403
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC MAMPUYA
[Translation]
The amount of compensation calculated by the Court in respect of the mor▯al
injury is excessive, and disproportionate to Mr. Diallo’s suffering — The principles
governing the assessment of pecuniary reparation in international law sh▯ould be
applied with the same rigour to reparation for moral injury — The general obliga ‑
tion to make full reparation should not have a punitive or exemplary cha▯racter —
The pecuniary award should simply represent fair compensation for the in▯jury sus ‑
tained — The established jurisprudence of the human rights courts, arbitral ▯
tribunals and claims commissions shows that these organizations adhere t▯o the
principle of proportionality when determining the amount of reparation — The
amounts awarded by those bodies in respect of moral injury resulting from graver
human rights violations than those suffered by Mr. Diallo are smaller than that
awarded to Mr. Diallo — The conditions which surrounded Mr. Diallo’s deten ‑
tions and expulsion do not constitute aggravating circumstances justifyi▯ng the
excessive award for moral injury — The applicable principles for reparation of
material injury — Evidence of the existence of the material injury and of the causal ▯
link between the injury and the wrongful conduct of the responsible Stat▯e is essen ‑
tial in order to establish the right to compensation — Guinea has failed to provide
“sufficient proof” establishing the material injury allegedly suffered by Mr. Diallo
in the form of loss of personal property — The principle of equity to which other
courts have referred in their jurisprudence is only applicable for the purpose of
estimating the value to be used as the basis for calculating the amount ▯of compen ‑
sation — Guinea has not demonstrated that there is a causal link between the▯
material injury resulting from the loss of personal property alleged by ▯Mr. Diallo
and the conduct of the DRC — The human rights courts are more exacting in
respect of evidence and require that there be a direct causal link with ▯the alleged
offences — While the existence of Mr. Diallo’s personal property has been proved
by the inventory, Guinea, however, has failed to demonstrate that certai▯n other
property, in addition to that recorded in the inventory, existed, or that this prop ‑
erty was lost or that its loss was imputable to the DRC — The sum of US$10,000
fixed by the Court for the material injury has no legal basis.
I firmly supported the principle of the main conclusions adopted in the
Judgment rendered by the Court, in order to finally bring an end to this g
case, which has been ongoing since 1998, by fixing the amount of com -
pensation owed as a result of its finding that the international responsigbi-l
ity of the DRC is engaged by internationally wrongful acts which violategd
Mr. Diallo’s individual rights. I would very much have liked to have
agreed with the majority of the Court on all of the points under discus -
sion; unfortunately, I could not subscribe to two of the six points of the
operative clause. Hence the explanations I am obliged to set out in thisg
opinion, which is quite clearly not dissenting, but separate.
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6 CIJ1032.indb 163 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 404
1. Firstly, I disagree with the finding relating not to the principle of the
compensation owed by the DRC to Guinea for the moral — or “non-mate -
rial” — injury suffered by Mr. Diallo following his detentions and expul -
sion by the Respondent’s authorities, but to the assessment of the amgount
of that compensation, which, in my view, is unjustifiably high. I have also
expressed my disagreement with a second point : a point of law concern -
ing the legal basis of the compensation awarded for the material injury g
caused by the loss of Mr. Diallo’s personal property, a basis which, to my
mind, in the absence of any evidence, does not exist. I opposed the major -
ity of the Court on this point, and voted accordingly, because there is gan
important legal question of principle at issue : not in view of the amount
of compensation awarded, which at US$10,000 is a modest sum, but in
view of the significant evidentiary issue in relation to reparation.
2. This is the first time since its Judgment fixing the amount of com -
pensation in the case concerning the Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v.
Albania)(Assessment of Amount of Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1949, pp. 244 et seq.) that the Court has been called upon to decide the
compensation owed by a State whose international responsibility is
engaged by internationally wrongful acts ; the Court, therefore, has no
choice but to refer to the rich experience of other courts, including that of
arbitration and claims tribunals. The most illustrative practice in thisg
regard is that of the two regional human rights courts — the European
Court of Human Rights (ECHR) and the Inter-American Court of
Human Rights (IACHR) — as well as that of the Iran-United States
Claims Tribunal. The abundant case law of these courts has enabled prin -
ciples to be identified, which today govern the examination of any
questions raised by the assessment of the reparation and the fixing of
the compensation owed by a State whose international responsibility is
engaged.
3. It is, therefore, this case law and these principles which, according tog
the Court itself, should guide it in its approach to reparation in genergal
and in fixing the amount of compensation. However, my analysis of the
present Judgment, carried out in the light of these sources, leads me tog
conclude that they have not, in fact, been taken into account by the
Court.
4. I will begin by addressing the question of the determination of the
amount of compensation owed for the non-material or moral injury — a
straightforward exercise, because it amounts simply to an assessment of g
the facts. In so doing, I will demonstrate that the Court has failed to g
respect those principles which have emerged from the established juris -
prudence, by fixing an amount which is clearly excessive in view of the
practice of all the other courts, including those specializing in the sagfe -
guarding of human rights, although these are, in principle, the most
favourable to the victims.
5. I will then explain in more detail my view of the Court’s decision tog
award Guinea compensation — whatever the amount — for “material
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6 CIJ1032.indb 165 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 405
injury” caused by Mr. Diallo’s alleged loss of his property following his
detentions and expulsion by the DRC in January 1996. I will demonstrate
that this award of compensation has no legal basis and no justification, g
since Guinea has failed to provide evidence of the existence of the injugry;
such evidence, although not a condition of responsibility — which derives
directly from the commission of the internationally wrongful act — is
nevertheless the indispensable basis for the award of reparation and theg
measure of the amount of compensation to be awarded. In particular,
such evidence should show that Mr. Diallo did in fact possess and lose
the property in question, and that its loss was imputable to the DRC as ga
direct consequence of the wrongful detentions and expulsion of the Guin -
ean national by that State.
I. Excessive Amount of Compgensation for Non-Material
(Mental or Moral) Injury
6. It is not disputed that Mr. Diallo sustained moral injury as a conse -
quence of his arrests and expulsion, which were declared unlawful
and arbitrary by the Court in its Judgment of 30 November 2010
(I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 692, para. 165, points 2, 3 and 4 of the opera-
tive clause), or that he is therefore entitled to reparation in the forgm of
compensation. The problem is the amount of the “appropriate compen-
sation”.
7. In this connection, the amount claimed by Guinea (US$250,000) is
clearly disproportionate given the practice in this area (even by domesgtic
courts) and the nature of the injury (purely moral and mental), in respect
of which, in certain cases, particularly those concerning reparation to g
States, reparation has often been limited to satisfaction and to a “dgeclara -
tory judgment”, for example, the finding in the Judgment on the meritsg of
30 November 2010 that the DRC had violated Article 36, paragraph 1 (b)
of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (ibid., p. 691, para. 161
and p. 693, point 7 of the operative clause). It is clear that the Court also
considered Guinea’s claim of US$250,000 (see para. 10 of the present
Judgment) to be both excessive and disproportionate, because it did notg
accede to Guinea’s request on this point. Nevertheless, the US$85,000g
compensation which it has awarded is significantly higher than the
amounts awarded to date for similar and even more serious violations
of comparable obligations. Of course, moral injury cannot be measured.
One can even argue that, strictly speaking, it does not have to be provegd,
because it is inherent to the human condition when subjected to a viola -
tion of rights. However, there is nevertheless a standard by which to
measure such injury in the present case which, in view of its specific cigr -
cumstances, can only be the conditions surrounding Mr. Diallo’s deten -
tions and expulsion.
8. From the case law and practice a certain number of principles emerge,
which govern how compensation should be measured. Among these is the
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6 CIJ1032.indb 167 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 406
undeniable principle that, while the primary aim of compensation is to
remedy as fully as possible all forms of loss suffered as a result of gan inter-
nationally wrongful act, compensation is in no sense intended to punish g
the responsible State, and nor should it be of an expressive or exemplary
nature. This approach was adopted by the ILC from its very first reports g
on State responsibility, citing, inter alia, from the work of Jiménez de Aré -
chaga: “punitive or exemplary damages . . . are incompatible with the
basic idea underlying the duty of reparation” (E. Jiménez de Aréchaga,
“International Responsibility”, Manual of Public International Law, Lon -
don, Macmillan, 1968, cited in UN doc. A/CN.4/425 & Corr.1 and Add.1
& Corr.1, Second Report on State Responsibility, by Mr. Gaetano Aran -
gio-Ruiz, Special Rapporteur, 1989, para. 24). That principle is incorpo -
rated in the ILC’s Draft Articles on State Responsibility, first in thge
commentary on Article 36 relating to compensation and then in Arti -
cle 37, paragraph 3, in respect of satisfaction : “[s]atisfaction shall not be
out of proportion to the injury and may not take a form humiliating to t▯he
responsible State” (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001,
Vol. II ; J. Crawford, The International Law Commission’s Articles on
State Responsibility — Introduction, Text and Commentaries, “Commen -
tary under Article 36”, p. 219 and pp. 231 and 234 ; emphasis added).
This principle of proportionality between the reparation, whatever form g
it takes, and the injury, is well established : the extent of the injury should
be the measure of the level or amount of the compensation, thus ensuringg
that the latter simply represents fair compensation for the injury suffgered.
A pecuniary award should not exceed the level of compensation, even
though there is a temptation in respect of human rights violations —
which are regarded as particularly shocking and offensive to human digg -
nity — to go beyond this, either to punish the State responsible for thoseg
violations or, by making an exemplary or spectacular award, to intimi -
date other States and discourage them from similar conduct.
9. Of course, all reparation, particularly pecuniary reparation, entails
an element of dissuasion, but this element is inherent to the principle gof
reparation, just as criminal punishment is necessarily punitive and therge -
fore intimidating, yet does not reflect a desire to punish the offender pub -
licly. However, reparation goes beyond this inherently dissuasive aspectg
and function when the sum awarded no longer corresponds to an amount
of compensation reflecting not only as fully as possible, but at the sgame
time as precisely as possible, the scale of the injury for which reparation
must be made; such is the case of compensation which is clearly excessive.
It is true, moreover, that a moral injury cannot be measured in monetaryg
terms, but money is, as the saying goes, “the common measure of valu -
able things” (Grotius), and since the injury must therefore be compgen -
sated by sums of money, a court should not decline to be guided by the
practice of other courts and arbitral bodies, whose decisions may be
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6 CIJ1032.indb 169 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 407
regarded as giving an indication of the average size of the sums awardedg
to “ease” the moral injury of victims or their relatives.
10. The foregoing explains why even the Inter-American Court of
Human Rights, which has a very compassionate and generous attitude
towards the compensation claims of victims of human rights violations,
adopted this principle of proportionality in its very first judgment on
reparation, in the Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras case (judgment of
21 July 1989 (reparations and costs), para. 38), which has since become a
point of reference in the field, and in which it stated that internationagl law
did not recognize reparation which punished States. It is not that “pguni -
tive damages” are completely inconceivable, rather that, while certain
national systems do permit the award of such damages, punishment is not g
the purpose of reparation, pecuniary or otherwise, in international law.g
11. Of course, the conditions of detention or expulsion — for example,
solitary confinement, torture, ill-treatment, the length of the detention,
etc. — are circumstances specific to each case and could, depending on the
case, justify a higher amount of compensation, while their absence wouldg
impose a lesser amount. In the present case, however, the Court has
acknowledged that Mr. Diallo did not suffer inhuman or degrading treat -
ment during his detentions. Having briefly alluded to such treatment,
Guinea chose to abandon any such accusations, and did not attempt to
offer the slightest proof that such treatment occurred (Ahmadou Sadio
Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J Reports 2010 (II), p. 671, paras. 88-89 and p. 693,
para. 165, point 5 of the operative clause ; present Judgment, para. 21).
Furthermore, the total duration of Mr. Diallo’s detentions did not exceed —
to use the variable figures advanced by Guinea (I.C.J Reports 2010 (II),
pp. 659-660, paras. 48-52) and disregarding the DRC’s challenge to those
figures — 66 to 72 days. Of course, the deprivation of liberty, whether for
a few hours or several years, should be condemned when it is wrongful or
arbitrary, but its duration is not irrelevant when measuring the suffegrings
endured by the individual detained or the seriousness of the injury for
which reparation must be made. It would therefore have been useful for tghe
Court to compare the duration of Mr. Diallo’s detention with the much
longer detentions considered by other courts, whose practice and experi -
ence should have guided the Court in the present case.
12. Nor, strictly speaking, did the Court accept that there were aggra -
vating circumstances beyond the unlawful and arbitrary character of the g
detentions and expulsion which, moreover, constitute the full extent of g
the DRC’s violation of its obligations, for, as the Court said itselfg, “the
fact that [Mr. Diallo] suffered non-material injury is an inevitable conse -
quence of the wrongful acts of the DRC already ascertained by the Court”g
(Judgment, para. 21). It then recalled (ibid.), without expressly calling
them aggravating, the specific circumstances of Mr. Diallo’s detentions
and expulsion, as described in its Judgment on the merits (I.C.J
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6 CIJ1032.indb 171 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 408
Reports 2010 (II), pp. 666-670, paras. 74-84). In respect of these specific
circumstances, even the fact that, expelled on 31 January 1996, Mr. Diallo
“[only] received notice of his expulsion on the same day” is not cgonsid -
ered as an aggravating circumstance in itself. And while the Court stategs
that Mr. Diallo “was detained for an unjustifiably long period pending
expulsion” (present Judgment, para. 21, and I.C.J Reports 2010 (II),
p. 668, para. 79), it does so in response to the DRC’s argument that the
detention was necessary, in order to prevent the individual concerned
from fleeing and escaping expulsion. These circumstances constitute thge
very form of the violation.
13. Thus, a comparison of Mr. Diallo’s case with certain cases ruled on
by the European Court of Human Rights or the Inter-American Court of
Human Rights shows that, without making light of Mr. Diallo’s suffer -
ing, the situations presented before those courts were often much graverg
than that of the Guinean national : notification of the expulsion measure
on the same day it was carried out, detention of several years, torture,g
inhuman and degrading treatment, solitary confinement, enforced disap -
pearance, extrajudicial executions, etc. However, in many of these casesg,
the courts awarded much smaller sums : US$30,000 at most, which was
the amount offered by the Respondent itself as appropriate compensatiogn
taking into account the specific circumstances of the case. The few casesg
in which comparatively high sums were awarded by the Inter-American
Court of Human Rights involved enforced disappearance, kidnappings,
extrajudicial executions, and so on.
14. In general, the compensation awarded for non-material injury is
thus relatively modest, in keeping with the nature of the injury suffegred,
especially if that injury has had no proven significant somatic effectsg.
Below are some examples of the sums awarded as reparation for moral
injury.
(a) European Court of Human Rights: €24,000 inM.S.S. v. Belgium and
Greece, €15,000 in Khodzhayev v. Russia, €8,000 in Ahmed v. Roma ‑
nia and €15,000 in Lupsa v.Romania for detentions lasting for several
years accompanied by aggravating circumstances ; US$50,000 in
M. v. Germany for arbitrary detention lasting more than eight years.
In Nowak v. Ukraine the European Court of Human Rights awarded
€16,000 for unlawful detention, arbitrary expulsion and ill-treatment,
and violations of guarantees provided by Protocol No. 7. However,
Mr. Nowak had a valid residency permit at the time of his expulsion
and was an “alien lawfully resident” in Ukraine, within the meaningg
of Article 1 of Protocol No.7. Moreover, he was notified of the expul -
sion order on the day of its execution, in a language which he did not
understand and in circumstances which did not allow for him to be
represented or to submit arguments against his expulsion.
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6 CIJ1032.indb 173 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 409
(b) Inter-American Court of Human Rights : US$30,000 in Neptune v.
Haiti, US$20,000 in Maritza Urrutia v. Guatemala, US$50,000 in
Chaparro Alvarez and Lapo Iñiguez v. Ecuador. In Goiburú et al. v.
Paraguay, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in fact made
several awards, ranging from US$10,000 to US$50,000, to the various
victims of collective and grave violations, including infringements of
the rights to life and liberty, enforced disappearance, etc., with the
highest amounts awarded for disappearances.
(c) United States/Mexico General Claims Commission : US$2,500 in the
Daniel Dillon case, US$8,000 in the Harry Roberts case and US$4,000
in the Mary Ann Turner case.
15. In light of the foregoing, it seems to me that, having regard to the
circumstances of this case, the established violations and the moral injury
described above (see the present Judgment, para. 25), the sum of
US$85,000 is grossly excessive ; it does not reflect the extent of the injury
suffered and is not proper compensation for the moral injury actually g
sustained. Thus, contrary to what is stated in the Judgment (ibid.), it
does not appear to me to be “appropriate”. In view of earlier pracgtice,
including that of the human rights courts, it is clear that this amount,g
which does not reflect the circumstances of the case, bears no relatiogn to
the practice, and in my view it has not been adequately justified. Becausge
of its unprecedented size and exemplary, if not punitive, character (see
paras. 8 and 9 above), it is likely to attract attention and constitutegs a
reversal of the jurisprudence on this question, which is not the functiogn of
reparation.
II. Unjustified Compensatigon for the Material Injugry Resulting
from the Loss of Personalg Property
The Legal Rules Governing This Area
16. In terms of compensation for an internationally wrongful act con -
sisting in the violation by a State of an international obligation engagging
the latter’s international responsibility, this case, as the Court cognfirms
(Judgment, para. 13), is only the second since its creation in the aftermath
of World War II in which it has been called upon to fix compensation.
The Court’s only precedent is the Corfu Channel case (United Kingdom v.
Albania) (Assessment of Amount of Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1949, pp. 244 et seq.), which concerned the destruction of British warships
and the deaths of naval personnel, and which was also a “material”g case
in terms of the nature of the injury sustained by the United Kingdom. Ing
that case, the Court was extremely demanding, and was not content to
accept the Applicant’s claims or even the evidence of the destructiong of
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6 CIJ1032.indb 175 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 410
the ships and the deaths of crew members. Although the Court ultimately g
ruled in favour of the United Kingdom and awarded it the compensation
it sought, it did so on the basis of documentary evidence provided both g
by the United Kingdom and by the experts’ report — which confirmed
the existence of a causal link, in that the material damage alleged was g
indeed the direct consequence of the mine explosions (I.C.J. Reports 1949,
p. 265) — and the figures presented by the Applicant could be considered
as a “fair and accurate estimate of the damage sustained” (ibid., p. 250).
The emergence of two conditions can clearly be observed : there must be
evidence of the injury to justify the compensation amount and there mustg
be evidence of a causal link.
17. This decision marked the introduction, in case law and in practice,
of the requirement that there be “sufficient proof” of the injuryg sustained
and that the nature of the victim’s pecuniary claims be “fair”.g This case
law and practice of the international courts which regularly rule on sucgh
claims, notably the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), the
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) and the various joint
claims tribunals, in particular the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal,
together with several arbitral awards, are well established today.
18. In the present case, it seems clear to me that, even though the Court
claims to have taken into account the practice in other courts (Judgmengt,
para. 13), it did not rigorously adhere to this when it awarded compensga-
tion for a material injury, without requiring independent proof of the
allegations made by Mr. Diallo.
19. The point of law at issue here is that of the burden of proof : proof
of the existence of the injury, which is, in fact — both in the legal tradi -
tion and in the situations contemplated by the ILC’s Draft Articles — the
basis and measure of compensation, and proof of the causal link between g
the injury and the wrongful behaviour of the responsible State.
Evidence of the Material Injury :
The Requirement of “Sufficient Proof”
20. In many instances there is no evidence in support of Guinea’s alle -
gations and claims. Doubtless aware of the evidence requirement, the
Court had to consider whether it was still possible, in the absence of egvi-
dence, to award reparation in the form of pecuniary compensation. At
the same time, however, this concern shows that the Court believes that g
evidence plays a central role in cases concerning responsibility, reparagtion
and compensation. Thus it is well established that “[a]s a general rugle, it
is for the party which alleges a fact in support of its claims to prove
the existence of that fact”, as the Court recalled in its Judgment on theg
merits of the case which is the subject of these proceedings (I.C.J
Reports 2010 (II), p. 660, para. 54). This is why, in its 2010 Judgment,
the Court did not hesitate to dismiss facts which were alleged but not
proved (ibid., pp. 679-687, paras. 117-148, and p. 690, paras. 157 and 158).
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6 CIJ1032.indb 177 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 411
21. Just a few examples will suffice to confirm this principle, which the
Court itself recognizes : for example, Papamichalopoulos and Others v.
Greece (Article 50) (application No. 33808/02, judgment of 31 Octo-
ber 1995, ECHR, Series A, No. 330-B, para. 37), which concerned the
question of the expropriation of land belonging to individuals, and Akdi ‑
var and Others v. Turkey (Article 50) (application No. 21893/93, judgment
of 1 April 1998, ECHR, paras. 15-34), in which the applicants sought
damages for material injury resulting from the loss of their homes, burngt
down by Turkish security forces. Although there was no doubt that the
land and the houses had existed, or that the land had been expropriated
and the houses burnt down by the army, in order to establish their true
value the European Court of Human Rights called experts, refusing to relgy
on the unsubstantiated claims advanced by the applicants. Similarly, in
McCann and Others v. United Kingdom (application No. 18984/91, judg -
ment of 27 September 1995, ECHR, A324), which involved a violation of
Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights (right to life)
consisting in the murder of three members of the IRA in Gibraltar by
British security forces, the European Court rejected the argument of pre -
meditated execution put forward by the victims’ representatives, for glack
of evidence. In a case concerning violence in custody, the European Court
also demanded that the Austrian Government “satisfactorily [establishg]
that the applicant’s injuries [had been] caused otherwise than — entirely,
mainly, or partly — by the treatment he underwent while in police cus -
tody”; in the absence of evidence to that effect, it concluded that the viog- la
tions had been established (Ribitsch v. Austria, application No. 1889/91,
judgment of 4 December 1995, ECHR, A336, para. 34). In a case involv -
ing discrimination — behaviour which is difficult to prove — the Euro -
pean Court of Human Rights demanded proof that the alleged difference
in treatment was based on discriminatory grounds related to a protected
characteristic (for example, sex, race, religion) and that, therefore,g it was
wrongful, even though, by a sort of sharing of the burden of proof, therge
then arose a presumption of discrimination, which the Respondent would
have to refute by producing evidence to the contrary (Timishev v. Russia,
applications Nos. 55762/00 and 55974/00, judgment of 13 December 2005,
ECHR, paras. 40-44; see also, to the same effect, the judgment of the ECJ
of 26 June 2001 in Susanna Brunnhofer v. Bank der österreichischen Post ‑
sparkasse AG, case C-381/99, 2001 Reports, p. I-04961). This sharing of
the burden of proof does not contradict the established rule in this reggard,
which stipulates that he who alleges a fact must provide proof of that fgact.
These are cases where the claims put forward are mutually contradictory,g
and it is for each party to substantiate its own argument with evidence
capable of convincing the court. Finally, in H.L.R. v. France (application
No. 24573/94, judgment of 29 April 1997, ECHR), the European Court of
Human Rights concluded that the expulsion of the Colombian applicant
had not violated Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights,
because no relevant proof had been produced in support of the allegationgs
of risks of ill-treatment.
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22. The Iran-United States Claims Tribunal, for its part, has shown
itself to be particularly stringent with respect to establishing the exigstence
of an alleged injury in the form of a loss of property, requiring the appli -
cant to demonstrate that, before the commission of the unlawful acts, thge
property in question existed and was in his or her possession (“possession,
expropriation and value of the items”). In this respect, the case lagw of the
Tribunal reveals a preference for documentary proof — undoubtedly the
most reliable form of evidence — despite the fact that the applicants, in
this case American nationals expelled from Iran, had often been forced tgo
flee that country, thereby abandoning the documents which proved the
existence, ownership and value of the property alleged to have been lostg
(see, in particular, the cases of Daley (United States of America v. Iran),
award 360-10514-1, 1988 WL 637289 (Iran-US Cl. Trib.); Rankin (United
States of America v. Iran), award 326-10913-2, 1987 WL 503860 (Iran-US
Cl. Trib.) and Yeager (United States of America v I.an), award 324-10199-1,
1987 WL 503859 (Iran-US Cl. Trib.)).
23. The Daley case, for example, concerned an American national who
claimed to have lost various property (including, a car, a thoroughbredg
horse, a Rolex watch, jewellery, a coin collection, a total of US$15,000g in
cash and some luxury carpets) when he was detained and expelled from
Iran. The fact that the circumstances of his expulsion meant that he wasg
no longer in possession of the supporting documents did not prevent the g
Tribunal from declaring that it “does not find that the horse was exprgo -
priated”, and that “[t]his part of the claim is therefore dismissegd” (1988
WL 637289, para. 24). To establish the ownership and value of the coin
collection, proof was required as to where and when the coins had been
bought, who had sold them, the details of their insurance cover, etc. Thge
burden of proof is such that, in the same case, even though the carpets in
question had been seen in the Daley residence in Teheran, the Tribunal
found that “[t]he evidence is not sufficient to establish, however, that the
carpets or any of the other furniture were at the apartment on the date gof
the alleged taking” (ibid., para. 27); it also required the applicant to
“establish that these items [had been] removed from the premises by igndi -
viduals or groups for whose acts the Government of Iran is legally liablge”
(ibid., para. 28). The Tribunal’s insistence on the need for proof of the
causal link can be seen in the following paragraph, in which it states tghat
the presence of the carpets and other effects at the applicant’s regsidence
does not enable it to conclude that they “[had been] removed in circugm -
stances which would give rise to liability on the part of the Iranian Gov -
ernment”. The requirement is a manifold one : the “possession,
expropriation and value of the items for which” compensation is soughgt
must be established (ibid., para. 30).
24. It is worth mentioning here an arbitral award rendered in a case
involving the same head of damage and factually similar circumstances,
namely the Chevreau case between France and Great Britain, and which
was very similar to the present case in that it related to the wrongful gdeten-
tion and expulsion of a foreigner of French nationality, Mr. Chevreau,
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6 CIJ1032.indb 181 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 413
followed by a claim for compensation by the French Government for
material damage resulting from the loss of personal property during
Mr. Chevreau’s detention and expulsion (Chevreau case (France v. Great
Britain), 9 June 1931, English version from 27 American Journal of Inter‑
national Law 153, 1933).
25. The Chevreau case, which bears a very strong resemblance to the
present one, concerned in particular property, that is, “money, watchges and
jewels, clothes, books and other articles which, according to Mr. Chevreau,
were in his lodgings . . . when he was arrested, but which were not found on
December 24, 1918, when an inventory was made . . . in the presence of two
English officers and of the Director of Customs” (ibid., p. 178). The list of
property provided by Mr. Chevreau included not only the items whose
presence had been noted in the inventory of 24 December 1918, but other
items, too, notably “money, watches and jewels”, which he claimed gwere in
his possession before the events in question. The French State thereforeg
contended that the British State was responsible for the loss of the secguri -
ties and articles enumerated in Mr. Chevreau’s list, but not detailed in the
inventory. The Arbitrator found that the United Kingdom could not be
held responsible for this loss, even though the British authorities did gnot
deny that they were responsible for the safe-keeping of the effects in ques-
tion (ibid., p. 179). Therefore, he took account only of the contents of the
inventory, without taking into consideration the other items claimed by
Mr. Chevreau, which had not been found at the house when the inventory
was drawn up. It was under these circumstances that, on the sole basis ogf
the declarations and because of a lack of “documentary proof”, the Arbi -
trator found that “Mr. Chevreau’s claim for loss of effects in Persia could
not be sustained”, and decided that, in law, “[t]he burden of proogf [wa]s
upon the French Government and [that] the allegations of Mr. Chevreau
[could] not be accepted as sufficient proof” (ibid., p. 181; emphasis added).
26. In the present case, the Court has correctly applied this principle in
respect of some of the claims, dismissing the alleged material injury fogr
loss of earnings and the claim for compensation made by Guinea for the
loss of high-value items which were alleged to have been in Mr. Diallo’s
apartment at the time of his expulsion, but which were not found or listged
on the inventory (Judgment, para. 34), as well as the claims for the alleged
loss of income (ibid., paras. 41, 42, 44, 45 and 46) and potential earnings
(ibid., para. 48).
27. As can be seen, although a certain degree of flexibility is permitted g
in respect of non-material damage, regarded as inherent to the human
condition when subjected to violations and not having to be proved,
judges and arbitrators have always enforced a higher standard of proof, g
that of “sufficient proof” or “proof to the satisfaction of thge Court”.
Recourse to the Principles of Equity
28. While, in respect of material injury, the Court has sometimes based
reparation on considerations of equity, it has done so not because the egxis -
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6 CIJ1032.indb 183 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 414
tence or loss of the property in question was in doubt, but simply for tghe
purpose of estimating the value to be used as the basis for assessing thge
amount of compensation. Thus, in Orhan v. Turkey, in which “no deci -
sive . . . proof of the size and nature of the houses, property and posses -
sions destroyed and lost [was] provided”, the European Court of Human
Rights had to award compensation which was “speculative and based on
principles of equity” (Orhan v. Turkey, application No. 25656/94, judg -
ment of 18 June 2002, ECHR, paras. 423-424). Similarly, in a case involv-
ing the loss of a house and personal effects, whose value had not been
proved, but whose existence and ownership had been established, the same
court ruled that “[its] assessment of the amounts to be awarded must,g
by necessity, be based on principles of equity” ; it fixed that amount at
GBP 4,500, “[i]n the absence of any decisive evidence and making its gassess-
ment on an equitable basis” (Bilgin v. Turkey, application No. 23819/94,
judgment of 16 November 2000, ECHR, paras. 140 and 144).
Causal Link
29. Furthermore, generally speaking — and in this case — material
injury resulting from the loss of personal property and any subsequent
claim for reparation in respect of that injury should be rejected if thegre is
no causal link between the alleged injury and the wrongful conduct of thge
State in question, in this case the DRC.
30. It is true that the European Court of Human Rights, like the
Inter-American Court of Human Rights, has shown greater flexibility in
respect of the causal link for non-material injury, often presuming that
such an injury and the necessary causal link exist on the basis of the
nature of the violation, since the applicant could not be required to fur -
nish evidence of the non-material damage sustained, because this is inhe -
rent to the human condition and does not have to be proved, as indicatedg
by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (Goiburú and al. v.
Paraguay, judgment of 22 September 2006 (merits, reparations and costs),
IACHR).
31. However, even the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the
most favourable of all the courts in terms of safeguarding human rights g
and providing reparation for their violation, insists that there must beg a
minimal causal link. Indeed it defines material injury for which compen -
sation may be made as “the loss or impairment of the victims’ income, the
expenses incurred as a result of the facts and the monetary consequencesg
thereof bearing a causal link to the facts of the instant case” (Cantoral
Benavides v. Peru judgment, para. 166, and La Cantuta v. Peru, judgment
of 29 November 2006, para. 213 ; emphasis added).
32. That said, the characteristic flexibility which is shown almost sys -
tematically by that court should not be applied elsewhere, with the sameg
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6 CIJ1032.indb 185 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 415
reasoning or the same justification. In reality, even though this Court has
had cause to address certain aspects relating to human rights in the pres -
ent case, it remains a case of diplomatic protection between States, and
the Court has not become a human rights court. Furthermore, there is a
specific historical reason as to why the Inter-American Court has an
already established practice of flexibility towards evidence, essentiaglly
working on the basis of equity in order to determine the existence of thge
violation and of the injury and in assessing compensation : the court’s
first judgments were in cases concerning mass disappearances of persons
under dictatorships which were in place for decades in the States of Latin
America. As well as the atrocities of dictatorships, these cases also cogn -
cerned a period in which a number of these States were, for reasons of
national interest and security, engaged in wars against armed rebel grougps
(“Shining Path” and other “Maoists”) and in the arrest, degtention, tor -
ture and execution of suspects, such as the two Gómez-Paquiyauri broth -
ers, who were killed by security forces in Peru (Gómez‑Paquiyauri
Brothers v. Peru, judgment of 8 July 2004 (merits, reparations and costs),
IACHR). These are systematic crimes by the State, which led Judge Can -
çado Trindade, who described this tragedy as a reality which has alwagys
existed at the heart of the human race — irrespective of the régime or the
era — to state that, for the victims of this tragedy, “[n]othing will gbe as it
was before” and “[t]he survivors . . . today have the memory of paradise
lost” (Gómez‑Paquiyauri Brothers v. Peru, separate opinion of Judge Can -
çado Trindade, para. 6). Under these circumstances, it is understandable
that, from its first judgment on reparation and the assessment of compen -
sation, the Velásquez‑Rodríguez v. Honduras judgment rendered on
21 July 1989 (that is to say, before the Gómez‑Paquiyauri Brothers judg -
ment), the Inter-American Court of Human Rights adopted this attitude,
whereby it considered the systematic practice of violations of the rightg to
life as constituting an “autonomous human rights violation” [see Elise
Hansbury, Le juge interaméricain et le “jus cogens”, Geneva, Graduate
Institute of International and Development Studies, para. 34, referring to
the case of Velásquez‑Rodríguez v. Honduras, judgment of 29 July 1988
(merits), IACHR, para. 155]. This gave rise to the theory of “aggravated
responsibility”, which is not found elsewhere. The type of cases submgitted
to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights have thus lent themselves
to a less stringent approach : the circumstances of the systematic disap -
pearances and acts of torture for which the State was responsible actualgly
deprived the victims, or their relatives, of the possibility of establisghing
the violations (right to life, torture, etc.) or of proving that they ghad suf-
fered both physical and mental inhuman treatment. It is not surprising, g
therefore, that from the outset this court decided in principle that thigs
type of suffering did not have to be proved, and thus that it benefitedg
from a sort of irrefutable presumption as to its existence. But can it bge
said that such specific conditions could ever justify the general, systemgatic
application of such flexibility — and its extension to all types ofg material
injuries — by the Court, which does not deal either with crimes of thge
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6 CIJ1032.indb 187 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 416
State or with “autonomous human rights violations” of this kind ? That is
highly doubtful.
33. For its part, the European Court of Human Rights has always
maintained that, in respect of material injuries, the burden of proof reglat -
ing to the existence of those injuries and to the causal link should nor -
mally be borne by the applicant, and the absence of proof of one or othegr
of these has frequently led to the rejection of the claim. In Borisenko v.
Ukraine, for example, although the court awarded compensation of
€1,700, “ruling on an equitable basis, in respect of non-pecuniary dam -
age”, this was on account of the non-material injury, the court having
dismissed the material injury for which the applicant was claiming com -
pensation: “The Court does not discern any causal link between the vio -
lations found and the pecuniary damage alleged ; it therefore rejects that
claim.” (Borisenko v. Ukraine, application No. 25725/02, judgment of
12 January 2012, ECHR, para. 67.) Similarly, in Airey v. Ireland, the
European Court rejected the claim for material injury on the grounds thagt
the applicant had failed to establish that there was a causal relation
between the alleged violations and the losses suffered (Airey v. Ireland,
application No. 6289/73, judgment of 6 February 1981, ECHR, para. 12).
34. In Ahmed v. Romania (application No. 34621/03, judgment of
13 July 2010, ECHR), the Court, having awarded compensation for
non-material injury resulting from an arbitrary detention lasting more
than six months and followed by an unlawful expulsion, rejected the
claim for material injury on account of the loss of property, the bank -
ruptcy of the company and resettlement in another country, because of a
lack of evidence of the causal link :
“63. The Court finds that there is no causal link between the esta ‑
blished violations and the alleged material damage. However, it is of
the opinion that the applicant has suffered an undeniable moral
injury as a result of the established violations. Taking account of all g
of the facts in its possession and ruling on the basis of equity . . . it
decides to award the applicant a sum of €8,000 in this connection.”
(Emphasis added.)
There is one circumstance specific to the European Court of Human
Rights: the notion of equity is expressly provided by Article 41 of the
European Convention on Human Rights, which states that “[i]f the Courgt
finds that there has been a violation of the Convention or the Protocols g
thereto . . . the Court shall, if necessary, afford just satisfaction to the
injured party” (emphasis added). It is not, therefore, a general regflection
of current practice in the area of human rights, rather a provision limigted
to compensation.
35. The case of Somogyi v. Italy also involved a violation of Article 6
of the European Convention. The European Court of Human Rights
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6 CIJ1032.indb 189 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 417
stated the following, first in respect of material damage and then in relga-
tion to moral damage :
“83. The Court does not consider it appropriate to compensate the
applicant for the alleged losses, no causal link having been established
between the violation found and the negative effects the applicant’gs
conviction allegedly had on his commercial activities and his social
relations. (Emphasis added.)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85. As regards non-pecuniary damage, the Court considers that,
in the circumstances of the case, the finding of a violation constitutes g
in itself sufficient just satisfaction (see Brozicek v. Italy, judgment of
19 December 1989, Series A, No. 167, p. 20, para. 48; F. C. B. v.
Italy, cited above, p. 22, para. 38 ; and T. v. Italy, cited above, p. 43,
para. 32).” (Somogyi v. Italy, application No. 67972, judgment of
18 May 2004, ECHR, paras. 83-85.)
36. If one had to choose some exemplary cases in this respect from the
case law of the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal, it would be appropri-
ate to recall those which are similar to the one before the Court, namelgy
the Rankin, Daley and Yeager cases, in which the Tribunal demanded
proof of a causal link between the alleged loss of property and the con -
duct of the author of the internationally wrongful act, requiring the apgp- li
cants to demonstrate that they had abandoned the property in question
on leaving Iran, or that the property had been expropriated.
37. In view of all of the foregoing, it seems to me that whenever an
injury is linked to an object, a tangible thing whose existence can be sgub-
stantiated by evidence, decisions should not be made on the basis of cong-
jecture or of equity — as the majority of the Court has chosen to do in
the present Judgment ; nor should the Court act on the basis of any rea -
son or consideration other than that of sufficient proof, that is to say,
proof evidenced by documents.
The Present Case
38. Had this case law and practice been applied in the present case, the
Court would inevitably have had to reject Guinea’s claims for every hgead
of material injury or loss of material property for which it had failed gto
provide “sufficient proof” in support of its claim. This is what gthe Court
did in respect of the alleged loss of earnings (Judgment, paras. 44, 45
and 46).
39. Thus, although considerations of equity may be used in the event of
material loss in order to put a figure to the compensation—when the exact
value of the loss sustained (property or earnings) is not indicated org can-
not be determined — it is not possible to dispense with evidence in order
to prove the existence of the object in question, be it property or earngings.
40. In the Diallo case, beyond the inventory of Mr. Diallo’s personal
property drawn up by the Guinean Embassy — an inventory which is
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6 CIJ1032.indb 191 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 418
mentioned by the DRC in its Counter-Memorial, but actually provided by
Guinea itself (see Annexes 199 and 200 of the Memorial) — no evidence
has been produced by Guinea attesting to the existence of any other propg -
erty. Mr. Diallo’s lavish lifestyle in 1984 (Cartier watches, grand recep -
tions and designer clothes) does not prove that a number of luxury and
prestige items, not listed on the inventory, still existed in 1996, in circum -
stances where, in 1995, Mr. Diallo had had himself declared indigent and
was experiencing financial difficulties. If Mr. Diallo was forced to abandon
the property which he claims to have lost, it was because of the financiagl
difficulties of the companies he managed, and not because of the wrongfgul
expulsion carried out by the Congolese authorities.
41. Furthermore, the standard of proof — if only in respect of the
evaluation of the amount to be reimbursed — is such that, in the Chevreau
case, while accepting that it appeared “probable that Mr. Chevreau had
in his rooms more clothing than was indicated in the inventory”, the arbi -
trator, having contemplated the possibility of awarding an indemnity forg
the loss of this clothing, was obliged to reject that claim “for lack of infor‑
mation which would permit him to calculate an indemnity on this ground”
(Chevreau case, cited above, paras. 24-25 and 41-42 ; emphasis added).
42. One might also add in respect of the Chevreau case that, although the
arbitrator made an exception concerning the loss of a violin, whose existence
had not been recorded, he did so because it had been established that ang
empty violin case had been found at the house, allowing for the presump -
tion that Mr. Chevreau could have owned a violin. For the potential loss of
the violin, he was awarded compensation of 100 pounds sterling. In the
present case, the Court is unable even to raise a convincing presumptiong
that Mr. Diallo owned possessions other than those listed on the inventory.
43. It is true that it has not been possible to establish definitively the fagte
of the property in question following the drawing up of the inventor;yhow -
ever, nor has it not been demonstrated that they had been lost. On this
point, the Congolese Government argues — and no evidence to the contrary
has been produced — that this property should have been in the apartment,
which in all likelihood was under the guard of the Guinean Embassy. In agny
event, no attempt has been made to prove that the DRC is responsible forg
the possible loss or theft of that property while it was under the guardg of
Mr. Diallo’s trusted household staff, his friends or the Guinean Embassy
itself. This reasoning was adopted by the DRC to support its view that tghe
inventory of the property found in the apartment occupied by Mr. Diallo
was a credible piece of evidence of probative value, since it had been dgrawn
up on the initiative of and by the Guinean Embassy itself. As the Judgmegnt
recalls (para. 31), the Respondent also maintained that, in the absence of
evidence to the contrary, that inventory included all Mr. Diallo’s property
that was in his apartment and that this property had subsequently been
recovered by the Embassy, because the Congolese Government had had no
opportunity or reason to take possession of it, nor had it confiscated itg.
44. Equally, while the arbitrator in the Chevreau case considered that
it had not been satisfactorily established that there was a causal link g
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6 CIJ1032.indb 193 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 419
between the loss, as alleged by the French Government, of certain prop -
erty belonging to Mr. Chevreau and the conduct of the British Govern -
ment — even though the latter did not deny that it was responsible for
safeguarding the property (see Chevreau case, cited above, paras. 24-25
and 41-42), the situation in the present case is somewhat unclear. In egffect,
the Court itself lets it be understood that there is no clearly establisghed
causal link enabling it to be concluded that the alleged loss of that prop -
erty “was caused by the DRC’s unlawful conduct” (Judgment, parga. 32).
Moreover, it freely admits that “Guinea does not point to any evidencge
that Mr. Diallo attempted to transport or to dispose of the property in
the apartment, and there is no evidence before the Court that the DRC
barred him from doing so” and that “Guinea has failed to prove theg
extent of the loss of Mr. Diallo’s personal property listed on the inven -
tory and the extent to which any such loss was caused by the DRC’s
unlawful conduct” (ibid., para. 31), concluding therefore that there is no
causal link between the alleged loss of property and the wrongful deten -
tions and expulsion of Mr. Diallo.
45. In any event, no evidence has been produced which attests to the
loss of this property, or to its value, or to the fact that the DRC was g
responsible for that purported loss, as the Court recognizes (ibid.,
paras. 31-33); this head of damage should therefore have been rejected.
46. Paradoxically, however, having thus concluded that there is no
“definite” proof, the Court proceeds to award compensation by produgc -
ing a sort of unexpected auxiliary argument. Thus, while accepting that g
the DRC might be correct in its “contention that Guinean officials agnd
Mr. Diallo’s relatives were in a position to dispose of that personal progp -
erty after Mr. Diallo’s expulsion”, the Court nevertheless considers that,
“at a minimum, Mr. Diallo would have had to transport his personal
property to Guinea or to arrange for its disposition in the DRC”. Repa -
ration is thus no longer envisaged on account of the definite loss of theg
property in question, nor of the role played by the Congolese Govern -
ment in that loss ; consequently, it no longer has any legal basis. How -
ever, unable to rely on the “transport” of the property to Guinea gor its
“disposition” in the DRC as a serious basis for compensation — which
would imply that there was proof of the property’s existence, its losgs and
the causal link between that loss and the DRC’s conduct — it is by pure
artifice, and with no clear reasoning, that the majority of the Court is g
content to state (ibid., para. 36) that “in view of the Court’s conclusions
above . . . regarding the personal property of Mr. Diallo . . ., the Court
awards the sum of US$10,000 under this head of damage”. However, on
this precise point, it can be seen that the Court had, in fact, reached gthe
opposite conclusion — that no evidence whatsoever had been supplied by
Guinea. What, then, is the head of damage in question ?
47. I am therefore of the opinion that the majority has failed to assess
the situation correctly in holding that it was entitled to award compensga -
tion for loss of physical property whose existence and value have not begen
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6 CIJ1032.indb 195 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 420
established, nor its loss, or the DRC’s responsibility for that loss. It
appears to have been difficult to avoid comparing the size of Guinea’gs
initial claims with the amount of reparation that it was ultimately entigtled
to claim on the basis of the case file submitted by it and considered by the
Court. That notion of compensation does not, in my view, correspond in
the present case to what might be called “equity”.
(Signed) Auguste Mampuya.
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6 CIJ1032.indb 197 26/11/13 09:37
403
OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE AD HOC MAMPUYA
Le montant de l’indemnité au titre du préjudice moral calculé▯ par la Cour est
exorbitant et n’est pas proportionnel au préjudice subi par M. Diallo — Les prin ‑
cipes régissant la fixation du montant de la réparation en droit i▯nternational
doivent s’appliquer avec la même rigueur à la réparation pou▯r préjudice moral —
L’obligation générale de réparation intégrale ne doit pas▯ comporter un caractère
punitif ni exemplaire — Le montant de l’indemnisation ne doit représenter que la
juste compensation du dommage subi — La jurisprudence constante des cours des
droits de l’homme, des tribunaux arbitraux et des commissions de ré▯clamations
montre que ces juridictions respectent le principe de proportion au moment de fixer
le montant de la réparation — Les indemnités au titre de préjudice moral accor ‑
dées par ces juridictions pour des violations des droits de l’homme plus graves que
celles subies par M. Diallo sont inférieures à celles accordées à M. Diallo — Les
conditions qui ont entouré les détentions et l’expulsion de M. Diallo ne constituent
pas des circonstances aggravantes justifiant le montant excessif au titr▯e du préju‑
dice moral — Des principes applicables pour réparation du préjudice matérie▯l —
La preuve de l’existence du préjudice matériel ainsi que le lie▯n de causalité entre le
préjudice et le comportement illicite de l’Etat responsable s’a▯vèrent fondamentaux
pour l’établissement de l’indemnisation — La Guinée n’a pas apporté de « preuves
suffisantes» établissant le dommage matériel allégué par M. Diallo sous la forme
de perte de biens personnels — Le principe d’équité auquel d’autres juridictions ont
fait appel dans leur jurisprudence n’est applicable qu’aux fins d’▯estimation de la
valeur devant servir de base au calcul du montant de l’indemnisation — La Guinée
n’a pas démontré un lien de causalité entre le préjudice ▯matériel pour perte des
biens personnels allégué par M. Diallo et le comportement de la RDC — Les cours
des droits de l’homme se montrent plus exigeantes en matière de pr▯euves et
demandent un lien de causalité directe avec les faits incriminés — Bien que l’exis ‑
tence de biens personnels de M. Diallo ait été prouvée par l’inventaire, la Guinée
n’a pourtant pas démontré que certains autres biens aient existé en dehors de ce▯ux
énumérés dans l’inventaire ni que ces biens avaient été▯ perdus ou que leur perte
était imputable à la RDC — Le montant de 10 000 dollars des Etats‑Unis, fixé par
la Cour, pour préjudice matériel ne repose sur aucun fondement jur▯idique.
J’ai franchement adhéré, sur leur principe, aux principales congclusions
retenues dans l’arrêt que la Cour a rendu pour enfin clore, par la gfixation
du montant de l’indemnisation découlant de la reconnaissance de la
responsabilité internationale de la RDC pour fait internationalement g
illicite à raison de la violation des droits individuels de M Diallo, cette
affaire qui dure depuis 1998. J’aurais bien voulu être d’accogrd avec la
majorité de la Cour sur l’ensemble des points en discussion ; malheureuse -
ment, je n’ai pu suivre la majorité sur deux points du dispositif,g qui en
comporte six. Voilà ce qui justifie les explications que je me dois deg
présenter dans cette opinion, non, bien évidemment, pas dissidente mais
individuelle.
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6 CIJ1032.indb 162 26/11/13 09:37 403
SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC MAMPUYA
[Translation]
The amount of compensation calculated by the Court in respect of the mor▯al
injury is excessive, and disproportionate to Mr. Diallo’s suffering — The principles
governing the assessment of pecuniary reparation in international law sh▯ould be
applied with the same rigour to reparation for moral injury — The general obliga ‑
tion to make full reparation should not have a punitive or exemplary cha▯racter —
The pecuniary award should simply represent fair compensation for the in▯jury sus ‑
tained — The established jurisprudence of the human rights courts, arbitral ▯
tribunals and claims commissions shows that these organizations adhere t▯o the
principle of proportionality when determining the amount of reparation — The
amounts awarded by those bodies in respect of moral injury resulting from graver
human rights violations than those suffered by Mr. Diallo are smaller than that
awarded to Mr. Diallo — The conditions which surrounded Mr. Diallo’s deten ‑
tions and expulsion do not constitute aggravating circumstances justifyi▯ng the
excessive award for moral injury — The applicable principles for reparation of
material injury — Evidence of the existence of the material injury and of the causal ▯
link between the injury and the wrongful conduct of the responsible Stat▯e is essen ‑
tial in order to establish the right to compensation — Guinea has failed to provide
“sufficient proof” establishing the material injury allegedly suffered by Mr. Diallo
in the form of loss of personal property — The principle of equity to which other
courts have referred in their jurisprudence is only applicable for the purpose of
estimating the value to be used as the basis for calculating the amount ▯of compen ‑
sation — Guinea has not demonstrated that there is a causal link between the▯
material injury resulting from the loss of personal property alleged by ▯Mr. Diallo
and the conduct of the DRC — The human rights courts are more exacting in
respect of evidence and require that there be a direct causal link with ▯the alleged
offences — While the existence of Mr. Diallo’s personal property has been proved
by the inventory, Guinea, however, has failed to demonstrate that certai▯n other
property, in addition to that recorded in the inventory, existed, or that this prop ‑
erty was lost or that its loss was imputable to the DRC — The sum of US$10,000
fixed by the Court for the material injury has no legal basis.
I firmly supported the principle of the main conclusions adopted in the
Judgment rendered by the Court, in order to finally bring an end to this g
case, which has been ongoing since 1998, by fixing the amount of com -
pensation owed as a result of its finding that the international responsigbi-l
ity of the DRC is engaged by internationally wrongful acts which violategd
Mr. Diallo’s individual rights. I would very much have liked to have
agreed with the majority of the Court on all of the points under discus -
sion; unfortunately, I could not subscribe to two of the six points of the
operative clause. Hence the explanations I am obliged to set out in thisg
opinion, which is quite clearly not dissenting, but separate.
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6 CIJ1032.indb 163 26/11/13 09:37 404 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
1. Il s’agit d’abord d’un point d’appréciation en relation ngon avec le
principe, mais avec l’évaluation du montant, pour moi d’une haugteur
injustifiée, de l’indemnisation due par la RDC à la Guinée pour le préju -
dice moral, ou « immatériel», subi par M. Diallo à la suite de ses déten -
tions et expulsion par les autorités du défendeur. J’ai exprimég mon
désaccord sur un deuxième point : il s’agit d’un point de droit concernant
la base juridique, pour moi inexistante en l’absence de toute preuve,g de
l’indemnisation allouée au titre de préjudice matériel du fagit de la perte de
biens personnels de M. Diallo. Ma divergence avec la majorité de la Cour
sur ce point ainsi que mon vote subséquent s’expliquent du fait qug’il s’agit
d’une importante question juridique de principe, nullement en raison gdu
montant, du reste modeste, de l’indemnité accordée de 10 000 dollars des
Etats-Unis, mais au regard de l’importante question de l’administrgation
de la preuve en matière de réparation.
2. Etant entendu que, depuis son arrêt sur la fixation du montant de
l’indemnisation dans l’affaire du Détroit de Corfou (Royaume‑Uni c. Alba ‑
nie) (fixation du montant des réparations, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 244
et suiv.), c’est la première fois que la Cour est appelée à se prononcer sur
la fixation de l’indemnisation due par un Etat au titre de la responsagbilité
internationale de celui-ci pour fait internationalement illicite ; la Cour ne
peut se référer qu’à la riche expérience d’autres jurigdictions, y compris
celle des tribunaux d’arbitrage et de réclamations. La pratique lag plus
exemplaire, à cet égard, est celle des deux cours régionales degs droits de
l’homme: la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme (CEDH) et la Cour
interaméricaine des droits de l’homme (CIADH), mais aussi celle gdu Tri -
bunal des réclamations Etats-Unis/Iran. L’abondante jurisprudence gde
ces juridictions a permis de dégager les principes qui, aujourd’hugi,
président à l’examen de toutes les questions soulevées par lga détermina -
tion de la réparation et la fixation de l’indemnisation due par un Etat en
matière de responsabilité internationale.
3. Ce sont donc cette jurisprudence et ces principes qui, selon la Cour
elle-même, devraient la guider aussi bien pour la réparation en général
que pour la fixation du montant de l’indemnisation. Or, l’analyse qgue j’ai
faite du présent arrêt à la lumière de ces sources me conduit à constater
que, finalement, la Cour ne s’en est pas inspirée.
4. Je commencerai mon exposé par la question, facile parce que de
simple appréciation de fait, de la détermination du montant de l’gindemni -
sation dû au titre du préjudice immatériel ou moral. Cela pour gdémontrer
que la Cour n’a pas respecté les quelques principes dégagés gpar la juris -
prudence constante, en fixant un montant qui s’avère nettement exorgbi -
tant au regard de ce que pratiquent toutes les autres juridictions, y
compris celles spécialisées dans la sauvegarde des droits de l’ghomme,
pourtant en principe les plus favorables aux victimes.
5. C’est après cela que j’expliquerai plus longuement ma vision sugr la
décision de la Cour d’octroyer une indemnité, peu importe son mgontant,
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6 CIJ1032.indb 164 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 404
1. Firstly, I disagree with the finding relating not to the principle of the
compensation owed by the DRC to Guinea for the moral — or “non-mate -
rial” — injury suffered by Mr. Diallo following his detentions and expul -
sion by the Respondent’s authorities, but to the assessment of the amgount
of that compensation, which, in my view, is unjustifiably high. I have also
expressed my disagreement with a second point : a point of law concern -
ing the legal basis of the compensation awarded for the material injury g
caused by the loss of Mr. Diallo’s personal property, a basis which, to my
mind, in the absence of any evidence, does not exist. I opposed the major -
ity of the Court on this point, and voted accordingly, because there is gan
important legal question of principle at issue : not in view of the amount
of compensation awarded, which at US$10,000 is a modest sum, but in
view of the significant evidentiary issue in relation to reparation.
2. This is the first time since its Judgment fixing the amount of com -
pensation in the case concerning the Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v.
Albania)(Assessment of Amount of Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1949, pp. 244 et seq.) that the Court has been called upon to decide the
compensation owed by a State whose international responsibility is
engaged by internationally wrongful acts ; the Court, therefore, has no
choice but to refer to the rich experience of other courts, including that of
arbitration and claims tribunals. The most illustrative practice in thisg
regard is that of the two regional human rights courts — the European
Court of Human Rights (ECHR) and the Inter-American Court of
Human Rights (IACHR) — as well as that of the Iran-United States
Claims Tribunal. The abundant case law of these courts has enabled prin -
ciples to be identified, which today govern the examination of any
questions raised by the assessment of the reparation and the fixing of
the compensation owed by a State whose international responsibility is
engaged.
3. It is, therefore, this case law and these principles which, according tog
the Court itself, should guide it in its approach to reparation in genergal
and in fixing the amount of compensation. However, my analysis of the
present Judgment, carried out in the light of these sources, leads me tog
conclude that they have not, in fact, been taken into account by the
Court.
4. I will begin by addressing the question of the determination of the
amount of compensation owed for the non-material or moral injury — a
straightforward exercise, because it amounts simply to an assessment of g
the facts. In so doing, I will demonstrate that the Court has failed to g
respect those principles which have emerged from the established juris -
prudence, by fixing an amount which is clearly excessive in view of the
practice of all the other courts, including those specializing in the sagfe -
guarding of human rights, although these are, in principle, the most
favourable to the victims.
5. I will then explain in more detail my view of the Court’s decision tog
award Guinea compensation — whatever the amount — for “material
84
6 CIJ1032.indb 165 26/11/13 09:37 405 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
à la Guinée pour « préjudice matériel » du fait de la perte alléguée par
M. Diallo des biens de ce dernier à la suite de ses détentions et expulsion
par la RDC en janvier 1996. Je démontrerai que cette indemnisation n’a
aucune espèce de fondement juridique, aucune justification, faute pourg la
Guinée d’avoir prouvé l’existence du préjudice, preuve qugi, sans être une
condition de la responsabilité, laquelle découle directement de lag commis -
sion du fait internationalement illicite, n’en est pas moins la base gincon -
tournable de la réparation et la mesure de l’indemnité à allgouer. Cette
preuve devait, notamment, démontrer que M. Diallo avait effectivement
possédé et perdu les biens en question et que leur perte était gimputable à
la RDC comme la conséquence directe des détentions et expulsion ilglicites
du ressortissant guinéen par cet Etat.
I. Montant exagéré de l’igndemnité pour préjudigce immatériel
(psychologique ou moralg)
6. Il est incontestable que M. Diallo a subi un préjudice moral du fait
de ses arrestations et expulsion déclarées illégales et arbitragires par la
Cour dans son arrêt du 30 novembre 2010 (C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II),
p. 692, par. 165, points 2, 3 et 4 du dispositif) et que, pour cela, une répa -
ration sous forme d’indemnisation lui est due. Le problème qui se gpose est
celui du montant d’une « indemnisation appropriée».
7. A cet égard, le montant réclamé par la Guinée (250 000 dollars des
Etats-Unis) est manifestement disproportionné au regard de la pratiqgue
en cette matière (même de la part des tribunaux internes) et de gla nature
du préjudice (purement moral et psychologique), à propos duquel la juris -
prudence a dans certains cas, notamment lorsqu’il s’est agi de régparer au
profit des Etats, souvent limité la réparation à la satisfactiong et à un
«jugement déclaratoire», comme l’arrêt de fond du 30 novembre 2010 en
a jugé concernant la violation par la RDC de l’alinéa b) du paragraphe 1
de l’article 36 de la convention de Vienne sur les relations consulaires
(ibid., p. 691, par. 161, et p. 693, point 7 du dispositif). Certes, la Cour
elle-même a trouvé exagérées et disproportionnées les prégtentions gui -
néennes de 250 000 dollars des Etats-Unis (voir le présent arrêt, par. 10),
parce qu’elle ne suit pas la Guinée sur ce point. Mais l’indemnisation de
85 000 dollars des Etats-Unis qu’elle lui accorde va bien au-delà des
sommes pratiquées jusque-là pour des violations semblables et mêgme plus
graves visant des obligations comparables. Certes, le préjudice moralg ne
peut se mesurer; on peut même affirmer qu’il n’a pas à se prouver, à stgric -
tement parler, parce qu’il est inhérent à la condition humaine gen situation
de violation des droits. Mais il existe tout de même une aune à lagquelle
mesurer un tel dommage dans le cas d’espèce, au regard de ses circgons -
tances spécifiques, laquelle ne peut résider que dans les conditiongs qui ont
entouré les détentions et l’expulsion de M. Diallo.
8. De la jurisprudence et de la pratique se dégagent un certain nombre
de principes présidant à la fixation du montant de l’indemnitég. Au nombre
85
6 CIJ1032.indb 166 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 405
injury” caused by Mr. Diallo’s alleged loss of his property following his
detentions and expulsion by the DRC in January 1996. I will demonstrate
that this award of compensation has no legal basis and no justification, g
since Guinea has failed to provide evidence of the existence of the injugry;
such evidence, although not a condition of responsibility — which derives
directly from the commission of the internationally wrongful act — is
nevertheless the indispensable basis for the award of reparation and theg
measure of the amount of compensation to be awarded. In particular,
such evidence should show that Mr. Diallo did in fact possess and lose
the property in question, and that its loss was imputable to the DRC as ga
direct consequence of the wrongful detentions and expulsion of the Guin -
ean national by that State.
I. Excessive Amount of Compgensation for Non-Material
(Mental or Moral) Injury
6. It is not disputed that Mr. Diallo sustained moral injury as a conse -
quence of his arrests and expulsion, which were declared unlawful
and arbitrary by the Court in its Judgment of 30 November 2010
(I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 692, para. 165, points 2, 3 and 4 of the opera-
tive clause), or that he is therefore entitled to reparation in the forgm of
compensation. The problem is the amount of the “appropriate compen-
sation”.
7. In this connection, the amount claimed by Guinea (US$250,000) is
clearly disproportionate given the practice in this area (even by domesgtic
courts) and the nature of the injury (purely moral and mental), in respect
of which, in certain cases, particularly those concerning reparation to g
States, reparation has often been limited to satisfaction and to a “dgeclara -
tory judgment”, for example, the finding in the Judgment on the meritsg of
30 November 2010 that the DRC had violated Article 36, paragraph 1 (b)
of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (ibid., p. 691, para. 161
and p. 693, point 7 of the operative clause). It is clear that the Court also
considered Guinea’s claim of US$250,000 (see para. 10 of the present
Judgment) to be both excessive and disproportionate, because it did notg
accede to Guinea’s request on this point. Nevertheless, the US$85,000g
compensation which it has awarded is significantly higher than the
amounts awarded to date for similar and even more serious violations
of comparable obligations. Of course, moral injury cannot be measured.
One can even argue that, strictly speaking, it does not have to be provegd,
because it is inherent to the human condition when subjected to a viola -
tion of rights. However, there is nevertheless a standard by which to
measure such injury in the present case which, in view of its specific cigr -
cumstances, can only be the conditions surrounding Mr. Diallo’s deten -
tions and expulsion.
8. From the case law and practice a certain number of principles emerge,
which govern how compensation should be measured. Among these is the
85
6 CIJ1032.indb 167 26/11/13 09:37 406 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
de ces principes figure celui, incontestable, selon lequel, si l’indemgnisation
a pour mission première de remédier aussi intégralement que posgsible à
toutes les formes de pertes subies par suite d’un fait internationalement
illicite, elle n’a certainement pas pour but de punir l’Etat respognsable et
ne doit pas non plus avoir un caractère expressif ou exemplaire. La CgDI
avait déjà retenu cette idée dès ses premiers rapports sur lga responsabilité
des Etats, citant la doctrine, notamment Jiménez de Aréchaga : « les
dommages-intérêts à caractère punitif ou exemplaire sont incgompatibles
avec l’idée qui est à la base du devoir de réparation » (E. Jiménez de Aré -
chaga, « International Responsibility »M , anual of Public International Law,
Londres, Macmillan, 1968, cité dans les documents des Nations Unies Ag/
CN.4/425 & Corr. and Add.1 & Corr.1, Deuxième Rapport sur la respon ‑
sabilité des Etats, par M. Gaetano Arangio-Ruiz, rapporteur spécial,
1989, par. 24). Elle la reprend dans son Projet d’articles sur la responsa -
bilité de l’Etat, d’abord en commentant l’article 36 relatif à l’indemnisa -
tion, puis à propos de l’article 37, paragraphe 3, qui, pour la satisfaction,
fixe la même limite : « [l]a satisfaction ne doit pas être hors de proportion
avec le préjudice et ne peut pas prendre une forme humiliante pour l’Etat
responsable » (Annuaire de la Commission du droit international, 2001,
vol. II ; J. Crawford, The International Law Commission’s Articles on
State Responsibility — Introduction, Text and Commentaries, « Commen -
tary under Article 36 », p. 219, et p. 231 et 234 ; les italiques sont de moi).
Ce principe de proportion entre la réparation, quelle qu’en soit lga forme,
et le préjudice est bien établi, faisant de ce dernier la mesure du niveau ou
du montant de l’indemnisation, afin que cette dernière ne représgente que
la juste compensation du dommage subi. L’indemnité ne doit donc pags
dépasser le niveau de la compensation, même s’il est tentant, dgans le
domaine des droits de l’homme, où l’on considère les violatigons comme
particulièrement choquantes et insupportables pour la dignité de lga per -
sonne, de dépasser ce niveau, soit pour punir l’Etat ayant ainsi méconnu
la valeur de l’humanité, soit, par l’exemplarité ou le caracgtère spectacu -
laire, pour intimider ou dissuader les autres Etats de se comporter de lga
même manière.
9. Certes, toute réparation, surtout pécuniaire, comporte en elle-mêgme
un élément de dissuasion, mais c’est un élément inhéregnt à la réparation
dans son principe même, comme la sanction pénale revêt un caractère
nécessairement punitif et donc intimidant, sans pour autant procédger
d’une volonté de vengeance publique contre le délinquant. Mais gla répa -
ration va au-delà de cet aspect et de ce rôle inhérents de dissguasion
lorsque, notamment, son montant ne correspond plus à une compensa -
tion aussi complète, mais en même temps aussi exacte que possible,g de la
hauteur du préjudice à réparer; tel est le cas d’une indemnisation manifes -
tement trop élevée. Il est vrai, par ailleurs, qu’un préjudigce moral ne peut
se mesurer en valeur monétaire, mais, l’argent étant, comme il ga été dit,
«la commune mesure de toutes les valeurs » (Grotius), parce qu’il faudra
ainsi compenser le préjudice par des sommes d’argent, le juge ne dgédai -
gnera pas de s’inspirer de la pratique des autres juridictions et arbgitres,
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6 CIJ1032.indb 168 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 406
undeniable principle that, while the primary aim of compensation is to
remedy as fully as possible all forms of loss suffered as a result of gan inter-
nationally wrongful act, compensation is in no sense intended to punish g
the responsible State, and nor should it be of an expressive or exemplary
nature. This approach was adopted by the ILC from its very first reports g
on State responsibility, citing, inter alia, from the work of Jiménez de Aré -
chaga: “punitive or exemplary damages . . . are incompatible with the
basic idea underlying the duty of reparation” (E. Jiménez de Aréchaga,
“International Responsibility”, Manual of Public International Law, Lon -
don, Macmillan, 1968, cited in UN doc. A/CN.4/425 & Corr.1 and Add.1
& Corr.1, Second Report on State Responsibility, by Mr. Gaetano Aran -
gio-Ruiz, Special Rapporteur, 1989, para. 24). That principle is incorpo -
rated in the ILC’s Draft Articles on State Responsibility, first in thge
commentary on Article 36 relating to compensation and then in Arti -
cle 37, paragraph 3, in respect of satisfaction : “[s]atisfaction shall not be
out of proportion to the injury and may not take a form humiliating to t▯he
responsible State” (Yearbook of the International Law Commission, 2001,
Vol. II ; J. Crawford, The International Law Commission’s Articles on
State Responsibility — Introduction, Text and Commentaries, “Commen -
tary under Article 36”, p. 219 and pp. 231 and 234 ; emphasis added).
This principle of proportionality between the reparation, whatever form g
it takes, and the injury, is well established : the extent of the injury should
be the measure of the level or amount of the compensation, thus ensuringg
that the latter simply represents fair compensation for the injury suffgered.
A pecuniary award should not exceed the level of compensation, even
though there is a temptation in respect of human rights violations —
which are regarded as particularly shocking and offensive to human digg -
nity — to go beyond this, either to punish the State responsible for thoseg
violations or, by making an exemplary or spectacular award, to intimi -
date other States and discourage them from similar conduct.
9. Of course, all reparation, particularly pecuniary reparation, entails
an element of dissuasion, but this element is inherent to the principle gof
reparation, just as criminal punishment is necessarily punitive and therge -
fore intimidating, yet does not reflect a desire to punish the offender pub -
licly. However, reparation goes beyond this inherently dissuasive aspectg
and function when the sum awarded no longer corresponds to an amount
of compensation reflecting not only as fully as possible, but at the sgame
time as precisely as possible, the scale of the injury for which reparation
must be made; such is the case of compensation which is clearly excessive.
It is true, moreover, that a moral injury cannot be measured in monetaryg
terms, but money is, as the saying goes, “the common measure of valu -
able things” (Grotius), and since the injury must therefore be compgen -
sated by sums of money, a court should not decline to be guided by the
practice of other courts and arbitral bodies, whose decisions may be
86
6 CIJ1032.indb 169 26/11/13 09:37 407 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
dont les décisions peuvent être regardées comme une indication du niveau
moyen des sommes allouées pour « soulager» le préjudice moral des vic -
times ou de leurs proches.
10. C’est ce qui explique que même la Cour interaméricaine des droigts
de l’homme, si bienveillante et si généreuse à l’égardg des demandes d’in -
demnisation des victimes de violations des droits de l’homme, a adoptgé ce
principe de proportion dès son tout premier arrêt en matière deg répara -
tions, dans l’affaire Velásquez‑Rodrίguez c. Honduras (arrêt du 21 juillet
1989 (réparations et frais), par. 38), devenu la référence en la matière, où
elle a déclaré que le droit international ne reconnaissait pas de gréparation
à caractère pénal contre les Etats. Ce n’est pas que les «g dommages-
intérêts punitifs » (punitive damages) soient absolument inconcevables,
c’est plutôt que, même si certains systèmes nationaux en pergmettent
l’octroi, telle n’est pas la destination de la réparation, pégcuniaire ou autre,
en droit international.
11. Certes, les conditions de détention ou d’expulsion, par exemple
l’isolement, la torture, les mauvais traitements, la durée de la détention,
etc., sont des circonstances propres à chaque affaire et pourraientg, selon
le cas, expliquer une indemnisation plus élevée, tandis que leur agbsence
imposerait une indemnisation moins élevée. Or, dans le cas d’esgpèce, la
Cour a reconnu que M. Diallo n’avait pas subi de traitements inhumains
ou dégradants au cours de ses détentions. Après y avoir fait unge rapide
allusion, la Guinée a renoncé à maintenir de telles accusationsg et n’a pas
tenté d’en donner un commencement de preuve (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo
(République de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo), fond, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 671, par. 88-89, et p. 693, par. 165, point 5 du
dispositif; présent arrêt, par. 21). De même, la durée totale des détentions
de M. Diallo n’a guère dépassé, pour retenir, sans considérer lges contesta -
tions de la RDC, les chiffres contradictoires avancés par la Guinée elle-
même (C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 659-660, par. 48-52), soixante-six à
soixante-douze jours. Certes, la privation de la liberté, qu’elle soit de
quelques heures ou de plusieurs années, est condamnable lorsqu’ellge est
illicite ou arbitraire, mais sa durée n’est pas indifférente gpour mesurer les
souffrances endurées par la personne détenue et la gravité dug préjudice
qu’il faudra réparer. Aussi n’aurait-il pas été inutile qgue la Cour compa -
rât cette durée avec celles, bien plus longues, examinées par dg’autres juri-
dictions dont la pratique et l’expérience auraient dû l’inspgirer dans la
présente affaire.
12. La Cour n’a pas non plus retenu, à proprement parler, de circons -
tances aggravantes en dehors des caractères illicite et arbitraire degs déten -
tions et expulsion, ce à quoi se résume, du reste, la violation deg ses
obligations par la RDC, car, comme elle le dit elle-même, « le préjudice
immatériel subi découle nécessairement des faits illicites dontg la Cour a
déjà établi l’existence » (arrêt, par. 21). Elle rappelle par la suite (ibid.),
sans les qualifier expressément d’aggravantes, les circonstances pagrticu -
lières des détentions et de l’expulsion de M. Diallo, telles que décrites
dans son arrêt au fond (C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 666-670, par. 74-84).
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6 CIJ1032.indb 170 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 407
regarded as giving an indication of the average size of the sums awardedg
to “ease” the moral injury of victims or their relatives.
10. The foregoing explains why even the Inter-American Court of
Human Rights, which has a very compassionate and generous attitude
towards the compensation claims of victims of human rights violations,
adopted this principle of proportionality in its very first judgment on
reparation, in the Velásquez Rodríguez v. Honduras case (judgment of
21 July 1989 (reparations and costs), para. 38), which has since become a
point of reference in the field, and in which it stated that internationagl law
did not recognize reparation which punished States. It is not that “pguni -
tive damages” are completely inconceivable, rather that, while certain
national systems do permit the award of such damages, punishment is not g
the purpose of reparation, pecuniary or otherwise, in international law.g
11. Of course, the conditions of detention or expulsion — for example,
solitary confinement, torture, ill-treatment, the length of the detention,
etc. — are circumstances specific to each case and could, depending on the
case, justify a higher amount of compensation, while their absence wouldg
impose a lesser amount. In the present case, however, the Court has
acknowledged that Mr. Diallo did not suffer inhuman or degrading treat -
ment during his detentions. Having briefly alluded to such treatment,
Guinea chose to abandon any such accusations, and did not attempt to
offer the slightest proof that such treatment occurred (Ahmadou Sadio
Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Merits,
Judgment, I.C.J Reports 2010 (II), p. 671, paras. 88-89 and p. 693,
para. 165, point 5 of the operative clause ; present Judgment, para. 21).
Furthermore, the total duration of Mr. Diallo’s detentions did not exceed —
to use the variable figures advanced by Guinea (I.C.J Reports 2010 (II),
pp. 659-660, paras. 48-52) and disregarding the DRC’s challenge to those
figures — 66 to 72 days. Of course, the deprivation of liberty, whether for
a few hours or several years, should be condemned when it is wrongful or
arbitrary, but its duration is not irrelevant when measuring the suffegrings
endured by the individual detained or the seriousness of the injury for
which reparation must be made. It would therefore have been useful for tghe
Court to compare the duration of Mr. Diallo’s detention with the much
longer detentions considered by other courts, whose practice and experi -
ence should have guided the Court in the present case.
12. Nor, strictly speaking, did the Court accept that there were aggra -
vating circumstances beyond the unlawful and arbitrary character of the g
detentions and expulsion which, moreover, constitute the full extent of g
the DRC’s violation of its obligations, for, as the Court said itselfg, “the
fact that [Mr. Diallo] suffered non-material injury is an inevitable conse -
quence of the wrongful acts of the DRC already ascertained by the Court”g
(Judgment, para. 21). It then recalled (ibid.), without expressly calling
them aggravating, the specific circumstances of Mr. Diallo’s detentions
and expulsion, as described in its Judgment on the merits (I.C.J
87
6 CIJ1032.indb 171 26/11/13 09:37 408 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
S’agissant de ces circonstances particulières, même le fait queg, expulsé le
31 janvier 1996, M. Diallo « [n’]avait reçu [que] le même jour notification
de la mesure dont il faisait l’objet », n’est pas, comme tel, relevé comme
circonstance aggravante. Et, si la Cour a dit que M. Diallo « avait été
détenu pendant une période exagérément longue en attendant sgon expul -
sion» (arrêt, par. 21, et C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 668, par. 79), c’est par
rapport à l’argument qu’avançait la RDC pour justifier la dégtention par
la nécessité d’éviter que l’intéressé ne s’évgade et n’échappe à l’expulsion.
Ces circonstances constituent précisément la forme prise par la vigolation.
13. C’est pourquoi la comparaison du cas de M. Diallo avec certaines
affaires jugées par la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme gou la Cour
interaméricaine des droits de l’homme fait découvrir, sans minigmiser pour
autant la souffrance de M. Diallo, que les situations portées devant
celles-ci étaient très souvent bien plus graves que celle du ressogrtissant gui
néen: notification de la mesure d’expulsion le jour même de son exécgu -
tion, détention de plusieurs années, tortures, traitements inhumaigns et
dégradants, isolement, disparitions forcées, exécutions extrajugdiciaires,
etc. Pourtant, dans nombre de ces cas, les juridictions ont alloué degs
sommes bien plus faibles, approchant tout au plus de la somme de
30 000 dollars des Etats-Unis offerte par le défendeur lui-même comme
une indemnisation adéquate compte tenu des circonstances spécifiques de
l’affaire. Dans les quelques cas où des sommes relativement églevées furent
accordées par la Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme, ilg s’agissait
de disparitions forcées, d’enlèvements, d’exécutions extrgajudiciaires, etc.
14. Généralement, l’indemnité accordée pour préjudice immagtériel est
donc relativement modeste, en rapport avec la nature du dommage subi,
surtout si celui-ci n’a pas eu de manifestations somatiques notables get
prouvées. Ci-dessous figurent quelques exemples des sommes allouéesg en
réparation du préjudice moral :
a) Cour européenne des droits de l’homme : 24 000 euros dans l’affaire
M.S.S. c. Belgique et Grèce ; 15 000 euros dans l’affaire Khodzhayev
c. Russie; 8 000 euros dans l’affaire Ahmed c. Roumanie ; 15 000 euros
dans l’affaire Lupsa c. Roumanie, pour des détentions de plusieurs
années accompagnées de circonstances aggravantes; 50 000 dollars des
Etats-Unis dans l’affaire M. c. Allemagne, pour une détention arbi -
traire de plus de huit ans. Dans l’affaire Nowak c. Ukraine, la Cour
européenne des droits de l’homme a accordé 16 000 euros pour déten -
tion illicite, expulsion arbitraire et mauvais traitements, et violationg des
garanties offertes par le protocole n o 7. Pourtant, M. Nowak était titu-
laire d’un permis de séjour en cours de validité à la date dge son expul-
sion et était un « étranger résidant régulièrement » en Ukraine au sens
de l’article premier du protocole n o 7. De plus, l’arrêté d’expulsion lui
a été notifié à la date de son départ dans une langue qu’gil ne comprenait
pas et dans des circonstances qui ne lui ont pas permis de se faire
représenter ou de soumettre des arguments contre son expulsion.
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6 CIJ1032.indb 172 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 408
Reports 2010 (II), pp. 666-670, paras. 74-84). In respect of these specific
circumstances, even the fact that, expelled on 31 January 1996, Mr. Diallo
“[only] received notice of his expulsion on the same day” is not cgonsid -
ered as an aggravating circumstance in itself. And while the Court stategs
that Mr. Diallo “was detained for an unjustifiably long period pending
expulsion” (present Judgment, para. 21, and I.C.J Reports 2010 (II),
p. 668, para. 79), it does so in response to the DRC’s argument that the
detention was necessary, in order to prevent the individual concerned
from fleeing and escaping expulsion. These circumstances constitute thge
very form of the violation.
13. Thus, a comparison of Mr. Diallo’s case with certain cases ruled on
by the European Court of Human Rights or the Inter-American Court of
Human Rights shows that, without making light of Mr. Diallo’s suffer -
ing, the situations presented before those courts were often much graverg
than that of the Guinean national : notification of the expulsion measure
on the same day it was carried out, detention of several years, torture,g
inhuman and degrading treatment, solitary confinement, enforced disap -
pearance, extrajudicial executions, etc. However, in many of these casesg,
the courts awarded much smaller sums : US$30,000 at most, which was
the amount offered by the Respondent itself as appropriate compensatiogn
taking into account the specific circumstances of the case. The few casesg
in which comparatively high sums were awarded by the Inter-American
Court of Human Rights involved enforced disappearance, kidnappings,
extrajudicial executions, and so on.
14. In general, the compensation awarded for non-material injury is
thus relatively modest, in keeping with the nature of the injury suffegred,
especially if that injury has had no proven significant somatic effectsg.
Below are some examples of the sums awarded as reparation for moral
injury.
(a) European Court of Human Rights: €24,000 inM.S.S. v. Belgium and
Greece, €15,000 in Khodzhayev v. Russia, €8,000 in Ahmed v. Roma ‑
nia and €15,000 in Lupsa v.Romania for detentions lasting for several
years accompanied by aggravating circumstances ; US$50,000 in
M. v. Germany for arbitrary detention lasting more than eight years.
In Nowak v. Ukraine the European Court of Human Rights awarded
€16,000 for unlawful detention, arbitrary expulsion and ill-treatment,
and violations of guarantees provided by Protocol No. 7. However,
Mr. Nowak had a valid residency permit at the time of his expulsion
and was an “alien lawfully resident” in Ukraine, within the meaningg
of Article 1 of Protocol No.7. Moreover, he was notified of the expul -
sion order on the day of its execution, in a language which he did not
understand and in circumstances which did not allow for him to be
represented or to submit arguments against his expulsion.
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6 CIJ1032.indb 173 26/11/13 09:37 409 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
b) Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme : 30 000 dollars des Etats-
Unis dans l’affaire Neptune c. Haïti ; 20 000 dollars dans l’affaire
Maritza Urrutia c. Guatemala ; 50 000 dollars dans l’affaire Chaparro
Alvarez et Lapo Iñiguez c. Equateur. Dans l’affaire Goiburú et autres
c. Paraguay, la Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme a, en fait,
accordé plusieurs indemnités allant de 10 000 à 50 000 dollars aux dif -
férentes victimes de violations collectives graves constituées d’atteintes
aux droits à la vie et à la liberté, de disparitions forcéesg, etc., la dispa
rition entraînant les sommes les plus élevées.
c) Commission générale des réclamations Etats-Unis d’Amériquge/
Mexique: 2 500 dollars des Etats-Unis dans l’affaire Daniel Dillon ;
8 000 dollars dans l’affaire Harry Roberts ; 4 000 dollars dans l’affaire
Mary Ann Turner.
15. A la lumière de ce qui précède, il me semble que, eu égard agux cir -
constances de l’espèce, aux violations établies et au préjudgice moral décrit
ci-dessus (voir le présent arrêt, par. 25), la somme de 85 000 dollars des
Etats-Unis est largement exagérée : elle ne reflète pas la mesure du préju -
dice subi, ne constitue pas la juste compensation du préjudice moral réel -
lement subi. Elle ne me paraît donc pas, contrairement à ce qu’gaffirme
l’arrêt (ibid.), « appropriée». A coup sûr, au regard de la pratique anté -
rieure, y compris celle des juridictions garantes des droits de l’homgme, ce
montant, que n’expliquent pas les circonstances de l’espèce, esgt sans com -
mune mesure avec la pratique et ne me semble pas justifié à satisfagction.
On peut s’attendre à ce que, par son caractère inédit et song exemplarité,
voire son caractère « punitif» (voir par. 8 et 9 ci-dessus), il attire l’atten -
tion et constitue un revirement de jurisprudence sur cette question, ce gqui
n’est pas la fonction de la réparation.
II. Indemnisation sans fongdement du préjudice mgatériel
pour perte de biens pegrsonnels
Les règles juridiques qui commandent la matière
16. En matière d’indemnisation pour responsabilité internationale
découlant d’un fait internationalement illicite consistant dans la violation
d’une obligation internationale par un Etat, ainsi que le confirme la gCour
(arrêt, par. 13), la présente affaire est la deuxième seulement dans laquellge
elle est amenée, depuis sa création après la seconde guerre mondiale, à se
prononcer sur la fixation de l’indemnité. L’unique précédegnt fut l’affaire
du Détroit de Corfou (Royaume‑Uni c. Albanie) (fixation du montant des
réparations, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 244 et suiv.), qui concernait la
destruction de navires de guerre britanniques et le décès de membres du
personnel navigant, affaire aussi «matérielle» en ce qui concerne la nature
du préjudice subi par le Royaume-Uni. La Cour se montra alors extrêgme -
ment exigeante, refusant de se contenter des allégations du demandeurg ou
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(b) Inter-American Court of Human Rights : US$30,000 in Neptune v.
Haiti, US$20,000 in Maritza Urrutia v. Guatemala, US$50,000 in
Chaparro Alvarez and Lapo Iñiguez v. Ecuador. In Goiburú et al. v.
Paraguay, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in fact made
several awards, ranging from US$10,000 to US$50,000, to the various
victims of collective and grave violations, including infringements of
the rights to life and liberty, enforced disappearance, etc., with the
highest amounts awarded for disappearances.
(c) United States/Mexico General Claims Commission : US$2,500 in the
Daniel Dillon case, US$8,000 in the Harry Roberts case and US$4,000
in the Mary Ann Turner case.
15. In light of the foregoing, it seems to me that, having regard to the
circumstances of this case, the established violations and the moral injury
described above (see the present Judgment, para. 25), the sum of
US$85,000 is grossly excessive ; it does not reflect the extent of the injury
suffered and is not proper compensation for the moral injury actually g
sustained. Thus, contrary to what is stated in the Judgment (ibid.), it
does not appear to me to be “appropriate”. In view of earlier pracgtice,
including that of the human rights courts, it is clear that this amount,g
which does not reflect the circumstances of the case, bears no relatiogn to
the practice, and in my view it has not been adequately justified. Becausge
of its unprecedented size and exemplary, if not punitive, character (see
paras. 8 and 9 above), it is likely to attract attention and constitutegs a
reversal of the jurisprudence on this question, which is not the functiogn of
reparation.
II. Unjustified Compensatigon for the Material Injugry Resulting
from the Loss of Personalg Property
The Legal Rules Governing This Area
16. In terms of compensation for an internationally wrongful act con -
sisting in the violation by a State of an international obligation engagging
the latter’s international responsibility, this case, as the Court cognfirms
(Judgment, para. 13), is only the second since its creation in the aftermath
of World War II in which it has been called upon to fix compensation.
The Court’s only precedent is the Corfu Channel case (United Kingdom v.
Albania) (Assessment of Amount of Compensation, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
1949, pp. 244 et seq.), which concerned the destruction of British warships
and the deaths of naval personnel, and which was also a “material”g case
in terms of the nature of the injury sustained by the United Kingdom. Ing
that case, the Court was extremely demanding, and was not content to
accept the Applicant’s claims or even the evidence of the destructiong of
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6 CIJ1032.indb 175 26/11/13 09:37 410 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
même de l’évidence de la destruction des navires et du décègs de membres
du personnel. Si la Cour a fini par adjuger ses conclusions au Royaume-
Uni et lui allouer l’indemnité demandée, c’était sur la bgase des preuves
documentaires fournies par lui ainsi que par le rapport des experts ayangt
confirmé l’existence d’un lien de causalité, puisque les dommgages maté -
riels allégués étaient bien la conséquence directe de l’egxplosion des mines
(C.I.J. Recueil 1949, p. 265) et que les chiffres présentés par le demandeur
pouvaient être considérés comme une « évaluation raisonnable et adé -
quate des dommages subis » (ibid., p. 250). On voit bien clairement appa -
raître deux conditions : la preuve du préjudice dans l’optique de la
justification du montant, ainsi que la preuve du lien de causalité.
17. Cette décision inaugura la jurisprudence et la pratique concernant
l’exigence de « preuves suffisantes » du préjudice subi ainsi que celle du
caractère « raisonnable» des prétentions pécuniaires de la victime. Cette
jurisprudence et cette pratique des juridictions internationales habituéges à
statuer dans ce genre de réclamations, notamment la Cour européennge
des droits de l’homme (CEDH), la Cour interaméricaine des droitsg de
l’homme (CIADH) et les tribunaux mixtes de réclamations, en partgiculier
le Tribunal des réclamations Etats-Unis/Iran, et il en va de même de nom-
breuses sentences arbitrales, sont aujourd’hui constantes.
18. En l’espèce, il me semble clair que, bien qu’elle ait dit s’en inspirer
(arrêt, par. 13), la Cour n’a pas rigoureusement suivi cette démarche lors -
qu’elle a accordé l’indemnisation d’un préjudice matérgiel sans exiger de
preuve indépendante des allégations formulées par M. Diallo.
19. La question de droit examinée ici est celle de la charge de la preuveg,
preuve de l’existence du préjudice, celui-ci étant en effet, gdans la tradition
juridique comme dans les perspectives envisagées par le Projet d’agrticles de
la CDI, le fondement et la mesure de l’indemnisation, et preuve du ligen de
causalité entre le préjudice et le comportement illicite de l’Egtat responsable.
Concernant la preuve du préjudice matériel :
l’exigence d’une « preuve suffisante»
20. Dans bien des cas, il manque de preuve à l’appui des allégationgs et
des réclamations guinéennes. C’est, sans doute, convaincue de cges exi -
gences que la Cour a eu à envisager s’il était possible, sans ugne telle preuve,
d’accorder une réparation sous forme d’indemnité compensatoire. Mais,
en même temps, ce souci montre la conviction de la Cour quant à lag place
centrale qu’occupe l’administration de la preuve en cette matiègre concer-
nant la responsabilité, la réparation et l’indemnisation. Il est en effet bien
établi que, « en règle générale, il appartient à la partie qui allègue gun fait
au soutien de ses prétentions de faire la preuve de l’existence deg ce fait »,
comme la Cour l’a rappelé dans son arrêt au fond en l’affaire qui nous
occupe en cette procédure (C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 660, par. 54). C’est
ainsi que, dans l’arrêt de 2010, elle n’a pas hésité àg rejeter les faits allégués
mais non prouvés (ibid., p. 679-687, par. 117-148, et p. 690, par. 157 e1t58).
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6 CIJ1032.indb 176 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 410
the ships and the deaths of crew members. Although the Court ultimately g
ruled in favour of the United Kingdom and awarded it the compensation
it sought, it did so on the basis of documentary evidence provided both g
by the United Kingdom and by the experts’ report — which confirmed
the existence of a causal link, in that the material damage alleged was g
indeed the direct consequence of the mine explosions (I.C.J. Reports 1949,
p. 265) — and the figures presented by the Applicant could be considered
as a “fair and accurate estimate of the damage sustained” (ibid., p. 250).
The emergence of two conditions can clearly be observed : there must be
evidence of the injury to justify the compensation amount and there mustg
be evidence of a causal link.
17. This decision marked the introduction, in case law and in practice,
of the requirement that there be “sufficient proof” of the injuryg sustained
and that the nature of the victim’s pecuniary claims be “fair”.g This case
law and practice of the international courts which regularly rule on sucgh
claims, notably the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), the
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (IACHR) and the various joint
claims tribunals, in particular the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal,
together with several arbitral awards, are well established today.
18. In the present case, it seems clear to me that, even though the Court
claims to have taken into account the practice in other courts (Judgmengt,
para. 13), it did not rigorously adhere to this when it awarded compensga-
tion for a material injury, without requiring independent proof of the
allegations made by Mr. Diallo.
19. The point of law at issue here is that of the burden of proof : proof
of the existence of the injury, which is, in fact — both in the legal tradi -
tion and in the situations contemplated by the ILC’s Draft Articles — the
basis and measure of compensation, and proof of the causal link between g
the injury and the wrongful behaviour of the responsible State.
Evidence of the Material Injury :
The Requirement of “Sufficient Proof”
20. In many instances there is no evidence in support of Guinea’s alle -
gations and claims. Doubtless aware of the evidence requirement, the
Court had to consider whether it was still possible, in the absence of egvi-
dence, to award reparation in the form of pecuniary compensation. At
the same time, however, this concern shows that the Court believes that g
evidence plays a central role in cases concerning responsibility, reparagtion
and compensation. Thus it is well established that “[a]s a general rugle, it
is for the party which alleges a fact in support of its claims to prove
the existence of that fact”, as the Court recalled in its Judgment on theg
merits of the case which is the subject of these proceedings (I.C.J
Reports 2010 (II), p. 660, para. 54). This is why, in its 2010 Judgment,
the Court did not hesitate to dismiss facts which were alleged but not
proved (ibid., pp. 679-687, paras. 117-148, and p. 690, paras. 157 and 158).
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6 CIJ1032.indb 177 26/11/13 09:37 411 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
21. Il suffira de quelques exemples pour étayer ce principe reconnu par gla
Cour elle-même: l’affaire Papamichalopoulos et autres c. Grèce (article 50)
(requête n 33808/02, arrêt du 31 octobre 1995, CEDH, série A, n 330-B,o
par. 37), où il était question de l’expropriation de terrains appargtenant à
des particuoiers, et l’affaire Akdierr et autres c. Turquie (article 50)
(requête n 21893/93, arrêt du 1 avril 1998, CEDH, par. 15-34), dans
laquelle les requérants demandaient des dommages-intérêts pour gle préju -
dice matériel résultant de la perte de leurs maisons incendiéesg par les forces
de sécurité turques. Alors même que l’existence des terrains et des maisons
ne faisait aucun doute, ni l’expropriation des terrains ou l’incengdie des mai-
sons par l’armée, pour établir la valeur actuelle des terrains et des maisons,
la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme fit appel à des expertsg et refusa
de s’en tenir aux réclamations avancées sans preuve par les reqguérants. De
o
même, dans l’affaire McCann et autres c. Royaume‑Uni (requête n 18984/91,
arrêt du 27 septembre 1995, CEDH, A324), où il s’agissait de la violation de
l’article 2 de la convention européenne des droits de l’homme (droit à lga vie),
consistant dans le meurtre de trois membres de l’IRA à Gibraltar par les
forces de sécurité britanniques, elle rejeta, faute de preuve, la gthèse de l’exé
cution préméditée avancée par les représentants des victigmes. Dans une
affaire de violences au cours d’une garde à vue, elle exigea éggalement du
Gouvernement autrichien qu’il «établi[sse] de manière satisfaisante que les
blessures du requérant [avaient été] causées autrement que —g exclusivement,
principalement ou partiellement — par les traitements subis pendant la
garde à vue » et décida de considérer que, faute de preuve à cet effetg, les
violations avaient été établies (affaire RibitschA.utriche, requête no1889/91,
arrêt du 4 décembre 1995, CEDH, A336, par. 34). En matière de discrimina -
tion, comportement pourtant difficile à prouver, la Cour européengne des
droits de l’homme n’en exigea pas moins la preuve que la diffégrence de trai -
tement incriminée reposait sur des motifs discriminatoires liés àg une cara-cté
ristique protégée et de ce fait stigmatisée (par exemple, sexeg, race ou religion),
même si, par une sorte de partage de la charge de preuve, il en naissgait une
présomption de discrimination que le défendeur allait devoir, au mgoyen de
preuves contraires, réfuter (affaire Timichev c. Russie, requêtes nos 55762/00
et 55974/00, arrêt du 13 décembre 2005, CEDH, par. 40-44 ; voir aussi, au
même effet, l’arrêt de la CJCE du 26 juin 2001 dans l’affaire Susanna
Brunnhofer c. Bank der österreichischen PostsparkasseAG, affaire C-381/99,
Recueil 2001, p. I-04961). Ce partage du fardeau de preuve ne contredit pas
la règle traditionnelle en la matière, qui impose à celui qui agllègue un fait
d’en fournir la preuve. En l’occurrence, les thèses avancéesg sont contradic -
toires et il incombe à chacune des parties d’appuyer la sienne parg des preuves
de nature à emporter la conviction de la juridiction. Enfin, dans l’gaffaire
H.L.R. c. France (requête n o 24573/94, arrêt du 29 avril 1997, CEDH), la
Cour européenne des droits de l’homme en vint à la conclusion qgu’il n’y
avait eu aucune violation de l’article 3 de la convention européenne des
droits de l’homme du fait de l’expulsion du demandeur colombien, pgarce
qu’aucune preuve pertinente n’avait été apportée à l’gappui des allégations de
risques de mauvais traitements.
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6 CIJ1032.indb 178 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 411
21. Just a few examples will suffice to confirm this principle, which the
Court itself recognizes : for example, Papamichalopoulos and Others v.
Greece (Article 50) (application No. 33808/02, judgment of 31 Octo-
ber 1995, ECHR, Series A, No. 330-B, para. 37), which concerned the
question of the expropriation of land belonging to individuals, and Akdi ‑
var and Others v. Turkey (Article 50) (application No. 21893/93, judgment
of 1 April 1998, ECHR, paras. 15-34), in which the applicants sought
damages for material injury resulting from the loss of their homes, burngt
down by Turkish security forces. Although there was no doubt that the
land and the houses had existed, or that the land had been expropriated
and the houses burnt down by the army, in order to establish their true
value the European Court of Human Rights called experts, refusing to relgy
on the unsubstantiated claims advanced by the applicants. Similarly, in
McCann and Others v. United Kingdom (application No. 18984/91, judg -
ment of 27 September 1995, ECHR, A324), which involved a violation of
Article 2 of the European Convention on Human Rights (right to life)
consisting in the murder of three members of the IRA in Gibraltar by
British security forces, the European Court rejected the argument of pre -
meditated execution put forward by the victims’ representatives, for glack
of evidence. In a case concerning violence in custody, the European Court
also demanded that the Austrian Government “satisfactorily [establishg]
that the applicant’s injuries [had been] caused otherwise than — entirely,
mainly, or partly — by the treatment he underwent while in police cus -
tody”; in the absence of evidence to that effect, it concluded that the viog- la
tions had been established (Ribitsch v. Austria, application No. 1889/91,
judgment of 4 December 1995, ECHR, A336, para. 34). In a case involv -
ing discrimination — behaviour which is difficult to prove — the Euro -
pean Court of Human Rights demanded proof that the alleged difference
in treatment was based on discriminatory grounds related to a protected
characteristic (for example, sex, race, religion) and that, therefore,g it was
wrongful, even though, by a sort of sharing of the burden of proof, therge
then arose a presumption of discrimination, which the Respondent would
have to refute by producing evidence to the contrary (Timishev v. Russia,
applications Nos. 55762/00 and 55974/00, judgment of 13 December 2005,
ECHR, paras. 40-44; see also, to the same effect, the judgment of the ECJ
of 26 June 2001 in Susanna Brunnhofer v. Bank der österreichischen Post ‑
sparkasse AG, case C-381/99, 2001 Reports, p. I-04961). This sharing of
the burden of proof does not contradict the established rule in this reggard,
which stipulates that he who alleges a fact must provide proof of that fgact.
These are cases where the claims put forward are mutually contradictory,g
and it is for each party to substantiate its own argument with evidence
capable of convincing the court. Finally, in H.L.R. v. France (application
No. 24573/94, judgment of 29 April 1997, ECHR), the European Court of
Human Rights concluded that the expulsion of the Colombian applicant
had not violated Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights,
because no relevant proof had been produced in support of the allegationgs
of risks of ill-treatment.
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22. Le Tribunal des réclamations Etats-Unis/Iran s’est quant à lui g
montré particulièrement strict en ce qui concerne l’établissgement de l’exis -
tence du dommage allégué sous la forme de perte de biens, exigeant que
le requérant démontre que, avant la commission des faits illicitesg, les
biens en question existaient et lui appartenaient (« possession, expropria -
tion et valeur des biens » [traduction libre]). A cet égard, la jurisprudence
du Tribunal révèle une préférence pour les preuves documentagires, sans
doute les plus sûres, alors même que les requérants, en l’ocgcurrence des
ressortissants américains expulsés d’Iran, avaient souvent égté contraints
de fuir ce pays en abandonnant les documents établissant l’existengce des
biens prétendument perdus, leur appartenance aux victimes et leur valgeur
(notamment, affaires Daley (Etats‑Unis d’Amérique c. Iran), sentence 360-
10514-1, 1988 WL 637289 (Iran-US Cl. Trib.), Rankin (Etats‑Unis d’Amé ‑
rique c. Iran), sentence 326-10913-2, 1987 WL 503860 (Iran-US Cl. Trib.)
et Yeager (Etats‑Unis d’Amérique c. Iran), sentence 324-10199-1, 1987
WL 503859 (Iran-US Cl. Trib.)).
23. Ainsi dans l’affaireDaley, un Américain détenu et expulsé d’Iran qui
affirmait avoir perdu au cours de ses mésaventures divers biens (engtre autres,
une voiture, un pur-sang, une montre Rolex, des bijoux, des pièces deg mon -
naie de collection, un total de 15000 dollars des Etats-Unis en argent et des
tapis de luxe). Le fait que les circonstances de son expulsion ne lui agient pas
permis de conserver les pièces justificatives n’a pas empêchég le Tribunal d’af -
firmer, s’agissant du cheval, que, «n’étant pas en mesure de conclure à l’ex-
propriation de ce bien … [il devait en conséquence rejeter] cette portion des
réclamations» (1988 WL 637289, par. 24) [traduction libre]. En ce qui
concerne la propriété et la valeur des pièces de collection, ilg aurait fallu prou
ver où et quand elles avaient été achetées, qui les avait vegndues, les détails de
la police d’assurance, etc. L’exigence de preuve est telle que, dans cette même
affaire, bien que des tapis aient été vus au domicile de Daley àg Téhéran, le
Tribunal a jugé que «les preuves étaient insuffisantes pour établir, toutefois,
que les tapis et autres pièces d’ameublement se trouvaient dans l’gapparte -
ment à la date où ils sont censés avoir été pris » (ibid., par. 27) [traduction
libre], imposant de surcroît au requérant de «prouver que l’enlèvement des
biens en question était le fait d’individus ou de groupements dontg les actes
étaient susceptibles d’engager la responsabilité de l’Etat igranien » (ibid.,
par. 28) [traduction libre]. On voit ainsi le Tribunal insister sur la nécessité
de prouver le lien de causalité en disant au paragraphe suivant que lga pré -
sence des tapis et autres objets au domicile du requérant ne permettagit pas
de conclure qu’ils « avaient été enlevés dans des circonstances de nature à
engager la responsabilité de l’Etat iranien». L’exigence est multiple: établir
«la propriété, l’expropriation et la valeur des biens pour lesqug» ellsa répara
tion est demandée (ibid., par. 30) [traduction libre].
24. Il n’est pas inintéressant de présenter ici une sentence arbitrale rendue
dans une affaire mettant en œuvre le même chef du dommage et desg circons -
tances factuelles similaires, l’affaire Chevreau, qui opposait la France à la
Grande-Bretagne et qui était très proche de l’affaire qui nougs occupe, parce
qu’elle se rapportait à la détention et à l’expulsion illgicites d’un étranger de
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6 CIJ1032.indb 180 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 412
22. The Iran-United States Claims Tribunal, for its part, has shown
itself to be particularly stringent with respect to establishing the exigstence
of an alleged injury in the form of a loss of property, requiring the appli -
cant to demonstrate that, before the commission of the unlawful acts, thge
property in question existed and was in his or her possession (“possession,
expropriation and value of the items”). In this respect, the case lagw of the
Tribunal reveals a preference for documentary proof — undoubtedly the
most reliable form of evidence — despite the fact that the applicants, in
this case American nationals expelled from Iran, had often been forced tgo
flee that country, thereby abandoning the documents which proved the
existence, ownership and value of the property alleged to have been lostg
(see, in particular, the cases of Daley (United States of America v. Iran),
award 360-10514-1, 1988 WL 637289 (Iran-US Cl. Trib.); Rankin (United
States of America v. Iran), award 326-10913-2, 1987 WL 503860 (Iran-US
Cl. Trib.) and Yeager (United States of America v I.an), award 324-10199-1,
1987 WL 503859 (Iran-US Cl. Trib.)).
23. The Daley case, for example, concerned an American national who
claimed to have lost various property (including, a car, a thoroughbredg
horse, a Rolex watch, jewellery, a coin collection, a total of US$15,000g in
cash and some luxury carpets) when he was detained and expelled from
Iran. The fact that the circumstances of his expulsion meant that he wasg
no longer in possession of the supporting documents did not prevent the g
Tribunal from declaring that it “does not find that the horse was exprgo -
priated”, and that “[t]his part of the claim is therefore dismissegd” (1988
WL 637289, para. 24). To establish the ownership and value of the coin
collection, proof was required as to where and when the coins had been
bought, who had sold them, the details of their insurance cover, etc. Thge
burden of proof is such that, in the same case, even though the carpets in
question had been seen in the Daley residence in Teheran, the Tribunal
found that “[t]he evidence is not sufficient to establish, however, that the
carpets or any of the other furniture were at the apartment on the date gof
the alleged taking” (ibid., para. 27); it also required the applicant to
“establish that these items [had been] removed from the premises by igndi -
viduals or groups for whose acts the Government of Iran is legally liablge”
(ibid., para. 28). The Tribunal’s insistence on the need for proof of the
causal link can be seen in the following paragraph, in which it states tghat
the presence of the carpets and other effects at the applicant’s regsidence
does not enable it to conclude that they “[had been] removed in circugm -
stances which would give rise to liability on the part of the Iranian Gov -
ernment”. The requirement is a manifold one : the “possession,
expropriation and value of the items for which” compensation is soughgt
must be established (ibid., para. 30).
24. It is worth mentioning here an arbitral award rendered in a case
involving the same head of damage and factually similar circumstances,
namely the Chevreau case between France and Great Britain, and which
was very similar to the present case in that it related to the wrongful gdeten-
tion and expulsion of a foreigner of French nationality, Mr. Chevreau,
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6 CIJ1032.indb 181 26/11/13 09:37 413 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
nationalité française, M.Chevreau, suivies de la réclamation par le Gouver -
nement français d’une indemnisation à raison du dommage matégriel résu -l
tant de la perte de biens personnels lors de la détention et de l’gexpulsion de
l’intéressé (affaire Chevreau(France c. Royaume‑Uni), 9 juin 1931, Recueil
des sentences arbitrales [traduction libre], vol. II, p. 1113).
25. Il s’agissait en particulier, dans cette affaire ressemblant trègs forte-
ment à la présente espèce, de biens, c’est-à-dire « argent, montres et
bijoux, vêtements, livres et autres objets qui, selon M. Chevreau, se trou -
vaient dans son logement … lors de son arrestation, mais qui n’ont pas
été retrouvés quand, le 24 décembre 1918, un inventaire fut dressé … en
présence de deux officiers anglais et du Directeur des douanes » (ibid.,
p. 1140). La liste des biens fournie par M. Chevreau comprenait non seu -
lement les objets dont la présence avait été constatée par lg’inventaire du
24 décembre 1918, mais aussi d’autres objets, notamment «argent, montres
et bijoux », qu’il disait posséder avant les événements. L’Etat gfrançais
soutenait donc que l’Etat britannique était responsable de la perte des
valeurs et objets énumérés dans la liste de M. Chevreau mais pas dans
l’inventaire. L’arbitre a jugé que le Royaume-Uni ne pouvait pags être
rendu responsable de cette perte, alors même que les autorités britan -
niques n’avaient pas nié leur responsabilité pour la conservatigon des biens
en question (ibid., p. 1141). L’arbitre s’en tint donc au contenu de l’inven-
taire, sans prendre en considération les autres biens réclamés gpar M. Che -
vreau qui n’avaient pas été trouvés dans la maison lors de lg’établissement
de l’inventaire. C’est ainsi que, au seul vu des déclarations egt faute de
«preuve documentaire », il se dit d’avis que « la réclamation de M. Che -
vreau pour perte de biens en Perse ne saurait être retenue », et décida,
conformément à la logique juridique, que « la charge de la preuve
incomb[ait] au Gouvernement français et [que] les allégations de M. Che-
vreau ne [pouvaient] être acceptées comme preuves suffisantes » (ibid.,
p. 1142; les italiques sont de moi).
26. Dans la présente affaire, pour certaines revendications, la Cour a g
avec justesse fait application de ce principe et a, pour cela, rejetég le préju-
dice matériel allégué pour perte de revenus et la demande d’gindemnisation
formulée par la Guinée pour la perte de biens de grande valeur qui se
seraient trouvés dans l’appartement de M. Diallo au moment de son
expulsion mais qui n’auraient pas été retrouvés ni répertgoriés dans l’in -
ventaire (arrêt, par. 34), ainsi que pour la perte alléguée de revenus (ibid.,
par. 41, 42, 44, 45 et 46) et de gains potentiels (ibid., par. 48).
27. Comme on le voit, si une certaine souplesse est admise concernant
le dommage immatériel, considéré comme inhérent à la condgition humaine
en situation de violation et comme n’ayant pas à être prouvég, les juges et
arbitres ont toujours appliqué une norme de preuve élevée, soitg celle de la
«preuve suffisante» ou de la « preuve à la satisfaction de la Cour ».
Recours aux principes d’équité
28. Si, concernant le préjudice matériel, la Cour a parfois fondé lga répa -
ration sur des considérations d’équité, c’était non pas en raison de doutes
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6 CIJ1032.indb 182 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 413
followed by a claim for compensation by the French Government for
material damage resulting from the loss of personal property during
Mr. Chevreau’s detention and expulsion (Chevreau case (France v. Great
Britain), 9 June 1931, English version from 27 American Journal of Inter‑
national Law 153, 1933).
25. The Chevreau case, which bears a very strong resemblance to the
present one, concerned in particular property, that is, “money, watchges and
jewels, clothes, books and other articles which, according to Mr. Chevreau,
were in his lodgings . . . when he was arrested, but which were not found on
December 24, 1918, when an inventory was made . . . in the presence of two
English officers and of the Director of Customs” (ibid., p. 178). The list of
property provided by Mr. Chevreau included not only the items whose
presence had been noted in the inventory of 24 December 1918, but other
items, too, notably “money, watches and jewels”, which he claimed gwere in
his possession before the events in question. The French State thereforeg
contended that the British State was responsible for the loss of the secguri -
ties and articles enumerated in Mr. Chevreau’s list, but not detailed in the
inventory. The Arbitrator found that the United Kingdom could not be
held responsible for this loss, even though the British authorities did gnot
deny that they were responsible for the safe-keeping of the effects in ques-
tion (ibid., p. 179). Therefore, he took account only of the contents of the
inventory, without taking into consideration the other items claimed by
Mr. Chevreau, which had not been found at the house when the inventory
was drawn up. It was under these circumstances that, on the sole basis ogf
the declarations and because of a lack of “documentary proof”, the Arbi -
trator found that “Mr. Chevreau’s claim for loss of effects in Persia could
not be sustained”, and decided that, in law, “[t]he burden of proogf [wa]s
upon the French Government and [that] the allegations of Mr. Chevreau
[could] not be accepted as sufficient proof” (ibid., p. 181; emphasis added).
26. In the present case, the Court has correctly applied this principle in
respect of some of the claims, dismissing the alleged material injury fogr
loss of earnings and the claim for compensation made by Guinea for the
loss of high-value items which were alleged to have been in Mr. Diallo’s
apartment at the time of his expulsion, but which were not found or listged
on the inventory (Judgment, para. 34), as well as the claims for the alleged
loss of income (ibid., paras. 41, 42, 44, 45 and 46) and potential earnings
(ibid., para. 48).
27. As can be seen, although a certain degree of flexibility is permitted g
in respect of non-material damage, regarded as inherent to the human
condition when subjected to violations and not having to be proved,
judges and arbitrators have always enforced a higher standard of proof, g
that of “sufficient proof” or “proof to the satisfaction of thge Court”.
Recourse to the Principles of Equity
28. While, in respect of material injury, the Court has sometimes based
reparation on considerations of equity, it has done so not because the egxis -
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6 CIJ1032.indb 183 26/11/13 09:37 414 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
quant à l’existence ou à la perte douteuses du bien en questiong, mais unique -
ment pour l’estimation de la valeur devant servir de base au calcul dgu mo -n
tant de l’indemnisation. Ainsi, dans l’affaireOrhan c. Turquie, dans laquelle
«il n’avait été fourni aucune preuve décisive de la taille etg de la destination
des maisons, biens et possessions détruits et perdu »s, la Cour européenne des
droits de l’homme dut allouer une indemnité dont le montant seraitgfo «ndé
sur des coojectures et basé sur les principes d’équité » (Orhan c. Turquie,
requête n 25656/94, arrêt du 18 juin 2002, CEDH, par. 423-424) [traduction
libre]. De même, concernant la perte d’une maison et d’effets persognnels
dont aucune preuve n’établissait la valeur, mais dont l’existengce et la pro -
priété avaient été établies, la même juridiction décida que « son évaluation
des sommes à accorder devait forcément reposer sur les principes dg’équ» it,é
pour fixer ce montant à 4 500 livres sterling, «en l’absence de toute preuve
décisive, et statuant en équité» [traduction libre] (Bilgin c. Turquie, requête
n 23819/94, arrêt du 16 novembre 2000, CEDH, par. 140 et 144).
Lien de causalité
29. Par ailleurs, en général comme dans la présente affaire, le pgréjudice
matériel pour perte de biens personnels ainsi que la demande conségcutive
de réparation sur ce chef de préjudice devraient également êgtre rejetés en
cas d’inexistence d’un lien de causalité entre le préjudice gallégué et le com-
portement illicite de l’Etat en cause, en l’occurrence la RDC.
30. Certes, la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme, tout comme la
Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme, a fait preuve d’uneg plus
grande souplesse en ce qui touche le lien de causalité en matière gde préju-
dice immatériel, présumant régulièrement l’existence d’gun tel préjudice et
du lien de causalité requis en se fondant sur la nature de la violatigon,
parce qu’il ne pouvait être exigé du demandeur qu’il fournisgse une quel -
conque preuve du dommage immatériel subi, lequel, inhérent à lag condi-
tion humaine, n’a pas à être démontré, ainsi que l’a dgécidé la Cour
interaméricaine des droits de l’homme (affaire Goiburú et autres c. Para ‑
guay, arrêt du 22 septembre 2006 (fond, réparations et frais), CIADH).
31. Mais, même pour la Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme, g
la plus favorable de toutes les juridictions quant à la sauvegarde etg à la
réparation en matière de droits de l’homme, il doit exister un lien de cau -
salité minimal. Elle définit en effet le préjudice matériel indemnisable
comme «la perte de revenus de la victime, les frais encourus en raison des
faits de la cause et les conséquences de caractère pécuniaire qui ont un lien
de causalité direct avec les faits incriminés » (arrêt Cantoral Benavides c.
Pérou, par. 166, et arrêt La Cantuta c. Pérou, 29 novembre 2006, par. 213
[traduction tirée de Karine Bonneau, « Le droit à réparation des vic -
times de violations des droits de l’homme : le rôle pionnier de la Cour
interaméricaine des droits de l’homme », Droits fondamentaux, n o 6,
janvier-décembre 2006, p. 12] ; les italiques sont de moi).
32. Pour autant, la souplesse caractéristique dont cette juridiction faitg
preuve pour ainsi dire systématiquement ne saurait être étendueg avec les
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6 CIJ1032.indb 184 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 414
tence or loss of the property in question was in doubt, but simply for tghe
purpose of estimating the value to be used as the basis for assessing thge
amount of compensation. Thus, in Orhan v. Turkey, in which “no deci -
sive . . . proof of the size and nature of the houses, property and posses -
sions destroyed and lost [was] provided”, the European Court of Human
Rights had to award compensation which was “speculative and based on
principles of equity” (Orhan v. Turkey, application No. 25656/94, judg -
ment of 18 June 2002, ECHR, paras. 423-424). Similarly, in a case involv-
ing the loss of a house and personal effects, whose value had not been
proved, but whose existence and ownership had been established, the same
court ruled that “[its] assessment of the amounts to be awarded must,g
by necessity, be based on principles of equity” ; it fixed that amount at
GBP 4,500, “[i]n the absence of any decisive evidence and making its gassess-
ment on an equitable basis” (Bilgin v. Turkey, application No. 23819/94,
judgment of 16 November 2000, ECHR, paras. 140 and 144).
Causal Link
29. Furthermore, generally speaking — and in this case — material
injury resulting from the loss of personal property and any subsequent
claim for reparation in respect of that injury should be rejected if thegre is
no causal link between the alleged injury and the wrongful conduct of thge
State in question, in this case the DRC.
30. It is true that the European Court of Human Rights, like the
Inter-American Court of Human Rights, has shown greater flexibility in
respect of the causal link for non-material injury, often presuming that
such an injury and the necessary causal link exist on the basis of the
nature of the violation, since the applicant could not be required to fur -
nish evidence of the non-material damage sustained, because this is inhe -
rent to the human condition and does not have to be proved, as indicatedg
by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (Goiburú and al. v.
Paraguay, judgment of 22 September 2006 (merits, reparations and costs),
IACHR).
31. However, even the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the
most favourable of all the courts in terms of safeguarding human rights g
and providing reparation for their violation, insists that there must beg a
minimal causal link. Indeed it defines material injury for which compen -
sation may be made as “the loss or impairment of the victims’ income, the
expenses incurred as a result of the facts and the monetary consequencesg
thereof bearing a causal link to the facts of the instant case” (Cantoral
Benavides v. Peru judgment, para. 166, and La Cantuta v. Peru, judgment
of 29 November 2006, para. 213 ; emphasis added).
32. That said, the characteristic flexibility which is shown almost sys -
tematically by that court should not be applied elsewhere, with the sameg
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6 CIJ1032.indb 185 26/11/13 09:37 415 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
mêmes raisons ou les mêmes justifications. De fait, si, comme dans gson
actuel arrêt, la Cour a été amenée à évoquer certains aspects relatifs aux
droits de l’homme, d’une part, l’espèce en elle-même ne cgesse pas d’être
avant tout une affaire de protection diplomatique entre Etats et, d’gautre
part, la Cour n’en devient pas pour autant une cour garante des droitgs de
l’homme. Par ailleurs, la Cour interaméricaine a une raison historgique
spécifique d’être déjà ancrée dans une pratique de souplesse en matière de
preuve, se prononçant essentiellement en équité sur l’existence de la viola -
tion, ainsi que sur l’existence du préjudice et sur l’évaluagtion de l’indem-
nisation: en effet, les premiers arrêts de cette juridiction sont intervenugs
dans des affaires de disparitions massives de personnes sous les réggimes
dictatoriaux en place durant de longues décennies dans les Etats d’gAmé -
rique latine. Et aux atrocités des dictatures s’ajoutèrent, au gnom des
contraintes de la raison d’Etat et de la sécurité nationale, à une période
où nombre de ces Etats étaient engagés dans des guerres contre gdes
groupes armés rebelles (« sentier lumineux » et autres « maoïstes»), les
arrestations, détentions, tortures et exécutions de suspects, comme les
deux frères Gómez-Paquiyauri tués au Pérou par les forces deg sécurité
(affaire Frères Gómez‑Paquiyauri c. Pérou, arrêt du 8 juillet 2004 (fond,
réparations et frais), CIADH). On se trouve ici dans le contexte de ces
crimes d’Etat systématiques qui ont fait dire au juge Cançado Trindade,
parlant de la tragédie comme d’une réalité qui a toujours exgisté au cœur
de la race humaine, quels que soient le régime et l’époque, queg, pour les
victimes de cette tragédie, « rien ne sera plus comme avant » et
qu’«aujourd’hui les survivants ont le souvenir d’un paradis perdu »
(affaire Frères Gómez‑Paquiyauri c. Pérou, opinion individuelle de M. le
juge Cançado Trindade, par. 6). Dans ces conditions, on comprend que,
dès son premier arrêt en matière de réparation et de fixation de l’indem -
nisation, l’arrêt Velásquez Rodríguez c. Honduras, rendu le 21 juillet 1989
(c’est-à-dire avant l’arrêt Frères Gómez‑Paquiyauri), la Cour interaméri -
caine des droits de l’homme ait adopté cette attitude, considérgant que la
pratique systématique des violations du droit à la vie constituaitg une
«violation autonome des droits de l’homme » (affaire Velásquez Rodrí ‑
guez c. Honduras, arrêt du 29 juillet 1988 (fond), CIADH, par. 155 [tra -
duction tirée d’Elise Hansbury, Le juge interaméricain et le jus cogens,
Genève, Institut de hautes études internationales et du dévelopgpement,
par. 34]). C’est ce qui a donné naissance à la théorie de la «g responsabi -
lité aggravée», qu’on ne trouve pas sous d’autres latitudes. Le genre d’agf-
faires qui étaient soumises à la Cour interaméricaine des droitgs de
l’homme se prêtait donc à la mansuétude : les circonstances de ces dispa -
ritions et tortures systématiques imputables à l’Etat privaientg en effet les
victimes ou leurs survivants de la possibilité de prouver les violatigons
(droit à la vie, tortures, etc.) ou de prouver qu’elles en avaiegnt ressenti les
souffrances déshumanisantes dans leur chair et dans leur cœur. Ogn ne
saurait donc s’étonner que cette juridiction ait, dès le début, posé en prin -
cipe que ce genre de souffrances n’avait pas à se prouver, jouisgsant ainsi
d’une sorte de présomption irréfragable quant à leur existengce. Mais
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6 CIJ1032.indb 186 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 415
reasoning or the same justification. In reality, even though this Court has
had cause to address certain aspects relating to human rights in the pres -
ent case, it remains a case of diplomatic protection between States, and
the Court has not become a human rights court. Furthermore, there is a
specific historical reason as to why the Inter-American Court has an
already established practice of flexibility towards evidence, essentiaglly
working on the basis of equity in order to determine the existence of thge
violation and of the injury and in assessing compensation : the court’s
first judgments were in cases concerning mass disappearances of persons
under dictatorships which were in place for decades in the States of Latin
America. As well as the atrocities of dictatorships, these cases also cogn -
cerned a period in which a number of these States were, for reasons of
national interest and security, engaged in wars against armed rebel grougps
(“Shining Path” and other “Maoists”) and in the arrest, degtention, tor -
ture and execution of suspects, such as the two Gómez-Paquiyauri broth -
ers, who were killed by security forces in Peru (Gómez‑Paquiyauri
Brothers v. Peru, judgment of 8 July 2004 (merits, reparations and costs),
IACHR). These are systematic crimes by the State, which led Judge Can -
çado Trindade, who described this tragedy as a reality which has alwagys
existed at the heart of the human race — irrespective of the régime or the
era — to state that, for the victims of this tragedy, “[n]othing will gbe as it
was before” and “[t]he survivors . . . today have the memory of paradise
lost” (Gómez‑Paquiyauri Brothers v. Peru, separate opinion of Judge Can -
çado Trindade, para. 6). Under these circumstances, it is understandable
that, from its first judgment on reparation and the assessment of compen -
sation, the Velásquez‑Rodríguez v. Honduras judgment rendered on
21 July 1989 (that is to say, before the Gómez‑Paquiyauri Brothers judg -
ment), the Inter-American Court of Human Rights adopted this attitude,
whereby it considered the systematic practice of violations of the rightg to
life as constituting an “autonomous human rights violation” [see Elise
Hansbury, Le juge interaméricain et le “jus cogens”, Geneva, Graduate
Institute of International and Development Studies, para. 34, referring to
the case of Velásquez‑Rodríguez v. Honduras, judgment of 29 July 1988
(merits), IACHR, para. 155]. This gave rise to the theory of “aggravated
responsibility”, which is not found elsewhere. The type of cases submgitted
to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights have thus lent themselves
to a less stringent approach : the circumstances of the systematic disap -
pearances and acts of torture for which the State was responsible actualgly
deprived the victims, or their relatives, of the possibility of establisghing
the violations (right to life, torture, etc.) or of proving that they ghad suf-
fered both physical and mental inhuman treatment. It is not surprising, g
therefore, that from the outset this court decided in principle that thigs
type of suffering did not have to be proved, and thus that it benefitedg
from a sort of irrefutable presumption as to its existence. But can it bge
said that such specific conditions could ever justify the general, systemgatic
application of such flexibility — and its extension to all types ofg material
injuries — by the Court, which does not deal either with crimes of thge
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6 CIJ1032.indb 187 26/11/13 09:37 416 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
peut-on soutenir que des conditions aussi spécifiques puissent jamais gfon -
der la généralisation, la systématisation et l’extension àg tous types de pré-
judices matériels de ce genre de souplesse, au niveau de la Cour qui gne
connaît pas de ces crimes d’Etat ni de ces « violations autonomes des
droits de l’homme »? Rien n’est moins sûr.
33. Quant à elle, la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme a toujougrs
estimé, pour les dommages matériels, que la charge de la preuve reglative
à l’existence de ceux-ci et au lien de causalité incombait normgalement au
requérant, et l’absence de preuve sous l’un ou l’autre de ces rapports a
régulièrement conduit au rejet de la demande. Dans l’affaire gBorisenko
c. Ukraine, par exemple, si elle accorda une indemnité de 1 700 euros,
«statuant en équité, relativement au dommage non pécuniaire » [traduc ‑
tion libre], ce fut à raison du préjudice immatériel, puisqu’elle écarta le
préjudice matériel pour lequel le plaignant réclamait une indemgnisation :
«La Cour n’arrive à discerner aucun lien de causalité entre les gviolations
constatées et le dommage pécuniaire invoqué ; aussi rejettera-t-elle cette
partie de oa demande. » [Traduction libre.] (Borisenko c. Ukraine,
requête n 25725/02, arrêt du 12 janvier 2012, CEDH, par. 67.) De même,
en l’affaire Airey c. Irlande, la même juridiction a rejeté la demande rela -
tive au préjudice matériel, faute pour la demanderesse d’avoir gétabli le
lien de causalité entre les violations alléguées et les pertes gsubies (Airey
o
c. Irlande, requête n 6289/73, arrêt du 6 février 1981, oEDH, par. 12).
34. Dans l’affaire Ahmed c. Roumanie (requête n 34621/03, arrêt du
13 juillet 2010, CEDH), après avoir accordé une indemnisation du préju -
dice immatériel pour détention arbitraire de plus de six mois suivie d’ex -
pulsion illicite, elle a rejeté la demande relative au préjudice mgatériel pour
perte de biens, faillite de l’entreprise et réinstallation dans ung autre pays,
faute de preuve du lien de causalité :
«63. La Cour constate qu’il n’y a pas de lien de causalité entre les
violations établies et le dommage matériel allégué. Toutefois, la Cour
estime que le requérant a subi un dommage moral indéniable du fait
des violations constatées. Eu égard à l’ensemble des éléments se trou -
vant en sa possession et statuant en équité … elle décide d’allouer au
requérant 8 000 euros à ce titre. » (Les italiques sont de moi.)
Circonstance particulière concernant la Cour européenne des droits de
l’homme, la notion d’équité est expressément prévue par l’article 41 de la
convention européenne des droits de l’homme, qui stipule que, « [s]i la Cour
déclare qu’il y a eu violation de la convention ou de ses Protocolges … la
Cour accorde à la partie lésée, s’il y a lieu, une satisfactgion équitable » (les
italiques sont de moi). Il s’agit donc non pas d’une généraglisation de la
pratique courante dans le domaine des droits de l’homme, mais d’unge
disposition limitée à l’indemnisation.
35. De même, l’affaire Somogyi c. Italie mettait en jeu la violation de
l’article 6 de la convention européenne. La Cour européenne des droits de
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6 CIJ1032.indb 188 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 416
State or with “autonomous human rights violations” of this kind ? That is
highly doubtful.
33. For its part, the European Court of Human Rights has always
maintained that, in respect of material injuries, the burden of proof reglat -
ing to the existence of those injuries and to the causal link should nor -
mally be borne by the applicant, and the absence of proof of one or othegr
of these has frequently led to the rejection of the claim. In Borisenko v.
Ukraine, for example, although the court awarded compensation of
€1,700, “ruling on an equitable basis, in respect of non-pecuniary dam -
age”, this was on account of the non-material injury, the court having
dismissed the material injury for which the applicant was claiming com -
pensation: “The Court does not discern any causal link between the vio -
lations found and the pecuniary damage alleged ; it therefore rejects that
claim.” (Borisenko v. Ukraine, application No. 25725/02, judgment of
12 January 2012, ECHR, para. 67.) Similarly, in Airey v. Ireland, the
European Court rejected the claim for material injury on the grounds thagt
the applicant had failed to establish that there was a causal relation
between the alleged violations and the losses suffered (Airey v. Ireland,
application No. 6289/73, judgment of 6 February 1981, ECHR, para. 12).
34. In Ahmed v. Romania (application No. 34621/03, judgment of
13 July 2010, ECHR), the Court, having awarded compensation for
non-material injury resulting from an arbitrary detention lasting more
than six months and followed by an unlawful expulsion, rejected the
claim for material injury on account of the loss of property, the bank -
ruptcy of the company and resettlement in another country, because of a
lack of evidence of the causal link :
“63. The Court finds that there is no causal link between the esta ‑
blished violations and the alleged material damage. However, it is of
the opinion that the applicant has suffered an undeniable moral
injury as a result of the established violations. Taking account of all g
of the facts in its possession and ruling on the basis of equity . . . it
decides to award the applicant a sum of €8,000 in this connection.”
(Emphasis added.)
There is one circumstance specific to the European Court of Human
Rights: the notion of equity is expressly provided by Article 41 of the
European Convention on Human Rights, which states that “[i]f the Courgt
finds that there has been a violation of the Convention or the Protocols g
thereto . . . the Court shall, if necessary, afford just satisfaction to the
injured party” (emphasis added). It is not, therefore, a general regflection
of current practice in the area of human rights, rather a provision limigted
to compensation.
35. The case of Somogyi v. Italy also involved a violation of Article 6
of the European Convention. The European Court of Human Rights
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6 CIJ1032.indb 189 26/11/13 09:37 417 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
l’homme s’est exprimée ainsi en ce qui concerne d’abord le dommage
matériel, puis le préjudice moral :
«83. La Cour ne considère pas approprié de dédommager le requég -
rant des pertes alléguées. Aucun lien de causalité ne se trouve en effet
établi entre la violation constatée et les répercussions néggatives que
la condamnation aurait eues sur les activités commerciales et les rela-
tions sociales de l’intéressé. (Les italiques sont de moi.)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85. Quant au préjudice moral, la Cour estime que, dans les cir -
constances de l’espèce, le constat de violation constitue en soi ugne
satisfaction équitable suffisante (voir Brozicek c. Italie, arrêt du
19 décembre 1989, série A, n o 167, p. 20, par. 48 ; F. C. B. c. Italie,
arrêt précité, p. 22, par. 38;oT. c. Italie, arrêt précité, p. 43, par. 32). »
(Somogyi c. Italie, requête n 67972/01, arrêt du 18 mai 2004, CEDH,
par. 83-85.)
36. S’il fallait opérer une sélection, exemplaire à cet égardg, dans la
jurisprudence du Tribunal des réclamations Etats-Unis/Iran, il y auragit
lieu de citer à nouveau ces affaires similaires à la nôtre, lges affaires Rankin,
Daley et Yeager, où le Tribunal a exigé la preuve d’un lien de causalité
entre la perte de biens alléguée et le comportement de l’auteur du fait
internationalement illicite en demandant aux requérants de démontrger
que, lorsqu’ils avaient quitté l’Iran, ils avaient abandonnég le bien en ques -
tion ou que celui-ci leur avait été confisqué (« expropriation »).
37. Au vu de tout ce qui précède, il me semble que, chaque fois que leg
préjudice est lié à un objet, à une chose palpable dont l’gexistence peut
toujours être constatée par une preuve, il n’y a pas lieu de cognjecturer, ni
de statuer en vertu de l’équité, comme a choisi de le faire la gmajorité de la
Cour dans le présent arrêt, ni d’agir sur la base de toute autrge raison ou
considération, si ce n’est sur celle d’une preuve suffisante, gc’est-à-dire
nécessairement documentaire.
Le cas d’espèce
38. L’application de cette jurisprudence et de cette pratique à la prég -
sente affaire aurait exigé, en toute logique, que la Cour déboutge la Guinée
sur chaque chef de préjudice matériel ou de perte de biens matériels pour
lequel elle n’avait pas fourni de « preuve suffisante » à l’appui de sa pré -
tention. C’est ce que la Cour a fait concernant la perte alléguée de revenus
(arrêt, par. 44, 45 et 46).
39. En effet, si les considérations d’équité peuvent, en cas de perte
matérielle, être utilisées pour chiffrer l’indemnité logrsque n’est pas indi -
quée ou ne peut être connue la valeur précise de l’objet de gla perte (bien
matériel ou revenu), on ne peut pas faire l’économie de la preguve pour
établir l’existence de l’objet en question, bien ou revenu.
40. Dans l’affaire Diallo, en dehors de l’inventaire, établi par les soins
de l’ambassade guinéenne, des biens personnels de M. Diallo, inventaire
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6 CIJ1032.indb 190 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 417
stated the following, first in respect of material damage and then in relga-
tion to moral damage :
“83. The Court does not consider it appropriate to compensate the
applicant for the alleged losses, no causal link having been established
between the violation found and the negative effects the applicant’gs
conviction allegedly had on his commercial activities and his social
relations. (Emphasis added.)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85. As regards non-pecuniary damage, the Court considers that,
in the circumstances of the case, the finding of a violation constitutes g
in itself sufficient just satisfaction (see Brozicek v. Italy, judgment of
19 December 1989, Series A, No. 167, p. 20, para. 48; F. C. B. v.
Italy, cited above, p. 22, para. 38 ; and T. v. Italy, cited above, p. 43,
para. 32).” (Somogyi v. Italy, application No. 67972, judgment of
18 May 2004, ECHR, paras. 83-85.)
36. If one had to choose some exemplary cases in this respect from the
case law of the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal, it would be appropri-
ate to recall those which are similar to the one before the Court, namelgy
the Rankin, Daley and Yeager cases, in which the Tribunal demanded
proof of a causal link between the alleged loss of property and the con -
duct of the author of the internationally wrongful act, requiring the apgp- li
cants to demonstrate that they had abandoned the property in question
on leaving Iran, or that the property had been expropriated.
37. In view of all of the foregoing, it seems to me that whenever an
injury is linked to an object, a tangible thing whose existence can be sgub-
stantiated by evidence, decisions should not be made on the basis of cong-
jecture or of equity — as the majority of the Court has chosen to do in
the present Judgment ; nor should the Court act on the basis of any rea -
son or consideration other than that of sufficient proof, that is to say,
proof evidenced by documents.
The Present Case
38. Had this case law and practice been applied in the present case, the
Court would inevitably have had to reject Guinea’s claims for every hgead
of material injury or loss of material property for which it had failed gto
provide “sufficient proof” in support of its claim. This is what gthe Court
did in respect of the alleged loss of earnings (Judgment, paras. 44, 45
and 46).
39. Thus, although considerations of equity may be used in the event of
material loss in order to put a figure to the compensation—when the exact
value of the loss sustained (property or earnings) is not indicated org can-
not be determined — it is not possible to dispense with evidence in order
to prove the existence of the object in question, be it property or earngings.
40. In the Diallo case, beyond the inventory of Mr. Diallo’s personal
property drawn up by the Guinean Embassy — an inventory which is
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6 CIJ1032.indb 191 26/11/13 09:37 418 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
rapporté par la RDC dans son contre-mémoire mais fourni par la Guignée
elle-même (voir annexes 199 et 200 du mémoire introductif d’instance),
aucune preuve n’a été administrée par la Guinée qu’il gexistait d’autres
biens. Ce n’est certainement pas le luxe dans lequel vivait M. Diallo en
1984 (montres Cartier, grandes réceptions et vêtements de haute couture)
qui prouverait la présence, non constatée par l’inventaire, de gnombreux
biens de luxe et de prestige jusqu’en 1996, alors que, depuis 1995,
M. Diallo s’était fait déclarer indigent et connaissait des diffigcultés finan -
cières. Si M. Diallo a dû renoncer aux biens qu’il prétend avoir perdus,
c’est en raison des difficultés financières des sociétés gqu’il dirigeait, et non
du fait de l’expulsion illicite opérée par les autorités congolaises.
41. Par ailleurs, la norme de preuve, ne serait-ce que pour l’évaluatigon
de la valeur à rembourser, est telle que, dans l’affaire Chevreau, l’arbitre,
tout en admettant qu’il paraissait «probable que M. Chevreau ait possédé
dans son logement plus de vêtements que ceux qui figurent à l’ingven -
taire», dut renoncer, après en avoir considéré la possibilité, à accorder
une indemnité pour la perte de ces vêtements, « faute de renseignements lui
permettant de calculer une indemnité de ce chef » (affaire Chevreau, préci -
tée, par. 24-25 et 41-42 ; les italiques sont de moi).
42. On peut également penser que, si, dans l’affaire Chevreau, l’arbitre
fit une exception concernant la perte d’un violon non répertorié, c’est
parce qu’il avait été établi qu’un étui à violon avgait bien été retrouvé vide
dans la maison, ce qui permit de présumer que M. Chevreau avait pu
détenir un violon, pour l’éventuelle perte duquel il lui fut algloué une
indemnité de 100 livres sterling. Dans la présente affaire, la Cour ne dis -
pose même pas d’une présomption convaincante qui montrerait que
M. Diallo ait disposé d’autres biens que ceux listés dans l’invgentaire.
43. Certes, le sort des biens en question après l’établissement de l’inven -
taire n’a pas pu être établi avec précision, mais il n’a gpas non plus été dém - on
tré qu’ils avaient été perdus. Sur ce point, le Gouvernementg congolais
soutient, et aucune preuve à l’effet contraire n’a été gprésentée, que ces biens
devaient s’être retrouvés dans l’appartement, sans doute sougs la garde de
l’ambassade guinéenne. En tout état de cause, rien n’a été tenté pgour prou -
ver que la RDC serait responsable de leur perte ou de leur vol éventugels,
alors qu’ils étaient sous la garde des fidèles employés de lag maison de
M. Diallo, de ses amis ou de l’ambassade guinéenne elle-même. Cet argu -
ment a été utilisé par la RDC pour montrer que, de son point deg vue,
l’inventaire des biens trouvés dans l’appartement qu’occupaigt M. Diallo
constituait une pièce probante et crédible parce qu’il avait égté dressé à l’ini-
tiative et par les soins de l’ambassade guinéenne elle-même. Leg défendeur a
soutenu également, comme le rappelle l’arrêt (par. 31), que, jusqu’à preuve
du contraire, cet inventaire faisait état de la totalité des biensg détenus par
M. Diallo dans son appartement et que, ensuite, ils avaient été récupérés par
l’ambassade parce que le Gouvernement congolais n’avait eu aucune occa -
sion ni aucune raison d’en prendre possession, ni ne les avait confisqgués.
44. De même, si l’arbitre saisi de l’affaire Chevreau considéra qu’il
n’avait pas été prouvé à sa satisfaction qu’un lien deg causalité existât
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6 CIJ1032.indb 192 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 418
mentioned by the DRC in its Counter-Memorial, but actually provided by
Guinea itself (see Annexes 199 and 200 of the Memorial) — no evidence
has been produced by Guinea attesting to the existence of any other propg -
erty. Mr. Diallo’s lavish lifestyle in 1984 (Cartier watches, grand recep -
tions and designer clothes) does not prove that a number of luxury and
prestige items, not listed on the inventory, still existed in 1996, in circum -
stances where, in 1995, Mr. Diallo had had himself declared indigent and
was experiencing financial difficulties. If Mr. Diallo was forced to abandon
the property which he claims to have lost, it was because of the financiagl
difficulties of the companies he managed, and not because of the wrongfgul
expulsion carried out by the Congolese authorities.
41. Furthermore, the standard of proof — if only in respect of the
evaluation of the amount to be reimbursed — is such that, in the Chevreau
case, while accepting that it appeared “probable that Mr. Chevreau had
in his rooms more clothing than was indicated in the inventory”, the arbi -
trator, having contemplated the possibility of awarding an indemnity forg
the loss of this clothing, was obliged to reject that claim “for lack of infor‑
mation which would permit him to calculate an indemnity on this ground”
(Chevreau case, cited above, paras. 24-25 and 41-42 ; emphasis added).
42. One might also add in respect of the Chevreau case that, although the
arbitrator made an exception concerning the loss of a violin, whose existence
had not been recorded, he did so because it had been established that ang
empty violin case had been found at the house, allowing for the presump -
tion that Mr. Chevreau could have owned a violin. For the potential loss of
the violin, he was awarded compensation of 100 pounds sterling. In the
present case, the Court is unable even to raise a convincing presumptiong
that Mr. Diallo owned possessions other than those listed on the inventory.
43. It is true that it has not been possible to establish definitively the fagte
of the property in question following the drawing up of the inventor;yhow -
ever, nor has it not been demonstrated that they had been lost. On this
point, the Congolese Government argues — and no evidence to the contrary
has been produced — that this property should have been in the apartment,
which in all likelihood was under the guard of the Guinean Embassy. In agny
event, no attempt has been made to prove that the DRC is responsible forg
the possible loss or theft of that property while it was under the guardg of
Mr. Diallo’s trusted household staff, his friends or the Guinean Embassy
itself. This reasoning was adopted by the DRC to support its view that tghe
inventory of the property found in the apartment occupied by Mr. Diallo
was a credible piece of evidence of probative value, since it had been dgrawn
up on the initiative of and by the Guinean Embassy itself. As the Judgmegnt
recalls (para. 31), the Respondent also maintained that, in the absence of
evidence to the contrary, that inventory included all Mr. Diallo’s property
that was in his apartment and that this property had subsequently been
recovered by the Embassy, because the Congolese Government had had no
opportunity or reason to take possession of it, nor had it confiscated itg.
44. Equally, while the arbitrator in the Chevreau case considered that
it had not been satisfactorily established that there was a causal link g
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6 CIJ1032.indb 193 26/11/13 09:37 419 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
entre la perte, alléguée par le Gouvernement français, de certagins biens de
M. Chevreau et le comportement du Gouvernement britannique alors
même que ce dernier n’avait pas nié avoir eu la responsabilitég de la garde
des biens (affaire Chevreau, précitée, par. 24-25 et 41-42), en l’espèce, la
situation est plutôt incertaine. En effet, la Cour elle-même laigsse entendre
qu’il n’y aurait aucun lien de causalité clairement établi egt permettant de
conclure que les biens prétendument perdus « l’[avaient] été en consé -
quence du comportement illicite de la RDC» (arrêt, par. 32). De plus, elle
admet volontiers que « [l]a Guinée n’avance aucune preuve que M. Diallo
aurait tenté de déménager les biens qui se trouvaient dans son gapparte -
ment ou de les céder à des tiers, et il n’a pas davantage étgé démontré que
la RDC l’en aurait empêché », et que « la Guinée n’a … pas réussi à éta -
blir l’étendue de la perte subie par M. Diallo en ce qui concerne ses biens
personnels répertoriés dans l’inventaire ni la mesure dans laqugelle cette
perte aurait été causée par le comportement illicite de la RDC » (ibid.,
par. 31), ne trouvant donc aucun lien de causalité rattachant une éveng -
tuelle perte de biens aux détentions et à l’expulsion illicitesg de M. Diallo.
45. De toute façon, aucune preuve n’a été faite de la perte de tels biens,
ni de leur valeur, ni du fait que la RDC fût responsable de cette prégtendue
perte, ainsi que la Cour le reconnaît (ibid., par. 31-33) ; ce chef de préju -
dice aurait donc dû être rejeté.
46. Mais, paradoxalement, après avoir pourtant ainsi conclu à l’inegxis -
tence de quelque preuve « certaine», la Cour alloue une indemnité qu’elle
fonde sur une sorte d’argument supplétif inattendu. En effet, togut en envi -
sageant que puisse être fondée «l’affirmation de la RDC selon laquelle ces
biens de M. Diallo se seraient trouvés entre les mains de représentants
guinéens et de proches de M. Diallo après l’expulsion de ce dernier », elle
considère néanmoins qu’« à tout le moins l’intéressé aurait eu à les démé -
nager en Guinée ou à prendre des mesures pour pouvoir en disposer en
RDC». La réparation n’est donc plus envisagée en raison de la perte cer -
taine des biens en question ni du rôle joué par le Gouvernement congolais
dans cette perte ; du coup, elle ne repose plus sur aucun fondement. Tou -
tefois, ne pouvant sérieusement avancer la circonstance du « déménage-
ment» des biens en Guinée ou de leur « disposition» en RDC comme
fondement d’une indemnisation, ce qui supposerait la preuve de l’egxis -
tence de leur existence, de leur perte et du lien de causalité entre gcette
perte et le comportement de la RDC, c’est visiblement par artifice et gsans
motivation évidente que la majorité de la Cour se contente (ibid., par. 36)
d’affirmer que, «étant parvenue aux conclusions qui précèdent … au sujet
des biens personnels de M. Diallo … la Cour décide d’attribuer la somme
de 10 000 dollars des Etats-Unis au titre de ce chef de préjudice ». Or, sur
ce point précis, on se rend compte, bien au contraire, que la Cour égtait
parvenue à la conclusion qu’aucun élément de preuve n’avagit été fourni
par la Guinée. Alors, au titre de quel préjudice ?
47. Je suis donc d’avis que la majorité n’a pas correctement apprégcié la
situation en jugeant qu’elle était fondée à accorder une indgemnisation
pour la perte de biens matériels dont ni l’existence, ni la valeurg, ni même
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6 CIJ1032.indb 194 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 419
between the loss, as alleged by the French Government, of certain prop -
erty belonging to Mr. Chevreau and the conduct of the British Govern -
ment — even though the latter did not deny that it was responsible for
safeguarding the property (see Chevreau case, cited above, paras. 24-25
and 41-42), the situation in the present case is somewhat unclear. In egffect,
the Court itself lets it be understood that there is no clearly establisghed
causal link enabling it to be concluded that the alleged loss of that prop -
erty “was caused by the DRC’s unlawful conduct” (Judgment, parga. 32).
Moreover, it freely admits that “Guinea does not point to any evidencge
that Mr. Diallo attempted to transport or to dispose of the property in
the apartment, and there is no evidence before the Court that the DRC
barred him from doing so” and that “Guinea has failed to prove theg
extent of the loss of Mr. Diallo’s personal property listed on the inven -
tory and the extent to which any such loss was caused by the DRC’s
unlawful conduct” (ibid., para. 31), concluding therefore that there is no
causal link between the alleged loss of property and the wrongful deten -
tions and expulsion of Mr. Diallo.
45. In any event, no evidence has been produced which attests to the
loss of this property, or to its value, or to the fact that the DRC was g
responsible for that purported loss, as the Court recognizes (ibid.,
paras. 31-33); this head of damage should therefore have been rejected.
46. Paradoxically, however, having thus concluded that there is no
“definite” proof, the Court proceeds to award compensation by produgc -
ing a sort of unexpected auxiliary argument. Thus, while accepting that g
the DRC might be correct in its “contention that Guinean officials agnd
Mr. Diallo’s relatives were in a position to dispose of that personal progp -
erty after Mr. Diallo’s expulsion”, the Court nevertheless considers that,
“at a minimum, Mr. Diallo would have had to transport his personal
property to Guinea or to arrange for its disposition in the DRC”. Repa -
ration is thus no longer envisaged on account of the definite loss of theg
property in question, nor of the role played by the Congolese Govern -
ment in that loss ; consequently, it no longer has any legal basis. How -
ever, unable to rely on the “transport” of the property to Guinea gor its
“disposition” in the DRC as a serious basis for compensation — which
would imply that there was proof of the property’s existence, its losgs and
the causal link between that loss and the DRC’s conduct — it is by pure
artifice, and with no clear reasoning, that the majority of the Court is g
content to state (ibid., para. 36) that “in view of the Court’s conclusions
above . . . regarding the personal property of Mr. Diallo . . ., the Court
awards the sum of US$10,000 under this head of damage”. However, on
this precise point, it can be seen that the Court had, in fact, reached gthe
opposite conclusion — that no evidence whatsoever had been supplied by
Guinea. What, then, is the head of damage in question ?
47. I am therefore of the opinion that the majority has failed to assess
the situation correctly in holding that it was entitled to award compensga -
tion for loss of physical property whose existence and value have not begen
99
6 CIJ1032.indb 195 26/11/13 09:37 420 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. mampuya)
la perte et l’imputabilité de celle-ci à la RDC, ne sont étagblies. Il semble
qu’il eût été difficile de ne pas comparer la hauteur des pgrétentions ini -
tiales de la Guinée et celle des réparations auxquelles elle pouvagit finale -
ment prétendre sur la base du dossier présenté par elle et jugég par la Cour.
Cette idée de la compensation ne me semble pas correspondre, en l’ges -
pèce, à ce qu’on pourrait appeler l’« équité».
(Signé) Auguste Mampuya.
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6 CIJ1032.indb 196 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. mampuya) 420
established, nor its loss, or the DRC’s responsibility for that loss. It
appears to have been difficult to avoid comparing the size of Guinea’gs
initial claims with the amount of reparation that it was ultimately entigtled
to claim on the basis of the case file submitted by it and considered by the
Court. That notion of compensation does not, in my view, correspond in
the present case to what might be called “equity”.
(Signed) Auguste Mampuya.
100
6 CIJ1032.indb 197 26/11/13 09:37
Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Mampuya