnus par la CBI (par. 3- 4).

VI. L’équité intergénératiéonnelle

41. La convention de 1946 a réellement fait date en ce qu’elle recon -
naissait, dans son préambule, « que les nations du monde [avaient] intérêt
à sauvegarder, au profit des générations futures, les grandes réessources
naturelles représentées par l’espèce baleinière». A l’époque, au sortir de la

seconde guerre mondiale, ses auteurs pouvaient difficilement prévoir que,
au cours des décennies suivantes, cette préoccupation prendrait une telle
importance aux yeux de la communauté internationale et dans l’éélabora -
tion du droit international (en particulier dans le domaine du droit inter -

national de l’environnement). La dimension temporelle, inscrite dansé le
long terme, qui sous-tend la notion d’équité intergénérationnelle, était

18 Constitué par l’Argentine, le Brésil, le Chili, la Colombie, leé Costa Rica, l’Equateur,
le Mexique, le Panama, le Pérou, la République dominicaine et l’Uruguay.
19Voir «Rapport du président de la 62eréunion annuelle de la commission baleinière
internationale », p. 7-8.

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had the privilege to take part) was to take place, in international legéal
doctrine, four decades later, from the mid-1980s onwards.

42. Within this Court, I had in fact the occasion to address the
long-term temporal dimension, in relation to inter-generational equity, in

my separate opinion in the case of the Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay
(Argentina v. Uruguay) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (I), p. 14). I pon -
dered therein that

“The long-term temporal dimension marks its presence, in a noto -

rious way, in the domain of environmental protection. The concern
for the prevalence of the element of conservation (over the simple
exploitation of natural resources) reflects a cultural manifestation éof

the integration of the human being with nature and the world wherein
he or she lives. Such understanding is, in my view, projected both in
space and in time, as human beings relate themselves, in space, with

the natural system of which they form part (and ought to treat with
diligence and care), and, in time, with other generations (past and
future) 20, in respect of which they have obligations. (. . .)

In fact, concern with future generations underlies some environ -
mental law conventions . In addition, in the same line of reasoning,
the 1997 UNESCO Declaration on the Responsibilities of Present

Generations Towards Future Generations, after invoking, inter alia,
the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the two 1966
United Nations Covenants on Human Rights, recalls the responsibil -

ities of present generations to ensure that ‘the needs and interests éof
present and future generations are fully safeguarded’ (Article 1 and
Preamble). The 1997 Declaration added, inter alia, that ‘the present

generations should strive to ensure the maintenance and perpetuation

20Future generations promptly began to attract the attention of the conteméporary
doctrine of international law : cf., e.g., A.-Ch. Kiss, “La notion de patrimoine commun
de l’humanité”, 175 Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye
(RCADI) (1982), pp. 109-253 ; E. Brown Weiss, In Fairness to Future Generations : Inter-
national Law, Common Patrimony and Intergenerational Equity, Tokyo/Dobbs Ferry

N.Y., United Nations University/Transnational Publs., 1989, pp. 1-351 ; A.-Ch. Kiss,
“The Rights and Interests of Future Generations and the Precautionaryé Principle”, The
Precautionary Principle and International Law — The Challenge of Implementation (eds.
D. Freestone and E. Hey), The Hague, Kluwer, 1996, pp. 19-28; [Various Authors], Future
Generations and International Law (eds. E. Agius and S. Busuttil et al.), London, E-rth
scan, 1998, pp. 3-197 ; [Various Authors], Human Rights : New Dimensions and Challenges
(J. Symonides, ed.), Paris/Aldershot, UNESCO/Dartmouth, 1998, pp. 1-153 ; [Various
Authors], Handbook of Intergenerational Justice (J. C. Tremmel, ed.), Cheltenham,

E. 21gar Publ., 2006, pp. 23-332.
E.g., the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the
1997 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,
the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the 1987 Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, among others.

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dûment reconnue. Et c’est quarante ans plus tard, à partir du milieu des
années 1980 (dans le cadre d’un processus auquel je ne suis du reste pas
étranger), que cette notion d’équité intergénérationnelle devait voir le jour

dans la doctrine juridique internationale.
42. Au sein de la Cour, j’ai de fait eu l’occasion de traiter de cette
dimension temporelle à long terme, à propos de cette même notioén d’équité

intergénérationnelle, dans l’opinion individuelle que j’ai jointe à l’affaire
des Usines de pâte à papier sur le fleuve Uruguay (Argentine c. Uruguay)
(arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (I), p. 14). Voici ce que j’y faisais observer :

«Dans le domaine de la protection de l’environnement, la dimen -
sion temporelle à long terme est évidente. Le souci de faire préévaloir

l’élément de conservation (sur la simple exploitation des ressources
naturelles) est une manifestation culturelle de l’intégration de él’être
humain à la nature et au monde dans lequel il vit. Cette approche a,

à mon sens, un aspect spatio-temporel, l’être humain établissant un
lien, dans l’espace, entre lui-même et le système naturel dont il fait
partie (et qu’il devrait traiter avec diligence et attention) et, déans le
20
temps, entre lui-même et les autres générations (passées et futures) ,
envers lesquelles il a des obligations…
En fait, le souci des générations futures est à la base de certéaines
21
conventions de droit de l’environnement . En outre, dans le même
ordre d’idées, la déclaration sur les responsabilités des géénérations
présentes envers les générations futures, adoptée par l’UNESCO

en 1997, après avoir invoqué, notamment, la déclaration universellée
des droits de l’homme de 1948 et les deux pactes relatifs aux droits éde
l’homme adoptés par l’Organisation des Nations Unies en 1966, réap -

pelle la responsabilité qui incombe aux générations présenteés de veil-
ler à ce que « les besoins et les intérêts des générations présentes et é
futures soient pleinement sauvegardés » (article premier et préam -

20Cette question des générations futures a rapidement attiré l’éattention des auteurs
de la doctrine contemporaine du droit international : voir, par exemple, A.-Ch. Kiss,

«La notion de patrimoine commun de l’humanité », Recueil des cours de l’Académie de
droit international de La Haye (RCADI), t. 175 (1982), p. 109-253 ; E. Brown Weiss, In
Fairness to Future Generations : International Law, Common Patrimony and Intergenera -
tional Equity, Tokyo/Dobbs Ferry New York, United Nations University/Transnational
Publs., 1989, p. 1-351 ; A.-Ch. Kiss, « The Rights and Interests of Future Generations and
the Precautionary Principle », The Precautionary Principle and International Law —The
Challenge of Implementation (D. Freestone et E. Hey, dir. publ.), La Haye, Kluwer, 1996,
p. 19-28 ; [divers auteurs], Future Generations and International Law (E. Agius et S. Busuttil
et al., dir. publ.), Londres, Earthscan, 1998, p. 3-197; [divers auteurs], Human Rights : New

Dimensions and Challenges (J. Symonides, dir. publ.), Paris/Aldershot, Unesco/Dartmouth,
1998, p. 1-153; [divers auteurs], Handbook of Intergenerational Justice (J. C. Tremmel, dir.
publ.), Cheltenham, E. Elgar Publ., 2006, p. 23-332.
21Par exemple, la convention-cadre des Nations Unies sur les changements climatiques
de 1992, le protocole de Kyoto à la convention-cadre des Nations Unies sur les change-
ments climatiques de 1997, la convention de Vienne de 1985 pour la proteéction de la couche
d’ozone et le protocole de Montréal de 1987 relatif à des substéances qui appauvrissent la
couche d’ozone, notamment.

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of humankind with due respect for the dignity of the human person’

(Art. 3). Almost two decades earlier, the United Nations General
Assembly adopted, on 30 October 1980, its resolution proclaiming
‘the historical responsibility of States for the preservation of natuére
for present and future generations’ (para. 1) ; it further called upon

States, in ‘the interests of present and future generations’, to téake
‘measures (. . .) necessary for preserving nature’ (para. 3). (. . .)

May I recall that the subject at issue was originally taken up by the
Advisory Committee to the United Nations University (UNU) on a

project on the matter, in early 1988, so as to provide an innovative
response to rising and growing concerns over the depletion of natural
resources and the degradation of environmental quality and the rec -

ognition of the need to conserve the natural and cultural heritage (at
all levels, national, regional and international ; and governmental as
well as non-governmental). The Advisory Committee, composed of
22 23
professors from distinct continents , met in Goa, India , and issued,
on 15 February 1988, a final document titled ‘Goa Guidelines on
Intergenerational Equity’ 24, which stated :

‘Th[e] temporal dimension is articulated through the formula -
tion of the theory of ‘intergenerational equity’ ; all members of

each generation of human beings, as a species, inherit a natural
and cultural patrimony from past generations, both as beneficia -
ries and as custodians under the duty to pass on this heritage to
future generations. As a central point of this theory the right of

each generation to benefit from this natural and cultural heritage
is inseparably coupled with the obligation to use this heritage in
such a manner that it can be passed on to future generations in no

worse condition than it was received from past generations. This
requires conservation and, as appropriate, enhancement of the
quality and of the diversity of this heritage. The conservation of

cultural diversity is as important as the conservation of environ -
mental diversity to ensure options for future generations.

22 Namely, Professors E. Brown Weiss, A. A. Cançado Trindade, A.-Ch. Kiss,
R. S. Pathak, Lai Peng Cheng and E. W. Ploman.
23 In the meeting held in Goa, India, convened by the United Nations Univerésity (UNU),
the members of the UNU Advisory Committee acted in their own personal caépacity.
24 These Guidelines, adopted on 15 February 1988, were the outcome of prolonged
discussions, which formed part of a major study sponsored by the UNU. It is not my
intention to recall, in the present separate opinion, the points raised éin those discussions,

annotated in the unpublished UNU dossiers and working documents, on fileé with me since
February 1988.

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bule). Elle ajoute notamment que « [l]es générations présentes
devraient s’efforcer d’assurer le maintien et la perpétuationé de l’hu -

manité, dans le respect de la dignité de la personne humaine» (art. 3).
Presque deux décennies auparavant, l’Assemblée générale dée l’Orga -
nisation des Nations Unies adoptait, le 30 octobre 1980, sa résolu -

tion proclamant «la responsabilité historique des Etats concernant la
préservation de la nature pour les générations présentes et éfutures »
(par. 1), et appelait en outre les Etats à prendre « les mesures néces -
saires … en vue de préserver la nature », « dans l’intérêt des généra -

tions présentes et futures » (par. 3)…
Qu’il me soit permis de rappeler que le sujet en question a initiale -
ment été abordé, au début de l’année 1988, par le comiété consultatif de
l’Université des Nations Unies (UNU), dans le cadre d’un projet visant

à apporter une réponse novatrice aux préoccupations grandissantées
concernant l’épuisement des ressources naturelles et la dégradaétion de
l’environnement ainsi qu’à faire en sorte que soit reconnue la nécessité

de préserver le patrimoine naturel et culturel (à tous les niveauéx, natio -
nal, régional et international, qu’il soit public ou non). Le coméité
consultatif, composé de professeurs originaires de différents coénti -
nents , s’est réuni à Goa, en Inde , et a publié, le 15 février 1988, un

document final intitulé « Directives de Goa relatives à l’équité inter-
générationnelle » 24, dans lequel il était déclaré ce qui suit:

«[La] dimension temporelle s’articule autour du développement
de la théorie de l’« équité intergénérationnelle». A chaque généra -
tion, tous les êtres humains, en tant qu’espèce, héritent deés géné -
rations précédentes un patrimoine naturel et culturel, dont ils soént

à la fois les bénéficiaires et les gardiens ayant le devoir de étrans -
mettre cet héritage aux générations futures. L’idée qui est au cœur
de cette théorie est que le droit de chaque génération de tireré
avantage de cet héritage naturel et culturel est inséparablement léié

à l’obligation d’en user de manière à pouvoir le transmettre aux
générations futures dans un état au moins équivalant à ceélui dans
lequel il se trouvait lorsqu’elle l’a reçu des générationés précé -

dentes. Cette obligation implique la conservation et, le cas échéaént,
l’amélioration de la qualité et de la diversité de cet héritage. La
conservation de la diversité culturelle est tout aussi importante
que celle de la diversité de l’environnement pour offrir diverseés

options aux générations futures.

22 A savoir Mme E. Brown Weiss, M. A. A. Cançado Trindade, M. A.-Ch. Kiss,
M. R. S. Pathak, M. Lai Peng Cheng et M. E. W. Ploman.
23 A la réunion convoquée par l’Université des Nations Unies (UNU) à Goa, en Inde,
les membres du comité consultatif sont intervenus à titre personneél.
24
Les directives adoptées le 15 février 1988 sont le résultat de longs débats qui se sont
déroulés dans le cadre d’une grande étude parrainée par lé’UNU. Je n’ai pas l’intention de
rappeler, dans la présente opinion individuelle, les questions abordéées lors de ces débats,
annotés dans les dossiers et les documents de travail non publiés éde l’UNU, que je conserve
depuis 1988.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 413 18/05/15 09:29 365 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

Specifically, the principle of intergenerational equity requires

conserving the diversity and the quality of biological resources.
(. . .)
The principles of equity governing the relationship between
generations (. . .) pertain to valued interests of past, present and

future generations, covering natural and cultural resources. (. . .)
There is a complementarity between recognized human rights and
the proposed intergenerational rights. (. . .)’ 25

And the aforementioned UNU document moved on to propose
strategies to implement inter-generational rights and obligations.

From then onwards, the first studies on this specific topic of inter-
generational equity, in the framework of the conceptual universe of
International Environmental Law, began to flourish 2. From the late
1980s onwards, inter-generational equity has been articulated amidst

the growing awareness of the vulnerability of the environment, of
the threat and gravity of sudden and global changes, and, ultimately,
of one’s own mortality.” 27

43. Inter-generational equity comes again to the fore in the present
case of Whaling in the Antarctic. The factual context of the cas d’espèce is
of course quite distinct from that of the Pulp Mills case ; yet, significantly,
in one and the other, inter-generational equity (with its long-term tempo -

ral dimension) marks its presence. It does so in distinct internationalé
instruments of international environmental law, and in its domain as a
whole. And this cannot pass unnoticed here.

44. In this respect, the 1973 CITES Convention, e.g., states in its Pre -
amble that wild fauna and flora “must be protected for this and theé gen -
erations to come”, and adds that “peoples and States are and shouléd be

the best protectors of their own wild fauna and flora”. The CITES Céon -
vention provides for control of trade, and prevention or restriction of
exploitation of species (Art. II). The 1979 Convention on the Conserva -

tion of Migratory Species of Wild Animals asserts in its Preamble the
awareness that each generation “holds the resources of the earth for é
future generations and has an obligation to ensure that this legacy is céon -
served and, where utilized, is used wisely”. Furthermore, it recognizées in

25 The full text of the “Goa Guidelines on Intergenerational Equity” éis reproduced in
Annexes to the two following books, whose authors participated in the elaboration of the
document: E. Brown Weiss, In Fairness to Future Generations: International Law, Common
Patrimony and Intergenerational Equity, op. cit. supra note 20, Appendix A, pp. 293-295 ;
A. A. Cançado Trindade, Direitos Humanos e Meio Ambiente : Paralelo dos Sistemas de
Proteção Internacional, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S. A. Fabris Ed., 1993, Ann. IX, pp. 296-298.

26Cf., inter alia, supra note 20.
27
Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2010 (I), pp. 177-180, paras. 114, 118, 120 and 121 of my aforementioned separate opinion.

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Plus précisément, le principe de l’équité intergénéérationnelle

exige que l’on préserve la diversité et la qualité des ressources
biologiques…
Les principes d’équité qui régissent la relation entre les géénéra -
tions … touchent aux intérêts primordiaux des générations passéées,

présentes et futures, et s’étendent aux ressources naturelles eét cultu -
relles. Il existe une complémentarité entre les droits de l’homme
déjà reconnus et les droits intergénérationnels proposés…» é25

Les auteurs de ce document de l’UNU poursuivaient en proposant
des stratégies visant à mettre en œuvre les droits et obligatioéns inter -

générationnels. Dès lors, les premières études sur le thèéme spécifique
de l’équité intergénérationnelle, dans le cadre de l’uénivers conceptuel
du droit international de l’environnement, commencèrent à se muélti -
plier . A partir de la fin des années 1980, le thème de l’équité inter -

générationnelle s’est développé sur fond de prise de consécience
croissante de la vulnérabilité de l’environnement, de la menaceé de
changements à l’échelle planétaire et de leur gravité, eté, en fin de
27
compte, de notre propre mortalité. »

43. L’équité intergénérationnelle occupe à nouveau une plaéce de premier
plan en la présente affaire relative à la Chasse à la baleine dans l’Antarc -
tique. Bien que le contexte factuel soit ici nettement distinct de celui de
l’affaire des Usines de pâte à papier, force est de constater que, dans un cas

comme dans l’autre, la notion d’équité intergénérationnelle (avec sa dimen -
sion temporelle à long terme) est présente. Elle l’est à tréavers différents in-s
truments régissant le droit international de l’environnement et l’éensemble

des questions touchant à ce dernier. Ce point ne saurait ici passer iénaperçu.
44. Ainsi, la convention sur le commerce international des espèces de
faune et de flore sauvages menacées d’extinction (CITES) de 1973 indique,
dans son préambule, que la faune et la flore sauvages « doi[vent] être pro -

tégé[es] p[our] les générations présentes et futures », ajoutant que « les
peuples et les Etats sont et devraient être les meilleurs protecteursé de leur
faune et de leur flore sauvages » et prévoit, en son article II, un contrôle

du commerce, ainsi que la prévention ou la restriction de l’exploiétation
des espèces. La convention sur la conservation des espèces migratrices
appartenant à la faune sauvage de 1979 exprime, dans son préambuleé, la
conscience de ce que chaque génération «détient les ressources de la Terre

25 Le texte intégral des « Directives de Goa relatives à l’équité intergénérationénelle »
est reproduit dans les annexes des deux ouvrages suivants, dont les auteéurs ont participé
à l’élaboration du document : E. Brown Weiss, In Fairness to Future Generations Inter
national Law, Common Patrimony and Intergenerational Equity, op. cit. supra note 20,
appendice A, p. 293-295 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, Direitos Humanos e Meio Ambiente :
Paralelo dos Sistemas de Proteção Internacional, Porto Alegre/Brésil, éd. S. A. Fabris,
1993, annexe IX, p. 296-298.
26 Voir, notamment, supra note 20.
27
Usines de pâte à papier sur le fleuve Uruguay (Argentine c. Uruguay), arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2010 (I), p. 177-180, par. 114, 118, 120 et 121 de mon opinion individuelle.

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the Preamble that “wild animals in their innumerable forms are an irre -
placeable part of the earth’s natural system which must be conserved éfor

the good of mankind”.

45. The 1992 CBD Convention expresses, in its Preamble, the determi -

nation “to conserve and sustainably use biological diversity for the bene -
fit of present and future generations”. It further asserts in its Preéamble
that “the conservation of biological diversity is a common concern ofé
humankind”, and calls for “the conservation of biological diversitéy and

the sustainable use of its components”, also to “contribute to peaéce for
humankind”. In its operative part, the CBD Convention then proceeds, é
in detail, to provide for conservation of biological diversity and its séus -
tainable use (Arts. 1, 6-10, 11-13, and 17-18).

46. In the course of a meeting of a UNEP Group of Legal Experts —
of which I keep a good memory — which took place in Malta before the
holding of the 1992 UNCED Conference in Rio de Janeiro in the period

of the travaux préparatoires of the CBD Convention — the need was
stressed of relating “preventive with corrective measures, with preveéntive
measures seeming “to lend themselves more easily to an inter-generational
perspective” 28. The Group of Legal Experts then identified “the constitu -

tive elements” of common concern of humankind, namely :

“involvement of all countries, all societies, and all classes of peopéle
within countries and societies; long-term temporal dimension, encom -
passing present as well as future generations ; and some sort of shar -
29
ing of burdens of environmental protection” .

47. In effect, inter-generational equity marks presence nowadays in a
wide range of instruments of international environmental law, and indeedé
of contemporary public international law. It goes beyond the scope of thée

present separate opinion to dwell extensively upon them. Suffice it herée to
refer to yet another illustration. The 2001 UNESCO Universal Declara-
tion on Cultural Diversity, e.g., after expressing, in its Preamble, theé aspir-
ation to “greater solidarity” on the basis of “recognition of céultural

diversity, of awareness of the unity of humankind, and of the develop -
ment of intercultural exchanges”, adds, in Article 1, that “cultural diver -
sity is as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature” ; in this

28
UNEP, “Report on the Proceedings of the Meeting Prepared by the Co-Raéppor -
teurs, Profs. A. A. Cançado Trindade and D. J. Attard”, The Meeting of the Group of Legal
Experts to Examine the Concept of the Common Concern of Mankind in Relation to Global
Environmental Issues (D. J. Attard, ed. — Malta, University of Malta, 13-15 December
1990), Nairobi, UNEP, 1991, p. 22, para. 6.
29 Ibid., p. 21, para. 4.

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pour les générations futures et a la mission de faire en sorte queé ce legs
soit préservé et que, lorsqu’il en est fait usage, cet usage soéit fait avec

prudence», et reconnaît en outre que « la faune sauvage, dans ses formes
innombrables, constitue un élément irremplaçable des systèmeés naturels
de la Terre, qui doit être conservé pour le bien de l’humanitéé».
45. La convention sur la diversité biologique de 1992 exprime, dans

son préambule, une détermination « à conserver et à utiliser durablement
la diversité biologique au profit des générations présentes éet futures», et y
affirme que «la conservation de la diversité biologique est une préoccupa -
tion commune à l’humanité »; il y est appelé à la « conservation de la

diversité biologique et [à] l’utilisation durable de ses élééments », notam -
ment dans le but de « contribuer … à la paix de l’humanité ». Les disposi-
tions de cette convention établissent un mécanisme détaillé édestiné à
assurer la conservation de la diversité biologique et l’utilisatioén durable

de ses éléments (art. premier, 6-10, 11-13 et 17-18).
46. Lors d’une réunion du groupe d’experts juridiques du PNUE
— dont je garde un très agréable souvenir —, qui s’est déroulée à Malte,
avant la tenue de la conférence des Nations Unies sur l’environnement et

le développement (CNUED) de 1992 à Rio de Janeiro, à l’époque des tra -
vaux préparatoires de la convention sur la diversité biologique, lé’accent a
été mis sur la nécessité de combiner « mesures préventives et correctives »,
les premières semblant « plus adaptées à une perspective intergénération -
28
nelle » . Ont ensuite été énumérés les éléments intéresséant l’humanité
tout entière, à savoir :

«la participation de tous les pays, de toutes les sociétés et de toéutes
les classes sociales au sein des pays et des sociétés ; la dimension tem -
porelle à long terme, englobant les générations présentes eté futures ;

et, sous une forme ou sous une autre, un partage des charges en
matière de protection de l’environnement » 29.

47. De fait, l’équité intergénérationnelle est aujourd’huié présente dans
un grand nombre d’instruments relevant du droit international de l’éenvi -
ronnement, et même du droit international public contemporain. Il ne

m’appartient pas, dans le cadre de la présente opinion individuellée, d’exa -
miner en détail ces instruments. Qu’il me suffise de donner un deérnier
exemple. La déclaration universelle de l’UNESCO sur la diversitéé cultu -
relle de 2001, après avoir exprimé, dans son préambule, une aspiration « à

une plus grande solidarité fondée sur la reconnaissance de la diveérsité
culturelle, sur la prise de conscience de l’unité du genre humain éet sur le
développement des échanges interculturels», ajoute, en son article premier,

28
PNUE, « Report on the Proceedings of the Meeting Prepared by the Co-Rappor -
teurs, Profs. A. A. Cançado Trindade and D. J. Attard », The Meeting of the Group of
Legal Experts to Examine the Concept of the Common Concern of Mankind in▯ Relation to
Global Environmental Issues (sous la dir. de D. J. Attard — Malte, Université de Malte,
13-15 décembre 1990), Nairobi, PNUE (1991), p. 22, par. 6.
29 Ibid., p. 21, par. 4.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 417 18/05/15 09:29 367 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

sense, “it is the common heritage of humanity and should be recognized

and affirmed for the benefit of present and future generations”.

VII. Conservation of Livingé Species (Marine Mammals)é

1. The Tension between Conservation and Exploitation :
Arguments of the Parties

48. In the course of the proceedings (written phase) of the present case

Whaling in the Antarctic, both Australia and Japan referred, in distinct
terms to the conservation of marine mammals. To start with, Australia’és
Memorial devoted some attention to the development, from the mid-1970s
onwards, of a treaty-based regime for the conservation of marine mam -
mals. It observed that, from then onwards, “the international communiéty

has adopted an increasingly conservation-oriented approach in the devel -
opment of treaty regimes, including those covering marine mammals”
(para. 4.84). This, in its view, has led to “significant developments in thée
law relating to conservation” (para. 4.85).
49. In Australia’s view, those international instruments recognize “thée

intrinsic value” of all living species, and “the importance of conéservation
of migratory species and biological diversity as common concerns of
mankind”. They are directly relevant to the conservation and manage -
ment of whales, and support an interpretation of Article VIII of the

ICRW that “contributes to, rather than undermines, the conservation of
whales” (para. 4.86). Australia then advances “a restrictive interpretation
of the Article VIII exception, and a stringent limitation on the use of
lethal methods of scientific research if non-lethal means are available”
(para. 4.86). Australia further refers to the recognition of the “precau -

tionary approach” in several “international environmental agreemenéts,
concerning both broader environmental matters, and, more particularly,
the conservation and protection of marine mammals” (para. 4.89).

50. For its part, Japan, in its Counter-Memorial, argued that, in its
view, there is “no contradiction” between the conservation and theé exploi -
tation of whales, not even under the ICRW (para. 6.15). In the same line
of thinking — Japan added — the United Nations Convention on

Biological Diversity (CBD) “permits the use of biological resourcesé” in a
manner that avoids or minimizes “adverse impacts” on biological diéver -
sity (para. 6.17). In Japan’s view, the term “use” includes “both commeér-
cial exploitation and use for the purposes of scientific research”
(para. 6.18). Japan then recalled that the concept of “sustainable use” éhas

been further developed by the Conference of the States parties to the

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que «la diversité culturelle est, pour le genre humain, aussi nécessairée que
l’est la biodiversité dans l’ordre du vivant», et qu’en ce sens «elle constitue

le patrimoine commun de l’humanité et doit être reconnue et affiérmée au
bénéfice des générations présentes et des génératioéns futures».

VII. La conservation des esépèces vivantes (mammifèéres marins)

1. Antagonisme entre conservation et exploitation :
les arguments des Parties

48. Dans le cadre de la procédure (écrite) en l’espèce, l’Australie
comme le Japon ont expressément fait référence à la conservaétion des
mammifères marins. Dans son mémoire, l’Australie a ainsi évoéqué le

développement, depuis le milieu des années 1970, d’un régime conven -
tionnel tendant à la conservation de ces animaux, faisant observer quée, à
partir de ce moment, « la communauté internationale a adopté une
démarche de plus en plus axée sur la conservation, en élaboranté des
régimes conventionnels, notamment ceux concernant les mammifères

marins» (par. 4.84), qui ont entraîné une « évolution considérable … [du]
droit en matière de conservation » (par. 4.85).
49. L’Australie estime que, dans ces instruments, sont reconnues « la
valeur intrinsèque » de tous les organismes vivants ainsi que « l’impor -
tance de la conservation des espèces migratrices et de la diversitéé biolo -

gique en tant que préoccupations communes de l’humanité». Directement
lié à la conservation et à la gestion des stocks de baleines, ce régime
conventionnel conforte, selon elle, l’idée que l’article VIII de la conven -
tion de 1946 doit être interprété de manière à « contribuer à la conserva -
tion des baleines, et non à y faire obstacle » (par. 4.86). L’Australie

préconise une « interprétation restrictive de l’exception contenue à l’ar -
ticle VIII, et une limitation rigoureuse du recours à des méthodes léétales
de recherche scientifique lorsque d’autres, non létales, sont disponibles »
(par. 4.86). Elle note en outre que « l’approche de précaution » a été
reconnue dans plusieurs « accords internationaux sur l’environnement,

qui concernent à la fois des questions environnementales d’ordre géénéral
et celles, plus spécifiques, de la conservation et de la protection dées mam -
mifères marins» (par. 4.89).
50. Le Japon, pour sa part, soutient dans son contre-mémoire qu’il n’y
a «pas de contradiction» entre la conservation des baleines et leur exploi -
tation, fût-ce dans le cadre de la convention de 1946 (par. 6.15). Dans

cette optique — ajoute-t-il —, la convention sur la diversité biologique
«permet d’utiliser les ressources biologiques » d’une manière qui évite ou
atténue « les effets défavorables » sur la diversité biologique (par. 6.17).
Par «utilisation», on entend, selon le Japon, « à la fois exploitation com -
merciale et utilisation en vue de recherches scientifiques » (par. 6.18). Le

Japon poursuit en rappelant que la conférence des parties à la conévention
sur la diversité biologique a apporté des précisions supplémentaires sur la

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CBD, which, in 2004, adopted the Addis Ababa Principles and Guide -
lines for the Sustainable Use of Biodiversity, recognizing that :

“Sustainable use is a valuable tool to promote conservation of bio-
logical diversity, since in many instances it provides incentives for
conservation and restoration because of social, cultural and economic
benefits that people derive from that use. In turn, sustainable use

cannot be achieved without effective conservation measures. In this
context, and as recognized in the Plan of Implementation of the
World Summit on Sustainable Development, sustainable use is an
effective tool to combat poverty, and consequently, to achieve sus -

tainable development.” (Memorial of Australia, para. 6.19.)
51. Japan further argued that the policy of “combination of conserva -

tion and sustainable use” under the CBD has been a “matter of practical
necessity”, and “what types and levels of utilization are sustainaéble will
depend on the status of the species and the demands upon it at any par -
ticular time” (ibid., para. 6.20). As the “level of exploitation” would
depend on “the conservation status of the species in question” — Japan

added — it followed that “the measures adopted to promote sustainable
use of biological resources should be adjusted according to the informa -
tion available about a species, bearing in mind the precautionary
approach” (ibid., para. 6.22).

2. Whale Stocks — Conservation and Development :
Responses of the Parties and the Intervenor
to Questions from the Bench

52. There has been growing awareness in recent years that the ICRW

does not allow the use of whales to take place to the detriment of the
conservation of whale stocks. The general membership of the ICRW
(encompassing both whaling and non-whaling States) has been attentive
to the growing emphasis on conservation, with more protective measures

(by the IWC), and the gradual crystallization of the precautionary prin -
ciple (cf. infra). In the present case of Whaling in the Antarctic, in the
course of the oral pleadings before the Court (on 8 July 2013), I deemed
it fit to put the following questions to Japan, Australia and New Zealand
together :

“[1.] How do you interpret the terms ‘conservation and development’
of whale stocks under the International Convention for the Reg -

ulation of Whaling ?
[2.] In your view, can a programme that utilizes lethal methods be
considered ‘scientific research’, in line with the object and purpéose
of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whalin?g” 30

30
CR 2013/17, of 8 July 2013, p. 49.

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notion d’«utilisation durable»; en 2004, les parties à cette conférence ont
adopté les principes et les directives d’Addis-Abeba pour l’utilisation
durable de la diversité biologique ; elles y affirmaient ce qui suit :

«L’utilisation durable est un bon moyen de promouvoir la conser -
vation car les avantages sociaux, culturels et économiques qui en
découlent favorisent très souvent la protection et la restaurationé de
la diversité biologique. L’utilisation durable exige aussi l’adoption de

mesures de conservation efficaces. Comme cela a été reconnu dans éle
plan d’application du sommet mondial pour le développement
durable, elle permet de lutter efficacement contre la pauvreté et, péar
conséquent, de parvenir à un développement durable. » (Mémoire de

l’Australie, par. 6.19.)
51. Le Japon fait également valoir que le choix de conjuguer «conserva -

tion et utilisation durable » dans la convention sur la diversité biologique
relève «de la nécessité pratique» et que «la question de savoir précisément
quels types et quels niveaux d’utilisation sont durables dépend deé l’état des
espèces et des contraintes dont elles font l’objet à un moment éparticulier»
(ibid., par. 6.20). Puisque le « niveau d’exploitation» d’une espèce consi-

dérée dépend de « son état de conservation », ajoute-t-il, « les mesures
adoptées pour promouvoir l’utilisation durable des ressources bioléogiques
devraient être ajustées en fonction des informations disponibles séur une
espèce, en gardant à l’esprit l’approche de précaution » (ibid., par. 6.22).

2. Stocks de baleines — conservation et développement :
réponses des Parties et de l’Etat intervenant aux questions
d’un membre de la Cour

52. La conscience que la convention de 1946 ne permet pas d’utiliser

des baleines au détriment de la conservation de leurs stocks n’a céessé de
croître au cours des dernières années. Les Etats parties à léa convention
(qui regroupent des nations baleinières et non baleinières) ont été sen -
sibles à l’accentuation de l’aspect relatif à la conservatioén, ce qu’attestent

l’adoption par la CBI de mesures davantage axées sur la protection et
la cristallisation progressive du principe de précaution (cf. ci-dessoués).
Au cours de la procédure orale qui s’est tenue en l’espèce, àé l’audience du
8 juillet 2013, j’ai jugé opportun de poser au Japon, à l’Australie et à la
Nouvelle-Zélande les questions suivantes :

«1. Comment interprétez-vous les termes « conservation et accroisse -
ment» des peuplements baleiniers, tels qu’ils sont employés dans

la convention ?
2. Selon vous, un programme prévoyant l’emploi de méthodes létaéles
peut-il être considéré comme relevant de la « recherche scienti -
fique» eu égard à l’objet et au but de la convention ?» 30

30
CR 2013/17, 8 juillet 2013, p. 49.

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And then, I addressed the following additional questions only to Japan :

“1. To what extent would the use of alternative non-lethal methods

affect the objectives of the JARPA II programme ?

2. What would happen to whale stocks if many, or even all States
parties to the International Convention for the Regulation of

Whaling, decide to undertake ‘scientific research’ using lethal
methods, upon their own initiative, similarly to the modus oper -
andi of JARPA II ?” 31

53. The questions I put to Australia, Japan and New Zealand together
pertained to the interpretation of the terms “conservation and develoép -

ment” of whale stocks under the ICRW, and to the methods to be used in
“scientific research” in the light of the object and purpose of thée ICRW.
In its answer, Australia drew attention to quotas for “aboriginal subésis -

tence whaling”, and to measures for purposes other than consumption
(e.g., whale watching) 32. For its part, Japan referred to the co-existence
between “conservationist measures” (e.g., moratorium and sanctuaréies)
33
and “scientific whaling” under Article VIII of the ICRW .

54. In its response, the intervenor, New Zealand, warned against the

excesses of commercial whaling (also referring to the sustainable use of
whale stocks), invoking the Preamble of the ICRW’s provision, to the
effect that whale capture cannot endanger those “natural resources”.

New Zealand further referred to the duty of co-operation and “the needs
of conservation for the benefit of all”. Invoking the precautionary
approach, New Zealand ascribed a limited role to Article VIII for the
conduct of scientific research, adding that lethal methods could only beé
34
used when they created no risk of an adverse effect on the whales stock .

55. As to one of the questions I addressed to Japan, pertaining to the
objectives of a programme (supra), the argument advanced by Japan was
that the research objectives (of JARPA II) dictated the methods, and not
vice versa. If certain data could only be collected by using lethal methods, é

in its view there would be no alternative non-lethal methods. Japan then
added that there were limitations to the use of non-lethal methods of
biopsy sampling and satellite tagging 35.

31 CR 2013/17, of 8 July 2013, p. 49.
32 CR 2013/19, of 10 July 2013, p. 54, para. 79.
33 CR 2013/21, of 15 July 2013, pp. 40-41, paras. 20-21.
34 Written Responses of New Zealand, op. cit. supra note 3, pp. 4-5, paras. 1-4.

35
CR 2013/22, of 15 July 2013, p. 48, para. 20.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 422 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée )69

J’ai ensuite adressé au Japon les questions suivantes :

«1. Dans quelle mesure l’emploi de méthodes de substitution non

létales aurait-il une incidence sur la réalisation des objectifs du
programme JARPA II ?
2. Qu’adviendrait-il des peuplements baleiniers si de nombreux Etats
parties à la convention, voire tous, entreprenaient de leur propre

initiative des « recherches scientifiques » en ayant recours à des
méthodes létales, selon un modus operandi analogue à celui de
JARPA II ? » 31

53. Les questions que j’ai posées collectivement à l’Australie, éau Japon et
à la Nouvelle-Zélande avaient trait à l’interprétation des termes «conserva -

tion et accroissement » des stocks de baleines tels qu’employés dans la
convention, et aux méthodes à mettre en œuvre dans le cadre de érle ac«herche
scientifique» eu égard à l’objet et au but de cet instrument. Dans sa rééponse,

l’Australie a appelé l’attention sur les quotas pour «la chasse aborigène de
subsistance» et sur des mesures sans rapport avec la consommation, comme
l’observation des baleines (ou «whale watching») 3. Le Japon, pour sa part,

a mis en avant la coexistence de « mesures conservationnistes» (telles que
l’instauration d’un moratoire et l’établissement de sanctuaiéres) et de la
«chasse scientifique» pratiquée au titre de l’article VIII de la convention 3.
54. Dans sa réponse, la Nouvelle-Zélande, Etat intervenant, a mis en

garde contre les excès observés en matière de chasse commercialée (eu
égard également à l’exploitation durable des stocks de baleiénes), en se
référant à la disposition du préambule de la convention qui prévoit que la

capture de baleines ne doit pas compromettre ces « ressources naturelles».
Elle a également évoqué le devoir de coopération et les «é impératifs de la
conservation dans l’intérêt de tous». Invoquant l’approche de précaution,
elle a attribué à l’article VIII un rôle limité aux fins de la conduite d’atro -

cités de recherche scientifique, estimant que les méthodes létales ne pou -
vaient être utilisées que lorsqu’il n’existait aucun risque équ’il soit porté
préjudice aux peuplements baleiniers 34.

55. En réponse à l’une des questions que je lui avais adressées équant
aux objectifs d’un programme (voir ci-dessus), le Japon a affirmé que
c’étaient les objectifs de recherche (de JARPA II) qui dictaient les
méthodes, et non l’inverse. Si certaines données ne peuvent être recueillies

qu’au moyen de méthodes létales, il est, selon lui, impossible éde recourir
à des méthodes non létales. Le Japon faisait en outre état dée limites à
l’utilisation des méthodes non létales que sont le prélèvéement biopsique et
35
le marquage et le suivi par satellite .

31 CR 2013/17, 8 juillet 2013, p. 49.
32 CR 2013/19, 10 juillet 2013, p. 54, par. 79.
33 CR 2013/21, 15 juillet 2013, p. 40-41, par. 20-21.
34 Réponses de la Nouvelle-Zélande aux questions posées par le juge Cançado Trin-

dad35 op. cit. supra note 3, p. 4-5, par. 1-4.
CR 2013/22, 15 juillet 2013, p. 48, par. 20.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 423 18/05/15 09:29 370 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

56. Australia retorted that the objectives of JARPA II were, in its
view, rather vague and general, and seemed to have been adopted and
applied so as to allow the killing of whales ; thus, the methods (of

JARPA II) dictated the objectives, and not vice versa. After criticizing the
stated objectives of JARPA II, Australia advocated the use of non-lethal
methods under that programme. And it added that, if many of the States
parties to the ICRW felt entirely free — as Japan does — to decide for

itself to issue special permits under Article VIII for the taking of any
number of whales, this would certainly have adverse effects on the finé,
humpback and other whale stocks 36. Australia expressed its concern that,
as the situation stands at present, “an unknown and indefinite numberé of
37
whales will be taken under JARPA II” .

3. General Assessment

57. It has been made clear, in recent decades, that the international
community has adopted a conservation-oriented approach in treaty
regimes, including treaties covering marine mammals. The ICRW is to be
properly interpreted in this context ; it does not stand alone as a single

international Convention aimed at conservation and management of
marine mammals. The ICRW is part of a plethora of international instru -
ments adopted in recent years, aiming at conservation with a precaution -
ary approach. Amongst these instruments stands the United Nations

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), adopted at the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), in
Rio de Janeiro, on 5 June 1992, which can here be recalled as an interna -
tional instrument aiming at conservation of living species.

58. The CBD is directly pertinent to conservation and management of
whales. For example, in its Preamble, it asserts inter alia its determination
“to conserve and sustainably use biological diversity for the benefité

of present and future generations”. In this respect, the ICRW should be é
read in the light of other international instruments that follow a
conservation-oriented approach and the precautionary principle. The
existence of the ICRW in relation to Conventions aimed at conserva -

tion of living resources supports a narrow interpretation of Article VIII
of the ICRW.
59. Accordingly, Article VIII (1), as already pointed out, cannot be
broadly interpreted, and cannot at all be taken as a so-called “self-

contained” regime or system. It is not a free-standing platform, not a
carte blanche given to States to do as they freely wish. It is part and parcel
of a system of collective guarantee and collective regulation oriented

36Written Comments of Australia on Japan’s Responses to Questions Put béy Judges
during the Oral Proceedings, of 19 July 2013, pp. 8-13.
37CR 2013/20, of 10 July 2013, p. 16, para. 37.

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56. L’Australie a répliqué que les objectifs de JARPA II étaient par
trop vagues et généraux, et semblaient avoir été adoptés et poursuivis afin
de ménager la possibilité de tuer des baleines ; ce sont donc, selon elle, les
méthodes (de JARPA II) qui dictent les objectifs, et non l’inverse. Ayant

critiqué les objectifs affichés de JARPA II, elle a préconisé le recours à des
méthodes non létales dans le cadre de ce programme, ajoutant que, si
nombre d’Etats parties à la convention se sentaient entièrementé libres de
délivrer des permis spéciaux au titre de l’article VIII afin de procéder à la

capture du nombre de baleines qu’ils souhaitent, cela porterait assuréé -
ment préjudice aux populations de rorquals communs, de baleines à ébosse
et autres espèces de baleines 36. Enfin, l’Australie s’est déclarée préoccupée
par le fait que, si rien ne changeait, « [u]n nombre inconnu et indéterminé
de baleines sera[it] capturé dans le cadre de JARPA II » 3.

3. Appréciation générale

57. Il est devenu clair, au cours des dernières décennies, que la comméu -
nauté internationale a adopté dans les régimes conventionnels, énotam -

ment ceux concernant les mammifères marins, une conception axée suér la
conservation. Tel est le contexte dans lequel il convient d’interprééter la
convention de 1946 ; elle ne fait pas cavalier seul, en tant qu’elle serait
l’unique convention internationale visant la conservation et la gestiéon des

populations de mammifères marins, mais fait partie des nombreux instréu -
ments internationaux axés, dans une optique de précaution, sur la éconser-
vation qui ont été adoptés ces dernières années. Parmi eux figure
notamment la convention des Nations Unies sur la diversité biologique,

adoptée le 5 juin 1992, lors de la CNUED de Rio de Janeiro, et qui
constitue un exemple d’instrument international visant la conservatioén
des espèces vivantes.
58. La convention sur la diversité biologique intéresse directement laé
conservation et la gestion des populations de baleines, son préambuleé fai -

sant par exemple état d’une détermination « à conserver et à utiliser dura-
blement la diversité biologique au profit des générations préésentes et
futures». La convention de 1946 doit ainsi être lue à la lumière deés autres
instruments internationaux relevant d’une conception axée sur la céonserva -

tion et le principe de précaution. C’est l’articulation mêmeé de cette conve-n
tion avec d’autres instruments visant la conservation des ressources évivantes
qui milite en faveur d’une interprétation restrictive de son articéle VIII.
59. En conséquence, le paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII ne saurait, ainsi

que je l’ai déjà indiqué, être interprété de manièére large, ni être réputé
constituer un prétendu système ou régime « se suffisant à lui-même». Il ne
constitue pas une plate-forme autonome, non plus qu’il ne donne carteé
blanche aux Etats pour agir comme bon leur semble. Il fait partie intéé -

36 Observations écrites de l’Australie sur les réponses apportéées par le Japon aux ques-
tions posées par les juges au cours de la procédure orale, 19 juillet 2013, p. 8-13.
37 CR 2013/20, 10 juillet 2013, p. 16, par. 37.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 425 18/05/15 09:29 371 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

towards the conservation of living species. Thus, Article VIII (1) can only
be interpreted in a restrictive way ; all States parties to the ICRW have
recognizedly a common interest in the conservation and in the long-term
future of whale stocks.

VIII. Principle of Preventioén and the Precautionaéry Principl:e
Arguments of the Partieés and the Intervenor

60. Although the Court does not dwell upon the precautionary princi -
ple or approach in the present Judgment in the case of Whaling in the
Antarctic (Australia v. Japan: New Zealand intervening), I deem it fit to
recall and point out herein that, in the course of the proceedings in thée

present case, the two contending Parties as well as New Zealand addressed
the principle of prevention and the precautionary principle as related téo
the cas d’espèce. In its oral arguments, Australia stressed conservation
under contemporary international environmental law, invoking its “thréee
main legal pillars”, namely, “intergenerational equity, the principle of

prevention and the precautionary approach”, principles that are to “gov -
ern the interpretation and the application of the 1946 Convention régime,
as they make it possible for its object and purpose to be achieved” 3.
61. In the same line of thinking, in its Memorial Australia upheld the

precautionary principle, asserting that, for example, “[t]he establiséhment
of sanctuaries reflects also the increasing importance of the precautiéonary
approach in the IWC’s management and conservation of whales” (p. 42,
para. 2.80). It has then added that

“[t]he IWC now pursues conservation of whales as an end itself. In
so doing, it places greater reliance on a precautionary approach to

conservation and management combined with a focus on non-con -
sumptive use” (p. 52, para. 2.99).

62. Australia, in sum, identified an “increasingly conservation-oriented
approach” (p. 172, para. 4.83). This is so in view of the growing pursu -
ance of the precautionary approach. In Australia’s perception,

“This development, which has been recognized by the IWC, must
be taken into account in interpreting the Article VIII exception. In
practical terms, and in the face of uncertainty as to the status of whalée

stocks and the effect of any lethal take, precaution directs an inter -
pretation of Article VIII that limits the killing of whales.

The precautionary approach specifically is intended to provide
guidance in the development and application of international environ-

38
CR 2013/7, of 26 June 2013, pp. 56-58, paras. 50, 55 and 57-58.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 426 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée ) 71

grante d’un système de réglementation et de garanties collectivées axé sur
la conservation des espèces vivantes. Aussi ne peut-il être interprété que
dans un sens restrictif, étant entendu que tous les Etats parties àé la
convention de 1946 ont un intérêt commun à la conservation et àé la per -
pétuation à long terme des peuplements baleiniers.

VIII. Les principes de préventéion et de précaution:
arguments des Partiesé et de l’État intervenéant

60. Bien que la Cour ne se soit pas étendue sur le principe de précau -
tion dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu en la présente affaire, éil me paraît utile de
rappeler et de souligner ici que les deux Parties en litige et l’Etaté interve -
nant ont, au cours de la procédure, analysé les rapports entre lesé principes

de précaution et de prévention et le cas d’espèce. A l’audience, l’Australie
a mis en avant la place de la notion de conservation dans le droit inter-
national contemporain régissant les questions d’environnement, en éfaisant
référence à ses trois grands « piliers juridiques », à savoir « l’équité inter-
générationnelle, le principe de prévention et l’approche de éprécaution »

— principes qui doivent «régi[r] l’interprétation et l’application du régime
de la convention de 1946 car ils permettent à son objet et à son béut d’être
atteints »38.
61. Dans la même optique, l’Australie a, dans son mémoire, mis en

exergue le principe de précaution, affirmant que « [l]a création de …
refuges», par exemple, « témoign[ait] de l’importance croissante d’une
approche de précaution dans la politique de la CBI en matière de géestion
et de conservation des ressources baleinières » (p. 42, par. 2.80), et pour -
suivant en ces termes :

«De nos jours, la conservation des baleines constitue un objectif
en soi pour la CBI, qui privilégie une gestion fondée sur une appréoche

de précaution, tout en s’intéressant à l’utilisation des éressources à des
fins autres que la consommation. » (P. 52, par. 2.99.)

62. En résumé, l’Australie a mis en évidence « l’intérêt croissant porté
à la conservation » (p. 172, par. 4.83), l’approche de précaution étant de
plus en plus privilégiée. Selon elle,

«[c]ette nouvelle approche, qui a été reconnue par la CBI, doit êétre
prise en considération pour interpréter l’exception figurant àé l’ar -
ticle VIII. Dans la pratique, et vu l’incertitude régnant quant à l’éétat

des populations de baleines et à l’effet de toute prise létalée, cette
approche de précaution exige une interprétation de l’article VIII qui
limite le nombre de baleines tuées.
Face à l’absence de certitude scientifique, l’approche de préécaution
vise à poser les grands principes du développement du droit inter-

38
CR 2013/7, 26 juin 2013, p. 56-58, par. 50, 55 et 57-58.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 427 18/05/15 09:29 372 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

mental law where there is scientific uncertainty. The core of this

approach is reflected in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration (. . .). The
approach requires caution and vigilance in decision-making in the
face of such uncertainty.

The precautionary approach has been recognized in a number of
international policy documents and international environmental
agreements, concerning both broader environmental matters and,

more particularly, the conservation and protection of marine mam -
mals. (. . .)
The Contracting Governments to the ICRW have agreed to the adop -
tion of a precautionary approach in a wide range of matters. As applied

to Article VIII, this means that the uncertainty regarding the status of
whale stocks requires Contracting Governments to act with prudence
and caution by strictly limiting the grant of special permits under Artié -
39
cle VIII.” (Memorial of Australia, pp. 173-176, paras. 4.87-4.91.)

63. In sum, in Australia’s understanding, developments in international
law confirm that “Article VIII is to be interpreted as an exception that is
only available in limited circumstances”; Article VIII “is not self-judging”,
and its application is to be “determined by reference to objective créiteria,

consistent with those adopted by the Commission established under the
ICRW”. Such an approach — Australia added — is consistent with “the
broader international legal framework in which the ICRW now rests”,

which promotes a “conservation-oriented focus” that is consistent with the
precautionary approach (ibid., pp. 173-176, paras. 4.87-4.91). Australia
concluded on this point that “the Article VIII exception” had a “strictly
limited application”, in particular where there is “uncertainty reégarding

the status of the relevant whale stocks” (ibid., p. 187, paras. 4.118). Also in
its oral arguments, Australia insisted that “the aim of the precautionary
approach is conservation (. . .)”, and this latter applies in particular “where
40
there is scientific uncertainty” .
64. For its part, in its arguments (in the written and oral phases) Japan
did not elaborate on the principle of prevention. Furthermore, in its
41
Counter-Memorial, it somehow minimized the precautionary approach ,
but it conceded that such an approach entailed “the conduct of furtheér
special permit whaling for scientific purposes as a means of improving

39
Australia recalled, still in its Memorial, not only the incorporation ofé the -recau
tionary approach (as propounded in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment
and Development) in “a growing number of international treaties”,é but also the contem
porary case law on the subject, of the International Court of Justice (écase of the Pulp
Mills on the River Uruguay), as well as of the International Tribunal for the Law of the
Sea (ITLOS) (the Southern Bluefin Tuna cases, and the Advisory Opinion of its Sea-Bed
Disputes Chamber, on the Responsibilities and Obligations of States Sponsoring Persons
and Entities with Respect to Activities in the Area) (pp. 173-176, paras. 4.87-4.91).

40
41CR 2013/7, of 26 June 2013, p. 47, paras. 53-54.
Counter-Memorial of Japan, p. 132, para. 3.92.

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national de l’environnement et de son application. L’essentiel en éest

reflété dans le principe 15 de la déclaration de Rio… L’incertitude
quant à l’incidence [d’]activités [risquant de causer de graéves dom -
mages à l’environnement] … impose [aux Etats] de faire preuve de
prudence et de vigilance dans leurs décisions.

L’approche de précaution est reconnue dans un certain nombre de
déclarations de principe internationales et d’accords internationaéux
sur l’environnement, qui concernent à la fois des questions environ -

nementales d’ordre général et des questions plus spécifiquesé, à savoir
la conservation et la protection des mammifères marins.
Les gouvernements contractants sont convenus d’adopter une
approche de précaution à l’égard d’un large éventail dée questions.

Dans le cas de l’article VIII, il s’ensuit que, l’état des populations de
baleines demeurant incertain, ils doivent faire preuve de prudence et
de vigilance en limitant strictement l’octroi de permis spéciaux aéu titre
39
de cet article.» (Mémoire de l’Australie, p. 173-176, par. 4.87-4.91.)

63. En bref, de l’avis de l’Australie, l’évolution du droit inteérnational
confirme que « l’article VIII doit être interprété comme une exception à
laquelle il ne peut être recouru que dans des cas limités»; il n’est «pas une
clause d’application discrétionnaire», son application devant «s’apprécier

au regard de critères objectifs, compatibles avec ceux adoptés par la com -
mission établie par la convention de 1946 ». Cet avis, estime l’Australie,
est conforme au «cadre juridique international plus général dans lequel la

convention de 1946 s’inscrit à l’heure actuelle », un cadre « qui favorise la
conservation» et qui est conforme à l’approche de précaution (ibid.,
p. 173-176, par. 4.87-4.91). L’Australie conclut sur ce point que « l’excep -
tion définie à l’article VIII » est d’« application strictement limitée », en

particulier lorsqu’il existe « une incertitude quant à l’état des peuplements
baleiniers concernés» (ibid., p. 187, par. 4.118). A l’audience aussi, l’Aus -
tralie a souligné que « l’approche de précaution vis[ait] la conservation »,
40
surtout «dans les contextes d’incertitude scientifique » .
64. Le Japon, dans ses plaidoiries (écrites et orales), n’a pas analéysé de
manière approfondie le principe de prévention. Dans son contre-mémoire,

il a en outr41trouvé le moyen de minorer l’importance de l’approche de
précaution , tout en soutenant que celle-ci supposait « de conduire de
nouvelles activités de chasse en vertu de permis spéciaux délivérés à des

39
L’Australie a rappelé, toujours dans son mémoire, que l’appréoche de précaution (telle
qu’énoncée dans le principe 15 de la déclaration de Rio sur l’environnement et le dé-eloppeé
ment) a été intégrée «dans un nombre croissant de traités … internationaux,»mais également
dans la jurisprudence contemporaine pertinente constituée tant par laé CIaierseUsines de
pâte à papier sur le fleuve Uruguay) que par le tribunal international du droit de la mer (TIDM)
(affairesdu Thon à nageoire bleue et Responsabilités et obligations des Etats qui patronnent des
personnes et des entités dans le cadre d’activités me▯ s la Zondee,mande d’avis consultatif
soumise à la Chambre pour le règlement des différends relatifés aux fonds marins) (p. 173-176,
par. 4.87-4.91).
40
41CR 2013/7, 26 juin 2013, p. 47, par. 53-54.
Contre-mémoire du Japon, p. 132, par. 3.92.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 429 18/05/15 09:29 373 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

understanding of marine ecosystems and the sustainability of whale
stocks”; it was on that basis, Japan added, “that JARPA and JARPA II

have been designed and carried out”, in a “prudent and cautious” way,
posing “no risk to the survival of abundant minke whale stocks” 4.

65. In its oral arguments, Japan further stated that it was conducting
“scientific research” in such a way that “no harm to stocks”é would occur
“in full application of the precautionary approach”. It added thaté “[l]ittle

is known of the ecosystem in the Antarctic Ocean”, and it was “preécisely
to supply the Scientific Committee with necessary scientific data that
Japan is pursuing research whaling”, and, together with “other natéions’

contribution, conservation and management based on science under the
IWC has been making progress” 43. In invoking the precautionary
approach (as expressed in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environ-

ment and Development),Japan asserted that the JARPA II programme was
“consistent” with its requirements ; Japan then called for “a permissive
interpretation and application of Article VIII of the ICRW, so as to render
44
it effective” .

66. For its part, New Zealand, in its oral arguments, in addressing the
principle of prevention, stated that “consultations and negotiations” — in
pursuance of the duty of co-operation — are to be “meaningful” 45, also
46
taking into account “the views and legitimate interests of others”é . Turn-
ing to the precautionary principle or approach, New Zealand argued, in
its written observations, that States parties to the ICRW do not have fuéll

discretion, in the form of a “blank cheque”, to “determine the énumber of
whales to be killed under special permit under Article VIII” ; they have to
proceed reasonably, so as to achieve the object and purpose of the Con -
47
vention as a whole .

67. That number of whales, New Zealand proceeded in its written

observations, ought to be “necessary and proportionate to the objectives
of the scientific research”, pursuant to the precautionary approach aés
related to “the conservation and management of living marine resourceés”.

42Japan added that “possible effects ofJARPA II catches on whale stocks were analysed
and submitted to the IWC Scientific Committee in 2005”, and those analyses concluded
that “there would be no adverse effects on the long-term status of any of the targeted whale

species in the Antarctic”. Japan concluded that, if there was “sciéentific uncertainty about
the conservation status and population dynamics of whale stocks”, theén further research
would become necessary, and it would keep on “acting prudently in conétinuing to conduct
JARPA II” (Counter-Memorial of Japan, pp. 424-426, paras. 9.33-9.36).

43CR 2013/12, of 2 July 2013, pp. 15-16, para. 9.
44CR 2013/16, of 4 July 2013, pp. 29-35, para. 19, and cf. also paras. 11-12, 15-16,

and450-21.
46CR 2013/17, of 8 July 2013, p. 45, para. 30.
Ibid., p. 46, para. 33.
47Ibid., pp. 25-27, paras. 34-38.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 430 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée )73

fins scientifiques, afin d’améliorer la connaissance des écosysétèmes marins
et la viabilité des populations baleinières »; c’est sur cette base, ajoutait-il,
«que JARPA et JARPA II ont été conçus et mis en œuvre », dans une

optique de « précaution et prudence », de sorte qu’ils « ne menacent nulle42 -
ment la survie des abondantes populations de petits rorquals » .
65. A l’audience, le Japon a de plus affirmé qu’il «observ[ait] pleinement

l’approche de précaution» dans la conduite de ses travaux de « recherche
scientifique» en veillant à ce que ceux-ci n’aient pas « d’effets délétères sur les
stocks étudiés». «L’écosystème de l’Antarctique est très mal connu », et c’est
«précisément pour fournir au comité scientifique les données scientifiques

nécessaires que le Japon continue de pratiquer la chasse à la baleéine à des
fins de recherche», a-t-il précisé, ajoutant que, grâce à ces travaux et « aux
contributions d’autres Etats, des progrès ont été accomplis,é sous l’égide de la

CBI, dans le sens de la conservation et de la gestion scientifiquement féon -
dées » . A propos de l’approche de précaution (telle qu’exprimée déans le
principe 15 de la déclaration de Rio sur l’environnement et le développeément),

il a fait valoir que JARPA II était « conforme» aux exigences d’une telle
approche, avant d’appeler à une interprétation et une applicatiéon permissives
de l’article VIII de la convention de 1946, pour lui assurer un effet utile 44.

66. La Nouvelle-Zélande, quant à elle, a affirmé à l’audience, à propéos
du principe de prévention, que « les consultations et les négociations »
— requises au titre du devoir de coopération — devaient être « effec-
45 46
tives » , eu égard aussi aux « vues et … intérêts légitimes d’autrui » . A
propos du principe ou de l’approche de précaution, elle a fait valoir, dans
ses observations écrites, que les Etats parties à la convention deé 1946 ne

jouissaient pas d’un pouvoir entièrement discrétionnaire, sous éforme de
«chèque en blanc», leur permettant de «déterminer le nombre de baleines
pouvant être tuées au titre d’un permis spécial en vertu de l’article VIII »;

force leur est d’agir de manière raisonnable, af47 de réaliser él’objet et le
but de la convention dans son ensemble .
67. La Nouvelle-Zélande fait valoir dans ses observations écrites que
ce nombre doit être limité au «minimum indispensable à la réalisation des

objectifs de la recherche scientifique et proportionné à ceux-ci », confor -
mément à l’approche de précaution en matière de « conservation et [de]

42 Le Japon ajoute que «les effets potentiels sur les populations baleinières des captures é
réalisées en vertu du programme JARPA II ont été analysésé et soumis au comité scienti-
fique de la CBI en 2005 », et que ces analyses ont permis de conclure à « l’absence d’effets
néfastes, à long terme, sur les espèces ciblées présentesé dans l’Antarctique ».Et de conclure
que, s’il existe « une incertitude scientifique concernant l’état de conservation et éla dyna -
mique des populations baleinières », des recherches supplémentaires se révéleront néce-

saires et le Japon continuera de faire « preuve de prudence en poursuivant son programme
JAR43 II » (contre-mémoire du Japon, p. 424-426, par. 9.33-9.36).
CR 2013/12, 2 juillet 2013, p. 15-16, par. 9.
44 CR 2013/16, 4 juillet 2013, p. 29-35, par. 19 ; cf. aussi, par. 11-12, 15-16 et 20-21.

45 CR 2013/17, 8 juillet 2013, p. 45, par. 30.
46 Ibid., p. 46, par. 33.
47 Ibid., p. 25-27, par. 34-38.

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New Zealand added in its written observations, that States parties are
required to act with “prudence and caution”, particularly when “éinforma -
tion is uncertain, unreliable or inadequate”, so as to avoid “any éharm”

(CR 2013/17, of 8 July 2013, pp. 40-41, paras. 73-74). In issuing a special
permit, a State party to the ICRW is to demonstrate that it “will avoéid
any adverse effect on the conservation of the stock” (ibid., p. 41, para. 75).

68. Again in its oral arguments, New Zealand sustained that the issue

here in contention is the number of whales to be killed, which, in its view,
cannot be “entirely self-judging”, nor completely without review 48. In its
view, the determination of that number should take into account certain é
factors, namely :

“(a) first, the number of whales killed must be the lowest necessary

for, and proportionate to, the purposes of scientific research ;
(b) as a consequence, there is an expectation that non-lethal methods
of research will be used ;
(c) third, the number of whales to be killed must be set at a level
which takes into account the precautionary approach ; and

(d) finally, the discretion to set the number of whales to be killed must
be exercised reasonably and consistent with the object and pur -
pose of the Convention” 4.

69. Insisting on the relevance of the precautionary approach, New Zea-
land added that States parties to the ICRW “should act with prudence
and caution when applying provisions, such as Article VIII, which may

have an effect on the conservation of natural resources”. Such “éprudence
and caution” are even more needed “when the information is uncertaéin,
unreliable or inadequate” (ibid., para. 15). A “prudent and cautious”
approach would ensure that the number of whales to be taken “is neces -
sary and proportionate”, and would “give preference to the conducté of

non-lethal methods of re50arch. (. . .) [U]ncertainty is the very reason for
acting with caution.”

70. Even if the Court, in the present Judgment in the Whaling in the

Antarctic case, has not seen it fit to pronounce on the principle of preven -
tion and the precautionary principle, it is, in my view, significant thaét the
contending Parties, Australia and Japan, and the intervenor, New Zea -
land, have cared to refer to these principles, in general, in their arguments
as to whether or not Japan’s whaling practices under special permits écon-

form to them. Such principles are to inform and conform any programmes
under special permits within the limited scope of Article VIII of the ICRW.
Furthermore, the principles of prevention and precaution appear inter-
related in the present case of Whaling in the Antarctic.

48CR 2013/17, of 8 July 2013, p. 35, para. 3.
49Ibid., pp. 35-36, para. 3.
50Ibid., p. 40, para. 17.

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gestion de la faune et de la flore marines », ajoutant que les Etats parties
sont tenus d’agir avec « prudence et précaution », tout particulièrement
lorsque « les informations sont incertaines, peu fiables ou inadaptées »,
afin d’éviter que ces activités ne soient « nui[sibles]» (CR 2013/17, 8 juil -

let 2013, p. 40-41, par. 73-74). Le gouvernement contractant qui délivre
un permis spécial devra également démontrer qu’il ne sera paés « port[é]
préjudice à la conservation des stocks » (ibid., p. 41, par. 75).
68. La Nouvelle-Zélande, à l’audience une fois de plus, a soutenu que
l’enjeu en l’espèce était le nombre de baleines qu’il s’agissait de tuer, élé -

ment qui, selon elle, ne relevait pas d’une «décision entièrement 48scrétion-
naire», non plus qu’il ne pourrait échapper à tout examen . D’après elle,
la détermination de ce nombre suppose la prise en considération deé plu -
sieurs facteurs, parmi lesquels figurent les éléments suivants:

«a) premièrement, ce nombre doit être restreint au minimum néces -
saire et être proportionné aux objets de la recherche scientifiqueé;
b) en conséquence, les méthodes de recherche non létales doivent êétre

privilégiées ;
c) troisièmement, le niveau auquel est fixé le nombre de baleines àé
mettre à mort doit tenir compte du principe de précaution ;
d) enfin, le pouvoir discrétionnaire de déterminer le nombre de
baleines à mettre à mort doit être exercé de manière raiséonnable
49
et compatible avec l’objet et le but de la convention » .
69. Insistant sur l’importance de l’approche de précaution, la Nouvéelle-

Zélande a ajouté que les Etats parties à la convention « dev[aient] faire
preuve de prudence et de précaution dans l’application des disposiétions
des accords internationaux auxquels ils sont parties et qui, tel l’aréticle VIII,
peuvent avoir une incidence sur la conservation des ressources naturelleé» s.
La nécessité d’agir ainsi « avec prudence et précaution » est encore plus

grande « lorsque l’information est incertaine, peu fiable ou insuffisante »
(ibid., par. 15). Agir «avec prudence et précaution» suppose que le nombre
de prises remplisse « le critère de nécessité et de proportionnalité », et que
«la préférence soit donnée aux méthodes de recherche non létales… [C]’est
précisément [l]’incertitude qui commande d’agir avec précéaution» .50

70. Même si la Cour, dans l’arrêt qu’elle rend ici en l’afféaire de la
Chasse à la baleine dans l’Antarctique, n’a pas jugé utile de se prononcer
sur les principes de prévention et de précaution, il est selon moié significa-
tif que les Parties en présence, l’Australie et le Japon, ainsi quée l’Etat
intervenant, la Nouvelle-Zélande, aient pris soin de s’y référer de manière

générale, se posant la question de savoir si les activités baleéinières menées
par le Japon au titre de permis spéciaux y étaient conformes. De téels prin-
cipes doivent inspirer et façonner tout programme mené au titre d’éun per -
mis spécial, dont la portée est limitée par l’article VIII de la convention.
En outre, les principes de prévention et de précaution semblent en la pré -

sente affaire intimement liés.

48 CR 2013/17, 8 juillet 2013, p. 35, par. 3.
49 Ibid., p. 35-36, par. 3.
50 Ibid., p. 40, par. 17.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 433 18/05/15 09:29 375 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

71. May I add just one final remark in this respect. Despite the hesita -

tion of the ICJ (and of other international tribunals in general) to péro -
nounce and dwell upon the precautionary principle, expert writing
increasingly examines it, drawing attention to its incidence when there éis
need to take protective measures in face of risks, even in the absence oéf

corresponding scientific proof. The precautionary principle, in turn,
draws attention to the time factor, the temporal dimension, which marks
a noticeable presence in the interpretation and application of treaties éand
51
instruments of international environmental law . In this domain in gen -
eral, and in respect of the ICRW in particular, there has occurred, withé
the passing of time, a move towards conservation of living marine
resources as a common interest, prevailing over State unilateral action in
52
search of commercial profitability . This move has taken place by the
operation of the system of collective guarantee, collective decision-making
and collective regulation under the ICRW (cf. item II, supra).

IX. Responses from the Experéts, and Remaining Uncerétainties
around “Scientific Reésearch” (under JARPA II)

72. During the public sittings of the Court, I deemed it fit to put sev -

eral questions to the experts of Australia and Japan. In response to my é
five questions put to him, the expert of Australia (M. Mangel) addressed
the availability of non-lethal research techniques to States parties to the

1946 ICRW in the context of conservation and management of whales,
pointing out that their use (so as to replace lethal methods) would deépend
on “having a relevant question”, as there is “always a tension éin the sci -
entific community about the exact question” 53. Satellite tagging, e.g., has

become a non-lethal tool, with the technological development as from the
early 1990s, for the collection of information (e.g., on the movement oéf
whales) 54.

73. In response to my three questions put to him, the expert of Japan
(L. Walløe) compared biopsy sampling with lethal sampling. He admitted
that he could not determine the total of whales to be killed to attain the

objectives of “scientific research” (as under JARPA II), as that, in his
view, would depend on the question one would be focusing on ; but, “for
the time being”, he added, and “for some years”, it would “be justified to

51 Cf., generally, e.g., Y. Tanaka, “Reflections on Time Elements in the International
Law of the Environment”, 73 Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Vö-ker
recht (2013), pp. 143-147, 150-156, 165-167 and 170-175.
52 Cf. M. Bowman, “‘Normalizing’ the International Convention for the Regéulation of
Whaling”, 29 Michigan Journal of International Law (2008), pp. 139, 163, 175-177 and 199.

53
54 CR 2013/9, of 27 June 2013, pp. 64-66.
Ibid., pp. 66-67.

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71. Qu’il me soit simplement permis d’ajouter une dernière remarque

en conclusion de ce point. En dépit de la réticence de la CIJ (eté des autres
juridictions internationales, de manière générale) à se proénoncer ou à
s’arrêter sur le principe de précaution, celui-ci est de plus en plus présent
dans la doctrine, qui le met en avant lorsqu’il est nécessaire de éprendre

des mesures de protection dès lors que des risques existent, fût-ce en l’ab -
sence de preuve scientifique que ces risques existent. Le principe de préé -
caution, quant à lui, met en jeu le facteur temps, la dimension tempoérelle

qui se fait clairement sentir dans l’interprétation et l’applicéation des trai -
tés et des instruments relevant du droit international de l’enviroénne -
ment . Dans ce domaine en général, et en ce qui concerne la convention
de 1946 en particulier, la conservation des ressources marines vivantes éest

devenue, au fil du temps, un intérêt commun prévalant sur la reéntabilité
commerciale recherchée unilatéralement par les Etats 52, par l’effet de la
mise en œuvre du système de garanties, de prise de décisions eté de régle -

mentation collective selon la convention de 1946 (voir point II ci-dessus).

IX. Les réponses des expertés et les incertitudesé demeurant
autour de la « recherche scientifiéque» (au titre de JARPA II)

72. A l’audience, il m’a semblé opportun de poser aux experts de l’éAus -

tralie et du Japon un certain nombre de questions. En réponse aux cinéq
questions que je lui ai adressées, l’expert de l’Australie (M.é Mangel) a évo -
qué la possibilité qu’ont les Etats parties à la convention éde 1946 de recourir

à des méthodes de recherche non létales dans le contexte de la éconservation
des baleines, le recours à de telles méthodes (par opposition àé des méthodes
létales) dépendant de la «question qui est au centre de la recherch» e, sachant
qu’il existe une «tension permanente au sein de la communauté scientifiqu» e
53
sur ce point précis . Le procédé de marquage et de suivi par satellite, par
exemple, est devenu, avec les développements technologiques observéés dès le
début des années 1990, un moyen non létal de recueillir des informations
54
(par exemple, sur les déplacements des cétacés) .
73. En réponse aux trois questions que je lui ai posées, l’expert déu
Japon (L. Walløe) a comparé les prélèvements biopsiques à l’échantillon -
nage létal. Il a reconnu ne pas être en mesure de déterminer leé nombre

total de baleines devant être tuées pour permettre la réalisatiéon des objec -
tifs de « recherche scientifique » (tels que définis dans le cadre de
JARPA II), dans la mesure où cela dépendrait de la question qui serait é

51Voir, de manière générale, par exemple Y. Tanaka, « Reflections on Time Elements
in the International Law of the Environment », Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches
Recht und Völkerrecht (2013), vol. 73, p. 143-147, 150-156, 165-167 et 170-175.
52Voir M. Bowman, « « Normalizing» the International Convention for the Regulation
of Whaling »,Michigan Journal of International Law (2008), vol. 29, p. 139, 163, 175-177
et 199.
53
54CR 2013/9, 27 juin 2013, p. 64-66.
Ibid., p. 66-67.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 435 18/05/15 09:29 376 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

kill 850” 5. He submitted that, for certain purposes, “lethal research”
(e.g., on the amount of stomach contents) continued to be necessary 56.

Yet, despite these responses, there remained, in my perception, the
impression of a lack of general criteria for the determination of the
total whales to be killed, and for how long, for the purposes of so-called
“scientific research”.

74. “Scientific research” is surrounded by uncertainties ; it is under -

taken on the basis of uncertainties. Suffice it here to recall the legaécy of
Karl Popper, who used to ponder wisely that scientific knowledge can
only be uncertain or conjectural, while ignorance is infinite. Scientifiéc
research is a search for truth, amidst conjectures, and, given one’s éfalli-

bility, one has to learn with mistakes incurred into. One can hope to be
coming closer to truth, but without knowing for sure whether one is dis -
tant from, or near it. Without the ineluctable refutations, science would
fall into stagnation, losing its empirical character. Conjectures and reéfuta -
57
tions are needed, for science to keep on advancing in its empirical path .
As for the cas d’espèce, would this mean that whales could keep on being
killed, and increasingly so, for “scientific purposes” and amidst éscientific
uncertainty? I do not think so ; there are also non-lethal methods, and,

after all, living marine resources are not inexhaustible.

X. Reiterated Calls undeér the ICRW for
Non-Lethal Use of Cetaceansé

75. The reiterated calls for non-lethal use of cetaceans, under the

ICRW, cannot pass unnoticed here. In its resolution 1995-9, on whaling
under special permit, the IWC recommended that “scientific research”é
intended to assist the comprehensive assessment of whale stocks should
be undertaken by non-lethal means ; furthermore, it recalled that the

ICRW recognizes the common interest of all “the nations of the world”é
in safeguarding the “great natural resources” of whale stocks “éfor future
generations”. Subsequently, in its resolution 2005-I, on JARPA II, the
IWC began by recalling (second preambular paragraph) that

“since the moratorium on commercial whaling came into force
in 1985-1986, the IWC has adopted over 30 resolutions on special

55
56 CR 2013/14, of 3 July 2013, pp. 50-51.
57 Ibid., pp. 51-52.
Cf. Karl R. Popper, Conjecturas e Refutações — O Progresso do Conhecimento
Científico [Conjectures and Refutations — The Growth of Scientific Knowledge], ed.,
Brasília, Editora Universidade de Brasília, 2008, pp. 255, 257, 260, 269 and 271.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 436 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée )76

examinée, affirmant toutefois que, « pour le moment — et pendant encore
quelques années —, la mise à mort de 850 individus se justifi[ait] » . Il a55
ajouté que, à certains égards, la « recherche létale » (dans le cadre, par
56
exemple, de l’étude du contenu stomacal) continuait d’être énécessaire .
Néanmoins, en dépit de ces réponses, demeurait à mon sens l’éimpression
qu’il n’existait pas de critères globaux permettant de déterminer le nombre
total de baleines devant être mises à mort, ni l’intervalle de étemps dans

lequel de telles activités devaient s’inscrire, pour que l’on péuisse considé -
rer celles-ci comme menées aux fins de la « recherche scientifique».
74. La «recherche scientifique» est entourée d’incertitudes et est menée
en toute conscience de ce fait. Il suffit de se souvenir de ce que Karlé Pop -

per nous a appris dans sa grande sagesse, à savoir que le savoir scieénti -
fique ne peut être qu’incertain ou conjectural, alors que l’ignéorance est
infinie. La recherche scientifique est une quête de vérité parméi des conjec-
tures, et puisque nous sommes faillibles, il nous faut apprendre en faisant

des erreurs. Nous pouvons espérer nous rapprocher de la vérité,é mais sans
vraiment savoir si nous en sommes loin ou proches. Sans les réfutatioéns
qu’elle appelle nécessairement, la science en viendrait à stagnéer et à perdre
son caractère empirique. Les conjectures et les réfutations sont eéssentielles
au progrès de la science abordée dans cette optique 57. En l’espèce, cela

signifierait-il que l’on peut continuer à tuer des baleines, et de plus en
plus, « à des fins scientifiques » et en pleine incertitude scientifique ? Je ne
le pense pas ; il existe aussi des méthodes non létales et, après tout, les
ressources marines vivantes ne sont pas inépuisables.

X. Des appels réitérés, soués les auspices de la coénvention de 1946,
en faveur d’une utiliésation non létale desé cétacés

75. On ne saurait ici passer sous silence les appels réitérés qui oént été
formulés sous les auspices de la convention de 1946 en faveur d’une utili -
sation non létale des cétacés. Dans sa résolution 1995-9 sur la chasse à la

baleine au titre de permis spéciaux, la CBI recommande de mener au
moyen de méthodes non létales les activités de « recherche scientifique »
destinées à contribuer à l’évaluation globale des stocks éde baleines ; elle
rappelle en outre que la convention de 1946 reconnaît l’intérêt commun

qu’ont toutes « les nations du monde » à sauvegarder les « grandes res-
sources naturelles » représentées par les stocks de baleines « au profit des
générations futures». Dans sa résolution 2005-I consacrée à JARPA II, la
CBI commence par rappeler (préambule, alinéa 2) que,

«depuis l’entrée en vigueur du moratoire interdisant la chasse àé la
baleine à des fins commerciales en 1985-1986, [elle] a adopté plus de

55
56CR 2013/14, 3 juillet 2013, p. 50-51.
Ibid., p. 51-52.
57Cf. Karl R. Popper, Conjectures et réfutations — La croissance du savoir scientifique,
éd. Payot, 2006.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 437 18/05/15 09:29 377 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

permit whaling in which it has generally expressed its opinion that

special permit whaling should : be terminated and scientific research
limited to non-lethal methods only (2003-2) ; refrain from involving
the killing of cetaceans in sanctuaries (1998-4); ensure that the recov-
ery of populations is not impeded (1987) ; and take account of the
comments of the Scientific Committee (1987)”.

76. Resolution 2005-I of the IWC proceeded to express concern (sixth
preambular paragraph) that “more than 6,800 Antarctic minke whales
(Balaenoptera bonaerensis) have been killed in Antarctic waters under the
18 years of JARPA, compared with a total of 840 whales killed globally

by Japan for scientific research in the 31-year period prior to the morato -
rium”. It then noted (tenth preambular paragraph) that “some humépback
whales which will be targeted by JARPA II belong to small, vulnerable
breeding populations around small island States in the South Pacific”,
and “even small takes could have a detrimental effect on the recovery and

survival of such populations”. The IWC further expressed concern (eléev-
enth preambular paragraph) that “JARPA II may have an adverse impact
on established long-term whale research projects involving humpback
whales”. At last, the operative part of resolution 2005-I “strongly” urged

Japan to withdraw its JARPA II proposal, or else to revise it to consider
using non-lethal means.

77. Two years later, the IWC adopted two new resolutions on the

non-lethal use of whale resources. In resolution 2007-1, the IWC recalled
that paragraph 7 (b) of the Schedule establishes the Southern Ocean
Sanctuary; it further recalled its repeated requests to States parties to
refrain from issuing special permits for research involving the killing of
whales within the Southern Ocean Sanctuary. It then expressed concern

at continuing lethal “research” within the Southern Ocean Sanctuaréy. In
relation to JARPA II in particular, the IWC noted that, thereunder, “the
take of minke whales has been more than doubled, and fin whales and
humpback whales have been added to the list of targeted species” (foéurth

preambular paragraph). Convinced that “the aims of JARPA II do
not address critically important research needs” (six preambular para -
graph), resolution 2007-I, in its operative part, called upon Japan 31 rec -
ommendations of the Scientific Committee and “to suspend indefinitelyé
the lethal aspects of JARPA II conducted within the Southern Ocean

Whale Sanctuary”.

78. In addition, the IWC recalled, in resolution 2007-3 (on Non-Lethal
Use of Cetaceans), the ICRW’s aim to safeguard “the natural resouérces
represented by whale stocks for the benefit of future generations” (éfirst

preambular paragraph). It noted that many coastal States adopted poli -

155

8 CIJ1062.indb 438 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée )77

trente résolutions sur la chasse à la baleine au titre d’un permis spéé -

cial, dans lesquelles elle a généralement exprimé sa position séur cette
forme de chasse en déclarant qu’il fallait mettre un terme à laé chasse
à la baleine au titre d’un permis spécial et recourir uniquement à des
méthodes non létales dans le cadre de la recherche scientifique
(2003-2), s’abstenir de tuer des cétacés dans les sanctuaires (1998é-4),

veiller à ne pas compromettre la reconstitution des populations (1987)
et tenir compte des commentaires du comité scientifique (1987) ».

76. Dans sa résolution 2005-I, la CBI se dit (préambule, alinéa 6) pré -
occupée par « le fait que plus de 6800 petits rorquals de l’Antarctique
(Balaenoptera bonaerensis) ont été tués dans les eaux de l’Antarctique
pendant les dix-huit années du programme JARPA, comparés aux

840 baleines tuées à l’échelle mondiale par le Japon à des fiéns de recherche
scientifique pendant les trente et une années qui ont précédé le mora -
toire», précisant (ibid., alinéa 10) que «certaines des baleines à bosse visées
par le programme JARPA II appartiennent à des populations reproduc -
trices de taille modeste et vulnérables vivant autour des Etats archiépels du

Pacifique sud, et que des prélèvements, même faibles, pourraient avoir uné
effet préjudiciable sur la reconstitution et la survie de ces peupléements ».
La CBI se déclare également préoccupée (ibid., alinéa 11) par le fait que
«le programme JARPA II pourrait avoir un effet préjudiciable sur les pro-

jets déjà en place de recherche à long terme sur les baleines àé bosse ».
Enfin, dans le dispositif de la résolution, elle invite «instamment» le Japon
à retirer sa proposition au titre du programme JARPA II ou à la reviser
dans le dessein de recourir à des méthodes non létales.
77. Deux ans plus tard, la CBI a adoptée deux nouvelles résolutions sur

l’utilisation non létale des ressources baleinières. Dans la réésolution 2007-1,
elle rappelle que le paragraphe 7 b) du règlement annexé à la convention
établit un sanctuaire dans l’océan Austral, et qu’elle a, à maintes reprises,
demandé aux Etats parties de s’abstenir de délivrer des permis spéciaux en
vue de recherches scientifiques impliquant la mise à mort de baleinesé dans ce

sanctuaire, avant d’exprimer sa profonde inquiétude quant au fait que des
recherches létales s’y poursuivent. A propos de JARPA II en particulier, la
CBI note que, dans le cadre de ce programme, «les prises de petits rorquals
ont plus que doublé, et [que] les rorquals communs et les baleines à bosse

ont été ajoutés à la liste des espèces visées» (ibid., alinéa 4). Convaincue que
«les objectifs du programme JARPA II ne répondent pas à des besoins
d’une importance cruciale pour la recherche» (ibid., alinéa 6), la CBI, dans
le dispositif de cette même résolution, appelle le Japon à donnéer suite aux
trente et une recommandations du comité scientifique et «à suspendre indé-

finiment le recours à des méthodes létales dans le cadre du proégramme
JARPA II dans le sanctuaire baleinier de l’océan Austra» l .
78. Dans sa résolution 2007-3 (sur l’utilisation non létale des cétacés),
la CBI rappelle en outre que la convention de 1946 a pour but de sauve -
garder, « au profit des générations futures, les grandes ressources natu -

relles représentées par les stocks de baleines » (ibid., alinéa premier), et

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8 CIJ1062.indb 439 18/05/15 09:29 378 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

cies of non-lethal use of cetaceans in the waters under their jurisdiction,
in the light of relevant provisions of the 1982 United Nations Conventioén

on the Law of the Sea and the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development (second preambular paragraph). It pondered that “most
whale species are highly migratory” and are “thus shared biodiversity
resources” (third preambular paragraph). Calling for the non-lethal use
of whales, it further noted that “the moratorium on commercial whalinég

has been in effect since 1986 and has contributed to the recovery of some
cetacean populations essential for the promotion of non-lethal uses in
many countries” (sixth preambular paragraph).

79. Next, in the same resolution 2007-3, the IWC expressed its concern
that whales in the twenty-first century “face a wider range of threats than

those envisaged when the ICRW was concluded in 1946” (seventh pream -
bular paragraph). The IWC further notes that the Buenos Aires Declara -
tion states that “high quality and well managed implementation of whaéle
watching tourism promotes economic growth and social and cultural
development of local communities, bringing educational and scientific

benefits, whilst contributing to the protection of cetacean populationsӎ
(eighth preambular paragraph). Accordingly, in the operative part of rées -
olution 2007-3, the IWC recognized, first, the valuable benefits to be
derived from “the non-lethal uses of cetaceans as a resource, both in
terms of socio-economic and scientific development”, and secondly, the

non-lethal use as “a legitimate management strategy”. Thus, the IWC
encouraged member States “to work constructively” towards “the incor -
poration” of the needs of non-lethal uses of whale resources in “any
future decisions and agreements”.

XI. Concluding Observatioéns, on the JARPA II Programme
and the Requirements oéf the ICRW
and Its Schedule

80. Last but not least, as to the central question of the present case,

that is, whether JARPA II is in conformity with the ICRW and its Sched -
ule, — object of the main controversy between Australia and Japan — in
my perception JARPA II does not meet the requirements of a programme
“for purposes of scientific research” and does not fall under the éexception
contained in Article VIII of the ICRW. There are a few characteristics of

JARPA II which do not allow it to qualify under the exception of Arti -
cle VIII, to be restrictively interpreted ; in effect, the programme at issue
does not seem to be genuinely and solely motivated by the purpose of
conducting scientific research.

81. This is so, keeping in mind the relation between JARPA II’s stated

objectives and the methods used to achieve these objectives : lethal meth -
ods, which JARPA II widely applies in its operations, are, in my view,

156

8 CIJ1062.indb 440 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée )78

note que nombre d’Etats côtiers ont opté pour une utilisation non létale

des cétacés dans les eaux relevant de leur juridiction, à la luémière des dis-
positions pertinentes de la convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la
mer de 1982 et de la déclaration de Rio sur l’environnement et le déveélop -
pement de 1992 (préambule, alinéa 2). Elle observe que les cétacés sont,
«pour la plupart, de grands migrateurs» et relèvent de ce fait d’un «patri -

moine de biodiversité partagé» (ibid., alinéa 3). Appelant à une utilisation
non létale des baleines, elle ajoute que « le moratoire sur la chasse com -
merciale, en vigueur depuis 1986, a contribué à la reconstitution de cer -
tains peuplements baleiniers, essentielle à la promotion des utilisatéions
non létales dans de nombreux pays » (ibid., alinéa 6).

79. Dans cette même résolution, laeCBI se déclare préoccupée épar le fait
que les baleines doivent, au XXI siècle, faire face « à des menaces dont la
diversité n’avait nullement été envisagée lors de la concélusion de la convention
de 1946» (ibid., alinéa 7). Elle ajoute que, d’après la déclaration de Bue -
nos Aires, «le tourisme de l’observation des baleines, lorsqu’il est bien gééré et

de grande qualité, favorise la croissance économique et le déveéloppement
socioculturel des communautés locales, apportant un avantage éducaétif et
scientifique, tout en contribuant à la protection des populations baléeinièr »es
(ibid., alinéa 8). Dans le dispositif de la résolution, la CBI reconnaît en conséé-
quence, premièrement, les précieux avantages qu’il y a à tiréer du estlisations

non létales des cétacés en tant que ressources, en matière tant éde développe -
ment socio-économique que scientifique» et, deuxièmement, «la légitimité»
de l’utilisation non létale en tant que « stratégie de gestion». Aussi encou -
rage-t-elle les Etats membres à « œuvrer de manière constructive» en vue
d’une «prise en compte» des besoins liés à une utilisation non létale des res -

sources baleinières dans «tout accord ou toute décision futures».

XI. Observations finalesé sur le programme JARPAII
et les exigences de léa convention de 1946 et dué règlement

qui lui est annexé

80. Pour en venir enfin à l’enjeu central de la présente espèce é— celui
du principal différend entre l’Australie et le Japon —, c’est-à-dire la ques -
tion de savoir si JARPA II est conforme aux prescriptions de la conven -

tion de 1946 et du règlement qui lui est annexé, JARPA II ne remplit pas
à mon sens les conditions voulues pour pouvoir être considéréé comme
étant mené « en vue de recherches scientifiques » et ne relève pas de l’ex -
ception prévue à l’article VIII de la convention. Au vu de certaines de ses
caractéristiques, JARPA II ne peut bénéficier de l’exception prévue à l’ar -

ticle VIII, dont l’interprétation doit être restrictive ; il semble en effet que
ce programme ne soit pas réellement et uniquement motivé par la conduite
de recherches scientifiques.
81. Telle est ma conclusion au vu des méthodes employées pour atteindrée
les objectifs fixés: les méthodes létales, qui sont largement utilisées dans le

cadre de JARPA II, doivent être selon moi réservées aux seuls cas où, pre -

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8 CIJ1062.indb 441 18/05/15 09:29 379 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

only to be used, first, where it is unavoidable to achieve a crucial objéective
of the scientific research ; secondly, where no other methods would be
available; and thirdly, where the number of whales killed corresponds to
those necessary to conduct the research. In practice, the use of lethal é

methods by JARPA II in relation to what seems to be a large number of
whales does not appear justifiable as “scientific research”.
82. Furthermore, the fact that JARPA II runs for an indefinite duration
also militates against its professed purpose of “scientific research”é. To my

mind, a scientific programme, when being devised, should have objectivesé
which go along a specific time frame for their achievement. To prolong téhe
killing of whales indefinitely does not seem to be in line with scientifiéc
research, nor justifiable. In addition, there subsists the concern with éthe
possible adverse effects of JARPA II on whale stocks. As just indicated,

JARPA II utilizes lethal methods and runs for an indefinite time. It is not
entirely convincing that, under these parameters, whale stocks subject téo
the programme will not be adversely affected. This is exacerbated in téhe
hypothesis that other States parties to the ICRW decide to follow the saéme

approach and methodology of Japan, and start likewise killing whales
allegedly for similar purposes of “scientific research”.
83. There could be an adverse impact on whale stocks if other States
parties to the ICRW decided to kill as many whales as Japan, within an

unlimited time frame, for purposes of “scientific research”. JARPA II, in
the manner it is being currently conducted, can have adverse effects oén
whale stocks. Even if there is a minor scientific purpose in the JARPA II
programme, it is clearly not the main purpose of the programme. In my
view, given the methodologies used (widely employing lethal methods —

cf. supra), the structure of the programme and its duration, “scientific
research” is not the sole purpose of the programme, nor the main one.é

84. As to the question whether commercial aspects are permissible
58
under Article VIII (2) of the Convention , the text of this provision
seems clear: it does not seem expressly to allow for commercial aspects of
a whaling programme under special permit. Article VIII (2) is aimed, in
my perception, solely to avoid waste. The commercialization of whale

meat does not seem to be in line with the purpose of granting special peér -
mits and should not be validated under this provision. Permitting com -
mercial aspects of a special permit whaling programme under this
provision would go against Article VIII as a whole, and the object and
purpose of the ICRW (cf. supra). Commercial whaling, pure and simple,

is not permissible under Article VIII (2).

58 Which reads as follows: “Any whales taken under these special permits shall so far as
practicable be processed and the proceeds shall be dealt with in accordaénce with directions
issued by the Government by which the permit was granted.”

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8 CIJ1062.indb 442 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée )79

mièrement, elles sont incontournables pour atteindre un objectif crucéial de
la recherche scientifique; deuxièmement, aucune autre méthode n’est dispo -
nible; et, troisièmement, le nombre de baleines tuées se limite au striéct né-ces
saire aux fins de la recherche. Or, de fait, dans le cadre de JARPA II, le

recours à des méthodes létales pour tuer un nombre a priori élevé de baleines
ne me semble pas pouvoir se justifier au nom de la «recherche scientifique».
82. Un autre facteur qui contredit la prétendue vocation «scientifique»
de JARPA II est sa durée indéterminée. A mon sens, la conception de

tout programme scientifique suppose de définir des objectifs dont la réali -
sation obéit à un échéancier précis. La mise à mort coéntinuelle de baleines
ne s’inscrit pas dans la logique de la recherche scientifique, me seméble-t-il,
et ne se justifie pas. Reste en outre la question de l’effet négéatif que
JARPA II risque d’avoir sur les peuplements baleiniers. Comme indiqué

à l’instant, ce programme associe méthodes létales et duréée indéterminée.
Je ne suis guère convaincu que, eu égard à ces paramètres, lées peuple -
ments baleiniers à l’étude n’en pâtiront pas, surtout si éd’autres Etats par-
ties à la convention décident d’emboîter le pas au Japon en utilisant les

mêmes méthodes et se mettent à tuer des baleines en prétendaént comme
lui se livrer à des « recherches scientifiques».
83. Il pourrait être porté préjudice aux peuplements baleiniers si éd’autres
Etats parties à la convention décidaient de tuer autant de baleineés que le

Japon, pendant une durée indéterminée, en vue der« echerches scientifiques».
Le programme JARPA II, tel qu’il est actuellement mis en œuvre, peut com -
promettre la reconstitution des stocks de baleines. Quand bien même lé’ob -
jectif visé serait aussi scientifique, la recherche scientifique n’éest clairement
pas le principal objectif de ce programme. Si j’en juge par la météhodologie

utilisée (qui fait une large place aux techniques létales — voir ci-dessus), par
la structure du programme et par sa durée, les «recherches scientifiques» ne
constituent pas le seul objectif de ce programme, ni même le principaél.
84. S’agissant de la question de savoir si le paragraphe 2 de l’article VIII 58

autorise les aspects commerciaux, le texte de cette disposition paraît clair :
il n’admet pas expressément, me semble-t-il, qu’un programme de chasse à
la baleine mené au titre d’un permis spécial puisse revêtir éune dimension
commerciale, mais vise uniquement à éviter le gaspillage. La commeérciali -

sation de la viande de baleine ne me paraît pas s’inscrire dans laé logique de
l’objectif dans lequel les permis spéciaux sont accordés et ellée ne doit pas
être admise au titre de cette disposition. Approuver, sur la base de écette
disposition, les aspects commerciaux d’un programme de chasse à laé baleine
mené au titre d’un permis spécial irait à l’encontre de lé’article VIII dans son

ensemble, ainsi que de l’objet et du but de la convention (voir ci-déessus). La
chasse pratiquée purement et simplement à des fins commerciales n’est pas
admissible, en vertu du paragraphe 2 de l’article VIII.

58Cette disposition se lit comme suit : « Dans toute la mesure du possible, les baleines
capturées en vertu de ces permis spéciaux devront être traitéées conformément aux direc -
tives formulées par le Gouvernement qui aura délivré le permis,é lesquelles s’appliqueront
également à l’utilisation des produits obtenus. »

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8 CIJ1062.indb 443 18/05/15 09:29 380 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

85. As to the Schedule, paragraph 30 sets forth a positive procedural
obligation of States parties to the ICRW, whereby Japan’s co-operation

with the IWC and the Scientific Committee is expected. The Court has
found, in the present Judgment in the Whaling in the Antarctic case, that

Japan has not acted in conformity with paragraph 10 (d) and (e) (whaling
moratorium, and assessment of effects of whale catches on stocks), and
paragraph7 (b) (prohibition of commercial whaling in the Southern Ocean

Sanctuary), of the Schedule (resolutory points 3-5). Japan does not appear
to have fulfilled this obligation to take into account comments, resolutions
and recommendations of the IWC and the Scientific Committee.

86. For example, I note that many resolutions 59have been issued over
the years concerning JARPA II and its use of lethal methods, which Japan

does not seem to have fully taken into account, given its continued use éof
lethal methods. The Court itself has drawn attention, in the present Judég -
ment (para. 144), to the paucity of analysis by Japan of the feasibility of

non-lethal methods to achieve JARPA II objectives; and it has added that

“Given the expanded use of lethal methods in JARPA II, as com -

pared to JARPA, this is difficult to reconcile with Japan’s duty to give
due regard to IWC resolutions and Guidelines and its statement that
JARPA II uses lethal methods only to the extent necessary to meet

its scientific objectives.” (Judgment, para. 144.)

59Cf., e.g., Resolution on Japanese Proposal for Special Permits, App. 4, Chairman’s

Report of the 39th Annual Meeting, Report of the International Whaling Commission[Rep.
Int. Whal. Commn] 38, 1988, p. 29 (resolution 1987-4) ; Resolution on the Proposed Take
by Japan of Whales in the Southern Hemisphere under Special Permit, App.é 3, Chair -
man’s Report of the 41st Annual Meeting, Rep. Int. Whal. Commn 40, 1990, p. 36 (reso -
lution 1989-3) ; Resolution on Special Permit Catches by Japan in the Southern Hemi -
sphere, App. 2, Chairman’s Report of the 42nd Meeting, Rep. Int. Whal. Commn 41,
1991, pp. 47-48 (resolution 1990-2) ; Resolution on Special Permit Catches by Japan in the

Southern Hemisphere, App. 2, Chairman’s Report of the 43rd Meeting, Rep. Int. Whal.
Commn 42, 1992, p. 46 (resolution1991-2); Resolution on Special Permit Catches by Japan
in the Southern Hemisphere, App. 5, Chairman’s Report of the 44th Meeting, Rep. Int.
Whal. Commn 43, 1993, 71 (resolution 1992-5) ; Resolution on Special Permit Catches
by Japan in the Southern Hemisphere, App. 7, Chairman’s Report of the 45th Annual
Meeting, Rep. Int. Whal. Commn 44, 1994, p. 33 (resolution 1993-7); Resolution on Special
Permit Catches by Japan in the North Pacific, Resolution 1994-9, App. 15, Chairman’s

Report of the 46th Annual Meeting, Rep. Int. Whal. Commn 45, 1995, p. 47 (resolu -
tion 1994-9); Resolution on Special Permit Catches by Japan in the Southern Hemispheére,
resolution 1994-10, App. 15, Chairman’s Report of the 46th Annual Meeting, Rep. Int.
Whal. Commn 45, 1995, p. 47 (resolution 1994-10); Resolution on Special Permit Catches
by Japan, resolution 1996-7, App. 7, Chairman’s Report of the 48th Meeting, Rep. Int.
Whal. Commn 47, 1997, pp. 51-52 (resolution 1996-7); cited in CR 2013/8, of 26 June 2013,
pp. 34-35.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 444 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée )80

85. En ce qui concerne le règlement, le paragraphe 30 impose aux Etats

parties à la convention une obligation procédurale positive, au regard de
laquelle il est attendu que le Japon coopère avec la CBI et le comitéé scienti -

fique. Dans le présent arrêt, la Cour a conclu que le Japon n’aévait pas agi en
conformité avec le règlement, et plus précisément avec les aélinéas d) et e) de
son paragraphe 10 (moratoire sur la chasse à la baleine et évaluation des

effets des prises de baleines sur les stocks) et avec l’alinéa b) de son para -
graphe 7 (interdiction de la chasse commerciale à la baleine dans le sanc -
tuaire de l’océan Austral) (points 3 à 5 du dispositif). Le Japon ne semble

pas s’être acquitté de son obligation de tenir compte des commentaires, réso -
lutions et recommandations de la CBI et de son comité scientifique.
59
86. Je relèverai par exemple que de nombreuses résolutions ont été adop-
tées au fil des ans au sujet de JARPA II et des méthodes létales auxquelles il
fait appel, sans que le Japon semble en avoir pleinement tenu compte,

puisqu’il continue d’avoir recours à ces mêmes méthodes. La Cour elle-même,
dans le présent arrêt (par. 144), a appelé l’attention sur l’indigence de l’ana -

lyse, par le Japon, de la faisabilité des méthodes non létales épour atteindre
les objectifs de JARPA II; elle a par ailleurs fait le commentaire suivant:

«Au vu du recours accru aux méthodes létales par rapport à

JARPA, ce constat cadre difficilement avec l’obligation incombant
au Japon de prendre dûment en considération les résolutions et élignes
directrices de la CBI et avec son affirmation selon laquelle [le Japon]é

n’aurait recours aux méthodes létales dans le cadre de JARPA II que
dans la limite nécessaire à la réalisation des objectifs scientéifiques du
programme.» (Arrêt, par. 144.)

59Voir, par exemple :résolution sur la proposition de permis spéciaux du Japon, appen-
e
dice 4, rapport du président sur les travaux de la 39réunion annuelle de la CBI, Report of the
International Whaling Commission (Rep. IWC),1988, vol. 38,p. 29 (résolution 1987-4) ;réso-
lution sur la proposition du Japon de capturer des baleines dans l’héémisphère sud au titre d’un
permis spécial, appendice 3, rapport du président sur les travaux de la 41réunion annuelle de
la CBI, Rep. IWC, 1990, vol. 40, p. 36 (résolution 1989-3) ;résolution sur les captures effec-

tuées par le Japon dans l’hémisehère sud au titre d’un peérmis spécial, appendice 2, rapport du
président sur les travaux de la 42réunion annuelle de la CBI, Rep. IWC, 1991, vol. p,. 47-48
(résolution 1990-2) ;résolution sur les captures effectuées par le Japon dans l’héémisphère sud
au titre d’un permis spécial, appendice 2, rapport du président sur les travaux de la 43on
annuelle de la CBI, Rep. IWC, 1992, vol. 42, p. 46 (résolution 1991-2) ; résolution sur les
captures effectuées par le Japon dans l’hémisphère sud au étitre d’un permis spécial, appen-
e
dice 5, rapport du président sur les travaux de la 44 réunion annuelle de la CBI, Rep. IWC,
1993,vol. 43,p. 71 (résolution 1992-5) ;résolution sur les captures effectuées par le Japon dans
l’hémisphère sud au titre d’un permis spécial, appendice 7, rapport du président sur les travaux
de la 45 réunion annuelle de la CBI, Rep. IWC, 1994, vol. 44, . 33 (résolution 1993-7) ;réso-
lution sur les captures effectuées par le Japon dans le Pacifique néord au titre d’un permis
spécial, appendice 15, rapport du président sur les travaux de la 46 réunion annuelle de la

CBI, Rep. IWC, 1995, vol. 45,p. 47 (résolution 1994-9) ;résolution sur les captures effectuées
par le Japon dans l’hémisphère sud au titre d’un permis spéécial, appendice 15, rapport du
président sur les travaux de la 46 réunion annuelle de la CBI, Rep. IWC, 1995,vol. 45, p. 47
(résolution 1994-10) ;résolution sur les captures effectuées par le Japon au titre d’éun permis
spécial, appendice 7, rapport du président sur les travaux de laréunion annuelle de la CBI,
Rep. IWC, 1997, vol. 47,p. 51-52 (résolution 1996-7) (CR 2013/8, 26 juin 2013, p. 34-35).

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8 CIJ1062.indb 445 18/05/15 09:29 381 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

87. Moreover, it could hardly be claimed that the sole purpose of the
JARPA II programme is “scientific research”, as it appears that some comé -
mercial aspects permeate the programme. The JARPA II programme does

not seem to fall under the exception of Article VIII of the ICRW. In the
present Judgment, the Court has found that the special permits granted béy
Japan in connection with JARPA II do not fall under Article VIII (1) of the
ICRW (resolutory point 2). The present case has provided a unique occa -

sion for the Court to pronounce upon a system of collective regulation oéf
the environment for the benefit of future generations. The notion of collec -
tive guarantee has been developed, and put in practice, to date in distinct
domains of contemporary international law. The Court’s present Judgmeént

in theWhaling in the Antarcticcase may have wider implications than solely
the peaceful settlement of the present dispute between the contending Paér -
ties, to the benefit of all.
88. Last but not least, may I observe that international treaties and

conventions are a product of their time; yet, they have an aptitude to face
changing conditions, and their interpretation and application in time
bears witness that they are living instruments. They evolve with time, other-
wise they would fall into desuetude. The 1946 ICRW is no exception to

that, and, endowed with a mechanism of supervision of its own, it has
proven to be a living instrument. Moreover, in distinct domains of inter -
national law, treaties and conventions — especially those setting foréth a
mechanism of protection — have required the pursuance of a hermeneu -
tics of their own, as living instruments. This happens not only in the pres-

ent domain of conservation and sustainable use of living marine resources,
but likewise in other areas of international law.

89. The present case on Whaling in the Antarctic has brought to the

fore the evolving law on the conservation and sustainable use of living é
marine resources, which, in turn, has disclosed what I perceive as its céon -
tribution to the gradual formation of an opinio juris communis in the pres-
ent domain of contemporary international law. Opinio juris, in my

conception, becomes a key factor in the formation itself of internationaél
law (here, conservation and sustainable use of living marine resources)é ;
its incidence is no longer that of only one of the constitutive elementsé of
one of its “formal” sources 6. The formation of international law in

domains of public or common interest, such as that of conservation and
sustainable use of living marine resources, is a much wider process thané
the formulation of its “formal sources”, above all in seeking the legiti -
macy of norms to govern international life 6.

60 These latter being only means or vehicles for the formation of internatiéonal legal
norms.
61 For the conceptualization of this outlook, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, International
Law for Humankind . . ., op. cit. supra note 15, pp. 134-138, esp. p. 137.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 446 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée )81

87. En outre, l’on serait bien en peine de défendre l’idée que lées
«recherches scientifiques » constituent le seul objectif de JARPA II, qui
semble à bien des égards avoir une vocation commerciale. JARPA II ne

relève pas, me semble-t-il, de l’exception prévue à l’article VIII de la
convention. Dans son arrêt, la Cour a jugé que les permis spéciéaux déli -
vrés par le Japon dans le cadre de ce programme n’entraient pas daéns les
prévisions du paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII de la convention (point 2 du

dispositif). La présente affaire a donné à la Cour une occaséion unique de
se prononcer sur un système de réglementation collective de l’eénvironne -
ment dans l’intérêt des générations à venir. La notion de garanties collec-
tives est désormais inscrite dans différents domaines du droit internéational

contemporain. Au-delà du seul règlement pacifique du différend qui
oppose actuellement les Parties, l’arrêt de la Cour en l’affaire pourrait
revêtir une portée plus large au profit de tous.
88. Enfin, je me permettrai de relever que, bien que les conventions et

les traités internationaux soient le produit de leur époque, ils péeuvent
s’adapter à des conditions qui évoluent, et leur interprétatéion et leur appli -
cation dans le temps attestent qu’il s’agit d’instrumentsvivants. Ils évoluent
au fil des ans ; sans cela, ils tomberaient en désuétude. La convention

de 1946 ne fait pas exception et, dotée de son propre mécanisme de coéntrôle,
elle s’est révélée être un instrument vivant. En outre, dans des domaines
différents du droit international, les traités et les conventions —en particu -
lier ceux qui mettent en place un mécanisme de protection — ont amené à
définir une herméneutique qui leur est propre en tant qu’instruéments

vivants. C’est ce qui se passe non seulement dans le domaine de la conser -
vation et de l’utilisation durable des ressources marines vivantes quéi nous
occupe ici, mais aussi dans d’autres sphères du droit internationaél.
89. La présente affaire relative à la Chasse à la baleine dans l’Antarc -

tique a mis en lumière l’évolution du droit relatif à la conservaétion et à
l’utilisation durable des ressources marines vivantes qui, à son téour, a fait
apparaître ce qui me semble être sa contribution à la formationé progres -
sive d’une opinio juris communis dans ce domaine du droit international

contemporain. L’opinio juris, à mon sens, devient un facteur clé dans le
développement même du droit international (dans le cas présenté, conser -
vation et utilisation durable des ressources marines vivantes) ; son inci -
dence n’est plus celle d’un seul des éléments constitutifs dée l’une de ses
60
sources « formelles » . Le développement du droit international dans des
domaines d’intérêt public ou commun, tels que celui de la conseérvation
et de l’utilisation durable des ressources marines vivantes, est un procées -
sus qui, essentiellement par une tentative de légitimer les normes deés-

tinées à régir la vie internationale, va au-delà de l’énoncé de ses sources
formelles 61.

60 Ces dernières n’étant que des moyens ou instruments de formation de normes ju-i
diques internationales.
61 Pour une conceptualisation de cette perspective, voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, Inter-
national Law for Humankind…, op. cit. supra note 15, p. 134-138, et en particulier p. 137.

159

8 CIJ1062.indb 447 18/05/15 09:29 382 whaling in the antarcétic (sep. op. cançado tréindade)

90. Opinio juris communis, in this way, comes to assume a considerably
broader dimension than that of the subjective element constitutive of cués -
tom, and to exert a key role in the emergence and gradual evolution of
international legal norms. After all, juridical conscience of what is neéces -
sary (jus necessarium) stands above the “free will” of individual States

(jus voluntarium), rendering possible the evolution of international law
governing conservation and sustainable use of living marine resources. Ién
this domain, State voluntarism yields to the jus necessarium, and notably
so in the present era of international tribunals, amidst increasing endeéav -
ours to secure the long-awaited primacy of the jus necessarium over the

jus voluntarium. Ultimately, this becomes of key importance to the real -
ization of the pursued common good.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

160

8 CIJ1062.indb 448 18/05/15 09:29 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (oép. ind. cançado trindadée ) 82

90. De cette manière, l’opinio juris communis en vient à prendre une
dimension bien plus large que celle d’un élément subjectif consétitutif de la
coutume, et à exercer un rôle clé dans l’émergence et l’éévolution progres -
sive des normes juridiques internationales. Après tout, la conscienceé juri-

dique de ce qui est nécessaire (jus necessarium) l’emporte sur la volonté
des Etats individuels (jus voluntarium), rendant possible l’évolution du
droit international qui régit la conservation et l’utilisation duréable des
ressources marines vivantes. Dans ce domaine, le volontarisme de l’Etéat

le cède au jus necessarium, et ce particulièrement en cette époque qui a vu
se créer nombre de juridictions internationales et se multiplier les éefforts
visant à parvenir à la primauté tant attendue du jus necessarium sur le
jus voluntarium, une primauté qui se révèle en définitive cruciale pour la é
réalisation du bien commun.

(Signé) Antônio Augustus Cançado Trindade.

160

8 CIJ1062.indb 449 18/05/15 09:29

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade

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