Dissenting opinion of Judge Abraham

Document Number
148-20140331-JUD-01-02-EN
Parent Document Number
148-20140331-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

321

DISSENTING OPINION
OF JUDGE ABRAHAM

[Traduction]

Agreement with Judgment’s operative paragraph in its dismissal of Jap▯an’s

objection to jurisdiction — Disagreement with Court’s reasoning dismissing second
limb of Australian reservation — Agreement with statement that Article VIII of
the Convention must be interpreted neither restrictively nor expansively▯ —
Definition of “scientific research” given by Australia’s expert▯ rightly rejected —
Disagreement with Court’s objective standard, since the phrase “fo▯r purposes of”
necessarily requires examination of aims pursued — Wrongful underlying
unfavourable presumption against Japan — No manifest mismatch in this case
between JARPA II’s stated aims and means used — Similarly, sample size not
manifestly excessive — Disagreement with finding in point 2 of operative paragraph

that special permits granted by Japan in connection with JARPA II do not fall
within the provisions of ArticleVIII, paragraph 1, of the Convention— Consequent
disagreement with points 3, 4, 5 and 7 of operative paragraph.

1. I voted in favour of point 1 of the operative paragraph, in which the
Court decides that it has jurisdiction to entertain the Application fileéd by
Australia against Japan. But I voted against points 2 to 5, where the

Court states that Japan has been in breach of various substantive obli-
gations under the 1946 Convention for the Regulation of Whaling
(hereinafter “the Convention”), in consequence of the fact that,é accord -
ing to the Judgment, the whaling programme known as “JARPA II”,

carried out by Japan in the Antarctic from 2005, was not genuinely
conducted — notwithstanding the Respondent’s assertions — “for
purposes of scientific research” within the meaning of Article VIII of
the Convention. As a result, I have also been unable to approve the

measures which Japan is required to take under point 7 of the
operative paragraph in order to make good the breaches found by the
Court.
2. While I share the Judgment’s conclusion on the issue of jurisdiction,é

I am not convinced by the reasoning followed in order to reach it. On théis
point, I would certainly describe my disagreement as minor. I will, how -
ever, explain the reasons for it below (I). On the merits, on the otheér hand,
I regret to have to say that I am in profound disagreement with the overéall

approach adopted by the Court, and with the basic scheme of its reason -
ing: I believe that its approach is misconceived. I shall explain why (II)é.

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I. Jurisdiction

3. Australia seised the Court on the basis of the declarations of accep -
tance of the latter’s compulsory jurisdiction made by Australia and Jéapan
on, respectively, 22 March 2002 and 9 July 2007. Japan has challenged
the Court’s jurisdiction in reliance on one of the reservations to Auéstra -
lia’s declaration of acceptance, namely reservation (b).

4. There was no discussion between the Parties — and there could not
seriously have been one — regarding the well-established rule that the
respondent in a case is entitled to rely on a reservation by the applicaént in
the instrument whereby the latter accepted the Court’s jurisdiction, éinvok -
ing that reservation against its author with a view to having the Court

decline jurisdiction.
5. It was over the scope, in other words the interpretation, of the Aus -
tralian reservation that the debate took place. The Court found that the
reservation was not applicable in the present case. I agree. However, thée
Court reached its decision on the basis of an interpretation of the reseérva -

tion which I find highly questionable.
6. In truth, the reservation is not a model of clarity. It has two limbs,
linked by the conjunction “or”. The first is relatively clear, seeéking to
exclude the Court’s jurisdiction in respect of “any dispute conceréning or
relating to the delimitation of maritime zones including the territorialé sea,

the exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf” — which I would
translate into French (only the English text is authentic) by : “tout dif -
férend concernant, ou se rapportant à, la délimitation de zonesé maritimes,
y compris la mer territoriale, la zone économique exclusive et le plaéteau
continental”. The Parties agree : the dispute submitted to the Court did
not concern, or relate to, the delimitation of maritime zones — meaning

that such a delimitation did not constitute the actual subject-matter of the
dispute, and no such delimitation was being requested of the Court. Thaté
is perfectly clear.
7. The second limb of the reservation is a lot less clear, and it is on thiés
one that Japan relied.

It excludes from the Court’s jurisdiction any maritime dispute “aréising
out of, concerning, or relating to the exploitation of any disputed areaé of
or adjacent to any such maritime zone pending its delimitation”, whicéh
could give in French : “[différend] découlant de, concernant, ou se rap -
portant à l’exploitation de tout espace disputé relevant d’une telle zone

maritime ou adjacente à une telle zone dans l’attente de la déléimitation de
celle-ci”.
8. Japan has sought to persuade the Court to apply this second limb of
the reservation in a strictly literal way.
It argues that the dispute between the Parties arises out of the imple -
mentation of a whaling programme, and hence of the “exploitation” of a

specific maritime area — that where the activities authorized under
JARPA II are being conducted. The word “exploitation” is said to be

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peculiarly appropriate, given the view of the case taken by Austra -
lia (which maintains that these are activities carried out for commercial

ends) — as opposed to the position taken by Japan, for whom this is
indeed a scientific research programme.
Furthermore, at least part of the maritime areas in which JARPA II is
being conducted is claimed by Australia as its exclusive economic zone,
generated by the portion of Antarctic territory that it also claims. That

claim is still pending, and no delimitation has been effected — nor can it
be effected, thanks to the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, which freezes for an
indefinite period all territorial claims over the Antarctic. The preciseé
extent of Australia’s maritime claims was not established during the é
debate, but Australia has never denied the existence of those claims, noér
the fact that they encompass maritime areas which coincide, at least in é

part, with those where whaling activities under JARPA II are conducted.

In short, Japan claims that the dispute before the Court arises out of
the exploitation of maritime zones which are the subject of a dispute asé to

whether they form part of Australia’s exclusive economic zone, which éhas
not yet been delimited in that area, and that the Australian reservationé,
taken literally, is accordingly applicable.
9. In order to reject that literal interpretation, in which, in my view, ité
was correct, the Court has relied on two grounds, one of which is pre -

sented as essential, while the other appears to be redundant.
As main ground, the Judgment finds that there are no overlapping
claims by Australia and Japan in respect of the maritime areas covered béy
JARPA II. However, according to the Court, “[t]he existence of a dispute
concerning maritime delimitation between the parties is required accord -
ing to both parts of the reservation” (paragraph 37 of the Judgment). In

other words, a necessary condition for the application of the second liméb
of the reservation, on which Japan relies, is that the Parties to the préo -
ceedings have overlapping claims on the maritime areas in which the
“exploitation” underlying the dispute is taking place — and that condi -
tion is absent here.

Redundantly, the Judgment further finds that “[t]he nature and extenté
of the maritime zones are . . . immaterial to the present dispute” (para. 40),
which means that, in order to decide the case, it is unnecessary for theé
Court to rule on the question of which State — if any — has sovereign

rights over the maritime areas in question.

10. In my view the Court would have been better advised to rely solely
on the second of these grounds, which is necessary and sufficient in théis
case to justify its jurisdiction.
11. The first ground relied on by the Court, and which is clearly pre -

sented as the main one, rests, in my view, on a highly questionable and
unnecessarily restrictive interpretation of the Australian reservation.

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That reservation, as we have seen, contains two distinct limbs, althoughé
these are to some extent interlinked.

12. The first limb, which relates to disputes concerning the delimitation
of maritime zones, undoubtedly presupposes, in order to be applicable,
the existence of overlapping claims by the parties in question over the é
same areas ; the Court is denied jurisdiction to entertain a maritime
delimitation dispute between Australia and another State.

13. On the other hand, nothing in the language of the second limb, or
in its underlying logic, justifies the conclusion that it can only applyé where
there are overlapping claims in respect of the same maritime areas by twéo
States parties to the proceedings.

This second limb may reasonably be understood as intended (also) to

exclude from the jurisdiction of the Court disputes which, without beingé
directly related to maritime delimitation, would require the Court to take
a position — incidentally — on the nature and extent of Australia’s mar -
itime zones, since the subject-matter of such disputes would be the exploi-
tation of a maritime area in respect of which there was a pending disputée

as to whether it formed part of such a zone. In short, Australia does not
wish the Court to rule either directly (first limb of the reservation)é or
indirectly (second limb), on the limits of its maritime zones.

However, unlike the first limb, there is no reason — either in the text or

in terms of logic — that the second limb of the reservation could apply
only if both Parties to the case had overlapping claims to the maritime é
areas concerned. Indeed, one can perfectly well conceive of a situation
where settlement of a dispute between Australia and another State relat -
ing to the exploitation of a maritime zone claimed by Australia would
incidentally lead the Court to determine whether the Australian claim waés

well-founded. In such a case, the second limb of the reservation would, in
my view, be applicable.

14. I accordingly take the view that, while it is true that the two limbs
of the reservation, which constitute a unity, must be read in conjunctioén

with one another — the reason that the Court correctly rejected the
strictly literal interpretation proposed by Japan — the Judgment pushes
that unity too far when it holds that the second limb can, like the firsét,
apply only in a case of overlapping maritime claims.
That is a restrictive interpretation which is all the more regrettable ién

that the Court could have avoided it by basing itself solely on its second
ground, which is incontrovertible and sufficient for purposes of the prées -
ent case, while leaving any other issue open — always assuming that the
Court wished to remain cautious in its approach.

*
* *

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II. The Merits

15. On the merits, my disagreement with the Judgment is a great deal
more fundamental.
16. The case presented itself to the Court in relatively simple terms.
The Court had to answer a basic question, which, to all intents and
purposes, governed the solution of the case : were the special whaling per -

mits granted by Japan from 2005 under the JARPA II programme issued
“for purposes of scientific research” within the meaning Article VIII of
the 1946 Convention ?
If so — which, in my view, is the answer that the Court should have
given — that would necessarily have resulted in the dismissal of virtually é
all of Australia’s claims.

If not — which was the response that the Court felt was correct —
then, on the contrary, the only result could be broad acceptance of the é
Australian claims.
17. The heart of this case thus hinged on the interpretation of the
words “for purposes of scientific research”, and it is primarily oén this

point that I part company with the majority of my colleagues.
18. However, it is not Article VIII of the Convention which lays down
the rules that Japan was accused by Australia of having broken. In itseléf,
Article VIII imposes no obligation on States parties (with the exception of
the procedural obligations to inform the Commission and the body desig -

nated by it of the permits granted, and of the results of the scientificé research
conducted under those permits). The purpose of Article VIII is not to
impose additional obligations on States but to exempt them, in respect oéf
authorized whaling activities falling within its terms, from obligationsé under
the other provisions of the Convention (including the Schedule annexed
thereto). The substantive obligations which Australia alleges to have béeen

breached by Japan are to be found in paragraph 10 (e) of the Schedule
annexed to the Convention (which establishes a moratorium on “commeré -
cial” whaling), in paragraph 10 (d) of that same Schedule (which establishes
a moratorium on the use of factory ships), and in paragraph 7 (b) (which
prohibits commercial whaling within the Southern Ocean Sanctuary).

19. The reason why paragraph 1 of Article VIII plays such a decisive
role in this case is that, if whaling permits granted by Japan under
JARPA II are not for the purposes of scientific research, as Japan has
repeatedly claimed that they are, then it follows inevitably that the acétivi -
ties conducted thereunder violate the three provisions (or prohibitionsé)

cited above. It has indeed been established that whaling under JARPA II
is conducted, inter alia, with factory ships, so that — if it is not covered
by the general exemption in Article VIII — it breaches the prohibition in
paragraph 10 (d) of the Schedule in respect of certain species of whale
taken by Japanese whalers. Moreover, neither Australia nor Japan has
argued that whaling authorized under JARPA II could be for a purpose

which is neither of a scientific nor of a commercial nature ; it follows that,
if such activities are not genuinely conducted “for purposes of scienétific

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research” — as Australia has maintained — then they constitute a breach
both of paragraph 10 (e) and of paragraph 7 (b).

20. In paragraph 229 of the Judgment the Court accepts this postu -
late — which Japan itself has not disputed — and states, in para -
graphs 231, 232 and 233, that “all whaling that does not fit within

Article VIII of the Convention (other than aboriginal subsistence whal -
ing) is subject to” paragraphs 10 (e), 10 (d) and 7 (b) of the Schedule. I
agree with this statement — if not in the general terms in which the Judg -
ment expresses it, on the basis of a somewhat questionable interpretatioén
of the Convention — at least in the circumstances of the present case, and
thus, certainly, for purposes of resolving the dispute before the Court.é

21. My view is that Australia has failed to show that Japan is not gen -
uinely pursuing, under JARPA II, the scientific aims that it claims to be
pursuing (from Australia’s standpoint, one might even say : “that it pre -
tends to be pursuing”).

22. I will begin by setting out the points on which I am not in disagree -
ment with the position taken by the Judgment, before going on to explainé
where I essentially disagree.
23. First, my position is not based on the existence of a purported “dis -
cretionary power” of the State granting special permits to determine é

whether the authorized activities are indeed “for purposes of scientiéfic
research”. It is true that the actual language of paragraph 1 of Article VIII
does appear to give the State in question a measure of discretion : it is
never required to grant a permit, and is free (in any event from the stéand -
point of international law) to refuse any request from an individual or a
body, irrespective of the interest of the research envisaged; if it does grant

a permit, it may make it subject to such conditions as it thinks fit ; it may
“at any time” revoke a permit granted, and enjoys discretionary poéwer in
that regard — again from the standpoint of international law, for domes -
tic law may place certain restraints upon it.

On the other hand, in terms of characterizing a whaling programme as
being “for purposes of scientific research” within the meaning of éArti -
cle VIII — the essential condition to which that provision subjects the
grant of special permits — one cannot speak of a discretionary power of
the State. It is true that, when deciding on a request for a special perémit,

the State must necessarily make a determination as to the scientific valéue
of the project for the implementation of which the permit is requested. é
But that power of determination is not a sovereign one : it is made subject
not only to supervision by the bodies set up by the Convention, but alsoé,
if a dispute on the issue is brought before a judicial body having the réel -
evant jurisdiction, to judicial oversight.

In that regard, I have no objection to what the Court states in para -
graphs 59 to 61 of the present Judgment.

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24. Nor does my disagreement relate to the cautious way in which the
Court has addressed the notion of “scientific research” in the senése of

Article VIII.
In my view the Court was correct in avoiding laying down a general,
abstract definition of that notion. More particularly, it was correct iné
refusing to accept the four criteria proposed by Australia on the basis of
the report by one of the experts retained by it, Professor Mangel : scien-

tific research must have defined objectives based inter alia on verifiable
hypotheses; it may only, in the context of the Convention, include the use
of lethal methods if its objectives cannot be achieved by any other meanés;
it must be periodically subject to peer review, and if necessary be modiéfied
in light of that review; it should endeavour to avoid adverse effects on the
stocks studied.

As paragraph 86 of the Judgment quite correctly states, “[t]hese criteria
appear largely to reflect what one expert regards as well-conceived scien -
tific research, rather than serving as an interpretation of the term as éused
in the Convention”.

25. Furthermore, I essentially approve of the way in which the Court
has analysed the objective and purpose of the Convention, in the light oéf
which Article VIII must be interpreted, and the conclusion which it
draws, namely that “neither a restrictive nor an expansive interpretaétion

of Article VIII is justified”, since the aim of the Convention is both to
ensure the conservation of whale stocks and to make possible the orderlyé
development of the whaling industry (paras. 56 to 58).
26. Finally, I agree with the Judgment when it points out that “a State
often seeks to accomplish more than one goal when it pursues a particu -
lar policy”, and that, “[a]ccordingly . . . whether particular government

officials may have motivations that go beyond scientific research does énot
preclude a conclusion that a programme is for purposes of scientific
research within the meaning of Article VIII” (para. 97). In other words, it
is possible that Japan, in designing JARPA II, was also sensitive to the
possible positive fall-out of the programme for industrial and commercial

activities: that does not suffice to disqualify it under Article VIII as a
scientific research programme. On the other hand, if the scale of the pro -
gramme was manifestly unreasonable, that would tend to show that — in
part at least — it is not pursuing exclusively scientific objectives, and —
to that extent in any event — is not covered by Article VIII (I will return

later to this latter point).

27. I now come to the statement of the reasons why I cannot subscribe
to the essential elements of the reasoning followed by the Court and,
hence, to its final conclusion.

28. First of all, I believe that, in a case like the present one, the Responé
dent should enjoy a quite strong presumption in its favour.

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I am not, as a rule, in favour of excessively rigid rules in relation toé the
burden of proof, and I have never taken the view that the burden of prooéf

should, in principle, be borne exclusively by the applicant. But there aére
instances where the Court is entitled to take a particularly demanding
stance in relation to a party putting forward certain allegations. That éis
particularly so where one of the parties claims that the other is actingé in
bad faith, since there is a generally accepted presumption of good faith.

However, in the present case, it is clear that the accusations levelled éby
Australia at Japan are fundamentally based on the notion that, in designé -
ing and implementing JARPA II, Japan acted in bad faith, in that it con -
cealed the pursuit of commercial interests behind the outward appearanceés
of a scientific research programme.
It is true that the Judgment refrains from ruling on the issue of good

faith, and even states that this is an issue that it need not address, léike all
“other arguments invoked by Australia” on an alternative basis (péara. 243).
However, while bad faith is expressly pleaded in Australia’s alternative
arguments, it is also present, implicitly but necessarily, in the argument
developed by it as principal claim.

I do not see how one can conclude that a whaling programme pre -
sented as being of a scientific nature, proposing scientific objectives and
implemented with scientific methods, and which has duly been communi -
cated as such to the Scientific Committee set up by the International

Whaling Commission, and whose results have been published, has not
been implemented “for purposes of scientific research”, but “foér commer -
cial purposes”, which is the Australian thesis as endorsed by the Couért,
without at least casting doubt — if only implicitly — on the good faith of
the Respondents. When the Court states that it need not address Austra -
lia’s charge of bad faith against Japan, it seems to me that this is émore a

matter of formal presentation than of the reality.

29. Admittedly, since the presumption of good faith is not irrebuttable,
what I have just said is not sufficient to show that the Court is wrongé in
its conclusion that special permits granted by Japan under JARPA II

were not issued “for purposes of scientific research”.
However, in order seriously to support such a finding, the Court would, é
in my view, have needed particularly solid evidence, which was not apparé -
ent from the debate, and it was by contrast on the basis of weak argu -
ments, and sometimes mere doubts, suppositions or approximations, that

the Court felt able to accept Australia’s claims.
30. The truth is that the Court’s final conclusion was favoured by two
aspects of its approach which strike me as particularly open to criticisém.
31. First, far from placing the burden of proof on Australia, the Court
consistently showed itself particularly demanding towards Japan, as if iét
was the Respondent that had to prove that it was in the right. From starét

to finish, the Judgment gives the impression that it is from Japan that é
explanations, proofs and justifications are expected.

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Thus, for example, on the essential issue of sample size, the Judgment
states that the task of the Court is

“to examine whether Japan, in light of JARPA II’s stated research
objectives, has demonstrated a reasonable basis for annual sample

sizes pertaining to particular research items, leading to the overall
sample size of 850 (plus or minus 10 per cent) for minke whales”
(para. 185; emphasis added),

before going on to conclude (para. 198) that the evidence — meaning, of
course, that put forward by Japan — “provides scant analysis and justifi -
cation for the underlying decisions that generate the overall sample sizée”,
which “raises further concerns about whether the design of JARPA II can

be said to demonstrate on an objectively reasonable basis that it is a péro-
ject for purposes of scientific research”. In other words, it is Japaén that is
expected to show that the sample size (the authorized whale take) is pro -
portionate to the stated objectives, and any doubt in this regard is heléd
against it.

32. Secondly, and still more fundamentally, the Court has adopted a
methodology which, to say the least, is unconvincing.

Explaining the method which it intends to follow in order to determine
whether or not a programme is “for purposes of scientific research”é within

the meaning of paragraph 1 of Article VIII, the Court indicates that the
main issue in this case relates to the expression “for purposes of”é. It is not
sufficient that a programme includes elements of scientific research ; it
must also be designed and implemented “for purposes of” such reseaérch.
So far, I can follow, and find nothing to object to. But the Judgment théen
goes on to gives this phrase (“for purposes of”) a meaning and sécope

which seem to me to depart from the ordinary sense of the words.
In my view, “for purposes of” relates to the intention, the ends séought,
the aims really pursued (which may be different from those stated). éNot
according to the Judgment. The Court insists, on the contrary, that its é
standard is an “objective” one (para. 67), in other words that it is not set -

ting out to discover Japan’s real intentions, to ascertain the realitéy of the
aims pursued behind the outward appearances. And it explains — in
paragraph 88, which is an essential link in its reasoning — that a pro -
gramme can only be regarded as “for purposes of” scientific researéch if
“the elements of [its] design and implementation are reasonable in reéla -

tion to its stated scientific objectives” ; it adds that, in order to determine
whether these are reasonable, several elements need to be taken into
account, including the scale of lethal sampling, the methodology used toé
select sample size, a comparison of target sample sizes and actual take,
the time frame, and the programme’s scientific output, as well as theé
extent of co-ordination with related search projects.

33. At this point, I really have difficulty in following.

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The extent to which the methods used match the aims pursued is cer -
tainly of assistance in assessing the quality of a scientific research péro -

gramme. In this regard, all of the elements mentioned in paragraph 88 are
doubtless relevant. But I do not see how one could conclude, from the faéct
that a programme might be criticized in terms of the appropriateness of the
methods specified in light of its stated objectives, that such a programéme is
not conducted “for purposes of” scientific research — particularly if one

has been at pains to make it clear that it is not the subjective intentiéons of
the State in question that it is being sought to ascertain, and that a sétrictly
“objective” approach is being applied. Even though the Court stateés that it
is confining its examination to what is “reasonable”, it is launchéing itself, at
this stage of its reasoning, on a path which leads it to depart from its role
and to assess the scientific value of JARPA II, rather than seeking to ascer -

tain the latter’s nature — and the rest of the Judgment amply confirms this.
34. In my view, the Court should have adopted an altogether different
approach.
JARPA II is presented as a scientific research programme approved by
Japan. It has objectives, which are set out by the Judgment in para -

graphs 109 ff., and whose value is nowhere challenged by the Court ; it
involves the implementation of methods which are of a scientific nature —
as the Judgment recognizes, when it states that “the JARPA II activities
involving the lethal sampling of whales can broadly be characterized as é
‘scientific research’” (para. 127) ; it was properly submitted for examina -

tion to the Scientific Committee before the issue of the first permit, aés the
Court recognizes in that part of the Judgment in which it rejects Austraé -
lia’s request for a finding that Japan failed to comply with its obliégations
under paragraph 30 of the Schedule (see paragraph 238).

Accordingly, I believe that the permits granted under JARPA II should

have been presumed to have been issued “for purposes of scientific
research” — for a State’s word cannot lightly be challenged, and its good
faith must be presumed until proof of the contrary — and only very
strong evidence could have justified a finding unfavourable to the Respoén -
dent.

35. I consider that the Judgment does not demonstrate the existence of
such evidence.
In my view, there are only two scenarios which could justify a finding
that a programme, officially presented as being “for purposes of sciéentific
research”, and which has at least every appearance of such a programme,

does not fall within the terms of Article VIII. The first scenario is where
it is apparent that there is clearly no reasonable relationship between éthe
stated objectives and the means used, such that those means are mani -
festly unsuitable for achieving those objectives — from which it may be
concluded that the programme is not genuinely seeking to achieve its
stated objectives. The second scenario is where the sample size set by téhe

programme is manifestly excessive in light of research needs, having
regard to the programme’s stated objectives, from which it may be

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concluded that, in respect of at least a proportion thereof, the authoriézed
whale take was set for reasons, or for purposes, that are non-scientific

(and thus, in all probability, commercial ones).
36. In my view the Court has failed to show that either of these sce -
narios is present here.
It is clear that the Court has taken a particularly demanding line
towards the Respondent, since it appears to have raised a negative pre -

sumption against it, deriving from what might be termed “suspicion”é,
and has relied on grounds which in my view are too weak, and has at
times expressed itself more as a scientific committee would, rather thané as
a judicial body should have done.
37. Between paragraphs 128 and 222, the Court sets out a number of
reasons which lead it to conclude, in paragraph 227, that “the special per -

mits granted by Japan for the killing, taking and treating of whales in é
connection with JARPA II” are not issued “‘for purposes of scientific
research’ pursuant to Article VIII, paragraph 1, of the Convention”.

None of these reasons is truly convincing in itself, and, while, cumula -

tively, they may give an impression of weight, that is ultimately not coén -
vincing either.
38. Japan is criticized (paras. 141 and 144) for not having carried out
studies of the feasibility of non-lethal methods, which might — to some
extent — have replaced lethal methods under JARPA II, or rather for not

having proved to the Court that it had done so. That is possibly so, buté,
in the first place, in paragraph 83 the Court rejects Australia’s contention
that a scientific research programme requires a State systematically to é
give preference to non-lethal methods, and to have recourse to lethal
methods only when other methods are not available ; and furthermore, I
cannot see how the fact that, when designing a scientific research pro -

gramme, a State may have failed to carry out a study of a particular isséue
(even if that issue were relevant) would deprive that programme of its
scientific character. At most, such a failure would justify an observatiéon
by the Scientific Committee. But it is not the function of the Court to é
decide whether JARPA II was designed as well as it might have been (that

is a matter for the Scientific Committee to look into), but only to decéide
if this is indeed a programme pursuing scientific aims. As to the duty
of States parties to “give due regard to recommendations” of the Inteérna -
tional Whaling Commission, which called upon States “to take
into account whether research objectives can . . . be achieved by using

non-lethal research methods” (para. 83), it cannot have the effect —
which would be to confuse legal categories — of transforming those rec -
ommendations into binding decisions.

39. The Judgment further criticizes Japan for having set the sample

size at a level higher than that necessary for the requirements of scienétific
research, in order to secure additional financial resources to finance that

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8 CIJ1062.indb 347 18/05/15 09:29 whaling in the antarcétic (diss. op. abraham) 332

research, an approach which, according to the Court, does not fall withién
the terms of Article VIII. That is a weak argument. First, it is based on a

very questionable restrictive interpretation of the Convention ; secondly,
and in any event, it has not been shown that Japan did adopt such an
approach. In reality, the Judgment relies solely on a document produced é
by Japan the language of which is ambiguous, but in which, in any event,é
no clear admission can be found that the sample size was increased for

financial reasons (para. 143). If Japan is reproached with having, to a
certain extent, favoured lethal methods because they are less expensive —
inter alia because they enable some of the whale catch to be sold — such
criticism may well be justified in factual terms, but certainly not in léaw :
there is no rule — and the Judgment itself fails to identify one — which
prevents a State from having regard to a consideration of this kind in

designing a research programme.

40. The Judgment then goes on to examine the general question of the
setting of sample sizes under JARPA II.
However, the Court was unable to reach a finding that the size of the

sample was manifestly excessive in light of research needs, since there éwas
no support for such a conclusion in the evidence before it. It is ratheré on
the basis of its doubt as to the justification for the choices made by Jéapan
and the methods adopted by it that the Judgment addresses the matter.
However, even if a certain doubt is permissible, that cannot suffice toé

show that the aims pursued by JARPA II are unscientific, whether wholly
or even in part.
41. In this regard, the Judgment queries the significant difference
between the catch totals set under JARPA, the programme preceding that
in issue here, and the sample sizes set under JARPA II. For minke whales
in particular, the difference is substantial, increasing from an annuaél take

of 400 to 850. The Court expresses its scepticism on the explanations
given by Japan, namely that JARPA II had more ambitious aims than its
predecessor. However, according to the Court, there is “considerable é
overlap . . . rather than dissimilarity” between the two programmes
(para. 151). An additional reason cited “to question whether the increased é

minke whale sample size . . . is accounted for by differences between the
two programmes ” is that Japan launched JARPA II without waiting for
the results of the Scientific Committee’s final review of JARPA (paréa. 154).
Here again we are dealing with queries, doubts, suppositions. Nothing
truly solid.

42. The Court then goes on to discuss at some length ways of calculat -
ing the sample size necessary to achieve the research targets. It conducts
a series of particularly complex calculations, which it presents, inter alia,
in the form of a table and a graphic (see paragraphs 165 and 182).

But however sophisticated, such calculations do not suffice to enable
the Court to reach the clear conclusion that the sample size was set at éa

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8 CIJ1062.indb 349 18/05/15 09:29 whaling in the antarcétic (diss. op. abraham) 333

manifestly excessive level. All they can do is to raise doubts, uncertaiénties
and suspicions. It is true that the explanations provided by Japan lack é

clarity and transparency, and that a certain vagueness remains as to how
the sample size was fixed. The expert called by Japan, Professor Walløe
from Norway, himself admitted to the Court that “the Japanese [had] néot
always given completely transparent and clear explanations of how sam -
ple sizes were calculated or determined”. However, he then indicated éthat,

on the basis of his own calculations, the minke whale sample size (thaté
being by far the largest) was “of the right magnitude”.

As for the Court, the only finding that it was able to reach (in para -
graph 198), after a lengthy discussion of the matter, was that “the evi -

dence relating to . . . sample size . . . provides scant analysis and
justification for the underlying decisions that generate the overall saméple
size”, and that this “raises further concerns” about “whetheér the design of
JARPA II can be said to demonstrate on an objectively reasonable basis
that it is a project for purposes of scientific research”. Further coéncerns,

deriving from a finding of certain flaws or weaknesses, but nothing toé
provide solid support for the conclusion that JARPA II is not genuinely
pursuing its purported research aims.
43. The Judgment then highlights the discrepancy between the targets
set under JARPA II and the actual number of whales taken, which is far

below the target totals. Strangely, the Court regards this as a further érea -
son to find that JARPA II is not a programme conducted “for purposes
of scientific research”.
The reasons for this discrepancy are known, and the Judgment refers to
them (para. 206). Japan agreed to give up catching humpback whales fol -
lowing a request by the Chair of the International Whaling Commission,

as a mark of goodwill. As regards the other two species, the discrepancyé
between target and actual catches can be largely attributed to the choice
of vessels, which were unsuitable for taking minke whales, and to acts oéf
organized sabotage by certain groups opposed to whaling, which pre -
vented the target take for minke whales from being achieved.

44. It is difficult to see, however, how the fact that, in recent years,
Japan has failed to achieve the target takes under JARPA II can justify
the finding that the programme has ceased to be a scientific one, and stéill
less that it has never been a scientific programme.

The Court’s reasoning (in paragraphs 209-211) is, in substance, as fol -
lows. First, because JARPA II has continued despite actual catches being
far smaller than the original targets, that tends to show that those tarégets
had been fixed at an excessively high level and not in accordance with the
requirements of need and proportionality, which “adds force to Austraé -

lia’s contention that the target sample size for minke whales was set for
non-scientific reasons”. Secondly, the zero or negligible take for two ofé

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8 CIJ1062.indb 351 18/05/15 09:29 whaling in the antarcétic (diss. op. abraham) 334

the three species concerned casts doubt on Japan’s argument that the ésig-
nificant increase in the target take for the third species of whale (miénke

whales) under JARPA II can be explained by the introduction into that
programme of research on inter-species competition, which was absent
from the preceding one.

The Court summarizes its position as follows :
“Japan’s continued reliance on the first two JARPA II objectives

to justify the target sample sizes, despite the discrepancy between the é
actual take and those targets, coupled with its statement that
JARPA II can obtain meaningful scientific results based on the far
more limited actual take, cast further doubt on the characterization
of JARPA II as a programme for purposes of scientific research.”
(Para. 212.)

Once again, doubt. But is a doubt, or even an accumulation of doubts,
sufficient to constitute proof ? In my view, in any event in the present

instance, that is very far from being the case. What is more, it seems téo
me hardly disputable that the fact that a research programme has been
only partially achieved does not deprive it of the ability to produce scéien -
tifically significant results, and I can see nothing here that could proévide
support for such grave suspicions.

45. It is true that the Court completes its demonstration with three
concluding arguments, under the head of “additional aspects”, but éwhich
I have to say that I do not find any stronger than the preceding ones :
JARPA II has an open-ended time frame — but I cannot see where any -
one might get the idea that a research programme can only be “scientiéfic”
if it is for a fixed period ; publication of research results from JARPA II

in scientific journals has been extremely limited — but that does not suf -
fice to justify a finding that the programme is not being conducted for é
purposes of scientific research, at most it could be an indication of weéak -
nesses or flaws in its design ; Japan has given few examples of co-opera -
tion between the institution responsible for JARPA II and other research

institutions, which, according to the Court, “could have been expecteéd” —
but we are still dealing here with criticism of the way the research hasé
been conducted, rather than a convincing challenge to its scientific
character.
46. Even taken together, the Court’s criticisms of Japan are very far, iné

my view, from justifying a finding that JARPA II was not designed and
implemented “for purposes of scientific research”, which is the coénclusion
that the Court reaches in paragraph 227.

And I believe this to be the case for two basic reasons : doubts are not
proof; methodological flaws in the design of a scientific programme do

not deprive it of its scientific character, nor do they stamp it with a écom -
mercial purpose.

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47. I particularly regret the stance that the Court has chosen to adopt,
inasmuch as, in so doing, it has ignored the contribution — in my view, a

remarkable one — from the expert called by Japan, the internationally
renowned Norwegian professor, Lars Walløe. Professor Walløe demon -
strated his independence in openly criticizing certain aspects — albeit
minor ones — of the JARPA II programme ; and indeed the Judgment
has cited these several times in support of its argument against the

Respondent. That, in my view, only serves to enhance the overall credibiél -
ity of his evidence. Professor Walløe stated that “both JARPA and
JARPA II have given valuable information for the possible implementa -
tion of the current version of RMP [the Revised Management Procedure,
the stock management tool used by the International Whaling Commis -
sion] and for possible future improvements of RMP”, and that “the épro-

grammes are giving critical information about the ongoing changes in theé
Antarctic ecosystem”.
As regards sample size, Professor Walløe stated at the hearings that he
did not really know how the Japanese scientists had calculated them, buté
that, on the basis of his own calculations to determine, inter alia, the nec -

essary sample size to assess changes in age and sexual maturity — which
were parameters of particular interest — over a period of six years, he
found that “to get any detectable you would need in the order of magnéi -
tude [of] 900 whales”.

48. I am well aware that, since Professor Walløe was an expert called
by one of the Parties, the Court could not simply accept the truth, withé -
out further enquiry, of everything he said, when other experts, called béy
the opposing Party, expressed differing views.
However, I believe that the fact that a scientist of this renown unequiv -
ocally expresses his positive view of the scientific value of the research

carried out under JARPA II, and of the reasonableness of the sample
sizes set (with the exception, as he stated, of fin whales, for which téhe
sample size was too small to give significant results) ought to have caérried
substantial weight in the Court’s assessment of the true nature of
JARPA II.

That would certainly have been the case if the Court, instead of
attempting to function as a sort of scientific committee, seeking to enqéuire
in detail into what aspects of JARPA II could be regarded as design or
implementation flaws or deficiencies, had confined itself simply to anéswer -
ing the question of whether the activities concerned were conducted for é

purposes of scientific research — regardless of whether they were bril -
liantly or poorly designed. And if the Court had not applied an underly -
ing negative preconception in its treatment of the Respondent.

(Signed) Ronny Abraham.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 355 18/05/15 09:29

Bilingual Content

321

OPINION DISSIDENTE
DE M. LE JUGE ABRAHAM

Accord avec le dispositif de l’arrêt en ce qu’il rejette l’e▯xception d’incom-
pétence soulevée par le Japon — Désaccord avec le raisonnement suivi par la
Cour pour conclure au rejet de l’application de la seconde branche de▯ la réserve
australienne — Accord avec l’affirmation selon laquelle l’article VIII de la
convention ne doit donner lieu ni à interprétation restrictive ni ▯à interprétation
extensive — Rejet à bon droit de la définition de « recherches scientifiques »
donnée par l’expert appelé par l’Australie — Désaccord avec le critère d’examen

objectif retenu par la Cour, la notion « en vue de » renvoyant nécessairement à
l’examen des fins recherchées — Application erronée d’une présomption
défavorable sous-jacente à l’encontre du Japon — En l’espèce, absence de
disproportion manifeste entre les objectifs annoncés dans le cadre de JARPA II
et les moyens mis en œuvre — Absence également d’excès manifeste dans la
fixation de la taille des échantillons — Désaccord avec le point 2 du dispositif
en ce qu’il conclut que les permis spéciaux délivrés par le ▯Japon dans le cadre
de JARPA II n’entrent pas dans les prévisions du paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII

de la convention — Désaccord en conséquence avec les points 3, 4, 5 et 7 du
dispositif.

1. J’ai voté en faveur du point 1 du dispositif, par lequel la Cour décide

qu’elle a compétence pour connaître de la requête présentée par l’Austra -
lie contre le Japon. Mais j’ai voté contre les points 2 à 5, par lesquels la
Cour déclare que le Japon a méconnu plusieurs obligations substantéielles

découlant de la convention pour la réglementation de la chasse àé la
baleine de 1946 (ci-après la « convention»), en conséquence du fait que,
selon l’arrêt, le programme de chasse dit « JARPA II», mis en œuvre par
le Japon dans l’Antarctique à partir de 2005, n’était pas rééellement, mal -

gré les affirmations du défendeur, conduit « en vue de recherches scienti -
fiques» au sens de l’article VIII de la convention. En conséquence, je n’ai
pas pu approuver non plus les mesures que le point 7 du dispositif
ordonne au Japon d’adopter pour remédier aux violations constatéées.

2. Bien que je partage la conclusion de l’arrêt en ce qui concerne la
question de compétence, je ne suis pas convaincu par le raisonnement ésuivi

pour y parvenir. Sur ce point, je pourrais certainement qualifier ma divéer -
gence de mineure. J’en expliquerai cependant les raisons ci-après (I). Sur
le fond, en revanche, je suis au regret de constater que je suis profondéément
en désaccord avec la démarche générale adoptée par la Couér, et les arti -

culations essentielles de son raisonnement : je crois qu’elle a fait fausse
route. Je dirai pourquoi (II).

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8 CIJ1062.indb 326 18/05/15 09:29 321

DISSENTING OPINION
OF JUDGE ABRAHAM

[Traduction]

Agreement with Judgment’s operative paragraph in its dismissal of Jap▯an’s

objection to jurisdiction — Disagreement with Court’s reasoning dismissing second
limb of Australian reservation — Agreement with statement that Article VIII of
the Convention must be interpreted neither restrictively nor expansively▯ —
Definition of “scientific research” given by Australia’s expert▯ rightly rejected —
Disagreement with Court’s objective standard, since the phrase “fo▯r purposes of”
necessarily requires examination of aims pursued — Wrongful underlying
unfavourable presumption against Japan — No manifest mismatch in this case
between JARPA II’s stated aims and means used — Similarly, sample size not
manifestly excessive — Disagreement with finding in point 2 of operative paragraph

that special permits granted by Japan in connection with JARPA II do not fall
within the provisions of ArticleVIII, paragraph 1, of the Convention— Consequent
disagreement with points 3, 4, 5 and 7 of operative paragraph.

1. I voted in favour of point 1 of the operative paragraph, in which the
Court decides that it has jurisdiction to entertain the Application fileéd by
Australia against Japan. But I voted against points 2 to 5, where the

Court states that Japan has been in breach of various substantive obli-
gations under the 1946 Convention for the Regulation of Whaling
(hereinafter “the Convention”), in consequence of the fact that,é accord -
ing to the Judgment, the whaling programme known as “JARPA II”,

carried out by Japan in the Antarctic from 2005, was not genuinely
conducted — notwithstanding the Respondent’s assertions — “for
purposes of scientific research” within the meaning of Article VIII of
the Convention. As a result, I have also been unable to approve the

measures which Japan is required to take under point 7 of the
operative paragraph in order to make good the breaches found by the
Court.
2. While I share the Judgment’s conclusion on the issue of jurisdiction,é

I am not convinced by the reasoning followed in order to reach it. On théis
point, I would certainly describe my disagreement as minor. I will, how -
ever, explain the reasons for it below (I). On the merits, on the otheér hand,
I regret to have to say that I am in profound disagreement with the overéall

approach adopted by the Court, and with the basic scheme of its reason -
ing: I believe that its approach is misconceived. I shall explain why (II)é.

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I. La compétence

3. L’Australie a saisi la Cour sur la base des déclarations d’acceéptation
de la juridiction obligatoire de celle-ci faites par l’Australie et le Japon,
respectivement le 22 mars 2002 et le 9 juillet 2007. Le Japon a contesté la
compétence de la Cour en invoquant l’une des réserves que l’éAustralie a
formulées dans la déclaration d’acceptation, celle figurant au éb) de ladite

déclaration.
4. Il n’y a eu aucune discussion entre les Parties — et il n’aurait pu
sérieusement y en avoir — quant à la règle bien établie selon laquelle le
défendeur à l’instance peut invoquer une réserve faite par le demandeur
dans l’instrument par lequel celui-ci a accepté la compétence de la Cour,
en opposant cette réserve à son auteur lui-même en vue d’obtenir de la

Cour qu’elle décline sa compétence.
5. C’est sur la portée, donc sur l’interprétation, de la réserve austra -
lienne que le débat a eu lieu. La Cour a estimé que cette réseréve n’était
pas applicable en l’espèce. Je suis de cet avis. Mais elle l’a éfait sur la base
d’une interprétation de ladite réserve que j’estime très édiscutable.

6. A vrai dire, la réserve en question n’est pas un modèle de clarété. Elle
comprend deux branches, reliées entre elles par la conjonction « ou»
(«or»). La première est relativement claire, elle vise à exclure de la compé -
tence de la Cour «any dispute concerning or relating to the delimitation of

maritime zones, including the territorial sea, the exclusive economic zoéne
and the continental shelf» — ce que je traduirais en français (seul le texte
anglais est authentique) par: «tout différend concernant, ou se rapportant
à, la délimitation de zones maritimes, y compris la mer territoriaéle, la zone
économique exclusive et le plateau continental». Les Parties en sont conve -
nues: le différend soumis à la Cour ne concernait pas, et ne se rappéortait

pas non plus à, la délimitation de zones maritimes — ce qui signifie que
l’objet même du différend n’était pas constitué par éune telle délimitation, à
laquelle il n’était pas demandé à la Cour de procéder. Ceéla est évident.
7. La seconde branche de la réserve est beaucoup moins claire, et c’eést
elle que le Japon invoquait.

Elle exclut de la compétence de la Cour tout différend maritime é« ari -
sing out of, concerning, or relating to the exploitation of any disputedé
area of or adjacent to any such maritime zone pending its delimitation »,
ce qui pourrait donner en français : «[différend] découlant de, concernant,
ou se rapportant à l’exploitation de tout espace disputé relevaént d’une

telle zone maritime ou adjacente à une telle zone dans l’attente dée la déli -
mitation de celle-ci ».
8. Le Japon a cherché à convaincre la Cour de faire une application
strictement littérale de cette seconde branche de la réserve.
Le différend qui oppose les Parties, a-t-il soutenu, découle de la mise en
œuvre d’un programme de chasse à la baleine, donc de l’« exploitation»

d’un espace maritime donné — celui où se déroulent les activités autori -
sées par JARPA II. Le mot « exploitation» serait d’ailleurs encore plus

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8 CIJ1062.indb 328 18/05/15 09:29 whaling in the antarcétic (diss. op. abraham) 322

I. Jurisdiction

3. Australia seised the Court on the basis of the declarations of accep -
tance of the latter’s compulsory jurisdiction made by Australia and Jéapan
on, respectively, 22 March 2002 and 9 July 2007. Japan has challenged
the Court’s jurisdiction in reliance on one of the reservations to Auéstra -
lia’s declaration of acceptance, namely reservation (b).

4. There was no discussion between the Parties — and there could not
seriously have been one — regarding the well-established rule that the
respondent in a case is entitled to rely on a reservation by the applicaént in
the instrument whereby the latter accepted the Court’s jurisdiction, éinvok -
ing that reservation against its author with a view to having the Court

decline jurisdiction.
5. It was over the scope, in other words the interpretation, of the Aus -
tralian reservation that the debate took place. The Court found that the
reservation was not applicable in the present case. I agree. However, thée
Court reached its decision on the basis of an interpretation of the reseérva -

tion which I find highly questionable.
6. In truth, the reservation is not a model of clarity. It has two limbs,
linked by the conjunction “or”. The first is relatively clear, seeéking to
exclude the Court’s jurisdiction in respect of “any dispute conceréning or
relating to the delimitation of maritime zones including the territorialé sea,

the exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf” — which I would
translate into French (only the English text is authentic) by : “tout dif -
férend concernant, ou se rapportant à, la délimitation de zonesé maritimes,
y compris la mer territoriale, la zone économique exclusive et le plaéteau
continental”. The Parties agree : the dispute submitted to the Court did
not concern, or relate to, the delimitation of maritime zones — meaning

that such a delimitation did not constitute the actual subject-matter of the
dispute, and no such delimitation was being requested of the Court. Thaté
is perfectly clear.
7. The second limb of the reservation is a lot less clear, and it is on thiés
one that Japan relied.

It excludes from the Court’s jurisdiction any maritime dispute “aréising
out of, concerning, or relating to the exploitation of any disputed areaé of
or adjacent to any such maritime zone pending its delimitation”, whicéh
could give in French : “[différend] découlant de, concernant, ou se rap -
portant à l’exploitation de tout espace disputé relevant d’une telle zone

maritime ou adjacente à une telle zone dans l’attente de la déléimitation de
celle-ci”.
8. Japan has sought to persuade the Court to apply this second limb of
the reservation in a strictly literal way.
It argues that the dispute between the Parties arises out of the imple -
mentation of a whaling programme, and hence of the “exploitation” of a

specific maritime area — that where the activities authorized under
JARPA II are being conducted. The word “exploitation” is said to be

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8 CIJ1062.indb 329 18/05/15 09:29 323 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (op. disés. abraham)

approprié, a fait remarquer le défendeur, dans l’optique qui esét celle de
l’Australie — puisque selon la demanderesse il s’agit d’activités poursui -

vant des fins commerciales — que dans celle du Japon — pour lequel il
s’agit bien d’un programme de recherche scientifique.
Par ailleurs, une partie au moins des espaces maritimes dans lesquels seé
déroule le programme JARPA II est revendiquée par l’Australie au titre
de sa zone économique exclusive générée par la portion du teérritoire

antarctique qu’elle revendique également. Cette revendication est étou -
jours pendante, et aucune délimitation n’a été opérée é— ni ne peut l’être,
en raison du traité sur l’Antarctique de 1959 qui gèle pendant éune durée
indéterminée toutes les revendications territoriales sur l’Antaérctique. La
teneur exacte des revendications maritimes de l’Australie n’a pas éété éta -
blie par les débats, mais l’Australie n’a aucunement contestéé l’existence de

ces revendications, ni le fait qu’elles englobaient des espaces maritimes
coïncidant, au moins partiellement, avec les zones où se déploiéent les acti -
vités de chasse dans le cadre de JARPA II.
En somme, le Japon a soutenu que le différend soumis à la Cour déécou -
lait de l’exploitation d’espaces maritimes faisant l’objet d’éune contesta -

tion quant à leur appartenance à la zone économique exclusive dée
l’Australie, laquelle n’est pas encore délimitée à cet enédroit, et que par
conséquent la réserve australienne, prise à la lettre, étaité applicable.
9. Pour écarter cette application littérale, ce en quoi à mon avisé elle a
eu raison, la Cour a retenu deux motifs, l’un présenté comme essentiel,

l’autre apparaissant comme surabondant.
A titre principal, l’arrêt relève qu’il n’existe pas de réevendications
concurrentes de l’Australie et du Japon sur les espaces maritimes concer -
nés par le programme JARPA II. Or, selon la Cour, « [l’]existence d’un
différend relatif à la délimitation maritime entre les Etats éen cause [les Par -
ties à l’affaire] est requise aux termes de la première commeé de la seconde

partie de la réserve » (paragraphe 37 de l’arrêt). En d’autres termes, une
condition nécessaire de l’application de la seconde branche de la éréserve,
invoquée par le Japon, est que les Parties à l’instance revendiéquent
concurremment les espaces maritimes dans lesquels a lieu l’« exploita -
tion» qui est à l’origine du différend — et cette condition fait défaut en

l’espèce.
A titre surabondant, l’arrêt relève aussi que «[l]a nature et l’étendue des
zones maritimes [en cause] ne sont … pas pertinentes aux fins du présent
différend» (par. 40), ce qui signifie que la Cour n’aura nullement besoin,
pour trancher l’affaire, de se prononcer sur le point de savoir quel Etat

— si tant est qu’il y en ait un — détient des droits souverains sur les zones
maritimes en question.
10. Je pense que la Cour aurait été mieux avisée de retenir seulemeént le
second de ces motifs, nécessaire et suffisant en l’espèce pouré justifier sa
compétence.
11. Le premier motif retenu, et qui se présente clairement comme le

principal, repose à mon avis sur une interprétation très discutable, et inu -
tilement restrictive, de la réserve australienne.

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peculiarly appropriate, given the view of the case taken by Austra -
lia (which maintains that these are activities carried out for commercial

ends) — as opposed to the position taken by Japan, for whom this is
indeed a scientific research programme.
Furthermore, at least part of the maritime areas in which JARPA II is
being conducted is claimed by Australia as its exclusive economic zone,
generated by the portion of Antarctic territory that it also claims. That

claim is still pending, and no delimitation has been effected — nor can it
be effected, thanks to the 1959 Antarctic Treaty, which freezes for an
indefinite period all territorial claims over the Antarctic. The preciseé
extent of Australia’s maritime claims was not established during the é
debate, but Australia has never denied the existence of those claims, noér
the fact that they encompass maritime areas which coincide, at least in é

part, with those where whaling activities under JARPA II are conducted.

In short, Japan claims that the dispute before the Court arises out of
the exploitation of maritime zones which are the subject of a dispute asé to

whether they form part of Australia’s exclusive economic zone, which éhas
not yet been delimited in that area, and that the Australian reservationé,
taken literally, is accordingly applicable.
9. In order to reject that literal interpretation, in which, in my view, ité
was correct, the Court has relied on two grounds, one of which is pre -

sented as essential, while the other appears to be redundant.
As main ground, the Judgment finds that there are no overlapping
claims by Australia and Japan in respect of the maritime areas covered béy
JARPA II. However, according to the Court, “[t]he existence of a dispute
concerning maritime delimitation between the parties is required accord -
ing to both parts of the reservation” (paragraph 37 of the Judgment). In

other words, a necessary condition for the application of the second liméb
of the reservation, on which Japan relies, is that the Parties to the préo -
ceedings have overlapping claims on the maritime areas in which the
“exploitation” underlying the dispute is taking place — and that condi -
tion is absent here.

Redundantly, the Judgment further finds that “[t]he nature and extenté
of the maritime zones are . . . immaterial to the present dispute” (para. 40),
which means that, in order to decide the case, it is unnecessary for theé
Court to rule on the question of which State — if any — has sovereign

rights over the maritime areas in question.

10. In my view the Court would have been better advised to rely solely
on the second of these grounds, which is necessary and sufficient in théis
case to justify its jurisdiction.
11. The first ground relied on by the Court, and which is clearly pre -

sented as the main one, rests, in my view, on a highly questionable and
unnecessarily restrictive interpretation of the Australian reservation.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 331 18/05/15 09:29 324 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (op. disés. abraham)

Celle-ci, comme on l’a vu, comporte deux branches distinctes quoique
liées entre elles dans une certaine mesure.

12. La première, celle qui vise les différends relatifs à la déélimitation de
zones maritimes, suppose certainement, pour être applicable, l’exiéstence
de revendications concurrentes entre les parties en cause sur les mêmées
espaces; il s’agit de dénier à la Cour la compétence pour connaîétre d’un
différend de délimitation maritime opposant l’Australie à éun autre Etat.

13. En revanche, rien dans la formulation de la seconde branche, ni
dans la logique qui lui est sous-jacente, ne conduit à la conclusion qu’elle
ne peut trouver à s’appliquer que s’il existe des revendicationés concur -
rentes sur les mêmes espaces maritimes de la part des deux Etats parties à
l’instance.
On peut raisonnablement comprendre cette seconde branche comme

ayant pour objet d’exclure de la compétence de la Cour (aussi) lées diffé -
rends qui, sans être directement relatifs à la délimitation maréitime, appel-
leraient de la part de la Cour une prise de position — de manière
incidente — sur la consistance et l’étendue des zones maritimes relevant é
de l’Australie, parce qu’ils auraient pour objet l’exploitationé d’un espace

maritime dont l’appartenance à une telle zone donnerait lieu à éune contes -
tation toujours pendante. En somme, l’Australie ne souhaite pas que léa
Cour se prononce, ni directement (première branche de la réserve)é ni indi -
rectement (seconde branche), sur les limites de ses zones maritimes.
Mais à la différence de la première branche, il n’y a aucuéne raison — ni

textuelle ni logique — pour que la seconde branche de la réserve ne puisse
s’appliquer que si les deux Parties à l’affaire revendiquent éconcurremment
les espaces maritimes concernés. En effet, on peut tout à fait céoncevoir
une situation dans laquelle le règlement d’un différend opposant l’Austra -
lie à un autre Etat, relatif à l’exploitation d’une zone maréitime revendi -
quée par l’Australie, conduirait la Cour à se prononcer incidemément sur

le bien-fondé des revendications maritimes australiennes alors même que
l’autre partie ne revendiquerait pas les espaces maritimes en cause. éEn
pareil cas, la seconde branche de la réserve serait à mon avis appélicable.
14. Je suis donc d’avis que, s’il est vrai que les deux branches de la
réserve, laquelle constitue un tout, doivent se comprendre en lien l’éune

avec l’autre — raison pour laquelle la Cour a écarté à juste titre l’interpéré-
tation strictement littérale proposée par le Japon —, l’arrêt pousse trop
loin cette unité en estimant que la seconde ne trouve à s’appliéquer, tout
comme la première, qu’en cas de revendications maritimes concurrenétes.
Il s’agit là d’une interprétation restrictive d’autant pléus regrettable que

la Cour aurait pu l’éviter en se fondant seulement sur le second méotif
qu’elle mentionne, qui est indiscutable et suffisant en l’espèéce, et en lais -
sant ouverte toute autre question — si tant est qu’elle ait voulu demeurer
prudente.

*
* *

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8 CIJ1062.indb 332 18/05/15 09:29 whaling in the antarcétic (diss. op. abraham) 324

That reservation, as we have seen, contains two distinct limbs, althoughé
these are to some extent interlinked.

12. The first limb, which relates to disputes concerning the delimitation
of maritime zones, undoubtedly presupposes, in order to be applicable,
the existence of overlapping claims by the parties in question over the é
same areas ; the Court is denied jurisdiction to entertain a maritime
delimitation dispute between Australia and another State.

13. On the other hand, nothing in the language of the second limb, or
in its underlying logic, justifies the conclusion that it can only applyé where
there are overlapping claims in respect of the same maritime areas by twéo
States parties to the proceedings.

This second limb may reasonably be understood as intended (also) to

exclude from the jurisdiction of the Court disputes which, without beingé
directly related to maritime delimitation, would require the Court to take
a position — incidentally — on the nature and extent of Australia’s mar -
itime zones, since the subject-matter of such disputes would be the exploi-
tation of a maritime area in respect of which there was a pending disputée

as to whether it formed part of such a zone. In short, Australia does not
wish the Court to rule either directly (first limb of the reservation)é or
indirectly (second limb), on the limits of its maritime zones.

However, unlike the first limb, there is no reason — either in the text or

in terms of logic — that the second limb of the reservation could apply
only if both Parties to the case had overlapping claims to the maritime é
areas concerned. Indeed, one can perfectly well conceive of a situation
where settlement of a dispute between Australia and another State relat -
ing to the exploitation of a maritime zone claimed by Australia would
incidentally lead the Court to determine whether the Australian claim waés

well-founded. In such a case, the second limb of the reservation would, in
my view, be applicable.

14. I accordingly take the view that, while it is true that the two limbs
of the reservation, which constitute a unity, must be read in conjunctioén

with one another — the reason that the Court correctly rejected the
strictly literal interpretation proposed by Japan — the Judgment pushes
that unity too far when it holds that the second limb can, like the firsét,
apply only in a case of overlapping maritime claims.
That is a restrictive interpretation which is all the more regrettable ién

that the Court could have avoided it by basing itself solely on its second
ground, which is incontrovertible and sufficient for purposes of the prées -
ent case, while leaving any other issue open — always assuming that the
Court wished to remain cautious in its approach.

*
* *

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8 CIJ1062.indb 333 18/05/15 09:29 325 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (op. disés. abraham)

II. Le fond

15. Sur le fond, mon désaccord avec l’arrêt est beaucoup plus fondaé -
mental.
16. L’affaire se présentait à la Cour dans des termes relativemenét simples.
La Cour avait à répondre à une question principale, qui commandéait
presque entièrement la solution de l’affaire : les permis spéciaux de chasse

à la baleine délivrés par le Japon à partir de 2005 dans le cadre du pro -
gramme JARPA II l’ont-ils été « en vue de recherches scientifiques » au
sens de l’article VIII de la convention de 1946 ?
Une réponse affirmative, celle qu’à mon avis la Cour aurait dûé donner,
eût entraîné nécessairement le rejet de la quasi-totalité des prétentions de
l’Australie.

La réponse négative que la Cour a cru pouvoir retenir ne pouvait
au contraire que la conduire à faire droit à l’essentiel des demanédes
australiennes.
17. C’est donc l’application en l’espèce des mots « en vue de recherches
scientifiques» qui se trouvait au cœur de la présente affaire, et c’esté sur ce

point que je me sépare principalement de la majorité de mes collèégues.
18. Pourtant, ce n’est pas l’article VIII de la convention qui énonce les
règles que le Japon était accusé par l’Australie d’avoir éenfreintes. En
lui-même, l’article VIII ne crée aucune obligation à la charge des Etats par -
ties (sauf les obligations procédurales d’informer la commission éet l’orga-

nisme désigné par elle des permis délivrés et des résultaéts des recherches
scientifiques conduites en vertu de ces permis). L’article VIII a pour objet
non d’imposer des obligations supplémentaires aux Etats mais de leés exemp -
ter, pour les activités de chasse qu’ils autorisent et qui relèévent de ses pré-vi
sions, des obligations découlant des autres dispositions de la convenétion (y
compris son règlement annexé). Les obligations substantielles dont l’Austra -

lie alléguait la violation par le Japon se trouvent au paragraphe 10 e) du
règlement annexé à la convention (qui établit un moratoire ésur la chasseà«
des fins commerciales»), au paragraphe 10 d) du même règlement (qui éta -
blit un moratoire sur l’utilisation des usines flottantes) et au péaragraphe 7 b)
(qui interdit la chasse commerciale dans le sanctuaire de l’océané Austral).

19. La raison pour laquelle le paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII joue un
rôle si déterminant en l’espèce est que, si les permis de chéasse délivrés par
le Japon dans le cadre de JARPA II ne poursuivent pas des fins de
recherche scientifique, à l’encontre de ce que le Japon n’a cesésé d’affirmer,
alors il est inéluctable d’en déduire que les activités autoérisées violent les

trois dispositions (prohibitives) susmentionnées. En effet, d’éune part, il est
constant que la chasse autorisée dans le cadre de JARPA II se fait, entre
autres, au moyen d’une usine flottante, de telle sorte qu’elle véiole — si elle
n’est pas couverte par l’exemption générale de l’article VIII — la prohibi -
tion résultant du paragraphe 10 d) du règlement pour une espèce particu -
lière de baleines capturées par les chasseurs japonais. Et d’auétre part, ni

l’Australie ni le Japon n’ont prétendu que les activités de échasse autori -
sées dans le cadre de JARPA II pourraient poursuivre une finalité qui ne

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8 CIJ1062.indb 334 18/05/15 09:29 whaling in the antarcétic (diss. op. abraham) 325

II. The Merits

15. On the merits, my disagreement with the Judgment is a great deal
more fundamental.
16. The case presented itself to the Court in relatively simple terms.
The Court had to answer a basic question, which, to all intents and
purposes, governed the solution of the case : were the special whaling per -

mits granted by Japan from 2005 under the JARPA II programme issued
“for purposes of scientific research” within the meaning Article VIII of
the 1946 Convention ?
If so — which, in my view, is the answer that the Court should have
given — that would necessarily have resulted in the dismissal of virtually é
all of Australia’s claims.

If not — which was the response that the Court felt was correct —
then, on the contrary, the only result could be broad acceptance of the é
Australian claims.
17. The heart of this case thus hinged on the interpretation of the
words “for purposes of scientific research”, and it is primarily oén this

point that I part company with the majority of my colleagues.
18. However, it is not Article VIII of the Convention which lays down
the rules that Japan was accused by Australia of having broken. In itseléf,
Article VIII imposes no obligation on States parties (with the exception of
the procedural obligations to inform the Commission and the body desig -

nated by it of the permits granted, and of the results of the scientificé research
conducted under those permits). The purpose of Article VIII is not to
impose additional obligations on States but to exempt them, in respect oéf
authorized whaling activities falling within its terms, from obligationsé under
the other provisions of the Convention (including the Schedule annexed
thereto). The substantive obligations which Australia alleges to have béeen

breached by Japan are to be found in paragraph 10 (e) of the Schedule
annexed to the Convention (which establishes a moratorium on “commeré -
cial” whaling), in paragraph 10 (d) of that same Schedule (which establishes
a moratorium on the use of factory ships), and in paragraph 7 (b) (which
prohibits commercial whaling within the Southern Ocean Sanctuary).

19. The reason why paragraph 1 of Article VIII plays such a decisive
role in this case is that, if whaling permits granted by Japan under
JARPA II are not for the purposes of scientific research, as Japan has
repeatedly claimed that they are, then it follows inevitably that the acétivi -
ties conducted thereunder violate the three provisions (or prohibitionsé)

cited above. It has indeed been established that whaling under JARPA II
is conducted, inter alia, with factory ships, so that — if it is not covered
by the general exemption in Article VIII — it breaches the prohibition in
paragraph 10 (d) of the Schedule in respect of certain species of whale
taken by Japanese whalers. Moreover, neither Australia nor Japan has
argued that whaling authorized under JARPA II could be for a purpose

which is neither of a scientific nor of a commercial nature ; it follows that,
if such activities are not genuinely conducted “for purposes of scienétific

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soit ni de nature scientifique ni de nature commerciale, de telle sorte éque,
si ces activités ne sont pas conduites réellement « en vue de recherches

scientifiques» — ce qui était la thèse de l’Australie —, elles constituent
une violation tant du paragraphe 10 e) que du paragraphe 7 b).
20. La Cour accepte ce postulat — que le Japon lui-même n’a pas
contesté — au paragraphe 229, et elle affirme, aux paragraphes 231, 232
et 233 de l’arrêt, que « toutes les activités de chasse à la baleine qui

n’entrent pas dans les prévisions de l’article VIII de la convention (hormis
la chasse aborigène de subsistance) tombent sous le coup » des para -
graphes 10 e), 10 d) et 7 b) du règlement annexé. Je suis d’accord avec
une telle affirmation, sinon sous la forme générale que lui donneé l’arrêt
sur la base d’une interprétation quelque peu hasardeuse de la convéention,
du moins dans les circonstances de la présente espèce et donc, cerétaine -

ment, pour les besoins de la résolution du différend soumis àé la Cour.
21. Mon opinion est que l’Australie n’a pas démontré que le Japoén ne
poursuit pas réellement, avec le programme JARPA II, les fins scienti -
fiques qu’il prétend poursuivre (dans l’optique de l’Austraélie, on pourrait
même dire: «qu’il fait semblant de poursuivre »).

22. Je préciserai d’abord les points sur lesquels je ne suis pas en déésac -
cord avec la démarche adoptée par l’arrêt, avant d’en venéir à l’exposé de
ma divergence essentielle.
23. En premier lieu, ma position n’est pas fondée sur l’existence d’un
prétendu «pouvoir discrétionnaire» que posséderait l’Etat qui délivre des

permis spéciaux pour apprécier si les activités autorisées séont bien « en
vue de recherches scientifiques ». Bien sûr, le texte même du paragraphe 1
de l’article VIII fait apparaître des éléments de discrétion au bénééfice de
l’Etat en cause : il n’est jamais tenu de délivrer un permis, et peut libre -
ment rejeter (en tout cas du point de vue du droit international) toutée
demande présentée par une personne ou un organisme, quel que soit él’in -

térêt des recherches envisagées ; s’il délivre un permis, il peut l’assortir de
conditions restrictives qu’il détermine lui-même librement ; il peut annuler
«à tout moment » un permis accordé et jouit à cet égard d’un pouvoir
discrétionnaire — toujours du point de vue du droit international, car le
droit interne peut le contraindre dans une certaine mesure.

En revanche, quand il s’agit de caractériser un programme de chassée
comme étant «en vue de recherches scientifiques» au sens de l’article VIII,
condition essentielle à laquelle cette disposition subordonne la déélivrance
des permis spéciaux, on ne saurait parler d’un pouvoir discrétiéonnaire
de l’Etat. Certes, au moment où il statue sur une demande de délivérance

d’un permis spécial, l’Etat doit nécessairement porter une appréciation
sur l’intérêt scientifique du projet pour la mise en œuvre déuquel le per -
mis est demandé. Mais cette appréciation n’est pas souveraine : elle se
fait sous le contrôle non seulement des organes institués par la convené -
tion, mais aussi, si un différend sur ce point est porté devant éun organe
judiciaire ayant compétence pour en connaître, sous le contrôleé du juge.

A cet égard, je n’ai rien à objecter à ce qu’écrit la éCour aux para -
graphes 59 à 61 du présent arrêt.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 336 18/05/15 09:29 whaling in the antarcétic (diss. op. abraham) 326

research” — as Australia has maintained — then they constitute a breach
both of paragraph 10 (e) and of paragraph 7 (b).

20. In paragraph 229 of the Judgment the Court accepts this postu -
late — which Japan itself has not disputed — and states, in para -
graphs 231, 232 and 233, that “all whaling that does not fit within

Article VIII of the Convention (other than aboriginal subsistence whal -
ing) is subject to” paragraphs 10 (e), 10 (d) and 7 (b) of the Schedule. I
agree with this statement — if not in the general terms in which the Judg -
ment expresses it, on the basis of a somewhat questionable interpretatioén
of the Convention — at least in the circumstances of the present case, and
thus, certainly, for purposes of resolving the dispute before the Court.é

21. My view is that Australia has failed to show that Japan is not gen -
uinely pursuing, under JARPA II, the scientific aims that it claims to be
pursuing (from Australia’s standpoint, one might even say : “that it pre -
tends to be pursuing”).

22. I will begin by setting out the points on which I am not in disagree -
ment with the position taken by the Judgment, before going on to explainé
where I essentially disagree.
23. First, my position is not based on the existence of a purported “dis -
cretionary power” of the State granting special permits to determine é

whether the authorized activities are indeed “for purposes of scientiéfic
research”. It is true that the actual language of paragraph 1 of Article VIII
does appear to give the State in question a measure of discretion : it is
never required to grant a permit, and is free (in any event from the stéand -
point of international law) to refuse any request from an individual or a
body, irrespective of the interest of the research envisaged; if it does grant

a permit, it may make it subject to such conditions as it thinks fit ; it may
“at any time” revoke a permit granted, and enjoys discretionary poéwer in
that regard — again from the standpoint of international law, for domes -
tic law may place certain restraints upon it.

On the other hand, in terms of characterizing a whaling programme as
being “for purposes of scientific research” within the meaning of éArti -
cle VIII — the essential condition to which that provision subjects the
grant of special permits — one cannot speak of a discretionary power of
the State. It is true that, when deciding on a request for a special perémit,

the State must necessarily make a determination as to the scientific valéue
of the project for the implementation of which the permit is requested. é
But that power of determination is not a sovereign one : it is made subject
not only to supervision by the bodies set up by the Convention, but alsoé,
if a dispute on the issue is brought before a judicial body having the réel -
evant jurisdiction, to judicial oversight.

In that regard, I have no objection to what the Court states in para -
graphs 59 to 61 of the present Judgment.

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24. Mon désaccord ne porte pas non plus sur la manière, prudente,
dont la Cour a abordé la notion de « recherches scientifiques» au sens de

l’article VIII.
Elle a eu raison, selon moi, d’éviter de donner une définition égénérale et
abstraite de cette notion. Plus particulièrement, c’est à justeé titre qu’elle a
refusé de retenir les quatre critères proposés par l’Australéie sur la base du
rapport d’un des experts que la demanderesse a sollicités, le professeur

Mangel: pour être scientifique, une recherche devrait se fixer des objectifés
précis reposant notamment sur la base d’hypothèses vérifiablées ; elle ne
devrait, dans le contexte de la convention, recourir à des méthodeés létales
que si les objectifs ne peuvent pas être atteints par d’autres moyéens ; sa
conduite devrait être soumise à un examen périodique par les paéirs, et au
besoin elle devrait être ajustée en conséquence de cet examen ; elle devrait

s’efforcer d’éviter toute répercussion négative sur lesé populations étudiées.
Comme le dit très justement le paragraphe 86 de l’arrêt, « ces critères
semblent, pour l’essentiel, refléter ce [qu’un expert] a indiéqué attendre
d’un programme de recherche scientifique bien conçu, plutôt que
constituer un moyen d’interpréter la notion de « recherches scientifiques»

telle qu’utilisée dans la convention ».
25. En outre, j’approuve pour l’essentiel la manière dont la Cour aé
analysé l’objet et le but de la convention, à la lumière deséquels l’ar -
ticle VIII doit être interprété, et la conclusion qu’elle en a tiréée, à savoir
qu’«il n’est justifié d’interpréter l’article VIII ni dans un sens restrictif, ni

dans un sens extensif », puisque la convention vise à la fois à assurer la
conservation des stocks de baleines et à permettre le développemenét
durable de l’industrie baleinière (par. 56 à 58).
26. Enfin, j’approuve l’arrêt lorsqu’il rappelle qu’« un Etat poursuit
souvent plusieurs buts lorsqu’il met en œuvre une politique particéulière »
et que, « par conséquent, … le fait qu’il puisse exister chez tel ou tel

[représentant du gouvernement concerné] des motivations autres queé la
recherche scientifique n’interdit pas de conclure à la finalitéé scientifique
d’un programme au sens de l’article VIII » (par. 97). En d’autres termes,
il est possible que le Japon, en élaborant le programme JARPA II, ait
été aussi sensible aux retombées favorables que la mise en œéuvre

de ce programme pouvait comporter du point de vue de l’activité indus -
trielle et commerciale : cela ne suffit pas à le disqualifier au regard de
l’article VIII en tant que programme de recherche scientifique. En
revanche, si l’ampleur du programme était manifestement exagérée, cela
tendrait à démontrer que — pour partie au moins — il ne poursuit pas

des objectifs exclusivement scientifiques et — dans cette mesure en tout
cas — n’est pas couvert par l’article VIII (je reviendrai plus loin sur ce
dernier point).
27. J’en viens maintenant à l’exposé des raisons pour lesquellesé je ne
peux pas adhérer à des éléments essentiels du raisonnement séuivi par la
Cour et, en conséquence, à sa conclusion finale.

28. Tout d’abord, je suis d’avis que, dans une affaire comme celle-ci, le
défendeur devrait bénéficier d’une assez forte présomptioén en sa faveur.

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24. Nor does my disagreement relate to the cautious way in which the
Court has addressed the notion of “scientific research” in the senése of

Article VIII.
In my view the Court was correct in avoiding laying down a general,
abstract definition of that notion. More particularly, it was correct iné
refusing to accept the four criteria proposed by Australia on the basis of
the report by one of the experts retained by it, Professor Mangel : scien-

tific research must have defined objectives based inter alia on verifiable
hypotheses; it may only, in the context of the Convention, include the use
of lethal methods if its objectives cannot be achieved by any other meanés;
it must be periodically subject to peer review, and if necessary be modiéfied
in light of that review; it should endeavour to avoid adverse effects on the
stocks studied.

As paragraph 86 of the Judgment quite correctly states, “[t]hese criteria
appear largely to reflect what one expert regards as well-conceived scien -
tific research, rather than serving as an interpretation of the term as éused
in the Convention”.

25. Furthermore, I essentially approve of the way in which the Court
has analysed the objective and purpose of the Convention, in the light oéf
which Article VIII must be interpreted, and the conclusion which it
draws, namely that “neither a restrictive nor an expansive interpretaétion

of Article VIII is justified”, since the aim of the Convention is both to
ensure the conservation of whale stocks and to make possible the orderlyé
development of the whaling industry (paras. 56 to 58).
26. Finally, I agree with the Judgment when it points out that “a State
often seeks to accomplish more than one goal when it pursues a particu -
lar policy”, and that, “[a]ccordingly . . . whether particular government

officials may have motivations that go beyond scientific research does énot
preclude a conclusion that a programme is for purposes of scientific
research within the meaning of Article VIII” (para. 97). In other words, it
is possible that Japan, in designing JARPA II, was also sensitive to the
possible positive fall-out of the programme for industrial and commercial

activities: that does not suffice to disqualify it under Article VIII as a
scientific research programme. On the other hand, if the scale of the pro -
gramme was manifestly unreasonable, that would tend to show that — in
part at least — it is not pursuing exclusively scientific objectives, and —
to that extent in any event — is not covered by Article VIII (I will return

later to this latter point).

27. I now come to the statement of the reasons why I cannot subscribe
to the essential elements of the reasoning followed by the Court and,
hence, to its final conclusion.

28. First of all, I believe that, in a case like the present one, the Responé
dent should enjoy a quite strong presumption in its favour.

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Je ne suis pas, en règle générale, partisan de règles trop réigides en
matière de charge de la preuve, et je n’ai jamais considéré éque le deman -

deur devait, par principe, supporter exclusivement le fardeau de la preuéve.
Mais, dans certaines affaires, la Cour est fondée à se montrer particulière -
ment exigeante à l’égard de la partie qui avance certaines alléégations. Tel
est le cas, notamment, lorsque l’une des parties allègue que l’éautre agit de
mauvaise foi, puisqu’il est communément admis que la bonne foi esté pré -

sumée. Or, dans la présente affaire, il est clair que le procèés fait par l’Aus-
tralie au Japon repose fondamentalement sur l’idée que, en élabéorant et
en mettant en œuvre le programme JARPA II, le Japon a agi de mauvaise
foi, puisqu’il a dissimulé la poursuite d’intérêts commeréciaux derrière les
apparences d’un programme de recherches scientifiques.
Certes, l’arrêt s’abstient de se prononcer sur la question de léa bonne foi,

et même il affirme ne pas avoir à l’examiner, comme tous « les autres
arguments invoqués par l’Australie » à titre subsidiaire (par. 243).
Mais si la notion de mauvaise foi est expressément présente dans lées
arguments présentés par l’Australie à titre subsidiaire, ellée est aussi pré -
sente, implicitement mais nécessairement, dans l’argumentation qu’éelle a

développée à titre principal.
Je ne vois pas comment l’on peut conclure qu’un programme de chassée
à la baleine qui se présente comme de nature scientifique, se propéose des
objectifs et met en œuvre des méthodes scientifiques, a été édûment com -
muniqué comme tel au comité scientifique institué par la commisésion

baleinière internationale, et dont les résultats ont donné lieué à certaines
publications, n’est pas mis en œuvre « en vue de recherches scientifiques »,
ce qui est la thèse de l’Australie avalisée par la Cour, sans méettre au
moins en doute — fût-ce implicitement — la bonne foi du défendeur.
Lorsque la Cour prétend qu’elle n’a pas à se prononcer sur lé’allégation de
mauvaise foi avancée par l’Australie contre le Japon, et qu’en éeffet elle

s’abstient de le faire explicitement, il me semble donc que cela relève
davantage de la présentation formelle que de la réalité.
29. La présomption de bonne foi n’étant pas irréfragable, l’observation
qui précède ne suffit certes pas à démontrer que la concluséion de la Cour, à
savoir que les permis spéciaux délivrés par le Japon dans le caédre de

JARPA II ne l’ont pas été «en vue de recherches scientifiques», est erronée.
Mais pour fonder sérieusement une telle conclusion, il aurait fallu, é
selon moi, disposer d’éléments particulièrement solides, queé les débats
n’ont pas fait apparaître, et c’est au contraire sur la base deé faibles argu -
ments, et parfois de simples doutes, suppositions ou approximations, queé

la Cour a cru pouvoir accueillir les prétentions de l’Australie.
30. Il est vrai que la conclusion finale de la Cour a été favorisée par
deux aspects de sa démarche qui me semblent très critiquables.
31. En premier lieu, loin de faire peser la charge de la preuve sur l’Ausé -
tralie, la Cour se montre en permanence particulièrement exigeante àé
l’égard du Japon, comme si c’était le défendeur qui devaiét prouver son

bon droit. De bout en bout, la lecture de l’arrêt donne le sentimeént que
c’est du Japon qu’on attend explications, démonstrations, justiéfications.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 340 18/05/15 09:29 whaling in the antarcétic (diss. op. abraham) 328

I am not, as a rule, in favour of excessively rigid rules in relation toé the
burden of proof, and I have never taken the view that the burden of prooéf

should, in principle, be borne exclusively by the applicant. But there aére
instances where the Court is entitled to take a particularly demanding
stance in relation to a party putting forward certain allegations. That éis
particularly so where one of the parties claims that the other is actingé in
bad faith, since there is a generally accepted presumption of good faith.

However, in the present case, it is clear that the accusations levelled éby
Australia at Japan are fundamentally based on the notion that, in designé -
ing and implementing JARPA II, Japan acted in bad faith, in that it con -
cealed the pursuit of commercial interests behind the outward appearanceés
of a scientific research programme.
It is true that the Judgment refrains from ruling on the issue of good

faith, and even states that this is an issue that it need not address, léike all
“other arguments invoked by Australia” on an alternative basis (péara. 243).
However, while bad faith is expressly pleaded in Australia’s alternative
arguments, it is also present, implicitly but necessarily, in the argument
developed by it as principal claim.

I do not see how one can conclude that a whaling programme pre -
sented as being of a scientific nature, proposing scientific objectives and
implemented with scientific methods, and which has duly been communi -
cated as such to the Scientific Committee set up by the International

Whaling Commission, and whose results have been published, has not
been implemented “for purposes of scientific research”, but “foér commer -
cial purposes”, which is the Australian thesis as endorsed by the Couért,
without at least casting doubt — if only implicitly — on the good faith of
the Respondents. When the Court states that it need not address Austra -
lia’s charge of bad faith against Japan, it seems to me that this is émore a

matter of formal presentation than of the reality.

29. Admittedly, since the presumption of good faith is not irrebuttable,
what I have just said is not sufficient to show that the Court is wrongé in
its conclusion that special permits granted by Japan under JARPA II

were not issued “for purposes of scientific research”.
However, in order seriously to support such a finding, the Court would, é
in my view, have needed particularly solid evidence, which was not apparé -
ent from the debate, and it was by contrast on the basis of weak argu -
ments, and sometimes mere doubts, suppositions or approximations, that

the Court felt able to accept Australia’s claims.
30. The truth is that the Court’s final conclusion was favoured by two
aspects of its approach which strike me as particularly open to criticisém.
31. First, far from placing the burden of proof on Australia, the Court
consistently showed itself particularly demanding towards Japan, as if iét
was the Respondent that had to prove that it was in the right. From starét

to finish, the Judgment gives the impression that it is from Japan that é
explanations, proofs and justifications are expected.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 341 18/05/15 09:29 329 chasse à la baleine déans l’antarctique (op. disés. abraham)

C’est ainsi, par exemple, que sur la question essentielle de la taillée des
échantillons l’arrêt indique que la tâche de la Cour est

« de rechercher si le Japon a su démontrer, au regard des objectifs
annoncés de JARPA II, l’existence d’éléments pouvant raisonnable -

ment expliquer les tailles d’échantillon annuelles pour chacun desé
paramètres étudiés et ayant conduit à fixer à 850 spécéimens (plus ou
moins 10 %) la taille globale de l’échantillon de petits rorquals »
(par. 185; les italiques sont de moi),

avant de conclure plus loin (par. 198) que les éléments de preuve — il
s’agit bien entendu de ceux avancés par le Japon — « n’offrent guère d’ex -
plications ni de justifications quant aux décisions ayant présidéé au choix
de l’objectif de capture global », ce qui constitue « une raison supplémen -

taire de douter que la conception de JARPA II soit raisonnable au regard
de ses objectifs annoncés ». En d’autres termes, c’est du Japon qu’on
attend la démonstration que la taille des échantillons (le nombreé de
baleines dont la capture est autorisée) est proportionnée à laé poursuite
des objectifs annoncés et le doute à cet égard est retenu contrée lui.

32. En second lieu, et plus fondamentalement encore, la Cour a
adopté une méthodologie dont je dirais, pour le moins, qu’elle n’est péas
convaincante.
Lorsqu’elle expose la méthode qu’elle entend suivre afin de quaélifier un
programme comme étant — ou non — « en vue de recherches scienti -

fiques» au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII, la Cour indique que la
question principale en l’espèce se rapporte à la locution «en vue de». Il ne
suffit pas qu’un programme comporte des éléments de recherche éscienti -
fique; il faut encore qu’il soit conçu et mis en œuvre « en vue d’» une telle
recherche. Jusque-là, je parviens à suivre et je n’ai rien à objecter. Mais
ensuite, l’arrêt donne à cette locution (« en vue de») un sens et une portée

qui me paraissent s’éloigner du sens ordinaire des termes.
«En vue de», selon moi, renvoie à l’intention, aux fins recherchées, aéux
buts réellement poursuivis (qui peuvent être différents de céeux qui ont été
proclamés). Pas selon l’arrêt. La Cour insiste au contraire sur le fait que
son critère est « objectif» (par. 67), autrement dit qu’il ne s’agit pas

pour elle de déceler les intentions réelles du Japon, de chercher la rééalité
des fins poursuivies derrière les apparences. Et elle précise — au
paragraphe 88, qui est un chaînon essentiel du raisonnement — qu’un
programme ne peut être regardé comme mené « en vue de » recherches
scientifiques que « si les éléments de sa conception et de sa mise en œuvre

sont raisonnables au regard des objectifs scientifiques annoncés »; elle
ajoute que pour apprécier cette adéquation il faut tenir compte deé plu -
sieurs éléments, parmi lesquels l’ampleur du recours à des méthodes
létales, les méthodes appliquées pour déterminer la taille dées échantillons,
la comparaison entre les tailles d’échantillon à prélever eté les prises effec-
tives, le calendrier et les résultats scientifiques obtenus, ainsi quée le degré

de coordination avec des projets de recherches connexes.
33. A ce stade, j’ai vraiment du mal à suivre.

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8 CIJ1062.indb 342 18/05/15 09:29 whaling in the antarcétic (diss. op. abraham) 329

Thus, for example, on the essential issue of sample size, the Judgment
states that the task of the Court is

“to examine whether Japan, in light of JARPA II’s stated research
objectives, has demonstrated a reasonable basis for annual sample

sizes pertaining to particular research items, leading to the overall
sample size of 850 (plus or minus 10 per cent) for minke whales”
(para. 185; emphasis added),

before going on to conclude (para. 198) that the evidence — meaning, of
course, that put forward by Japan — “provides scant analysis and justifi -
cation for the underlying decisions that generate the overall sample sizée”,
which “raises further concerns about whether the design of JARPA II can

be said to demonstrate on an objectively reasonable basis that it is a péro-
ject for purposes of scientific research”. In other words, it is Japaén that is
expected to show that the sample size (the authorized whale take) is pro -
portionate to the stated objectives, and any doubt in this regard is heléd
against it.

32. Secondly, and still more fundamentally, the Court has adopted a
methodology which, to say the least, is unconvincing.

Explaining the method which it intends to follow in order to determine
whether or not a programme is “for purposes of scientific research”é within

the meaning of paragraph 1 of Article VIII, the Court indicates that the
main issue in this case relates to the expression “for purposes of”é. It is not
sufficient that a programme includes elements of scientific research ; it
must also be designed and implemented “for purposes of” such reseaérch.
So far, I can follow, and find nothing to object to. But the Judgment théen
goes on to gives this phrase (“for purposes of”) a meaning and sécope

which seem to me to depart from the ordinary sense of the words.
In my view, “for purposes of” relates to the intention, the ends séought,
the aims really pursued (which may be different from those stated). éNot
according to the Judgment. The Court insists, on the contrary, that its é
standard is an “objective” one (para. 67), in other words that it is not set -

ting out to discover Japan’s real intentions, to ascertain the realitéy of the
aims pursued behind the outward appearances. And it explains — in
paragraph 88, which is an essential link in its reasoning — that a pro -
gramme can only be regarded as “for purposes of” scientific researéch if
“the elements of [its] design and implementation are reasonable in reéla -

tion to its stated scientific objectives” ; it adds that, in order to determine
whether these are reasonable, several elements need to be taken into
account, including the scale of lethal sampling, the methodology used toé
select sample size, a comparison of target sample sizes and actual take,
the time frame, and the programme’s scientific output, as well as theé
extent of co-ordination with related search projects.

33. At this point, I really have difficulty in following.

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La plus ou moins grande adéquation des moyens mis en œuvre aux finés
poursuivies permet certainement d’évaluer la qualité d’un préogramme de

recherches scientifiques. A cet égard, tous les éléments mentioénnés au
paragraphe 88 sont sans nul doute pertinents. Mais je ne vois pas com -
ment l’on pourrait conclure, de ce qu’un programme serait critiquaéble en
ce qui concerne l’adéquation des moyens qu’il prévoit au regéard des
objectifs qu’il annonce, que ce programme ne serait pas conduit « en vue

de» recherches scientifiques — surtout si l’on prend soin de préciser qu’on
ne recherche pas les intentions subjectives de l’Etat en cause et qu’éon s’en
tient à une approche strictement « objective». Même si la Cour affirme
limiter son examen à ce qui est « raisonnable», elle s’engage, à ce stade de
son raisonnement, dans une direction qui la conduit à s’éloigneér de son
rôle et à évaluer la valeur scientifique de JARPA II plutôt que de chercher

à en déterminer la nature — la suite de l’arrêt le confirme amplement.
34. A mon avis, la Cour aurait dû procéder tout autrement.

Le programme JARPA II se présente comme un programme de
recherche scientifique approuvé par le Japon. Il comporte des objectiéfs,

que l’arrêt présente aux paragraphes 109 et suivants, et dont la Cour ne
remet nullement en cause l’intérêt; il implique la mise en œuvre de moyens
qui sont de nature scientifique, comme l’arrêt l’admet en indiqéuant que
«les activités de JARPA II impliquant le recours au prélèvement létal de
baleines peuvent être globalement qualifiées de «recherches scientifiques»»

(par. 127) ; il a été dûment communiqué pour examen au comité scientéi -
fique avant la délivrance du premier permis à ce titre, comme la Céour le
reconnaît dans la partie de l’arrêt dans laquelle elle rejette éla demande de
l’Australie tendant à faire juger que le Japon n’a pas respectéé ses obliga -
tions au titre du paragraphe 30 du règlement (par. 238).
En conséquence, je suis d’avis que les permis délivrés au tiétre de

JARPA II auraient dû être présumés l’avoir été « en vue de recherches
scientifiques» — car on ne saurait mettre en cause la parole d’un Etat à la
légère et sa bonne foi doit être présumée jusqu’à preuve du contraire — et
que seuls des éléments très solides auraient pu justifier une céonclusion
défavorable au défendeur.

35. J’estime que l’arrêt ne démontre pas l’existence de tels ééléments.

Selon moi, deux cas seulement peuvent justifier qu’un programme offié-
ciellement présenté comme de « recherche scientifique » et qui en a au
moins toutes les apparences soit considéré comme n’entrant pas dans les

prévisions de l’article VIII: le premier cas est celui où il apparaît qu’il
n’existe manifestement aucune relation raisonnable entre les objectifés
annoncés et les moyens mis en œuvre, de telle sorte que ces moyensé sont
manifestement inaptes à atteindre les objectifs, ce dont on peut déduire
que ceux-ci ne sont pas réellement recherchés ; le second est celui dans
lequel la taille des échantillons fixée par le programme est manifeste -

ment excessive au regard des nécessités de la recherche compte tenu desé
objectifs annoncés, ce dont on peut déduire que pour partie au moiéns le

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The extent to which the methods used match the aims pursued is cer -
tainly of assistance in assessing the quality of a scientific research péro -

gramme. In this regard, all of the elements mentioned in paragraph 88 are
doubtless relevant. But I do not see how one could conclude, from the faéct
that a programme might be criticized in terms of the appropriateness of the
methods specified in light of its stated objectives, that such a programéme is
not conducted “for purposes of” scientific research — particularly if one

has been at pains to make it clear that it is not the subjective intentiéons of
the State in question that it is being sought to ascertain, and that a sétrictly
“objective” approach is being applied. Even though the Court stateés that it
is confining its examination to what is “reasonable”, it is launchéing itself, at
this stage of its reasoning, on a path which leads it to depart from its role
and to assess the scientific value of JARPA II, rather than seeking to ascer -

tain the latter’s nature — and the rest of the Judgment amply confirms this.
34. In my view, the Court should have adopted an altogether different
approach.
JARPA II is presented as a scientific research programme approved by
Japan. It has objectives, which are set out by the Judgment in para -

graphs 109 ff., and whose value is nowhere challenged by the Court ; it
involves the implementation of methods which are of a scientific nature —
as the Judgment recognizes, when it states that “the JARPA II activities
involving the lethal sampling of whales can broadly be characterized as é
‘scientific research’” (para. 127) ; it was properly submitted for examina -

tion to the Scientific Committee before the issue of the first permit, aés the
Court recognizes in that part of the Judgment in which it rejects Austraé -
lia’s request for a finding that Japan failed to comply with its obliégations
under paragraph 30 of the Schedule (see paragraph 238).

Accordingly, I believe that the permits granted under JARPA II should

have been presumed to have been issued “for purposes of scientific
research” — for a State’s word cannot lightly be challenged, and its good
faith must be presumed until proof of the contrary — and only very
strong evidence could have justified a finding unfavourable to the Respoén -
dent.

35. I consider that the Judgment does not demonstrate the existence of
such evidence.
In my view, there are only two scenarios which could justify a finding
that a programme, officially presented as being “for purposes of sciéentific
research”, and which has at least every appearance of such a programme,

does not fall within the terms of Article VIII. The first scenario is where
it is apparent that there is clearly no reasonable relationship between éthe
stated objectives and the means used, such that those means are mani -
festly unsuitable for achieving those objectives — from which it may be
concluded that the programme is not genuinely seeking to achieve its
stated objectives. The second scenario is where the sample size set by téhe

programme is manifestly excessive in light of research needs, having
regard to the programme’s stated objectives, from which it may be

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nombre de baleines dont la capture est autorisée a été fixé ésur la base de
motifs, ou pour la poursuite d’objectifs, non scientifiques (donc vréaisem-

blablement commerciaux).
36. Il n’a pas été démontré selon moi qu’on se trouve ici édans un ou
l’autre de ces cas.
La Cour — qui, il est vrai, a adopté une démarche particulièrement
exigeante à l’égard du défendeur, puisqu’elle paraît aévoir fait peser sur lui

une présomption défavorable découlant de ce qu’on pourrait aéppeler une
suspicion — a retenu des motifs à mes yeux trop faibles, et s’est expriméée
par moments davantage comme le ferait un comité scientifique que
comme aurait dû le faire un organe judiciaire.
37. Entre les paragraphes 128 et 222, la Cour énonce plusieurs motifs
qui la conduisent à conclure, au paragraphe 227, que «les permis spéciaux

au titre desquels le Japon autorise la mise à mort, la capture et le étraite -
ment de baleines dans le cadre de JARPA II ne sont pas délivrés « en vue
de recherches scientifiques » au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII de
la convention ».
Aucun de ces motifs n’est bien convaincant en lui-même et leur addi -

tion, si elle finit par donner une impression de masse, ne saurait davan -
tage emporter la conviction.
38. Il est reproché au Japon (par. 141 et 144) de ne pas avoir réalisé
des études concernant la possibilité de recourir à des méthodes énon
létales au lieu et place — dans une certaine mesure — des méthodes létales

dans le cadre de JARPA II, ou plutôt de ne pas avoir prouvé devant la
Cour qu’il avait réalisé de telles études. C’est possibleé, mais, d’une part, la
Cour a écarté, au paragraphe 83, la thèse de l’Australie selon laquelle,
dans le cadre d’un programme de recherche scientifique, il y aurait uéne
obligation pour l’Etat de donner systématiquement la préféreénce aux
méthodes non létales et de ne recourir aux méthodes létales équ’en l’ab -

sence de toute autre possibilité. D’autre part, on ne voit pas en équoi le fait
que l’Etat ait omis, au moment de l’élaboration d’un programéme de
recherche scientifique, de procéder à une étude sur un point paérticulier
— fût-il pertinent — ôterait à ce programme son caractère scientifique.
Tout au plus une telle lacune justifierait-elle une observation du comité

scientifique. Mais ce n’est pas le rôle de la Cour de dire si JARPéA II a été
conçu de la meilleure manière (c’est le rôle du comité sécientifique de pro -
céder à une évaluation sur cette question), mais seulement de édécider s’il
s’agit bien d’un programme poursuivant des fins scientifiques. Quaént à
l’obligation pour les Etats parties de « tenir dûment compte des recom -

mandations» de la commission baleinière internationale, laquelle a invitéé
les Etats à « s’interroger sur la possibilité … d’atteindre les objectifs de
recherche par des méthodes non létales » (par. 83), elle ne saurait avoir
pour effet, sauf à obscurcir les catégories juridiques, de transéformer les -
dites recommandations en décisions obligatoires.
39. L’arrêt retient aussi, à la charge du Japon, que la taille des ééchantil -

lons a été fixée à un niveau supérieur à ce qui étaéit nécessaire pour les besoins
de la recherche scientifique, afin de procurer des ressources financièéres sup -

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concluded that, in respect of at least a proportion thereof, the authoriézed
whale take was set for reasons, or for purposes, that are non-scientific

(and thus, in all probability, commercial ones).
36. In my view the Court has failed to show that either of these sce -
narios is present here.
It is clear that the Court has taken a particularly demanding line
towards the Respondent, since it appears to have raised a negative pre -

sumption against it, deriving from what might be termed “suspicion”é,
and has relied on grounds which in my view are too weak, and has at
times expressed itself more as a scientific committee would, rather thané as
a judicial body should have done.
37. Between paragraphs 128 and 222, the Court sets out a number of
reasons which lead it to conclude, in paragraph 227, that “the special per -

mits granted by Japan for the killing, taking and treating of whales in é
connection with JARPA II” are not issued “‘for purposes of scientific
research’ pursuant to Article VIII, paragraph 1, of the Convention”.

None of these reasons is truly convincing in itself, and, while, cumula -

tively, they may give an impression of weight, that is ultimately not coén -
vincing either.
38. Japan is criticized (paras. 141 and 144) for not having carried out
studies of the feasibility of non-lethal methods, which might — to some
extent — have replaced lethal methods under JARPA II, or rather for not

having proved to the Court that it had done so. That is possibly so, buté,
in the first place, in paragraph 83 the Court rejects Australia’s contention
that a scientific research programme requires a State systematically to é
give preference to non-lethal methods, and to have recourse to lethal
methods only when other methods are not available ; and furthermore, I
cannot see how the fact that, when designing a scientific research pro -

gramme, a State may have failed to carry out a study of a particular isséue
(even if that issue were relevant) would deprive that programme of its
scientific character. At most, such a failure would justify an observatiéon
by the Scientific Committee. But it is not the function of the Court to é
decide whether JARPA II was designed as well as it might have been (that

is a matter for the Scientific Committee to look into), but only to decéide
if this is indeed a programme pursuing scientific aims. As to the duty
of States parties to “give due regard to recommendations” of the Inteérna -
tional Whaling Commission, which called upon States “to take
into account whether research objectives can . . . be achieved by using

non-lethal research methods” (para. 83), it cannot have the effect —
which would be to confuse legal categories — of transforming those rec -
ommendations into binding decisions.

39. The Judgment further criticizes Japan for having set the sample

size at a level higher than that necessary for the requirements of scienétific
research, in order to secure additional financial resources to finance that

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plémentaires destinées à financer ladite recherche, alors que, éselon la Cour,
cette manière de procéder n’entre pas dans les prévisions deé l’article VIII.

L’argument est faible. D’une part, il repose sur une interprétaétion restrictive
très discutable de la convention ; d’autre part, et en tout état de cause, il n’est
pas démontré que le Japon ait procédé ainsi. L’arrêt née s’appuie en réalité
que sur un document produit par le Japon dont la formulation est ambiguëé,
mais dans lequel en tout cas on ne trouve pas la claire reconnaissance qéue la

taille des échantillons aurait été augmentée pour des raisonés financières
(par. 143). S’il s’agit de reprocher au Japon d’avoir préféré, dans une cer -
taine mesure, le recours aux méthodes létales en raison de leur moéindre coût
— notamment parce qu’elles permettent de commercialiser une partie du
produit de la chasse —, un tel reproche est probablement fondé en fait, mais
certainement pas en droit: aucune règle — et l’arrêt lui-même n’en identifie

aucune — n’empêche un Etat de tenir compte d’une considération dée ce
genre dans la conception d’un programme de recherche.
40. L’arrêt examine ensuite la question générale de la déterméination de
la taille des échantillons dans le programme JARPA II.
Mais la Cour n’a pas été en mesure de parvenir à la conclusiéon que

cette taille a été fixée de manière manifestement exagéréée au regard des
besoins de la recherche, une telle conclusion n’étant nullement éétayée par
les pièces du dossier. C’est plutôt à une mise en doute du béien-fondé des
choix opérés par le Japon et des méthodes retenues par lui que ése livre
l’arrêt. Mais, même si le doute est permis, cela ne saurait suffire à démon -

trer l’absence de caractère scientifique des fins poursuivies par éle pro -
gramme JARPA II, ni dans sa totalité ni même en partie.
41. L’arrêt s’interroge, à cet égard, sur la différence éimportante entre
les objectifs de capture retenus dans le programme JARPA, qui a précéédé
celui qui est en cause en l’espèce, et les tailles d’échantiéllon retenues dans
JARPA II. Pour l’espèce des petits rorquals tout spécialement, la difféé -

rence est importante : on est passé de 400 à 850 prises annuelles. La Cour
exprime son scepticisme sur les explications avancées par le Japon.
Celui-ci a fait valoir que JARPA II avait des objectifs plus ambitieux que
son prédécesseur; mais, selon la Cour, il y a « davantage de ressemblances
que de différences » entre les deux programmes (par. 151). Par ailleurs,

une autre raison de « douter que l’augmentation de la taille de l’échantil -
lon de petits rorquals … soit due à des différences entre les deux pro -
grammes» est que le Japon a lancé JARPA II sans attendre les résultats
de l’évaluation finale de JARPA réalisée par le comité scéientifique
(par. 154). On est encore ici au niveau des interrogations, des doutes, des

suppositions. Rien de bien solide.
42. La Cour se penche ensuite longuement sur les méthodes permettant
de déterminer la taille des échantillons nécessaire à la rééalisation des
objectifs de recherche. Elle se livre à des calculs d’une particuléière com -
plexité, et les présente notamment sous la forme d’un tableau et d’un
diagramme (aux paragraphes 165 et 182).

Mais aussi sophistiqués soient-il, ces calculs ne permettent pas à la Cour
de parvenir clairement à la conclusion que la taille des échantilléons a été

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research, an approach which, according to the Court, does not fall withién
the terms of Article VIII. That is a weak argument. First, it is based on a

very questionable restrictive interpretation of the Convention ; secondly,
and in any event, it has not been shown that Japan did adopt such an
approach. In reality, the Judgment relies solely on a document produced é
by Japan the language of which is ambiguous, but in which, in any event,é
no clear admission can be found that the sample size was increased for

financial reasons (para. 143). If Japan is reproached with having, to a
certain extent, favoured lethal methods because they are less expensive —
inter alia because they enable some of the whale catch to be sold — such
criticism may well be justified in factual terms, but certainly not in léaw :
there is no rule — and the Judgment itself fails to identify one — which
prevents a State from having regard to a consideration of this kind in

designing a research programme.

40. The Judgment then goes on to examine the general question of the
setting of sample sizes under JARPA II.
However, the Court was unable to reach a finding that the size of the

sample was manifestly excessive in light of research needs, since there éwas
no support for such a conclusion in the evidence before it. It is ratheré on
the basis of its doubt as to the justification for the choices made by Jéapan
and the methods adopted by it that the Judgment addresses the matter.
However, even if a certain doubt is permissible, that cannot suffice toé

show that the aims pursued by JARPA II are unscientific, whether wholly
or even in part.
41. In this regard, the Judgment queries the significant difference
between the catch totals set under JARPA, the programme preceding that
in issue here, and the sample sizes set under JARPA II. For minke whales
in particular, the difference is substantial, increasing from an annuaél take

of 400 to 850. The Court expresses its scepticism on the explanations
given by Japan, namely that JARPA II had more ambitious aims than its
predecessor. However, according to the Court, there is “considerable é
overlap . . . rather than dissimilarity” between the two programmes
(para. 151). An additional reason cited “to question whether the increased é

minke whale sample size . . . is accounted for by differences between the
two programmes ” is that Japan launched JARPA II without waiting for
the results of the Scientific Committee’s final review of JARPA (paréa. 154).
Here again we are dealing with queries, doubts, suppositions. Nothing
truly solid.

42. The Court then goes on to discuss at some length ways of calculat -
ing the sample size necessary to achieve the research targets. It conducts
a series of particularly complex calculations, which it presents, inter alia,
in the form of a table and a graphic (see paragraphs 165 and 182).

But however sophisticated, such calculations do not suffice to enable
the Court to reach the clear conclusion that the sample size was set at éa

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fixée à un niveau manifestement excessif. Ils ne font que nourrir édes doutes,
des incertitudes et des soupçons. Il est vrai que les explications foéurnies par

le Japon manquent de clarté et de transparence, et qu’il subsiste éun certain
flou sur la manière dont il a procédé pour fixer la taille deés échantillons.
L’expert cité par le Japon, le professeur norvégien Walløe, éa lui-même admis
devant la Cour que «les scientifiques japonais n’[avaient] pas toujours fourni
d’explications complètement claires et transparentes sur la manièére dont la

taille des échantillons [avait] été calculée ou déterminéée ». Mais le même
expert a déclaré que, selon ses propres calculs, l’ordre de graéndeur de la
taille d’échantillon retenue pour les petits rorquals (ceux dont éle nombre de
captures autorisées est de loin le plus important) était «correct».
Quant à la Cour, la seule conclusion qu’elle soit à même de éformuler au
terme de longs développements (au paragraphe 198) est que « les éléments

de preuve relatifs à la taille [des échantillons] n’offrent géuère d’explica -
tions ni de justifications quant aux décisions ayant présidé aué choix de
l’objectif de capture global », et que c’est une « raison supplémentaire de
douter que la conception de JARPA II soit raisonnable au regard de ses
objectifs annoncés ». Encore des doutes, provenant du constat de cer -

taines lacunes ou faiblesses, mais rien qui vienne étayer solidement éla
conclusion que JARPA II ne poursuit pas réellement les fins scientifiques
qui lui sont assignées.
43. Ensuite, l’arrêt fait grand cas de la discordance entre les objectéifs
fixés dans le programme JARPA II quant au nombre de captures et les

prises effectives. Ces dernières sont très inférieures aux obéjectifs. La Cour
y trouve curieusement une raison supplémentaire de dénier à JARPA II le
caractère d’un programme conduit « en vue de recherches scientifiques ».
Les raisons de cette différence sont connues, et l’arrêt les émentionne
(par. 206). Le Japon a renoncé à la capture des baleines à bosse àé la suite
d’une demande du président de la commission baleinière internatéionale,

comme gage de bonne volonté. Quant aux deux autres espèces, la difféé -
rence entre les objectifs et les prises effectives s’explique en tréès grande
partie par le type de navires choisi, impropre à la capture des rorquéals
communs, et par divers actes de sabotage organisés par certains groupées
hostiles à la chasse à la baleine qui ont empêché que les obéjectifs de cap -

ture des petits rorquals soient atteints.
44. On voit mal, cependant, en quoi le fait que le Japon n’ait pas réaé -
lisé, au cours de ces dernières années, les objectifs de capturée qu’il avait
assignés au programme JARPA II permet de conclure que ce programme
a perdu son caractère scientifique, et encore moins d’estimer qu’éil n’a

jamais eu un tel caractère.
Le raisonnement de la Cour est, en substance, le suivant (par. 209
à 211). D’une part, puisque le programme JARPA II a continué malgré
un nombre de prises effectives très inférieures aux objectifs inéitiaux, cela
tend à démontrer que ces objectifs avaient été fixés àé un niveau excessif et
non pas selon les exigences de nécessité et de proportionnalitéé, et cela

«accrédite encore la thèse de l’Australie selon laquelle la déétermination
des tailles d’échantillon de petits rorquals obéissait à desé considérations

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manifestly excessive level. All they can do is to raise doubts, uncertaiénties
and suspicions. It is true that the explanations provided by Japan lack é

clarity and transparency, and that a certain vagueness remains as to how
the sample size was fixed. The expert called by Japan, Professor Walløe
from Norway, himself admitted to the Court that “the Japanese [had] néot
always given completely transparent and clear explanations of how sam -
ple sizes were calculated or determined”. However, he then indicated éthat,

on the basis of his own calculations, the minke whale sample size (thaté
being by far the largest) was “of the right magnitude”.

As for the Court, the only finding that it was able to reach (in para -
graph 198), after a lengthy discussion of the matter, was that “the evi -

dence relating to . . . sample size . . . provides scant analysis and
justification for the underlying decisions that generate the overall saméple
size”, and that this “raises further concerns” about “whetheér the design of
JARPA II can be said to demonstrate on an objectively reasonable basis
that it is a project for purposes of scientific research”. Further coéncerns,

deriving from a finding of certain flaws or weaknesses, but nothing toé
provide solid support for the conclusion that JARPA II is not genuinely
pursuing its purported research aims.
43. The Judgment then highlights the discrepancy between the targets
set under JARPA II and the actual number of whales taken, which is far

below the target totals. Strangely, the Court regards this as a further érea -
son to find that JARPA II is not a programme conducted “for purposes
of scientific research”.
The reasons for this discrepancy are known, and the Judgment refers to
them (para. 206). Japan agreed to give up catching humpback whales fol -
lowing a request by the Chair of the International Whaling Commission,

as a mark of goodwill. As regards the other two species, the discrepancyé
between target and actual catches can be largely attributed to the choice
of vessels, which were unsuitable for taking minke whales, and to acts oéf
organized sabotage by certain groups opposed to whaling, which pre -
vented the target take for minke whales from being achieved.

44. It is difficult to see, however, how the fact that, in recent years,
Japan has failed to achieve the target takes under JARPA II can justify
the finding that the programme has ceased to be a scientific one, and stéill
less that it has never been a scientific programme.

The Court’s reasoning (in paragraphs 209-211) is, in substance, as fol -
lows. First, because JARPA II has continued despite actual catches being
far smaller than the original targets, that tends to show that those tarégets
had been fixed at an excessively high level and not in accordance with the
requirements of need and proportionality, which “adds force to Austraé -

lia’s contention that the target sample size for minke whales was set for
non-scientific reasons”. Secondly, the zero or negligible take for two ofé

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qui n’étaient pas scientifiques ». D’autre part, l’absence ou la rareté des
prises pour deux des trois espèces concernées affaiblit l’argéument du

Japon, selon lequel l’augmentation importante des objectifs de capturée
des baleines appartenant à la troisième espèce (les petits roréquals) dans le
programme JARPA II s’explique par l’introduction dans ce programme
d’un objectif scientifique de recherche sur la concurrence entre les éespèces,
qui n’existait pas dans le programme précédent.

La Cour résume sa pensée dans la formule suivante :
«Le fait que le Japon continue, en dépit des différences entre leés

tailles d’échantillon prévues et les prises effectives, de s’éappuyer sur les
deux premiers objectifs de JARPA II pour justifier les tailles d’échantil-
lon … et qu’il déclare en outre que ces volumes de capture très éréduits
peuvent néanmoins générer des résultats significatifs sur leé plan scienti
fique, jette un doute supplémentaire sur le fait que JARPA II soit un
programme en vue de recherches scientifiques.» (Par. 212.)

Encore le doute. Mais un doute, et même une accumulation de doutes,
suffit-il pour faire une preuve ? Selon moi, et au cas d’espèce en tout cas,

on en est très loin. Au surplus, l’affirmation selon laquelle la éréalisation
partielle d’un programme de recherche ne prive pas celui-ci de la capacité
de produire des résultats scientifiquement significatifs ne me paraîét guère
contestable, et je n’y vois rien qui soit de nature à alimenter d’aussi graves
soupçons.

45. Il est vrai que la Cour parachève sa démonstration par trois arguméents
ultimes, sous le titre «autres aspects», mais dont je suis obligé de dire qu’ils
ne sont guère plus solides que les précédents : le programme JARPA II ne
comporte pas de limite dans le temps — mais je ne vois pas bien d’où vient
l’idée qu’un programme de recherche ne peut revêtir un caracétère scientifique
que s’il est limité dans le te;sles résultats obtenus dans le cadre de JARPA II

n’ont fait l’objet jusqu’à présent que d’un petit nombére de publications dans
les revues scientifiques — mais cela ne suffit pas à fonder le constat que le
programme n’est pas conduit en vue de recherches scientifiques, tout éau plus
ce pourrait être l’indice qu’il y a eu des faiblesses ou des dééfauts dans sa
conception; le Japon n’a pas donné beaucoup d’exemples de coopération

entre l’institut chargé du programme JARPA II et d’autres organismes de
recherche, ce qu’il aurait été, selon la Cour, «permis d’escompter» — mais
on est encore ici dans une critique de la manière de conduire la rechéerche
plutôt que dans une contestation convaincante de son caractère sciéentifique.
46. Même ajoutés les uns aux autres, les griefs que la Cour adresse aué

Japon sont très loin de permettre de conclure, selon moi, que le pro -
gramme JARPA II n’a pas été conçu et mis en œuvre « en vue de
recherches scientifiques » au sens du paragraphe 1 de l’article VIII de la
convention, ce qui est la conclusion que tire la Cour au paragraphe 227.
Et ce, pour deux raisons essentielles: les doutes ne sont pas des preuves;
les défauts méthodologiques dans la conception d’un programme sécienti -

fique ne lui retirent pas son caractère scientifique, et ne lui impriément pas
une finalité commerciale.

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the three species concerned casts doubt on Japan’s argument that the ésig-
nificant increase in the target take for the third species of whale (miénke

whales) under JARPA II can be explained by the introduction into that
programme of research on inter-species competition, which was absent
from the preceding one.

The Court summarizes its position as follows :
“Japan’s continued reliance on the first two JARPA II objectives

to justify the target sample sizes, despite the discrepancy between the é
actual take and those targets, coupled with its statement that
JARPA II can obtain meaningful scientific results based on the far
more limited actual take, cast further doubt on the characterization
of JARPA II as a programme for purposes of scientific research.”
(Para. 212.)

Once again, doubt. But is a doubt, or even an accumulation of doubts,
sufficient to constitute proof ? In my view, in any event in the present

instance, that is very far from being the case. What is more, it seems téo
me hardly disputable that the fact that a research programme has been
only partially achieved does not deprive it of the ability to produce scéien -
tifically significant results, and I can see nothing here that could proévide
support for such grave suspicions.

45. It is true that the Court completes its demonstration with three
concluding arguments, under the head of “additional aspects”, but éwhich
I have to say that I do not find any stronger than the preceding ones :
JARPA II has an open-ended time frame — but I cannot see where any -
one might get the idea that a research programme can only be “scientiéfic”
if it is for a fixed period ; publication of research results from JARPA II

in scientific journals has been extremely limited — but that does not suf -
fice to justify a finding that the programme is not being conducted for é
purposes of scientific research, at most it could be an indication of weéak -
nesses or flaws in its design ; Japan has given few examples of co-opera -
tion between the institution responsible for JARPA II and other research

institutions, which, according to the Court, “could have been expecteéd” —
but we are still dealing here with criticism of the way the research hasé
been conducted, rather than a convincing challenge to its scientific
character.
46. Even taken together, the Court’s criticisms of Japan are very far, iné

my view, from justifying a finding that JARPA II was not designed and
implemented “for purposes of scientific research”, which is the coénclusion
that the Court reaches in paragraph 227.

And I believe this to be the case for two basic reasons : doubts are not
proof; methodological flaws in the design of a scientific programme do

not deprive it of its scientific character, nor do they stamp it with a écom -
mercial purpose.

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47. Je regrette d’autant plus le parti que la Cour a choisi de prendre
que, ce faisant, elle a négligé l’apport aux débats, selon méoi remarquable,

de l’expert cité par le Japon, le professeur norvégien de renomémée inter -
nationale Lars Walløe. Ce dernier a démontré son indépendance d’esprit
en critiquant, devant la Cour, certains des aspects, cependant mineurs, édu
programme JARPA II — l’arrêt d’ailleurs en tire argument contre le
défendeur à plusieurs reprises. Cela ne rend que plus crédible, à mon avis,

l’ensemble de sa déposition. Or, le professeur Walløe a affirmé que « les
deux programmes JARPA et JARPA II ont fourni des informations pré -
cieuses aux fins de la mise en œuvre de la RMP (la procédure de géestion
revisée, outil de gestion des stocks de baleines utilisé par la coémmission
baleinière internationale) dans sa version actuelle ou d’éventéuelles amélio -
rations de cette procédure » et que « ces programmes apportent des infor-

mations capitales sur les évolutions qui s’opèrent actuellementé dans
l’écosystème de l’Antarctique ».
En ce qui concerne la taille des échantillons, le professeur Walløée a
indiqué, lors des audiences, qu’il ignorait comment les scientifiqéues japo -
nais avaient procédé exactement, mais que, ayant fait ses propres écalculs

pour déterminer, entre autres, la taille des échantillons nécesésaire pour
observer des changements relatifs à l’âge et la maturité sexéuelle — para -
mètres particulièrement intéressants — sur une période de six ans, il a
constaté « que le nombre de baleines nécessaires pour pouvoir observer
un changement était de l’ordre de 900 ».

48. Je n’ignore pas que le professeur Walløe étant un expert citéé par
l’une des Parties, la Cour ne pouvait pas tenir pour vraies, sans autére
examen, toutes ses déclarations, alors même que d’autres expertés, cités
par la Partie adverse, exprimaient des avis différents.
Mais je pense que le fait qu’un homme de science de cette réputatiéon
exprime sans ambages son appréciation positive quant à l’intérêt scienti -

fique des recherches conduites dans le cadre de JARPA II et quant au
caractère raisonnable des tailles d’échantillon fixées (sauéf, a-t-il dit, pour
l’espèce des rorquals communs dont le nombre de captures prévues était
trop faible pour donner des résultats significatifs) aurait dû peéser grande -
ment dans le jugement porté par la Cour sur la nature même de JARPéA II.

Tel aurait été certainement le cas si la Cour, au lieu d’essayeér de tenir
le rôle d’une sorte de comité scientifique recherchant dans le édétail ce qui,
dans le programme JARPA II, pourrait être considéré comme un défaut
ou une lacune dans sa conception ou sa mise en œuvre, s’était béornée à
répondre à la seule question de savoir si les activités en causée étaient

menées en vue de recherches scientifiques — que celles-ci soient excellem -
ment ou imparfaitement conçues — et si elle n’avait pas appliqué au
défendeur, de manière sous-jacente, un préjugé défavorable.

(Signé) Ronny Abraham.

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47. I particularly regret the stance that the Court has chosen to adopt,
inasmuch as, in so doing, it has ignored the contribution — in my view, a

remarkable one — from the expert called by Japan, the internationally
renowned Norwegian professor, Lars Walløe. Professor Walløe demon -
strated his independence in openly criticizing certain aspects — albeit
minor ones — of the JARPA II programme ; and indeed the Judgment
has cited these several times in support of its argument against the

Respondent. That, in my view, only serves to enhance the overall credibiél -
ity of his evidence. Professor Walløe stated that “both JARPA and
JARPA II have given valuable information for the possible implementa -
tion of the current version of RMP [the Revised Management Procedure,
the stock management tool used by the International Whaling Commis -
sion] and for possible future improvements of RMP”, and that “the épro-

grammes are giving critical information about the ongoing changes in theé
Antarctic ecosystem”.
As regards sample size, Professor Walløe stated at the hearings that he
did not really know how the Japanese scientists had calculated them, buté
that, on the basis of his own calculations to determine, inter alia, the nec -

essary sample size to assess changes in age and sexual maturity — which
were parameters of particular interest — over a period of six years, he
found that “to get any detectable you would need in the order of magnéi -
tude [of] 900 whales”.

48. I am well aware that, since Professor Walløe was an expert called
by one of the Parties, the Court could not simply accept the truth, withé -
out further enquiry, of everything he said, when other experts, called béy
the opposing Party, expressed differing views.
However, I believe that the fact that a scientist of this renown unequiv -
ocally expresses his positive view of the scientific value of the research

carried out under JARPA II, and of the reasonableness of the sample
sizes set (with the exception, as he stated, of fin whales, for which téhe
sample size was too small to give significant results) ought to have caérried
substantial weight in the Court’s assessment of the true nature of
JARPA II.

That would certainly have been the case if the Court, instead of
attempting to function as a sort of scientific committee, seeking to enqéuire
in detail into what aspects of JARPA II could be regarded as design or
implementation flaws or deficiencies, had confined itself simply to anéswer -
ing the question of whether the activities concerned were conducted for é

purposes of scientific research — regardless of whether they were bril -
liantly or poorly designed. And if the Court had not applied an underly -
ing negative preconception in its treatment of the Respondent.

(Signed) Ronny Abraham.

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Document file FR
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Dissenting opinion of Judge Abraham

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