Separate opinion of Judge Abraham

Document Number
140-20110401-JUD-01-06-EN
Parent Document Number
140-20110401-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

224

SEpARATE OpINION OF JUdgE ABRAHAm

[Translation]

Agreement with the operative part of the Judgment in its rejection of th▯e first
preliminary objection — Disagreement with the Court’s reasoning in finding the
existence of a dispute between the Parties — Conception of “dispute” alien to that
accepted in the Court’s prior jurisprudence — Mistaken failure to be at all realistic
in identifying a dispute — Failure to determine whether dispute exists as of the

date the Court decides — Pointlessness of seeking to ascertain the date on which
the dispute arose — Incorrect requirement of prior notice of claims by the applicant
as a condition for the existence of a dispute — In the present case, existence of a
dispute over questions within the scope of CERD well before August 2008.▯

1. I have voted in favour of rejecting — as subparagraph (1) (a) of the
operative part does — Russia’s first preliminary objection, based on the

alleged absence when georgia filed its Application of a dispute between
the two States with respect to the interpretation or application of the p
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial dis -
crimination (CERd).
I have on the other hand voted against subparagraph (1) (b) of the

operative part, in which the Judgment upholds the second preliminary
objection, based on the assertion that the Application was preceded nei -
ther by an attempt to settle the dispute by negotiation nor by resort top the
special procedures established by CERd.

2. my reasons for believing that the Court should also have rejected
the second preliminary objection, and should ultimately have found jurisp -
diction to adjudicate the case, are set out in detail in the joint dissepnting
opinion appended to the present Judgment, which it has been my honour
to sign together with a number of my colleagues.

In the present separate opinion, my purpose is to explain why, notwith -
standing my concurrence in rejecting the first preliminary objection, I p
have serious reservations about the Court’s reasoning in arriving at pthis
conclusion.
3. First of all, I am struck by the fact that the greater part of the

40-page long discussion in the Judgment is devoted to the first prelimi -
nary objection (from page 81, paragraph 23, to page 120, paragraph 114),
whereas the second is dealt with in 20 pages (from page 120, paragraph 115,
to page 140, paragraph 184).
4. While no more than a hint, this suggests at first glance that a certain

bias most likely crept into the Court’s approach.
Of the four preliminary objections raised by the Russian Federation
with a view to convincing the Court that it lacked jurisdiction to enterptain
georgia’s Application on the merits, the second alone, in my opinion, p

158 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 225

raised a difficulty — indeed a number of them. This was the objection to
the effect that the procedural conditions laid down in Article 22 of the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial dis -
crimination (CERd) were not satisfied at the date the Court was seised,
thereby rendering the clause — the only basis of jurisdiction relied on by
georgia — inoperative in the present case. I can well understand that this

objection may have warranted extensive consideration by the Court —
even though my conclusion upon completion of that discussion was not
the same as the majority’s.

5. By contrast, none of the other three objections (initially) presented p
to the Court justified lengthy treatment in the Judgment, since for varipous

reasons none of the three should have retained the Court’s attention for
very long.
6. This is obviously the case for the third and fourth preliminary objec -
tions.
The Judgment simply states (in paragraph 185) that the Court has no

need to consider them, since it is upholding the second objection. This pis
logical and by itself calls for no comment.
But, even if the Court had rejected the first two preliminary objectionsp
(not just the first), which I think it should have done, there would hpave
been no need for it to give much consideration to the third and fourth
objections. This is because Russia in the oral proceedings abandoned itsp

third objection (lack of jurisdiction ratione loci) as a preliminary objec -
tion, arguing itself that it was not of an exclusively preliminary character
and therefore should not be considered at this stage, and because the
fourth objection (lack of jurisdiction ratione temporis) was of no practical
significance, since georgia’s claims against the Respondent related to
events occurring after 2 July 1999, when CERd entered into force

between the parties.

7. In my view, the Court should have similarly disposed of the first
preliminary objection without needing to dwell upon it, since this objecp -
tion, based on the alleged lack of any dispute between the parties
concerning the interpretation or application of CERd, did not stand

up to any scrutiny whatsoever, not even the most cursory. The Court
ultimately arrived at the conclusion that this objection was baseless
and should be rejected — a conclusion which I cannot help but share —
but only after long, laboured reasoning, which I can support only to a
very limited extent. It is not only that the reasoning is needlessly long,

whereas the right response was simple. prolixity is a venial sin, one which
this writer would be careful not to condemn too severely, out of fear
that he himself may be judged just as harshly. more serious to my mind
is that the approach taken in the Judgment in the discussion on pages 81
to 120 is open to substantive criticism on several grounds, including mopst
importantly that it reflects — more or less implicitly — a conception

of the meaning of “dispute” far too removed from what I believe to bep

159 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 226

the more correct conception to be seen in the Court’s jurisprudence to
date.

8. I shall first observe that until the present case the Court, whenever
required to decide on a preliminary objection based on the respondent’ps
contention that there was no dispute, has made its decision — rejecting

the objection — in a few short paragraphs, and has made the determina -
tion as of the date on which it was ruling, finding that the parties helpd
clearly conflicting views at that date on the matters constituting thep sub -
ject of the application and consequently that a dispute existed between p
them.
9. Three relatively recent precedents are significant in this regard : the

cases concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugo-
slavia), the Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria
(Cameroon v. Nigeria), and Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany).

10. In the first of those cases, the Court dealt with the respondent’s
objection founded on the lack of a dispute between the parties in para -
graphs 27 to 29 of its Judgment of 11 July 1996 on the preliminary objec -
tions. After summarizing Bosnia and Herzegovina’s submissions as madep
at the end of the proceedings, in essence requesting the Court to adjudgpe
that yugoslavia had variously violated the genocide Convention and to

order the respondent to make reparation for the consequences of the vio -
lations committed, the Court stated :

“While yugoslavia has refrained from filing a Counter-memorial
on the merits and has raised preliminary objections, it has neverthelessp
wholly denied all of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s allegations, whether
at the stage of proceedings relating to the requests for the indication p
of provisional measures, or at the stage of the present proceedings

relating to those objections.” (Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, para. 28.)

The Court then immediately added :

“In conformity with well-established jurisprudence, the Court
accordingly notes that there persists ‘a situation in which the two spides
hold clearly opposite views’ . . . and that, by reason of the rejection
by yugoslavia of the complaints formulated against it by Bosnia and
Herzegovina, ‘there is a legal dispute’ between them.” (Ibid., pp. 614-
615, para. 29.)

11. In the second case, the Court responded to a similar objection by
Nigeria in paragraphs 87 to 93 of its Judgment of 11 June 1998 on the

preliminary objections.

160 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 227

After recalling the criteria for a “dispute” enunciated in the Mavrom-
matis Palestine Concessions Judgment and in the Judgment on prelimi -
nary objections in the South West Africa case, as the present Judgment
does in paragraph 30, the Court observed that there could be “no doubt
about the existence of disputes” between the parties over part of the
course of their land boundary, adding at the same time :

“a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal viewps . . .
need not necessarily be stated expressis verbis. In the determination
of the existence of a dispute, as in other matters, the position or the p

attitude of a party can be established by inference, whatever the pro -
fessed view of that party.” (Land and Maritime Boundary between
Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objec -
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 315, para. 89.)

The Court then noted that: although Nigeria maintained that there was
no dispute between it and Cameroon concerning the boundary delimi-
tation “as such”, it had “constantly been reserved in the mannepr in which
it . . . presented its own position” (ibid., para. 91) ; but that Nigeria in any

event had “not indicated its agreement with Cameroon on the course ofp
that boundary . . . and [had] not informed the Court of the position which
it [would] take in the future on Cameroon’s claims” (ibid., p. 317,
para. 93). The Court concluded its reasoning thus :

“Nigeria is entitled not to advance arguments that it considers are
for the merits at the present stage of the proceedings ; in the circum -
stances however, the Court finds itself in a situation in which it cannopt
decline to examine the submission of Cameroon on the ground that

there is no dispute between the two States.” (Ibid.)

12. In the third case, the Court considered germany’s objection

founded on the lack of a dispute in paragraphs 24 to 27 of its 10 Febru -
ary 2005 Judgment on the preliminary objections and dealt with it with
dispatch. It first repeated the time-honoured pronouncements from the
Mavrommatis and South West Africa cases (Certain Property (Liechten -
stein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005,

p. 18, para. 24). It then observed : “germany . . . for its part denies alto -
gether the existence of a dispute with Liechtenstein” (ibid., p. 18, para. 25).
But it also noted that : “germany considers . . . that, in the case of Liech -
tenstein, german courts simply applied their consistent case law to what
were deemed german external assets under the . . . Convention” (on the
Settlement of matters Arising out of the War and the Occupation, signed

at Bonn in 1952) (ibid., p. 19, para. 25). For the Court, this provided a
sufficient basis on which to find that “in the present proceedings
complaints of fact and law formulated by Liechtenstein against germany
are denied by the latter” and to conclude that, “[i]n conformity wpith
well-established jurisprudence . . ., ‘[b]y virtue of this denial, there is a
legal dispute’ between Liechtenstein and germany” (ibid.).

161 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 228

13. Three characteristics of the Court’s past approach in responding to
an objection alleging the absence of a dispute between the parties may be
drawn from these three precedents, which accord so strongly with one
another (and the cases concerning East Timor (Portugal v. Australia),
(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, pp. 99-100, paras. 21-22) and Northern
Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom) (Preliminary Objections, Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 27) may be cited in further support).
14. First, in determining whether there is a “dispute”, the Court takeps
a strictly realistic and practical view, free of all hints of formalism.p It is
enough for the Court to find that the two parties hold opposing views onp
the matters referred to the Court, and this difference may be evidencepd in
any manner. Before the proceedings were initiated, the parties may have p

engaged in an official exchange, in the form of a protest or claim madep by
one and rejected by the other ; that can help to establish the existence of
a dispute and define its subject, but it is never an absolute requiremenpt in
the eyes of the Court. Thus, the Court in the Liechtenstein v. Germany
case referred to bilateral consultations between the parties before the

Court was seised. In them germany had let it be known that it did not
agree with Liechtenstein, but the Court did not consider this to be concplu -
sive: according to the Court, these consultations had “evidentiary value”
in support of the conclusion it had otherwise come to, namely that a
dispute existed between the parties (Certain Property (Liechtenstein v.
Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19,

para. 25). A State’s position on a given matter may be inferred simply
from its conduct, even if that position has not been stated expressis verbis
(Cameroon v. Nigeria, cited above). All that matters is that the Court must
find that the parties hold conflicting positions on the questions formping the
subject of the application — this finding being strictly one of substance, not
form — and that these questions fall ratione materiae within the scope of

the compromissory clause or whatever other provision the applicant is rely -
ing on as the basis for the Court’s jurisdiction.

15. Secondly, in determining whether a dispute exists, the Court does

so as of the date on which it decides (i.e., generally, the date of itsp judg -
ment on the preliminary objections). Obviously, the dispute, by definitpion,
concerns facts and situations predating the seisin of the Court ; thus, it
can be stated that as a rule the dispute already exists when the proceedp -
ings are instituted. But for the Court what must matter is that the disppute

exists at the date when it determines whether it has jurisdiction ; more
importantly, in making that determination the Court takes into account
all elements — even those arising after the case was commenced — liable
to show that the dispute exists and endures. That is why the Court in thpe
cited precedents places the greatest importance on the respondent’s pposi -
tions on the merits of the case as expressed in the course of the judicipal

proceedings, including in the arguments on the preliminary objections. Ipt

162 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 229

is often by reference to these stated positions that it is possible to cpon -
clude that a dispute exists. Even where a respondent remains cautious
or ambiguous in the preliminary objections stage as to its final positions,p
this is not sufficient to convince the Court that there is no dispute
(Cameroon v. Nigeria, cited above).

16. Thirdly, it has never been a concern of the Court in any of the
precedents examined to ascertain the exact date on which a dispute came p
into being. And it is easy to see why : as a general rule, it does not matter
whether the dispute first arose between the parties long or shortly befopre
the application was filed. It is necessary and sufficient if the disputpe exists
when the Court is seised (which can be shown by subsequently occurring p

facts) and subsists on the date on which the Court determines whether the
conditions for the exercise of its jurisdiction have been met.
17. True, there is one situation in which the Court concerns itself with
determining the exact date on which the dispute between the parties crysp -
tallized. That is in the context of territorial disputes. But this is bepcause in

such cases the date has a significant impact in the judicial examinationp of
the arguments: the date the dispute crystallized is the “critical date”, after p
which actions taken by a State party to the dispute will generally be
regarded as carrying no weight in establishing or proving its claim of tper -
ritorial sovereignty (for example, Territorial and Maritime Dispute between
Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras),

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), pp. 697-698, para. 117).

In all other situations the notion of “crystallization of the disputep” is
inoperative and there is therefore no need to determine the date on whicph
it occurred, because — and this is self-evident — judicial reasoning is not

an exercise in historical research. The only questions to be decided arep
those which have legal significance.
18. It might be thought that the Court departed from the rule described
above in the Liechtenstein v. Germany case: in its Judgment of 10 Febru -
ary 2005, the Court stated that the dispute did not have its source or
real cause in decisions given by german courts in the 1990s but in legal

acts from the more distant past, specifically from before 1980 (Certain
Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 26, paras. 51-52).

But when it made this statement the Court was not seeking to deter -

mine the date the dispute arose, or “crystallized” — and it would have
served no purpose to do so. The Court was endeavouring to define the
date of the “facts” or “situations” causing the dispute for ppurposes of
applying Article 27 (a) of the European Convention for the peaceful
Settlement of disputes, the basis of jurisdiction relied on. Under that pro -
vision, “disputes relating to facts or situations prior to the entry pinto

force of this Convention as between the parties to the dispute”, i.e.p, prior

163 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 230

to 1980 in that case, are excluded from the jurisdiction of the Court.
Thus, what the Court had to determine was not the date on which
the dispute arose, but the date of the facts or situations to which the
dispute “related”. It was careful to distinguish the two issues (Certain
Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J Reports 2005, p. 25, para. 48) before going on to decide the second

alone, in a way favourable to the respondent’s objection to jurisdictpion
ratione temporis.
19. The present Judgment, specifically that part of it dealing with the
first preliminary objection, stands in stark contrast to the precedents pcited
above, which built up a clear, coherent, continuous and, in my opinion,
convincing case law.

20. The unusually long discussion of the issue of the existence of the
dispute is merely the visible evidence of a two-fold departure from the
existing jurisprudence.
21. First, if the Court needed so many pages to arrive at the conclusion
that there was a dispute between georgia and Russia concerning the

application of CERd, it was because it was absolutely determined to
ascertain the date on which that dispute arose. In fact, much more spacep
is devoted in the Judgment to showing — unconvincingly, I think — that
no such dispute arose before August 2008 (this is the purpose served by
paragraphs 23 to 105), than to establishing that it arose in August 2008,
just before the case was referred to the Court (this is dealt with in jpust

eight paragraphs (Judgment, paras. 106-113)).

22. I am still trying to identify the legal reasons for which the Court
devoted so much space to deciding a pointless question, in a way counterp
to all the precedents. Indeed, no inference is drawn in the Judgment —
nor could any be — from the intermediate conclusion set out in para -

graph 105, namely, that no legal dispute arose between the parties
between 1999 and July 2008 with respect to the Russian Federation’s
compliance with its obligations under CERd. It is enough for such a dis -
pute to have arisen afterwards, that is to say, not later than in Augustp 2008,
for the case to have been referred to the Court under conditions entitlipng
it to exercise jurisdiction — provided that the other conditions on exercise

were met, and this relates to other preliminary objections raised by the
Respondent. Thus, strictly speaking, paragraph 105 has no legal bearing
and nor do the dozens of paragraphs leading up to it (at least from parpa -
graph 50 onwards). I would add that, even if it were to be conceded that
the dispute only arose — in other words, emerged — in August 2008,

which I do not think to be the case, this would not mean that georgia
was precluded, for this reason alone, from bringing claims before the
Court concerning pre-August 2008 acts attributable to Russia : the date
on which a dispute arises is one thing, the subject of the dispute, i.e.p, the
facts and situations that the dispute concerns, is another, as noted in the
Judgment in the Liechtenstein v. Germany case (see paragraph 18 above).

Accordingly, the discussion leading up to paragraph 105 in the Judgment,

164 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 231

which has no actual impact on the issue of the existence of a dispute, ips
equally without consequence in delineating the subject ratione temporis.

23. The only purpose served in this case by the Court’s unusual
approach in examining the first preliminary objection is a purely practipcal
one and has to do exclusively with the second preliminary objection.

Since the Court is going to conclude much later (Judgment, para. 147)
that Article 22 of CERd lays down conditions at least one of which must
be met for it to have jurisdiction, and since this is going to lead it to con -
sider whether georgia, before seising the Court, attempted to settle its
dispute with Russia by diplomatic negotiation, the intermediate conclu -
sion in paragraph 105 will save the Court time in its consideration of this

issue by circumscribing its examination to any actions taken by the Applpi -
cant in August 2008.
In brief, the second part of the Judgment has been shortened in propor -
tion to the needless and overlong passages included in the first. Let itp be
assumed that pragmatism is well served here ; the same cannot be said of

legal rigour or of the requisite clarity that proscribes conflating sepparate
issues.
24. And the second departure from the case law precedents which I
regret in the part of the Judgment on the first objection is caused precpisely
by the confusion which the Judgment establishes to some extent between
the two preliminary objections it addresses.

As I said above, the approach taken by the Court whenever it has been
called upon to decide whether a dispute existed has without fail been a p
strictly realistic, not formalistic, one. Earlier exchanges between the ppar -
ties, consultations, demands and protests may sometimes be helpful in
establishing or confirming the existence of a dispute : they have never
been considered an absolute requirement. A dispute exists if the partiesp,

when they appear before the Court, hold opposing views on the questions
the applicant (correctly or not) seeks to submit for judicial determinpation.
That suffices. Whether or not the parties debated these questions beforpe -
hand does not matter, although this takes on obvious relevance where it p
must be determined whether the prior-negotiations requirement — if
there is one — has been met. It has none where it is merely a matter of

ascertaining whether a dispute exists. For example, if a State performs an
act deemed by another State to be a violation of the first State’s inpter-
national obligations and that act is also liable to harm the second State’s
own rights and interests, then there is a dispute. In my view, it is notp
necessary for the allegedly injured State to have formally protested to pthe

State which it considers responsible for the wrongful act. A protest mayp
be the first step in a process to settle a dispute diplomatically ; it is not a
sine qua non for the existence itself of the dispute. When a State acts in a
certain way, it is presumed to consider its action to be in compliance wpith
its international legal obligations. If another State holds a conflictping
view, there is then and there a “disagreement on a point of law or fapct, a

conflict of legal views”, in the words of the celebrated dictum fropm the

165 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 232

Mavrommatis Judgment (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment
No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11). A State that considers itself
to have been injured may therefore seise the Court without as a general
rule being required first to give notice of its claims to the State havipng
acted in a way it deems unlawful.
25. yet the Judgment rather clearly departs from this approach to a

“dispute”, which I would call a “substantive” approach, in fpavour of one
more of “form”, which appears to require the applicant State beforpe com -
mencing proceedings to inform the respondent which of its actions are
deemed wrongful by the applicant and why. plainly, the Judgment does
not require the prior notice of grievances to be given in any specific fporm.
It is also clearly accepted (in paragraph 30) that the State asserting the

claim need not specify the treaty the respondent State is accused of havp -
ing breached, provided that the applicant sets out in substance the subjpect
of the rule alleged to have been violated. paragraphs 30 and 31 neverthe -
less appear to make the existence of a dispute subject to satisfaction opf a
two-pronged condition : one State must have asserted a claim against

another, and the other must have rejected it. Even though no specific
form is required for either the claim or its rejection, I think that thips
involves an unfortunate confusion of the question of whether a dispute
exists, which the Court must answer in the affirmative if it is to be apble to
perform its judicial role in contentious proceedings, with the question of
prior negotiations, which constitute a condition for the Court’s exerpcise

of jurisdiction only in those exceptional cases where the applicable jurpis -
dictional clause so provides.

I fear that the Court has conflated the two questions in the present
case, perhaps in part because it was intent on determining the exact datpe
on which the dispute arose by seeking the manifestation of it in the

exchanges between the parties and by laying the groundwork, in respond -
ing to the first objection, for its response to the second.
26. Last but not least, I shall add that, if we agree to make the effort —
a pointless one, in my opinion — of determining when the dispute first
emerged, and regardless of the broader or narrower definition of disputep
we might apply, we end up at a date well before August 2008 anyway.

The 26 July 2004 letter from the georgian president to his Russian
counterpart already clearly alleged that Russia’s peacekeeping militapry
forces in South Ossetia were not impartial and were (deliberately) faipling
to protect the ethnic georgian population from attacks by Ossetian

illegal armed formations. In his response of 14 August 2004, the president
of the Russian Federation rejected these accusations, calling Tbilisi’ps acc-us
ations against the Russian peacekeeping forces “propaganda”.

The statement made on 26 January 2006 by the Special Envoy of the

president of georgia to the United Nations Security Council, which is

166 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 233

quoted in paragraph 84 of the Judgment, is even clearer. After explicitly
accusing Russia of having distanced itself from supporting the principlep
of georgia’s territorial integrity, the Special Envoy added that this
“change of position” meant an “endorsement of ethnic cleansing pof more
than 300,000 citizens of georgia”. After quoting the statement, the Court
observes: “the reference to ‘ethnic cleansing’ does not include an allepga -

tion that the Russian Federation participated in, or facilitated, that
action”. granted, but great insight is hardly needed to see that the alle-
gation that Russia was “endorsing” ethnic cleansing of “more thpan
300,000 citizens of georgia” was an accusation that could be linked with
Article 2 of CERd, which is not limited to prohibiting States from engag -
ing in or sponsoring racial discrimination but also places them under anp

obligation to “prohibit” and “bring to an end” racial discripmination by
any group or organization (Art. 2, para. 1 (d)).

Similarly, the statement made by georgia’s permanent Representative
to the United Nations at a press conference on 3 October 2006, which is

quoted in paragraph 92, accuses the Russian peacekeeping force of lack -
ing impartiality and draws a direct correlation between this lack of imppa-r
tiality and the impossibility for “ethnically cleansed hundreds of thpousands
of georgian citizens” to return to their homes. Nothing is made of this ipn
the Judgment, in which this too is apparently not seen as an allegation p
relating to CERd.

This is also the case of the 26 September 2007 address by the president
of georgia to the United Nations general Assembly, in which he asserted
that Abkhazia had suffered “one of the more abhorrent, horrible . . .
ethnic cleansings of the twentieth century”, immediately adding : “In the
time since Russian peacekeepers were deployed there, more than
2,000 georgians have perished and a climate of fear has persisted” (see

paragraph 94 of the Judgment).
It is equally surprising that the Judgment accords no importance to an
official statement made by the georgian Foreign ministry on 22 decem -
ber 2006 that is referred to, but not quoted, in paragraph 93. In that
statement Russia is accused of offering “an open support and armamepnts
to the separatist regimes [which] . . . have conducted an ethnic cleansing

of georgians” and of subjecting georgians living in Russian territory to
“ethnic harassment”. The accompanying comment can only be describepd
as puzzling: the reference to “ethnic cleansing by the Russian Federation
[was] with respect to events which took place in the early 1990s”. Bupt
there is nothing in the statement itself to support this interpretation.p

One cannot help but be equally astonished by the treatment given in
the Judgment to two press releases from the georgian Foreign ministry,
dated 19 April 2008 and 17 July 2008 and quoted in paragraphs 97 and
104, respectively, of the Judgment. The first challenged Russia’s polpicy in

regions said to have been the subject of “de facto annexation” ; georgia

167 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 234

describes that policy as one of “neglect of human rights of an absolupte
majority of the regions’ population — victims of ethnic cleansing”. The
second accused Russia of seeking “to legalize results of the ethnic cpleans -
ing . . . conducted through Russian citizens in order to make easier
annexation of the integral part of georgia’s . . . territory”. In both cases
the Court considers that the documents cited contain “no claim” ofp a

breach by Russia of its obligations in respect of eliminating racial disp -
crimination. It is difficult to see how the cited statements can be thopught
unrelated to the obligations of the State accused of violating CERd,
unless “legalizing” ethnic cleansing, that is to say, taking actiopn to ensure
that its consequences continue, is to be considered outside the scope ofp a
convention aimed at combating racial discrimination. That is not my

view.

27. There is no need to point out that from the start of this series of
increasingly intense accusations, i.e., beginning with president putin’s
response to president Saakashvili on 14 August 2004, Russia constantly

rejected the allegations and continues to do so today more than ever.
Russia’s position, which its Agent confirmed before the Court at the phear -
ings, specifically on 13 September 2010, is that for some 15 years it acted
in the region as facilitator of negotiations and peacekeeper between geor -
gia and the separatist provinces of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, that in p
doing so it acted with complete impartiality and without taking part,

directly or indirectly, in acts of “ethnic cleansing” carried out pagainst the
georgian population, and that furthermore, had it not so acted, georgia
would have asked the Russian forces to leave long before 1 Septem -
ber 2008.
28. The stage in the proceedings in which the Court’s jurisdiction is
examined involves no determination whatsoever of the truth or error in

the arguments presented. But the dispute manifestly exists and incontro -
vertibly relates to “the interpretation or application” of CERd, since it is
more than plausible to maintain that “ethnic cleansing” is among tphe
types of conduct prohibited by CERd and that the obligation on the
States parties is not merely to refrain from such conduct themselves butp
to do everything possible to put an end to it. If the date on which the

dispute arose had to be ascertained — which I think is completely point -
less from the legal perspective — it may possibly have been as early as in
2004, but certainly in 2006.
29. However, I cannot but agree with the Court’s ultimate conclusion,
namely, that on the date on which the Application was filed there was inpdeed

a dispute between the parties with respect to the interpretation or applica -
tion of CERd, and that is why I voted, despite all the reservations expressed
above, on this point in favour of the operative part of the Judgment.

(Signed) Ronny Abraham.

168

Bilingual Content

224

OpINION INdIvIdUELLE dE m. LE JUgE ABRAHAm

Accord avec le dispositif de l’arrêt en tant qu’il rejette la p▯remière exception
préliminaire — Désaccord avec le raisonnement suivi par la Cour pour conclure à▯
l’existence d’un différend entre les Parties — Conception du « différend» éloignée
de celle retenue par la jurisprudence antérieure de la Cour — Absence erronée de
tout réalisme dans la recherche du différend — Défaut d’apprécier l’existence du

différend à la date à laquelle la Cour se prononce — Inutilité de rechercher la date
à laquelle le différend est né — Exigence erronée d’une notification préalable de
griefs par le demandeur comme condition de l’existence d’un diffé▯rend — En
l’espèce, existence d’un différend sur des questions relevan▯t de la CIEDR bien
avant août 2008.

1. J’ai voté en faveur du rejet, qu’exprime le point 1) a) du dispositif,
de la première exception préliminaire soulevée par la Russie, tpirée de la

prétendue absence, à la date d’introduction de la requête dep la géorgie,
d’un différend entre ces deux Etats relativement à l’interpprétation ou à
l’application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes
les formes de discrimination raciale (CIEdR).
En revanche, j’ai voté contre le point 1) b) du dispositif, par lequel

l’arrêt accueille la deuxième exception préliminaire, tirépe de ce que la
requête n’a pas été précédée par la tentative de répgler le différend par la
voie de négociations, pas plus que par la mise en œuvre des procépdures
spéciales prévues par la CIEdR.

2. Les raisons pour lesquelles j’estime que la Cour aurait dû rejeterp
aussi la deuxième exception préliminaire, et finalement retenir sap compé -
tence pour connaître de l’affaire, sont exposées en détailp dans l’opinion
dissidente commune que j’ai l’honneur de signer avec plusieurs de pmes
collègues, et qui est jointe au présent arrêt.

dans la présente opinion individuelle, je souhaite expliquer pourquoi,p
tout en étant d’accord avec le rejet de la première exception, pj’ai de
grandes réserves à l’égard du raisonnement suivi par la Courp pour parve -
nir à cette conclusion.
3. Je suis d’abord frappé par le fait que l’arrêt consacre la pplus grande

partie de ses développements, sur près de quarante pages (soit dep la
page 81, paragraphe 23, à la page 120, paragraphe 114), à la première
exception préliminaire, alors que la seconde est traitée sur vingtp pages
(de la page 120, paragraphe 115, à la page 140, paragraphe 184).
4. Bien que ce ne soit là qu’un indice, ce constat suggère, à ppremière

vue, qu’il s’est sans doute introduit un biais dans l’approche pde la Cour.
En effet, des quatre exceptions préliminaires soulevées par la Fpédéra -
tion de Russie afin de convaincre la Cour qu’elle n’avait pas comppétence
pour connaître au fond de la requête de la géorgie, seule la deuxième, à

158 224

SEpARATE OpINION OF JUdgE ABRAHAm

[Translation]

Agreement with the operative part of the Judgment in its rejection of th▯e first
preliminary objection — Disagreement with the Court’s reasoning in finding the
existence of a dispute between the Parties — Conception of “dispute” alien to that
accepted in the Court’s prior jurisprudence — Mistaken failure to be at all realistic
in identifying a dispute — Failure to determine whether dispute exists as of the

date the Court decides — Pointlessness of seeking to ascertain the date on which
the dispute arose — Incorrect requirement of prior notice of claims by the applicant
as a condition for the existence of a dispute — In the present case, existence of a
dispute over questions within the scope of CERD well before August 2008.▯

1. I have voted in favour of rejecting — as subparagraph (1) (a) of the
operative part does — Russia’s first preliminary objection, based on the

alleged absence when georgia filed its Application of a dispute between
the two States with respect to the interpretation or application of the p
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial dis -
crimination (CERd).
I have on the other hand voted against subparagraph (1) (b) of the

operative part, in which the Judgment upholds the second preliminary
objection, based on the assertion that the Application was preceded nei -
ther by an attempt to settle the dispute by negotiation nor by resort top the
special procedures established by CERd.

2. my reasons for believing that the Court should also have rejected
the second preliminary objection, and should ultimately have found jurisp -
diction to adjudicate the case, are set out in detail in the joint dissepnting
opinion appended to the present Judgment, which it has been my honour
to sign together with a number of my colleagues.

In the present separate opinion, my purpose is to explain why, notwith -
standing my concurrence in rejecting the first preliminary objection, I p
have serious reservations about the Court’s reasoning in arriving at pthis
conclusion.
3. First of all, I am struck by the fact that the greater part of the

40-page long discussion in the Judgment is devoted to the first prelimi -
nary objection (from page 81, paragraph 23, to page 120, paragraph 114),
whereas the second is dealt with in 20 pages (from page 120, paragraph 115,
to page 140, paragraph 184).
4. While no more than a hint, this suggests at first glance that a certain

bias most likely crept into the Court’s approach.
Of the four preliminary objections raised by the Russian Federation
with a view to convincing the Court that it lacked jurisdiction to enterptain
georgia’s Application on the merits, the second alone, in my opinion, p

158225 convention sur la dispcrimination racialep (op. ind. abraham)

mes yeux, soulevait une — et même plusieurs — difficulté(s). Il s’agit de
l’exception tirée de ce que les conditions procédurales énoncées à l’ar -
ticle 22 de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes lesp
formes de discrimination raciale (la CIEdR) n’étaient pas satisfaites
à la date de la saisine de la Cour, ce qui rendait cette clause, seule
base de compétence invoquée par la géorgie, inapplicable en l’espèce.

Que cette exception ait justifié une discussion approfondie de la parpt de
la Cour, je le comprends parfaitement — même si, au terme de cette
discussion, je ne suis pas parvenu à la même conclusion que celle pde la
majorité.
5. En revanche, aucune des trois autres exceptions présentées (initipale -
ment) à la Cour ne méritait de donner lieu à de longs dévelpoppements

dans l’arrêt, car, pour des raisons différentes, aucune des tprois n’aurait dû
retenir longtemps l’attention de la Cour.
6. Cela est évident en ce qui concerne les troisième et quatrième pexcep -
tions préliminaires.
L’arrêt constate sobrement (par. 185) qu’il n’y a pas lieu pour la Cour

de les aborder, puisqu’elle retient comme fondée la seconde exceptpion, ce
qui est logique et n’appelle en soi aucun commentaire.
mais, même si la Cour avait rejeté les deux premières exceptionsp (et pas
seulement la première), ce qu’à mon avis elle aurait dû faipre, elle n’aurait
pas eu besoin de se pencher longuement sur les troisième et quatrième
exceptions. En effet, la Russie a abandonné lors de la procédurep orale

sa troisième exception (exception d’incompétence ratione loci) en tant
qu’exception préliminaire, puisqu’elle a elle-même soutenu qu’elle ne
présentait pas un caractère exclusivement préliminaire et n’pavait donc
pas à être examinée à ce stade, et la quatrième exception (epxception
d’incompétenceratione temporis) n’avait pas réellement d’objet, les griefs
adressés à la défenderesse par la géorgie étant relatifs à des faits survenus

après le 2 juillet 1999, date d’entrée en vigueur de la CIEdR entre les
parties.
7. Je pense que la Cour aurait dû aussi faire justice de la première p
exception préliminaire sans avoir à s’y étendre longuement, pcar cette
exception, tirée de la prétendue absence de différend entre les parties
concernant l’interprétation ou l’application de la CIEdR, ne résistait pas

au moindre examen, même sommaire. La Cour est finalement parvenue àp
la conclusion que cette exception n’était pas fondée et devait pêtre rejetée,
conclusion dans le sens de laquelle je ne peux qu’abonder, mais au teprme
d’un raisonnement long et laborieux qui n’emporte que très partpiellement
mon adhésion. Ce n’est pas seulement que ce raisonnement est inutiple -

ment long, alors que la réponse à donner était simple. dire avec trop de
mots ce que l’on pourrait exprimer de manière plus concise est un ppéché
véniel, que l’auteur de ces lignes se garderait bien de traiter avpec sévérité
de crainte que cette sévérité ne se retourne contre lui. mais il y a plus
grave à mes yeux : la démarche de l’arrêt dans la démonstration qui
couvre les pages 81 à 120 est substantiellement critiquable à plusieurs

égards, et surtout en ce qu’elle traduit — de manière plus ou moins impli -

159 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 225

raised a difficulty — indeed a number of them. This was the objection to
the effect that the procedural conditions laid down in Article 22 of the
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial dis -
crimination (CERd) were not satisfied at the date the Court was seised,
thereby rendering the clause — the only basis of jurisdiction relied on by
georgia — inoperative in the present case. I can well understand that this

objection may have warranted extensive consideration by the Court —
even though my conclusion upon completion of that discussion was not
the same as the majority’s.

5. By contrast, none of the other three objections (initially) presented p
to the Court justified lengthy treatment in the Judgment, since for varipous

reasons none of the three should have retained the Court’s attention for
very long.
6. This is obviously the case for the third and fourth preliminary objec -
tions.
The Judgment simply states (in paragraph 185) that the Court has no

need to consider them, since it is upholding the second objection. This pis
logical and by itself calls for no comment.
But, even if the Court had rejected the first two preliminary objectionsp
(not just the first), which I think it should have done, there would hpave
been no need for it to give much consideration to the third and fourth
objections. This is because Russia in the oral proceedings abandoned itsp

third objection (lack of jurisdiction ratione loci) as a preliminary objec -
tion, arguing itself that it was not of an exclusively preliminary character
and therefore should not be considered at this stage, and because the
fourth objection (lack of jurisdiction ratione temporis) was of no practical
significance, since georgia’s claims against the Respondent related to
events occurring after 2 July 1999, when CERd entered into force

between the parties.

7. In my view, the Court should have similarly disposed of the first
preliminary objection without needing to dwell upon it, since this objecp -
tion, based on the alleged lack of any dispute between the parties
concerning the interpretation or application of CERd, did not stand

up to any scrutiny whatsoever, not even the most cursory. The Court
ultimately arrived at the conclusion that this objection was baseless
and should be rejected — a conclusion which I cannot help but share —
but only after long, laboured reasoning, which I can support only to a
very limited extent. It is not only that the reasoning is needlessly long,

whereas the right response was simple. prolixity is a venial sin, one which
this writer would be careful not to condemn too severely, out of fear
that he himself may be judged just as harshly. more serious to my mind
is that the approach taken in the Judgment in the discussion on pages 81
to 120 is open to substantive criticism on several grounds, including mopst
importantly that it reflects — more or less implicitly — a conception

of the meaning of “dispute” far too removed from what I believe to bep

159226 convention sur la dispcrimination racialep (op. ind. abraham)

cite — une conception du « différend » qui s’éloigne par trop de celle qui
ressort de l’examen de la jurisprudence de la Cour à ce jour, et qpue je
crois plus exacte.
8. J’observe d’abord que jusqu’à la présente affaire, chaqpue fois que la
Cour a eu à répondre à une exception préliminaire tirée, ppar la partie
défenderesse, de l’absence de différend, elle l’a fait — pour rejeter l’excep -

tion — en quelques brefs paragraphes, en se plaçant à la date où pelle
statuait et en relevant qu’à cette date les vues des parties étaient nette -
ment opposées sur les questions formant l’objet de la requête, pde sorte
qu’il existait un différend entre elles.

9. Significatifs, à cet égard, sont trois précédents relativement récents :

celui de l’affaire relative à l’Application de la convention pour la prévention
et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosnie-Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie) ;
celui de l’affaire de la Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et
le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria) ; celui, enfin, de l’affaire relative à Cer -
tains biens (Liechtenstein c. Allemagne).

10. dans la première affaire citée, la Cour a répondu à l’expception du
défendeur tirée de l’absence de différend entre les partieps aux para -
graphes 27 à 29 de son arrêt du 11 juillet 1996 relatif aux exceptions pré -
liminaires. Après avoir résumé les conclusions, telles que formulées dans
le dernier état de la procédure, de la Bosnie-Herzégovine, à savoir, en
substance, que la Cour juge que la yougoslavie avait violé de diverses

façons la convention sur le génocide et ordonne à la défendepresse de répa -
rer les conséquences des violations commises, la Cour poursuit en ces
termes :

«Si la yougoslavie s’est abstenue de déposer un contre-mémoire au
fond et a soulevé des exceptions préliminaires, elle n’en a pasp moins
globalement rejeté toutes les allégations de la Bosnie-Herzégovine,
que ce soit au stade des procédures afférentes aux demandes en
indication de mesures conservatoires, ou au stade de la présente pro -

cédure relative auxdites exceptions. » (Application de la convention
pour la prévention et la répression du crime de génocide (Bosn▯ie-
Herzégovine c. Yougoslavie), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 1996 (II), p. 614, par. 28.)

L’arrêt ajoute aussitôt que,

«[c]onformément à une jurisprudence bien établie, la Cour constapte
en conséquence qu’il persiste « une situation dans laquelle les points
de vue des deux parties … sont nettement opposés » … et que, du fait
du rejet, par la yougoslavie, des griefs formulés à son encontre par
la Bosnie-Herzégovine, « il existe un différend d’ordre juridique »
entre elles » (ibid., p. 614-615, par. 29).

11. dans la deuxième affaire, la Cour a répondu à une exception sepm -
blable soulevée par le Nigéria, aux paragraphes 87 à 93 de son arrêt du

11 juin 1998 relatif aux exceptions préliminaires.

160 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 226

the more correct conception to be seen in the Court’s jurisprudence to
date.

8. I shall first observe that until the present case the Court, whenever
required to decide on a preliminary objection based on the respondent’ps
contention that there was no dispute, has made its decision — rejecting

the objection — in a few short paragraphs, and has made the determina -
tion as of the date on which it was ruling, finding that the parties helpd
clearly conflicting views at that date on the matters constituting thep sub -
ject of the application and consequently that a dispute existed between p
them.
9. Three relatively recent precedents are significant in this regard : the

cases concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Yugo-
slavia), the Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria
(Cameroon v. Nigeria), and Certain Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany).

10. In the first of those cases, the Court dealt with the respondent’s
objection founded on the lack of a dispute between the parties in para -
graphs 27 to 29 of its Judgment of 11 July 1996 on the preliminary objec -
tions. After summarizing Bosnia and Herzegovina’s submissions as madep
at the end of the proceedings, in essence requesting the Court to adjudgpe
that yugoslavia had variously violated the genocide Convention and to

order the respondent to make reparation for the consequences of the vio -
lations committed, the Court stated :

“While yugoslavia has refrained from filing a Counter-memorial
on the merits and has raised preliminary objections, it has neverthelessp
wholly denied all of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s allegations, whether
at the stage of proceedings relating to the requests for the indication p
of provisional measures, or at the stage of the present proceedings

relating to those objections.” (Application of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and
Herzegovina v. Yugoslavia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1996 (II), p. 614, para. 28.)

The Court then immediately added :

“In conformity with well-established jurisprudence, the Court
accordingly notes that there persists ‘a situation in which the two spides
hold clearly opposite views’ . . . and that, by reason of the rejection
by yugoslavia of the complaints formulated against it by Bosnia and
Herzegovina, ‘there is a legal dispute’ between them.” (Ibid., pp. 614-
615, para. 29.)

11. In the second case, the Court responded to a similar objection by
Nigeria in paragraphs 87 to 93 of its Judgment of 11 June 1998 on the

preliminary objections.

160227 convention sur la dispcrimination racialep (op. ind. abraham)

Après avoir rappelé les critères du différend définis ppar l’arrêt relatif aux
Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine et par l’arrêt rendu sur les exceptions
préliminaires dans l’affaire du Sud-Ouest africain, comme le fait le présent
arrêt dans son paragraphe 30, la Cour relève qu’il existe « bel et bien des
différends» entre les parties en ce qui concerne une partie du tracé de leur
frontière terrestre, en apportant à cette occasion la précisionp suivan:te

«un désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, un conflit, une oppopsi -
tion de thèses juridiques … ne doivent pas nécessairement être énoncés
expressis verbis. pour déterminer l’existence d’un différend, il est pos -

sible, comme en d’autres domaines, d’établir par inférence qpuelle est
en réalité la position ou l’attitude d’une partie. » (Frontière terrestre
et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria),
exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 315, par. 89.)

La Cour relève ensuite que le Nigéria, tout en soutenant qu’il pn’existait
pas de différend entre lui et le Cameroun concernant la délimitaption de la
frontière « en tant que telle », « s’est constamment montré réservé dans la
manière de présenter sa propre position » (ibid., par. 91), mais qu’en tout

cas il « n’a … pas marqué son accord avec le Cameroun sur le tracé de
cette frontière … et il n’a pas fait connaître à la Cour la position qu’il
adoptera ultérieurement sur les revendications du Cameroun » (ibid.,
p. 317, par. 93). Elle conclut son raisonnement en ces termes :

«Le Nigéria est en droit de ne pas avancer, au présent stade de la p
procédure, des arguments qu’il considère comme relevant du fondp,
mais en pareille circonstance la Cour se trouve dans une situation
telle qu’elle ne saurait se refuser à examiner les conclusions du pCame -

roun par le motif qu’il n’existerait pas de différend entre lpes deux
Etats. » (Ibid.)
12. dans la troisième affaire, la Cour a examiné l’exception tirépe par

l’Allemagne de l’absence de différend aux paragraphes 24 à 27 de son
arrêt du 10 février 2005 relatif aux exceptions préliminaires. Elle ne s’y est
guère attardée. Elle a d’abord rappelé les énoncés clapssiques de Mavrom -
matis et du Sud-Ouest africain (Certains biens (Liechtenstein c. Alle -
magne), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 18, par. 24).

Elle a ensuite relevé que « [l’]Allemagne … nie purement et simplement
l’existence d’un différend qui l’opposerait au Liechtenstepin» (ibid., p. 18,
par. 25). mais elle a constaté aussi que « l’Allemagne estime … que ses
tribunaux ont, dans le cas du Liechtenstein, simplement appliqué leurp
jurisprudence constante à des biens considérés comme des avoirsp alle -
mands à l’étranger au sens de la convention sur le règlement » (de ques -

tions issues de la guerre et de l’occupation, signée en 1952 à pBonn) (ibid.,
p. 19, par. 25). Cela lui a suffi pour en déduire que, « dans la présente
instance, les griefs formulés en fait et en droit par le Liechtenstein contre
l’Allemagne sont rejetés par cette dernière » et que, « [c]onformément à sa
jurisprudence bien établie …, du fait de ce rejet, il existe un différend
d’ordre juridique … entre le Liechtenstein et l’Allemagne » (ibid.).

161 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 227

After recalling the criteria for a “dispute” enunciated in the Mavrom-
matis Palestine Concessions Judgment and in the Judgment on prelimi -
nary objections in the South West Africa case, as the present Judgment
does in paragraph 30, the Court observed that there could be “no doubt
about the existence of disputes” between the parties over part of the
course of their land boundary, adding at the same time :

“a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict of legal viewps . . .
need not necessarily be stated expressis verbis. In the determination
of the existence of a dispute, as in other matters, the position or the p

attitude of a party can be established by inference, whatever the pro -
fessed view of that party.” (Land and Maritime Boundary between
Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objec -
tions, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 315, para. 89.)

The Court then noted that: although Nigeria maintained that there was
no dispute between it and Cameroon concerning the boundary delimi-
tation “as such”, it had “constantly been reserved in the mannepr in which
it . . . presented its own position” (ibid., para. 91) ; but that Nigeria in any

event had “not indicated its agreement with Cameroon on the course ofp
that boundary . . . and [had] not informed the Court of the position which
it [would] take in the future on Cameroon’s claims” (ibid., p. 317,
para. 93). The Court concluded its reasoning thus :

“Nigeria is entitled not to advance arguments that it considers are
for the merits at the present stage of the proceedings ; in the circum -
stances however, the Court finds itself in a situation in which it cannopt
decline to examine the submission of Cameroon on the ground that

there is no dispute between the two States.” (Ibid.)

12. In the third case, the Court considered germany’s objection

founded on the lack of a dispute in paragraphs 24 to 27 of its 10 Febru -
ary 2005 Judgment on the preliminary objections and dealt with it with
dispatch. It first repeated the time-honoured pronouncements from the
Mavrommatis and South West Africa cases (Certain Property (Liechten -
stein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005,

p. 18, para. 24). It then observed : “germany . . . for its part denies alto -
gether the existence of a dispute with Liechtenstein” (ibid., p. 18, para. 25).
But it also noted that : “germany considers . . . that, in the case of Liech -
tenstein, german courts simply applied their consistent case law to what
were deemed german external assets under the . . . Convention” (on the
Settlement of matters Arising out of the War and the Occupation, signed

at Bonn in 1952) (ibid., p. 19, para. 25). For the Court, this provided a
sufficient basis on which to find that “in the present proceedings
complaints of fact and law formulated by Liechtenstein against germany
are denied by the latter” and to conclude that, “[i]n conformity wpith
well-established jurisprudence . . ., ‘[b]y virtue of this denial, there is a
legal dispute’ between Liechtenstein and germany” (ibid.).

161228 convention sur la dispcrimination racialep (op. ind. abraham)

13. de ces précédents, dont la convergence est frappante (et l’on pour -
rait citer dans le même sens l’affaire relative au Timor oriental (Portugal
c. Australie) (arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 99-100, par. 21-22) et l’affaire
du Cameroun septentrional (Cameroun c. Royaume-Uni) (exceptions préli -
minaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1963, p. 27)), l’on peut déduire trois traits
caractéristiques de la démarche de la Cour lorsqu’elle a à rpépondre à une

exception tirée de l’absence de différend entre les parties.
14. En premier lieu, la recherche par la Cour du « différend» est pure -
ment réaliste et concrète, elle ne comporte pas la moindre dose dep forma-
lisme. Il suffit à la Cour de constater que les deux parties ont desp vues
opposées sur les questions à propos desquelles elle a été saisie, cette oppo -
sition pouvant être révélée par tout moyen. des échanges formels peuvent

avoir eu lieu entre les parties avant l’introduction de l’instancep, sous la
forme d’une protestation ou d’une réclamation formulée par l’une des
parties et du rejet de ladite protestation ou réclamation par l’auptre : cela
peut contribuer à établir l’existence du différend et àp en circonscrire l’ob -
jet, mais ce n’est jamais une condition nécessaire aux yeux de la pCour.

C’est ainsi que, dans l’affaire Liechtenstein c. Allemagne, la Cour fait
mention de consultations bilatérales qui s’étaient déroulépes entre les par -
ties avant la saisine de la Cour, et au cours desquelles l’Allemagne pavait
fait savoir qu’elle ne partageait pas le point de vue du Liechtensteipn, mais
elle n’en fait pas un élément décisif : ces consultations, dit la Cour,
«confortent» la conclusion à laquelle elle est parvenue par ailleurs, à

savoir qu’il existe un différend entre les parties (Certains biens (Liechten-
stein c. Allemagne), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005,
p. 19, par. 25). On peut déduire la position d’un Etat sur une question
déterminée d’un simple comportement, même si ladite positionp n’a pas été
formulée expressis verbis (Cameroun c. Nigéria précité). La seule chose
qui importe, c’est que la Cour soit convaincue que les thèses des parties

sont opposées sur les questions qui forment l’objet de la requête —
constatation purement substantielle et non formelle — et que ces ques -
tions entrent bien ratione materiae dans le champ de la clause
compromissoire, ou de toute autre disposition sur laquelle le demandeur p
fonde la compétence de la Cour.
15. En deuxième lieu, la Cour se place à la date à laquelle elle stpatue

(c’est-à-dire, en général, à la date de son arrêt sur les exceptions pprélimi -
naires) pour apprécier l’existence du différend. Sans doute pce différend
porte-t-il, par hypothèse, sur des faits et des situations antérieurs àp la sai-
sine de la Cour, si bien que l’on peut affirmer qu’il est de rèpgle que le
différend préexiste à l’introduction de l’instance. mais ce qui doit impor -

ter à la Cour, c’est que le différend existe à la date àp laquelle elle vérifie sa
compétence, et, surtout, pour procéder à cette vérification,p la Cour tient
compte de tout élément de nature à démontrer l’existence pet la persistance
du différend, même intervenu postérieurement à l’introdpuction de l’ins -
tance. C’est ainsi que, dans les précédents cités, la Cour tpient le plus grand
compte des positions exprimées sur le fond de l’affaire par le dpéfendeur au

cours de la procédure judiciaire, y compris dans le cadre du débatp relatif

162 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 228

13. Three characteristics of the Court’s past approach in responding to
an objection alleging the absence of a dispute between the parties may be
drawn from these three precedents, which accord so strongly with one
another (and the cases concerning East Timor (Portugal v. Australia),
(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995, pp. 99-100, paras. 21-22) and Northern
Cameroons (Cameroon v. United Kingdom) (Preliminary Objections, Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1963, p. 27) may be cited in further support).
14. First, in determining whether there is a “dispute”, the Court takeps
a strictly realistic and practical view, free of all hints of formalism.p It is
enough for the Court to find that the two parties hold opposing views onp
the matters referred to the Court, and this difference may be evidencepd in
any manner. Before the proceedings were initiated, the parties may have p

engaged in an official exchange, in the form of a protest or claim madep by
one and rejected by the other ; that can help to establish the existence of
a dispute and define its subject, but it is never an absolute requiremenpt in
the eyes of the Court. Thus, the Court in the Liechtenstein v. Germany
case referred to bilateral consultations between the parties before the

Court was seised. In them germany had let it be known that it did not
agree with Liechtenstein, but the Court did not consider this to be concplu -
sive: according to the Court, these consultations had “evidentiary value”
in support of the conclusion it had otherwise come to, namely that a
dispute existed between the parties (Certain Property (Liechtenstein v.
Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 19,

para. 25). A State’s position on a given matter may be inferred simply
from its conduct, even if that position has not been stated expressis verbis
(Cameroon v. Nigeria, cited above). All that matters is that the Court must
find that the parties hold conflicting positions on the questions formping the
subject of the application — this finding being strictly one of substance, not
form — and that these questions fall ratione materiae within the scope of

the compromissory clause or whatever other provision the applicant is rely -
ing on as the basis for the Court’s jurisdiction.

15. Secondly, in determining whether a dispute exists, the Court does

so as of the date on which it decides (i.e., generally, the date of itsp judg -
ment on the preliminary objections). Obviously, the dispute, by definitpion,
concerns facts and situations predating the seisin of the Court ; thus, it
can be stated that as a rule the dispute already exists when the proceedp -
ings are instituted. But for the Court what must matter is that the disppute

exists at the date when it determines whether it has jurisdiction ; more
importantly, in making that determination the Court takes into account
all elements — even those arising after the case was commenced — liable
to show that the dispute exists and endures. That is why the Court in thpe
cited precedents places the greatest importance on the respondent’s pposi -
tions on the merits of the case as expressed in the course of the judicipal

proceedings, including in the arguments on the preliminary objections. Ipt

162229 convention sur la dispcrimination racialep (op. ind. abraham)

aux exceptions préliminaires. Ce sont ces prises de position qui permpettent
souvent de conclure à l’existence d’un différend. même la prudence ou
l’ambiguïté, observée par un défendeur, au stade de l’pexamen des excep -
tions préliminaires, quant à ses positions finales, ne suffisent ppas à
convaincre la Cour de l’absence de différend (Cameroun c. Nigéria pré -
cité).

16. En troisième lieu, la Cour ne s’est jamais préoccupée, dans ptous les
précédents examinés, d’établir précisément la date pde naissance du diffé -
rend. Cela s’explique aisément : en règle générale, il importe peu que le
différend soit apparu pour la première fois entre les parties pepu de temps
ou longtemps avant l’introduction de l’instance. Il faut et il suffipt que le
différend existe lorsque le juge est saisi (ce qui peut aussi êptre révélé par

des faits postérieurs) et qu’il subsiste à la date à laquelple la Cour vérifie
que les conditions sont remplies pour qu’elle exerce sa compétencep.
17. On trouve, il est vrai, une hypothèse dans laquelle la Cour se prép -
occupe de déterminer la date exacte à laquelle le différend epntre les parties
s’est cristallisé, c’est celle des différends territoriauxp. mais cela s’explique

par le fait que, dans une telle hypothèse, cette date entraîne d’pimportants
effets dans l’examen judiciaire des arguments en présence : la date de cris -
tallisation du différend constitue la « date critique » postérieurement à
laquelle les actes accomplis par un Etat partie au différend ne serpont géné -
ralement pas regardés comme pertinents aux fins d’établir ou dep prouver
la souveraineté territoriale qu’il revendique (par exemple, Différend

territorial et maritime entre le Nicaragua et le Honduras dans la mer de▯s
Caraïbes (Nicaragua c. Honduras), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II),
p. 697-698, par. 117).
En dehors de cette hypothèse, la notion de « cristallisation du diffé -
rend » est sans portée, et il n’y a donc pas lieu d’en déterminer pla date,
puisque aussi bien — cela va sans dire — un raisonnement judiciaire n’est

pas un exercice de recherche historique. On ne doit trancher que les ques -
tions qui sont juridiquement pertinentes.
18. On pourrait croire que la Cour a dérogé à la règle qui prépcède dans
l’affaire Liechtenstein c. Allemagne :dans l’arrêt précité du 10 février 2005,
la Cour affirme que le différend ne trouve pas son origine, ou sa pcause
réelle, dans les décisions rendues par les tribunaux allemands danps les

années 1990, mais dans des actes juridiques plus éloignés dans ple temps, et
plus précisément antérieurs à 1980 (Certains biens (Liechtenstein c. Alle -
magne), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 26,
par. 51-52).
mais, ce faisant, la Cour n’a pas entendu déterminer la date de naips -

sance du différend, ou de sa « cristallisation », ce qui n’eût été d’aucune
utilité ; elle a cherché à définir la date des « faits » ou « situations » ayant
constitué la cause du différend, aux fins de l’application dep l’alinéa a) de
l’article 27 de la convention européenne pour le règlement des différendsp,
base de compétence invoquée, qui exclut de la compétence de la Cour les
«différends concernant des faits ou situations antérieurs à l’pentrée en

vigueur de la présente convention entre les parties au différendp », soit en

163 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 229

is often by reference to these stated positions that it is possible to cpon -
clude that a dispute exists. Even where a respondent remains cautious
or ambiguous in the preliminary objections stage as to its final positions,p
this is not sufficient to convince the Court that there is no dispute
(Cameroon v. Nigeria, cited above).

16. Thirdly, it has never been a concern of the Court in any of the
precedents examined to ascertain the exact date on which a dispute came p
into being. And it is easy to see why : as a general rule, it does not matter
whether the dispute first arose between the parties long or shortly befopre
the application was filed. It is necessary and sufficient if the disputpe exists
when the Court is seised (which can be shown by subsequently occurring p

facts) and subsists on the date on which the Court determines whether the
conditions for the exercise of its jurisdiction have been met.
17. True, there is one situation in which the Court concerns itself with
determining the exact date on which the dispute between the parties crysp -
tallized. That is in the context of territorial disputes. But this is bepcause in

such cases the date has a significant impact in the judicial examinationp of
the arguments: the date the dispute crystallized is the “critical date”, after p
which actions taken by a State party to the dispute will generally be
regarded as carrying no weight in establishing or proving its claim of tper -
ritorial sovereignty (for example, Territorial and Maritime Dispute between
Nicaragua and Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras),

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), pp. 697-698, para. 117).

In all other situations the notion of “crystallization of the disputep” is
inoperative and there is therefore no need to determine the date on whicph
it occurred, because — and this is self-evident — judicial reasoning is not

an exercise in historical research. The only questions to be decided arep
those which have legal significance.
18. It might be thought that the Court departed from the rule described
above in the Liechtenstein v. Germany case: in its Judgment of 10 Febru -
ary 2005, the Court stated that the dispute did not have its source or
real cause in decisions given by german courts in the 1990s but in legal

acts from the more distant past, specifically from before 1980 (Certain
Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2005, p. 26, paras. 51-52).

But when it made this statement the Court was not seeking to deter -

mine the date the dispute arose, or “crystallized” — and it would have
served no purpose to do so. The Court was endeavouring to define the
date of the “facts” or “situations” causing the dispute for ppurposes of
applying Article 27 (a) of the European Convention for the peaceful
Settlement of disputes, the basis of jurisdiction relied on. Under that pro -
vision, “disputes relating to facts or situations prior to the entry pinto

force of this Convention as between the parties to the dispute”, i.e.p, prior

163230 convention sur la dispcrimination racialep (op. ind. abraham)

l’espèce 1980. Ce n’est donc pas la date de naissance du diffpérend que la
Cour devait rechercher, mais la date des faits ou situations que ce diffpé -
rend «concernait ». Elle a pris soin de distinguer les deux questions (Cer -
tains biens (Liechtenstein c. Allemagne), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2005, p. 25, par. 48) avant de trancher exclusivement la
seconde, dans un sens favorable à l’exception d’incompétencep ratione tem -

poris soulevée par la défenderesse.

19. Le présent arrêt, dans sa partie qui répond à la première exception
préliminaire, contraste singulièrement avec les précédents pprécités, qui
dessinaient une jurisprudence claire, cohérente, continue et, à meps yeux,
convaincante.

20. La longueur inhabituelle des développements consacrés à la ques -
tion de l’existence du différend n’est que le symptôme vispible d’un double
écart par rapport à la jurisprudence antérieure.
21. En premier lieu, si la Cour a eu besoin de tant de pages pour
conclure qu’il existe un différend entre la géorgie et la Russie concernant

l’application de la CIEdR, c’est parce qu’elle a absolument tenu à déter -
miner la date à laquelle un tel différend est apparu pour la première fois.
En réalité, l’arrêt consacre beaucoup plus de place à dépmontrer — de
manière, d’ailleurs, non convaincante à mes yeux — qu’aucun différend
de ce genre n’était apparu avant le mois d’août 2008 (c’est l’objet des
paragraphes 23 à 105) qu’à établir qu’il est apparu en août 2008, immé -

diatement avant la saisine de la Cour (cela est réglé en huit parpa -
graphes seulement (arrêt, par. 106 à 113)).
22. Je cherche encore les motifs juridiques qui ont pu conduire la Cour
à consacrer tant de place à trancher une question inutile, à l’pencontre de
tous les précédents. L’arrêt, en effet, ne tire aucune conpséquence — et ne
pouvait en tirer aucune — de la conclusion intermédiaire qu’il énonce au

paragraphe 105, à savoir qu’entre 1999 et juillet 2008 aucun différend ne
s’est élevé entre les parties au sujet du respect par la Fédération de Russie
de ses obligations en vertu de la CIEdR. Il suffit qu’un tel différend se
soit élevé par la suite, soit au plus tard en août 2008, pour que la Cour se
trouve saisie dans des conditions lui permettant d’exercer sa compép -
tence — pourvu que les autres conditions de cet exercice se trouvent réup-

nies, ce qui renvoie aux autres exceptions préliminaires soulevéesp par la
défenderesse. A strictement parler, le paragraphe 105 est donc sans portée
juridique, et les dizaines de paragraphes qui le précèdent (au moins à par -
tir du paragraphe 50) sont tout aussi dépourvus de portée. J’ajoute que,
même si l’on admettait que le différend n’est apparu — c’est-à-dire ne

s’est manifesté — qu’en août 2008, ce qui n’est pas mon avis, il n’en résul -
terait nullement que la géorgie serait empêchée, pour cette seule raison,
de soumettre à la Cour des griefs relatifs à des faits imputables pà la Russie
antérieurs à août 2008 : la date de naissance d’un différend est une chose,
l’objet du différend, c’est-à-dire les faits et situations que ce différend
concerne, en est une autre, comme le rappelle l’arrêt précitép en l’affaire

Liechtenstein c. Allemagne (voir paragraphe 18 ci-dessus). par conséquent,

164 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 230

to 1980 in that case, are excluded from the jurisdiction of the Court.
Thus, what the Court had to determine was not the date on which
the dispute arose, but the date of the facts or situations to which the
dispute “related”. It was careful to distinguish the two issues (Certain
Property (Liechtenstein v. Germany), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J Reports 2005, p. 25, para. 48) before going on to decide the second

alone, in a way favourable to the respondent’s objection to jurisdictpion
ratione temporis.
19. The present Judgment, specifically that part of it dealing with the
first preliminary objection, stands in stark contrast to the precedents pcited
above, which built up a clear, coherent, continuous and, in my opinion,
convincing case law.

20. The unusually long discussion of the issue of the existence of the
dispute is merely the visible evidence of a two-fold departure from the
existing jurisprudence.
21. First, if the Court needed so many pages to arrive at the conclusion
that there was a dispute between georgia and Russia concerning the

application of CERd, it was because it was absolutely determined to
ascertain the date on which that dispute arose. In fact, much more spacep
is devoted in the Judgment to showing — unconvincingly, I think — that
no such dispute arose before August 2008 (this is the purpose served by
paragraphs 23 to 105), than to establishing that it arose in August 2008,
just before the case was referred to the Court (this is dealt with in jpust

eight paragraphs (Judgment, paras. 106-113)).

22. I am still trying to identify the legal reasons for which the Court
devoted so much space to deciding a pointless question, in a way counterp
to all the precedents. Indeed, no inference is drawn in the Judgment —
nor could any be — from the intermediate conclusion set out in para -

graph 105, namely, that no legal dispute arose between the parties
between 1999 and July 2008 with respect to the Russian Federation’s
compliance with its obligations under CERd. It is enough for such a dis -
pute to have arisen afterwards, that is to say, not later than in Augustp 2008,
for the case to have been referred to the Court under conditions entitlipng
it to exercise jurisdiction — provided that the other conditions on exercise

were met, and this relates to other preliminary objections raised by the
Respondent. Thus, strictly speaking, paragraph 105 has no legal bearing
and nor do the dozens of paragraphs leading up to it (at least from parpa -
graph 50 onwards). I would add that, even if it were to be conceded that
the dispute only arose — in other words, emerged — in August 2008,

which I do not think to be the case, this would not mean that georgia
was precluded, for this reason alone, from bringing claims before the
Court concerning pre-August 2008 acts attributable to Russia : the date
on which a dispute arises is one thing, the subject of the dispute, i.e.p, the
facts and situations that the dispute concerns, is another, as noted in the
Judgment in the Liechtenstein v. Germany case (see paragraph 18 above).

Accordingly, the discussion leading up to paragraph 105 in the Judgment,

164231 convention sur la dispcrimination racialep (op. ind. abraham)

les développements qui précèdent le paragraphe 105 de l’arrêt, dépourvus
d’effet quant à la question de l’existence d’un différend, sont également
dépourvus d’utilité pour en circonscrire l’objet ratione temporis.
23. Le seul intérêt, en l’espèce, de la démarche inhabituellep suivie par la
Cour pour l’examen de la première exception préliminaire est d’pordre pure -
ment pratique et concerne exclusivement la deuxième exception prélpiminaire.

puisque la Cour va conclure, beaucoup plus loin (arrêt, par. 147), que l’ar -
ticle 22 de la CIEdR énonce des conditions dont l’une au moins doit être
satisfaite pour qu’elle puisse exercer sa compétence, et que cela pla conduira
à se demander si la géorgie a eu recours, avant de la saisir, à une tentative
de régler son différend avec la Russie par le moyen de négocipations diploma -
tiques, la conclusion intermédiaire du paragraphe 105 l’aidera à gagner du

temps dans l’examen de cette question, en circonscrivant sa recherchep aux
démarches qui ont pu être tentées par la demanderesse en aoûpt 2008.
En somme, la deuxième partie de l’arrêt se trouvera raccourcie à pro -
portion des longueurs inutiles que l’on aura mises dans la premièrpe. En
admettant que le pragmatisme y trouve son compte, on ne saurait en dire p

autant de la rigueur juridique, ni de la nécessaire clarté qui intperdit de
mélanger des questions distinctes.
24. précisément, c’est cette confusion que, dans une certaine mesurep,
l’arrêt établit entre les deux exceptions préliminaires qu’pil examine qui est
la cause du second écart par rapport aux précédents jurisprudenptiels que
je déplore dans la partie de l’arrêt qui répond à la prempière exception.

Ainsi que je l’ai dit plus haut, la démarche de la Cour, lorsqu’pelle est appe-
lée à se prononcer sur l’existence d’un différend, a topujours été strictement
réaliste et nullement formaliste. des échanges préalables entre les parties, des
consultations, des réclamations et protestations peuvent être utilpes pour éta -
blir dans certains cas ou pour confirmer l’existence d’un diffépren;dils n’ont
jamais été considérés comme nécessaires. Il y a un diffpérend si, au moment

où elles viennent devant la Cour, les parties soutiennent des points pde vue
opposés sur les questions que le demandeur (qu’il ait raison ou npon) prétend
soumettre à la décision judiciaire. Cela suffit. peu importe que les deux par -
ties en aient débattu avant ou non. Cette dernière question est épvidemment
pertinente s’il s’agit de rechercher si la condition de négociaptions préa -
lables — à la supposer applicable — a été satisfaite. Elle ne l’est pas s’il s’agit

seulement de constater l’existence d’un différend. par exemple, si un Etat
accomplit un certain acte, et qu’un autre Etat estime que cet acte vipole les
obligations internationales de celui qui l’a accompli et qu’il estp par ailleurs
de nature à léser ses propres droits et intérêts, on est en pprésence d’un diffé -
rend. Il n’est pas nécessaire, selon moi, que l’Etat qui se préptend lésé ait

formellement protesté auprès de celui qu’il tient pour l’autpeur d’un acte illi -
cite. La protestation peut être la première étape d’un procepssus de règlement
du différend par la voie diplomatique; elle n’est pas une condition de l’exis -
tence même du différend. Lorsqu’un Etat agit d’une certainpe manière, il est
présumé considérer que son action est conforme à ses obligations juridiques
internationales. Si un autre Etat est d’un avis opposé, on est donpc bien immé -

diatement en présence d’un «désaccord sur un point de droit ou de fait, une

165 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 231

which has no actual impact on the issue of the existence of a dispute, ips
equally without consequence in delineating the subject ratione temporis.

23. The only purpose served in this case by the Court’s unusual
approach in examining the first preliminary objection is a purely practipcal
one and has to do exclusively with the second preliminary objection.

Since the Court is going to conclude much later (Judgment, para. 147)
that Article 22 of CERd lays down conditions at least one of which must
be met for it to have jurisdiction, and since this is going to lead it to con -
sider whether georgia, before seising the Court, attempted to settle its
dispute with Russia by diplomatic negotiation, the intermediate conclu -
sion in paragraph 105 will save the Court time in its consideration of this

issue by circumscribing its examination to any actions taken by the Applpi -
cant in August 2008.
In brief, the second part of the Judgment has been shortened in propor -
tion to the needless and overlong passages included in the first. Let itp be
assumed that pragmatism is well served here ; the same cannot be said of

legal rigour or of the requisite clarity that proscribes conflating sepparate
issues.
24. And the second departure from the case law precedents which I
regret in the part of the Judgment on the first objection is caused precpisely
by the confusion which the Judgment establishes to some extent between
the two preliminary objections it addresses.

As I said above, the approach taken by the Court whenever it has been
called upon to decide whether a dispute existed has without fail been a p
strictly realistic, not formalistic, one. Earlier exchanges between the ppar -
ties, consultations, demands and protests may sometimes be helpful in
establishing or confirming the existence of a dispute : they have never
been considered an absolute requirement. A dispute exists if the partiesp,

when they appear before the Court, hold opposing views on the questions
the applicant (correctly or not) seeks to submit for judicial determinpation.
That suffices. Whether or not the parties debated these questions beforpe -
hand does not matter, although this takes on obvious relevance where it p
must be determined whether the prior-negotiations requirement — if
there is one — has been met. It has none where it is merely a matter of

ascertaining whether a dispute exists. For example, if a State performs an
act deemed by another State to be a violation of the first State’s inpter-
national obligations and that act is also liable to harm the second State’s
own rights and interests, then there is a dispute. In my view, it is notp
necessary for the allegedly injured State to have formally protested to pthe

State which it considers responsible for the wrongful act. A protest mayp
be the first step in a process to settle a dispute diplomatically ; it is not a
sine qua non for the existence itself of the dispute. When a State acts in a
certain way, it is presumed to consider its action to be in compliance wpith
its international legal obligations. If another State holds a conflictping
view, there is then and there a “disagreement on a point of law or fapct, a

conflict of legal views”, in the words of the celebrated dictum fropm the

165232 convention sur la dispcrimination racialep (op. ind. abraham)

contradiction, une opposition de thèses juridiques » dont parle le fameux
dictum de l’arrêt Mavrommatis(Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine, arrêt
n 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A n 2, p. 11). L’Etat qui s’estime lésé peut donc
saisir la Cour sans être tenu, en règle générale, de notifiepr préalablement ses
griefs à celui qui a agi d’une manière que le premier dénoncpe comme illicite.

25. Or, de façon plus ou moins claire, l’arrêt se départit de ceptte
approche que j’appellerais « substantielle » du différend pour lui substi -
tuer une approche plus « formelle », laquelle paraît impliquer que l’Etat
demandeur ait, préalablement à l’introduction de son action en pjustice,
fait savoir au défendeur qu’il tient telle de ses actions pour illpicite, en lui

en donnant les raisons. Sans doute l’arrêt n’exige-t-il pas que cette notifi -
cation préalable des griefs emprunte une forme particulière. Sans pdoute
aussi admet-il (au paragraphe 30) que l’Etat qui formule le grief puisse ne
pas mentionner expressément le traité que l’Etat défendeur epst accusé
d’avoir méconnu, pourvu qu’il expose, en substance, l’objet de la règle

dont il dénonce la violation. Il n’en reste pas moins que les parapgraphes 30
et 31 paraissent bien subordonner l’existence même d’un différepnd à la
double condition qu’un Etat ait formulé une réclamation à l’pégard d’un
autre et que ce dernier ait rejeté ladite réclamation. même si ni la récla -
mation ni son rejet ne sont assujettis à des formes obligatoires particu -
lières, il me semble qu’il y a là une regrettable confusion entpre la question

de l’existence du différend, à laquelle la Cour doit toujoursp répondre par
l’affirmative pour pouvoir exercer sa fonction judiciaire contentieupse, et la
question des négociations préalables, qui ne sont une condition dep l’exer -
cice par la Cour de sa compétence qu’exceptionnellement, lorsque lpa
clause de compétence applicable le prévoit.

dans la présente affaire, je crains que la Cour n’ait quelque peup mélangé
les deux questions, peut-être, en partie, parce qu’elle a tenu à déterminer
la date exacte de naissance du différend en en cherchant la manifestation
dans les échanges entre les parties, et en préparant, tout en répondant à la
première exception, sa réponse à la seconde.

26. J’ajouterai, last but not least, que, si l’on accepte de faire l’effort (à
mes yeux inutile) de déterminer le moment où le différend espt apparu pour
la première fois, et quelle que soit la définition, plus ou moins plarge, du
«différend » que l’on retient, l’on est conduit de toute façon vers une datpe
bien antérieure à août 2008.

La lettre du 26 juillet 2004 adressée par le président géorgien à son
homologue russe contenait déjà la claire allégation que les forpces mili -
taires russes de maintien de la paix en Ossétie du Sud manquaient d’pim -
partialité et n’agissaient pas (de propos délibéré) pour protéger la
population géorgienne de souche victime d’attaques conduites par dpes
unités armées illégales ossétiennes. dans sa réponse du 14 août 2004, le

président de la Fédération de Russie rejetait ces accusations, pen qualifiant
de « propagande» les accusations de Tbilissi contre les forces russes de
maintien de la paix.
La déclaration de l’envoyé spécial du président de la géorgie devant le
Conseil de sécurité des Nations Unies, le 26 janvier 2006, que cite l’arrêt

166 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 232

Mavrommatis Judgment (Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment
No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 2, p. 11). A State that considers itself
to have been injured may therefore seise the Court without as a general
rule being required first to give notice of its claims to the State havipng
acted in a way it deems unlawful.
25. yet the Judgment rather clearly departs from this approach to a

“dispute”, which I would call a “substantive” approach, in fpavour of one
more of “form”, which appears to require the applicant State beforpe com -
mencing proceedings to inform the respondent which of its actions are
deemed wrongful by the applicant and why. plainly, the Judgment does
not require the prior notice of grievances to be given in any specific fporm.
It is also clearly accepted (in paragraph 30) that the State asserting the

claim need not specify the treaty the respondent State is accused of havp -
ing breached, provided that the applicant sets out in substance the subjpect
of the rule alleged to have been violated. paragraphs 30 and 31 neverthe -
less appear to make the existence of a dispute subject to satisfaction opf a
two-pronged condition : one State must have asserted a claim against

another, and the other must have rejected it. Even though no specific
form is required for either the claim or its rejection, I think that thips
involves an unfortunate confusion of the question of whether a dispute
exists, which the Court must answer in the affirmative if it is to be apble to
perform its judicial role in contentious proceedings, with the question of
prior negotiations, which constitute a condition for the Court’s exerpcise

of jurisdiction only in those exceptional cases where the applicable jurpis -
dictional clause so provides.

I fear that the Court has conflated the two questions in the present
case, perhaps in part because it was intent on determining the exact datpe
on which the dispute arose by seeking the manifestation of it in the

exchanges between the parties and by laying the groundwork, in respond -
ing to the first objection, for its response to the second.
26. Last but not least, I shall add that, if we agree to make the effort —
a pointless one, in my opinion — of determining when the dispute first
emerged, and regardless of the broader or narrower definition of disputep
we might apply, we end up at a date well before August 2008 anyway.

The 26 July 2004 letter from the georgian president to his Russian
counterpart already clearly alleged that Russia’s peacekeeping militapry
forces in South Ossetia were not impartial and were (deliberately) faipling
to protect the ethnic georgian population from attacks by Ossetian

illegal armed formations. In his response of 14 August 2004, the president
of the Russian Federation rejected these accusations, calling Tbilisi’ps acc-us
ations against the Russian peacekeeping forces “propaganda”.

The statement made on 26 January 2006 by the Special Envoy of the

president of georgia to the United Nations Security Council, which is

166233 convention sur la dispcrimination racialep (op. ind. abraham)

dans son paragraphe 84, est bien plus nette encore. Après avoir explicite -
ment mis en cause la Russie pour avoir, selon lui, cessé de soutenir ple
principe de l’intégrité territoriale de la géorgie, le représentant spécial
ajoutait qu’un tel « changement de position » équivalait « à cautionner le
nettoyage ethnique de plus de trois cent mille citoyens géorgiens ». Après

avoir cité cette déclaration, la Cour observe « qu’il n’est pas allégué, dans
la référence au « nettoyage ethnique », que la Fédération de Russie a par -
ticipé à cette action ou l’a facilitée ». Certes, mais il n’est pas besoin d’être
doué d’une grande perspicacité pour comprendre que l’allépgation selon
laquelle la Russie « cautionne » le nettoyage ethnique de « plus de trois

cent mille citoyens géorgiens » constitue une accusation susceptible de se
rattacher à l’article 2 de la CIEdR, lequel ne se borne pas à interdire aux
Etats de se livrer à la discrimination raciale ou de l’encourager,p mais leur
impartit aussi l’obligation d’« interdire » la discrimination pratiquée par
des groupes et organisations et d’« y mettre fin » (art. 2, par. 1 d)).

de même, la déclaration du représentant permanent de la géorgie au-
près des Nations Unies lors d’une conférence de presse du 3 octobre 2006,
citée au paragraphe 92, met en cause le manque d’impartialité de la force
russe de maintien de la paix, et met directement ce manque d’impartialité
en relation avec l’impossibilité pour les « centaines de milliers de ressor-
tissants géorgiens victimes du nettoyage ethnique » de retourner dans

leurs foyers. L’arrêt n’en tire aucune conséquence, semblantp n’y voir
encore aucune allégation qui soit en rapport avec la CIEdR.
Il en va de même de l’allocution du président de la géorgie prononcée
le 26 septembre 2007 devant l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies, au
cours de laquelle l’orateur a affirmé que l’Abkhazie a étép victime de «l’un
e
des nettoyages ethniques les plus terrifiants du xx siècle », et a aussitôt
ajouté que, « [d]epuis que les soldats de la paix russes ont été déployés,p
plus de 2000 géorgiens ont péri, et c’est un climat de peur qui y règne »
(voir le paragraphe 94 de l’arrêt).
Il est tout aussi surprenant que l’arrêt n’attache aucune imporptance à

une déclaration officielle du ministère géorgien des affaireps étrangères du
22 décembre 2006 qu’il mentionne, sans la citer, dans son paragraphe 93,
dans laquelle la Russie est accusée de fournir « un soutien sans restric-
tion et des armements aux régimes séparatistes [qui] … ont procédé à un
nettoyage ethnique des géorgiens » et de soumettre au « harcèlement

ethnique » les géorgiens vivant sur son territoire. Le commentaire qui
accompagne cette mention ne peut manquer de laisser perplexe. Il en res -
sort que la référence à un « nettoyage ethnique perpétré par la Fédération
de Russie [a] trait à des événements qui s’étaient dérpoulés au début des
années 1990 ». mais rien dans le texte de la déclaration en cause ne vient
soutenir une telle interprétation.

On ne peut qu’éprouver le même étonnement devant la manièpre dont
l’arrêt traite deux communiqués de presse du ministère géporgien des affaires
étrangères en date, respectivement, du 19 avril 2008 et du 17 juillet 2008,
cités aux paragraphes 97 et 104 de l’arrêt. Le premier met en cause la poli -
tique de la Russie dans des régions présentées comme «annexées de facto »,

167 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 233

quoted in paragraph 84 of the Judgment, is even clearer. After explicitly
accusing Russia of having distanced itself from supporting the principlep
of georgia’s territorial integrity, the Special Envoy added that this
“change of position” meant an “endorsement of ethnic cleansing pof more
than 300,000 citizens of georgia”. After quoting the statement, the Court
observes: “the reference to ‘ethnic cleansing’ does not include an allepga -

tion that the Russian Federation participated in, or facilitated, that
action”. granted, but great insight is hardly needed to see that the alle-
gation that Russia was “endorsing” ethnic cleansing of “more thpan
300,000 citizens of georgia” was an accusation that could be linked with
Article 2 of CERd, which is not limited to prohibiting States from engag -
ing in or sponsoring racial discrimination but also places them under anp

obligation to “prohibit” and “bring to an end” racial discripmination by
any group or organization (Art. 2, para. 1 (d)).

Similarly, the statement made by georgia’s permanent Representative
to the United Nations at a press conference on 3 October 2006, which is

quoted in paragraph 92, accuses the Russian peacekeeping force of lack -
ing impartiality and draws a direct correlation between this lack of imppa-r
tiality and the impossibility for “ethnically cleansed hundreds of thpousands
of georgian citizens” to return to their homes. Nothing is made of this ipn
the Judgment, in which this too is apparently not seen as an allegation p
relating to CERd.

This is also the case of the 26 September 2007 address by the president
of georgia to the United Nations general Assembly, in which he asserted
that Abkhazia had suffered “one of the more abhorrent, horrible . . .
ethnic cleansings of the twentieth century”, immediately adding : “In the
time since Russian peacekeepers were deployed there, more than
2,000 georgians have perished and a climate of fear has persisted” (see

paragraph 94 of the Judgment).
It is equally surprising that the Judgment accords no importance to an
official statement made by the georgian Foreign ministry on 22 decem -
ber 2006 that is referred to, but not quoted, in paragraph 93. In that
statement Russia is accused of offering “an open support and armamepnts
to the separatist regimes [which] . . . have conducted an ethnic cleansing

of georgians” and of subjecting georgians living in Russian territory to
“ethnic harassment”. The accompanying comment can only be describepd
as puzzling: the reference to “ethnic cleansing by the Russian Federation
[was] with respect to events which took place in the early 1990s”. Bupt
there is nothing in the statement itself to support this interpretation.p

One cannot help but be equally astonished by the treatment given in
the Judgment to two press releases from the georgian Foreign ministry,
dated 19 April 2008 and 17 July 2008 and quoted in paragraphs 97 and
104, respectively, of the Judgment. The first challenged Russia’s polpicy in

regions said to have been the subject of “de facto annexation” ; georgia

167234 convention sur la dispcrimination racialep (op. ind. abraham)

politique caractérisée, selon la géorgie, par « le mépris des droits de
l’homme d’une grande majorité de la population de ces régionps, victimes
d’un nettoyage ethnique » . Le second accuse la Russie de chercher à « consa -
crer juridiquement les conséquences du nettoyage ethnique perpétrép par des
citoyens russes… afin de faciliter l’annexion d’une partie intégrante du ter -
ritoire … de la géorgie ». dans les deux cas, la Cour estime que les docu -

ments cités ne contiennent « aucune allégation »de violation par la Russie
de ses obligations en matière d’élimination de la discriminatiopn raciale. Il
est difficile de comprendre comment les déclarations citées peuvepnt être
considérées comme sans rapport avec les obligations de l’Etat mpis en cause
au titre de la CIEdR, à moins de considérer que « consacrer »le nettoyage
ethnique, c’est-à-dire faire en sorte que les conséquences en soient mainte -

nues, n’entre pas dans le champ d’une convention dont l’objet epst de com -
battre la discrimination raciale. Tel n’est pas mon avis.
27. Il n’est pas besoin de préciser que dès le début de cette séprie d’accu -
sations d’intensité croissante, c’est-à-dire dès la réponse du président pou-
tine au président Saakachvili le 14 août 2004, la Russie n’a cessé de rejeter

ces allégations, et qu’elle les rejette aujourd’hui plus que japmais. La thèse
de la Russie, confirmée devant la Cour à l’audience par l’agpent de la défen -
deresse, notamment le 13 septembre 2010, est qu’elle a joué pendant une
quinzaine d’années dans la région un rôle de facilitateur des négociations
et de maintien de la paix entre la géorgie, d’une part, et les provinces
séparatistes d’Abkhazie et d’Ossétie du Sud, d’autre partp, qu’elle l’a fait de

la manière la plus impartiale et sans prêter la main, ni directemepnt ni indi -
rectement, à des actes de « nettoyage ethnique »à l’encontre de la popula-
tion géorgienne, et que, si tel avait été le cas, d’ailleursp, la géorgie aurait
demandé le départ des forces russes bien avant le 1 erseptembre 2008.
28. Il ne s’agit aucunement, au stade de la procédure consacré àp l’exa -
men de la compétence de la Cour, de déterminer, si peu que ce soitp, la

part de vérité et d’erreur que recèlent les thèses en prépsence. mais l’exis -
tence du différend est flagrante, et celui-ci est sans aucun doute relatif
«à l’interprétation ou à l’application » de la CIEdR, car l’on peut soute -
nir, de manière plus que plausible, que le « nettoyage ethnique» fait partie
des comportements prohibés par cette convention, et que l’obligatipon des
Etats parties n’est pas seulement de s’abstenir de tels comportemepnts,

mais de tout faire pour y mettre fin. S’il fallait dater la naissancep du diffé-
rend — ce que je considère comme parfaitement inutile en droit —, on
pourrait le faire remonter peut-être à 2004, sans doute à 2006.
29. Je ne peux cependant qu’approuver la conclusion finale de la Cour,
à savoir qu’il existait bien, à la date d’introduction de lap requête, un dif -

férend entre les parties relatif à l’interprétation ou à l’application de lpa
CIEdR, et c’est pourquoi, malgré toutes les réserves qui précèpdent, j’ai
voté sur ce point en faveur du dispositif de l’arrêt.

(Signé) Ronny Abraham.

168 convention on racialp discrimination (sep. pop. abraham) 234

describes that policy as one of “neglect of human rights of an absolupte
majority of the regions’ population — victims of ethnic cleansing”. The
second accused Russia of seeking “to legalize results of the ethnic cpleans -
ing . . . conducted through Russian citizens in order to make easier
annexation of the integral part of georgia’s . . . territory”. In both cases
the Court considers that the documents cited contain “no claim” ofp a

breach by Russia of its obligations in respect of eliminating racial disp -
crimination. It is difficult to see how the cited statements can be thopught
unrelated to the obligations of the State accused of violating CERd,
unless “legalizing” ethnic cleansing, that is to say, taking actiopn to ensure
that its consequences continue, is to be considered outside the scope ofp a
convention aimed at combating racial discrimination. That is not my

view.

27. There is no need to point out that from the start of this series of
increasingly intense accusations, i.e., beginning with president putin’s
response to president Saakashvili on 14 August 2004, Russia constantly

rejected the allegations and continues to do so today more than ever.
Russia’s position, which its Agent confirmed before the Court at the phear -
ings, specifically on 13 September 2010, is that for some 15 years it acted
in the region as facilitator of negotiations and peacekeeper between geor -
gia and the separatist provinces of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, that in p
doing so it acted with complete impartiality and without taking part,

directly or indirectly, in acts of “ethnic cleansing” carried out pagainst the
georgian population, and that furthermore, had it not so acted, georgia
would have asked the Russian forces to leave long before 1 Septem -
ber 2008.
28. The stage in the proceedings in which the Court’s jurisdiction is
examined involves no determination whatsoever of the truth or error in

the arguments presented. But the dispute manifestly exists and incontro -
vertibly relates to “the interpretation or application” of CERd, since it is
more than plausible to maintain that “ethnic cleansing” is among tphe
types of conduct prohibited by CERd and that the obligation on the
States parties is not merely to refrain from such conduct themselves butp
to do everything possible to put an end to it. If the date on which the

dispute arose had to be ascertained — which I think is completely point -
less from the legal perspective — it may possibly have been as early as in
2004, but certainly in 2006.
29. However, I cannot but agree with the Court’s ultimate conclusion,
namely, that on the date on which the Application was filed there was inpdeed

a dispute between the parties with respect to the interpretation or applica -
tion of CERd, and that is why I voted, despite all the reservations expressed
above, on this point in favour of the operative part of the Judgment.

(Signed) Ronny Abraham.

168

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge Abraham

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