Separate opinion of Juge Cançado Trindade

Document Number
103-20120619-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
103-20120619-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

347

SEPARATE OPINION

OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. P rolegomena 1-3

II. The Subject of the Rights gBreached and the Subjecgt of
the Right to Reparationsg 4-13

III.n eminem laedere : Insights on Reparationgs from the

“Founding Fathers” of thge Law of Nations (d roit des
g ens) 14-21

IV. The Dawn of State Responsgibility and the Rationagle of
Duty of Reparation 22-31

V. An Indissoluble Whole: Breach of International Law and

Compliance with the Dutgy of Reparation for Damagges 32-40

VI. The Centrality of the Vicgtims in Human Rights Protgec -
tion, and Its Implicatigons for Reparations 41-59

1. The central position of the victims 41-44

2. The implications for reparations 45-49
3. The distinct forms of reparation 50-59

VII. The Contribution of the Cagse Law of the Internationagl

Human Rights Tribunals (gIACtHR and ECHR) 60-73

1. The relevance of their case law on reparations due to the
victims 60-64
2. The contribution of the Inter-American Court of Human

Rights 65-70
3. The contribution of the European Court of Human Rights 71-73

VIII. eminem l aedere and Reparation for Moralg Damage to
Individuals 74-80

IX. The Relevance of the Rehgabilitation of Victimsg 81-85

X. Epilogue: Concluding Reflectionsg 86-101

*

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I.P rolegomena

1. I have voted in favour of the adoption of the present Judgment in
the case of Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic
Republic of the Congo), whereby the International Court of Justice (ICJ)
has ordered reparations for the damages suffered by Mr. A. S. Diallo

(established in the previous Judgment on the merits, of 30 November
2010), as an individual, under the UN Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (Art. 13), and under the African Charter on Human and Peoples’
Rights (Article 12 (4)), as well as under the Vienna Convention on
Consular Relations (his right to information on consular assistance,

under Article 36 (1) (b)). In the present Judgment, in determining the
reparations due ultimately to Mr. A. S. Diallo, as a result of the damages
he suffered (para. 57), the ICJ has rightly taken into account the experi -
ence of other contemporary international tribunals in the matter of repag-
rations for damages.

2. Amongst those tribunals, of particular importance is the case law of
the international tribunals of human rights (in particular that of the gInter-
American and the European Courts of Human Rights), as I shall seek to
demonstrate in the present separate opinion. Although I have agreed withg

the Court’s majority as to the determination of reparations in the prgesent
Judgment, there are some points, not fully reflected in the reasoning gof
the Court, that I feel obliged to dwell upon in the present separate opign -
ion, so as to clarify the matter dealt with by the Court, and the foundag -
tions of my personal position thereon. One of the key points concerns thge

position of individuals as subjects of contemporary international law,
and, accordingly, as titulaires of the right to reparation for the damages
they have suffered.

3. My reflections, developed in the present separate opinion, pertain to g

other points as well, at conceptual and epistemological levels, namely :
(a) the subject of the rights breached and the subject of the right to repa -
rations ;(b) neminem laedere: insights on reparations from the “founding
fathers” of the law of nations (droit des gens) ; (c) the dawn of State
responsibility and the rationale of duty of reparations ; (d) an indissolu -

ble whole : breach of international law and compliance with the duty of
reparation for damages ; (e) the centrality of the victims in human rights
protection, and its implications for reparations, and the distinct formsg of
these latter ; (f) assessment of the contribution of the case law of the
international human rights tribunals (in particular that of the Inter-

American and the European Courts of Human Rights) ; (g) neminem
laedere and reparation for moral damage to individuals ; and (h) the
relevance of the rehabilitation of victims. The way will then be paved, in
the epilogue, for the presentation of my concluding reflections on theg
matter.

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II. The Subject of the Rights gBreached
and the Subject of the Rigght to Reparations

4. In its Judgment on the merits (of 30 November 2010) in the present
case, the Court established the violations of the rights of Mr. Diallo “as
an individual” (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 655, para. 34), namely, his

rights under Article 13 of the UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,
and under Article 12 (4) of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’
Rights, in addition to his right to information on consular assistance

under Article 36 (1) (b) of the Vienna Convention on Consular Rela -
tions . This was the first time in its history that the Court established
violations of human rights, under two human rights treaties, in additiong

to the relevant provision of the 1963 Vienna Convention.

5. The subject of the rights violated in the cas d’espèce was a human
being, Mr. A. S. Diallo, not a State. Likewise, the subject of the corre -
sponding right to reparation is a human being, Mr. A. S. Diallo, not a

State. He is the titulaire of such right to reparation, and the beneficiary of
the reparations ordered by the Court in the present Judgment. In the pre -
vious Judgment on the merits (of 30 November 2010) the Court referred

to the reparation — in the form of compensation — “due to Guinea for
the injury suffered by Mr. Diallo” (ibid., p. 691, para. 161). The Court
further referred to the compensation owed by the Democratic Republic of g

the Congo to Guinea “for the injury flowing from the wrongful deten -
tions and expulsion of Mr. Diallo in 1995-1996, including the resulting
loss of his personal belongings” (ibid., p. 691, para. 163).

6. In the subsequent proceedings as to reparations (written phase
only), Guinea referred repeatedly, in its Memorial of 6 December 2011, to
the damages 2or injuries 3or harms 4suffered by Mr. Diallo, to the dis -
5 6
crimination and arbitrariness inflicted against him. It also referred to
the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s breaches of human rights obli -
gations . For its part, in its Counter-Memorial of 21 February 2012, the
8
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) acknowledged the injuries or
damages 9suffered by Mr. Diallo. The two contending Parties thus agreed
that reparations were here due to the victim, for the human rights violag -

tions he suffered. The titulaire of the rights breached, and the beneficiary
of the reparations due, was the individual concerned, Mr. A. S. Diallo.

1Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), resolutory points 2, 3 and 4 of the dispositif.
2Memorial of the Republic of Guinea, paras. 16 and 48, and cf. para. 63.
3Ibid., paras. 35 and 47, and cf. para. 62.
4
5Ibid., para. 24.
6Ibid., para. 43.
Ibid., para. 61.
7Ibid., para. 21.
8Counter-Memorial of the DRC, paras. 2, 4 and 1.05.
9Ibid., paras. 1.05 and 1.44.

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7. Accordingly, in its Memorial Guinea invoked a recent case from the
inter-American system of human rights, concerning Haiti 10. And, for its

part, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in its Counter-Memorial,
invoked a series of decisions from the European and the Inter-American
Courts of Human Rights and surveyed them 11, stressing their importance
for the determination of “compensation for non-pecuniary damage suf -
12
fered by individuals” . The Democratic Republic of the Congo made a
point of stressing that it deemed it fit to draw on the case law of the
Inter-American and European Courts of Human Rights as the corre -
sponding two regional systems of human rights protection

“are the oldest and best developed in the world and which have abun-

dant practice in fixing compensation to make good the non-pecuniary
damage resulting from wrongful and prolonged detentions of physical
persons by certain States. In the light of the jurisprudence of these

two international courts, the Respondent will submit its own proposal
to the Court regarding the amount of compensation which it consid -
ers reasonable and proportionate in relation to the non-pecuniary
damage suffered by Mr. Diallo.” 13

8. In its present Judgment on reparations the Court has recalled its
finding in its previous Judgment on the merits (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II),

p. 691, para. 163) in the cas d’espèce, whereby the amount of compensa -
tion due to Mr. A. S. Diallo is based on the damage suffered resulting
from his “wrongful detentions and expulsion” in 1995-1996 and the con -

sequent “loss of his personal belongings” (Judgment, para. 11). The whole
reasoning of the Court is developed on the basis of the damages sufferged
by Mr. A. S. Diallo, as established by it in its earlier Judgment on the
merits (of 30 November 2010). In the present Judgment, the Court reiter -

ates its position that the damages were done to Mr. A. S. Diallo, the
individual victim (ibid., para. 57), not to his State of nationality or origin.

9. The fact that the mechanism for dispute-settlement by the ICJ is, as

disclosed by its interna corporis, an inter-State one, does not mean that
the Court’s findings, and its corresponding reasoning, ought to be invgari -
ably limited to a strict inter-State approach. Not at all ; in their contents,
cases vary considerably, and, throughout the last decades, some of them

have directly concerned the condition of individuals. I have had the occa -
sion to point this out in my separate opinion in the Court’s recent Advi -
sory Opinion on Judgment No. 2867 of the International Labour
Organization Administrative Tribunal upon a Complaint Filed against the ▯

International Fund for Agricultural Development (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I),

10
Memorial of the Republic of Guinea, para. 30.
11Counter-Memorial of the DRC, paras. 1.07-1.43.
12Ibid., para. 1.47, and cf. para. 1.41.
13Ibid., para. 1.07.

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pp. 79-80, paras. 78-79), and I do so again in the present separate opinion
in the Diallo case (Judgment on Reparations).

10. Notorious examples in that sense are provided, e.g., by the Notte ‑
bohm case (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala) (1955, on double nationality); the
case concerning the Application of the Convention of 1902 Governing the

Guardianship of Infants (Netherlands v. Sweden) (1958) ; the case of the
Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of War (Pakistan v. India) (1973) ; the “Hos ‑
tages” (United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United
States v. Iran) case (1980)) ; the East-Timor (Portugal v. Australia) case
(1995); the case of the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia‑Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia)

(1996); the case of Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and
Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria) (1996); the case of Armed Activities on the
Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda)
(2000); the three successive cases concerning consular assistance — namely,
the cases “Breard” (Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Paraguay v.

United States) (1998)) ;LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America)
(2001) ; andAvena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States
of America) (2004) ; the case on Questions relating to the Obligation to
Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) (Order of 2009) ; the case of
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of

the Congo) (2010); the case of the Application of the International Conven ‑
tion on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v.
Russian Federation) (2011); the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cam ‑
bodia v. Thailand) (Order of 2011) ; and the case of the Jurisdictional
Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy) (2010-2012).
11. The insufficiency, if not artificiality, of the exclusively inter-State

outlook of the procedures before the ICJ has become manifest, in the
light of the very nature of some of the contentious cases submitted to it.
The same has been disclosed by the exercise of its advisory function, asg
illustrated by its last two Advisory Opinions, on the Accordance with
International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect

of Kosovo (2010), and on Judgment No. 2867 of the International Labour
Organization Administrative Tribunal upon a Complaint Filed against the ▯
International Fund for Agricultural Development (2012). Despite the limi -
tations of the inter-State conception of its mechanism of operation, the
Court can at least disclose its preparedness to reason in the light of the

progressive development of international law, thus contributing to it,
beyond the outdated inter-State outlook.
12. In effect, in the present Diallo case, the Court’s Judgments on the
merits (2010) and now on reparations clearly show that its findings andg
reasoning have rightly gone well beyond the straight-jacket of the strict
inter-State dimension. There are circumstances wherein the Court is

bound to do so, in the faithful exercise of its judicial function, in cagses
concerning distinct aspects of the condition of individuals. After all, g

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breaches of international law are perpetrated not only to the detriment gof

States, but also to the detriment of human beings, subjects of rights —
and bearers of obligations — emanating directly from international law
itself. States have lost the monopoly of international legal personalityg a
long time ago.

13. Individuals — like States and international organizations — are
likewise subjects of international law. A breach of their rights entailsg the

obligation to provide reparations to them. This is precisely the case ofg
Mr. A. S. Diallo ; the present case bears eloquent witness of that, and of
the limits imposed by contemporary international law upon State volun -
tarism. States cannot dispose of human beings the way they want, irre -

spective of their rights acknowledged in the corpus juris of the international
law of human rights ; if they breach their rights enshrined therein, they
are to bear the consequences thereof, in particular the ineluctable obligga -

tion to provide reparation to the individual victims.

III. neminem laedere : Insights on Reparationgs
from the “Founding Fathegrs”
of the Law of Nations (d roit des g ens )

14. This duty of reparation has deep historical roots, going back to the
origins of the law of nations : such duty was in fact in the minds of the
“founding fathers” of our discipline, as disclosed by their classigcal writ -

ings which have survived the onslaught of time. The present Diallo case,
unique in the history of this Court — as I pointed out in my separate
opinion in its earlier Judgment on the merits (of 30 November 2010) —
seems to provide an invitation to embark on the rescue of the earlier

thinking on such duty of reparation. In effect, in his celebrated Second
Relectio de Indis (1538-1539), Francisco de Vitoria made a proposition to
the effect that “the enemy who has done the wrong is bound to give gall
14
this redress” ; there is a duty, even amidst armed hostilities, to mak15
restitution (of losses) and to provide reparation for “all damages”g .

15. One was here in the realm of jus gentium, the law of nations, of all
16
peoples, wherein the right to redress was reckoned . The rules of that
emerging law of nations were to be “just and fitting for all persons”g ; the

14 Op. cit. infra note 16, Appendix B : Francisco de Vitoria, Second Relectio : On the
Indians [De Indis] [1538-1539], Oxford/London, Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1934 [reed.],
p. LV.
15 Ibid. ;and cf. Francisco de Vitoria, “Relección Segunda : De los Indios” [1538-1539],
Obras de Francisco de Vitoria — Relecciones Teológicas (ed. T. Urdanoz), Madrid, BAC,
1955, p. 827.
16 J. Brown Scott, The Spanish Origin of International Law — Francisco de Vitoria and

His Law of Nations, Oxford/London, Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1934, pp. 140, 150, 163
and 165.

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damages caused by wrongful acts were to be assessed, in order to provideg
redress to those who suffered them, and restitution of the losses 17. In

de Vitoria’s understanding, redress of wrongs was to take place in dis -
putes between States, or between groups, or between individuals, i.e., ign

all sorts of disputes. He viewed the international community of (emerg -
ing) States as “co-extensive with humanity” ; such redress corresponded,
in his conception, to “an international need” 18.

16. Hugo Grotius, for his part, dedicated a whole chapter of his De
Jure Belli ac Pacis (1625) to the obligation of reparation for damages
(Book II, Chap. XVII) 19. In his outlook, the “injured party” was not nec-

essarily a State; he referred to distinct kinds of damage caused by breaches
of “rights resulting to us”, or from “losses suffered by neglgigence” ; such
damages or losses create an obligation of reparation 20. In his conception

of the jus gentium, the (emerging) law of nations, H. Grotius focused on
the reasonable, on the dictates of the right reason, bearing in mind also
the common needs and, ultimately, the universal human society.

17. Samuel Pufendorf, likewise, in his Elementorum Jurisprudentiae

Universalis — Libri Duo (1672), asserted that whoever has caused damage
by a wrongful act is bound “to make good” and “to restore as mugch as
he contributed to the damage” 21. In this duty of restitution, each one

was bound to provide reparation for the damage he caused, “to restore
the whole”, on the basis of natural law 2. In his work On the Duty of
Man and Citizen (1673), Pufendorf pondered that one who has suffered

loss or damage cannot live in peace with the wrongdoer, without com-
pensation; hence the need of restitution. Natural law, attentive to the
sociable (sociabilis), condemned vengeance 23. “Natural equity” set forth

the “obligation to make restitution” for loss or harm done with maliceg or
negligence 2.

17
18 Op. cit. supra note 16, pp. 172 and 210-211.
Ibid., pp. 282-283 ; and cf. also, Association Internationale Vitoria-Suarez, Vitoria
et Suarez : contribution des théologiens au droit international moderne, Paris, Pedone, 1939,
pp. 73-74, and cf. pp. 169-170.
19 H. Grotius, De Jure Belli Ac Pacis [1625], Liber secundus, caput XVII, The Hague,
M. Nijhoff, 1948, pp. 79-82.
20 Ibid., pp. 79-80, paras. I and VIII-IX ;and cf. H. Grotius, Le droit de la guerre et de la

pai21[1625], Paris, PUF, 2005 [reed.], pp. 415-416 and 418, paras. I and VIII-IX.
S. Pufendorf, Elementorum Jurisprudentiae Universalis — Libri Duo [1672], Oxford/
London, Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1931 [reed.], pp. 264-265.
22 Ibid., p. 266.
23 S. Pufendorf, On the Duty of Man and Citizen According to Natural Law [1673],
Cambridge University Press, 2003 [5th printing], Book I, Chap. 6, pp. 56-57 and 60.
24 Ibid., pp. 58-59; and cf. S. Pufendorf, Os Deveres do Homem e do Cidadão de Acordo

com as Leis do Direito Natural [1673], Rio de Janeiro, Liberty Fund/Topbooks, 2007
[reed.], Book I, Chap. 6, pp. 152-153 and 156.

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18. For his part, Christian Wolff held, in his Jus Gentium Methodo

Scientifica Pertractatum(1764), that whoever caused a loss or wrong
“to a citizen or subject of another State” is “bound to repair it” ; the same
applies in the relations among nations, wherein “the loss caused shougld
25
be repaired” . Any international wrong — he added — entails the duty
of reparation, or of restoration of the loss 26. In his Principes du droit de la
nature et des gens (1758), Wolff situated the duty to provide reparation
27
for the damage caused in the realm of natural law thinking .

19. To the writings, on the subject-matter at issue, of Vitoria, Gro -
tius, Pufendorf and Wolff, others could be added, such as the ponder -

ation of Alberico Gentili (De Jure Belli, 1598) and of Francisco Suárez
(De Legibus ac Deo Legislatore, 1612), as to the need of a legal system
that would regulate the relations of the members of the universal societas

gentium, and the approach pursued by Cornelius van Bynkershoek (De
Foro Legatorum, 1721 ; Questiones Juris Publici — Libri Duo, 1737), in
keeping on upholding a multiplicity of subjects of jus gentium (nations,

peoples, persons). By and large, the attention to the common condition gof
humankind was proper to natural law, which, with the recta ratio, pro -
vided the basis for the regulation of human relations with the due respegct
28
for each other’s rights . The duty of reparation responded to an interna ‑
tional need, in conformity with the recta ratio — whether the beneficiaries
were States (emerging in their days), peoples, or individuals.

20. Subsequent to the works of Pufendorf and Wolff (supra), interna -
tional legal thinking embarked on the reductionist path of the jus inter
gentes pursuant to a much stricter inter-State outlook. The juxtaposition

of absolute State sovereignties led to the exclusion from that legal ordger
of the individuals as subjects of rights (titulaires de droits). At interna -
tional level, the States assumed the monopoly of the condition of subjecgts

of rights ; the individuals, for their protection, were left entirely at the
mercy of the discretionary intermediation of their nation-States. The
international legal order thus erected — which the excesses of legal posi -
tivism attempted in vain to justify — excluded therefrom precisely the

ultimate addressee of the juridical norms : the human being.

25C. Wolff, Jus Gentium Methodo Scientifica Pertractatum [1764], Oxford/London,
Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1934 [reed.], p. 162, paras. 318-319.
26Ibid., pp. 408 and 425, paras. 789 and 821.
27
C. Wolff, Principes du droit de la nature et des gens [1758], Vol. III, Caen,
Presses Universitaires de Caen, 2011 [reed.], Book IX, Chap. VI, pp. 293-294 and 296,
paras. II, IV and XIII.
28The right reason lies at the basis of the law of nations, being the spirit of justice
in the line of natural law thinkingthis trend of international legal thinking has always
much valued the realization of justice, pursuant to a “superior value of justice”. P. Foriers,
L’organisation de la paix chez Grotius et l’école de droit natu▯rel [1961], Paris, J. Vrin, 1987,
pp. 293, 333, 373 and 375 [reed. of study originally published inRecueil de la Société
Jean Bodin pour l’histoire comparative des institutions,Vol. 15, Part II, Brussels, Libr. Ency-
clopédique, 1961].

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21. The teachings of the “founding fathers” of the law of nations, howg -
ever, never faded away. Successive grave violations of the rights of theg

human person (some on a massive scale) awakened human conscience to
the need to restore to the human being the central position from where hge
had been unduly displaced by the exclusive inter-State thinking which
prevailed in the nineteenth century. The reconstruction, on human foun -

dations, as from the mid-twentieth century onwards, took, as conceptual
basis, the canons of the human being as subject of rights (titulaire de
droits), of the collective guarantee of the realization of these latter, and ofg
the objective character of the obligations of protection, and of the reagliza -

tion of superior common values. The individual came again to be per -
ceived as subject of the right to reparation for damages suffered.

IV. The Dawn of State Responsgibility
and the Rationale of Dutgy of Reparation

22. In effect, as from the late nineteenth century, some jurists had the
intuition to dwell upon reparation for international wrongs, even beforeg
the advent of the era of (contemporary) international tribunals. They g
wrote within distinct theoretical frameworks. One of the earlier juristsg to

do so was Dionisio Anzilotti. On the one hand, his views on the legal
standing of individuals (acknowledged by him only in positive domestic
law) 29became promptly and wholly unacceptable, even in the emerging

legal doctrine of his times ; this was largely due to the gradual establish -
ment of the direct contacts between individuals and the international
legal order (as from, e.g., the pioneering case law of the Central American
Court of Justice, 1907-1917, followed by the Advisory Opinion of 1928 of

the Permanent Court of International Justice [PCIJ] on the Jurisdiction of
the Courts of Danzig, 1928) and the gradual recognition of the access of
individuals to international justice 30.

23. On the other hand, another concern expressed by Anzilotti, as to
the duty of reparation of damages resulting from breaches of interna -
tional law so as to preserve the integrity of the international legal orgder,

seems to retain its contemporaneity, over a century later. In fact, alregady
in 1902, in his book Teoria Generale della Responsabilità dello Stato nel
Diritto Internazionale, he pondered, in his conceptualization, that a viola ‑

29
D. Anzilotti, “La responsabilité internationale des Etats à raisong des dommages
sou30erts par des étrangers”, op. cit. infra note 34, pp. 5-6 and 8.
A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Acceso Directo del Individuo a los Tribunales Inter ‑
nacionales de Derechos Humanos, Bilbao, Universidad de Deusto, 2001, pp. 9-104 ;
A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Derecho de Acceso a la Justicia en Su Amplia Dimensión,
Santiago de Chile, CECOH/Librotecnia, 2008, pp. 61-407 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, The
Access of Individuals to International Justice, Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 1-236.

35

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tion of international law (ensuing from an anti-juridical fact, a factum
contra jus) generates responsibility 31; hence the need to cease that viola -
32
tion (in its effects) and to provide reparation for the damage . And Anzi-
lotti added that “il neminem laedere è norma giuridica fondamentale nei

rapporti degli Stati come in quelli degl’individui [the neminem laedere is a
fundamental juridical norm in the relations of States as in those of
individuals]” 3.

24. Four years later, Anzilotti stressed that any “act contrary to inter -
national law” engages international responsibility . To him, an “interna-

tional illicit act” is an act which is “in opposition with the objgective
international law”; thus, “le caractère illicite d’un acte dérive toujours de g
son opposition avec le droit objectif” 35. To him, the damage is always
36
encompassed implicitly in the “anti-juridical character of the act” . And
he added, with insight, that

“any act committed by a subject contrary to the rule [of law] entailsg
an obligation to restore, in one form or another, the juridical posi -
tion which that subject has disturbed.

[A] violation of international juridical standards by a State bound
by those standards thus gives rise to a duty to make reparation,
which generally consists in the restoration of the juridical position
37
that has been disturbed.”

25. In the following years, it became generally accepted that the duty
of reparation was one of general or customary international law. Anotherg
international law theorist, Hans Kelsen, endeavoured in vain to challenge

that. In 1932, dwelling upon reparation, he built his conceptualization
within the straight-jacket of the exclusive inter‑State dimension. He took

an isolated position (already in those days) to the effect that the gduty of
reparation (compliance with which would in his view avoid recourse to
force and retaliation or reprisals) would necessarily require a prior agree ‑
38
ment between the States concerned . Kelsen overlooked the general
acknowledgement, discernible already in his times, that that duty was onge
of general or customary international law, and could not be entirely sub -

31 D. Anzilotti, Teoria Generale della Responsabilità dello Stato nel Diritto Internaz▯io ‑
nale, Part I, Florence, F. Lumachi Libr.-Ed., 1902, pp. 75, 78 and 102-103.
32 Ibid., pp. 95-97 and 100-101.
33
34 Ibid., p. 99.
He used indistinctly the terms “acte” and “fait de l’Etat”g; cf. D. Anzilotti, “La
responsabilité internationale des Etats à raison des dommages souffgerts par des étrangers”,
13 Revue générale de droit international public (1906), pp. 292 and 296.
35 Ibid., p. 14.
36 Ibid., p. 13.
37 Ibid. [Translation by the Registry.]
38
H. Kelsen, “Unrecht und Unrechtsfolge im Völkerrecht”, 12 Zeitschrift für öffent‑
liches Recht (1932), pp. 481-608.

36

6 CIJ1032.indb 68 26/11/13 09:37 357 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

sumed under the will of individual States tout court. Opinio juris commu‑
nis stood above the will of each State.

26. Yet, just as it happened with the theory of Anzilotti, in that of
Kelsen there is a concern which seems to have subsisted to date, retaining
its contemporaneity : reparation cannot “efface” the breach of interna -

tional law already committed, but it can rather avoid the negative conseg-
quences of the wrongful act (i.e., recourse to force and reprisals on
the part of the affected State). In Kelsen’s own words, in dwelling upgon
reparation,

“Ihr Sinn liegt nicht darin, dass durch sie — wie ihr Name sagt —
ein begangenes Unrecht wieder ‘gut’ gemacht wird, denn dies ist

unmöglich. Der einmal gesetzte Unrechtstatbestand kann nicht aus
der Welt geschafft werden. Sondern ihr Sinn liegt darin, dass durch
sie kraft Rechtens der Eintritt der Unrechtsfolge ausgeschaltet wird.”g

[Its significance does not lie with the fact that through such repara -
tion — as its name implies — a wrong that has already happened will
be repaired, as this is impossible. The wrongful behaviour cannot be

made to disappear from the world. Its significance lies with the fact
that through it, pursuant to a rule, the onset of the consequences of
the wrong is made impossible.] 39

27. Reparation, in Kelsen’s outlook, would thus contribute not only to

justice, but also to peace (a topic which was, later on, towards the end of
the Second World War, to attract his attention 40). In addition, he admit-
ted that reparation (for material and immaterial damage) might take dis -
41
tinct forms . On the obligation of reparation, the celebrated dictum of
the PCIJ in the Chorzów Factory case (Judgment of 26 July 1927) did not
escape his attention 42. Without abandoning his inter-State approach, in

his Hague Academy lectures of 1953 he conceded, as to the obligation of
reparation, that “an international court must confine itself to findingg that
an international obligation has been breached and to ordering reparationg
43
for the injury caused” .

28. Despite the constraints of the traditional inter-State outlook, the
rationale of reparation began to attract growing attention, and its con -

39
40Op. cit. supra note 38, p. 560.
Cf. H. Kelsen, Peace through Law, Chapel Hill, University of North Caro -
lina Press, 1944, pp. 71-124 ; and cf. H. Kelsen, A Paz pelo Direito [1944], São Paulo,
Ed. Martins Fontes, 2011 [reed.], pp. 65-114.
41Cf. op. cit. supra note 38, pp. 555-560.
42Cf. ibid., p. 550.
43H. Kelsen, “Théorie du droit international public”, Recueil des cours de l’Académie de
droit international de La Ha, ol. 84, 1953, p. 96, and cf. p. 30[.Translation by the Registry.]

37

6 CIJ1032.indb 70 26/11/13 09:37 358 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

ceptual framework was gradually to take place. The PCIJ much contrib -

uted to that, in referring, in the aforementioned Chorzów Factory case, to
the obligation of reparation as corresponding to a principle of interna ‑
tional law, and as conforming an “indispensable complement” to the

wrongful act, so as to efface all the consequences of this latter (i.e., the
provision of full reparation). In effect, support to the duty of repagration
came from distinct trends of opinion.

29. There were those who held, in the early twentieth century, that that
duty originated in the postulates of natural law. Amongst those was
Paul Fauchille, who, in 1922, lucidly pondered that the rules governing

the international responsibility of States, as to reparations,

“can be summed up in the natural law idea that any act causing injuryg
to others obliges whoever is responsible for that injury to make rep -

aration for it. This idea is applied in private law in the relations
between individuals ; there is no reason why it should not also be
applied in the relations between nations and between nations and
44
individuals.”

Depending on the circumstances of the cases, the duty of reparation for g
damages may thus be performed to the benefit of States, or else of indi -
viduals, whoever has been injured. Parallel to the trend of jusnaturalisgt

thinking on the matter, there were also those who beheld the duty of
reparation in all legal systems of (positive) law, without which thoseg sys -
tems would simply not exist 45.

30. In any case, attention began to be turned to the situation of the
victim, as beneficiary of reparation, and if there were treaties which prgo -
vided for reparation, this was so — unlike what Kelsen had assumed —
because such treaties acknowledged a pre-existing and well-established
46
principle of customary international law to the same effect . At the basis
of this principle, found in all national legal systems, was the “philgosophi -
cal idea” which “translates the natural law precept ‘neminem laedere’” 47.

Be that as it may, reparation was already widely acknowledged as a pos -
tulate of customary international law, whereby a “prestation” is owed by
the wrongdoer to the victim, as a reparation for the harm done, and the g
48
victim has the corresponding right to claim it . By the mid-twentieth cen-
tury, it was possible to state, as Hildebrando Accioly did, that . . .“[t]he

44
P. Fauchille, Traité de droit international public, Vol. I, Part I, Paris, Libr. A. Rous -
seau Ed., 1922, p. 515. [Translation by the Registry.]
45 Cf., e.g., L. Reitzer, La réparation comme conséquence de l’acte illicite en droit int▯er ‑
national, Paris, Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1938, p. 30.
46J. Personnaz, La réparation du préjudice en droit international public, Paris,
Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1939, pp. 53 and 60.
47 Ibid., p. 59. [Translation by the Registry.]
48 L. Reitzer, La réparation comme conséquence de l’acte illicite…,op. cit. supra note 45,
pp. 19, 23, 25, 48 and 213.

38

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general principle of the duty of reparation for injury is accepted througgh-
49
out the international order” .
31. Yet, there was a long way to go, in the progressive development of
reparation for injuries resulting from international wrongs. The matter
continued to be studied — as, in the era of the United Nations, in the

long-standing work of the International Law Commission (mainly in the
period 1956-2001) —, largely in the framework of the relations among
States. With the gradual expansion of international legal personality (gand

capacity), ineluctably accompanied by the corresponding expansion of
international responsibility, the need was felt to consider reparation for
damages in other and distinct contexts, beyond that of the strict inter-State
framework of dispute-settlement, which became conceptually unsatisfac -

tory.

V. An Indissoluble Whole :
Breach of Internationagl Law and Compliance
with the Duty of Reparatgion for Damages

32. The domain of international responsibility is central to interna -
tional law, as without international responsibility the international leggal
system would not exist. The duty of full reparation is the prompt and

indispensable complement of an internationally wrongful act, so as to
cease all the consequences ensuing therefrom, and to secure respect for g
the international legal order 50. The duty of reparation within the realm of

international responsibility is attached to subjectivity in international law,
ensuing from the condition of being subject of rights and bearer of dutiges
in the law of nations (droit des gens) 51. The advent of the international
law of human rights and of contemporary international criminal law has

had the impact of clarifying this whole matter, leaving no doubts that
individuals — no longer only States — are also subjects of rights and
bearers of duties emanating directly from international law (the droit des
52
gens) .
33. The treatment to be dispensed to reparations was only to evolve,
and considerably so, with the advent of the international law of human
rights, being ineluctably victim‑oriented as it is. The imperative of compli -

ance with the duty of reparation was not to be limited to the avoidance gof
sanctions or reprisals (as propounded by Kelsen, supra) at inter-State
level. Beyond that advantage stood, in the domain of juridical epistemolg -

49 H. Accioly, “Principes généraux de la responsabilité internatiognale d’après la doctrine
et la jurisprudence”, Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye,
Vol. 96, 1959, p. 415. [Translation by the Registry.]
50 C. Cepelka, Les conséquences juridiques du délit en droit international contem▯porain,
Prague, Universita Karlova, 1965, pp. 15, 17-18, 21-22, 60-61 and 79.
51 Ibid., pp. 15 and 53.
52
A. A. Cançado Trindade, Evolution du droit international au droit des gens — L’accès
des particuliers à la justice internationale :le regard d’un juge, Paris, Pedone, 2008, pp. 1-187.

39

6 CIJ1032.indb 74 26/11/13 09:37 360 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

ogy, the imperative of the realization of justice. The original breach or
violation of international law (irrespective of who committed it) cameg to
be regarded as forming an indissoluble whole with the compliance with the
duty of reparation (irrespective of who is its beneficiary).

34. This is so, irrespective of the circumstances of the case, as that
imperative, in my understanding, touches on the foundations of interna -
tional law. It was soon to meet with judicial recognition of the
Hague Court (both the PCIJ and the ICJ). Thus, as early as in 1927-1928,

in the [aforementioned] Chorzów Factory case, the PCIJ invoked a pre -
cept of customary international law, reflecting a fundamental principlge of
international law, to the effect that “the breach of an engagement ginvolves
an obligation to make reparation in an adequate form. Reparation there -
fore is the indispensable complement of a failure to apply a convention.g” 53

And the PCIJ added that such reparation “must, as far as possible, wigpe
out all the consequences of the illegal act and re-establish the situatigon
which would, in all probability, have existed if that act had not been
committed” 5. Furthermore — as I recalled in a recent dissenting opin -

ion (in this Court’s Judgment of 3 February 2012),
“In the present case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the

State, (. . .) [t]he State’s obligation of reparation ineluctably ensues
therefrom, as the ‘indispensable complement’ of those grave breachges.
As the jurisprudence constante of the old PCIJ further indicated,
already in the inter-war period, that obligation is governed by inter -

national law in all its aspects (e.g., scope, forms, beneficiaries) ; com-
pliance with it shall not be subject to modification or suspension by
the respondent State, through the invocation of provisions, interpre -
tations or alleged difficulties of its own domestic law (Jurisdiction of

the Courts of Danzig, Advisory Opinion, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series B,
No. 15, pp. 26-27; Greco‑Bulgarian “Communities”,Advisory Opinion,
1930, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 17, pp. 32 and 35 ; Free Zones of Upper
Savoy and the District of Gex, Judgment, 1932, P.C.I.J., Series A/B,
No. 46, p. 167 ; Treatment of Polish Nationals and Other Persons of

Polish Origin or Speech in the Danzig Territory, Advisory Opinion,
1932, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 44, p. 24).” (Jurisdictional Immuni ‑
ties of the State (Germany v. Italy : Greece intervening), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 265, para. 241.)

35. The breach of international law and the ensuing compliance with
the duty of reparation for injuries are two sides of the same coin ; they

form an indissoluble whole, which cannot at all be disrupted by an undue
invocation of State sovereignty or State immunity. This is the view whicgh
I have sustained in my dissenting opinion in the recent case on the Juris ‑
dictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy : Greece intervening)

53Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9p,. 21.
54Factory at Chorzów, Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17, pp. 29
and 47-48.

40

6 CIJ1032.indb 76 26/11/13 09:37 361 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I)), and which I again sustain in the
present Judgment of the Diallo case : the reparations are owed by the
responsible State concerned to the individuals victimized, as illustrategd, in
my perception, by both cases. The individual right to reparation is

well-established in international human rights law, as demonstrated by
the considerable case law of the IACtHR and the ECHR on the matter.
36. Contemporary international tribunals cannot remain oblivious of
such significant development in recent years. As I deemed it fit to warn ign

my aforementioned dissenting opinion in the recent Judgment on the
Jurisdictional Immunities of the State, it would be without foundation to
keep on claiming that the regime of reparations for breaches of human
rights would exhaust itself at the inter-State level, “to the detriment of the
individuals” concerned. After all, the individual victims of those vigola -

tions “are the titulaires of the right to reparation”, and

“[a]n interpretation of the regime of reparations as belonging purelyg
to the inter-State level would furthermore equate to a complete mis -
conception of the position of the individual in the international legal g
order. In my own conception, ‘the human person has emancipated

herself from her own State, with the acknowledgement of her rights,
which are prior and superior to this latter’.” 55(I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I),
p. 269, para. 252.)

Thus, the regime of reparations for human rights violations could not
exhaust itself at the inter-State level, leaving the individual at the egnd
without any reparation, and at the mercy of the entire discretion of theg

wrongdoing State.
37. The right of access to justice lato sensu encompasses not only the
access to a competent tribunal (at national or international level), bgut
also the right — and its exercise — to an effective remedy and the guar -

antees of the due process of law, so as to have one’s case fairly heagrd and
adjudicated upon. It further comprises the reparations owed to the vic -
tims (whenever they are due to them), in the full and faithful compliagnce
with, or execution of, the judgments at issue. Thus properly conceptual -

ized, the right of access to justice forms part of international protectgion
itself.
38. In the present domain of reparations, as in others, contemporary
international law, the jus gentium of our days, has at last liberated itself
from the chains of statism. Human rights constitute a basic foundation ogf

the international legal order, with the reassuring advent of the new prig -
macy of the raison d’humanité over the raison d’Etat. States are aware that
nowadays they are bound to respond for the treatment they dispense to

55A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Access of Individuals to International Justop. cit.
supra note 30, p. 209; A. A. Cançado Trindade, Evolution du droit international au droit des
gens — L’accès des particuliers à la justice internationale : Le regard d’un juge, op. cit. supra
note 52, pp. 29 and 146.

41

6 CIJ1032.indb 78 26/11/13 09:37 362 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

human beings under their respective jurisdictions. The present Diallo
case, decided by the ICJ on the basis of human rights treaties, bears wigt-

ness of this reassuring evolution.

39. Within this humanized outlook, the reparatio (from the Latin repa‑
rare, “to dispose again”) ceases all the effects of the breaches ofg interna -
tional law (the violations of human rights) at issue, and provides

satisfaction (as a form of reparation) to the victims ; by means of the
reparations, the law re-establishes the legal order broken by those viola -
tions — a legal order erected on the basis of the full respect for the righgts
inherent to the human person. The full reparatio does not “erase” the
human rights violations perpetrated, but rather ceases all its effectsg, thus

at least avoiding the aggravation of the harm already done, besides restgor -
ing the integrity of the legal order, as well as that of the victims.

40. One has to be aware that it has become commonplace in legal cir -
cles — as is the conventional wisdom of the legal profession — to repeat

that the duty of reparation, conforming a “secondary obligation”, gcomes
after the breach of international law. This is not my conception ; when
everyone seems to be thinking alike, no one is actually thinking at all.g In
my own conception, breach and reparation go together, conforming an
indissoluble whole: the latter is the indispensable consequence or comple -

ment of the former. The duty of reparation is a fundamental obligation,
and this becomes clearer if we look into it from the perspective of the
centrality of the victims, which is my own. The indissoluble whole that g
violation and reparation conform admits no disruption by means of the
undue invocation, by the responsible State, of its sovereignty or its imgmu -
nities, so as to evade the indispensable consequence of the international

breaches incurred into : the reparations due to the victims.

VI. The Centrality of the Vicgtims

in Human Rights Protectigon,
and Its Implications fogr Reparations

1. The Central Position of the Victims

41. International law itself, in recognizing rights inherent to the human
person, disauthorized the archaic positivist dogma which purported, in agn

authoritarian way, to reduce those rights to the ones “granted” org “con -
ceded” by the State. Contrariwise, the recognition of the individual gas a
subject of both domestic and international law comes at last to give an g
ethical content to the norms of both legal orders : domestic and interna -
tional. It further acknowledges the need for all States, in order to avoid

new violations of human rights, to answer for the way they treat human
beings under their respective jurisdictions, and to provide reparation fgor

42

6 CIJ1032.indb 80 26/11/13 09:37 363 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

the harm done to them. Rights, being inherent to the human person, and
anterior and superior to the State, are not reduced to those which the

State is prepared to “grant” or “concede” to persons under igts jurisdic -
tion, at its sole discretion.

42. The subjects of rights and the beneficiaries of reparations (supra),
under human rights treaties, are the individuals. The centrality of their
position in the present domain of protection is well-established. This

responds to a true need of the international community itself, which seeks
nowadays to be guided by superior common values. Such need was intui -
tively perceived and heralded, some decades ago, in the first half of theg
56
twentieth century, in a pioneering way, by André N. Mandelstam ,
Georges Scelle 57 and Charles de Visscher . In our times, the growing
acknowledgment, by the international legal order, of the importance of

reparations to victims of human rights violations, is a sign of its matugrity,
even though there remains a long way to go, to take into other areas theg
contribution of the international law of human rights. In this way, the g

historical process of the humanization of international law, intuitively
detected and propounded, some decades ago, by a generation of jusinter -

nationalists with a humanist formation (such as, e.g., M. Bourquin,
A. Favre, S. Sucharitkul and S. Glaser) 5, will keep on advancing 6.

43. In fact, no one would, in sane conscience, challenge today that
individuals are subjects of rights and bearers of duties which emanate
directly from international law, and that States which violate their rigghts

are bound to provide them reparation for the damages. In recent decades,g
the international community itself has reckoned the need to provide pro -
tection to the rights of the human beings who compose it (grouped underg

distinct forms of socio-political organization, either the State or others),

56
A. N. Mandelstam, Les droits internationaux de l’homme, Paris, Editions internatio-
nales, 1931, pp. 95-96, 103 and 138.
57G. Scelle, Précis de droit des gens — Principes et systématique, Part I, Paris,
Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1932 (reimpr. CNRS, 1984), p. 48.
58 Ch. de Visscher, “Rapport : ‘Les droits fondamentaux de l’homme, base d’une

restauration du droit international’”, Annuaire de l’Institut de droit international (1947),
pp. 3 and 9.
59 Cf. M. Bourquin, “L’humanisation du droit des gens”, La technique et les prin ‑
cipes du droit public — Etudes en l’honneur de Georges ScelleVol. I, Paris, LGDJ, 1950,
pp. 24-38; A. Favre, “Les principes généraux du droit, fonds commun du droit des ggens”,
Recueil d’études de droit international en hommage à Paul Gugge▯nheim, Geneva, IUHEI,
1968, pp. 369-390 ; S. Sucharitkul, “L’humanité en tant qu’élément contribuant au

développement progressif du droit international contemporain”, L’avenir du droit inter‑
national dans un monde multiculturel/The Future of International Law in a Multicultural
World (Colloque de La Haye de 1983, ed. R.-J. Dupuy), The Hague, Nijhoff/Académie
de droit international de La Haye/UNU, 1984, pp. 418-427 ; S. Glaser, “La protection
internationale des valeurs humaines”, 60 Revue générale de droit international public (1957),
pp. 211-241.
60 Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “International Law for Humankind : Towards a New

Jus Gentium — General Course on Public International Law, Part II”, Recueil des cours de
l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, Vol. 317, 2005, pp. 19-27 and 269-282.

43

6 CIJ1032.indb 82 26/11/13 09:37 364 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

with particular attention to those — individually or in groups — who find

themselves in a situation of special vulnerability.
44. Even if, in certain cases, the international legal capacity of some
individuals undergoes certain contingencies in view of their juridical ogr

existential condition (children, elderly persons, stateless persons, amgong
others), this in no way affects the essence and fundamental unity of gtheir
legal personality. They remain subjects of rights emanating from the jus

gentium, and their unaffected international leg61 personality is the con -
crete expression of their inherent dignity . They cannot be mistreated by
the holders of the public power of the State, and, in case they are, repgara -
tion is owed to them. The international legal personality of the human

person and the protection of the law subsist intact, irrespective of hisg or
her juridical or existential condition ; and his or her personality imposes
limits to the power of the State.

2. The Implications for Reparations

45. The implications of the international subjectivity of individuals for

reparations due to them were to challenge the postulates of traditional g
doctrine of State responsibility, and in particular its unsatisfactory agnd
artificial inter-State outlook. Thus, towards the end of the last century, in

the mid-1980s, the Cuban jurist F. V. García-Amador criticized the tradi -
tional outlook (reminiscent of E. de Vattel) of international responsibility
which viewed this latter as a “strictly ‘inter-State’ legal relgationship” ; he

retorted that that traditional approach was not appropriate to deal withg
claims for reparations to damages to individuals, such as cases of unlawg -
ful detention followed by arbitrary expulsion 62. The damage — he
added — is done to the individual himself (and not to his State of nation -

ality), who is subjected to the “unnecessary humiliation” of the expul -
sion .3

46. In sum, it is a damage done to the human person and not to the
State. It is that damage that is taken as “the measure” for the determina -
tion of the reparation due 64, i.e., the damage done to the individual con -

cerned. It is incongruous to approach this matter from a strict “integr-State”
outlook. In this respect, García-Amador rightly observed : “The artificial -
ity, and consequently also the inconsistencies and contradictions, of the

traditional doctrine become clearly apparent when one considers 65e cri -
terion generally applied for measuring the reparation.”

61
IACtHR, advisory opinion OC-17/02 (of 28 August 2002), on the Juridical Condi ‑
tion and Human Rights of the Child, concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade,
paras. 32-34.
62F. V. García-Amador, The Changing Law of International Claims, Vol. II, N.Y./
London, Oceana Publs., 1984, pp. 560 and 584-586.
63Ibid., pp. 563-564.
64Ibid., p. 562.
65Ibid.

44

6 CIJ1032.indb 84 26/11/13 09:37 365 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

47. The UN International Law Commission (ILC) itself, in the 2001
Report on its work on the international responsibility of a State, saw it fit
to recall, in addressing the obligation “to make full reparation for the

injury caused by the internationally wrongful act”, the possibility tghat

“an internationally wrongful act may involve legal consequences in
the relations between the State responsible for that act and persons
or entities other than States. This follows from Article 1, which covers

all international obligations of the State and not only those owed to
other States. Thus State responsibility extends, for example, to human
rights violations and other breaches of international law where the
66
primary beneficiary of the obligation breached is not a State.”

The ILC thus expressly reckoned that the international responsibility ofg a
State “may accrue directly to any person or entity other than a Stateg, and
67
Article 33 makes this clear” .

48. As disclosed by the present Diallo case, one is, in sum, faced with a

damage done to an individual. He (and not his State of origin) is the gsub -
ject of the rights breached, he suffered unlawful detention and arbitrgary
expulsion (from the State of residence), he is the subject of the corrge -

sponding right to reparation, and the beneficiary thereof. His case was
originally brought before this Court by his State of nationality (in thge
exercise of diplomatic protection), but, in its decision on the merits g(Judg -

ment of 30 November 2010), the Court made clear that the applicable law
was the international law of human rights, concerned with the rights of g
human beings and not at all of States. The cas d’espèce, further clarified

in this regard by the present Judgment on reparations, bears witness of
the reassuring historical process, presently in course, of the humanization
of international law — as I have been pointing out and supporting since
the 1990s 68.

66
ILC, Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its 53rd Session
(2001), N.Y., UN, 2001, p. 214.
67Ibid.
68Cf., to this effect, my earlier individual opinions in the IACtHR (19g98 until 2003),
namely : IACtHR, case Castillo Petruzzi and Others v. Peru (preliminary objections, judg -
ment of 4 September 1998), concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, paras. 6-7 ;
IACtHR, advisory opinion No. 16 of the Right to Information on Consular Assistance in

the Framework of the Guarantees of the Due Process of Law (1 October 1999), concurring
opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, paras. 34-35 ;IACtHR, case of the Haitians and Domi‑
nicans of Haitian Origin in the Dominican Republic (provisional measures of protection,
resolution of 18 August 2000), concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, para. 12 ;
IACtHR, advisory opinion No. 17 on the Juridical Condition and Human Rights of the
Child (28 August 2002), concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, paras. 66-67
and 71 ; IACtHR, advisory opinion No. 18 on the Juridical Condition and Rights of Un‑
documented Migrants (17 September 2003), concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade,

45

6 CIJ1032.indb 86 26/11/13 09:37 366 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

49. This is the situation, how it stands, in the present Diallo case,

resolved by the ICJ on the basis of the applicable treaties on the protegc -
tion of the rights of the human person. In other and entirely distinct sgitu-
ations (e.g., in territorial and boundary matters, in the regulation ofg

spaces, in diplomatic relations, among others) damage may be found to
have been done to the State. And in yet other circumstances (e.g., in sgitu -
ations of armed conflicts), damage may be found to have been done to

both the State and the human person. This is what happened, e.g., in the
case concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Demo ‑
cratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005),
wherein the Court, in recalling that a State responsible for internationgal

wrongful acts is under the obligation to make full reparations for the
injury caused by those acts, added that, in the cas d’espèce, those acts
resulted in injury done to the Democratic Republic of the Congo “and to
69
persons on its territory” (ibid., p. 257, para. 259) . Circumstances vary
from case to case ; but at least they leave it clear that a strict inter-State
approach to the State’s compliance with the duty to provide reparatiogn,

irrespective of such circumstances, appears anachronistic and unsustain -
able.

3. The Distinct Forms of Reparation

50. It has been in the domain of international human rights protection
that reparations have been reckoned as comprising, in the light of the

general principle of neminem laedere, the restitutio in integrum (re-
establishment of the prior situation of the victim, whenever possible),g
in addition to the indemnizations, the rehabilitation, the satisfaction, angd
the guarantee of non-repetition of the acts or omissions in violation of

human rights. The duty of reparation, corresponding to a general princi -
ple, has found judicial recognition (supra), and support in legal doc -
trine . The duty of reparation for damages stands as the indispensable

paras. 27-28 ; there follow successive references to, and assertions of, the humanization of
international law, in my other individual opinions in the IACtHR, also fgrom 2004 to 2008.
For earlier writings, likewise followed by subsequent ones to the same egffect, cf., inter alia,
A. A. Cançado Trindade, “A Emancipação do Ser Humano como Sujeito do Direito gInter-
nacional e os Limites da Razão de Estado”, 6/7 Revista da Faculdade de Direito da Univer ‑
sidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (1998-1999), pp. 425-434; A. A. Cançado Trindade, “La
Humanización del Derecho Internacional y los Límites de la Razógn de Estado”, 40 Revista

da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo Horizonte/Brazil
(2001), pp. 11-23.

69And cf. also I.C.J Reports 2005, p. 278-279, paras. 342 and 344.
70Cf., inter alia, Bin Cheng, General Principles of Law as Applied by International
Courts and Tribunals, Cambridge University Press, 1994 (reprint), p. 23; J. A. Pastor
Ridruejo, La Jurisprudencia del Tribunal Internacional de La Haya — Sistematización
y Comentarios, Madrid, Edit. Rialp, 1962, p. 429 ; H. Wassgren, “Some Reflections
on Restitutio in Integrum Especially in the Practice of the European Court of Human
Rights”, 6 Finnish Yearbook of International Law, Helsinki (1995), pp. 575-595.

46

6 CIJ1032.indb 88 26/11/13 09:37 367 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

complement of the breach of a conventional obligation of respect for
human rights 71.
51. Contemporary doctrine has identified the aforementioned distinct

forms of reparation from the perspective of the victims, of their claims,
needs and aspirations. By the restitutio in integrum one seeks the re-
establishment — whenever possible 72— of the statu quo ante. The

rehabilitation comprises all the measures — medical, psychological, jurid -
ical and others — to be taken to re-establish the dignity of the victims.
The indemnizations, often and unduly confused with the reparation,
of which they are but one of the forms, comprise the pecuniary sum owed
73 74
to the victims for the damages (material and moral or immaterial )
suffered. Thesatisfaction is linked to the purported aim to cease the
effects of the violations, and the guarantee of non‑repetition (of the

breaches) discloses a preventive dimension.
52. Juridical concepts, while encompassing values, are a product of
their time, and as such are not unchangeable. The juridical categories

crystallized in time and which came to be utilized — in a context distinct
from the ambit of the international law of human rights — to govern the
determination of reparations were strongly marked by analogies with

solutions of private law, and, in particular, of civil law (droit civil), in the
ambit of national legal systems : such is the case, e.g., of the concepts of
material damage and moral or immaterial damage, and of the elements of

damnum emergens and lucrum cessans. Such concepts have been strongly
determined by a patrimonial content and interest — which is explained
by their origin — marginalizing what is most important in the human
75
person, namely, her condition of spiritual being .

53. The pure and simple transposition of such concepts onto the inter -
national level was bound to generate uncertainties and discussion. The
criteria of determination of reparations, of an essentially patrimonial gcon -
tent (ensuing from civil law analogies), does not appear to me entirelgy

adequate or sufficient when transposed into the domain of the interna -
tional law of human rights, endowed with a specificity of its own. It is gnot
surprising that, as from the early 1990s, the matter began to be reassesgsed

71Cf., inter alia, P. Reuter, “Principes de droit international public”, 103 Recueil
des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La HayeVol. 103, 1961, pp. 585-586 ;
R. Wolfrum, “Reparation for Internationally Wrongful Acts”, Encyclopedia of Public Inter
national Law (ed. R. Bernhardt), Vol. 10, Amsterdam, North Holland, 1987, pp. 352-353.

72
73In case of violation of the right to life, for example, restitution becogmes impossible.
Not seldom, in relation to this point, in practice, reference is made tog damnum emer‑
gens and lucrum cessans.
74Which, in most cases, is determined by a judgment of equity.
75This is disclosed by the fact that even the moral damage itself is commognly regarded,
in the classical conception, as amounting to the so-called “non-patrimonial damage”. The
point of reference still keeps on being the patrimony.

47

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76
in the realm of this latter, at the United Nations , well before the
endorsement by the UN General Assembly in 2005 of the “Basic Princi -

ples and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Vic -
tims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious
Violations of International Humanitarian Law” 7, elaborated and
78
adopted by the [former] UN Commission on Human Rights (cf. infra).

54. The important point here to retain is that, in the ambit of the

international law of human rights, the forms of reparation (restitutio in
integrum, indemnizations, rehabilitation, satisfaction, guarantee of
non-repetition) are to be necessarily approached as from the perspective of

the victims themselves, keeping in mind their claims, their needs and aspi -
rations. Reparations for human rights breaches are, in fact, directly angd
ineluctably linked to the condition of the victims and their next of king,

who occupy in it a central position herein. Reparations are to be con -
stantly reassessed as from the perspective of the integrality of the pergson-
ality of the victims themselves, bearing in mind the fulfilment of their g
79
aspirations as human beings and the restoration of their dignity .
55. It is crystal clear that the aforementioned 2005 UN Basic

Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparations is
also ineluctably victim‑oriented : it rightly pursues a victim-centred
approach, envisaging the right to reparation as a right of the individu -

als victimized, entailing the corresponding duty to have justice done
to the individuals victimized, what becomes fundamentally important
in cases of grave breaches of their rights 80. Under certain circums-

tances, next of kin or dependants of the direct victims may also

76 Cf. Th. van Boven (special rapporteur), Study concerning the Right to Restitution,
Compensation and Rehabilitation for Victims of Gross Violations of Human▯ Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms — Final Report, UN/Commission on Human Rights, UN doc. E/
CN.4/Sub.2/1993/8, of 2 July 1993, pp. 1-65 ; and cf. also : [Various Authors], Seminar on

the Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabilitation for Victims of Gross Violations
of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Proceedings of the Seminar of Maastricht
of 1992), Maastricht, SIM/Univ. Limburg, 1992, pp. 3-253. And cf., subsequently,
M. C. Bassiouni (special rapporteur), The Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabili‑
tation for Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights and Fundamental F▯reedoms — Final
Report, doc. E/CN.4/2000/62, of 18 January 2000, pp. 1-11.

77 UN General Assembly resolution 60/147, of 16 December 2005.

78
By its resolution 2005/35, of 19 April 2005.
79 It is significant that the IACtHR, in its judgment (of 27 November 1998) in the case of
Loayza Tamayo v. Peru, has, besides the measures of reparation that it ordered, also rightly g
recognized the existence of a damage to the project of life (linked to satisfaction) of the
victim, caused by her detention (in the circumstances in which it took gplace). Cf.IACtHR,
case of Loayza Tamayo v. Peru (reparations), judgment (of 27 November 1998), Series C,

No. 42, paras. 83-192, and joint separate opinion of Judges A. A. Cançado Trindade and
A. 80reu Burelli, paras. 1-17.
Cf. P. d’Argent, “Le droit de la responsabilité internationale complégté ?Examen des
principes fondamentaux et directives concernant le droit à un recoursg et à réparation des

48

6 CIJ1032.indb 92 26/11/13 09:37 369 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

be regarded as “victims”, entitled to make use of the right of access to
justice.

56. The 2005 UN Basic Principles and Guidelines, at last adopted

on 16 December 2005, were preceded by a unique and innovative juris -
prudential construction of the IACtHR on this subject-matter (in particu-
lar on the distinct forms of reparation), which took place largely in tghe

years 1998-2004, and which has been attracting growing attention of
expert writing in recent years 81(cf. infra). It can safely be stated that, in
some respects, that jurisprudential construction of the IACtHR has, in igts

conceptualization, for the purposes of reparation, gone further than the
2005 UN Basic Principles and Guidelines, in fostering the expansion of
the notion of victim, by encompassing as such the next of kin, also

regarded as “direct victims” in their own right (given their integnse suffer -
ing), without conditionalities (such as that of accordance with domestgic
law), in individualized as well as collective cases 82.

57. The centrality of the position of the victims, as justiciables, has

implications for the approach to distinct forms of reparations. Let us
take, as an example to illustrate this point, satisfaction as a form of repa -
ration. Within the framework of strictly inter-State relations, satisfaction

as a form of reparation has been met with criticism, given the suscepti -
bilities surrounding the relations between States inter se 83. However, in
the framework of the relations between States and individuals under theigr

victimes de violations flagrantes du droit international des droits deg l’homme et de viola -
tions graves du droit international humanitaire”, 51Annuaire français de droit international
(2005), pp. 34-35, 40, 43, 45 and 52.
81
Cf., e.g., [Various Authors], Réparer les violations graves et massives des droits de
l’homme : la Cour interaméricaine, pionnière et modèle ? (eds. E. Lambert Abdelgawad
and K. Martin-Chenut), Paris, Société de législation comparée, 2010, pp. 17-334 ;
M. Scalabrino, “Vittime e Risarcimento del Danno : L’esperienza della Corte Interame -
ricana dei Diritti dell’Uomo”, 22 Comunicazioni e Studi, Milan (2002), pp. 1013-1092 ;
C. Sandoval-Villalba, “The Concepts of ‘Injured Party’ and ‘Victim’ ogf Gross Human
Rights Violations in the Jurisprudence of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights : A

Commentary on Their Implications for Reparations”, Reparations for Victims of Genocide,
War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity (eds. C. Ferstman, M. Goetz and A. Stephens),
Leiden, Nijhoff, 2009, pp. 243-282 ; K. Bonneau, “La jurisprudence innovante de la Cour
interaméricaine des droits de l’homme en matière de droit à greparation des victimes des
violations des droits de l’homme”, Le particularisme interaméricain des droits de l’homme
(eds. L. Hennebel and H. Tigroudja), Paris, Pedone, 2009, pp. 347-382 ; I. Bottigliero,
Redress for Victims of Crimes under International Law, Leiden, Nijhoff, 2004, pp. 133-145 ;

J. Schönsteiner, “Dissuasive Measures and the ‘Society as a Whole’ : A Working Theory
of Reparations in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights”, 23 American University
International Law Review (2007), pp. 127-164.
82A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial Internacional — Memo ‑
rias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, Belo Horizonte/Brazil, Edit.
Del Rey, 2011, Annex IV, pp. 313-340.
83 Cf., e.g., B. Graefrath, “Responsibility and Damages Caused : Relationship between

Responsibility and Damages”, Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de
La Haye, Vol. 185, 1984, pp. 84-87.

49

6 CIJ1032.indb 94 26/11/13 09:37 370 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

respective jurisdictions, satisfaction has proven to be a very appropriagte
form of reparation, and a particularly important one for the human
beings, victims of breaches of their rights by the States at issue.

58. The reassuring centrality of the victims in human rights protection
(an imperative of justice) has other implications as well, beyond the grealm
of reparations. It is not my intention to dwell upon them, as they lie
beyond the scope of the present separate opinion. I shall limit myself tgo

observing that the victims’ central position has helped to awaken cong -
science as to their importance, and the corresponding need of honouring g
them, the victims. In our times, over the last decades, attention is at glast
turning from the past praises of the deeds of national heroes (includingg

military and war heroes, conquerors and the like), to the memory of theg
silent victims, to the need to honour their suffering in enduring the gviola -
tions of their fundamental rights, and to avoid dropping their sufferigng
into oblivion 84.

59. In my dissenting opinion in the case on the Jurisdictional Immuni‑
ties of the State (Germany v. Italy : Greece intervening) (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 267-268, paras. 247-249), I have referred to

endeavours, throughout the last decade, to secure reparations also to
individuals, in the realm of international humanitarian law (e.g., the g2000
legal regime of the Ethiopia-Eritrea Claims Commission, the 2004 Report
of the UN International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, the 2010 Draft
Declaration of International Law Principles on Reparation for Victims ofg

Armed Conflict (Substantive Issues) of the International Law Associag -
tion’s International Committee on Reparation for Victims of Armed
Conflict. There appears thus to be an ever-growing awareness nowadays
of the individual victims’ right to reparation, not only in the domaign of

the international law of human rights, but encompassing also the realm ogf
international humanitarian law.

VII. The Contribution of the CagseLaw of the Internationagl

Human Rights Tribunals (gIACtHR and ECHR)

1. The Relevance of Their Case Law on Reparations
Due to the Victims

60. In the light of all the aforesaid, the contribution of the case law of
the international human rights tribunals (the IACtHR and the ECHR) is g

84Cf., e.g., [Various Authors], Commémorer les victimes en Europe — XVI‑XXI siècles
(eds. D. El Kenz and F.-X. Nérard), Champ Vallon, 2011, pp. 10, 18, 25, 65, 144, 262
and 328-330.

50

6 CIJ1032.indb 96 26/11/13 09:37 371 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

noteworthy, and deserves particular attention for the consideration of tghe
matter of the reparations due to victims of human rights violations. Theg

growing case law of the IACtHR and the ECHR in recent years, on rep-
arations to the victims of human rights violations, has contributed to
shift attention to the victims, human beings (and not States), disclosing

the centrality of their position in the present domain of protection
(cf. infra). In this respect, the present Diallo case is a landmark in the
evolving case law of the ICJ itself, as this latter has, for the first time in
its history, established violations of rights enshrined into human rightgs

treaties. The victim, the subject of rights and titulaire of the right to repa -
rations, is a human being (and not a State), Mr. A. S. Diallo.

61. To him, and not to his State of origin or of nationality, reparations
are due, pursuant to the human rights treaties at issue (the UN Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights, and the African Charter on Human and

Peoples’ Rights). In determining those reparations, it is only too ngatural
that the ICJ takes into due account the case law of the two human rights
courts, in construction for many years, and which has further been
invoked by the contending Parties themselves in the course of the presengt

proceedings before this Court, namely, the Inter-American and the Euro -
pean Courts of Human Rights.

62. This is most reassuring, given the common mission of contempo -

rary international tribunals of securing the realization of justice. Both the
IACtHR and the ECHR have built a pioneering case law on the condition
of the victims for purposes of reparation. The IACtHR has, moreover,

much contributed to the evolution of the international law of human
rights itself with its creative jurisprudential construction of the distginct
forms of reparation (cf. infra). To the recently-established African Court
on Human and Peoples’ Rights a similar role is reserved 85, in the years to

come.
63. In the first meeting ever, which brought together members and spe -
cial guests of the three contemporary Human Rights Courts (held at the g
Palais des Droits de l’Homme in Strasbourg, on 8-9 December 2008, on

the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights) 86, one of the topics more extensively discussed, as I well

85In this respect, reference can be made to the practice, on reparations, gof the African
Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights ; cf., inter alia, e.g., G. J. Naldi, “Reparations
in the Practice of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rightgs”, 14 Leiden
Journal of International Law (2001), pp. 681-693.
86For accounts of the meeting,cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Vers un droit international

universel :la première réunion des trois cours régionales des droits de l’ghomme”, XXXVI
Curso de Derecho Internacional Organizado por el Comité Juríd▯ teramericano (2009),
Washington, D.C., Secretaría General de la OEA, 2010, pp. 103-125; Ph. Weckel, “La
justice internationale et le soixantième anniversaire de la Déclargation universelle des droits de
l’homme”, 113 Revue générale de droit international public (2009), pp. 5-17.

51

6 CIJ1032.indb 98 26/11/13 09:37 372 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

recall, was precisely the experience accumulated by the IACtHR and the
ECHR in the matter of reparations to victims of human rights viola -

tions, and the role reserved, from now onwards, to the three co-existing
international human rights tribunals in the ongoing evolution of the
international case law on the matter.

64. Other contemporary international tribunals have much to benefit
from the experience gathered in this specific domain, in being attentive gto
it and taking it into due account. Parallel to this development, in the glast

two decades there have been endeavours to construct the practice of repag -
rations also in the ambit of international humanitarian law 87. Attention
has thereby been turned, for the purposes of protection, to the condition
of the victims, human beings, to the actual situation wherein they find

themselves. The human person has thus gradually recovered the central
place reserved to it in the contemporary international legal order, in tghe
new jus gentium of our times. The growing jurisprudence on reparations

for human rights violations bears witness of that.

2. The Contribution of the Inter‑American Court of Human Rights

65. Reference has already been made to the unique and innovative
jurisprudential construction of the IACtHR in the matter of reparations
due to the victims of human rights violations (para. 56, supra). It has not

passed unperceived in expert writing that the IACtHR has relied on the
greater precision of the terms of Article 63 (1) of the American Conven -
tion on Human Rights 88to construct its innovative and progressive
case law on the matter 8. To start with, the IACtHR has singled out the

role of considerations of equity in setting forth the amounts of repara -
tions due to individual victims, even in the absence of sufficient evidgence
(even more forcefully in certain cases where respondent States withheldg

their virtual monopoly of evidence).
66. Thus, for example, in the case of El Caracazo v. Venezuela (repara -
tions, judgment of 29 August 2002), the IACtHR proceeded to the deter -
mination of compensation on the basis of equity, taking into account theg

suffering and “the alterations in the conditions of existence” ogf the vic -
tims and their next of kin (paras. 99-100). In the case of Cantoral Bena ‑
vides v. Peru (reparations, judgment of 3 December 2001), the IACtHR

87 Recent examples of the recognition of the right of individual reparationg also in the
domain of international humanitarian law, are provided in my dissenting gopinion in the
case of the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. ItGreece intervening),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 267-269, paras. 247-250.

88
89 Cf. note 93, infra.
Cf., to this effect, inter alia, e.g., G. Cohen-Jonathan, “Responsabilité pour atteinte
aux droits de l’homme”, La responsabilité dans le système international (Société française
pour le droit international, colloque du Mans), Paris, Pedone, 1991, ppg. 114 and 116.

52

6 CIJ1032.indb 100 26/11/13 09:37 373 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

also decided on the basis of equity (paras. 80 and 87). In my separate
opinion in the case of Cantoral Benavides v. Peru, I pondered inter alia
that

“In the present judgment, the Inter-American Court extended the
protection of the law to the victim in the cas d’espèce, in establishing,
inter alia, the State’s duty to provide him with the means to undertake

and conclude his university studies in a centre of recognized academic
quality. This is, in my understanding, a form of providing reparation
for the damage to his project of life, conducive to the rehabilitation
of the victim. The emphasis given by the Court to his formation, to

his education, places this form of reparation (from the Latin reparatio,
derived from reparare, ‘to prepare or to dispose again’) in an adequate
perspective, from the angle of the integrality of the personality of theg
victim, bearing in mind his self-accomplishment as a human being and

the reconstruction of his project of life.” (Para. 10.)
67. In effect, the IACtHR has ordered a wide range of forms of repara -

tion (restitutio in integrum, compensation, victim satisfaction, victim rehab-
ilitation, acts of public apology, guarantees of non-repetition of human
rights breaches), unparalleled in the case law of other contemporary
international tribunals. In the recent cycle of cases of massacres 90 adjudi-

cated by the IACtHR (cf., inter alia, e.g., Aloeboetoe and Others v. Suri ‑
name case, reparations, judgment of 10 September 1993 ; case of the
Massacre of Plan de Sánchez v. Guatemala, reparations, judgment
of 19 November 2004 ; case of the Moiwana Community v. Suriname,
judgment of 15 June 2005 ; case of the Massacres of Ituango v. Colombia,

judgment of 1 July 2006), the reparations ordered by the IACtHR have
included health, housing, education and human development initiatives.
In a distinct context, such measures of reparations were also ordered byg
the IACtHR in the paradigmatic case of the Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni

Community v. Nicaragua (judgment of 31 August 2001), concerning the
communal property of the members of an indigenous community. The
IACtHR thereby indicated, in such cases, that the rehabilitation of vic -
tims (cf. infra) may also have a collective dimension, when it concerns the

members of a given community.
68. In the leading case of the “Street Children” (Villagrán Morales and
Others) v. Guatemala (reparations, judgment of 26 May 2001), the Court
deemed it fit to warn that the obligation to make reparation is regulatedg,
in all aspects (scope, nature, forms and determination of the beneficiargies)

by international law; the respondent State “may not invoke provisions of
its domestic law in order to modify or fail to comply” with that obliggation
(para. 61). The IACtHR has reiterated this warning in successive cases,
e.g., its judgments on the cases of Bulacio v. Argentina (18 September

90 For a recent study, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, State Responsibility in Cases
of Massacres : Contemporary Advances in International Justice (Inaugural Address,
10 November 2011), Universiteit Utrecht, 2011, pp. 1-71.

53

6 CIJ1032.indb 102 26/11/13 09:37 374 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

2003, para. 72), of Las Palmeras v. Colombia (reparations, 26 November
2002, para. 38), of Hilaire, Constantine and Benjamin and Others v. Trini ‑

dad and Tobago (21 June 2002, para. 203), of Trujillo Oroza v. Bolivia
(reparations, 27 February 2002, para. 61), of Bámaca Velásquez v. Guate ‑
mala (reparations, 22 February 2002, para. 39), and, earlier on, of
Suárez Rosero v. Ecuador (reparations, 20 January 1999, para. 42). This
point forms today part of its jurisprudence constante on reparations.

69. Still as to the forms of reparation, the IACtHR has ordered, for
example, acts to honour the memory of victims, as in its judgments in the
cases of Bámaca Velásquez v. Guatemala (of 22 February 2002, repara -
tions), of Myrna Mack Chang v. Guatemala (25 November 2003), of the
Moiwana Community v. Suriname (of 15 June 2005), of Trujillo Oroza

v. Bolivia (of 27 February 2002, reparations), of the Massacre of Plan
de Sánchez v. Guatemala (of 19 November 2004, reparations). In this last
and dramatic case, those acts were to be accompanied (as they in fact
were) by social programmes (rehabilitation) for the members of the affectged
community.

70. Furthermore, the IACtHR has also ordered, e.g., the public dis -
semination of the Court’s decisions and/or of the result of the ordered
investigations. It has done so in its judgments in the aforementioned cagses
of Bulacio, of Bámaca Velásquez, of El Caracazo, as well as in the cases of
Barrios Altos v. Peru (14 March 2001), and of the Juvenile Reeducation

Institute v. Paraguay (2 September 2004). Moreover, in its judgments in
the aforementioned case of Bámaca Velásquez (merits, 25 November
2000, and reparations, 22 February 2002) as well as in that of 19 Mer ‑
chants v. Colombia (5 July 2004), the IACtHR dwelt upon the right to
truth as a measure of reparation. In addition thereto, satisfaction as ag
form of reparation for damage to the victim’s “project of life” was ordered

by the IACtHR, in its judgments both in the aforementioned case of Can ‑
toral Benavides, and in the case of Loayza Tamayo v. Peru (reparations,
27 November 1998). Last but not least, the guarantee of non-repetition of
human rights breaches was ordered by the IACtHR in, inter alia, e.g., its
judgments in the aforementioned case Bulacio, as well as in that of Cas ‑

tillo Páez v. Peru (reparations, 27 November 1998).

3. The Contribution of the European Court of Human Rights

71. Like the IACtHR (supra), the ECHR has also pointed out the role
of considerations of equity in the determination of the amounts of reparga -

tions due. Thus, for example, in the case of Lupsa v. Romania (judgment
of 8 June 2006), the ECHR found that “deporting the applicant did
objectively disrupt the management of his business”, and that “theg conse -
quences of that disruption cannot be precisely quantified” (para. 70) ; it
then ordered a sum on an equitable basis, to cover all heads of damage

(para. 72, and cf. paras. 73-77). In the case Assanidzev. Georgia (judgment
of 8 April 2004), concerning arbitrary detention, the ECHR ruled like -

54

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wise on an equitable basis (para. 201, and cf. paras. 204-207), and awarded

a lump-sum amount for all heads of (material and immaterial) damage,
without setting out the reasons that led it to the specified amount
(para. 201).

72. In the same line of thinking, in the case of Orhan v. Turkey (judg-
ment of 18 June 2002), the ECHR decided, at the “level of just satisfac -

tion”, on the basis of considerations of equity (paras. 431-434, and
cf. paras. 423-424). It did the same in the case Lustig‑Prean and Beckett v.
United Kingdom (judgment of 25 July 2000), as compensation, on an
“equitable basis”, for “emotional and psychological” disturbgances

(paras. 12 and 23). And again in the case Selçuk and Asker v. Turkey
(judgment of 24 April 1998), the ECHR likewise awarded reparations for
damages on the basis of equitable considerations (paras. 109-112, and

cf. para. 106). And once more, in the Delta v. France case (judgment
of 19 December 1990), the ECHR took its decision, of award of compen -
sation, on an “equitable basis” (para. 43).

73. Parallel to such considerations of equity, as for the awarding of
reparations itself, the case law of the ECHR has, however, never been as
proactive as that of its sister institution across the Atlantic, the IACgtHR.

It has not disclosed the same creativity, and has in general been particgu -
larly cautious, in generally starting from predetermined categories of
pecuniary and non-pecuniary damages, at times conveying the impression
that compensation would better be left for national courts to decide 9.

The distinct drafting of the respective provisions on reparations of theg
European and the American Conventions on Human Rights, further -
more, conveys the impression that the phraseology of Article 41 of the
92
European Convention did not ascribe to the ECHR as wide a horizon
for the determination of reparations than the one ascribed by Arti -
cle 63 (1) of the American Convention 93to the IACtHR; in any case, this

is at least what the ECHR seems to have understood to date. It is thus
not surprising to find arguments as to the need for the ECHR “to revisgit”

91
Cf., inter alia, e.g., L. Wildhaber, “Reparations for Internationally Wrongful Acts
of States — Article 41 of the European Convention on Human Rights : Just Satisfaction
under the European Convention on Human Rights”, 3 Baltic Yearbook of International
Law (2003), pp. 1-18.
92Article 41 (formerly Article 50) — on just satisfaction — of the European Conven -
tion states that :“If the Court finds that there has been a violation of the Convention or the
Protocols thereto, and if the internal law of the High Contracting Partyg concerned allows
only partial reparation to be made, the Court shall, if necessary, affgord just satisfaction to
the injured party.”
93Article 63 (1) of the American Convention states that :

“If the Court finds that there has been a violation of a right or freegdom protected
by this Convention, the Court shall rule that the injured party be ensurged the enjoy
ment of his right or freedom that was violated. It shall also rule, if agppropriate, that
the consequences of the measure or situation that constituted the breachg of such right
or freedom be remedied and that fair compensation be paid to the injuredg party.”

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its own case law on just satisfaction/satisfaction équitable, and in particu -
lar on reparation for moral (or “non-pecuniary”) damages, so as to
94
enlarge its horizon to the benefit of the justiciables .

VIII. n eminem laedere and Reparation

for Moral Damage to Indivigduals

74. In domestic legal systems, the whole theory of civil liability/respon ‑
sabilité civile found inspiration in the fundamental principle neminem lae ‑

dere (cf. supra). The conception of damage and of the reaction of the legal
system to wrongful acts, requiring reparation, goes back to Roman law,
to the theory of id quod interest, whereby the harmed person is entitled to
redress. One restored thereby the balance or equilibrium needed in humang

relations. There was also concern to safeguard thereby human personalityg
as such, the integrity of the human person. From ancient to modern
times, unlike material damage, it proved particularly hard to conceptualg -
ize moral damage (dommage moral/non-pecuniary damage).

75. This latter became the object of endless discussions (ever since the
first codifications), given the resistance of some doctrinal trends to atgtri -

bute a value or price to the suffering of the victims (pretium doloris). The
prolonged construction of the theory of the responsabilité civile was made
possible, however, by the recourse to general criteria, such as, e.g., tghe

gravity of the breach, the intensity of the suffering it generated, thge social
repercussion of the breach, the consequences for the victim and the integn -
tionality and culpa of the perpetrator.
76. The moral character of the damage was regarded as an infringe -

ment of the human personality, not only in what is most intimate to it but
also in the human relations in its social milieu. It was against such dagm -
age that the legal system reacted, requiring reparation to the victim, sgo as
to preserve the integrity of the human personality of the victim. Hence g

the conception of responsabilité civile, emanating from the immemorial
general principle of neminem laedere. Such juridical construction was
transposed from domestic law into international law, by means of private
law analogies 95(mainly of civil law). They were thereby heavily marked

by a patrimonial content and interest (what can be explained by their
origin). Hence their conceptualization, in civil law and also in commong

94
Cf., inter alia, e.g., P. Tavernier, “La contribution de la jurisprudence de la Cour
européenne des droits de l’homme relative au droit de la responsabgilité internationale en
matière de réparation — une remise en cause nécessaire”, g72 Revue trimestrielle des droits
de l’homme (2007), pp. 945-966.
95 E.g., the concepts of material and moral damages, the elements of damnum emergens
and lucrum cessans, among others.

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96
law countries, as “non-pecuniary damage” . The point of reference was
patrimonial or financial.

77. The simple transposition of such concepts to international law level
was bound to raise uncertainties. Yet, at least it did not pass unnoticegd, in
the debates on the matter going back to the nineteenth century, that con -

sideration of moral damages inevitably turns attention to human sufferg -
ing , proper to human beings rather than to States. In fact, States do not
suffer; not seldom, they tend to inflict suffering upon human beings underg

their respective jurisdictions or elsewhere. The importance of moral damg -
ages became manifest in face of the need of protection of individuals 9.

78. The analogies with solutions proper to common law or to civil law
(droit civil) have never appeared convincing or satisfactory to me, as, by

focusing — for the purpose of reparation — on the relationship of the
human person with material goods, they marginalized the most important
trait in the human person, as a spiritual being 99. Moral damages should

not be reduced to a consideration of material goods, patrimony, capacityg
for work, and the projection of these elements in time — as upheld by the
regrettable cosmovision of the homo oeconomicus so widespread in our

times. It was necessary to wait for the advent of the international law gof
human rights, in order to go beyond these short-minded categories, and
look also into the human person’s aspirations, freedom and integrity.g

79. Juridical concepts, encompassing values, are the product of their

time, and are open to progressive development. With the formation of theg
corpus juris of the international law of human rights, it became clearer
that the determination of reparations should keep in mind the integrality

of the personality of the victim, should consider the impact on this latgter
of the violation of the rights inherent to her, should approach the matter
from an integral, rather than patrimonial or financial outlook, with spe -

cial attention to the aspirations, personal freedom and integrity of theg
individual victim. Hence the importance of restitutio in integrum (not

96
For comparative law surveys, cf., e.g., [Various Authors], Damages for Non‑
Pecuniary Loss in a Comparative Perspective (ed. W. V. Horton Rogers), Vienna,
Springer-Verlag,2001, pp. 1-311 ; [Various Authors], Redress for Non‑Material Damage/
Réparation du préjudice moral (London Colloquy of 1969), Strasbourg, Council of
Europe, 1970, pp. 4-127.
97Cf. R. André and A. Smedts, La réparation du dommage moral, Anvers, Impr.
Dugardin & Persoons, [1951], pp. 6, 17 and 125, and cf. p. 10.
98
L. Reitzer, La réparation comme conséquence de l´acte illicite…, op. cit. supra
not9945, p. 124.
In this respect, the 1948 American Declaration on the Rights and Duties gof Man
states, in its fourth preambular paragraph that : “Inasmuch as spiritual development is the
supreme end of human existence and the highest expression thereof, it is the duty of man
to serve that end with all his strength and resources.”

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always possible), given the manifest insufficiencies of indemnizationsg (for
material damage).

80. On the basis of my own experience as magistrate serving succes -
sively two international jurisdictions, that of the IACtHR and then of tghe
ICJ, I attribute particular importance to reparations for moral damages.g
In some cases of particular gravity, I dare to say that they prove to beg

even more significant or meaningful to the victims than those for pecu-
niary damages, or indemnizations. The granting of reparations for
moral damages, by international human rights tribunals, has been made
feasible by their recourse to considerations of equity. Given the prolonga-
tion of the proceedings of the cas d’espèce opposing Guinea to the Demo -
cratic Republic of the Congo, in the merits as well as the reparations

stages (suggesting that the time of human justice is not the time of
human beings), I have felt obliged to draw attention, in my declaration
(I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), pp. 637-639, paras. 1-4) appended to the Court’s
Order of 20 September 2011 in the present Diallo case, to the relevance
of the award of reparations within a reasonable time (as justice delayed is

justice denied), as well as to the considerations of equity to bear in mind
for the determination of reparations (mainly for moral damages).

IX. The Relevance of the Rehgabilitation of Victimsg

81. The reparatio for damages comprises distinct forms of compensa -
tion to the victims for the harm they suffered, at the same time that git
re-establishes the legal order broken by wrongful acts (or omissions) — a

legal order erected on the basis of the full respect for the rights inhegrent
to the human person. The observance of human rights is the substratum
of the legal order itself. The legal order, thus re-established, requires the
guarantee of non-repetition of the harmful acts. The realization of justice
thereby achieved (an imperative of jus cogens) is in itself a form of repara -

tion (satisfaction) to the victims. Such reparatio does not put an end to
the suffering ensuing from the human rights violations already perpe -
trated, but, in ceasing the effects of those breaches, it at least allgeviates the
suffering of the individual victims (as titulaires of the right to reparation),
by removing the indifference of the social milieu, the oblivion of the vic -

tims and the impunity of the perpetrators.
82. In this framework, the rehabilitation of the victims is of the utmost
importance. It is a matter of not only re-establishing the legal order
broken by wrongful acts (or omissions), but also of seeking to rehabilgitate
the victims themselves of such wrongs, as subjects or titulaires of the rights
recognized therein that have been breached. After all, the individual vigc -

tims (and not the States) occupy a central position in the framework of
the international law of human rights, oriented towards them — which is

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a law of protection (droit de protection). By granting the individual vic -

tims jus standi, or else locus standi in judicio, in this domain of protection
at international level, the international law of human rights has rescuegd
the central position occupied therein by the victimized 100(even in situa -
tions of great vulnerability, if not defencelessness), and has thereby g

asserted the (active) international subjectivity of individuals in the law of
nations (droit des gens) at large.

83. The centrality of the victims in the present domain of protection
draws attention to the pressing need of their rehabilitation — to be con -
sidered as from the integrality of the personality of the victims 101 — in
the framework of restorative justice. The rehabilitation of the victims

projects itself into their social milieu. It has both individual and socgial
dimensions. Restorative justice has made great advances in the last
decades, due to the evolution of the international law of human rights, g

humanizing the law of nations (the droit des gens). Such advances are now
being felt, though in a lesser degree but a reassuring one, also in the g
domain of international humanitarian law and of contemporary interna -

tional criminal law. The universal juridical conscience seems to be at last
awakening as to the need to honour the victims of human rights abuses
and to restore their dignity.

84. Rehabilitation of the victims acquires a crucial importance in cases
of grave violations of their right to personal integrity. In effect, tghere have
been cases where medical and psychological assistance to the victims hasg

been ordered — mainly by the I102HR — as a form of reparation, aim -
ing at their rehabilitation . Such measures have intended to overcome
the extreme vulnerability of victims, and to restore their identity and g
integrity. Rehabilitation of the victims mitigates their suffering andg that

of their next of kin, thus irradiating itself into their social milieu.
85. Rehabilitation, discarding the apparent indifference of their social
milieu, helps the victims to recuperate their self-esteem and their capacity

to live in harmony with others. Reh103litation nourishes the victims’ hope
in a minimum of social justice . Rehabilitation helps to restructure the
psyche of the victims, in their difficult quest for recovery from the ignjus -
tice of humiliation. Rehabilitation as a form of reparation is intended g

to reorder ultimately the human relations disrupted by acts of cruelty,

100To this effect, IACtHR, case Castillo Petruzzi and Others v. Peru (preliminary
objections, judgment of 4 September 1998), concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trin-
dade, paras. 5 and 12 ; IACtHR, case Tibi v. Ecuador (merits and reparations, judgment
of 7 September 2004), separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, paras. 16 and 18-20.
10A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos,
Vol. III, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S.A. Fabris Ed., 2003, p. 442.
10A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial Internacional ..., op. cit.

sup103note 82, pp. 329-330.
Ibid., pp. 330-332.

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in breach of human rights. In sum, rehabilitation restores one’s faith ign
human justice.

X. Epilogue: Concluding Reflectionsg

86. As we have seen in the present separate opinion, reparation and its
rationale, in the light of the basic principle of neminem laedere, are
deeply-rooted in international legal thinking, going back in time to the

early beginnings of the law of nations (the droit des gens). Considerat104
of the subject-matter marked presence, as I have pointed out , in the
writings of de Vitoria, H. Grotius, S. Pufendorf and C. Wolff (as well as
in those of A. Gentili, F. Suárez and C. van Bynkershoek), from the six -

teenth to the eighteenth centuries. Concern to secure reparations for dam ‑
ages done to the human person was present therein, and in a way even
antedated their writings, going far back to the fifteenth century, when the
term “person” (meaning the physical or moral person) had then begen con -
105
ceptualized , as referring to the subject of rights.
87. By then — and certainly by the following time of the insights of de
Vitoria in the early sixteenth century, and of Suárez and Grotius in the
early seventeenth century (followed by those of Pufendorf in the late

seventeenth century, and of Wolff in the eighteenth century) — it had been
understood that the human person “embodied” humanity, and a damageg
done to him/her was a wrong, which required reparation. The reductionist

outlook which followed (starting with Vattel in the mid-eighteenth cen -
tury) of an international legal order conformed in pursuance of a stricgt
inter-State conception (in the light of distinct trend of legal positivgism) —
with individuals subjected to their respective States, as upheld mainly gby

Hegelian legal philosophy, as from the early nineteenth century, with its
personification of the all-powerful sovereign State — with the disastrous
consequences which followed, was incapable of removing the human per -
son from the framework of the law of nations, as originally conceived.

88. As a matter of fact, even at the dark time when absolute State
sovereignty (devoid of any precise meaning) came to be invoked, also ign
the ambit of the relations between States and individuals, to attempt tog

justify, and to cover-up, grave abuses against these latter, there were
those who raised their voices to unmask such deception. Examination of
this particular point lies beyond the purposes of the present separate

104
105Cf. Section III, paras. 14-21, supra.
In ancient times, it may be recalled, the term person (the Etruscan phersu, the Greek
prôsopon, the Latin persona) meant the mask, in theatrical representation ;later on, it came
to refer to the character (personnage), paving the way for the medieval sense of “person”
(the human person), meaning, from the fifteenth century onwards, the physical or moral
person, as subject of rights.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 116 26/11/13 09:37 381 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

opinion. Suffice it here only to recall that, in the early twentieth century,
Léon Duguit, in his philosophical construction of the “solidarisme de la

liberté”, outlining State obligations vis-à-vis the human person (individu -
ally or in groups), denounced the gross abuses perpetrated in the name of
State sovereignty as unwarranted tyrannical oppression 106.

89. Throughout the twentieth century, despite so many abuses and
successive atrocities victimizing millions of individuals, a trend of hugman -
ist thinking flourished, in the writings of Emmanuel Mounier (1905-1950)

and Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973), asserting the juridical “personalism”,
aiming at doing justice to the individuality of the human person, to her
inner life and the need for transcendence (on the basis of her own expegri -
ence of life). In a world of violence amidst the misuses of language, tghere

were, thus, also those who succeeded in preserving their lucidity. This gand
other precious trends of humanist thinking, almost forgotten (surely byg
the legal profession) in our hectic days, can, in my view, still shed mguch

light towards further development of reparations for moral damages done
to the human person.
90. Such reparations for moral damages 107 should not be limited
always to awards of reparations on a pecuniary basis only ; there are

times, depending on the circumstances of the cases, when they call for
other forms of (non-pecuniary) reparations (obligations of doing, such as
satisfaction and rehabilitation of the victims). Be that as it may, I dgare
to nourish the hope that the day will come when it is properly learned and g

well-established that the State’s duty to provide reparations for damages g
it did to individuals is an ineluctable and indispensable one : it cannot, in
my understanding, be evaded by an unacceptable, unethical and
108
unfounded invocation of State sovereignty or of State immunity .

91. Another lesson we can extract from the present case, unprecedented
in this Court’s history, is that the determination of reparations forg human

rights breaches is not a matter of legal technique only, as the incidencge of
considerations of equity fully demonstrates. In this respect, also in thge
previous Judgment of the Court (on the merits, of 30 November 2010) in
the present Diallo case, I pointed out, in my separate opinion thereon,

that the individual concerned is the subject of the right to reparation g
and its ultimate beneficiary (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), pp. 797-801,
paras. 200-212), beyond the inter-State dimension (ibid., pp. 802-805,

paras. 213-221).

106He did so, e.g., in his lucid and thoughtful lectures of 1920-1921, as Visiting
Professor at Columbia University ; cf. Léon Duguit, Souveraineté et liberté [1920-1921],
Paris, Ed. La Mémoire du droit, 2002 [reed.], pp. 126-127, 132-134, 150-151 and 202.

107
108Cf. Section VIII, paras. 74-80, supra.
Cf., in this sense case of Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v.
Italy : Greece intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), dissenting opinion of
Judge Cançado Trindade, pp. 181-290, paras. 1-316.

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92. As the Court stated in that Judgment on the merits of 30 Novem -
ber 2010, the cas d’espèce concerns breaches of human rights treaties
(cf. supra). And as I pondered in my earlier separate opinion appended to
that Judgment on the merits, the hermeneutics of human rights treaties
has put limits to the excesses of State voluntarism (I.C.J. Reports 2010

(II), pp. 755-758, paras. 82-88) ; it has done so in pursuance of the prin -
ciple pro persona humana (ibid., pp. 758-759, paras. 89-92). In a larger
horizon, one is here guided by the principle of humanity (ibid., pp. 759-
762, paras. 93-105), in conformity with the necessary law of the societas
gentium, regulating relations in the international community constituted

by human beings socially organized in States and co-extensive with
humankind (ibid., pp. 762-763, para. 106).
93. As I deemed it fit to add in the aforementioned separate opinion,
that necessary law of the societas gentium has — pursuant to natural law

thinking — “prevailed over the will of individual States”, thus remainingg

“respe109ul of the human person, to the benefit of the common
good . The precious legacy of natural law thinking, evoking the
natural law of the right human reason (recta ratio), has never faded
away, and this should be stressed time and time again (. . .).” (Ibid.).

Furthermore, the old monopoly of States of the titularity of rights at
international level can no longer be sustained.

94. The reasserted presence — and a central one — of the individual in
the framework of the law of nations has much contributed, as I have
sought to demonstrate in the present separate opinion, to the more recengt
progressive development of international law in respect of reparations fgor
damages ensuing from violations of human rights. With the rescue of the g

individual as subject of the contemporary jus gentium, the centrality of
victims in the international protection of human rights is nowadays
well-established and beyond question. In the present domain of protec -
tion, reparations are due to individual victims, and not to States. The g
victim-centred outlook has entailed implications for the reparations due,

has clarified their forms, has fostered the progressive development of
international law in the present domain.

95. The international subjectivity of individuals has had this additional

beneficial impact upon contemporary jus gentium. The contribution of the
case law of the international tribunals of human rights (the IACtHR and
the ECHR) bears witness of this. The centrality of victims singles out,g in
particular, as we have just seen, the relevance, in particular, of repargation
of moral damage to individuals, so as to alleviate their suffering, asg well

as of the rehabilitation of victims. The realization of justice is of key
importance to the victims, and belongs, in my understanding, to the

109A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Humanização do Direito Internacional, Belo Horizonte/

Brazil, Edit. Del Rey, 2006, pp. 9-14, 172, 318-319, 393 and 408.

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domain of jus cogens. Without it, the right of access to justice lato sensu,
there is no legal system at all.

96. The jurisprudential and doctrinal developments that I have cared,
and felt obliged, to examine in the present separate opinion, have been g
made possible in the light of the recognition that the victims, subjectsg of
the right to reparation, are the ones who actually suffered the damage —
human beings of flesh and bone, and not their States. It is, furthermogre,

not to be forgotten that the legal construction on the matter, existing g
today in international law (but still in its infancy), was transposed to it
from the secular experience gathered earlier in domestic legal systems; the
recent contribution of international human rights tribunals (the IACtHRg
and the ECHR) sheds new light into it (cf. supra), and develops the apti -
tude on international law to regulate relations in circumstances such as

those of the present Diallo case. The traditional and strict inter-State
dimension is of little use, if any, here.

97. Furthermore, in modern times, since the dawn of State responsibil-
ity, it has become clear that the breach of international law and the com -

pliance with the duty of reparation for damages form an indissoluble
whole, which cannot at all be disrupted by undue and irresponsible invo -
cations of State sovereignty or State immunity. The obligation to provide
reparation of damages stands as a fundamental one, rather than as a “sec -
ondary” one. It is an imperative of justice.

98. The resurgence of individuals as subjects of the law of nations (the
new jus gentium) has entailed other consequences, in addition to that on
reparations for damages resulting from human rights violations (supra),
and related to this latter. It has, for example, called for a reassessmegnt of
issues pertaining to international legal procedure. This has been recently
reckoned by this Court itself, in its most recent Advisory Opinion

(of 1 February 2012) on Judgment No. 2867 of the Administrative Tribunal
of the International Labour Organization upon a Complaint Filed against ▯
the International Fund for Agricultural Development. In my separate opin -
ion appended thereto, I sustained that the international legal personality
(and capacity) of individuals, requiring the observance of the basic prin -

ciple of procedural equality (equality of arms/égalité des armes), corre -
sponds to a necessity of the international legal order itself in our days
(I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 52-93, paras. 1-118).
99. Last but not least, I come back to my initial point. Bearing in mind
that in the present case the damages were done to an individual

(Mr. A. S. Diallo) and not to a State, there is one precision that I deem it
fit to make at this final stage in this separate opinion. In the dispositif of
the present Judgment, the Court fixes the amount of compensation for
non‑material as well as material damage “suffered by Mr. Diallo” (resolu -
tory points (1) and (2)). I have concurred with the Court majority’s deci -
sion as to a larger amount of compensation for non-material damage,

given the particular importance that I attach to reparation for moral
damages (cf. supra).

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100. Although the amounts of compensation are formally due from

the Democratic Republic of the Congo (as respondent State in the cas
d’espèce) to Guinea (as complainant State in the present case), the ulti -
mate subject (titulaire) of the right to reparation and its beneficiary is
Mr. A. S. Diallo, the individual who suffered the damages. The amounts
of compensation have been determined by the Court to his benefit. This is

the proper meaning, as I perceive it, of resolutory points (1) and (2) of the
dispositif of the present Judgment, in combination with paragraph 57 of
the reasoning of the Court.
101. This understanding is well in accordance with the basic postulates
of the international law of human rights (the applicable law in the present

case), and bears witness of the international legal personality of the gindi -
vidual as subject of contemporary international law. This is clearly so,g
even if, out of a surpassed dogmatism, individuals remain deprived of
their international legal capacity, of their locus standi in judicio, that
would otherwise have enabled them — as it should happen, in the light of

all the aforementioned — to appear directly in legal proceedings before
this Court.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

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Bilingual Content

347

SEPARATE OPINION

OF JUDGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

table of contents

Paragraphs

I. P rolegomena 1-3

II. The Subject of the Rights gBreached and the Subjecgt of
the Right to Reparationsg 4-13

III.n eminem laedere : Insights on Reparationgs from the

“Founding Fathers” of thge Law of Nations (d roit des
g ens) 14-21

IV. The Dawn of State Responsgibility and the Rationagle of
Duty of Reparation 22-31

V. An Indissoluble Whole: Breach of International Law and

Compliance with the Dutgy of Reparation for Damagges 32-40

VI. The Centrality of the Vicgtims in Human Rights Protgec -
tion, and Its Implicatigons for Reparations 41-59

1. The central position of the victims 41-44

2. The implications for reparations 45-49
3. The distinct forms of reparation 50-59

VII. The Contribution of the Cagse Law of the Internationagl

Human Rights Tribunals (gIACtHR and ECHR) 60-73

1. The relevance of their case law on reparations due to the
victims 60-64
2. The contribution of the Inter-American Court of Human

Rights 65-70
3. The contribution of the European Court of Human Rights 71-73

VIII. eminem l aedere and Reparation for Moralg Damage to
Individuals 74-80

IX. The Relevance of the Rehgabilitation of Victimsg 81-85

X. Epilogue: Concluding Reflectionsg 86-101

*

27

6 CIJ1032.indb 50 26/11/13 09:37 347

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE
DE M. LE JUGE CANÇADO TRINDADE

[Traduction]

table des matières

Paragraphes

I. Prolégomènes 1-3

II. Le titulaire des droitgs violés et du droit à rgéparation 4-13

III. Le principeneminem laedere , ou la notion de réparagtion
dans l’esprit des « pères fondateurs» du droit des gens 14-21

IV. L’avènement de la responsabilité des États et la raison

d’être de l’obligationg de réparation 22-31

V. Le tout indissoluble fogrmé par la violation dgu droit
international et l’exécution de l’obligation de réparer
les dommages causés 32-40

VI. La place centrale desg victimes dans le domagine de la

protection des droitsg de l’homme et les consgéquences
qui en découlent en matiègre de réparation 41-59

1. La place centrale des victimes 41-44
2. Les conséquences qui en découlent en matière de réparation 45-49

3. Les différentes formes de réparation 50-59

VII. La contribution de la jugrisprudence des jurigdictions
internationales garagntes des droits de l’hgomme (CIADH
et CEDH) 60-73

1. La pertinence de leur jurisprudence en matière de répara
tion due aux victimes 60-64

2. La contribution de la Cour interaméricaine des droits de
l’homme 65-70
3. La contribution de la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme71-73

VIII.Le principe neminem laedere et la réparation du prgéju-

dice moral causé à l’igndividu 74-80

IX. L’importance de réhabigliter les victimes 81-85

X. Épilogue : conclusions 86-101

*

27

6 CIJ1032.indb 51 26/11/13 09:37 348 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

I.P rolegomena

1. I have voted in favour of the adoption of the present Judgment in
the case of Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic
Republic of the Congo), whereby the International Court of Justice (ICJ)
has ordered reparations for the damages suffered by Mr. A. S. Diallo

(established in the previous Judgment on the merits, of 30 November
2010), as an individual, under the UN Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights (Art. 13), and under the African Charter on Human and Peoples’
Rights (Article 12 (4)), as well as under the Vienna Convention on
Consular Relations (his right to information on consular assistance,

under Article 36 (1) (b)). In the present Judgment, in determining the
reparations due ultimately to Mr. A. S. Diallo, as a result of the damages
he suffered (para. 57), the ICJ has rightly taken into account the experi -
ence of other contemporary international tribunals in the matter of repag-
rations for damages.

2. Amongst those tribunals, of particular importance is the case law of
the international tribunals of human rights (in particular that of the gInter-
American and the European Courts of Human Rights), as I shall seek to
demonstrate in the present separate opinion. Although I have agreed withg

the Court’s majority as to the determination of reparations in the prgesent
Judgment, there are some points, not fully reflected in the reasoning gof
the Court, that I feel obliged to dwell upon in the present separate opign -
ion, so as to clarify the matter dealt with by the Court, and the foundag -
tions of my personal position thereon. One of the key points concerns thge

position of individuals as subjects of contemporary international law,
and, accordingly, as titulaires of the right to reparation for the damages
they have suffered.

3. My reflections, developed in the present separate opinion, pertain to g

other points as well, at conceptual and epistemological levels, namely :
(a) the subject of the rights breached and the subject of the right to repa -
rations ;(b) neminem laedere: insights on reparations from the “founding
fathers” of the law of nations (droit des gens) ; (c) the dawn of State
responsibility and the rationale of duty of reparations ; (d) an indissolu -

ble whole : breach of international law and compliance with the duty of
reparation for damages ; (e) the centrality of the victims in human rights
protection, and its implications for reparations, and the distinct formsg of
these latter ; (f) assessment of the contribution of the case law of the
international human rights tribunals (in particular that of the Inter-

American and the European Courts of Human Rights) ; (g) neminem
laedere and reparation for moral damage to individuals ; and (h) the
relevance of the rehabilitation of victims. The way will then be paved, in
the epilogue, for the presentation of my concluding reflections on theg
matter.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 52 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 348

I. Prolégomènes

1. J’ai voté en faveur de l’adoption du présent arrêt en l’gaffaire
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République démo‑
cratique du Congo), dans lequel la Cour internationale de Justice (la
«Cour») a prescrit des mesures de réparation pour les dommages
(constatés dans son précédent arrêt sur le fond du 30 novembre 2010)

que M. A. S. Diallo avait subis, en tant qu’individu, au regard du Pacte
international relatif aux droits civils et politiques (art. 13), de la Charte
africaine des droits de l’homme et des peuples (art. 12, par. 4), ainsi que
de la convention de Vienne sur les relations consulaires (non-respect dgu
droit à l’information sur l’assistance consulaire visé à gl’alinéa b) du para -
graphe 1 de l’article 36). En déterminant dans le présent arrêt le montant

de la réparation finalement due à M. A. S. Diallo pour les dommages
qu’il avait subis (par. 57), la Cour a dûment tenu compte de l’expérience
accumulée par d’autres juridictions internationales modernes en magtière
de réparation.
2. Je songe notamment ici aux juridictions internationales garantes

des droits de l’homme (en particulier aux Cours interaméricaine et
européenne des droits de l’homme), dont la jurisprudence revêtg une
importance spéciale, comme je tâcherai de le démontrer dans la gprésente
opinion individuelle. Bien que je rejoigne la majorité quant aux mesugres
de réparation fixées dans le présent arrêt, il subsiste certagins points

que la Cour n’a pas suffisamment développés dans son raisonnement
et que je me sens tenu d’approfondir ici, afin de mettre en lumière legs
tenants et les aboutissants de l’affaire ainsi que les fondements dge ma
position personnelle dans ce domaine. L’un des principaux points a trgait
au statut de l’individu, qui, en tant que sujet du droit internationagl
moderne, est titulaire du droit à réparation pour les dommages qu’il a

subis.
3. Les réflexions développées dans la présente opinion indivigduelle
touchent aussi d’autres aspects d’ordre conceptuel et épistégmologique, qui
concernent : a) le titulaire des droits violés et du droit à réparation ; b) le
principe neminem laedere, ou la notion de réparation dans l’esprit des

«pères fondateurs» du droit des gens ; c) l’avènement de la responsabilité
des Etats et la raison d’être de l’obligation de réparation ; d) le tout
indissoluble formé par la violation du droit international et l’exgécution
de l’obligation de réparer les dommages causés ; e) la place centrale
des victimes dans le domaine de la protection des droits de l’homme,

les conséquences qui en découlent en matière de réparation et legs diffé -
rentes formes de celle-ci ; f) la contribution de la jurisprudence des juri -
dictions internationales garantes des droits de l’homme (en particulgier
celle des Cours interaméricaine et européenne des droits de l’hgomme) ;
g) le principe neminem laedere et la réparation du préjudice moral causé
à l’individu ; et h) l’importance de réhabiliter les victimes. Le moment

sera enfin venu, en guise d’épilogue, d’exposer mes conclusions gen la
matière.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 53 26/11/13 09:37 349 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

II. The Subject of the Rights gBreached
and the Subject of the Rigght to Reparations

4. In its Judgment on the merits (of 30 November 2010) in the present
case, the Court established the violations of the rights of Mr. Diallo “as
an individual” (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), p. 655, para. 34), namely, his

rights under Article 13 of the UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,
and under Article 12 (4) of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’
Rights, in addition to his right to information on consular assistance

under Article 36 (1) (b) of the Vienna Convention on Consular Rela -
tions . This was the first time in its history that the Court established
violations of human rights, under two human rights treaties, in additiong

to the relevant provision of the 1963 Vienna Convention.

5. The subject of the rights violated in the cas d’espèce was a human
being, Mr. A. S. Diallo, not a State. Likewise, the subject of the corre -
sponding right to reparation is a human being, Mr. A. S. Diallo, not a

State. He is the titulaire of such right to reparation, and the beneficiary of
the reparations ordered by the Court in the present Judgment. In the pre -
vious Judgment on the merits (of 30 November 2010) the Court referred

to the reparation — in the form of compensation — “due to Guinea for
the injury suffered by Mr. Diallo” (ibid., p. 691, para. 161). The Court
further referred to the compensation owed by the Democratic Republic of g

the Congo to Guinea “for the injury flowing from the wrongful deten -
tions and expulsion of Mr. Diallo in 1995-1996, including the resulting
loss of his personal belongings” (ibid., p. 691, para. 163).

6. In the subsequent proceedings as to reparations (written phase
only), Guinea referred repeatedly, in its Memorial of 6 December 2011, to
the damages 2or injuries 3or harms 4suffered by Mr. Diallo, to the dis -
5 6
crimination and arbitrariness inflicted against him. It also referred to
the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s breaches of human rights obli -
gations . For its part, in its Counter-Memorial of 21 February 2012, the
8
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) acknowledged the injuries or
damages 9suffered by Mr. Diallo. The two contending Parties thus agreed
that reparations were here due to the victim, for the human rights violag -

tions he suffered. The titulaire of the rights breached, and the beneficiary
of the reparations due, was the individual concerned, Mr. A. S. Diallo.

1Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), resolutory points 2, 3 and 4 of the dispositif.
2Memorial of the Republic of Guinea, paras. 16 and 48, and cf. para. 63.
3Ibid., paras. 35 and 47, and cf. para. 62.
4
5Ibid., para. 24.
6Ibid., para. 43.
Ibid., para. 61.
7Ibid., para. 21.
8Counter-Memorial of the DRC, paras. 2, 4 and 1.05.
9Ibid., paras. 1.05 and 1.44.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 54 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 349

II. Le titulaire des droitgs violés
et du droit à réparatigon

4. Dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu sur le fond de la présente espègce (le
30 novembre 2010), la Cour a constaté que les droits « individuels » de

M. Diallo avaient été violés (C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 655, par. 34),
faisant référence aux droits prévus à l’article 13 du Pacte international
relatif aux droits civils et politiques, au paragraphe 4 de l’article 12 de la

Charte africaine des droits de l’homme et des peuples, ainsi qu’au droit
d’être informé des possibilités d’assistance consulaire egn vertu de l’ali -
néa b) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 de la convention de Vienne sur les
1
relations consulaires . Ainsi, pour la toute première fois de son histoire,
la Cour a établi l’existence de violations des droits de l’hommge, sur la
base de deux traités existant dans ce domaine ainsi que de la disposigtion

susvisée de la convention de Vienne de 1963.
5. Le titulaire des droits violés en l’espèce était un être ghumain,
M. A. S. Diallo, et non un Etat. C’est donc également M. A. S. Diallo, et

non un Etat, qui a droit à réparation. Il est à la fois le titulaire de ce droit
et le bénéficiaire des mesures de réparation prescrites par la Cour dans le

présent arrêt. Dans son arrêt antérieur (du 30 novembre 2010) sur le fond
de l’espèce, la Cour s’est référée à la réparatigon — sous la forme d’une
indemnisation — qui était « due à la Guinée à raison des dommages subis

par M. Diallo » (ibid., p. 691, par. 161). Elle s’est ensuite référée à l’in -
demnisation due à la Guinée par la RDC « à raison du dommage résul -
tant des détentions et de l’expulsion illicites de M. Diallo en 1995-1996, y

compris la perte de ses effets personnels qui en a[vait] découlég » (ibid.,
p. 691, par. 163).
6. Lors de la phase ultérieure consacrée à la réparation (procgédure écrite

uniquement), la Guinée a fait état à plusieurs reprises, dans gson mémoire
du 6 décembre 2011, des dommages 2, préjudices ou conséquences préjudi-
ciables subis par M. Diallo, ainsi que du traitement discriminatoire 5 et
6
arbitraire qui lui avait été infligé. Elle a également accusé la gRDC d’avoir
manqué à ses obligations en matière de droits de l’homme 7. Pour sa part,
dans son contre-mémoire du 21 février 2012, la RDC a reconnu les préju -
8 9
dices ou dommages subis par M. Diallo. Les deux Parties convenaient
donc qu’une réparation était due à la victime au titre des vgiolations des
droits de l’homme qu’elle avait subies. Le titulaire des droits violés, et le

bénéficiairede la réparation due, était l’individu lésé, M. A. S. Diallo.

1Fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), points 2, 3 et 4 du dispositif.
2Mémoire de la Guinée, par. 16 et 48 ; voir aussi par. 63.
3Ibid., par. 35 et 47 ; voir aussi par. 62.
4Ibid., par. 24.
5Ibid., par. 43.
6
7Ibid., par. 61.
8Ibid., par. 21.
Contre-mémoire de la RDC, par. 2, 4 et 1.05.
9Ibid., par. 1.05 et 1.44.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 55 26/11/13 09:37 350 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

7. Accordingly, in its Memorial Guinea invoked a recent case from the
inter-American system of human rights, concerning Haiti 10. And, for its

part, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in its Counter-Memorial,
invoked a series of decisions from the European and the Inter-American
Courts of Human Rights and surveyed them 11, stressing their importance
for the determination of “compensation for non-pecuniary damage suf -
12
fered by individuals” . The Democratic Republic of the Congo made a
point of stressing that it deemed it fit to draw on the case law of the
Inter-American and European Courts of Human Rights as the corre -
sponding two regional systems of human rights protection

“are the oldest and best developed in the world and which have abun-

dant practice in fixing compensation to make good the non-pecuniary
damage resulting from wrongful and prolonged detentions of physical
persons by certain States. In the light of the jurisprudence of these

two international courts, the Respondent will submit its own proposal
to the Court regarding the amount of compensation which it consid -
ers reasonable and proportionate in relation to the non-pecuniary
damage suffered by Mr. Diallo.” 13

8. In its present Judgment on reparations the Court has recalled its
finding in its previous Judgment on the merits (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II),

p. 691, para. 163) in the cas d’espèce, whereby the amount of compensa -
tion due to Mr. A. S. Diallo is based on the damage suffered resulting
from his “wrongful detentions and expulsion” in 1995-1996 and the con -

sequent “loss of his personal belongings” (Judgment, para. 11). The whole
reasoning of the Court is developed on the basis of the damages sufferged
by Mr. A. S. Diallo, as established by it in its earlier Judgment on the
merits (of 30 November 2010). In the present Judgment, the Court reiter -

ates its position that the damages were done to Mr. A. S. Diallo, the
individual victim (ibid., para. 57), not to his State of nationality or origin.

9. The fact that the mechanism for dispute-settlement by the ICJ is, as

disclosed by its interna corporis, an inter-State one, does not mean that
the Court’s findings, and its corresponding reasoning, ought to be invgari -
ably limited to a strict inter-State approach. Not at all ; in their contents,
cases vary considerably, and, throughout the last decades, some of them

have directly concerned the condition of individuals. I have had the occa -
sion to point this out in my separate opinion in the Court’s recent Advi -
sory Opinion on Judgment No. 2867 of the International Labour
Organization Administrative Tribunal upon a Complaint Filed against the ▯

International Fund for Agricultural Development (I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I),

10
Memorial of the Republic of Guinea, para. 30.
11Counter-Memorial of the DRC, paras. 1.07-1.43.
12Ibid., para. 1.47, and cf. para. 1.41.
13Ibid., para. 1.07.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 56 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 350

7. Dans ce contexte, la Guinée a invoqué dans son mémoire une affaire
examinée récemment par la commission interaméricaine des droitsg de
10
l’homme, qui concernait Haïti . La RDC a quant à elle renvoyé dans son
contre-mémoire à une série de décisions rendues par les Courgs européenne et
interaméricaine des droits de l’homme, passant ces précédents en revue 11

pour en souligner l’importance aux fins de déterminer le montant degs
«indemnités [à verser] pour réparer le dommage immatériel subgi par des
personnes physiques » 1. La RDC a bien insisté sur la nécessité de suivre
la jurisprudence des Cours européenne et interaméricaine des droits dge

l’homme, ces deux organes régionaux de défense des droits de l’ghomme
étant

«les plus anciens et les mieux développés dans le monde, [et ayant]g
une pratique abondante en ce qui concerne la fixation des indemnités
pour réparer les dommages immatériels découlant des détentiogns illi -

cites et prolongées des personnes physiques par certains Etats. Au
regard de la jurisprudence de ces deux juridictions internationales,
l’Etat défendeur présentera à la Cour sa propre proposition sur le
montant de l’indemnité qu’il considère comme raisonnable et gpropor -
13
tionnée par rapport au dommage immatériel subi par M. Diallo. »

8. Dans son présent arrêt sur la réparation due en l’espèce,g la Cour ra-p
pelle la conclusion qu’elle avait formulée dans son arrêt antégrieur sur le fond
de l’affaire (C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 691, par. 163), à savoir que l’indem -
nité devait être chiffrée sur la base des dommages causés gà M. A. S. Diallo

du fait de ses « détentions et de [son] expulsion illicites », dans les années
1995 et 1996, et de la « perte de ses effets personnels » qui en avait résulté
(arrêt, par. 11). Le raisonnement tout entier de la Cour est basé sur les

dommages subis par l’intéressé, tels qu’établis dans sa dgécision antérieure
sur le fond (du 30 novembre 2010). Dans le présent arrêt, la Cour
réaffirme que les dommages ont été causés à M. A. S. Diallo, la personne
victime (ibid., par. 57), et non à l’Etat dont il a la nationalité ou dont

il est originaire.
9. Le fait que le mécanisme de règlement des différends par la Cgour soit,
comme le révèlent les textes constitutifs de celle-ci, de caractègre inter-
étatique ne signifie pas qu’elle doive toujours, dans ses conclusiogns et dans

le raisonnement qui les sous-tend, s’en tenir à une perspective stgrictement
interétatique. Bien au contraire. La teneur des affaires peut variegr considé -
rablement, et certaines de celles dont la Cour a eu à connaître aug fil des

dernières décennies mettaient directement en jeu la situation de pgersonnes
physiques. J’ai déjà eu l’occasion de le faire observer dansg l’opinion indivi -
duelle que j’ai jointe au récent avis consultatif de la Cour sur lge Jugement
no 2867 du Tribunal administratif de l’Organisation internationale du Tra ▯ vail

10
11 Mémoire de la Guinée, par. 30.
12 Contre-mémoire de la RDC, par. 1.07-1.43.
13 Ibid., par. 1.47 ; voir aussi par. 1.41.
Ibid., par. 1.07.

30

6 CIJ1032.indb 57 26/11/13 09:37 351 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

pp. 79-80, paras. 78-79), and I do so again in the present separate opinion
in the Diallo case (Judgment on Reparations).

10. Notorious examples in that sense are provided, e.g., by the Notte ‑
bohm case (Liechtenstein v. Guatemala) (1955, on double nationality); the
case concerning the Application of the Convention of 1902 Governing the

Guardianship of Infants (Netherlands v. Sweden) (1958) ; the case of the
Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of War (Pakistan v. India) (1973) ; the “Hos ‑
tages” (United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran (United
States v. Iran) case (1980)) ; the East-Timor (Portugal v. Australia) case
(1995); the case of the Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia‑Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia)

(1996); the case of Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and
Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria) (1996); the case of Armed Activities on the
Territory of the Congo (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda)
(2000); the three successive cases concerning consular assistance — namely,
the cases “Breard” (Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Paraguay v.

United States) (1998)) ;LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America)
(2001) ; andAvena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States
of America) (2004) ; the case on Questions relating to the Obligation to
Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal) (Order of 2009) ; the case of
Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of

the Congo) (2010); the case of the Application of the International Conven ‑
tion on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v.
Russian Federation) (2011); the case of the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cam ‑
bodia v. Thailand) (Order of 2011) ; and the case of the Jurisdictional
Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy) (2010-2012).
11. The insufficiency, if not artificiality, of the exclusively inter-State

outlook of the procedures before the ICJ has become manifest, in the
light of the very nature of some of the contentious cases submitted to it.
The same has been disclosed by the exercise of its advisory function, asg
illustrated by its last two Advisory Opinions, on the Accordance with
International Law of the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in Respect

of Kosovo (2010), and on Judgment No. 2867 of the International Labour
Organization Administrative Tribunal upon a Complaint Filed against the ▯
International Fund for Agricultural Development (2012). Despite the limi -
tations of the inter-State conception of its mechanism of operation, the
Court can at least disclose its preparedness to reason in the light of the

progressive development of international law, thus contributing to it,
beyond the outdated inter-State outlook.
12. In effect, in the present Diallo case, the Court’s Judgments on the
merits (2010) and now on reparations clearly show that its findings andg
reasoning have rightly gone well beyond the straight-jacket of the strict
inter-State dimension. There are circumstances wherein the Court is

bound to do so, in the faithful exercise of its judicial function, in cagses
concerning distinct aspects of the condition of individuals. After all, g

31

6 CIJ1032.indb 58 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 351

sur requête contre le Fonds international de développement agricole ▯

(C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 79-80, par. 78-79), et je le relève encore
aujourd’hui dans la présente opinion individuelle que je joins à l’arrêt
rendu sur la réparation en l’affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo.
10. Je citerai par exemple les affaires suivante:sNottebohm (Liechtenstein
c. Guatemala) (double nationalité, 1955) ; Application de la convention de

1902 pour régler la tutelle des mineurs (Pays‑Bas c. Suède) (1958) ; Procès
de prisonniers de guerre pakistanais (Pakistan c. Inde) (1973) ; Personnel
diplomatique et consulaire des Etats‑Unis à Téhéran (Etats‑Unis d’Amé ‑
rique c. Iran) (1980) ;Timor oriental (Portugal c. Australie) (1995) ; Appli‑
cation de la convention pour la prévention et la répression du crim ▯ e de

génocide (Bosnie‑Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie) (1996) ;Frontière terrestre et
maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria) (1996) ;
Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (République démo ▯ cratique du
Congo c. Ouganda) (2000). Voir également la série de trois affaires rela -
tives à l’assistance consulaire: Convention de Vienne sur les relations consu‑

laires (Paraguay c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique) (dite l’affaire « Breard », 1998) ;
LaGrand (Allemagne c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique) (2001); et Avena et autres
ressortissants mexicains (Mexique c. Etats‑Unis d’Amérique) (2004). Voir
enfin Questions concernant l’obligation de poursuivre ou d’extrader (Bel▯ ‑
gique c. Sénégal) (ordonnance de 2009) ; Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Répu ‑

blique de Guinée c. République démocratique du Congo) (2010) ;Application
de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les for▯ mes de dis ‑
crimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie) (2011) ; Temple de
Préah Vihéar (Cambodge c. Thaïlande) (ordonnance de 2011) ; Immunités
juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie) (2010-2012).

11. Il est devenu évident que confiner les procédures de la Cour dans
une logique purement interétatique est insuffisant, voire artificiel,g eu égard
à la nature même de certaines des affaires contentieuses portéges devant

elle. Le même constat s’est imposé lorsque la Cour a exercé gsa fonction
consultative, comme l’illustrent ses deux derniers avis, dont l’ung portait
sur la Conformité au droit international de la déclaration unilatérale▯ d’indé ‑
pendance relative au Kosovo (2010) et l’autre sur le Jugement n o2867 du
Tribunal administratif de l’Organisation internationale du Travail su▯r

requête contre le Fonds international de développement agricole (2012). En
dépit des limites tenant à sa vocation interétatique, la Cour pgeut à tout le
moins se montrer prête à raisonner en tenant compte du développement
progressif du droit international, apportant ainsi sa pierre à l’égdifice, sans
s’enfermer dans cette conception interétatique qui appartient au pgassé.

12. De fait, il ressort clairement des arrêts qu’elle a rendus dans la
présente affaireAhmadou Sadio Diallo, d’abord sur le fond (en 2010) et
aujourd’hui sur la réparation, que, dans ses conclusions et dans sgon rai -
sonnement, la Cour est allée bien au-delà de la dimension strictemgent
interétatique, un carcan dont elle a eu raison de s’affranchir. gLa Cour n’a

parfois guère le choix, pour rester fidèle à sa fonction judiciagire, lorsque

31

6 CIJ1032.indb 59 26/11/13 09:37 352 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

breaches of international law are perpetrated not only to the detriment gof

States, but also to the detriment of human beings, subjects of rights —
and bearers of obligations — emanating directly from international law
itself. States have lost the monopoly of international legal personalityg a
long time ago.

13. Individuals — like States and international organizations — are
likewise subjects of international law. A breach of their rights entailsg the

obligation to provide reparations to them. This is precisely the case ofg
Mr. A. S. Diallo ; the present case bears eloquent witness of that, and of
the limits imposed by contemporary international law upon State volun -
tarism. States cannot dispose of human beings the way they want, irre -

spective of their rights acknowledged in the corpus juris of the international
law of human rights ; if they breach their rights enshrined therein, they
are to bear the consequences thereof, in particular the ineluctable obligga -

tion to provide reparation to the individual victims.

III. neminem laedere : Insights on Reparationgs
from the “Founding Fathegrs”
of the Law of Nations (d roit des g ens )

14. This duty of reparation has deep historical roots, going back to the
origins of the law of nations : such duty was in fact in the minds of the
“founding fathers” of our discipline, as disclosed by their classigcal writ -

ings which have survived the onslaught of time. The present Diallo case,
unique in the history of this Court — as I pointed out in my separate
opinion in its earlier Judgment on the merits (of 30 November 2010) —
seems to provide an invitation to embark on the rescue of the earlier

thinking on such duty of reparation. In effect, in his celebrated Second
Relectio de Indis (1538-1539), Francisco de Vitoria made a proposition to
the effect that “the enemy who has done the wrong is bound to give gall
14
this redress” ; there is a duty, even amidst armed hostilities, to mak15
restitution (of losses) and to provide reparation for “all damages”g .

15. One was here in the realm of jus gentium, the law of nations, of all
16
peoples, wherein the right to redress was reckoned . The rules of that
emerging law of nations were to be “just and fitting for all persons”g ; the

14 Op. cit. infra note 16, Appendix B : Francisco de Vitoria, Second Relectio : On the
Indians [De Indis] [1538-1539], Oxford/London, Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1934 [reed.],
p. LV.
15 Ibid. ;and cf. Francisco de Vitoria, “Relección Segunda : De los Indios” [1538-1539],
Obras de Francisco de Vitoria — Relecciones Teológicas (ed. T. Urdanoz), Madrid, BAC,
1955, p. 827.
16 J. Brown Scott, The Spanish Origin of International Law — Francisco de Vitoria and

His Law of Nations, Oxford/London, Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1934, pp. 140, 150, 163
and 165.

32

6 CIJ1032.indb 60 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 352

l’affaire met en jeu différents aspects de la situation d’ugn individu. Après

tout, lorsque le droit international est bafoué, les Etats ne sont pags les
seules victimes: les êtres humains en sont également victimes, puisque les
droits — et les obligations — qui sont les leurs émanent directement du
droit international lui-même. Les Etats ont perdu l’apanage de la gperson-

nalité juridique internationale depuis fort longtemps.
13. Les personnes physiques, au même titre que les Etats et les organisa -
tions internationales, sont des sujets de droit international. La violation de

leurs droits entraîne une obligation de réparation à leur endrogit. Tel est
précisément le cas de M. A. S. Diallo. La présente affaire en témoigne avec
éloquence et montre les limites que le droit international moderne pogse à la
volonté des Etats, qui ne peuvent disposer à leur gré des êtgres humains, au

mépris des droits reconnus à ceux-ci dans le corpus juris du droit internatio -
nal des droits de l’homme. S’ils violent les droits ainsi confégrés à l’individu,
ils doivent en assumer les conséquences, en particulier l’obligatigon de répa -

ration inéluctable qui leur incombe à l’égard des victimes igndividuelles.

III. Le principe neminem laedere ,
ou la notion de réparatgion dans l’esprit
des «pères fondateurs» du droit des gens

14. Profondément ancrée dans l’histoire, cette obligation de répgaration
remonte aux origines du droit des gens : en fait, les « pères fondateurs» de
notre discipline l’avaient déjà à l’esprit, comme le régvèlent leurs ouvrages

classiques qui ont résisté à l’épreuve du temps. La présente affaire Ahma ‑
dou Sadio Diallo, qui est unique dans l’histoire de la Cour — comme je
l’ai déjà fait observer dans l’opinion individuelle que j’gai jointe à l’arrêt
précédent sur le fond (du 30 novembre 2010) —, semble inviter à en reve -

nir à la conception première de cette obligation de réparation.g De fait,
dans sa célèbre Deuxième leçon sur les Indiens (1538-1539), Francisco de
Vitoria avançait déjà que « [l]es ennemis qui [avaient] commis une injus -
14
tice [étaient], en effet, tenus à toutes ces obligations [de régparation] » ;
même en temps de conflit armé, il existe un devoir de restitutiogn (en cas
de perte) et de réparation pour « tous les dommages » causés 1.
15. L’on touchait ici au domaine du jus gentium — le droit des gens, de
16
tous les peuples —, dans le cadre duquel le droit à réparation était reconnu .
Les règles de ce droit des gens en voie de formation devaient êtregj« ustes et

14 Op. cit. infra note 16, appendice B : Francisco de Vitoria, Second Relectio : On the
Indians [De Indis] [1538-1539], Oxford/Londres, Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1934 (rééd.),
p. LV.
15 Ibid. ; voir aussi Francisco de Vitoria, «Relección Segunda : De los Indios »
[1538-1539], Obras de Francisco de Vitoria — Relecciones teológicas (dir. publ., T. Urdanoz),
Madrid, BAC, 1955, p. 827.
16 J. Brown Scott, The Spanish Origin of International Law — Francisco de Vitoria and

His Law of Nations, Oxford/Londres, Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1934, p. 140, 150, 163
et 165.

32

6 CIJ1032.indb 61 26/11/13 09:37 353 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

damages caused by wrongful acts were to be assessed, in order to provideg
redress to those who suffered them, and restitution of the losses 17. In

de Vitoria’s understanding, redress of wrongs was to take place in dis -
putes between States, or between groups, or between individuals, i.e., ign

all sorts of disputes. He viewed the international community of (emerg -
ing) States as “co-extensive with humanity” ; such redress corresponded,
in his conception, to “an international need” 18.

16. Hugo Grotius, for his part, dedicated a whole chapter of his De
Jure Belli ac Pacis (1625) to the obligation of reparation for damages
(Book II, Chap. XVII) 19. In his outlook, the “injured party” was not nec-

essarily a State; he referred to distinct kinds of damage caused by breaches
of “rights resulting to us”, or from “losses suffered by neglgigence” ; such
damages or losses create an obligation of reparation 20. In his conception

of the jus gentium, the (emerging) law of nations, H. Grotius focused on
the reasonable, on the dictates of the right reason, bearing in mind also
the common needs and, ultimately, the universal human society.

17. Samuel Pufendorf, likewise, in his Elementorum Jurisprudentiae

Universalis — Libri Duo (1672), asserted that whoever has caused damage
by a wrongful act is bound “to make good” and “to restore as mugch as
he contributed to the damage” 21. In this duty of restitution, each one

was bound to provide reparation for the damage he caused, “to restore
the whole”, on the basis of natural law 2. In his work On the Duty of
Man and Citizen (1673), Pufendorf pondered that one who has suffered

loss or damage cannot live in peace with the wrongdoer, without com-
pensation; hence the need of restitution. Natural law, attentive to the
sociable (sociabilis), condemned vengeance 23. “Natural equity” set forth

the “obligation to make restitution” for loss or harm done with maliceg or
negligence 2.

17
18 Op. cit. supra note 16, pp. 172 and 210-211.
Ibid., pp. 282-283 ; and cf. also, Association Internationale Vitoria-Suarez, Vitoria
et Suarez : contribution des théologiens au droit international moderne, Paris, Pedone, 1939,
pp. 73-74, and cf. pp. 169-170.
19 H. Grotius, De Jure Belli Ac Pacis [1625], Liber secundus, caput XVII, The Hague,
M. Nijhoff, 1948, pp. 79-82.
20 Ibid., pp. 79-80, paras. I and VIII-IX ;and cf. H. Grotius, Le droit de la guerre et de la

pai21[1625], Paris, PUF, 2005 [reed.], pp. 415-416 and 418, paras. I and VIII-IX.
S. Pufendorf, Elementorum Jurisprudentiae Universalis — Libri Duo [1672], Oxford/
London, Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1931 [reed.], pp. 264-265.
22 Ibid., p. 266.
23 S. Pufendorf, On the Duty of Man and Citizen According to Natural Law [1673],
Cambridge University Press, 2003 [5th printing], Book I, Chap. 6, pp. 56-57 and 60.
24 Ibid., pp. 58-59; and cf. S. Pufendorf, Os Deveres do Homem e do Cidadão de Acordo

com as Leis do Direito Natural [1673], Rio de Janeiro, Liberty Fund/Topbooks, 2007
[reed.], Book I, Chap. 6, pp. 152-153 and 156.

33

6 CIJ1032.indb 62 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 353

adaptées à chacun» et les dommages causés par les actes illicites évalués, afign
d’apporter réparation à ceux qui en avaient pâti et de leur goffrir une restitu -
17
tion en cas de perte . Selon la conception de Vitoria, la réparation devait
avoir lieu dans les différends entre Etats, entre groupes ou entre gindividus,

c’est-à-dire dans toutes les catégories de différends. Pougr lui, la communauté
internationale des Etats (naissants) était « coextensive à l’humanité »; la
réparation répondait à «un besoin international» 18.

16. Hugo Grotius, quant à lui, consacra un chapitre entier de son De
jure belli ac pacis (1625) à l’obligation de réparer les dommages causés
(livre II, chap. XVII) 19. De son point de vue, la « partie lésée» n’était pas

nécessairement un Etat ; il fit référence à divers types de dommages occa -
sionnés par des violations de « droits revenant à l’individu» ou de «pertes
causées par négligence», ces dommages ou pertes donnant lieu à une obli -
20
gation de réparation . Selon sa conception du jus gentium, du droit des
gens (naissant), Grotius s’attachait à ce qui était raisonnabgle, aux exi -
gences de la recta ratio, en tenant également compte des besoins com -

muns et, en définitive, de la société humaine universelle.
17. De même, Samuel Pufendorf, dans son Elementorum jurispruden ‑

tiae universalis — Libri duo (1672), affirma que quiconque avait causé un
dommage par un acte illicite était tenu « d’y porter remède » et « de réta -
blir la situation autant qu’il avait contribué à la dégraderg » . Suivant

cette conception du devoir de restitution, chacun était tenu de régparer le
dommage qu’il avait causé «afin de rétablir la situation antérieure dans sa
globalité», sur la base du droit naturel 22. Dans son ouvrage sur les devoirs

de l’homme et du citoyen selon le droit naturel (De officio hominis et civis
prout ipsi praescribuntur lege naturali, 1673), Pufendorf estima qu’une
personne victime d’une perte ou d’un dommage ne pouvait vivre en pgaix

avec celui qui en était l’auteur, à moins d’avoir obtenu régparation, d’où la
nécessité d’une restitution. Le droit naturel, caractériség par sa dimension
23
sociale (sociabilis), condamnait la vengeance . De l’« équité naturelle »
découlait l’«obligation de restitution» pour toute perte ou tout dommage
causé par malveillance ou négligence 24.

17
18 Op. cit. supra note 16, p. 172 et 210-211.
Ibid., p. 282-283 ; voir aussi Association internationale Vitoria‑Suarez,Vitoria et
Suarez : contribution des théologiens au droit international moderne, Paris, Pedone, 1939,
p. 73-74, et voir p. 169-170.
19 H. Grotius, De jure belli ac pacis [1625], Liber secundus, caput XVII, La Haye,
M. Nijhoff, 1948, p. 79-82.
20 Ibid., p. 79-80, par. I et VIII-IX ; voir aussi H. Grotius, Le droit de la guerre et de la

pai21[1625], Paris, PUF, 2005 (rééd.), p. 415-416 et 418, par. I et VIII-IX.
S. Pufendorf, Elementorum jurisprudentiae universalis — Libri duo [1672], Oxford/
Londres, Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1931 (rééd.), p. 264-265.
22 Ibid., p. 266.
23 S. Pufendorf, On the Duty of Man and Citizen According to Natural Law [1673],
Cambridge University Press, 2003 (5 eéd.), livre I, chap. 6, p. 56-57 et 60.
24 Ibid., p. 58-59; voir aussi S. Pufendorf, Os deveres do homem e do cidadão de acordo

com as leis do direito natural [1673], Rio de Janeiro, Liberty Fund/Topbooks, 2007 (rééd.),
livre I, chap. 6, p. 152-153 et 156.

33

6 CIJ1032.indb 63 26/11/13 09:37 354 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

18. For his part, Christian Wolff held, in his Jus Gentium Methodo

Scientifica Pertractatum(1764), that whoever caused a loss or wrong
“to a citizen or subject of another State” is “bound to repair it” ; the same
applies in the relations among nations, wherein “the loss caused shougld
25
be repaired” . Any international wrong — he added — entails the duty
of reparation, or of restoration of the loss 26. In his Principes du droit de la
nature et des gens (1758), Wolff situated the duty to provide reparation
27
for the damage caused in the realm of natural law thinking .

19. To the writings, on the subject-matter at issue, of Vitoria, Gro -
tius, Pufendorf and Wolff, others could be added, such as the ponder -

ation of Alberico Gentili (De Jure Belli, 1598) and of Francisco Suárez
(De Legibus ac Deo Legislatore, 1612), as to the need of a legal system
that would regulate the relations of the members of the universal societas

gentium, and the approach pursued by Cornelius van Bynkershoek (De
Foro Legatorum, 1721 ; Questiones Juris Publici — Libri Duo, 1737), in
keeping on upholding a multiplicity of subjects of jus gentium (nations,

peoples, persons). By and large, the attention to the common condition gof
humankind was proper to natural law, which, with the recta ratio, pro -
vided the basis for the regulation of human relations with the due respegct
28
for each other’s rights . The duty of reparation responded to an interna ‑
tional need, in conformity with the recta ratio — whether the beneficiaries
were States (emerging in their days), peoples, or individuals.

20. Subsequent to the works of Pufendorf and Wolff (supra), interna -
tional legal thinking embarked on the reductionist path of the jus inter
gentes pursuant to a much stricter inter-State outlook. The juxtaposition

of absolute State sovereignties led to the exclusion from that legal ordger
of the individuals as subjects of rights (titulaires de droits). At interna -
tional level, the States assumed the monopoly of the condition of subjecgts

of rights ; the individuals, for their protection, were left entirely at the
mercy of the discretionary intermediation of their nation-States. The
international legal order thus erected — which the excesses of legal posi -
tivism attempted in vain to justify — excluded therefrom precisely the

ultimate addressee of the juridical norms : the human being.

25C. Wolff, Jus Gentium Methodo Scientifica Pertractatum [1764], Oxford/London,
Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1934 [reed.], p. 162, paras. 318-319.
26Ibid., pp. 408 and 425, paras. 789 and 821.
27
C. Wolff, Principes du droit de la nature et des gens [1758], Vol. III, Caen,
Presses Universitaires de Caen, 2011 [reed.], Book IX, Chap. VI, pp. 293-294 and 296,
paras. II, IV and XIII.
28The right reason lies at the basis of the law of nations, being the spirit of justice
in the line of natural law thinkingthis trend of international legal thinking has always
much valued the realization of justice, pursuant to a “superior value of justice”. P. Foriers,
L’organisation de la paix chez Grotius et l’école de droit natu▯rel [1961], Paris, J. Vrin, 1987,
pp. 293, 333, 373 and 375 [reed. of study originally published inRecueil de la Société
Jean Bodin pour l’histoire comparative des institutions,Vol. 15, Part II, Brussels, Libr. Ency-
clopédique, 1961].

34

6 CIJ1032.indb 64 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 354

18. Christian Wolff indiqua pour sa part, dans sonJus gentium methodo
scientifica pertractatum (1764), que quiconque causait une perte ou un
tort « à un citoyen ou à un sujet d’un autre Etat » était « tenu d’y remé -

dier», ce qui valait également dans les relations entre nations,25ans gle
cadre desquelles «la perte causée d[evait] être réparée » . Tout fait illicite
international — ajouta-t-il — entraîne une obligation de réparation, ou
26
de restitution en cas de perte . Dans ses Principes du droit de la nature et
des gens (1758), Wolff inscrivit l’obligation de réparation dans le cadgre de
la philosophie du droit naturel 27.
19. Aux ouvrages rédigés en la matière par Vitoria, Grotius, Pufendgorf

et Wolff peuvent être ajoutés d’autres encore, comme les régflexions
d’Alberico Gentili (De jure belli, 1598) et de Francisco Suárez (De legibus
ac deo legislatore, 1612) sur le besoin d’un système juridique qui régle -

mente les relations des membres de la societas gentium universelle, ainsi
que l’approche adoptée par Cornelius van Bynkershoek (De foro legato ‑
rum, 1721 ;Questiones juris publici — Libri duo, 1737), qui n’a cessé d’in -

sister sur la multiplicité des sujets du jus gentium (les nations, les peuples
et les personnes). D’une façon générale, ce souci de la congdition humaine
était propre au droit naturel qui, avec la recta ratio, constituait la base sur

laquelle les relations humaines pouvaient être réglementées en tenant
dûment compte des droits de chacun 28. L’obligation de réparation répon-
dait à un besoin international, conformément à la recta ratio — que les

bénéficiaires fussent les Etats (alors en voie de formation), lesg peuples ou
les individus.
20. A la suite des ouvrages de Pufendorf et de Wolff (supra), les théo -

riciens du droit international s’engagèrent sur la voie réductigonniste du
jus inter gentes en s’enfermant dans une conception interétatique bien plus
stricte. La juxtaposition des souverainetés absolues des Etats eut pogur

effet d’exclure de cet ordre juridique les personnes physiques, en gtant que
titulaires de droits, un statut dont les Etats avaient l’apanage au ngiveau
international; les personnes devaient, pour leur protection, s’en remettre
totalement aux tractations discrétionnaires de leur Etat-nation. L’gordre

juridique international ainsi érigé — avec les excès que les tenants du
positivisme juridique tentèrent en vain de justifier — excluait précisément
le bénéficiaire ultime des normes juridiques : l’être humain.

25C. Wolff, Jus gentium methodo scientifica pertractatum [1764], Oxford/Londres,
Clarendon Press/H. Milford, 1934 (rééd.), p. 162, par. 318-319.
26Ibid., p. 408 et 425, par. 789 et 821.
27C. Wolff, Principes du droit de la nature et des gens [1758], vol. III, Caen,
Presses universitaires de Caen, 2011 (rééd.), livre IX, chap. VI, p. 293-294 et 296, par. II,

IV 28 XIII.
La notion de rectitude (recta ratio) est à la base du droit des gens, en tant qu’elle
exprime l’esprit de justice qui imprègne la philosophie du droit ngaturece courant de
pensée du droit international a toujours fait grand cas de la réalisation de la justice, qui
constitue une « valeur supérieure ». P. Foriers, L’organisation de la paix chez Grotius et
l’école de droit naturel [1961], Paris, J. Vrin, 1987, p. 293, 333, 373 et 375 (réimpr. de l’étude
initialement publiée dans le Recueil de la Société Jean Bodin pour l’histoire comparative des
institutions, vol. 15, 2 partie, Bruxelles, Librairie encyclopédique, 1961).

34

6 CIJ1032.indb 65 26/11/13 09:37 355 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

21. The teachings of the “founding fathers” of the law of nations, howg -
ever, never faded away. Successive grave violations of the rights of theg

human person (some on a massive scale) awakened human conscience to
the need to restore to the human being the central position from where hge
had been unduly displaced by the exclusive inter-State thinking which
prevailed in the nineteenth century. The reconstruction, on human foun -

dations, as from the mid-twentieth century onwards, took, as conceptual
basis, the canons of the human being as subject of rights (titulaire de
droits), of the collective guarantee of the realization of these latter, and ofg
the objective character of the obligations of protection, and of the reagliza -

tion of superior common values. The individual came again to be per -
ceived as subject of the right to reparation for damages suffered.

IV. The Dawn of State Responsgibility
and the Rationale of Dutgy of Reparation

22. In effect, as from the late nineteenth century, some jurists had the
intuition to dwell upon reparation for international wrongs, even beforeg
the advent of the era of (contemporary) international tribunals. They g
wrote within distinct theoretical frameworks. One of the earlier juristsg to

do so was Dionisio Anzilotti. On the one hand, his views on the legal
standing of individuals (acknowledged by him only in positive domestic
law) 29became promptly and wholly unacceptable, even in the emerging

legal doctrine of his times ; this was largely due to the gradual establish -
ment of the direct contacts between individuals and the international
legal order (as from, e.g., the pioneering case law of the Central American
Court of Justice, 1907-1917, followed by the Advisory Opinion of 1928 of

the Permanent Court of International Justice [PCIJ] on the Jurisdiction of
the Courts of Danzig, 1928) and the gradual recognition of the access of
individuals to international justice 30.

23. On the other hand, another concern expressed by Anzilotti, as to
the duty of reparation of damages resulting from breaches of interna -
tional law so as to preserve the integrity of the international legal orgder,

seems to retain its contemporaneity, over a century later. In fact, alregady
in 1902, in his book Teoria Generale della Responsabilità dello Stato nel
Diritto Internazionale, he pondered, in his conceptualization, that a viola ‑

29
D. Anzilotti, “La responsabilité internationale des Etats à raisong des dommages
sou30erts par des étrangers”, op. cit. infra note 34, pp. 5-6 and 8.
A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Acceso Directo del Individuo a los Tribunales Inter ‑
nacionales de Derechos Humanos, Bilbao, Universidad de Deusto, 2001, pp. 9-104 ;
A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Derecho de Acceso a la Justicia en Su Amplia Dimensión,
Santiago de Chile, CECOH/Librotecnia, 2008, pp. 61-407 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, The
Access of Individuals to International Justice, Oxford University Press, 2011, pp. 1-236.

35

6 CIJ1032.indb 66 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 355

21. Les enseignements dispensés par les « pères fondateurs » du droit
des gens ne sont toutefois jamais tombés dans l’oubli. Devant les ggraves

violations des droits de la personne qui se sont succédé (et dontg certaines
ont été commises à grande échelle), l’humanité a prisg conscience de la
nécessité de rendre à l’être humain la place centrale dongt il avait été indû-

ment eélogé par la vision exclusivement interétatique qui avaitg prévalu au
XIX siècle. Une reconstruction centrée sur l’humain s’est amorcége à par-
tir du milieu du XX siècle, fondée sur l’idée que l’être humain était tgitu-
laire de droits, qu’il fallait œuvrer collectivement pour assurer gle respect

de ces droits, que les obligations de protection revêtaient un caractgère
objectif et que les valeurs communes devaient primer. L’individu fut g
à nouveau considéré comme le titulaire du droit à réparation pgour les
dommages subis.

IV. L’avènement de la resgponsabilité des Étatsg

et la raison d’être deg l’obligation de réparagtion

22. De fait, dès la fin du XIX e siècle, certains juristes eurent la clair -
voyance de se pencher sur la question de la réparation due pour les fgaits

internationalement illicites, même avant que s’ouvre l’ère des juridictions
internationales (contemporaines). Ils s’exprimèrent alors dans des cadres
théoriques distincts. L’un des premiers à le faire fut Dionisiog Anzilotti.
Certes, ses vues sur le statut juridique des personnes physiques (qui, gselon
29
lui, n’était reconnu qu’en droit positif interne) devinrent vite complète-
ment inacceptables, même dans le contexte de la doctrine juridique nagis-
sante de son époque, ce qui s’expliquait en grande partie par le fgait que

des liens directs se tissaient progressivement entre l’individu et l’gordre
juridique international (la Cour de justice centraméricaine fit œugvre de
pionnière dans sa jurisprudence des années 1907-1917, avant d’êgtre imitée
par la Cour permanente de Justice internationale (la «Cour permanente»)

dans son avis consultatif de 1928 sur la Compétence des tribunaux de
Dantzig), et que l’accès des personnes à la justice internationale égtait en
voie de reconnaissance 30.
23. Une autre préoccupation exprimée par Anzilotti semble, en

revanche, rester d’actualité plus d’un siècle plus tard : elle concerne
l’obligation de réparer les dommages résultant de violations dug droit
international afin de préserver l’intégrité de l’ordre juridique inter-

national. En fait, dès 1902, dans sa Teoria generale della responsabilità
dello Stato nel diritto internazionale, Anzilotti estima, dans son exercice

29D. Anzilotti, « La responsabilité internationale des Etats à raison des dommages
soufferts par des étrangers », op. cit. infra note 34, p. 5-6 et 8.
30
A. A. Cançado Trindade, El acceso directo del individuo a los tribunales internacionales
de derechos humanos, Bilbao, Universidad de Deusto, 2001, p. 9-104 ; A. A. Cançado Trin
dade, El derecho de acceso a la justicia en su amplia dimensión, Santiago du Chili, CECOH/
Librotecnia, 2008, p. 61-407 ; A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Access of Individuals to Inter ‑
national Justice, Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 1-236.

35

6 CIJ1032.indb 67 26/11/13 09:37 356 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

tion of international law (ensuing from an anti-juridical fact, a factum
contra jus) generates responsibility 31; hence the need to cease that viola -
32
tion (in its effects) and to provide reparation for the damage . And Anzi-
lotti added that “il neminem laedere è norma giuridica fondamentale nei

rapporti degli Stati come in quelli degl’individui [the neminem laedere is a
fundamental juridical norm in the relations of States as in those of
individuals]” 3.

24. Four years later, Anzilotti stressed that any “act contrary to inter -
national law” engages international responsibility . To him, an “interna-

tional illicit act” is an act which is “in opposition with the objgective
international law”; thus, “le caractère illicite d’un acte dérive toujours de g
son opposition avec le droit objectif” 35. To him, the damage is always
36
encompassed implicitly in the “anti-juridical character of the act” . And
he added, with insight, that

“any act committed by a subject contrary to the rule [of law] entailsg
an obligation to restore, in one form or another, the juridical posi -
tion which that subject has disturbed.

[A] violation of international juridical standards by a State bound
by those standards thus gives rise to a duty to make reparation,
which generally consists in the restoration of the juridical position
37
that has been disturbed.”

25. In the following years, it became generally accepted that the duty
of reparation was one of general or customary international law. Anotherg
international law theorist, Hans Kelsen, endeavoured in vain to challenge

that. In 1932, dwelling upon reparation, he built his conceptualization
within the straight-jacket of the exclusive inter‑State dimension. He took

an isolated position (already in those days) to the effect that the gduty of
reparation (compliance with which would in his view avoid recourse to
force and retaliation or reprisals) would necessarily require a prior agree ‑
38
ment between the States concerned . Kelsen overlooked the general
acknowledgement, discernible already in his times, that that duty was onge
of general or customary international law, and could not be entirely sub -

31 D. Anzilotti, Teoria Generale della Responsabilità dello Stato nel Diritto Internaz▯io ‑
nale, Part I, Florence, F. Lumachi Libr.-Ed., 1902, pp. 75, 78 and 102-103.
32 Ibid., pp. 95-97 and 100-101.
33
34 Ibid., p. 99.
He used indistinctly the terms “acte” and “fait de l’Etat”g; cf. D. Anzilotti, “La
responsabilité internationale des Etats à raison des dommages souffgerts par des étrangers”,
13 Revue générale de droit international public (1906), pp. 292 and 296.
35 Ibid., p. 14.
36 Ibid., p. 13.
37 Ibid. [Translation by the Registry.]
38
H. Kelsen, “Unrecht und Unrechtsfolge im Völkerrecht”, 12 Zeitschrift für öffent‑
liches Recht (1932), pp. 481-608.

36

6 CIJ1032.indb 68 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 356

de conceptualisation, qu’une violationdu droit international (découlant d’un
fait anti-juridique, ou factum contra jus) était source de responsabilité 3,
d’où la nécessité de faire cesser cette violation (ses effets) et d’apporter
32
réparation pour le dommage causé . Anzilotti ajouta que « il neminem
laedere è norma giuridica fondamentale nei rapporti degli Stati come in
quelli degl’individui [le principe neminem laedere constitue une norme

juridique fondamentale dans les relations entre Etats aussi bien qu’egntre
individus] » 33.
24. Quatre ans plus tard, Anzilotti souligna que tout « acte contraire

au droit international » engageait la responsabilité internationale de son
auteur 34. Pour lui, un « acte illicite international » était un acte « en
opposition avec le droit objectif international »; ainsi, « le caractère

illicite d’un acte dériv[ait] toujours de son opposition avec le droit
objectif» 3. Le dommage était toujours compris implicitement dans le
«caractère anti-juridique de l’acte » 36. Il ajouta, non sans perspicacité,

que

«tout acte accompli par un sujet contrairement à la règle [de droitg]
entraîne en conséquence l’obligation de rétablir, sous une forme
quelconque, l’ordre juridique troublé par lui.

La violation de l’ordre juridique international commise par un
Etat soumis à cet ordre donne ainsi naissance à un devoir de régpara -
tion, qui consiste en général dans le rétablissement de l’orgdre juri -
37
dique troublé. »

25. Dans les années qui suivirent, il devint généralement acceptég que
l’obligation de réparation relevait du droit international génégral ou cou -
tumier. Un autre théoricien du droit international, Hans Kelsen, s’gévertua

en vain à le contester. En 1932, lorsqu’il examina la question de la répa -
ration, il inscrivit toute sa théorie dans le carcan de la dimension stricte‑
ment interétatique. Il était l’un des rares (déjà à l’époque) à gsoutenir que

l’obligation de réparation (dont l’exécution évitait selgon lui le recours à la
force ou aux mesures de représailles) était nécessairement trigbutaire de
l’accord préalable des Etats concernés 38. Kelsen ne tenait aucun compte

de la reconnaissance générale, déjà perceptible chez ses congtemporains,
du fait que l’obligation de réparation relevait du droit internatigonal

31
D. Anzilotti, Teoria generale della responsabilità dello Stato nel diritto internaz▯ionale,
1 partie, Florence, F. Lumachi Libr.-Ed., 1902, p. 75, 78 et 102-103.
32Ibid., p. 95-97 et 100-101.
33Ibid., p. 99.
34Il utilisa indifféremment les termes « acte » et «fait de l’Etat » ;voir D. Anzilotti, «La
responsabilité internationale des Etats à raison des dommages soufferts par des étrangers »,

Rev35 générale de droit international public, tome 13 (1906), p. 292 et 296.
36Ibid., p. 14.
Ibid., p. 13.
37Ibid.
38H. Kelsen, «Unrecht und Unrechtsfolge im Völkerrecht », Zeitschrift für öffentliches
recht, vol. 12 (1932), p. 481-608.

36

6 CIJ1032.indb 69 26/11/13 09:37 357 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

sumed under the will of individual States tout court. Opinio juris commu‑
nis stood above the will of each State.

26. Yet, just as it happened with the theory of Anzilotti, in that of
Kelsen there is a concern which seems to have subsisted to date, retaining
its contemporaneity : reparation cannot “efface” the breach of interna -

tional law already committed, but it can rather avoid the negative conseg-
quences of the wrongful act (i.e., recourse to force and reprisals on
the part of the affected State). In Kelsen’s own words, in dwelling upgon
reparation,

“Ihr Sinn liegt nicht darin, dass durch sie — wie ihr Name sagt —
ein begangenes Unrecht wieder ‘gut’ gemacht wird, denn dies ist

unmöglich. Der einmal gesetzte Unrechtstatbestand kann nicht aus
der Welt geschafft werden. Sondern ihr Sinn liegt darin, dass durch
sie kraft Rechtens der Eintritt der Unrechtsfolge ausgeschaltet wird.”g

[Its significance does not lie with the fact that through such repara -
tion — as its name implies — a wrong that has already happened will
be repaired, as this is impossible. The wrongful behaviour cannot be

made to disappear from the world. Its significance lies with the fact
that through it, pursuant to a rule, the onset of the consequences of
the wrong is made impossible.] 39

27. Reparation, in Kelsen’s outlook, would thus contribute not only to

justice, but also to peace (a topic which was, later on, towards the end of
the Second World War, to attract his attention 40). In addition, he admit-
ted that reparation (for material and immaterial damage) might take dis -
41
tinct forms . On the obligation of reparation, the celebrated dictum of
the PCIJ in the Chorzów Factory case (Judgment of 26 July 1927) did not
escape his attention 42. Without abandoning his inter-State approach, in

his Hague Academy lectures of 1953 he conceded, as to the obligation of
reparation, that “an international court must confine itself to findingg that
an international obligation has been breached and to ordering reparationg
43
for the injury caused” .

28. Despite the constraints of the traditional inter-State outlook, the
rationale of reparation began to attract growing attention, and its con -

39
40Op. cit. supra note 38, p. 560.
Cf. H. Kelsen, Peace through Law, Chapel Hill, University of North Caro -
lina Press, 1944, pp. 71-124 ; and cf. H. Kelsen, A Paz pelo Direito [1944], São Paulo,
Ed. Martins Fontes, 2011 [reed.], pp. 65-114.
41Cf. op. cit. supra note 38, pp. 555-560.
42Cf. ibid., p. 550.
43H. Kelsen, “Théorie du droit international public”, Recueil des cours de l’Académie de
droit international de La Ha, ol. 84, 1953, p. 96, and cf. p. 30[.Translation by the Registry.]

37

6 CIJ1032.indb 70 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 357

général ou coutumier, et qu’elle ne pouvait être entièremgent soumise à la

volonté des Etats tout court. L’opinio juris communis primait déjà la
volonté individuelle de tel ou tel Etat.
26. Toutefois, comme celle d’Anzilotti, la théorie de Kelsen traduit ugne

préoccupation qui semble avoir subsisté jusqu’à ce jour, resgtant ainsi
d’actualité: la réparation ne saurait « effacer» la violation du droit inter -
national déjà commise, mais elle peut permettre d’éviter queg l’acte illicite

n’entraîne des conséquences négatives (qui peuvent par exemple prendre
la forme d’un recours à la force ou à des représailles par l’Etat victime).
Comme Kelsen l’a lui-même déclaré en examinant la question de la
réparation,

«Ihr Sinn liegt nicht darin, dass durch sie — wie ihr Name sagt —
ein begangenes Unrecht wieder « gut» gemacht wird, denn dies ist
unmöglich. Der einmal gesetzte Unrechtstatbestand kann nicht aus

der Welt geschafft werden. Sondern ihr Sinn liegt darin, dass durch
sie kraft Rechtens der Eintritt der Unrechtsfolge ausgeschaltet wird.»
[L’importance de la réparation ne tient pas à ce qu’elle pergmettrait de

réparer — comme son nom l’indique — un acte illicite qui a déjà été
commis, ce qui est impossible. Le comportement fautif ne peut être
effacé purement et simplement. Si la réparation est importante, gc’est
parce que, grâce à elle, l’acte illicite ne peut plus, par pringcipe, pro -
39
duire de conséquences.]

27. La réparation, dans l’esprit de Kelsen, était donc non seulemengt
un facteur de justice, mais aussi un facteur de paix (un sujet sur lequel g

il rev40t des années plus tard, vers la fin de la seconde guerre mon -
diale ). En outre, Kelsen admit que la réparation (des dommages maté -
riels ou immatériels) pouvait prendre différentes formes 41. S’agissant de
l’obligation de réparation, le célèbre dictum formulé par la Cour per-

manente dans l’affaire relative à l’Usine de Chorzów (arrêt du 26 juillet
1927) n’échappa pas à son attention 4. Sans renoncer à sa conception
interétatique, il reconnut dans les cours qu’il donna à l’Acgadémie de

La Haye en 1953, au sujet de l’obligation de réparation, qu’« un tribu-
nal international d[evait] se borner à constater la violation d’une
obligation internationale et à ordonner la réparation du dommage
43
causé » .
28. En dépit des contraintes liées à la conception interétatiqueg tradi -
tionnelle, la raison d’être de la réparation fit l’objet d’gune attention crois-

39
Op. cit. supra note 38, p. 560.
40Voir H. Kelsen, Peace through Law, Chapel Hill, University of North Caro -
lina Press, 1944, p. 71-124 ; voir aussi H. KelseA paz pelo direito [1944], São Paulo,
Ed. Martins Fontes, 2011 (rééd.), p. 65-114.
41Voir op. cit. supra note 38, p. 555-560.
42Voir ibid., p. 550.
43 H. Kelsen, « Théorie du droit international public », Recueil des cours de l’Académie
de droit international de La Haye, vol. 84 (1953), p. 96, et voir p. 30.

37

6 CIJ1032.indb 71 26/11/13 09:37 358 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

ceptual framework was gradually to take place. The PCIJ much contrib -

uted to that, in referring, in the aforementioned Chorzów Factory case, to
the obligation of reparation as corresponding to a principle of interna ‑
tional law, and as conforming an “indispensable complement” to the

wrongful act, so as to efface all the consequences of this latter (i.e., the
provision of full reparation). In effect, support to the duty of repagration
came from distinct trends of opinion.

29. There were those who held, in the early twentieth century, that that
duty originated in the postulates of natural law. Amongst those was
Paul Fauchille, who, in 1922, lucidly pondered that the rules governing

the international responsibility of States, as to reparations,

“can be summed up in the natural law idea that any act causing injuryg
to others obliges whoever is responsible for that injury to make rep -

aration for it. This idea is applied in private law in the relations
between individuals ; there is no reason why it should not also be
applied in the relations between nations and between nations and
44
individuals.”

Depending on the circumstances of the cases, the duty of reparation for g
damages may thus be performed to the benefit of States, or else of indi -
viduals, whoever has been injured. Parallel to the trend of jusnaturalisgt

thinking on the matter, there were also those who beheld the duty of
reparation in all legal systems of (positive) law, without which thoseg sys -
tems would simply not exist 45.

30. In any case, attention began to be turned to the situation of the
victim, as beneficiary of reparation, and if there were treaties which prgo -
vided for reparation, this was so — unlike what Kelsen had assumed —
because such treaties acknowledged a pre-existing and well-established
46
principle of customary international law to the same effect . At the basis
of this principle, found in all national legal systems, was the “philgosophi -
cal idea” which “translates the natural law precept ‘neminem laedere’” 47.

Be that as it may, reparation was already widely acknowledged as a pos -
tulate of customary international law, whereby a “prestation” is owed by
the wrongdoer to the victim, as a reparation for the harm done, and the g
48
victim has the corresponding right to claim it . By the mid-twentieth cen-
tury, it was possible to state, as Hildebrando Accioly did, that . . .“[t]he

44
P. Fauchille, Traité de droit international public, Vol. I, Part I, Paris, Libr. A. Rous -
seau Ed., 1922, p. 515. [Translation by the Registry.]
45 Cf., e.g., L. Reitzer, La réparation comme conséquence de l’acte illicite en droit int▯er ‑
national, Paris, Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1938, p. 30.
46J. Personnaz, La réparation du préjudice en droit international public, Paris,
Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1939, pp. 53 and 60.
47 Ibid., p. 59. [Translation by the Registry.]
48 L. Reitzer, La réparation comme conséquence de l’acte illicite…,op. cit. supra note 45,
pp. 19, 23, 25, 48 and 213.

38

6 CIJ1032.indb 72 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 358

sante, et ses contours conceptuels se dessinèrent progressivement. Lag
Cour permanente y contribua beaucoup en reconnaissant, dans l’affaigre
relative à l’Usine de Chorzów dont j’ai fait mention plus haut, que l’obli-

gation de réparation constituait un principe de droit international et le
«pendant indispensable » de l’acte illicite, dont elle visait à effacer toutes
les conséquences (d’où la notion de réparation intégrale). De fait, les parg -

tisans de l’obligation de réparation étaient issus de diffégrents courants de
pensée.
29. Il y avait ceux qui, à l’aube du XX esiècle, estimaient que cette obli-
gation découlait des prémisses mêmes du droit naturel. Ainsi, egn 1922,

Paul Fauchille fit observer avec lucidité que, en matière de réparatigon, les
règles gouvernant la responsabilité internationale des Etats

«se résum[ai]ent dans l’idée de droit naturel que tout fait qui gcause à

autrui un dommage oblige celui par la faute duquel il est arrivé àg le
réparer. Cette idée est appliquée en droit privé dans les ragpports des
individus; il n’y a pas de motifs pour ne pas l’appliquer aussi dans les

relations que des collectivités ont entre elles-mêmes ou avec des gindi -
vidus. » 44

Selon les circonstances de l’affaire, l’obligation de réparatgion doit donc
être exécutée au profit de toute victime, qu’il s’agisse dg’un Etat ou d’une

personne physique. Parallèlement à cette vision jusnaturaliste desg choses,
il y avait également ceux qui tendaient à ancrer cette obligation gdans tous
les systèmes de droit (positif), estimant que ceux-ci ne pouvaient gtout sim -
45
plement exister sans elle .
30. En tout état de cause, l’attention commença à se porter sur gla situa -
tion de la victime, en tant que bénéficiaire de la réparation, egt, si certains

traités prévoyaient une réparation, c’était — contrairement aux supposi -
tions de Kelsen — parce qu’ils consacraient un principe de droit interna -
tional coutumier préexistant et déjà bien établi en ce sens 46. Ce principe,

qui se retrouve dans tous les systèmes juridiques internes, reposait gsur
l’«idée philosophique » qui « tradui[sait] le précepte du droit naturel
« neminem laedere » » 4. Quoi qu’il en soit, la réparation était déjà large -

ment reconnue en tant que postulat du droit international coutumier, à
savoir que tout fautif devait une « prestation» à sa victime pour remédier
au préjudice causé, la victime ayant en retour le droit de la régclamer 48. Au
e
milieu du XX siècle, il était possible de dire, comme HildebrandoAccioly,

44P. Fauchille, Traité de droit international public,vol. I, 1repartie, Paris, Libr.

A. 45usseau Ed., 1922, p. 515.
Voir par exemple L. Reitzer, La réparation comme conséquence de l’acte illicite en
droit international, Paris, Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1938, p. 30.
46J. Personnaz, La réparation du préjudice en droit international public, Paris,
Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1939, p. 53 et 60.
47Ibid., p. 59.
48L. Reitzer, La réparation comme conséquence de l’acte illicite…, op. cit. supra note 45,
p. 19, 23, 25, 48 et 213.

38

6 CIJ1032.indb 73 26/11/13 09:37 359 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

general principle of the duty of reparation for injury is accepted througgh-
49
out the international order” .
31. Yet, there was a long way to go, in the progressive development of
reparation for injuries resulting from international wrongs. The matter
continued to be studied — as, in the era of the United Nations, in the

long-standing work of the International Law Commission (mainly in the
period 1956-2001) —, largely in the framework of the relations among
States. With the gradual expansion of international legal personality (gand

capacity), ineluctably accompanied by the corresponding expansion of
international responsibility, the need was felt to consider reparation for
damages in other and distinct contexts, beyond that of the strict inter-State
framework of dispute-settlement, which became conceptually unsatisfac -

tory.

V. An Indissoluble Whole :
Breach of Internationagl Law and Compliance
with the Duty of Reparatgion for Damages

32. The domain of international responsibility is central to interna -
tional law, as without international responsibility the international leggal
system would not exist. The duty of full reparation is the prompt and

indispensable complement of an internationally wrongful act, so as to
cease all the consequences ensuing therefrom, and to secure respect for g
the international legal order 50. The duty of reparation within the realm of

international responsibility is attached to subjectivity in international law,
ensuing from the condition of being subject of rights and bearer of dutiges
in the law of nations (droit des gens) 51. The advent of the international
law of human rights and of contemporary international criminal law has

had the impact of clarifying this whole matter, leaving no doubts that
individuals — no longer only States — are also subjects of rights and
bearers of duties emanating directly from international law (the droit des
52
gens) .
33. The treatment to be dispensed to reparations was only to evolve,
and considerably so, with the advent of the international law of human
rights, being ineluctably victim‑oriented as it is. The imperative of compli -

ance with the duty of reparation was not to be limited to the avoidance gof
sanctions or reprisals (as propounded by Kelsen, supra) at inter-State
level. Beyond that advantage stood, in the domain of juridical epistemolg -

49 H. Accioly, “Principes généraux de la responsabilité internatiognale d’après la doctrine
et la jurisprudence”, Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye,
Vol. 96, 1959, p. 415. [Translation by the Registry.]
50 C. Cepelka, Les conséquences juridiques du délit en droit international contem▯porain,
Prague, Universita Karlova, 1965, pp. 15, 17-18, 21-22, 60-61 and 79.
51 Ibid., pp. 15 and 53.
52
A. A. Cançado Trindade, Evolution du droit international au droit des gens — L’accès
des particuliers à la justice internationale :le regard d’un juge, Paris, Pedone, 2008, pp. 1-187.

39

6 CIJ1032.indb 74 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 359

que « [l]e principe général du devoir de réparation des dommages [égtait]
49
partout accepté dans l’ordre international » .
31. Pourtant, le développement progressif de la notion de réparation
pour les préjudices résultant de faits internationalement illicitegs n’en était
qu’à ses prémices. La question continua d’être étudiége — notamment,

à l’époque des Nations Unies, par la Commission du droit international
dans ses travaux (surtout pendant la période 1956-2001) —, le plus
souvent sous l’angle des relations entre Etats. Face à l’expansgion progres -

sive de la personnalité (et de la capacité) juridique internationale, qui
entraîna inéluctablement celle de la responsabilité internationale, il se
révéla nécessaire d’envisager la répa ration des dommages dans d’autres
contextes et de sortir du cadre strictement interétatique du règlement des

différends, qui avait atteint ses limites sur le plan conceptuel.

V. Le tout indissoluble fogrmé par la violation
du droit internationagl et l’exécution
de l’obligation de répagrer les dommages causégs

32. Le domaine de la responsabilité internationale occupe une place
centrale en droit international, puisque le système juridique internagtional
tout entier repose sur la notion de responsabilité. Pendant automatique et

indispensable de tout acte illicite international, l’obligation de régparation
intégrale vise à mettre fin à l’ensemble des conséquences gd’un tel acte et à
assurer le respect de l’ordre juridique international 50. Dans le domaine de

la responsabilité internationale, l’obligation de réparation est liée à la qua -
lité de sujet de droit international, c’est-à-dire qu’elle dgécoule du fait d’être
titulaire de droits et d’obligations en droit des gens 51. L’avènement du
droit international des droits de l’homme et du droit international pgénal

moderne a eu pour effet d’éclaircir la situation en la matière : il ne fait
aujourd’hui plus aucun doute que les personnes physiques — et non plus
uniquement les Etats — sont elles aussi titulaires de droits et d’obligations
52
qui émanent directement du droit international (le droit des gens) .
33. La conception de la réparation ne pouvait qu’évoluer, et considéra -
blement, avec l’avènement du droit international des droits de l’ghomme, qui
est naturellement axé sur les victimes. Exécuter l’obligation de réparation

n’était pas seulement impératif pour éviter que des sanctiongs ou des mesures
de représailles ne soient prises au niveau interétatique (ainsi qgu’avancé par
Kelsen,supra). Par-delà cet avantage, il était également impératif, sur le plan

49H. Accioly, « Principes généraux de la responsabilité internationale d’aprgès la
doctrine et la jurisprudence », Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de
La Haye, vol. 96 (1959), p. 415.
50 C. Cepelka, Les conséquences juridiques du délit en droit international contem▯porain,
Prague, Universita Karlova, 1965, p. 15, 17-18, 21-22, 60-61 et 79.
51 Ibid., p. 15 et 53.
52
A. A. Cançado Trindade, Evolution du droit international au droit des gens — L’accès
des particuliers à la justice internationale : le regard d’un juge, Paris, Pedone, 2008, p. 1-187.

39

6 CIJ1032.indb 75 26/11/13 09:37 360 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

ogy, the imperative of the realization of justice. The original breach or
violation of international law (irrespective of who committed it) cameg to
be regarded as forming an indissoluble whole with the compliance with the
duty of reparation (irrespective of who is its beneficiary).

34. This is so, irrespective of the circumstances of the case, as that
imperative, in my understanding, touches on the foundations of interna -
tional law. It was soon to meet with judicial recognition of the
Hague Court (both the PCIJ and the ICJ). Thus, as early as in 1927-1928,

in the [aforementioned] Chorzów Factory case, the PCIJ invoked a pre -
cept of customary international law, reflecting a fundamental principlge of
international law, to the effect that “the breach of an engagement ginvolves
an obligation to make reparation in an adequate form. Reparation there -
fore is the indispensable complement of a failure to apply a convention.g” 53

And the PCIJ added that such reparation “must, as far as possible, wigpe
out all the consequences of the illegal act and re-establish the situatigon
which would, in all probability, have existed if that act had not been
committed” 5. Furthermore — as I recalled in a recent dissenting opin -

ion (in this Court’s Judgment of 3 February 2012),
“In the present case concerning the Jurisdictional Immunities of the

State, (. . .) [t]he State’s obligation of reparation ineluctably ensues
therefrom, as the ‘indispensable complement’ of those grave breachges.
As the jurisprudence constante of the old PCIJ further indicated,
already in the inter-war period, that obligation is governed by inter -

national law in all its aspects (e.g., scope, forms, beneficiaries) ; com-
pliance with it shall not be subject to modification or suspension by
the respondent State, through the invocation of provisions, interpre -
tations or alleged difficulties of its own domestic law (Jurisdiction of

the Courts of Danzig, Advisory Opinion, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series B,
No. 15, pp. 26-27; Greco‑Bulgarian “Communities”,Advisory Opinion,
1930, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 17, pp. 32 and 35 ; Free Zones of Upper
Savoy and the District of Gex, Judgment, 1932, P.C.I.J., Series A/B,
No. 46, p. 167 ; Treatment of Polish Nationals and Other Persons of

Polish Origin or Speech in the Danzig Territory, Advisory Opinion,
1932, P.C.I.J., Series A/B, No. 44, p. 24).” (Jurisdictional Immuni ‑
ties of the State (Germany v. Italy : Greece intervening), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), p. 265, para. 241.)

35. The breach of international law and the ensuing compliance with
the duty of reparation for injuries are two sides of the same coin ; they

form an indissoluble whole, which cannot at all be disrupted by an undue
invocation of State sovereignty or State immunity. This is the view whicgh
I have sustained in my dissenting opinion in the recent case on the Juris ‑
dictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. Italy : Greece intervening)

53Factory at Chorzów, Jurisdiction, Judgment No. 8, 1927, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 9p,. 21.
54Factory at Chorzów, Merits, Judgment No. 13, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 17, pp. 29
and 47-48.

40

6 CIJ1032.indb 76 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 360

de l’épistémologie juridique, de faire en sorte que justice soit rendue. La vio -
lation initiale du droit international (quel qu’en soit l’auteur)g fut progres-si

vement considérée comme formant un tout indissoluble avec l’exécution du
devoir de réparation (quel qu’en soit le bénéficiaire).
34. Tel est le cas dans toutes les affaires, quelles que soient les circongs -
tances, cet impératif touchant selon moi aux fondements mêmes du dgroit

international. La Cour de LaHaye le reconnut très vite (tant sous sa forme
actuelle qu’à l’époque de sa devancière). Ainsi, dès gles années 1927-1928,
dans l’affaire (susmentionnée) relative à l’Usine de Chorzów, la Cour per -
manente invoqua un précepte du droit international coutumier reflégtant

un principe fondamental du droit international, à savoir que « la violation
d’un engagement entraîne l’obligation de réparer dans une fogrme adé -
quate. La réparation est donc l’indispensable pendant d’un manqguement à
l’application d’une convention. » 53 La Cour permanente ajouta que la

réparation «d[evait], autant que possible, effacer toutes les conséquences
de l’acte illicite et rétablir l’état qui aurait vraisemblabglement existé si ledit
acte n’avait pas été commis » 54. En outre, comme je l’ai rappelé dans une
récente opinion dissidente (jointe à l’arrêt de la Cour du g3 février 2012),

«Dans la présente affaire concernant les Immunités juridictionnelles

de l’Etat … [l]’obligation de l’Etat de réparer en découle nécessaire -
ment, en tant que « complément indispensable » de ces violations
graves. Comme l’indique en outre la jurisprudence constante de la
CPJI, déjà entre les deux guerres, cette obligation est régie pgar le

droit international dans tous ses aspects (par exemple quant à sa por -
tée, ses formes et ses bénéficiaires) ; son exécution ne saurait être
soumise à modification ou à suspension par l’Etat défendeur egn invo -
quant les dispositions, interprétations ou difficultés touchant sgon

droit interne (Compétence des tribunaux de Dantzig, avis consultatif,
1928, C.P.J.I. série B n o 15, p. 26-27; « Communautés » grécob ‑ulgares,
avis consultatif, 1930, C.P.J.I. série B n o17, p. 32 et 35 ; Zones
franches de la Haute‑Savoie et du Pays de Gex, arrêt, 1932, C.P.J.I.
o
série A/B n 46, p. 167; Traitement des nationaux polonais et des
autres personnes d’origine ou de langue polonaise dans le territoire de
Dantzig, avis consultatif, 1932, C.P.J.I. série A/B n o 44, p. 24). »
(Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie ; Grèce

(intervenant)), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 265, par. 241.)

35. La violation du droit international et l’obligation de réparation gqui
en découle sont deux faces d’une même médaille : elles forment un tout
indissoluble, et l’invocation inconsidérée de la souveraineté ou de l’gimmu -
nité de l’Etat n’y peut rien changer. Tel est le point de vue qgue j’ai exprimé

dans mon opinion dissidente en l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridic ‑
tionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie; Grèce (intervenant))(arrêt,

53 Usine de Chorzów, compétence, arrêt n 8, 1927, C.P.J.I. série A n 9, p. 21.
54 Usine de Chorzów, fond, arrêt n 13, 1928, C.P.J.I. série A n 17, p. 29 et p. 47-48.

40

6 CIJ1032.indb 77 26/11/13 09:37 361 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I)), and which I again sustain in the
present Judgment of the Diallo case : the reparations are owed by the
responsible State concerned to the individuals victimized, as illustrategd, in
my perception, by both cases. The individual right to reparation is

well-established in international human rights law, as demonstrated by
the considerable case law of the IACtHR and the ECHR on the matter.
36. Contemporary international tribunals cannot remain oblivious of
such significant development in recent years. As I deemed it fit to warn ign

my aforementioned dissenting opinion in the recent Judgment on the
Jurisdictional Immunities of the State, it would be without foundation to
keep on claiming that the regime of reparations for breaches of human
rights would exhaust itself at the inter-State level, “to the detriment of the
individuals” concerned. After all, the individual victims of those vigola -

tions “are the titulaires of the right to reparation”, and

“[a]n interpretation of the regime of reparations as belonging purelyg
to the inter-State level would furthermore equate to a complete mis -
conception of the position of the individual in the international legal g
order. In my own conception, ‘the human person has emancipated

herself from her own State, with the acknowledgement of her rights,
which are prior and superior to this latter’.” 55(I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I),
p. 269, para. 252.)

Thus, the regime of reparations for human rights violations could not
exhaust itself at the inter-State level, leaving the individual at the egnd
without any reparation, and at the mercy of the entire discretion of theg

wrongdoing State.
37. The right of access to justice lato sensu encompasses not only the
access to a competent tribunal (at national or international level), bgut
also the right — and its exercise — to an effective remedy and the guar -

antees of the due process of law, so as to have one’s case fairly heagrd and
adjudicated upon. It further comprises the reparations owed to the vic -
tims (whenever they are due to them), in the full and faithful compliagnce
with, or execution of, the judgments at issue. Thus properly conceptual -

ized, the right of access to justice forms part of international protectgion
itself.
38. In the present domain of reparations, as in others, contemporary
international law, the jus gentium of our days, has at last liberated itself
from the chains of statism. Human rights constitute a basic foundation ogf

the international legal order, with the reassuring advent of the new prig -
macy of the raison d’humanité over the raison d’Etat. States are aware that
nowadays they are bound to respond for the treatment they dispense to

55A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Access of Individuals to International Justop. cit.
supra note 30, p. 209; A. A. Cançado Trindade, Evolution du droit international au droit des
gens — L’accès des particuliers à la justice internationale : Le regard d’un juge, op. cit. supra
note 52, pp. 29 and 146.

41

6 CIJ1032.indb 78 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 361

C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I)), et que je défends à nouveau en l’espèce : l’Etat
responsable doit réparation aux victimes individuelles, comme le montgrent
selon moi ces deux affaires. Le droit de l’individu à réparatgion est bien
établi en droit international des droits de l’homme — il suffit de lire

l’abondante jurisprudence développée en la matière par les Cgours intera-
méricaine et européenne des droits de l’homme.
36. Les juridictions internationales modernes ne peuvent ignorer plus
longtemps les avancées si importantes de ces dernières années. gPour réité -

rer la mise en garde que j’estimais nécessaire de formuler dans mogn opi -
nion dissidente précitée en l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles
de l’Etat, il serait insensé de s’obstiner à prétendre que le régime de répa -
ration applicable aux violations des droits de l’homme s’épuiseg au niveau
interétatique, « au détriment des personnes » concernées. Ce sont, après

tout, les individus victimes de ces violations qui sont les « titulaires du
droit à réparation », et

«[i]nterpréter le régime des réparations comme relevant exclusivgement
du domaine interétatique traduirait en outre une conception totale -
ment erronée de la situation de l’individu dans l’ordre juridiqgue inte-r
national. Selon ma propre conception, « la personne humaine s’est

émancipée de son propre Etat, avec la reconnaissance de ses droitsg, qui
sont antérieurs et supérieurs à ce dernier».» 55 (C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I),
p. 269, par. 252.)

Partant, lorsque des violations de droits de l’homme sont en jeu, le grégime
de réparation ne saurait s’épuiser au niveau interétatique, glaissant en
définitive la personne victime privée de toute forme de réparatigon, com -

plètement à la merci de l’Etat fautif.
37. Le droit d’accès à la justice au sens large comprend non seulemgent
le droit d’avoir accès à une juridiction compétente (au nivgeau national ou
international), mais aussi le droit à un recours effectif et aux ggaranties

d’une procédure régulière, qui doit pouvoir être exercég afin que toute
cause puisse être entendue et jugée de manière équitable. Ilg comprend en
outre la réparation due aux victimes (le cas échéant), pour rgespecter ou
exécuter pleinement et scrupuleusement les décisions rendues. Dûgment

conceptualisé, le droit d’accès à la justice fait partie de gla protection inter -
nationale elle-même.
38. Dans le présent domaine de la réparation, comme dans d’autres, gle
droit international contemporain, ou jus gentium des temps modernes,
s’est enfin libéré des chaînes de l’immobilisme. Les droitgs de l’homme

constituent un pilier fondamental de l’ordre juridique international,g et il
est rassurant de constater que la raison d’humanité l’emporte agujourd’hui
sur la raison d’Etat. Les Etats sont conscients d’être désorgmais comp -

55A. A. Cançado Trindade, The Access of Individuals to International Justop. cit.
supra note 30, p. 209; A. A. Cançado Trindade, Evolution du droit international au droit des
gens — L’accès des particuliers à la justice internationale : le regard d’un juge, op. cit. supra
note 52, p. 29 et 146.

41

6 CIJ1032.indb 79 26/11/13 09:37 362 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

human beings under their respective jurisdictions. The present Diallo
case, decided by the ICJ on the basis of human rights treaties, bears wigt-

ness of this reassuring evolution.

39. Within this humanized outlook, the reparatio (from the Latin repa‑
rare, “to dispose again”) ceases all the effects of the breaches ofg interna -
tional law (the violations of human rights) at issue, and provides

satisfaction (as a form of reparation) to the victims ; by means of the
reparations, the law re-establishes the legal order broken by those viola -
tions — a legal order erected on the basis of the full respect for the righgts
inherent to the human person. The full reparatio does not “erase” the
human rights violations perpetrated, but rather ceases all its effectsg, thus

at least avoiding the aggravation of the harm already done, besides restgor -
ing the integrity of the legal order, as well as that of the victims.

40. One has to be aware that it has become commonplace in legal cir -
cles — as is the conventional wisdom of the legal profession — to repeat

that the duty of reparation, conforming a “secondary obligation”, gcomes
after the breach of international law. This is not my conception ; when
everyone seems to be thinking alike, no one is actually thinking at all.g In
my own conception, breach and reparation go together, conforming an
indissoluble whole: the latter is the indispensable consequence or comple -

ment of the former. The duty of reparation is a fundamental obligation,
and this becomes clearer if we look into it from the perspective of the
centrality of the victims, which is my own. The indissoluble whole that g
violation and reparation conform admits no disruption by means of the
undue invocation, by the responsible State, of its sovereignty or its imgmu -
nities, so as to evade the indispensable consequence of the international

breaches incurred into : the reparations due to the victims.

VI. The Centrality of the Vicgtims

in Human Rights Protectigon,
and Its Implications fogr Reparations

1. The Central Position of the Victims

41. International law itself, in recognizing rights inherent to the human
person, disauthorized the archaic positivist dogma which purported, in agn

authoritarian way, to reduce those rights to the ones “granted” org “con -
ceded” by the State. Contrariwise, the recognition of the individual gas a
subject of both domestic and international law comes at last to give an g
ethical content to the norms of both legal orders : domestic and interna -
tional. It further acknowledges the need for all States, in order to avoid

new violations of human rights, to answer for the way they treat human
beings under their respective jurisdictions, and to provide reparation fgor

42

6 CIJ1032.indb 80 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 362

tables du traitement qu’ils dispensent aux êtres humains placésg sous leur
juridiction. La présente affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, que la Cour a tran-

chée sur la base de traités relatifs aux droits de l’homme, tégmoigne de
cette évolution rassurante.
39. Dans cette optique humanisée, la reparatio (du verbe latin reparare,
«rétablir») met un terme à tous les effets des violations du droit interna -
tional (des droits de l’homme) qui sont en cause, et elle donne satgisfaction

(une forme de réparation) aux victimes ; grâce à elle, le droit rétablit
l’ordre juridique mis à mal par ces violations — un ordre juridique qui
repose sur le plein respect des droits inhérents à la personne humgaine. La
réparation intégrale n’« efface» pas les violations des droits de l’homme
qui ont été perpétrées, mais elle permet tout au moins, en egn faisant cesser

les effets, d’éviter l’aggravation du tort déjà causég tout en assurant le réta-
blissement tant de l’ordre juridique que des victimes dans leur situagtion
antérieure.
40. Force est de constater qu’il est devenu courant dans les cercles jurig -
diques, où s’expriment les conceptions généralement admises gpar les pro-

fessionnels du droit, d’entendre que l’obligation de réparationg, perçue
comme une « obligation secondaire », vient après la violation du droit
international. Ce n’est pas ainsi que je conçois les choses ; une pensée
unique traduit en fait un manque de réflexion. De mon point de vue,g la
violation et la réparation vont de pair, formant un tout indissolubleg :

celle-ci est la conséquence ou le pendant indispensable de celle-làg. L’obli -
gation de réparation est fondamentale, ce qui devient plus flagrant encore
dès lors que l’on se place dans une optique centrée sur les vicgtimes, optique
qui est la mienne. Le tout indissoluble que forme le couple violation/
réparation résiste aux coups de bélier de l’Etat invoquant àg mauvais
escient sa souveraineté ou ses immunités pour se soustraire à la consé -

quence inévitable de violations internationales engageant sa responsagbi -
lité: la réparation des dommages causés aux victimes.

VI. La place centrale desg victimes

dans le domaine de la pgrotection des droits dge l’homme
et les conséquences qgui en découlent en matgière de réparation

1. La place centrale des victimes

41. Le droit international lui-même, en reconnaissant les droits inhérentgs
à la personne humaine, a sonné le glas du dogme positiviste archaïgque qui

tendait à réduire de manière autoritaire ces droits à ceux qgue l’Etat voulait
bien «accorder» ou «concéder». Au contraire, la reconnaissance de l’indi -
vidu en tant que sujet de droit, tant sur le plan interne qu’à l’géchelle inte-r
nationale, confère enfin une dimension morale aux normes des deux ordrges
juridiques. Elle confirme également que tous les Etats — pour éviter de

nouvelles violations des droits de l’homme — doivent rendre compte de la
manière dont ils traitent les êtres humains placés sous leur jugridiction et

42

6 CIJ1032.indb 81 26/11/13 09:37 363 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

the harm done to them. Rights, being inherent to the human person, and
anterior and superior to the State, are not reduced to those which the

State is prepared to “grant” or “concede” to persons under igts jurisdic -
tion, at its sole discretion.

42. The subjects of rights and the beneficiaries of reparations (supra),
under human rights treaties, are the individuals. The centrality of their
position in the present domain of protection is well-established. This

responds to a true need of the international community itself, which seeks
nowadays to be guided by superior common values. Such need was intui -
tively perceived and heralded, some decades ago, in the first half of theg
56
twentieth century, in a pioneering way, by André N. Mandelstam ,
Georges Scelle 57 and Charles de Visscher . In our times, the growing
acknowledgment, by the international legal order, of the importance of

reparations to victims of human rights violations, is a sign of its matugrity,
even though there remains a long way to go, to take into other areas theg
contribution of the international law of human rights. In this way, the g

historical process of the humanization of international law, intuitively
detected and propounded, some decades ago, by a generation of jusinter -

nationalists with a humanist formation (such as, e.g., M. Bourquin,
A. Favre, S. Sucharitkul and S. Glaser) 5, will keep on advancing 6.

43. In fact, no one would, in sane conscience, challenge today that
individuals are subjects of rights and bearers of duties which emanate
directly from international law, and that States which violate their rigghts

are bound to provide them reparation for the damages. In recent decades,g
the international community itself has reckoned the need to provide pro -
tection to the rights of the human beings who compose it (grouped underg

distinct forms of socio-political organization, either the State or others),

56
A. N. Mandelstam, Les droits internationaux de l’homme, Paris, Editions internatio-
nales, 1931, pp. 95-96, 103 and 138.
57G. Scelle, Précis de droit des gens — Principes et systématique, Part I, Paris,
Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1932 (reimpr. CNRS, 1984), p. 48.
58 Ch. de Visscher, “Rapport : ‘Les droits fondamentaux de l’homme, base d’une

restauration du droit international’”, Annuaire de l’Institut de droit international (1947),
pp. 3 and 9.
59 Cf. M. Bourquin, “L’humanisation du droit des gens”, La technique et les prin ‑
cipes du droit public — Etudes en l’honneur de Georges ScelleVol. I, Paris, LGDJ, 1950,
pp. 24-38; A. Favre, “Les principes généraux du droit, fonds commun du droit des ggens”,
Recueil d’études de droit international en hommage à Paul Gugge▯nheim, Geneva, IUHEI,
1968, pp. 369-390 ; S. Sucharitkul, “L’humanité en tant qu’élément contribuant au

développement progressif du droit international contemporain”, L’avenir du droit inter‑
national dans un monde multiculturel/The Future of International Law in a Multicultural
World (Colloque de La Haye de 1983, ed. R.-J. Dupuy), The Hague, Nijhoff/Académie
de droit international de La Haye/UNU, 1984, pp. 418-427 ; S. Glaser, “La protection
internationale des valeurs humaines”, 60 Revue générale de droit international public (1957),
pp. 211-241.
60 Cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “International Law for Humankind : Towards a New

Jus Gentium — General Course on Public International Law, Part II”, Recueil des cours de
l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, Vol. 317, 2005, pp. 19-27 and 269-282.

43

6 CIJ1032.indb 82 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 363

leur apporter réparation pour les dommages qui leur sont causés. Igl s’agit là
de droits inhérents à la personne humaine qui sont antérieurs egt supérieurs

à l’Etat, et qui ne se limitent pas à ceux que ce dernier veut gbienac «corder»
ou «concéder» à ses ressortissants, à son entière discrétion.

42. Les titulaires des droits et les bénéficiaires de la réparation (supra)
sont, en vertu des traités relatifs aux droits de l’homme, les pergsonnes phy -
siques. Leur place centrale dans le domaine de la protection est bien éta -

blie. Elle répond à un véritable besoin de la communauté internationale
elle-même, qui aspire aujourd’hui à suivre les valeurs universeglles d’intérêt
supérieur. Ce besoin avait été perçu de manière intuitiveg et proclamé, il y
e
a quelques décennies, dans la première moitié du XX siècle, par une géné-
ration de juristes précurseurs (André N. Mandelstam 56, Georges Scelle 57
et Charles de Visscher 58). De nos jours, la reconnaissance croissante, dans

l’ordre juridique international, de l’importance d’offrir régparation aux vic -
times de violations des droits de l’homme est un signe de maturitég, même
s’il reste fort à faire pour répercuter dans d’autres domainges la contribu -

tion du droit international des droits de l’homme. Ainsi, le processus his -
torique d’humanisation du droit international, intuitivement décelé et

défendu, voici plusieurs dizaines d’années, par une autre gégnération de
juristes formés à l’école humaniste (comme M. Bourquin, A. Favre,
S. Sucharitkul et S. Glaser) 59, continuera de suivre son cours . 60

43. En fait, nul ne peut décemment contester aujourd’hui que les per -
sonnes sont titulaires de droits et d’obligations qui émanent directement
du droit international, et que les Etats qui violent leurs droits sont tenus

de leur offrir réparation. Ces dernières dizaines d’annéesg, la communauté
internationale elle-même a reconnu la nécessité de protéger les droits des
êtres humains qui la composent (et qui vivent groupés dans diffgérentes

formes d’organisations sociopolitiques, dont l’Etat), en prêtagnt une atten -

56
A. N. Mandelstam, Les droits internationaux de l’homme, Paris, Editions internatio -
nales, 1931, p. 95-96, 103 et 138.
57 G. Scelle, Précis de droit des gens — Principes et systématique, 1repartie, Paris,
Libr. Rec. Sirey, 1932 (réimpr. CNRS, 1984), p. 48.
58 Ch. de Visscher, « Rapport sur « Les droits fondamentaux de l’homme, base d’une

restauration du droit international » », Annuaire de l’Institut de droit international, 1947,
p. 3 et 9.
59Voir M. Bourquin, «L’humanisation du droit des gens »,La technique et les principes
du droit public — Etudes en l’honneur de Georges Scelle,vol. I, Paris, LGDJ, 1950, p. 24-38;
A. Favre, « Les principes généraux du droit, fonds commun du droit des gens », Recueil
d’études de droit international en hommage à Paul Guggenheim, Genève, IUHEI, 1968,
p. 369-390 ; S. Sucharitkul, « L’humanité en tant qu’élément contribuant au développeg -

ment progressif du droit international contemporain », L’avenir du droit international dans
un monde multiculturel (dir. publ., R.-J. Dupuy), colloque de La Haye de 1983, La Haye,
Nijhoff/Académie de droit international de La Haye/UNU, 1984, p. 418-427; S. Glaser,
«La protection internationale des valeurs humaines », Revue générale de droit international
public, tome 60 (1957), p. 211-241.

60Voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, « International Law for Humankind :Towards a New

Jus Gentium — General Course on Public International Law, Part II »,Recueil des cours de
l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, vol. 317 (2005), p. 19-27 et 269-282.

43

6 CIJ1032.indb 83 26/11/13 09:37 364 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

with particular attention to those — individually or in groups — who find

themselves in a situation of special vulnerability.
44. Even if, in certain cases, the international legal capacity of some
individuals undergoes certain contingencies in view of their juridical ogr

existential condition (children, elderly persons, stateless persons, amgong
others), this in no way affects the essence and fundamental unity of gtheir
legal personality. They remain subjects of rights emanating from the jus

gentium, and their unaffected international leg61 personality is the con -
crete expression of their inherent dignity . They cannot be mistreated by
the holders of the public power of the State, and, in case they are, repgara -
tion is owed to them. The international legal personality of the human

person and the protection of the law subsist intact, irrespective of hisg or
her juridical or existential condition ; and his or her personality imposes
limits to the power of the State.

2. The Implications for Reparations

45. The implications of the international subjectivity of individuals for

reparations due to them were to challenge the postulates of traditional g
doctrine of State responsibility, and in particular its unsatisfactory agnd
artificial inter-State outlook. Thus, towards the end of the last century, in

the mid-1980s, the Cuban jurist F. V. García-Amador criticized the tradi -
tional outlook (reminiscent of E. de Vattel) of international responsibility
which viewed this latter as a “strictly ‘inter-State’ legal relgationship” ; he

retorted that that traditional approach was not appropriate to deal withg
claims for reparations to damages to individuals, such as cases of unlawg -
ful detention followed by arbitrary expulsion 62. The damage — he
added — is done to the individual himself (and not to his State of nation -

ality), who is subjected to the “unnecessary humiliation” of the expul -
sion .3

46. In sum, it is a damage done to the human person and not to the
State. It is that damage that is taken as “the measure” for the determina -
tion of the reparation due 64, i.e., the damage done to the individual con -

cerned. It is incongruous to approach this matter from a strict “integr-State”
outlook. In this respect, García-Amador rightly observed : “The artificial -
ity, and consequently also the inconsistencies and contradictions, of the

traditional doctrine become clearly apparent when one considers 65e cri -
terion generally applied for measuring the reparation.”

61
IACtHR, advisory opinion OC-17/02 (of 28 August 2002), on the Juridical Condi ‑
tion and Human Rights of the Child, concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade,
paras. 32-34.
62F. V. García-Amador, The Changing Law of International Claims, Vol. II, N.Y./
London, Oceana Publs., 1984, pp. 560 and 584-586.
63Ibid., pp. 563-564.
64Ibid., p. 562.
65Ibid.

44

6 CIJ1032.indb 84 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 364

tion toute particulière à ceux qui, individuellement ou collectivegment, se

trouvent dans un réel état de vulnérabilité.
44. Même si, dans certains cas, la capacité juridique internationale dge
personnes peut varier selon leur situation juridique ou existentielle
(enfants, personnes âgées ou apatrides, par exemple), ces continggences

n’enlèvent rien à l’essence ni à la cohésion fondamentgale de la personna -
lité juridique des intéressés. Ces personnes restent titulairesg de droits ém- a
nant du jus gentium, et leur personnalité juridique internationale, inaltérée,
61
est l’expression concrète de leur dignité inhérente . Elles ne peuvent être
maltraitées par des dépositaires de l’autorité publique de lg’Etat et, lors -
qu’elles le sont, elles ont droit à réparation. La personnalité juridique
internationale de la personne humaine et la protection du droit demeurengt

intactes, quelle que soit la situation juridique ou existentielle de l’gindi -
vidu, et cette personnalité pose certaines limites au pouvoir de l’gEtat.

2. Les conséquences qui en découlent en matière de réparation

45. Les implications de cette subjectivité internationale des individus
en matière de réparation allaient remettre en cause les postulats gsur les -

quels reposait la doctrine traditionnelle de la responsabilité étagtique et,
tout particulièrement, la perspective interétatique peu satisfaisagnte et arti -
ficielle dans laquelle elle se plaçait. Ainsi, vers la fin du siècleg dernier, au

milieu des années 1980, le juriste cubain F. V. García-Amador critiqua la
perspective traditionnelle de la responsabilité internationale (inspgirée
de E. de Vattel) qui faisait de celle-ci une « relation juridique strictement
«interétatique»». Cette approche traditionnelle n’était selon lui pas

appropriée pour traiter les demandes de réparation de dommages causés
à des individus, tels que les cas de détention illicite suivie d’gune expulsion
arbitraire 62. Les dommages — ajoutait-il — sont causés à l’individu lui-

même (et non à l’Etat dont il est ressortis63nt), individu qugi est soumis à
«l’humiliation inutile» de l’expulsion .
46. En somme, le dommage est causé à la personne humaine et non à
l’Etat, et c’est ce dommage — causé à l’individu concerné — qui fournit
64
«la mesure » aux fins de déterminer le montant de la réparation due . Il
est absurde d’aborder cette question d’un strict point de vue « inter-
étatique». A cet égard, García-Amador a très justement fait observerg ce

qui suit : « Le caractère artificiel et, partant, incohérent et contradictoire, g
de la doctrine traditionnelle devient clairement évident lorsqu’ong se penche
sur le critère généralement appliqué pour mesurer la répagration.» 65

61CIADH, Condition juridique et droits humains de l’enfant, avis consultatif OC-17/02
du 28 août 2002, opinion individuelle de M. le juge Cançado Trindade, par. 32-34.

62F. V. García-Amador, The Changing Law of International Claims, vol. II, New York/
Londres, Oceana Publications, 1984, p. 560 et 584-586.
63Ibid., p. 563-564.
64
65Ibid., p. 562.
Ibid.

44

6 CIJ1032.indb 85 26/11/13 09:37 365 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

47. The UN International Law Commission (ILC) itself, in the 2001
Report on its work on the international responsibility of a State, saw it fit
to recall, in addressing the obligation “to make full reparation for the

injury caused by the internationally wrongful act”, the possibility tghat

“an internationally wrongful act may involve legal consequences in
the relations between the State responsible for that act and persons
or entities other than States. This follows from Article 1, which covers

all international obligations of the State and not only those owed to
other States. Thus State responsibility extends, for example, to human
rights violations and other breaches of international law where the
66
primary beneficiary of the obligation breached is not a State.”

The ILC thus expressly reckoned that the international responsibility ofg a
State “may accrue directly to any person or entity other than a Stateg, and
67
Article 33 makes this clear” .

48. As disclosed by the present Diallo case, one is, in sum, faced with a

damage done to an individual. He (and not his State of origin) is the gsub -
ject of the rights breached, he suffered unlawful detention and arbitrgary
expulsion (from the State of residence), he is the subject of the corrge -

sponding right to reparation, and the beneficiary thereof. His case was
originally brought before this Court by his State of nationality (in thge
exercise of diplomatic protection), but, in its decision on the merits g(Judg -

ment of 30 November 2010), the Court made clear that the applicable law
was the international law of human rights, concerned with the rights of g
human beings and not at all of States. The cas d’espèce, further clarified

in this regard by the present Judgment on reparations, bears witness of
the reassuring historical process, presently in course, of the humanization
of international law — as I have been pointing out and supporting since
the 1990s 68.

66
ILC, Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its 53rd Session
(2001), N.Y., UN, 2001, p. 214.
67Ibid.
68Cf., to this effect, my earlier individual opinions in the IACtHR (19g98 until 2003),
namely : IACtHR, case Castillo Petruzzi and Others v. Peru (preliminary objections, judg -
ment of 4 September 1998), concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, paras. 6-7 ;
IACtHR, advisory opinion No. 16 of the Right to Information on Consular Assistance in

the Framework of the Guarantees of the Due Process of Law (1 October 1999), concurring
opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, paras. 34-35 ;IACtHR, case of the Haitians and Domi‑
nicans of Haitian Origin in the Dominican Republic (provisional measures of protection,
resolution of 18 August 2000), concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, para. 12 ;
IACtHR, advisory opinion No. 17 on the Juridical Condition and Human Rights of the
Child (28 August 2002), concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, paras. 66-67
and 71 ; IACtHR, advisory opinion No. 18 on the Juridical Condition and Rights of Un‑
documented Migrants (17 September 2003), concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade,

45

6 CIJ1032.indb 86 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 365

47. La Commission du droit international de l’ONU (« CDI») a elle-
même, dans son rapport de 2001 consacré à ses travaux sur la regsponsa -

bilité internationale des Etats, jugé opportun de rappeler, à pgropos de
l’obligation «de réparer intégralement le préjudice causé par le fait inter -
nationalement illicite», la possibilité

«qu’un fait internationalement illicite puisse entraîner des conségquences

juridiques dans les relations entre l’Etat responsable de ce fait et gdes
personnes ou des entités autres que des Etats. C’est ce qui décgoule de
l’article premier, qui vise toutes les obligations internationales de l’Etat

et non pas seulement celles qui sont dues à d’autres Etats. Ainsi, la
responsabilité des Etats s’étend par exemple aux violations desg droits de
l’homme et autres violations du droit international lorsque le béngéfi -
66
ciaire principal de l’obligation violée n’est pas un Etat» .

La CDI a ainsi expressément reconnu que la responsabilité internatgionale
d’un Etat « p[ouvait] faire naître directement [un droit] au profit d’une
personne ou d’une entité autre qu’un Etat et [que] l’articleg 33 l’indiqu[ait]
67
clairement » .
48. Dans la présente affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, nous avons en

somme affaire à un dommage causé à un individu. C’est cet individu, et
non l’Etat dont il est ressortissant, qui est le titulaire des droits violés
— c’est lui qui a subi la détention illicite et l’expulsion arbitgraire (de

l’Etat dont il était résident) — ainsi que du droit à réparation corres-
pondant, dont il est le bénéficiaire. Certes, son cas a initialemengt été
porté devant la Cour par l’Etat dont il est ressortissant (dans l’exercice de

la protection diplomatique), mais, dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu sur le fond
(le 30 novembre 2010), la Cour a précisé que le droit applicable était
le droit international des droits de l’homme, qui concerne les droits degs

êtres humains, en aucun cas ceux des Etats. Le cas d’espèce témoigne du
processus historique d’humanisation du droit international actuellement
en cours, processus rassurant que je n’ai de cesse de mettre en exergue et
68
de défendre depuis les années 1990 , et le présent arrêt sur les répa-
rations vient encore clarifier cet aspect.

66 Rapport de la Commission du droit international, 53 e session (2001), New York,
Nations Unies, 2001, p. 230.
67 Ibid., p. 231.
68 Voir, en ce sens, l’exposé des opinions individuelles que j’ai gprécédemment jointes (de

1998 à 2003) à des arrêts et avis rendus par la Cour interaméricaine des gdroits de l’homme,
à savoir : CIADH, affaire Castillo Petruzzi et autres c. Pérou, arrêt du 4 septembre 1998
(exceptions préliminaires), opinion individuelle de M. le juge Cançado Trindade, par. 6-7 ;
CIADH, Droit à l’information sur l’assistance consulaire dans le cadre▯ des garanties du droit
à une procédure régulière, avis consultatif 16 du 1 eroctobre 1999, opinion individuelle
de M. le juge Cançado Trindade, par. 34-35 ; CIADH, affaire des Haïtiens et Dominicains
d’origine haïtienne en République dominicaine, résolution du 18 août 2000 (mesures conser-

vatoires), opinion individuelle de M. le juge Cançado Trinoade, par. 12 ; CIADH, Condi‑
tion juridique et droits humains de l’enfant, avis consultat17 du 28 août 2002, opinion
individuelle de M. le juge Cançado Trindade, par. 66-67 et 71; CIADH, Condition juridique
et droits des migrants sans papiersavis consultatif n 18 du 17 septembre 2003, opinion

45

6 CIJ1032.indb 87 26/11/13 09:37 366 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

49. This is the situation, how it stands, in the present Diallo case,

resolved by the ICJ on the basis of the applicable treaties on the protegc -
tion of the rights of the human person. In other and entirely distinct sgitu-
ations (e.g., in territorial and boundary matters, in the regulation ofg

spaces, in diplomatic relations, among others) damage may be found to
have been done to the State. And in yet other circumstances (e.g., in sgitu -
ations of armed conflicts), damage may be found to have been done to

both the State and the human person. This is what happened, e.g., in the
case concerning Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (Demo ‑
cratic Republic of the Congo v. Uganda) (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005),
wherein the Court, in recalling that a State responsible for internationgal

wrongful acts is under the obligation to make full reparations for the
injury caused by those acts, added that, in the cas d’espèce, those acts
resulted in injury done to the Democratic Republic of the Congo “and to
69
persons on its territory” (ibid., p. 257, para. 259) . Circumstances vary
from case to case ; but at least they leave it clear that a strict inter-State
approach to the State’s compliance with the duty to provide reparatiogn,

irrespective of such circumstances, appears anachronistic and unsustain -
able.

3. The Distinct Forms of Reparation

50. It has been in the domain of international human rights protection
that reparations have been reckoned as comprising, in the light of the

general principle of neminem laedere, the restitutio in integrum (re-
establishment of the prior situation of the victim, whenever possible),g
in addition to the indemnizations, the rehabilitation, the satisfaction, angd
the guarantee of non-repetition of the acts or omissions in violation of

human rights. The duty of reparation, corresponding to a general princi -
ple, has found judicial recognition (supra), and support in legal doc -
trine . The duty of reparation for damages stands as the indispensable

paras. 27-28 ; there follow successive references to, and assertions of, the humanization of
international law, in my other individual opinions in the IACtHR, also fgrom 2004 to 2008.
For earlier writings, likewise followed by subsequent ones to the same egffect, cf., inter alia,
A. A. Cançado Trindade, “A Emancipação do Ser Humano como Sujeito do Direito gInter-
nacional e os Limites da Razão de Estado”, 6/7 Revista da Faculdade de Direito da Univer ‑
sidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (1998-1999), pp. 425-434; A. A. Cançado Trindade, “La
Humanización del Derecho Internacional y los Límites de la Razógn de Estado”, 40 Revista

da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade Federal de Minas GeraisBelo Horizonte/Brazil
(2001), pp. 11-23.

69And cf. also I.C.J Reports 2005, p. 278-279, paras. 342 and 344.
70Cf., inter alia, Bin Cheng, General Principles of Law as Applied by International
Courts and Tribunals, Cambridge University Press, 1994 (reprint), p. 23; J. A. Pastor
Ridruejo, La Jurisprudencia del Tribunal Internacional de La Haya — Sistematización
y Comentarios, Madrid, Edit. Rialp, 1962, p. 429 ; H. Wassgren, “Some Reflections
on Restitutio in Integrum Especially in the Practice of the European Court of Human
Rights”, 6 Finnish Yearbook of International Law, Helsinki (1995), pp. 575-595.

46

6 CIJ1032.indb 88 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 366

49. Telle est la situation en la présente affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo,
que la Cour a résolue sur la base des traités relatifs aux droits gde la per -
sonne humaine applicables. Dans d’autres situations totalement diffgé -

rentes (par exemple, dans des affaires territoriales ou frontalièrges, ou en
matière de réglementation des espaces ou de relations diplomatiquegs), il
peut être déclaré que le dommage a été causé à l’gEtat et, dans d’autres

situations encore (par exemple, en cas de conflit armé), qu’ilg a été causé à
la fois à l’Etat et à la personne humaine. C’est ce qui s’est prgoduit, par
exemple, dans l’affaire des Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo

(République démocratique du Congo c. Ouganda) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2005), dans laquelle la Cour, en rappelant qu’un Etat responsable de faitsg
internationalement illicites avait l’obligation de réparer en totaglité le pré -

judice causé par ces faits, a ajouté que, en l’espèce, ces faits avaient
entraîné un préjudice pour la République démocratique du gCongo, « ainsi
que pour des personnes présentes sur son territoire » (ibid., p. 257,
69
par. 259) . Les circonstances varient d’une affaire à une autre, mais il egst
en tout cas évident qu’une conception strictement interétatiqueg de l’obli -
gation de réparation mise à la charge de l’Etat, quelles que sogient ces

circonstances, semble aussi anachronique qu’indéfendable.

3. Les différentes formes de réparation

50. C’est dans le domaine de la protection internationale des droits de
l’homme qu’on en est venu à considérer, à la lumière dgu principe général

neminem laedere, que les réparations comprenaient la restitutio in integrum
(rétablissement, en tant que possible, de la victime dans la situatigon anté -
rieure à la violation), en sus de l’indemnisation, la réhabiligtation, la satis-fac

tion et la garantie de non-répétition des actes ou omissions constgitutifs de
violations des droits de l’homme. Le devoir de réparation a, en tagnt que
principe général, été reconnu par les juridictions internatigonales (supra) et
70
soutenu par la doctrine . Le devoir de réparation des dommages est le pen -

individuelle de M. le juge Cançado Trindade, par. 27-28 ; par la suite (de 2004 à 2008),
j’ai encore évoqué et affirmé à plusieurs reprises, devagnt cette même juridiction, l’humani
sation du droit international dans l’exposé d’autres opinions individuelles. Pour des écrits

antérieurs suivis d’autres écrits dans le même sens, voir nogtamment A. A. Cançado Trin -
dade, «A Emancipação do Ser Humano como Sujeito do Direito Internacional ge os Limites
da Razão de Estado », Revista da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade do Estado do Rio
de Janeiro, n 6/7 (1998-1999), p. 425-434; A. A. Cançado Trindade, « La Humanización
del Derecho Internacional y los Límites de la Razón de Estado », Revista da Faculdade
de Direito da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte/Brésil, n 40 (2001),
p. 11-23.
69 Voir aussi C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 278-279, par. 342 et 344.
70
Voir notamment Bin Cheng, General Principles of Law as Applied by Inter ‑
national Courts and Tribunals, Cambridge University Press, 1994 (réimpr.), p. 233 ;
J. A. Pastor Ridruejo, La jurisprudencia del Tribunal Internacional de La Haya — Siste‑
matización y comentarios, Madrid, Edit. Rialp, 1962, p. 429 ; H. Wassgren, « Some Reflec-
tions on Restitutio in Integrum Especially in the Practice of the European Court of Human
Rights »,Finnish Yearbook of International Law, Helsinki, n 6 (1995), p. 575-595.

46

6 CIJ1032.indb 89 26/11/13 09:37 367 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

complement of the breach of a conventional obligation of respect for
human rights 71.
51. Contemporary doctrine has identified the aforementioned distinct

forms of reparation from the perspective of the victims, of their claims,
needs and aspirations. By the restitutio in integrum one seeks the re-
establishment — whenever possible 72— of the statu quo ante. The

rehabilitation comprises all the measures — medical, psychological, jurid -
ical and others — to be taken to re-establish the dignity of the victims.
The indemnizations, often and unduly confused with the reparation,
of which they are but one of the forms, comprise the pecuniary sum owed
73 74
to the victims for the damages (material and moral or immaterial )
suffered. Thesatisfaction is linked to the purported aim to cease the
effects of the violations, and the guarantee of non‑repetition (of the

breaches) discloses a preventive dimension.
52. Juridical concepts, while encompassing values, are a product of
their time, and as such are not unchangeable. The juridical categories

crystallized in time and which came to be utilized — in a context distinct
from the ambit of the international law of human rights — to govern the
determination of reparations were strongly marked by analogies with

solutions of private law, and, in particular, of civil law (droit civil), in the
ambit of national legal systems : such is the case, e.g., of the concepts of
material damage and moral or immaterial damage, and of the elements of

damnum emergens and lucrum cessans. Such concepts have been strongly
determined by a patrimonial content and interest — which is explained
by their origin — marginalizing what is most important in the human
75
person, namely, her condition of spiritual being .

53. The pure and simple transposition of such concepts onto the inter -
national level was bound to generate uncertainties and discussion. The
criteria of determination of reparations, of an essentially patrimonial gcon -
tent (ensuing from civil law analogies), does not appear to me entirelgy

adequate or sufficient when transposed into the domain of the interna -
tional law of human rights, endowed with a specificity of its own. It is gnot
surprising that, as from the early 1990s, the matter began to be reassesgsed

71Cf., inter alia, P. Reuter, “Principes de droit international public”, 103 Recueil
des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La HayeVol. 103, 1961, pp. 585-586 ;
R. Wolfrum, “Reparation for Internationally Wrongful Acts”, Encyclopedia of Public Inter
national Law (ed. R. Bernhardt), Vol. 10, Amsterdam, North Holland, 1987, pp. 352-353.

72
73In case of violation of the right to life, for example, restitution becogmes impossible.
Not seldom, in relation to this point, in practice, reference is made tog damnum emer‑
gens and lucrum cessans.
74Which, in most cases, is determined by a judgment of equity.
75This is disclosed by the fact that even the moral damage itself is commognly regarded,
in the classical conception, as amounting to the so-called “non-patrimonial damage”. The
point of reference still keeps on being the patrimony.

47

6 CIJ1032.indb 90 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 367

dant indispensable de la violation d’une obligation conventionnelle dge res -
pecter les droits de l’homme . 71
51. La doctrine contemporaine a dégagé les formes de réparation men -

tionnées ci-dessus du point de vue des victimes, de leurs demandes, de leurs
besoins et de leurs aspirations. Par la restitutio in integrum, on cherche à
rétablir — en tant que possible 72 — le statu quo ante. La réhabilitation

comprend toutes les mesures — médicales, psychologiques, juridiques et
autres — à prendre pour rétablir la dignité des victimes. L’indemnisa ‑
tion — qu’on confond souvent, à tort, avec la réparation, dont elgle ne
constitue que l’une des formes — est une somme d’argent due aux vic -
73 74
times pour les dommages (matériels et moraux ou immatériels )
qu’elles ont subis. La satisfaction répond à l’objectif visant à faire cesser
les effets des violations, et la garantie de non‑répétition (des violations) a

une dimension préventive.
52. Les notions juridiques sont chargées de valeurs, mais elles sont éga -
lement le produit de leur époque et, à ce titre, elles ne sont pasg immuables.

Les catégories juridiques qui se sont cristallisées au fil du temps, et aux -
quelles on a eu recours — dans un contexte distinct de celui du droit
international des droits de l’homme — pour établir le régime de la déter -

mination des réparations, se sont largement constituées par analoggie avec
les solutions du droit privé, et du droit civil en particulier, qui rgelève de la
sphère juridique nationale. Tel est, par exemple, le cas des notions gde

dommage matériel et de dommage moral ou immatériel, ainsi que des
éléments constitutifs du dommage que sont le damnum emergens et le
lucrum cessans. Ces notions ont une forte teneur patrimoniale et répondent

à un intérêt également très axé sur l’aspect patrimgonial — qui s’explique
par leur origine —, ce qui marginalise ce que la personne humaine a de
plus important, à savoir sa condition d’être spirituel 75.

53. La transposition pure et simple de telles notions au niveau internatio -
nal ne pouvait que générer incertitudes et débats. Les critègres qui régissent la
détermination des réparations, établis dans une perspective essgentiellement
patrimoniale (découlant d’analogies avec le droit civil), ne me semblent pas

totalement adéquats ou suffisants lorsqu’on les transpose dans leg domaine
du droit international des droits de l’homme, qui a sa propre spécificité. Il
n’est pas surprenant que, dès le début des années 1990, la question ait com -

71Voir notamment P. Reuter, « Principes de droit international public »,Recueil
des cours de l’Académie de droit international de La Haye, vol. 103 (1961), p. 585-586 ;
R. Wolfrum, « Reparation for Internationally Wrongful Acts », Encyclopedia of Public
International Law (dir. publ., R. Bernhardt), Amsterdam, Hollande-Septentrionale, vol. 10

(1972), p. 352-353.
73En cas de violation du droit à la vie, par exemple, la restitution esgt impossible.
A cet égard, il est en pratique souvent fait référence au damnum emergens et au
lucrum cessans.
74Que les juridictions déterminent, dans la plupart des cas, en statuangt en équité.
75En témoigne le fait que même le dommage moral est lui aussi géngéralement consi -
déré, dans son acception classique, comme équivalant au «dommage immatériel ». Le point
de référence demeure l’aspect matériel.

47

6 CIJ1032.indb 91 26/11/13 09:37 368 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

76
in the realm of this latter, at the United Nations , well before the
endorsement by the UN General Assembly in 2005 of the “Basic Princi -

ples and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Vic -
tims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious
Violations of International Humanitarian Law” 7, elaborated and
78
adopted by the [former] UN Commission on Human Rights (cf. infra).

54. The important point here to retain is that, in the ambit of the

international law of human rights, the forms of reparation (restitutio in
integrum, indemnizations, rehabilitation, satisfaction, guarantee of
non-repetition) are to be necessarily approached as from the perspective of

the victims themselves, keeping in mind their claims, their needs and aspi -
rations. Reparations for human rights breaches are, in fact, directly angd
ineluctably linked to the condition of the victims and their next of king,

who occupy in it a central position herein. Reparations are to be con -
stantly reassessed as from the perspective of the integrality of the pergson-
ality of the victims themselves, bearing in mind the fulfilment of their g
79
aspirations as human beings and the restoration of their dignity .
55. It is crystal clear that the aforementioned 2005 UN Basic

Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparations is
also ineluctably victim‑oriented : it rightly pursues a victim-centred
approach, envisaging the right to reparation as a right of the individu -

als victimized, entailing the corresponding duty to have justice done
to the individuals victimized, what becomes fundamentally important
in cases of grave breaches of their rights 80. Under certain circums-

tances, next of kin or dependants of the direct victims may also

76 Cf. Th. van Boven (special rapporteur), Study concerning the Right to Restitution,
Compensation and Rehabilitation for Victims of Gross Violations of Human▯ Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms — Final Report, UN/Commission on Human Rights, UN doc. E/
CN.4/Sub.2/1993/8, of 2 July 1993, pp. 1-65 ; and cf. also : [Various Authors], Seminar on

the Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabilitation for Victims of Gross Violations
of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Proceedings of the Seminar of Maastricht
of 1992), Maastricht, SIM/Univ. Limburg, 1992, pp. 3-253. And cf., subsequently,
M. C. Bassiouni (special rapporteur), The Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabili‑
tation for Victims of Gross Violations of Human Rights and Fundamental F▯reedoms — Final
Report, doc. E/CN.4/2000/62, of 18 January 2000, pp. 1-11.

77 UN General Assembly resolution 60/147, of 16 December 2005.

78
By its resolution 2005/35, of 19 April 2005.
79 It is significant that the IACtHR, in its judgment (of 27 November 1998) in the case of
Loayza Tamayo v. Peru, has, besides the measures of reparation that it ordered, also rightly g
recognized the existence of a damage to the project of life (linked to satisfaction) of the
victim, caused by her detention (in the circumstances in which it took gplace). Cf.IACtHR,
case of Loayza Tamayo v. Peru (reparations), judgment (of 27 November 1998), Series C,

No. 42, paras. 83-192, and joint separate opinion of Judges A. A. Cançado Trindade and
A. 80reu Burelli, paras. 1-17.
Cf. P. d’Argent, “Le droit de la responsabilité internationale complégté ?Examen des
principes fondamentaux et directives concernant le droit à un recoursg et à réparation des

48

6 CIJ1032.indb 92 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 368

mencé à être réexaminée dans le cadre de ce droit, à l’Organisation des
76
Nations Unies , bien avant que l’Assemblée générale n’adopte, en 2005, gles
«principes fondamentaux et directives concernant le droit à un recoursg et à
réparation des victimes de violations flagrantes du droit internatigonal des

droits de l’homme et de violations graves du droit international humagni -
taire » , élaborés et adoptés par l’ancienne Commission des droits dge
l’homme de l’Organisation des Nations Unies 78(voir infra).

54. Le point qu’il convient de retenir ici est que, dans le cadre du droigt
international des droits de l’homme, les formes de réparation (restitutio

in integrum, indemnisation, réhabilitation, satisfaction et garantie de
non-répétition) sont nécessairement abordées du point de vue des victimes
elles‑mêmes, en gardant à l’esprit leurs demandes, leurs besoins et leurs aspgi -

rations. En fait, la détermination des mesures de réparation dues gà raison de
violations des droits de l’homme est directement et inéluctablemengt liée à la
condition des victimes et de leurs proches, qui sont au cœur de ce processus.

Ces mesures doivent en outre constamment être revues en fonction de lga
personnalité des victimes dans son intégralité, en ayant à lg’esprit la réalisation
79
de leurs aspirations d’être humain et le rétablissement de leurg dignité .
55. Il ne fait aucun doute que les principes fondamentaux et directives
concernant le droit à un recours et à réparation susmentionnégs, que l’Or -

ganisation des Nations Unies a adoptés en 2005, sont également inélucta-
blement axés sur la victime: ils s’inscrivent à juste titre dans une démarche

centrée sur la victime, dans laquelle le droit à réparation estg envisagé
comme un droit des individus victimes, qui donne lieu au devoir corres -
pondant de rendre justice à ceux-ci, ce qui constitue un point capitagl en
80
cas de violations graves de leurs droits . Dans certaines circonstances, les

76Voir Th. van Boven (rapporteur spécial), Etude concernant le droit à restitution, à
indemnisation et à réadaptation des victimes de violations flagran▯tes des droits de l’homme
et des libertés fondamentales — Rapport final, Commission des droits de l’homme,

Nations Unies, doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/8 du 2 juillet 1993, p. 1-71 ; et voir aussi [divers
auteurs], Seminar on the Right to Restitution, Compensation and Rehabilitation for▯ Victims
of Gross Violations of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (compte rendu du sémi -
naire qui s’est tenu à Maastricht en 1992), Maastricht, SIM/Univegrsité du Limbourg, 1992,
p. 3-253. Voir aussi ce document plus récent : M. C. Bassiouni (rapporteur spécial), Le
droit à restitution, indemnisation et réadaptation des victimes de▯ violations flagrantes des

droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales — Rapport final, doc. E/CN.4/2000/62 du
18 janvier 2000, p. 1-13.
77 Résolution 60/147 de l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies, en date du
16 décembre 2005.
78 Par sa résolution 2005/35, en date du 19 avril 2005.
79 Le fait que, dans l’arrêt qu’elle a rendu (le 27 novembre 1998) en l’affaire
Loayza Tamayo c. Pérou, la CIADH ait, en plus des mesures de réparation qu’elle a ordon-

nées, également reconnu, à juste titre, l’existence d’uneg atteinte au projet de vie (liée à la
satisfaction) de la victime, résultant des conditions dans lesquellegs celle-ci a été détenue,
est significatif. Voir CIADH, affaire Loayza Tamayo c. Pérou, arrêt du 27 novembre 1998
(réparations), série C, n 42, par. 83-192, et opinion individuelle commune de MM. les
juges A. A. Cançado Trindade et A. Abreu Burelli, par. 1-17.
80 Voir P. d’Argent, « Le droit de la responsabilité internationale complété Examen

des principes fondamentaux et directives concernant le droit à un recgours et à réparation

48

6 CIJ1032.indb 93 26/11/13 09:37 369 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

be regarded as “victims”, entitled to make use of the right of access to
justice.

56. The 2005 UN Basic Principles and Guidelines, at last adopted

on 16 December 2005, were preceded by a unique and innovative juris -
prudential construction of the IACtHR on this subject-matter (in particu-
lar on the distinct forms of reparation), which took place largely in tghe

years 1998-2004, and which has been attracting growing attention of
expert writing in recent years 81(cf. infra). It can safely be stated that, in
some respects, that jurisprudential construction of the IACtHR has, in igts

conceptualization, for the purposes of reparation, gone further than the
2005 UN Basic Principles and Guidelines, in fostering the expansion of
the notion of victim, by encompassing as such the next of kin, also

regarded as “direct victims” in their own right (given their integnse suffer -
ing), without conditionalities (such as that of accordance with domestgic
law), in individualized as well as collective cases 82.

57. The centrality of the position of the victims, as justiciables, has

implications for the approach to distinct forms of reparations. Let us
take, as an example to illustrate this point, satisfaction as a form of repa -
ration. Within the framework of strictly inter-State relations, satisfaction

as a form of reparation has been met with criticism, given the suscepti -
bilities surrounding the relations between States inter se 83. However, in
the framework of the relations between States and individuals under theigr

victimes de violations flagrantes du droit international des droits deg l’homme et de viola -
tions graves du droit international humanitaire”, 51Annuaire français de droit international
(2005), pp. 34-35, 40, 43, 45 and 52.
81
Cf., e.g., [Various Authors], Réparer les violations graves et massives des droits de
l’homme : la Cour interaméricaine, pionnière et modèle ? (eds. E. Lambert Abdelgawad
and K. Martin-Chenut), Paris, Société de législation comparée, 2010, pp. 17-334 ;
M. Scalabrino, “Vittime e Risarcimento del Danno : L’esperienza della Corte Interame -
ricana dei Diritti dell’Uomo”, 22 Comunicazioni e Studi, Milan (2002), pp. 1013-1092 ;
C. Sandoval-Villalba, “The Concepts of ‘Injured Party’ and ‘Victim’ ogf Gross Human
Rights Violations in the Jurisprudence of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights : A

Commentary on Their Implications for Reparations”, Reparations for Victims of Genocide,
War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity (eds. C. Ferstman, M. Goetz and A. Stephens),
Leiden, Nijhoff, 2009, pp. 243-282 ; K. Bonneau, “La jurisprudence innovante de la Cour
interaméricaine des droits de l’homme en matière de droit à greparation des victimes des
violations des droits de l’homme”, Le particularisme interaméricain des droits de l’homme
(eds. L. Hennebel and H. Tigroudja), Paris, Pedone, 2009, pp. 347-382 ; I. Bottigliero,
Redress for Victims of Crimes under International Law, Leiden, Nijhoff, 2004, pp. 133-145 ;

J. Schönsteiner, “Dissuasive Measures and the ‘Society as a Whole’ : A Working Theory
of Reparations in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights”, 23 American University
International Law Review (2007), pp. 127-164.
82A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial Internacional — Memo ‑
rias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, Belo Horizonte/Brazil, Edit.
Del Rey, 2011, Annex IV, pp. 313-340.
83 Cf., e.g., B. Graefrath, “Responsibility and Damages Caused : Relationship between

Responsibility and Damages”, Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit international de
La Haye, Vol. 185, 1984, pp. 84-87.

49

6 CIJ1032.indb 94 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 369

proches ou personnes à charge des victimes directes peuvent égalemgent

être considérés comme des «victimes», habilitées à exercer le droit d’accès
à la justice.

56. Les principes fondamentaux et directives de 2005, que l’Organisa -
tion des Nations Unies a enfin adoptés le 16 décembre 2005, s’inscrivent
dans le sillage d’une jurisprudence unique et innovante de la CIADH sgur

cette question (en particulier les différentes formes de réparagtion), qui
s’est constituée essentiellement dans les années 1998-2004, susgcitant chez
les commentateurs un intérêt qui n’a cessé de croître au gcours des der -
81
nières années (voir infra). On peut sans risque affirmer que, en matière
de réparation, cette construction jurisprudentielle a, à certains gégards,

dépassé dans sa conceptualisation les principes fondamentaux et digrec -
tives de 2005 de l’ONU, en élargissant la notion de victime à cgelle de
proches, également considérés comme des « victimes directes », de plein

droit (compte tenu des intenses souffrances subies) et sans résergve (telles
les spécificités du droit interne), dans des affaires mettant eng jeu des
82
actions individuelles ou collectives .
57. La position centrale des victimes, en tant que justiciables, a des
répercussions sur la manière d’envisager les différentes formes de répara -

tion. Prenons, par exemple, le cas de la satisfaction pour illustrer ce point.
Dans le cadre de relations strictement interétatiques, elle a suscitég la cri -

tique, étant donné les susceptibilités qui sont en jeu dans lesg relations des
Etats inter se 8. Dans le cadre de relations entre des Etats et des individus
relevant de leurs juridictions respectives, elle s’est au contraire agvérée être

des victimes de violations flagrantes du droit international des droitgs de l’homme et de
violations graves du droit international humanitaire », Annuaire français de droit interna
tional, n 51 (2005), p. 34-35, 40, 43, 45 et 52.
81
Voir par exemple [divers auteurs], Réparer les violations graves et massives des droits
de l’homme : la Cour interaméricaine, pionnière et modèle ? (dir. publ., E. Lambert Abdel-
gawad et K. Martin-Chenut), Paris, Société de législation comparée, 2010, p. 17-334 ;
M. Scalabrino, « Vittime e Risarcimento del Danno : L’esperienza della Corte Interame -
ricana dei Diritti dell’Uomo », Comunicazioni e Studi, Milan, n o22 (2002), p. 1013-1092;

C. Sandoval-Villalba, « The Concepts of « Injured Party » and «Victim » of Gross Human
Rights Violations in the Jurisprudence of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights : A
Commentary on Their Implications for Reparations », Reparations for Victims of Geno ‑
cide, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity (dir. publ., C. Ferstman, M. Goetz et
A. Stephens), Leyde, Nijhoff, 2009, p. 243-282 ; K. Bonneau, «La jurisprudence innovante
de la Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme en matière de gdroit à réparation des

victimes des violations des droits de l’homme », Le particularisme interaméricain des droits
de l’homme (dir. publ., L. Hennebel et H. Tigroudja), Paris, Pedone, 2009, p. 347-382 ;
I. Bottigliero, Redress for Victims of Crimes under International Law, Leyde, Nijhoff,
2004, p. 133-145 ; J. Schönsteiner, « Dissuasive Measures and the « Society as a Whole » :
A Working Theory of Reparations in the Inter-American Court of Human Rights »,
American University International Law Review, n 23 (2007), p. 127-164.
82
A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial Internacional —
Memorias de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, Belo Horizonte/Brésil, Edit.
Del Rey, 2011, annexe IV, p. 313-340.
83Voir par exemple B. Graefrath, «Responsibility and Damages Caused :Relationship
between Responsibility and Damages », Recueil des cours de l’Académie de droit inter‑
national de La Haye, vol. 185 (1984), p. 84-87.

49

6 CIJ1032.indb 95 26/11/13 09:37 370 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

respective jurisdictions, satisfaction has proven to be a very appropriagte
form of reparation, and a particularly important one for the human
beings, victims of breaches of their rights by the States at issue.

58. The reassuring centrality of the victims in human rights protection
(an imperative of justice) has other implications as well, beyond the grealm
of reparations. It is not my intention to dwell upon them, as they lie
beyond the scope of the present separate opinion. I shall limit myself tgo

observing that the victims’ central position has helped to awaken cong -
science as to their importance, and the corresponding need of honouring g
them, the victims. In our times, over the last decades, attention is at glast
turning from the past praises of the deeds of national heroes (includingg

military and war heroes, conquerors and the like), to the memory of theg
silent victims, to the need to honour their suffering in enduring the gviola -
tions of their fundamental rights, and to avoid dropping their sufferigng
into oblivion 84.

59. In my dissenting opinion in the case on the Jurisdictional Immuni‑
ties of the State (Germany v. Italy : Greece intervening) (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 267-268, paras. 247-249), I have referred to

endeavours, throughout the last decade, to secure reparations also to
individuals, in the realm of international humanitarian law (e.g., the g2000
legal regime of the Ethiopia-Eritrea Claims Commission, the 2004 Report
of the UN International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, the 2010 Draft
Declaration of International Law Principles on Reparation for Victims ofg

Armed Conflict (Substantive Issues) of the International Law Associag -
tion’s International Committee on Reparation for Victims of Armed
Conflict. There appears thus to be an ever-growing awareness nowadays
of the individual victims’ right to reparation, not only in the domaign of

the international law of human rights, but encompassing also the realm ogf
international humanitarian law.

VII. The Contribution of the CagseLaw of the Internationagl

Human Rights Tribunals (gIACtHR and ECHR)

1. The Relevance of Their Case Law on Reparations
Due to the Victims

60. In the light of all the aforesaid, the contribution of the case law of
the international human rights tribunals (the IACtHR and the ECHR) is g

84Cf., e.g., [Various Authors], Commémorer les victimes en Europe — XVI‑XXI siècles
(eds. D. El Kenz and F.-X. Nérard), Champ Vallon, 2011, pp. 10, 18, 25, 65, 144, 262
and 328-330.

50

6 CIJ1032.indb 96 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 370

une forme de réparation très appropriée, particulièrement imgportante
pour les êtres humains dont les droits avaient été violés pagr les Etats en
cause.

58. La rassurante position centrale des victimes en matière de protec -
tion des droits de l’homme (qui répond à un impératif de jugstice) a égale-
ment des conséquences au-delà du domaine des réparations. Je neg m’y
attarderai pas, car elles ne relèvent pas de l’objet de la présgente opinion

individuelle. Je me bornerai à faire observer que la position centralge des
victimes a contribué à éveiller les consciences quant à l’gimportance de
celles-ci et à la nécessité corrélative de les honorer. De ngos jours, au cours
des dernières décennies, l’attention se détourne enfin des exgploits des héros

nationaux (notamment des militaires, héros de guerre, conquérantsg et
autres personnages du même acabit) tant loués par le passé pougr se porter
sur la mémoire des victimes silencieuses et la nécessité d’hgonorer les souf -
frances qu’elles ont endurées du fait de la violation de leurs drogits fonda-
84
mentaux, et d’éviter ainsi que ces souffrances ne tombent dans lg’oubli .
59. Dans l’exposé de l’opinion dissidente que j’ai jointe à l’arrêt en l’af -
faire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Ita ‑
lie; Grèce (intervenant)) (C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I),p. 267-268, par. 247-249),

j’ai évoqué les efforts déployés ces dernières dégcennies, dans le cadre du
droit international humanitaire, pour obtenir des réparations égalgement
pour les individus (par exemple, le régime juridique de la commissiogn des
réclamations entre l’Erythrée et l’Ethiopie établi en 2000, le rapport établi
en 2004 par la commission internationale d’enquête pour le Darfour ings -

taurée par l’Organisation des Nations Unies, le projet de déclaration de
principes de droit international sur la réparation en faveur des victgimes de
conflit armé (questions de fond) adopté en 2010 par le comité internatio -
nal sur la réparation en faveur des victimes de conflit armé de gl’Associa -

tion de droit international). L’époque actuelle semble donc marquée
par une prise de conscience croissante du droit à réparation des victigmes
individuelles, non seulement dans le domaine du droit international des g
droits de l’homme, mais également dans celui du droit internationagl

humanitaire.

VII. La contribution de la gjurisprudence des jurgidictions

internationales garagntes des droits de l’hgomme (CIADH et CEDH)

1. La pertinence de leur jurisprudence en matière de réparation
due aux victimes

60. Eu égard aux développements qui précèdent, la contribution dge la
jurisprudence des juridictions internationales garantes des droits de

84Voir par exemple [divers auteurs], Commémorer les victimes en Europe — XVI ‑
XXI siècles (dir. publ., D. El Kenz et F.-X. Nérard), Champ Vallon, 2011, p. 10, 18, 25,
65, 144, 262 et 328-330.

50

6 CIJ1032.indb 97 26/11/13 09:37 371 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

noteworthy, and deserves particular attention for the consideration of tghe
matter of the reparations due to victims of human rights violations. Theg

growing case law of the IACtHR and the ECHR in recent years, on rep-
arations to the victims of human rights violations, has contributed to
shift attention to the victims, human beings (and not States), disclosing

the centrality of their position in the present domain of protection
(cf. infra). In this respect, the present Diallo case is a landmark in the
evolving case law of the ICJ itself, as this latter has, for the first time in
its history, established violations of rights enshrined into human rightgs

treaties. The victim, the subject of rights and titulaire of the right to repa -
rations, is a human being (and not a State), Mr. A. S. Diallo.

61. To him, and not to his State of origin or of nationality, reparations
are due, pursuant to the human rights treaties at issue (the UN Covenant
on Civil and Political Rights, and the African Charter on Human and

Peoples’ Rights). In determining those reparations, it is only too ngatural
that the ICJ takes into due account the case law of the two human rights
courts, in construction for many years, and which has further been
invoked by the contending Parties themselves in the course of the presengt

proceedings before this Court, namely, the Inter-American and the Euro -
pean Courts of Human Rights.

62. This is most reassuring, given the common mission of contempo -

rary international tribunals of securing the realization of justice. Both the
IACtHR and the ECHR have built a pioneering case law on the condition
of the victims for purposes of reparation. The IACtHR has, moreover,

much contributed to the evolution of the international law of human
rights itself with its creative jurisprudential construction of the distginct
forms of reparation (cf. infra). To the recently-established African Court
on Human and Peoples’ Rights a similar role is reserved 85, in the years to

come.
63. In the first meeting ever, which brought together members and spe -
cial guests of the three contemporary Human Rights Courts (held at the g
Palais des Droits de l’Homme in Strasbourg, on 8-9 December 2008, on

the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights) 86, one of the topics more extensively discussed, as I well

85In this respect, reference can be made to the practice, on reparations, gof the African
Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights ; cf., inter alia, e.g., G. J. Naldi, “Reparations
in the Practice of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rightgs”, 14 Leiden
Journal of International Law (2001), pp. 681-693.
86For accounts of the meeting,cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, “Vers un droit international

universel :la première réunion des trois cours régionales des droits de l’ghomme”, XXXVI
Curso de Derecho Internacional Organizado por el Comité Juríd▯ teramericano (2009),
Washington, D.C., Secretaría General de la OEA, 2010, pp. 103-125; Ph. Weckel, “La
justice internationale et le soixantième anniversaire de la Déclargation universelle des droits de
l’homme”, 113 Revue générale de droit international public (2009), pp. 5-17.

51

6 CIJ1032.indb 98 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 371

l’homme (la CIADH et la CEDH) est remarquable et mérite qu’ong lui

prête une attention toute particulière lorsqu’on examine la quegstion des
réparations dues aux victimes de violations des droits de l’homme.g La
jurisprudence de la CIADH et de la CEDH en matière de réparation dgue

aux victimes de violations des droits de l’homme, de plus en plus abogn -
dante ces dernières années, a contribué à faire basculer l’gattention vers les
victimes, les êtres humains (et non plus les Etats), en leur accordgant une

position centrale dans ce domaine de protection (voir infra). A cet égard,
la présente affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo fera date dans l’évolution de la
jurisprudence de la CIJ elle-même, car celle-ci a, pour la premièrge fois,
établi l’existence de violations de droits garantis par des traitégs relatifs aux

droits de l’homme. La victime, le sujet des droits et le titulaire du droit à
réparation, est un être humain (et non un Etat), M. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo.
61. C’est à lui, et non à l’Etat dont il est originaire ou ressortissant, que

des réparations sont dues en application des traités relatifs aux gdroits de
l’homme qui sont en cause (le Pacte international relatif aux droitsg civils et
politiques adopté par l’Organisation des Nations Unies, et la Charte afri -

caine des droits de l’homme et des peuples). Pour déterminer ces grépara-
tions, il est tout à fait naturel que la CIJ tienne dûment compte de la
jurisprudence établie au fil de nombreuses années par les deux jurigdictions

garantes des droits de l’homme, à savoir les Cours interaméricagine et euro -
péenne des droits de l’homme, jurisprudence qui a de surcroît égté invoquée
par les Parties elles-mêmes dans le cadre de la présente procédgure.
62. Cette évolution est très rassurante, au regard de la mission que pgar -

tagent les juridictions internationales contemporaines de veiller à cge que
justice soit faite. La CIADH et la CEDH ont toutes deux élaboré une
jurisprudence innovante sur la condition des victimes aux fins de répara -

tion. Avec sa construction jurisprudentielle créative touchant aux diffé -
rentes formes de réparation (voir infra), la CIADH a en outre fortement
contribué à faire évoluer le droit international des droits de gl’homme lui-
85
même. Un rôle similaire est réservé , dans les années à venir, à la Cour
africaine des droits de l’homme et des peuples, récemment créége.
63. Dans la toute première réunion rassemblant les membres des trois
cours des droits de l’homme actuelles ainsi que leurs invités spégciaux

(qui s’est tenue au palais des Droits de l’homme à Strasbourg, les
8 et 9 décembre 2008, à l’occasion de la commémoration du soixan -
tième anniversaire de la Déclaration universelle des droits de l’homme) 8,

85
A cet égard, on peut se reporter à la pratique de la Commission afgricaine des droits
de l’homme et des peuples en matière de réparation ; voir notamment G. J. Naldi, « Repa
rations in the Practice of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’g Rights »L,eiden
Journal of International Law, n 14 (2001), p. 681-693.
86 Pour un compte rendu de la réunion, voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, «Vers un droit
international universel :la première réunion des trois cours régionales des droits d, e »homm
Curso de Derecho Internacional Organizado por el Comité Jurídico Interamerio,nnXVI,
2009, Washington, D.C., secrétariat général de l’OEA, 2010, p. 103-125; Ph. Weckel, « La
justice internationale et le soixantième anniversaire de la Déclaration universelle des droits de
l’homme », Revue générale de droit international public,n 113 (2009), p. 5-17.

51

6 CIJ1032.indb 99 26/11/13 09:37 372 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

recall, was precisely the experience accumulated by the IACtHR and the
ECHR in the matter of reparations to victims of human rights viola -

tions, and the role reserved, from now onwards, to the three co-existing
international human rights tribunals in the ongoing evolution of the
international case law on the matter.

64. Other contemporary international tribunals have much to benefit
from the experience gathered in this specific domain, in being attentive gto
it and taking it into due account. Parallel to this development, in the glast

two decades there have been endeavours to construct the practice of repag -
rations also in the ambit of international humanitarian law 87. Attention
has thereby been turned, for the purposes of protection, to the condition
of the victims, human beings, to the actual situation wherein they find

themselves. The human person has thus gradually recovered the central
place reserved to it in the contemporary international legal order, in tghe
new jus gentium of our times. The growing jurisprudence on reparations

for human rights violations bears witness of that.

2. The Contribution of the Inter‑American Court of Human Rights

65. Reference has already been made to the unique and innovative
jurisprudential construction of the IACtHR in the matter of reparations
due to the victims of human rights violations (para. 56, supra). It has not

passed unperceived in expert writing that the IACtHR has relied on the
greater precision of the terms of Article 63 (1) of the American Conven -
tion on Human Rights 88to construct its innovative and progressive
case law on the matter 8. To start with, the IACtHR has singled out the

role of considerations of equity in setting forth the amounts of repara -
tions due to individual victims, even in the absence of sufficient evidgence
(even more forcefully in certain cases where respondent States withheldg

their virtual monopoly of evidence).
66. Thus, for example, in the case of El Caracazo v. Venezuela (repara -
tions, judgment of 29 August 2002), the IACtHR proceeded to the deter -
mination of compensation on the basis of equity, taking into account theg

suffering and “the alterations in the conditions of existence” ogf the vic -
tims and their next of kin (paras. 99-100). In the case of Cantoral Bena ‑
vides v. Peru (reparations, judgment of 3 December 2001), the IACtHR

87 Recent examples of the recognition of the right of individual reparationg also in the
domain of international humanitarian law, are provided in my dissenting gopinion in the
case of the Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v. ItGreece intervening),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 267-269, paras. 247-250.

88
89 Cf. note 93, infra.
Cf., to this effect, inter alia, e.g., G. Cohen-Jonathan, “Responsabilité pour atteinte
aux droits de l’homme”, La responsabilité dans le système international (Société française
pour le droit international, colloque du Mans), Paris, Pedone, 1991, ppg. 114 and 116.

52

6 CIJ1032.indb 100 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 372

l’un des sujets les plus abondamment débattus a — je m’en souviens
bien — précisément été l’expérience accumulée par la gCIADH et la CEDH

en matière de réparation due aux victimes de violations des droitsg de
l’homme, et le rôle qui incombait dorénavant aux trois juridictions inter -
nationales coexistantes dans la poursuite de l’évolution de la jurgispru -

dence internationale en la matière.
64. Les autres juridictions internationales contemporaines ont fort à
gagner à s’intéresser à l’expérience acquise dans ce domaine spécifique et
à en tenir dûment compte. Parallèlement à cette évolutiong, des efforts ont

été déployés ces deux dernières décennies pour instaurger une pratique en
matière de réparation également dans le domaine du droit interngational
humanitaire 87. L’attention s’est ainsi tournée vers la condition des vic ‑
times, des êtres humains, vers la situation dans laquelle elles se trouvengt

effectivement, et ce afin de les protéger. La personne humaine a aingsi pro -
gressivement retrouvé la place centrale qui lui était réservége dans l’ordre
juridique international contemporain, dans le nouveau jus gentium de

notre époque. L’abondance croissante de la jurisprudence relative gà la
réparation due à raison de violations des droits de l’homme en témoigne.

2. La contribution de la Cour interaméricaine des droits de l’homme

65. J’ai déjà évoqué la jurisprudence unique et innovante de gla CIADH
en matière de réparation due aux victimes de violations des droitsg de
l’homme (par. 56, supra). Il n’a pas échappé aux commentateurs que la

CIADH s’est appuyée sur le libellé plus précis du paragrapheg 1 de l’ar 88 -
ticle 63 de la convention américaine relative aux droits de l’homme pour
établir sa jurisprudence novatrice et progressiste en la matière 8. Elle a
commencé par mettre en évidence le rôle des considérations dg’équité dans

la détermination du montant des réparations dû aux victimes individuelles,
même en l’absence d’éléments de preuve suffisants (et cge avec encore plus
de vigueur dans les affaires dans lesquelles l’Etat défendeur refusait de

communiquer ces éléments, dont il avait pratiquement le monopole)g.
66. Ainsi, dans l’affaire ElCaracazo c. Venezuela (arrêt du 29 août 2002
(réparations)), la CIADH a statué en équité pour détergminer le montant
de l’indemnisation, en tenant compte de la souffrance et de « la dégrada -

tion des conditions d’existence » des victimes et de leurs proches
(par. 99-100). Dans l’affaire Cantoral Benavides c. Pérou (arrêt du
3 décembre 2001 (réparations)), elle a également statué en équitég (par. 80

87 Des exemples récents de reconnaissance du droit à réparation ingdividuel éga-e
ment dans le domaine du droit international humanitaire sont cités dans l’exposé de
l’opinion dissidente que j’ai jointe à l’arrêt rendu par la Cour en l’affaire relative aux
Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat (Allemagne c. Italie ;Grèce (intervenant)), arrêt, C.I.J.

Rec88il 2012 (I), p. 267-269, par. 247-250.
89 Voir note 93 infra.
Voir en ce sens, notamment, G. Cohen-Jonathan, « Responsabilité pour atteinte aux
droits de l’homme », La responsabilité dans le système international (Société française pour
le droit international, colloque du Mans), Paris, Pedone, 1991, p. 114 et 116.

52

6 CIJ1032.indb 101 26/11/13 09:37 373 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

also decided on the basis of equity (paras. 80 and 87). In my separate
opinion in the case of Cantoral Benavides v. Peru, I pondered inter alia
that

“In the present judgment, the Inter-American Court extended the
protection of the law to the victim in the cas d’espèce, in establishing,
inter alia, the State’s duty to provide him with the means to undertake

and conclude his university studies in a centre of recognized academic
quality. This is, in my understanding, a form of providing reparation
for the damage to his project of life, conducive to the rehabilitation
of the victim. The emphasis given by the Court to his formation, to

his education, places this form of reparation (from the Latin reparatio,
derived from reparare, ‘to prepare or to dispose again’) in an adequate
perspective, from the angle of the integrality of the personality of theg
victim, bearing in mind his self-accomplishment as a human being and

the reconstruction of his project of life.” (Para. 10.)
67. In effect, the IACtHR has ordered a wide range of forms of repara -

tion (restitutio in integrum, compensation, victim satisfaction, victim rehab-
ilitation, acts of public apology, guarantees of non-repetition of human
rights breaches), unparalleled in the case law of other contemporary
international tribunals. In the recent cycle of cases of massacres 90 adjudi-

cated by the IACtHR (cf., inter alia, e.g., Aloeboetoe and Others v. Suri ‑
name case, reparations, judgment of 10 September 1993 ; case of the
Massacre of Plan de Sánchez v. Guatemala, reparations, judgment
of 19 November 2004 ; case of the Moiwana Community v. Suriname,
judgment of 15 June 2005 ; case of the Massacres of Ituango v. Colombia,

judgment of 1 July 2006), the reparations ordered by the IACtHR have
included health, housing, education and human development initiatives.
In a distinct context, such measures of reparations were also ordered byg
the IACtHR in the paradigmatic case of the Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni

Community v. Nicaragua (judgment of 31 August 2001), concerning the
communal property of the members of an indigenous community. The
IACtHR thereby indicated, in such cases, that the rehabilitation of vic -
tims (cf. infra) may also have a collective dimension, when it concerns the

members of a given community.
68. In the leading case of the “Street Children” (Villagrán Morales and
Others) v. Guatemala (reparations, judgment of 26 May 2001), the Court
deemed it fit to warn that the obligation to make reparation is regulatedg,
in all aspects (scope, nature, forms and determination of the beneficiargies)

by international law; the respondent State “may not invoke provisions of
its domestic law in order to modify or fail to comply” with that obliggation
(para. 61). The IACtHR has reiterated this warning in successive cases,
e.g., its judgments on the cases of Bulacio v. Argentina (18 September

90 For a recent study, cf. A. A. Cançado Trindade, State Responsibility in Cases
of Massacres : Contemporary Advances in International Justice (Inaugural Address,
10 November 2011), Universiteit Utrecht, 2011, pp. 1-71.

53

6 CIJ1032.indb 102 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 373

et 87). Dans l’exposé de l’opinion individuelle que j’ai jointe à l’arrêt
rendu en cette affaire, j’ai notamment fait part de la réflexigon
suivante :

«Dans le présent arrêt, la Cour interaméricaine a étendu la pgrotec -
tion du droit à la victime en l’espèce, en établissant notamgment que
l’Etat avait le devoir de lui fournir les moyens d’entreprendre segs
études universitaires dans un établissement dispensant un enseigne -

ment de qualité reconnue, et ce, jusqu’à leur terme. A mon sens, cela
constitue une forme de réparation de l’atteinte portée au projegt de vie
de la victime, de nature à conduire à sa réhabilitation. Le fait que la
Cour ait insisté sur la formation et l’éducation de la victime place

cette forme de réparation (du latin reparatio) dans la bonne perspec -
tive, celle de l’intégralité de la personnalité de la victimge, dans laquelle
son accomplissement personnel en tant qu’être humain et la recons -
truction de son projet de vie ne sont pas perdus de vue. » (Par. 10.)

67. De fait, la CIADH a ordonné de multiples formes de réparation (res ‑
titutio in integrum, indemnisation, satisfaction de la victime, réhabilitation
de la victime, excuses publiques, garanties de non-répétition des violations

des droits de l’homme), inédites dans la jurisprudence des autresg juridic -
tions internationales contemporaines. Dans le cycle d’affaires relagtives à des
massacres 90 sur lesquelles la CIADH s’est récemment prononcée (voir
notamment affaire Aloeboetoe et autres c. Suriname, arrêt du 10 septembre

1993 (réparations); affaire du Massacre de Plan de Sánchez c. Guatemala,
arrêt du 19 novembre 2004 (réparations;)affaire de la Communauté Moiwana
c. Suriname, arrêt du 15 juin 2005 ; affaire des Massacres d’Ituango c. Colom ‑
bie, arrêt du 1 erjuillet 2006), elle a ordonné des réparations consistant en
des mesures touchant à la santé, au logement, à l’éducatigon et au dévelop -

pement humain des victimes. Dans un autre contexte, celui de l’affagire
emblématique de la Communauté Mayagna (Sumo) Awas Tingni c. Nicara ‑
gua (arrêt du 31 août 2001), qui concernait les biens communaux des
membres d’une communauté indigène, elle a également ordonnég de telles
mesures de réparation, indiquant ainsi que, lorsqu’elle concerne lges membres

d’une communauté donnée, la réhabilitation des victimes (vogir infra) peut
également avoir une dimension collective.
68. Dans le précédent des « Enfants des rues » (Villagrán Morales et
autres c. Guatemala) (arrêt du 26 mai 2001 (réparations)), la Cour a jugé

opportun de signaler que l’obligation de réparer est, dans tous segs aspects
(portée, nature, formes de réparation et détermination des bégnéficiaires),
régie par le droit international et que, dès lors, l’Etat dégfendeur «ne sau -
rait invoquer les dispositions de son droit interne pour [en] modifier l’gexé -
cution ou ne pas l’exécuter » (par. 61). Elle a réitéré cet avertissement

dans des affaires successives, par exemple Bulacio c. Argentine (arrêt du

90Pour une étude récente, voir A. A. Cançado Trindade, State Responsibility in Cases
of Massacres : Contemporary Advances in International Justice (discours d’ouverture,

10 novembre 2011), Universiteit Utrecht, 2011, p. 1-71.

53

6 CIJ1032.indb 103 26/11/13 09:37 374 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

2003, para. 72), of Las Palmeras v. Colombia (reparations, 26 November
2002, para. 38), of Hilaire, Constantine and Benjamin and Others v. Trini ‑

dad and Tobago (21 June 2002, para. 203), of Trujillo Oroza v. Bolivia
(reparations, 27 February 2002, para. 61), of Bámaca Velásquez v. Guate ‑
mala (reparations, 22 February 2002, para. 39), and, earlier on, of
Suárez Rosero v. Ecuador (reparations, 20 January 1999, para. 42). This
point forms today part of its jurisprudence constante on reparations.

69. Still as to the forms of reparation, the IACtHR has ordered, for
example, acts to honour the memory of victims, as in its judgments in the
cases of Bámaca Velásquez v. Guatemala (of 22 February 2002, repara -
tions), of Myrna Mack Chang v. Guatemala (25 November 2003), of the
Moiwana Community v. Suriname (of 15 June 2005), of Trujillo Oroza

v. Bolivia (of 27 February 2002, reparations), of the Massacre of Plan
de Sánchez v. Guatemala (of 19 November 2004, reparations). In this last
and dramatic case, those acts were to be accompanied (as they in fact
were) by social programmes (rehabilitation) for the members of the affectged
community.

70. Furthermore, the IACtHR has also ordered, e.g., the public dis -
semination of the Court’s decisions and/or of the result of the ordered
investigations. It has done so in its judgments in the aforementioned cagses
of Bulacio, of Bámaca Velásquez, of El Caracazo, as well as in the cases of
Barrios Altos v. Peru (14 March 2001), and of the Juvenile Reeducation

Institute v. Paraguay (2 September 2004). Moreover, in its judgments in
the aforementioned case of Bámaca Velásquez (merits, 25 November
2000, and reparations, 22 February 2002) as well as in that of 19 Mer ‑
chants v. Colombia (5 July 2004), the IACtHR dwelt upon the right to
truth as a measure of reparation. In addition thereto, satisfaction as ag
form of reparation for damage to the victim’s “project of life” was ordered

by the IACtHR, in its judgments both in the aforementioned case of Can ‑
toral Benavides, and in the case of Loayza Tamayo v. Peru (reparations,
27 November 1998). Last but not least, the guarantee of non-repetition of
human rights breaches was ordered by the IACtHR in, inter alia, e.g., its
judgments in the aforementioned case Bulacio, as well as in that of Cas ‑

tillo Páez v. Peru (reparations, 27 November 1998).

3. The Contribution of the European Court of Human Rights

71. Like the IACtHR (supra), the ECHR has also pointed out the role
of considerations of equity in the determination of the amounts of reparga -

tions due. Thus, for example, in the case of Lupsa v. Romania (judgment
of 8 June 2006), the ECHR found that “deporting the applicant did
objectively disrupt the management of his business”, and that “theg conse -
quences of that disruption cannot be precisely quantified” (para. 70) ; it
then ordered a sum on an equitable basis, to cover all heads of damage

(para. 72, and cf. paras. 73-77). In the case Assanidzev. Georgia (judgment
of 8 April 2004), concerning arbitrary detention, the ECHR ruled like -

54

6 CIJ1032.indb 104 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 374

18 septembre 2003, par. 72), Las Palmeras c. Colombie (arrêt du
26 novembre 2002 (réparations), par. 38), Hilaire, Constantine et Benja ‑

min et autres c. Trinité‑et‑Tobago (arrêt du 21 juin 2002, par. 203), Tru ‑
jillo Oroza c. Bolivie (arrêt du 27 février 2002 (réparations), par. 61),
Bámaca Velásquez c. Guatemala (arrêt du 22 février 2002 (réparations),
par. 39) et, auparavant, Suárez Rosero c. Equateur (arrêt du 20 jan-
vier 1999 (réparations), par. 42). Ce point fait désormais partie de sa

jurisprudence constante en matière de réparation.
69. Toujours en ce qui concerne les formes de réparation, la CIADH a
ordonné, par exemple, que des mesures soient prises pour honorer la mémoire
des victimes, comme dans les affaires Bámaca Velásquez c. Guatemala (arrêt
du 22 février 2002 (réparations)), Myrna Mack Chang c. Guatemala (arrêt du
25 novembre 2003), Communauté Moiwana c. Suriname (arrêt du 15 juin 2005),

Trujillo Oroza c. Bolivie (arrêt du 27 février 2002 (réparations)) et du Mas ‑
sacre de Plan de Sánchez c. Guatemala (arrêt du 19 novembre 2004 (répara -
tions)). Dans cette dernière et dramatique affaire, ces mesures dgevaient être
assorties de programmes de nature sociale (et de fait le furent) pour gles
membres de la population touchée (en vue de leur réhabilitation)g.

70. La CIADH a également ordonné, par exemple, la diffusion
publique de ses arrêts ou du résultat des enquêtes qu’elle agvait ordonnées.
Tel a été le cas dans les affaires Bulacio, Bámaca Velásquez et Caracazo
précitées, ainsi que dans les affaires Barrios Altos c. Pérou (arrêt du
14 mars 2001) et de l’Institut de rééducation des mineurs c. Paraguay (arrêt

du 2 septembre 2004). De plus, dans l’affaire Bámaca Velásquez (arrêts du
25 novembre 2000 (fond) et du 22 février 2002 (réparations)) précitée,
ainsi que dans celle des 19 commerçants c. Colombie (arrêt du 5 juil
let 2004), elle a insisté sur le droit à la vérité en tant que gmesure de répa -
ration. Elle a de surcroît ordonné, dans l’affaire Cantoral Benavides
précitée ainsi que dans l’affaire Loayza Tamayo c. Pérou (arrêt du

27 novembre 1998 (réparations)), des mesures tendant à la satisfaction de
la victime en tant que forme de réparation de l’atteinte portéeg à son « pro -
jet de vie ». Enfin et surtout, elle a ordonné la garantie de non-rgépétition
des violations des droits de l’homme, notamment dans l’affaire Bulacio
précitée et dans l’affaire Castillo Páez c. Pérou (arrêt du 27 novembre 1998

(réparations)).

3. La contribution de la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme

71. Tout comme la CIADH (supra), la CEDH a elle aussi souligné le
rôle des considérations d’équité dans la déterminationg du montant des

réparations dû aux victimes. Ainsi, dans l’affaire Lupsa c. Roumanie (arrêt
du 8 juin 2006), elle a déclaré que « l’expulsion du requérant a[vait] objec -
tivement perturbé la gestion de son entreprise » et que « les conséquences
[de ces perturbations] ne se prêt[ai]ent pas à un chiffrage exacgt» (par. 70),
après quoi, statuant en équité, elle a ordonné que soit alloguée une certaine

somme au requérant pour l’ensemble des préjudices qu’il avaigt subis
(par. 72 et par. 73-77). Dans l’affaire Assanidzé c. Géorgie (arrêt du

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6 CIJ1032.indb 105 26/11/13 09:37 375 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

wise on an equitable basis (para. 201, and cf. paras. 204-207), and awarded

a lump-sum amount for all heads of (material and immaterial) damage,
without setting out the reasons that led it to the specified amount
(para. 201).

72. In the same line of thinking, in the case of Orhan v. Turkey (judg-
ment of 18 June 2002), the ECHR decided, at the “level of just satisfac -

tion”, on the basis of considerations of equity (paras. 431-434, and
cf. paras. 423-424). It did the same in the case Lustig‑Prean and Beckett v.
United Kingdom (judgment of 25 July 2000), as compensation, on an
“equitable basis”, for “emotional and psychological” disturbgances

(paras. 12 and 23). And again in the case Selçuk and Asker v. Turkey
(judgment of 24 April 1998), the ECHR likewise awarded reparations for
damages on the basis of equitable considerations (paras. 109-112, and

cf. para. 106). And once more, in the Delta v. France case (judgment
of 19 December 1990), the ECHR took its decision, of award of compen -
sation, on an “equitable basis” (para. 43).

73. Parallel to such considerations of equity, as for the awarding of
reparations itself, the case law of the ECHR has, however, never been as
proactive as that of its sister institution across the Atlantic, the IACgtHR.

It has not disclosed the same creativity, and has in general been particgu -
larly cautious, in generally starting from predetermined categories of
pecuniary and non-pecuniary damages, at times conveying the impression
that compensation would better be left for national courts to decide 9.

The distinct drafting of the respective provisions on reparations of theg
European and the American Conventions on Human Rights, further -
more, conveys the impression that the phraseology of Article 41 of the
92
European Convention did not ascribe to the ECHR as wide a horizon
for the determination of reparations than the one ascribed by Arti -
cle 63 (1) of the American Convention 93to the IACtHR; in any case, this

is at least what the ECHR seems to have understood to date. It is thus
not surprising to find arguments as to the need for the ECHR “to revisgit”

91
Cf., inter alia, e.g., L. Wildhaber, “Reparations for Internationally Wrongful Acts
of States — Article 41 of the European Convention on Human Rights : Just Satisfaction
under the European Convention on Human Rights”, 3 Baltic Yearbook of International
Law (2003), pp. 1-18.
92Article 41 (formerly Article 50) — on just satisfaction — of the European Conven -
tion states that :“If the Court finds that there has been a violation of the Convention or the
Protocols thereto, and if the internal law of the High Contracting Partyg concerned allows
only partial reparation to be made, the Court shall, if necessary, affgord just satisfaction to
the injured party.”
93Article 63 (1) of the American Convention states that :

“If the Court finds that there has been a violation of a right or freegdom protected
by this Convention, the Court shall rule that the injured party be ensurged the enjoy
ment of his right or freedom that was violated. It shall also rule, if agppropriate, that
the consequences of the measure or situation that constituted the breachg of such right
or freedom be remedied and that fair compensation be paid to the injuredg party.”

55

6 CIJ1032.indb 106 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 375

8 avril 2004), qui concernait un cas de détention arbitraire, la CEDH,
statuant également en équité (par. 201 et par. 204-207), a alloué au requé-
rant un montant forfaitaire pour l’ensemble des préjudices subis (gmaté -

riels et immatériels), sans exposer les raisons qui l’avaient congduite à ce
montant précis (par. 201).
72. Dans le même ordre d’idées, dans l’affaire Orhan c. Turquie (arrêt du

18 juin 2002), la CEDH a statué sur la base de considérations d’équgité au
«niveau de la satisfaction équitable » (par. 431-434, et voir par. 423-424). Elle
a fait de même dans l’affaire Lustig‑Prean et Beckett c.Royaume‑Uni (arrêt
du 25 juillet 2000), «statuant en équité» pour établir le montant de l’indemni -

sation allouée au titre des troubles « émotionnels et psychologiques» subis
par les requérants (par. 12 et 23). Dans l’affaire Selçuk et Asker c. Turquie
(arrêt du 24 avril 1998), elle s’est aussi appuyée sur des principes d’équitég pour

évaluer les montants à octroyer aux requérants au titre des dommages qu’ils
avaient subis (par. 109-112, et voir par. 106). Et encore une fois, dans l’affaire
Delta c. France (arrêt du 19 décembre 1990), elle a « statu[é] en équité »

(par. 43) pour déterminer le montant de l’indemnité allouée au regquérant.
73. Parallèlement à ces considérations d’équité, s’agisgsant de l’attribu -
tion même des réparations, la CEDH ne s’est cependant jamais mogntrée

aussi audacieuse que son homologue d’outre-Atlantique, la CIADH. Elleg
n’a pas fait preuve d’autant de créativité, et s’est mêgme généralement
montrée particulièrement prudente, s’appuyant sur les catégogries pré-

établies des dommages matériels et immatériels, donnant ainsi pgarfois
l’impression que la question de l’indemnisation serait mieux trancghée par
les juridictions nationales 91. De surcroît, le libellé distinct des dispositions

relatives aux réparations figurant respectivement dans les conventions
européenne et américaine des droits de l’homme donne l’impregssion que
l’article 41 de la convention européenne 92n’a pas conféré à la CEDH

autant de latitude pour déterminer les réparat93ns que le paragrapghe 1 de
l’article 63 de la convention américaine n’en a conféré à la CIADH ; du
moins, tel est ce que semble avoir compris la CEDH jusqu’à présent. Il
n’est donc pas surprenant que d’aucuns invitent la CEDH à «revisiter» sa

91 Voir notamment L. Wildhaber, « Reparations for Internationally Wrongful Acts
of States — Article 41 of the European Convention on Human Rights : Just Satisfaction
under the European Convention on Human Rights », Baltic Yearbook of International
o
Law92n 3 (2003), p. 1-18.
L’article 41 (anciennement article 50) de la convention européenne des droits de
l’homme, relatif à la satisfaction équitable, est ainsi libellé : « Si la Cour déclare qu’il y a
eu violation de la convention ou de ses protocoles, et si le droit intergne de la Haute Partie
contractante ne permet d’effacer qu’imparfaitement les conséqguences de cette violation, la
Cour accorde à la partie lésée, s’il y a lieu, une satisfactgion équitable. »
93 Le paragraphe 1 de l’article 63 de la convention américaine est ainsi libellé :

«Lorsqu’elle reconnaît qu’un droit ou une liberté protégégs par la présente conven
tion ont été violés, la Cour ordonnera que soit garantie à lga partie lésée la jouissance
du droit ou de la liberté enfreints. Elle ordonnera également, le gcas échéant, la répa-
ration des conséquences de la mesure ou de la situation à laquelleg a donné lieu la
violation de ces droits et le paiement d’une juste indemnité à gla partie lésée.»

55

6 CIJ1032.indb 107 26/11/13 09:37 376 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

its own case law on just satisfaction/satisfaction équitable, and in particu -
lar on reparation for moral (or “non-pecuniary”) damages, so as to
94
enlarge its horizon to the benefit of the justiciables .

VIII. n eminem laedere and Reparation

for Moral Damage to Indivigduals

74. In domestic legal systems, the whole theory of civil liability/respon ‑
sabilité civile found inspiration in the fundamental principle neminem lae ‑

dere (cf. supra). The conception of damage and of the reaction of the legal
system to wrongful acts, requiring reparation, goes back to Roman law,
to the theory of id quod interest, whereby the harmed person is entitled to
redress. One restored thereby the balance or equilibrium needed in humang

relations. There was also concern to safeguard thereby human personalityg
as such, the integrity of the human person. From ancient to modern
times, unlike material damage, it proved particularly hard to conceptualg -
ize moral damage (dommage moral/non-pecuniary damage).

75. This latter became the object of endless discussions (ever since the
first codifications), given the resistance of some doctrinal trends to atgtri -

bute a value or price to the suffering of the victims (pretium doloris). The
prolonged construction of the theory of the responsabilité civile was made
possible, however, by the recourse to general criteria, such as, e.g., tghe

gravity of the breach, the intensity of the suffering it generated, thge social
repercussion of the breach, the consequences for the victim and the integn -
tionality and culpa of the perpetrator.
76. The moral character of the damage was regarded as an infringe -

ment of the human personality, not only in what is most intimate to it but
also in the human relations in its social milieu. It was against such dagm -
age that the legal system reacted, requiring reparation to the victim, sgo as
to preserve the integrity of the human personality of the victim. Hence g

the conception of responsabilité civile, emanating from the immemorial
general principle of neminem laedere. Such juridical construction was
transposed from domestic law into international law, by means of private
law analogies 95(mainly of civil law). They were thereby heavily marked

by a patrimonial content and interest (what can be explained by their
origin). Hence their conceptualization, in civil law and also in commong

94
Cf., inter alia, e.g., P. Tavernier, “La contribution de la jurisprudence de la Cour
européenne des droits de l’homme relative au droit de la responsabgilité internationale en
matière de réparation — une remise en cause nécessaire”, g72 Revue trimestrielle des droits
de l’homme (2007), pp. 945-966.
95 E.g., the concepts of material and moral damages, the elements of damnum emergens
and lucrum cessans, among others.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 108 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 376

jurisprudence relative à la satisfaction équitable, en particulierg en ce qui
concerne la réparation du dommage moral (ou «immatériel»), de manière
94
à élargir son horizon au profit des justiciables .

VIII. Le principe neminem laedere et la réparation
du préjudice moral caugsé à l’individu

74. Dans les systèmes juridiques internes, la théorie de la responsabiglité

civile a entièrement été inspirée du principe fondamental neminem laedere
(voir supra). La conception du dommage et de la réaction du système
juridique aux faits illicites, à savoir l’exigence d’une répgaration, trouve sa
source dans le droit romain, et plus précisément dans la notion d’gid quod

interest, selon laquelle toute personne lésée a droit à réparation. Ce fai -
sant, on rétablissait l’équilibre nécessaire aux relations hgumaines, mais on
répondait également au souci de préserver la personnalité hugmaine en

tant que telle, l’intégrité de la personne humaine. Cependant, contraire -
ment à la notion de dommage matériel, celle de dommage moral ou
immatériel s’est avérée particulièrement difficile à gdéfinir, et ce, depuis
l’Antiquité.

75. Elle est devenue l’objet de débats incessants (depuis les premières
codifications), une partie de la doctrine se refusant à attribuer uneg valeur
ou un prix à la souffrance des victimes (pretium doloris). La théorie de la
responsabilité civile put néanmoins continuer à se construire ggrâce au

recours à des critères généraux, tels que la gravité de lga violation, l’inten -
sité de la souffrance engendrée par celle-ci, ses répercussiogns sociales, ses
conséquences pour la victime et le caractère intentionnel et fautigf du com -

portement de l’auteur des faits.
76. L’aspect moral du dommage était perçu comme une violation de lag
personnalité humaine, non seulement dans ce qu’elle a de plus intime, mais
également dans les relations humaines qu’elle entretient dans le cgadre de

son milieu social. C’est contre ce dommage que le système juridiquge a
réagi, exigeant qu’il soit fait réparation à la victime, de gmanière à préser -
ver l’intégrité de sa personnalité humaine. D’où la nogtion de responsabi-
lité civile, qui plonge ses racines dans le principe général imgmémorial

neminem laedere. Cette construction juridique a été transposée du droit
interne au droit international par analogie avec le droit privé 95 (principa-
lement le droit civil). Elle était ainsi fortement marquée par sogn aspect

patrimonial, tant par sa teneur que par l’intérêt auquel elle rgépondait (ce

94 Voir notamment P. Tavernier, « La contribution de la jurisprudence de la Cour

européenne des droits de l’homme relative au droit de la responsabgilité internationale en
matière deoréparation — une remise en cause nécessaire », Revue trimestrielle des droits de
l’h95me, n 72 (2007), p. 945-966.
Par exemple, les concepts de dommages matériel et moral, et les élgéments constitutifs
du dommage que sont le damnum emergens et le lucrum cessans, notamment.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 109 26/11/13 09:37 377 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

96
law countries, as “non-pecuniary damage” . The point of reference was
patrimonial or financial.

77. The simple transposition of such concepts to international law level
was bound to raise uncertainties. Yet, at least it did not pass unnoticegd, in
the debates on the matter going back to the nineteenth century, that con -

sideration of moral damages inevitably turns attention to human sufferg -
ing , proper to human beings rather than to States. In fact, States do not
suffer; not seldom, they tend to inflict suffering upon human beings underg

their respective jurisdictions or elsewhere. The importance of moral damg -
ages became manifest in face of the need of protection of individuals 9.

78. The analogies with solutions proper to common law or to civil law
(droit civil) have never appeared convincing or satisfactory to me, as, by

focusing — for the purpose of reparation — on the relationship of the
human person with material goods, they marginalized the most important
trait in the human person, as a spiritual being 99. Moral damages should

not be reduced to a consideration of material goods, patrimony, capacityg
for work, and the projection of these elements in time — as upheld by the
regrettable cosmovision of the homo oeconomicus so widespread in our

times. It was necessary to wait for the advent of the international law gof
human rights, in order to go beyond these short-minded categories, and
look also into the human person’s aspirations, freedom and integrity.g

79. Juridical concepts, encompassing values, are the product of their

time, and are open to progressive development. With the formation of theg
corpus juris of the international law of human rights, it became clearer
that the determination of reparations should keep in mind the integrality

of the personality of the victim, should consider the impact on this latgter
of the violation of the rights inherent to her, should approach the matter
from an integral, rather than patrimonial or financial outlook, with spe -

cial attention to the aspirations, personal freedom and integrity of theg
individual victim. Hence the importance of restitutio in integrum (not

96
For comparative law surveys, cf., e.g., [Various Authors], Damages for Non‑
Pecuniary Loss in a Comparative Perspective (ed. W. V. Horton Rogers), Vienna,
Springer-Verlag,2001, pp. 1-311 ; [Various Authors], Redress for Non‑Material Damage/
Réparation du préjudice moral (London Colloquy of 1969), Strasbourg, Council of
Europe, 1970, pp. 4-127.
97Cf. R. André and A. Smedts, La réparation du dommage moral, Anvers, Impr.
Dugardin & Persoons, [1951], pp. 6, 17 and 125, and cf. p. 10.
98
L. Reitzer, La réparation comme conséquence de l´acte illicite…, op. cit. supra
not9945, p. 124.
In this respect, the 1948 American Declaration on the Rights and Duties gof Man
states, in its fourth preambular paragraph that : “Inasmuch as spiritual development is the
supreme end of human existence and the highest expression thereof, it is the duty of man
to serve that end with all his strength and resources.”

57

6 CIJ1032.indb 110 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 377

qui s’explique par son origine), ce qui a débouché, tant dans gles pays de

code civil que dans les pays de common law, sur la notion de « dommage
immatériel » . Le point de référence était patrimonial ou financier.
77. La transposition pure et simple de tels concepts en droit internatio -

nal ne pouvait qu’être source d’incertitude. Pourtant, dans lesg débats
menés sur cette question depuis le XIX e siècle, il n’est au moins pas passé
inaperçu que l’examen des dommages moraux attire inévitablementg
97
l’attention sur la souffrance humaine , qui est propre à l’être humain, à
l’exclusion des Etats. De fait, ces derniers n’éprouvent pas la souffrance,
même s’il n’est pas rare qu’ils infligent eux-mêmes desg souffrances aux
individus se trouvant sur leur territoire respectif ou ailleurs. L’imgportance

des dommages moraux a été mise en évidence par la nécessitég de protéger
les individus 98.
78. L’analogie avec les solutions propres au droit anglo-saxon (com ‑

mon law) ou au droit romano-germanique (droit civil) ne m’a jamais sem-
blé convaincante ou satisfaisante, parce que, pour les besoins de la g
réparation, ces solutions ne s’attachent qu’aux rapports de l’gêtre humain

avec les choses matérielles, marginalisant ce que celui-ci a de plus gimpor -
tant, en tant qu’être spirituel 9. Les dommages moraux ne devraient pas
être réduits à des considérations relatives aux biens matégriels, au patri -

moine, à la capacité de travail et à la projection de ces élgéments dans le
temps — contrairement à l’approche retenue dans la regrettable cosmo-
vision de l’homo oeconomicus si répandue de nos jours. Il a fallu attendre
l’avènement du droit international des droits de l’homme pour dgépasser

ces catégories à courte vue et prendre également en considérgation les aspi -
rations, la liberté et l’intégrité de la personne humaine.
79. Les notions juridiques, chargées de valeur, sont le produit de leur

époque et sont susceptibles d’évoluer progressivement au cours gdu temps.
La formation du corpus juris du droit international des droits de l’homme
a mis en lumière le fait que la détermination des réparations devait se

faire en tenant compte de l’intégralité de la personnalité dge la victime et
de l’impact sur cette dernière de la violation des droits qui lui gsont inhé -
rents, qu’elle devait s’inscrire dans le cadre d’une approche igntégrale, et
non purement patrimoniale ou financière, dans laquelle une attention

toute particulière est portée aux aspirations, à la liberté gpersonnelle

96 On trouvera des études de droit comparé, par exemple, dans les ouvgrages suivants :
[divers auteurs], Damages for Non‑Pecuniary Loss in a Comparative Perspective (dir. publ.,
W. V. Horton Rogers), Vienne, Springer-Verlag, 2001, p. 1-311 ; [divers auteurs], Redress

for Non‑Material Damage/Réparation du préjudice moral (colloque organisé à Londres en
19697, Strasbourg, Conseil de l’Europe, 1970, p. 4-127.
Voir R. André et A. Smedts, La réparation du dommage moral, Anvers, Impr.
Dugardin & Persoons [1951], p. 6, 17 et 125, et voir p. 10.
98 L. Reitzer, La réparation comme conséquence de l’acte illicite…, op. cit.supra note 45,
p. 124.
99 A cet égard, le quatrième paragraphe du préambule de la Déclaration américaine des
droits et devoirs de l’homme, adoptée en 1948, dispose ce qui suitg : « Comme la vie spiri-
tuelle est la fin suprême de l’humanité et sa plus haute catéggorie, l’homme a pour devoir de
servir l’esprit, de toutes ses forces et de toutes ses ressources. »

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6 CIJ1032.indb 111 26/11/13 09:37 378 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

always possible), given the manifest insufficiencies of indemnizationsg (for
material damage).

80. On the basis of my own experience as magistrate serving succes -
sively two international jurisdictions, that of the IACtHR and then of tghe
ICJ, I attribute particular importance to reparations for moral damages.g
In some cases of particular gravity, I dare to say that they prove to beg

even more significant or meaningful to the victims than those for pecu-
niary damages, or indemnizations. The granting of reparations for
moral damages, by international human rights tribunals, has been made
feasible by their recourse to considerations of equity. Given the prolonga-
tion of the proceedings of the cas d’espèce opposing Guinea to the Demo -
cratic Republic of the Congo, in the merits as well as the reparations

stages (suggesting that the time of human justice is not the time of
human beings), I have felt obliged to draw attention, in my declaration
(I.C.J. Reports 2011 (II), pp. 637-639, paras. 1-4) appended to the Court’s
Order of 20 September 2011 in the present Diallo case, to the relevance
of the award of reparations within a reasonable time (as justice delayed is

justice denied), as well as to the considerations of equity to bear in mind
for the determination of reparations (mainly for moral damages).

IX. The Relevance of the Rehgabilitation of Victimsg

81. The reparatio for damages comprises distinct forms of compensa -
tion to the victims for the harm they suffered, at the same time that git
re-establishes the legal order broken by wrongful acts (or omissions) — a

legal order erected on the basis of the full respect for the rights inhegrent
to the human person. The observance of human rights is the substratum
of the legal order itself. The legal order, thus re-established, requires the
guarantee of non-repetition of the harmful acts. The realization of justice
thereby achieved (an imperative of jus cogens) is in itself a form of repara -

tion (satisfaction) to the victims. Such reparatio does not put an end to
the suffering ensuing from the human rights violations already perpe -
trated, but, in ceasing the effects of those breaches, it at least allgeviates the
suffering of the individual victims (as titulaires of the right to reparation),
by removing the indifference of the social milieu, the oblivion of the vic -

tims and the impunity of the perpetrators.
82. In this framework, the rehabilitation of the victims is of the utmost
importance. It is a matter of not only re-establishing the legal order
broken by wrongful acts (or omissions), but also of seeking to rehabilgitate
the victims themselves of such wrongs, as subjects or titulaires of the rights
recognized therein that have been breached. After all, the individual vigc -

tims (and not the States) occupy a central position in the framework of
the international law of human rights, oriented towards them — which is

58

6 CIJ1032.indb 112 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 378

et à l’intégrité de la victime individuelle. D’où l’importagnce de la restitu ‑
tio in integrum (qui n’est pas toujours possible), l’indemnisation (du

dommage matériel) étant manifestement insuffisante.
80. L’expérience que j’ai acquise en tant que magistrat au service gde
deux juridictions internationales successives, la CIADH puis la CIJ, m’ga
convaincu de l’importance particulière que revêt la réparatigon des dom -
mages moraux. Dans certains cas, particulièrement graves, j’irais gmême

jusqu’à dire qu’elle s’avère plus importante ou significatgive encore pour la
victime que celle des dommages matériels, l’indemnisation. C’esgt en ayant
recours à des considérations d’équité que les juridictions internationales
garantes des droits de l’homme ont pu accorder des réparations àg raison
de dommages moraux. Etant donné la durée de la procédure dans la
présente affaire opposant la Guinée à la République démgocratique du

Congo — tant au stade du fond qu’à celui des réparations (ce qui gdonne
à penser que le temps de la justice humaine n’est pas celui de l’être
humain) —, je me suis senti obligé d’attirer l’attention, dans la déclara -
tion (C.I.J. Recueil 2011 (II), p. 637-639, par. 1-4) que j’ai jointe à l’or -
donnance rendue par la Cour le 20 septembre 2011 en la présente affaire

Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, sur l’importance d’accorder des réparations dans
un délai raisonnable (car justice tardive est justice déniée)g, ainsi que sur
les considérations d’équité qu’il convient d’avoir à l’esprit pour déterminer
les réparations (principalement en ce qui concerne les dommages moraux).

IX. L’importance de réhabigliter les victimes

81. La reparatio des dommages compense, sous diverses formes, le pré -
judice subi par les victimes, en même temps qu’elle rétablit l’gordre juri -
dique perturbé par les actes (ou omissions) illicites — lequel ordre repose

sur le respect scrupuleux des droits inhérents à la personne humaigne. Le
respect des droits de l’homme est le substrat même de l’ordre jguridique.
Cet ordre, ainsi rétabli, exige que soit garantie la non-répétition des faits
préjudiciables. Faire ainsi en sorte que justice soit rendue (en tangt qu’im -
pératif du jus cogens) constitue en soi une forme de réparation (satisfac -

tion) pour les victimes. La reparatio ne met pas fin aux souffrances
découlant des violations des droits de l’homme déjà commisesg, mais, en
en faisant cesser les effets, elle contribue à tout le moins à alléger la souf -
france des victimes individuelles (en tant que titulaires du droit àg répara-
tion) en faisant échec à l’indifférence du milieu social, à lg’oubli des

victimes et à l’impunité pour les responsables.
82. Dans ce contexte, la réhabilitation des victimes revêt la plus haute
importance. Il ne s’agit pas simplement de rétablir l’ordre jurgidique per -
turbé par les actes (ou omissions) illicites, mais également de gveiller à
réhabiliter les victimes elles-mêmes de ces faits illicites, en tagnt que sujets
ou titulaires des droits reconnus dans cet ordre et qui ont été vigolés. Après

tout, ce sont les victimes individuelles (et non les Etats) qui occupegnt une
position centrale dans le cadre du droit international des droits de

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6 CIJ1032.indb 113 26/11/13 09:37 379 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

a law of protection (droit de protection). By granting the individual vic -

tims jus standi, or else locus standi in judicio, in this domain of protection
at international level, the international law of human rights has rescuegd
the central position occupied therein by the victimized 100(even in situa -
tions of great vulnerability, if not defencelessness), and has thereby g

asserted the (active) international subjectivity of individuals in the law of
nations (droit des gens) at large.

83. The centrality of the victims in the present domain of protection
draws attention to the pressing need of their rehabilitation — to be con -
sidered as from the integrality of the personality of the victims 101 — in
the framework of restorative justice. The rehabilitation of the victims

projects itself into their social milieu. It has both individual and socgial
dimensions. Restorative justice has made great advances in the last
decades, due to the evolution of the international law of human rights, g

humanizing the law of nations (the droit des gens). Such advances are now
being felt, though in a lesser degree but a reassuring one, also in the g
domain of international humanitarian law and of contemporary interna -

tional criminal law. The universal juridical conscience seems to be at last
awakening as to the need to honour the victims of human rights abuses
and to restore their dignity.

84. Rehabilitation of the victims acquires a crucial importance in cases
of grave violations of their right to personal integrity. In effect, tghere have
been cases where medical and psychological assistance to the victims hasg

been ordered — mainly by the I102HR — as a form of reparation, aim -
ing at their rehabilitation . Such measures have intended to overcome
the extreme vulnerability of victims, and to restore their identity and g
integrity. Rehabilitation of the victims mitigates their suffering andg that

of their next of kin, thus irradiating itself into their social milieu.
85. Rehabilitation, discarding the apparent indifference of their social
milieu, helps the victims to recuperate their self-esteem and their capacity

to live in harmony with others. Reh103litation nourishes the victims’ hope
in a minimum of social justice . Rehabilitation helps to restructure the
psyche of the victims, in their difficult quest for recovery from the ignjus -
tice of humiliation. Rehabilitation as a form of reparation is intended g

to reorder ultimately the human relations disrupted by acts of cruelty,

100To this effect, IACtHR, case Castillo Petruzzi and Others v. Peru (preliminary
objections, judgment of 4 September 1998), concurring opinion of Judge Cançado Trin-
dade, paras. 5 and 12 ; IACtHR, case Tibi v. Ecuador (merits and reparations, judgment
of 7 September 2004), separate opinion of Judge Cançado Trindade, paras. 16 and 18-20.
10A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos,
Vol. III, Porto Alegre/Brazil, S.A. Fabris Ed., 2003, p. 442.
10A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial Internacional ..., op. cit.

sup103note 82, pp. 329-330.
Ibid., pp. 330-332.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 114 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 379

l’homme — un droit de protection, qui est orienté vers eux. En accordant

aux victimes individuelles le jus standi, ou locus standi in judicio, dans ce
domaine de protection au niveau international, le droit international degs
droits de l’homme a rétabli la position centrale qu’y occupaiengt les vic -
times 100(même lorsqu’elles se trouvent dans une situation de grande vul -

nérabilité, voire sont sans défense), et a ainsi établi queg, dans le domaine
du droit des gens en général, l’individu est un sujet internatigonal (qui plus
est, un sujet actif).

83. La position centrale qu’occupent les victimes dans le présent
domaine de protection attire l’attention sur le besoin pressant d’gassurer,
dans le cadre de la justice réparatrice, leur réhabilitation, compte tenu de
leur personnalité dans son intégralité 101. La réhabilitation des victimes a

des répercussions dans leur milieu social. Elle a une dimension à gla fois
individuelle et sociale. La justice réparatrice a beaucoup progresség au
cours des dernières décennies, en raison de l’évolution du droit internatio -

nal des droits de l’homme, humanisant ainsi le droit des gens. Ces prgogrès
se font à présent sentir également, quoique dans une moindre megsure
mais de façon néanmoins rassurante, dans les domaines du droit intger-

national humanitaire et du droit international pénal contemporain. Lag
conscience juridique universelle semble au moins s’éveiller à lga nécessité
d’honorer les victimes de violations des droits de l’homme et de rgétablir
leur dignité.

84. La réhabilitation des victimes devient cruciale en cas de violations g
graves de leur droit à l’intégrité personnelle. De fait, uneg aide médicale et
psychologique aux victimes a parfois été prescrite — principalement par

la CIADH — 102me une forme de réparation, en vue d’assurer leur réha -
bilitation . De telles mesures visaient à permettre aux victimes de sur -
monter leur extrême vulnérabilité et de recouvrer leur identitég et leur
intégrité. La réhabilitation des victimes, en atténuant leurg souffrance et

celle de leurs proches, se répercute dans leur milieu social.
85. Parce qu’elle va à l’encontre de l’apparente indifférengce de leur
milieu social, la réhabilitation aide les victimes à retrouver l’gestime d’elles-

mêmes et leur capacité à vivre en harmonie avec les autres. El103 nourrit
leur espoir qu’existe un minimum de justice sociale . Dans la pénible
lutte que mènent les victimes pour se rétablir de l’injustice dge l’humilia -
tion, la réhabilitation contribue à la restructuration de leur psygchisme. En

tant que forme de réparation, elle a pour but de rétablir en définitive

100 Voir en ce sens CIADH, affaire Castillo Petruzzi et autres c. Pérou, arrêt du 4 septem -
bre 1998 (exceptions préliminaires), opinion individuelle de M. le juge Cançado Trindade,
par. 5 et 12 ; CIADH, affaire Tibi c. Equateur, arrêt du 7 septembre 2004 (fond et répara -
tions), opinion individuelle de M. le juge Cançado Trindade, par. 16 et 18-20.
101 A. A. Cançado Trindade, Tratado de Direito Internacional dos Direitos Humanos,
vol. III, Porto Alegre/Brésil, S.A. Fabris Ed., 2003, p. 442.
102 A. A. Cançado Trindade, El Ejercicio de la Función Judicial Internacional…, op. cit.

sup103note 82, p. 329-330.
Ibid., p. 330-332.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 115 26/11/13 09:37 380 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

in breach of human rights. In sum, rehabilitation restores one’s faith ign
human justice.

X. Epilogue: Concluding Reflectionsg

86. As we have seen in the present separate opinion, reparation and its
rationale, in the light of the basic principle of neminem laedere, are
deeply-rooted in international legal thinking, going back in time to the

early beginnings of the law of nations (the droit des gens). Considerat104
of the subject-matter marked presence, as I have pointed out , in the
writings of de Vitoria, H. Grotius, S. Pufendorf and C. Wolff (as well as
in those of A. Gentili, F. Suárez and C. van Bynkershoek), from the six -

teenth to the eighteenth centuries. Concern to secure reparations for dam ‑
ages done to the human person was present therein, and in a way even
antedated their writings, going far back to the fifteenth century, when the
term “person” (meaning the physical or moral person) had then begen con -
105
ceptualized , as referring to the subject of rights.
87. By then — and certainly by the following time of the insights of de
Vitoria in the early sixteenth century, and of Suárez and Grotius in the
early seventeenth century (followed by those of Pufendorf in the late

seventeenth century, and of Wolff in the eighteenth century) — it had been
understood that the human person “embodied” humanity, and a damageg
done to him/her was a wrong, which required reparation. The reductionist

outlook which followed (starting with Vattel in the mid-eighteenth cen -
tury) of an international legal order conformed in pursuance of a stricgt
inter-State conception (in the light of distinct trend of legal positivgism) —
with individuals subjected to their respective States, as upheld mainly gby

Hegelian legal philosophy, as from the early nineteenth century, with its
personification of the all-powerful sovereign State — with the disastrous
consequences which followed, was incapable of removing the human per -
son from the framework of the law of nations, as originally conceived.

88. As a matter of fact, even at the dark time when absolute State
sovereignty (devoid of any precise meaning) came to be invoked, also ign
the ambit of the relations between States and individuals, to attempt tog

justify, and to cover-up, grave abuses against these latter, there were
those who raised their voices to unmask such deception. Examination of
this particular point lies beyond the purposes of the present separate

104
105Cf. Section III, paras. 14-21, supra.
In ancient times, it may be recalled, the term person (the Etruscan phersu, the Greek
prôsopon, the Latin persona) meant the mask, in theatrical representation ;later on, it came
to refer to the character (personnage), paving the way for the medieval sense of “person”
(the human person), meaning, from the fifteenth century onwards, the physical or moral
person, as subject of rights.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 116 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 380

l’ordre dans les relations humaines perturbées par les actes de crguauté qui

ont été commis en violation des droits de l’homme. En somme, lag réhabi-
litation redonne foi en la justice humaine.

X. Épilogue : conclusions

86. Comme nous l’avons vu dans la présente opinion individuelle, la

réparation et sa raison d’être, eu égard au principe fondamental nemi ‑
nem laedere, sont profondément ancrées dans la pensée juridique interna -
tionale et remontent aux prémices du droit des gens. Ce sujet fut larggement
évoqué, comme je l’ai souligné 104, dans les écrits de F. Vitoria, H. Gro-

tius, S. Pufendorf et C. Wolff (et dans ceux de A. Gentili, F. Suárez et
C. van Bynkershoek), du XVI e au XVIII e siècle. Le souci d’assurer la
réparation des dommages infligés à la personne humaine y égtait exprimé

et, en quelque sorte, était même antérieur à ces ouvrages etg remontait au
XV esiècle, époque à laquelle la notion de « personne» (au sens de per -
sonne physique ou morale) fut définie 105 comme faisant référence au sujet

des droits.
87. A ce moment-là — et assurément au moment où Vitoria, au début
du XVI esiècle, puis Suárez et Grotius, au début du XVII siècle, livrèrent
leurs enseignements (suivis de Pufendorf, à la fin du XVII esiècle, et de
e
Wolff, au XVIII siècle) —, on en était venu à comprendre que la per -
sonne humaine « incarnait» l’humanité, et que tout dommage qui lui
était causé était un acte illicite appelant réparation. La perspective

réductrece qui se fit jour ultérieurement (à partir de Vattel, gau milieu du
XVIII siècle) d’un ordre juridique international obéissant à une logique
strictement interétatique (sous l’influence d’un courant disgtinct, le positi -
visme juridique) — les individus étant soumis à leurs Etats respectifs,
e
comme le soutenait principalement, à partir du début du XIX siècle, la
philosophie juridique hégélienne, qui personnifiait l’Etat souvegrain tout-
puissant —, avec les conséquences désastreuses qui s’ensuivirent, fut

incapable d’évincer la personne humaine, telle qu’elle avait ingitialement
été conçue, du cadre du droit des gens.
88. A vrai dire, même à la sinistre époque où l’on invoquait gla puis -
sance absolue de l’Etat (sans que cela revête une signification prgécise)

jusque dans le domaine des relations entre Etats et individus pour tentegr
de justifier, et de masquer, de graves abus commis à l’encontre de gces
derniers, d’aucuns élevèrent la voix pour dénoncer pareille gsupercherie.

L’examen de cet aspect particulier ne relève pas de la présenteg opinion

104Voir supra section III, par. 14-21.
105Je rappellerai que, dans l’Antiquité, le terme personne (phersu en étrusque, prôsopon
en grec et persona en latin) désignait le masque utilisé dans les représentations théâtrales ;
plus tard, il fut utilisé pour désigner le personnage, ouvrant aingsi la voie au sens médiéval
e
du mot « personne » (la personne humaine), qui, à partir du XV siècle, a désigné la
personne physique ou morale, en tant que sujet de droits.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 117 26/11/13 09:37 381 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

opinion. Suffice it here only to recall that, in the early twentieth century,
Léon Duguit, in his philosophical construction of the “solidarisme de la

liberté”, outlining State obligations vis-à-vis the human person (individu -
ally or in groups), denounced the gross abuses perpetrated in the name of
State sovereignty as unwarranted tyrannical oppression 106.

89. Throughout the twentieth century, despite so many abuses and
successive atrocities victimizing millions of individuals, a trend of hugman -
ist thinking flourished, in the writings of Emmanuel Mounier (1905-1950)

and Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973), asserting the juridical “personalism”,
aiming at doing justice to the individuality of the human person, to her
inner life and the need for transcendence (on the basis of her own expegri -
ence of life). In a world of violence amidst the misuses of language, tghere

were, thus, also those who succeeded in preserving their lucidity. This gand
other precious trends of humanist thinking, almost forgotten (surely byg
the legal profession) in our hectic days, can, in my view, still shed mguch

light towards further development of reparations for moral damages done
to the human person.
90. Such reparations for moral damages 107 should not be limited
always to awards of reparations on a pecuniary basis only ; there are

times, depending on the circumstances of the cases, when they call for
other forms of (non-pecuniary) reparations (obligations of doing, such as
satisfaction and rehabilitation of the victims). Be that as it may, I dgare
to nourish the hope that the day will come when it is properly learned and g

well-established that the State’s duty to provide reparations for damages g
it did to individuals is an ineluctable and indispensable one : it cannot, in
my understanding, be evaded by an unacceptable, unethical and
108
unfounded invocation of State sovereignty or of State immunity .

91. Another lesson we can extract from the present case, unprecedented
in this Court’s history, is that the determination of reparations forg human

rights breaches is not a matter of legal technique only, as the incidencge of
considerations of equity fully demonstrates. In this respect, also in thge
previous Judgment of the Court (on the merits, of 30 November 2010) in
the present Diallo case, I pointed out, in my separate opinion thereon,

that the individual concerned is the subject of the right to reparation g
and its ultimate beneficiary (I.C.J. Reports 2010 (II), pp. 797-801,
paras. 200-212), beyond the inter-State dimension (ibid., pp. 802-805,

paras. 213-221).

106He did so, e.g., in his lucid and thoughtful lectures of 1920-1921, as Visiting
Professor at Columbia University ; cf. Léon Duguit, Souveraineté et liberté [1920-1921],
Paris, Ed. La Mémoire du droit, 2002 [reed.], pp. 126-127, 132-134, 150-151 and 202.

107
108Cf. Section VIII, paras. 74-80, supra.
Cf., in this sense case of Jurisdictional Immunities of the State (Germany v.
Italy : Greece intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), dissenting opinion of
Judge Cançado Trindade, pp. 181-290, paras. 1-316.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 118 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 381

individuelle, et je me bornerai donc à rappeler ici que, au début gdu
e
XX siècle, Léon Duguit, dans sa construction philosophique du « solida-
risme de la liberté » — qui met en exergue les obligations de l’Etat vis-à-
vis de la personne humaine (en tant qu’individu ou que membre d’ugn
groupe) —, a qualifié les graves abus perpétrés au nom de la souverainetég
106
de l’Etat d’oppression tyrannique injustifiée .
89. Tout au long du XX e siècle, en dépit des innombrables abus et atro-
cités perpétrés à l’encontre de millions d’individus, un courant de pensée

humaniste s’est développé, dans les écrits d’Emmanuel Mounier (1905-
1950) et de Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973), pour affirmer le « personnalisme »
juridique, qui vise à rendre justice à l’individualité de la personne humaine,
à sa vie intérieure, et la nécessité de la transcendance (àg partir de sa propre

expérience de la vie). Ainsi, dans un monde de violence sur fond d’gabus de
langage, certains parvinrent malgré tout à conserver leur luciditég. Cette
tendance de la pensée humaniste, ainsi que d’autres, presque tombéges dans

l’oubli à notre époque agitée (et en tout cas assurémentg chez les juristes),
demeurent, à mon sens, d’une aide précieuse pour le développement du
régime de réparation des dommages moraux causés à la personnge humaine.
107
90. Or, la réparation des dommages moraux ne devrait pas invaria -
blement se limiter à une indemnisation fondée sur des considéragtions
d’ordre matériel, car les circonstances de l’affaire en causeg appellent par -
fois d’autres formes (immatérielles) de réparation (à savgoir, des obliga -

tions de faire, telles que la satisfaction et la réhabilitation des victimes).
Quoi qu’il en soit, j’ose espérer que le jour viendra où le gfait qu’il est
inéluctable et indispensable que l’Etat ait le devoir de réparegr les dom -

mages qu’il a fait subir à des individus sera fermement ancré dgans les
esprits et bien établi: à mon sens, l’Etat ne saurait échapper à ce devoir en
arguant de sa souveraineté ou de son immunité 10, motif tout à la fois
inacceptable, infondé et contraire à l’éthique.

91. On peut tirer de la présente affaire, qui est sans précédent dans
l’histoire de la Cour, un autre enseignement : la réparation de la violation
des droits de l’homme ne se résume pas à la simple application gde tech -

niques juridiques, comme le montre amplement l’incidence des considégra -
tions d’équité. A cet égard, j’ai également fait observer, dans l’exposé de
l’opinion individuelle que j’ai jointe à l’arrêt précégdemment rendu par la
Cour sur le fond (le 30 novembre 2010) en la présente affaire Diallo, que,

au-delà de la dimension interétatique (C.I.J. Recueil 2010(II), p. 802-805,
par. 213-221), l’individu concerné est le titulaire du droit à régparation et
son bénéficiaire ultime (ibid., p. 797-801, par. 200-212).

106 Il s’est ainsi exprimé, par exemple, dans les conférences pleines de lucidité et de
profondeur qu’il a données en 1920-1921 en tant que professeur invité à l’université
Columbia ; voir Léon Duguit, Souveraineté et liberté [1920-1921], Paris, Ed. La Mémoire
du droit, 2002 (rééd.), p. 126-127, 132-134, 150-151 et 202.
107Voir supra section VIII, par. 74-80.
108 Voir en ce sens l’affaire relative aux Immunités juridictionnelles de l’Etat ‑Alle

magne c. Italie ; Grèce (intervenant)), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), opinion dissidente de
M. le juge Cançado Trindade, p. 181-290, par. 1-316.

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92. As the Court stated in that Judgment on the merits of 30 Novem -
ber 2010, the cas d’espèce concerns breaches of human rights treaties
(cf. supra). And as I pondered in my earlier separate opinion appended to
that Judgment on the merits, the hermeneutics of human rights treaties
has put limits to the excesses of State voluntarism (I.C.J. Reports 2010

(II), pp. 755-758, paras. 82-88) ; it has done so in pursuance of the prin -
ciple pro persona humana (ibid., pp. 758-759, paras. 89-92). In a larger
horizon, one is here guided by the principle of humanity (ibid., pp. 759-
762, paras. 93-105), in conformity with the necessary law of the societas
gentium, regulating relations in the international community constituted

by human beings socially organized in States and co-extensive with
humankind (ibid., pp. 762-763, para. 106).
93. As I deemed it fit to add in the aforementioned separate opinion,
that necessary law of the societas gentium has — pursuant to natural law

thinking — “prevailed over the will of individual States”, thus remainingg

“respe109ul of the human person, to the benefit of the common
good . The precious legacy of natural law thinking, evoking the
natural law of the right human reason (recta ratio), has never faded
away, and this should be stressed time and time again (. . .).” (Ibid.).

Furthermore, the old monopoly of States of the titularity of rights at
international level can no longer be sustained.

94. The reasserted presence — and a central one — of the individual in
the framework of the law of nations has much contributed, as I have
sought to demonstrate in the present separate opinion, to the more recengt
progressive development of international law in respect of reparations fgor
damages ensuing from violations of human rights. With the rescue of the g

individual as subject of the contemporary jus gentium, the centrality of
victims in the international protection of human rights is nowadays
well-established and beyond question. In the present domain of protec -
tion, reparations are due to individual victims, and not to States. The g
victim-centred outlook has entailed implications for the reparations due,

has clarified their forms, has fostered the progressive development of
international law in the present domain.

95. The international subjectivity of individuals has had this additional

beneficial impact upon contemporary jus gentium. The contribution of the
case law of the international tribunals of human rights (the IACtHR and
the ECHR) bears witness of this. The centrality of victims singles out,g in
particular, as we have just seen, the relevance, in particular, of repargation
of moral damage to individuals, so as to alleviate their suffering, asg well

as of the rehabilitation of victims. The realization of justice is of key
importance to the victims, and belongs, in my understanding, to the

109A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Humanização do Direito Internacional, Belo Horizonte/

Brazil, Edit. Del Rey, 2006, pp. 9-14, 172, 318-319, 393 and 408.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 120 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 382

92. Ainsi que l’a déclaré la Cour dans cet arrêt sur le fond du g
30 novembre 2010, la présente affaire porte sur des violations de traités
relatifs aux droits de l’homme (voir supra). Or, comme je l’ai exposé dans
l’opinion individuelle précitée, l’herméneutique de ces tgraités a, dans une
optique pro persona humana (C.I.J. Recueil 2010 (II), p. 758-759,

par. 89-92), posé des limites aux excès de la volonté de l’Etat (ibid.,
p. 755-759, par. 82-88). De façon plus générale, c’est ici le principe d’hu -
manité qui est à l’œuvre (ibid., p. 759-762, par. 93-105), conformément à
la nécessaire loi de la societas gentium, qui régit les relations dans la com -
munauté internationale constituée par des êtres humains socialegment

organisés en Etats et qui coïncide avec l’humanité (ibid., p. 762-763,
par. 106).
93. Comme j’ai jugé bon de l’ajouter dans cette même opinion indivi -
duelle, la nécessaire loi de la societas gentium a — sous l’influence de la

doctrine jusnaturaliste — « [eu] préséance sur la volonté des Etats indivi -
duels », ainsi

«tenu109e respecter la personne humaine dans l’intérêt du bien cgom-
mun . Le précieux legs du droit naturel, qui évoque un droit fondé
dans la raison humaine juste (recta ratio), ne s’est jamais évanoui, et
il convient de le souligner sans cesse… » (Ibid.).

De surcroît, voir dans l’Etat le titulaire monopolistique des droigts au
niveau international est une conception surannée devenue indéfendagble.

94. La présence réaffirmée de l’individu au cœur même du gdroit des
gens a, comme j’ai tenté de le démontrer dans la présente opginion indivi -
duelle, largement contribué aux dernières avancées du droit international
en matière de réparation des dommages résultant de violations dges droits
de l’homme. L’individu ayant été rétabli comme sujet du jus gentium

contemporain, la position centrale des victimes en matière de protectgion
internationale des droits de l’homme est de nos jours bien établie et n’est
plus remise en cause. Dans ce domaine de protection, les réparations
sont dues aux victimes individuelles, et non aux Etats. Cette perspec -
tive centrée sur les victimes a eu des répercussions sur les réparations

dues, elle a contribué à clarifier les formes que celles-ci devaiengt prendre
et a favorisé le développement progressif du droit international egn la
matière.
95. Le fait que l’individu soit un sujet international a eu cette influgence

positive supplémentaire sur le jus gentium contemporain, comme en
témoigne la contribution de la jurisprudence des juridictions internagtionales
garantes des droits de l’homme (CIADH et CEDH). La position centralge
des victimes met notamment en exergue, comme nous venons de le voir,
l’importance qu’il y a, entre autres, à réparer les dommagesg moraux subis

par les individus, de manière à atténuer leur souffrance, et gà réhabiliter les
victimes. Il est capital pour les victimes que justice soit faite, et pareil objec

109A. A. Cançado Trindade, A Humanização do Direito Internacional, Belo Horizonte/

Brésil, Edit. Del Rey, 2006, p. 9-14, 172, 318-319, 393 et 408.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 121 26/11/13 09:37 383 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

domain of jus cogens. Without it, the right of access to justice lato sensu,
there is no legal system at all.

96. The jurisprudential and doctrinal developments that I have cared,
and felt obliged, to examine in the present separate opinion, have been g
made possible in the light of the recognition that the victims, subjectsg of
the right to reparation, are the ones who actually suffered the damage —
human beings of flesh and bone, and not their States. It is, furthermogre,

not to be forgotten that the legal construction on the matter, existing g
today in international law (but still in its infancy), was transposed to it
from the secular experience gathered earlier in domestic legal systems; the
recent contribution of international human rights tribunals (the IACtHRg
and the ECHR) sheds new light into it (cf. supra), and develops the apti -
tude on international law to regulate relations in circumstances such as

those of the present Diallo case. The traditional and strict inter-State
dimension is of little use, if any, here.

97. Furthermore, in modern times, since the dawn of State responsibil-
ity, it has become clear that the breach of international law and the com -

pliance with the duty of reparation for damages form an indissoluble
whole, which cannot at all be disrupted by undue and irresponsible invo -
cations of State sovereignty or State immunity. The obligation to provide
reparation of damages stands as a fundamental one, rather than as a “sec -
ondary” one. It is an imperative of justice.

98. The resurgence of individuals as subjects of the law of nations (the
new jus gentium) has entailed other consequences, in addition to that on
reparations for damages resulting from human rights violations (supra),
and related to this latter. It has, for example, called for a reassessmegnt of
issues pertaining to international legal procedure. This has been recently
reckoned by this Court itself, in its most recent Advisory Opinion

(of 1 February 2012) on Judgment No. 2867 of the Administrative Tribunal
of the International Labour Organization upon a Complaint Filed against ▯
the International Fund for Agricultural Development. In my separate opin -
ion appended thereto, I sustained that the international legal personality
(and capacity) of individuals, requiring the observance of the basic prin -

ciple of procedural equality (equality of arms/égalité des armes), corre -
sponds to a necessity of the international legal order itself in our days
(I.C.J. Reports 2012 (I), pp. 52-93, paras. 1-118).
99. Last but not least, I come back to my initial point. Bearing in mind
that in the present case the damages were done to an individual

(Mr. A. S. Diallo) and not to a State, there is one precision that I deem it
fit to make at this final stage in this separate opinion. In the dispositif of
the present Judgment, the Court fixes the amount of compensation for
non‑material as well as material damage “suffered by Mr. Diallo” (resolu -
tory points (1) and (2)). I have concurred with the Court majority’s deci -
sion as to a larger amount of compensation for non-material damage,

given the particular importance that I attach to reparation for moral
damages (cf. supra).

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6 CIJ1032.indb 122 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 383

tif relève, à mon sens, du jus cogens. A défaut d’un tel droit d’accès à la

justice lato sensu, il n’est tout simplement point de système juridique.
96. Les évolutions jurisprudentielles et doctrinales que j’ai pris soin — et
que je me suis senti tenu — d’examiner dans la présente opinion individuelle
ont été rendues possibles par la reconnaissance du fait que ce songt les victimes,
titulaires du droit à réparation — des êtres humains faits de chair et d’os, et

non les Etats dont ils sont ressortissants —, qui ont effectivement subi le
dommage. Il convient par ailleurs de ne pas perdre de vue que la construction
juridique dans ce domaine, qui existe aujourd’hui en droit international (bien
que toujours balbutiante), y a été transposée à partir de lg’expérience acquise
au cours des siècles dans les systèmes juridiques internes ; la contribution

récente des juridictions internationales garantes des droits de l’ghomme (la
CIADH et la CEDH) jette un nouvel éclairage en la matière (voir gsupra) et
rend le droit international mieux apte à régir les relations dans gdes circons -
tances telles que celles de la présente affaire Diallo. En l’espèce, la dimension
traditionnelle strictement interétatique est de peu d’utilité, gvoire d’aucune.

97. De surcroît, à l’époque actuelle, depuis l’avènement dge la responsa -
bilité de l’Etat, il est devenu évident que la violation du drogit internatio -
nal et le respect du devoir de réparer les dommages constituent un togut
indissoluble, que l’invocation illégitime et irresponsable de la souverai -
neté ou de l’immunité de l’Etat ne saurait en aucun cas dissgoudre. L’obli-

gation de réparer les dommages est fondamentale, et non « secondaire».
Elle répond à un impératif de justice.
98. Les conséquences de la résurgence de l’individu en tant que sujget
du droit des gens (le nouveau jus gentium) se sont fait sentir au-delà du
domaine de la réparation des dommages résultant des violations desg

droits de l’homme (supra) ou liés à celles-ci. Cette résurgence a, par
exemple, nécessité un réexamen des questions relatives à la gprocédure
juridique internationale. C’est ce que la Cour a elle-même estimég, dans
l’avis consultatif qu’elle a très récemment rendu (le 1 er février 2012) sur le
Jugement n o2867 du Tribunal administratif de l’Organisation internatio ‑

nale du Travail sur requête contre le Fonds international de dével▯oppement
agricole. Dans l’exposé de l’opinion individuelle que j’ai jointe àg cet avis,
j’ai soutenu que la personnalité (et la capacité) juridique ignternationale de
l’individu, qui exige le respect du principe fondamental de l’égalité des
armes, correspond aujourd’hui à une nécessité de l’ordre juridique inter -

national lui-même (C.I.J. Recueil 2012 (I), p. 52-93, par. 1-118).
99. Enfin, et surtout, j’en reviens au point de départ de mon raisonne -
ment. Compte tenu du fait que, dans la présente affaire, c’est ugn individu
(M. A. S. Diallo), et non un Etat, qui a subi les dommages, il me semble
utile d’apporter une précision à ce stade final de la présentge opinion indi -

viduelle. Dans le dispositif du présent arrêt, la Cour a fixé leg montant de
l’indemnité due pour les préjudices immatériel et matériel « subi[s] par
M. Diallo» (points 1 et 2 du dispositif). Etant donné l’importance particu -
lière que j’attache à la réparation des dommages moraux (vogir supra), j’ai
souscrit à la décision de la majorité de la Cour tendant à ce qu’un montant

d’indemnité plus important soit accordé au titre du dommage immgatériel.

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6 CIJ1032.indb 123 26/11/13 09:37 384 ahmadou sadio diallo (sgep. op. cançado trindadge)

100. Although the amounts of compensation are formally due from

the Democratic Republic of the Congo (as respondent State in the cas
d’espèce) to Guinea (as complainant State in the present case), the ulti -
mate subject (titulaire) of the right to reparation and its beneficiary is
Mr. A. S. Diallo, the individual who suffered the damages. The amounts
of compensation have been determined by the Court to his benefit. This is

the proper meaning, as I perceive it, of resolutory points (1) and (2) of the
dispositif of the present Judgment, in combination with paragraph 57 of
the reasoning of the Court.
101. This understanding is well in accordance with the basic postulates
of the international law of human rights (the applicable law in the present

case), and bears witness of the international legal personality of the gindi -
vidual as subject of contemporary international law. This is clearly so,g
even if, out of a surpassed dogmatism, individuals remain deprived of
their international legal capacity, of their locus standi in judicio, that
would otherwise have enabled them — as it should happen, in the light of

all the aforementioned — to appear directly in legal proceedings before
this Court.

(Signed) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

64

6 CIJ1032.indb 124 26/11/13 09:37 ahmadou sadio diallo (ogp. ind. cançado trindadge) 384

100. Bien que, officiellement, les montants d’indemnité soient dus parg la

République démocratique du Congo (en tant qu’Etat défendeurg en l’espèce)
à la République de Guinée (en tant qu’Etat demandeur en l’gespèce), le titu -
laire ultime du droit à réparation, et son bénéficiaire, est gM. A. S. Diallo, à
savoir la personne qui a subi les dommages. Le montant des différentes
composantes de l’indemnité a été fixé par la Cour en faveur de celui‑ci. Tel

est, selon moi, le véritable sens des points 1 et 2 du dispositif du présent
arrêt, lus à la lumière du paragraphe 57 des motifs de la Cour.

101. Cette interprétation est parfaitement conforme aux postulats fon -
damentaux sur lesquels repose le droit international des droits de l’ghomme

(qui est le droit applicable dans la présente affaire), et elle mget en évidence
la personnalité juridique internationale de l’individu en tant queg sujet du
droit international contemporain. Il en est manifestement ainsi même gsi,
par l’effet d’un excès de dogmatisme, l’individu demeure pgrivé de la capa -
cité juridique internationale, du locus standi in judicio, qui lui aurait sinon

permis — comme cela devrait être le cas, au vu de tout ce qui précègde —
de comparaître directement devant cette Cour.

(Signé) Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade.

64

6 CIJ1032.indb 125 26/11/13 09:37

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Juge Cançado Trindade

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