Declaration of Judge Keith

Document Number
124-20110504-JUD-02-03-EN
Parent Document Number
124-20110504-JUD-02-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

393

dECLARATION OF JUdgE KEITH

1. I agree with the conclusions the Court reaches, essentially for the
reasons it gives. This declaration addresses one aspect of those reasonss.

2. For nearly 90 years, the International Court of Justice and its prede-

cessor, the permanent Court of International Justice, have had the power
to permit a State, not a party to the main proceeding before it, to intesr -
vene in the proceeding if the State persuades the Court that it has “san
interest of a legal nature which may be affected by the decision in the s
case” (Article 62 of the Statute). If permission is granted, the intervening

State is supplied with copies of the pleadings and may submit a written s
statement to the Court and its observations in the oral proceedings, witsh
respect to the subject-matter of the intervention (Rules of Court, Arti -
cle 85). Of the 15 requests that have been made in 12 cases since 1923, twos
have been granted, one without objection and the other in part only.

3. Until today, the Court has not attempted to provide a definition or
an elaboration of the expression “an interest of a legal nature” ass it appears
in Article 62 of the Statute. Rather, having considered the evidence and
submissions presented to it by the requesting State and the parties to the
main proceeding, it has determined whether “in concreto and in relation to

all the circumstances of a particular case” the requesting State has sdemon -
strated what it asserts including showing that its interest may be affecsted
(Land, Island and Maritime Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras), Application
for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990, pp. 117-118,
para. 61).

4. There are, I think, good reasons for the Court’s practice to date of
keeping closely to the statutory test laid down in Article 62 and not
attempting to elaborate on a single phrase within that test. I begin witsh the
nature of the power which the Court exercises under Article 62. It is of
a preliminary, procedural, interlocutory character. In terms of its legal

or binding effect, it does no more than to allow (or not) the requesting
State to participate in the process. It involves the Court in making a fsuture-
looking, speculative assessment about the possible impact of the decision
in the main proceeding on the interest asserted by the requesting State.s
That assessment is whether the decision “may”, not “will” ors “is likely” to

affect that interest.

5. The principal features of the power of the Court to make its decision
in the main proceeding differ sharply from those of the Article 62 power.

The parties have much more extensive opportunities, in written and oral s

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proceedings, to make their case and answer the case against them. They
must have given their consent in one form or other to the Court having

jurisdiction over the case. The Court makes a final decision on the mesrits
which is binding on the parties and without appeal. In the course of maksing
that decision, the Court determines the existence or not of rights unders
law and whether those rights have been breached. That process of fact
finding will in general be backward looking. The party asserting a facst in

support of its case usually has the burden of establishing it on the balsance
of probabilities — a standard which is plainly more demanding than that
stated in Article 62.
6. It is true that one of the differences in the elements to be found in
the two functions is that between a (legal) right and an interest of as legal
nature, but the two preceding paragraphs suggest that that difference hass

a very small role. The problematic character of that difference is to bes
seen in the definition which the Court gives to “an interest of a lsegal
nature” and the consequences it draws from the difference. The Court s
defines today “an interest of a legal nature”, as opposed to an “estab -
lished right”, as “a real and concrete claim . . . based on law” (Judgment

on Application by Costa Rica, para. 26 ; Judgment on Application by
Honduras, para. 37). If the claim is based on law and is real and concrete,
is it not a claim of a right (or a liberty or a power) recognized by tshe law?
Is the Court drawing a real distinction?

7. The Court draws two consequences from its definition : an estab -
lished right has greater protection and the requirement of proof is not sas
demanding in the case of an interest of a legal nature. But those conse -
quences are a result of the full range of contrasting features of the twso
powers set out in paragraphs 4 and 5 above. They do not arise simply and

solely from any difference between an established right and an interest sof
a legal nature.

8. The elusive character of the difference is further demonstrated by
the practice of States requesting permission to intervene. They do not

appear to find assistance in any such distinction. To take the two casses
being decided today, Costa Rica, at the outset of its Application, stated
that its “interests of a legal nature which could be affected by a descision
in this case are the sovereign rights and jurisdiction afforded to Costa Rica
under international law and claimed pursuant to its constitution” (esmpha -

sis added). It said essentially the same at the end of the proceedings sin
answering a question from a judge. Similarly, as the Court records in thse
Honduras case, that State, to demonstrate that it has an interest of a lsegal
nature, contends that it is entitled to claim sovereign rights and jurissdic -
tion over a certain maritime area (Judgment, paras. 16 and 18).

9. That close linking of interests of a legal nature to rights under inter -
national law has appeared from the outset to the present day :

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— In the S.S. “Wimbledon” case, poland referred to “violations of the
rights and material advantages guaranteed to poland by Article 380

of The Treaty of Versailles” ; it changed its request to one under Arti -
cle 63 and the Court accepted it (S.S. “Wimbledon”, Judgments, 1923,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 1 (Question of Intervention by poland), p. 13).

— In the Nuclear Tests cases, Fiji in its request having referred to the
claims made by Australia and New Zealand — respectively, that the
testing was not consistent with applicable rules of international law ors
constituted a violation of New Zealand rights under international

law — contended that “[I]t will be evident from the facts set out above
that Fiji is affected by French conduct at least as much as [Australia] s
New Zealand and that similar legal considerations affect its position.”
(I.C.J. Pleadings, Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Applica -
tion for permission to Intervene Submitted by the government of

Fiji, p. 91.) The Court did not rule on the substance of this request
(Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Application for Permission to
Intervene, Order of 20 December 1974, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 536.

— While malta in the Tunisia/Libya case used the terms of Article 62 in
its request it at once defined its “interest of a legal nature” sas rights
under the law :

“There can be no doubt that malta’s interest in her continental
shelf boundaries is of a legal character since the continental shelf
rights of States are derived from law, as are also the principles and

rules on the basis of which such areas are to be defined and delimiteds.
In other words these rights are created and protected by law, and
the question of the proper spatial extent of the regions over which
they can be exercised by any given State is also a matter of law.”
(I.C.J. Pleadings, Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jama ‑

hiriya), Application for permission to Intervene by the government
of the Republic of malta, p. 258, para. 7.)

— Italy in its request in the Libya/Malta case under the heading l’intérêt
d’ordre juridique similarly referred to its rights and legal title, as it saw
them, in areas of continental shelf off its coast, the relevant areas
being within 400 nautical miles of the relevant coasts (I.C.J. Plead ‑

ings, Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Vol. II,
Application for permission to Intervene, pp. 422-424, paras. 6-13).

— Nicaragua in the El Salvador/Honduras case stated two objects for its

intervention :
“First, generally to protect the legal rights of the Republic of Nica-

ragua in the gulf of Fonseca and the adjacent maritime areas by all
legal means available.

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Secondly, to intervene in the proceedings in order to inform the
Court of the nature of the legal rights of Nicaragua which are in

issue in the dispute. This form of intervention would have the con -
servative purpose of seeking to ensure that the determinations of the
Chamber did not trench upon the legal rights and interests of the
Republic of Nicaragua, and Nicaragua intends to subject itself to
the binding effect of the decision to be given.” (Land, Island and

Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras : Nicaragua inter ‑
vening), Application for permission to Intervene by the government
of Nicaragua, p. 4, paras. 5-6.)

— In Cameroon v. Nigeria, Equatorial guinea, again under a heading
using the terms of Article 62, recalled what the Court had said in its
judgment on preliminary objections in that case and continued by ref -
erence to the law :

“In fact, Equatorial guinea has claimed an exclusive economic
zone and territorial sea under its own domestic law, in terms which
it believes consistent with its entitlements under international law.

The maritime area thus claimed would produce a boundary in the
north-east corner of the gulf of guinea, based upon median line
principles, which would be both an exclusive economic zone bound -
ary and — in some circumstances — a territorial sea boundary with
Cameroon for a limited distance.” (Land and Maritime Boundary

between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria : Equatorial
Guinea intervening), Application for permission to Intervene by the
government of Equatorial guinea, pp. 6-8.)

It further developed this position by reference to the detail of its
national law and said this :

“in accordance with its national law, Equatorial guinea claims the
sovereign rights and jurisdiction which pertain to it under interna -
tional law up to the median line between Equatorial guinea and
Nigeria on the one hand, and between Equatorial guinea and Cam -
eroon on the other hand. It is these legal rights and interests which

Equatorial guinea seeks to protect.” (Ibid., p. 8.)
— In the Request for an Examination of the Situation in Accordance with

Paragraph 63 of the Court’s Judgment of 20 December 1974 in the
Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France) Case, Australia, also under a
heading based on Article 62, began with two New Zealand claims :

“If, as New Zealand claims, the rights . . . are of an erga omnes
character in the sense described above, it necessarily follows that the s
New Zealand claim against France puts in issue the rights of all
States, including Australia. Assuming that France is subject to the

corres pondingerga omnes obligations invoked by New Zealand (a
matter which will fall to be determined by the Court at the merits

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stage of the proceedings), Australia, in common with New Zealand
and all other States, has — in the words of the Court in the Barcelona

Traction case — a ‘legal interest’ in their observance by France.

As indicated above, New Zealand argues that these obligations
‘by their very nature, are owed to the whole of the international
community, and it makes no sense to conceive of them as sets of

obligations owed, on a bilateral basis, to each member of that com -
munity’. If so, it must follow that a decision by the Court on the
merits of the New Zealand claim would not be a decision as to bilat -
eral rights and obligations of France and New Zealand, capable of
being considered in isolation from identical bilateral rights and obli -

gations existing between France and every other member of the
international community.” (Request for an Examination of the Situ ‑
ation in Accordance with Paragraph 63 of the Court’s Judgment of
20 December 1974 in the Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France)

Case, Application for permission to Intervene under the Terms of
Article 62 of the Statute submitted by the government of Australia,
p. 9, paras. 18-19.)

Again the basis for the intervention is rights which Australia claims.
Its reference to “legal interest” from Barcelona Traction may be
noted — a reference relating to the capacity of a State to bring a claim
rather than to the substantive character of the right or interest, a mats -

ter apparently distinct from the “interest of a legal nature” to bse
assessed in determining a request for intervention.

The Solomon Islands, the Federated States of micronesia, the mar -
shall Islands and Samoa made requests in similar terms, invokingArti-

cle 63 as well as Article 62. On the latter, they comment that “disputes
about obligations owed erga omnes have an inherent unity . . .” (Request
for an Examination of the Situation in Accordance with Paragraph 63
of the Court’s Judgment of 20 December 1974 in the Nuclear Tests
(New Zealand v. France) Case : Application for permission to Inter -

vene under Article 62 — declaration of Intervention under Article 63
Submitted by the government of Solomon Islands, p. 6, para. 19 ;
Application for permission to Intervene under Article 62 — declara -
tion of Intervention under Article 63 Submitted by the government of
the Federated States of micronesia, p. 6, para. 19 ; Application for

permission to Intervene under Article 62 — declaration of Interven -
tion under Article 63 Submitted by the government of the marshall
Islands, p. 6, para. 19 ; Application for permission to Intervene under
Article 62 — declaration of Intervention under Article 63 Submitted
by the government of Samoa, p. 6, para. 19).

The Court did not rule on the five requests made in this case (Request
for an Examination of the Situation in Accordance with Paragraph 63

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of the Court’s Judgment of 20 December 1974 in the Nuclear Tests
(New Zealand v. France) Case, Order of 22 September 1995,

I.C.J. Reports 1995, pp. 306-307, para. 67).
— In Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan the philippines
stated the following objects for its request :

“(a)First, to preserve and safeguard the historical and legal rights
of the government of the Republic of the philippines arising
from its claim to dominion and sovereignty over the territory
of North Borneo, to the extent that these rights are affected, or

may be affected, by a determination of the Court of the ques -
tion of sovereignty over pulau Ligitan and pulau Sipadan.

(b)Second, to intervene in the proceedings in order to inform the
Honourable Court of the nature and extent of the historical

and legal rights of the Republic of the philippines which may
be affected by the Court’s decision.” (Sovereignty over Pulau
Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia), Application
for permission to Intervene by the government of the philip -
pines, p. 4, para. 5.)

10. I now turn to the Court’s decisions on intervention under Article 62,
beginning with one of the two cases in which the application was granteds.

In that case, Nicaragua was successful in respect of the legal régimes of the
waters of the gulf of Fonseca. Honduras was not opposed to that part of
its request, saying that a special legal regime was called for in terms sof the
community of interest of the coastal states ; the Chamber of the Court,
noting that El Salvador had claimed by the time of the proceedings that
the waters were subject to a condominium of the three coastal states,

allowed the request for intervention in that respect (Land, Island and
Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras), Application for
Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990, pp. 120-122,
paras. 69-72). It did not however allow the Application in respect of mari -
time delimitation within the gulf and outside it (ibid., pp. 123-128,

paras. 74-84). Those refusals are the significant findings for the purpose
of the present cases. Along with the other two failed delimitation inters -
vention requests (Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya),
Application for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1981,
p. 20, para. 37 ; Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta),

Application for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984,
pp. 26-28, paras. 42-43, 47), those refusals may be related to two common
features of the Court’s decisions in maritime delimitation cases. Ones was
recalled by the Chamber in its decision on Nicaragua’s request (Land,
Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras), Applica ‑
tion for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990, p. 124,

para. 77): delimitations between two States, I would add by treaty as well
as by third-party decision, often take account of the coasts of one or

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more States. The second feature is that the Court in drawing delimitation
lines takes care to ensure that they stop short of the rights or interessts of

third States (e.g., Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1982, pp. 93-94, para. 133 ; Continental Shelf
(Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985,
pp. 25-28, paras. 21-22 ; Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions
between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Merits, Judgment,

I.C.J. Reports 2001, pp. 115-117, paras. 250-252 ; Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria : Equato ‑
rial Guinea intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 448,
paras. 306-307 ; Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and
Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), pp. 756-759, paras. 312-319; Maritime Delimita ‑

tion in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2009, p. 131, para. 219). As this practice suggests, the parties do appear
to provide the Court with the necessary information about the interests sof
third States. That information has sometimes indeed been invoked in
support of an objection to jurisdiction or admissibility based on the

Monetary Gold principle ; see the submissions of Nigeria in Cam eroon v.
Nigeria (I.C.J. Pleadings, Land and Maritime Boundary between Came ‑
roon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria : Equatorial Guinea inter vening),
preliminary Objections of the Federal Republic of Nigeria,
paras. 4.1-4.11, 8.11-8.17) and of Nicaragua in El Salvador/Honduras

(I.C.J. Pleadings, Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salva ‑
dor/Honduras: Nicaragua intervening), Vol. III, pp. 737-738, paras. 9-12 ;
ibid., Vol. VI, pp. 3-27).

11. The one successful application for intervention in respect of mari -

time delimitation was that by Equatorial guinea in Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Applica ‑
tion for Permission to Intervene, Order of 21 October 1999, I.C.J. Reports
1999 (II), p. 1029. Several features of that decision lessen its significance
for today’s cases : the Court in its jurisdictional judgment had suggested,

when rejecting a Monetary Gold argument, that certain third States may
wish to intervene (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon
and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 323-324, paras. 115-116); only one of them,
Equatorial guinea, in fact applied to intervene ; that application was not

opposed and was accepted by way of an order, not a judgment, of the
Court; and the Court, in the judgment in the main proceeding, said that
in fixing the maritime boundary it must ensure that it did not adopt asny
position which might affect the rights of Equatorial guinea and Sao
Tome and principe (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and
Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria : Equatorial Guinea intervening), Judgment,

I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 421, para. 238). The latter State had not applied to
intervene and obtained exactly the same protection as the State that dids

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apply; and the Court refers to the “rights” and not to the “interests” of
the two States (I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 421, para. 238).

12. In summary, I have three difficulties with the Court’s elaboration osf
the distinction between “the rights in the case at hand” and “an interest of
a legal nature”. Those terms or concepts are being taken out of contesxt.

The definition given to the second is problematic. And, to the extent sthat
it exists, the distinction does not appear to be useful in practice.

(Signed) Kenneth Keith.

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Bilingual Content

393

dECLARATION OF JUdgE KEITH

1. I agree with the conclusions the Court reaches, essentially for the
reasons it gives. This declaration addresses one aspect of those reasonss.

2. For nearly 90 years, the International Court of Justice and its prede-

cessor, the permanent Court of International Justice, have had the power
to permit a State, not a party to the main proceeding before it, to intesr -
vene in the proceeding if the State persuades the Court that it has “san
interest of a legal nature which may be affected by the decision in the s
case” (Article 62 of the Statute). If permission is granted, the intervening

State is supplied with copies of the pleadings and may submit a written s
statement to the Court and its observations in the oral proceedings, witsh
respect to the subject-matter of the intervention (Rules of Court, Arti -
cle 85). Of the 15 requests that have been made in 12 cases since 1923, twos
have been granted, one without objection and the other in part only.

3. Until today, the Court has not attempted to provide a definition or
an elaboration of the expression “an interest of a legal nature” ass it appears
in Article 62 of the Statute. Rather, having considered the evidence and
submissions presented to it by the requesting State and the parties to the
main proceeding, it has determined whether “in concreto and in relation to

all the circumstances of a particular case” the requesting State has sdemon -
strated what it asserts including showing that its interest may be affecsted
(Land, Island and Maritime Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras), Application
for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990, pp. 117-118,
para. 61).

4. There are, I think, good reasons for the Court’s practice to date of
keeping closely to the statutory test laid down in Article 62 and not
attempting to elaborate on a single phrase within that test. I begin witsh the
nature of the power which the Court exercises under Article 62. It is of
a preliminary, procedural, interlocutory character. In terms of its legal

or binding effect, it does no more than to allow (or not) the requesting
State to participate in the process. It involves the Court in making a fsuture-
looking, speculative assessment about the possible impact of the decision
in the main proceeding on the interest asserted by the requesting State.s
That assessment is whether the decision “may”, not “will” ors “is likely” to

affect that interest.

5. The principal features of the power of the Court to make its decision
in the main proceeding differ sharply from those of the Article 62 power.

The parties have much more extensive opportunities, in written and oral s

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dÉCLARATION dE m. LE JUgE KEITH

[Traduction]

1. Je souscris aux conclusions de la Cour, et ce, essentiellement pour
les motifs exposés dans l’arrêt. La présente déclaration sporte uniquement
sur l’un des aspects du raisonnement suivi.
2. depuis près de quatre-vingt-dix ans, la Cour — qu’il s’agisse de la
Cour internationale de Justice ou de sa devancière, la Cour permanentse
de Justice internationale — a la faculté d’autoriser un Etat non partie à

une procédure principale dont elle est saisie à intervenir à l’sinstance, dès
lors que celui-ci parvient à démontrer qu’« un intérêt d’ordre juridique est
pour lui en cause » (article 62 du Statut). L’Etat ainsi admis à intervenir
reçoit copie des pièces de procédure et peut, sur l’objet de l’intervention,
présenter à la Cour une déclaration écrite, puis, au cours dse la procédure

orale, des observations (article 85 du Règlement). Sur les quinze requêtes
à fin d’intervention soumises depuis 1923 dans douze affaires, deux ont
été admises, l’une dans sa totalité, l’autre en partie sesulement.
3. Jusqu’à aujourd’hui, la Cour n’avait pas cherché à expsliciter l’expres -
sion «intérêt d’ordre juridique» telle qu’elle figure à l’article 62 du Statut,

se contentant, après examen des éléments de preuve et des conclsusions pré -
sentés par l’Etat demandant à intervenir et les parties à las procédure prin-
cipale, de déterminer si, « concrètement et … par rapport à toutes les
circonstances de l’espèce», l’Etat en question avait démontré ce qu’il avan -
çait, et notamment que son intérêt pouvait être affecté psar la décision
qu’elle rendrait (Différend frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El Sal ‑

vador/Honduras), requête à fin d’intervention, arrêt, C.I.J.▯ Recueil 1990,
p. 117-118, par. 61).
4. C’est pour de bonnes raisons, selon moi, que la Cour s’en est jusqsu’à
présent strictement tenue au critère énoncé à l’articlse 62 du Statut, sans
chercher à en interpréter une expression isolée. Je m’intésresserai tout

d’abord à la nature du pouvoir exercé par la Cour en vertu de ls’article 62.
Ce pouvoir revêt un caractère préliminaire, procédural et interlocutoire.
En matière d’effet juridique ou de force obligatoire, il s’agit simplement
d’autoriser (ou non) l’Etat demandant à intervenir à prendre part à l’ins -
tance. dans cette optique, la Cour doit se livrer à une appréciation, de

nature spéculative et prospective, de l’incidence que pourrait avosir la
décision qu’elle rendra dans la procédure principale sur l’isntérêt que pré -
tend détenir l’Etat demandant à intervenir. La question est de ssavoir si
cette décision « peut» affecter cet intérêt, et non si elle l’affectera « effecti
vement » ou « vraisemblablement ».
5. Les principales caractéristiques du pouvoir qu’a la Cour de rendres

sa décision en la procédure principale diffèrent nettement de cselles du
pouvoir qu’elle tient de l’article 62. dans le premier cas, les parties ont

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proceedings, to make their case and answer the case against them. They
must have given their consent in one form or other to the Court having

jurisdiction over the case. The Court makes a final decision on the mesrits
which is binding on the parties and without appeal. In the course of maksing
that decision, the Court determines the existence or not of rights unders
law and whether those rights have been breached. That process of fact
finding will in general be backward looking. The party asserting a facst in

support of its case usually has the burden of establishing it on the balsance
of probabilities — a standard which is plainly more demanding than that
stated in Article 62.
6. It is true that one of the differences in the elements to be found in
the two functions is that between a (legal) right and an interest of as legal
nature, but the two preceding paragraphs suggest that that difference hass

a very small role. The problematic character of that difference is to bes
seen in the definition which the Court gives to “an interest of a lsegal
nature” and the consequences it draws from the difference. The Court s
defines today “an interest of a legal nature”, as opposed to an “estab -
lished right”, as “a real and concrete claim . . . based on law” (Judgment

on Application by Costa Rica, para. 26 ; Judgment on Application by
Honduras, para. 37). If the claim is based on law and is real and concrete,
is it not a claim of a right (or a liberty or a power) recognized by tshe law?
Is the Court drawing a real distinction?

7. The Court draws two consequences from its definition : an estab -
lished right has greater protection and the requirement of proof is not sas
demanding in the case of an interest of a legal nature. But those conse -
quences are a result of the full range of contrasting features of the twso
powers set out in paragraphs 4 and 5 above. They do not arise simply and

solely from any difference between an established right and an interest sof
a legal nature.

8. The elusive character of the difference is further demonstrated by
the practice of States requesting permission to intervene. They do not

appear to find assistance in any such distinction. To take the two casses
being decided today, Costa Rica, at the outset of its Application, stated
that its “interests of a legal nature which could be affected by a descision
in this case are the sovereign rights and jurisdiction afforded to Costa Rica
under international law and claimed pursuant to its constitution” (esmpha -

sis added). It said essentially the same at the end of the proceedings sin
answering a question from a judge. Similarly, as the Court records in thse
Honduras case, that State, to demonstrate that it has an interest of a lsegal
nature, contends that it is entitled to claim sovereign rights and jurissdic -
tion over a certain maritime area (Judgment, paras. 16 and 18).

9. That close linking of interests of a legal nature to rights under inter -
national law has appeared from the outset to the present day :

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largement plus de possibilités de plaider leur cause, tant à l’sécrit qu’à
l’oral, et de répondre aux arguments qui leur sont opposés ; elles doivent

avoir consenti, d’une manière ou d’une autre, à la compétsence de la Cour
pour connaître de l’affaire ; la Cour rend une décision définitive au fond,
qui est obligatoire pour les parties et sans recours. En procédant des la
sorte, elle détermine si tels ou tels droits existent et s’ils onts été violés, son
constat relevant d’un processus qui est en général de nature réstrospective.

de plus, il incombe normalement à la partie qui avance un fait à l’appui
de sa thèse de l’établir à l’aune du critère de la pluss forte probabilité,
condition nettement plus exigeante que celle énoncée à l’artsicle 62.
6. Si, parmi les différences entre les deux fonctions, figure effectivsement
une distinction entre « droit» (juridique) et « intérêt d’ordre juridique »,
les deux paragraphes précédents donnent cependant à penser qu’elsle ne

joue qu’un rôle mineur. La définition que donne la Cour de l’s« intérêt
d’ordre juridique» montre que cette distinction n’est pas sans poser pro -
blème, et de même les conséquences que la Cour y attache. Celle-ci, en
effet, définit aujourd’hui l’«intérêt d’ordre juridique» comme «une préten-
tion concrète et réelle … fondée sur le droit » par opposition au « droit

établi» (arrêt (requête du Costa Rica à fin d’intervention), par. 26 ; arrêt
(requête du Honduras à fin d’intervention), par. 37); or, si la prétention est
juridiquement fondée et si elle est réelle et concrète, ne s’sagit-il pas de la
revendication d’un droit (ou d’une liberté ou d’un pouvoir)s juridiquement
reconnu? On peut donc se demander si la Cour opère une véritable

distinction.
7. Quant aux conséquences que la Cour attache à sa définition, eslles
sont au nombre de deux : d’une part, le droit établi jouit d’une protection
supérieure et, d’autre part, les exigences en matière de preuve ne sont pas
aussi strictes en ce qui concerne l’intérêt d’ordre juridiquse. Ces consé -
quences découlent cependant des caractéristiques propres aux deux spou -

voirs de la Cour dont les différences ont été exposées aux psaragraphes 4
et 5 ci-dessus, et non de la seule distinction qui existerait entre droit étasbli
et intérêt d’ordre juridique.
8. La pratique des Etats demandant à intervenir tend en outre à confisr-
mer le caractère incertain de cette distinction, qui ne semble pas prsésenter

pour eux d’utilité. Ainsi, en l’espèce, le Costa Rica avait d’emblée indi -
qué, dans sa requête, que « les intérêts d’ordre juridique … pour lui en
cause [étaient] les droits souverains et la juridiction que le droit internatio -
nal reconna[issait] au Costa Rica et que celui-ci revendiqu[ait] confor-
mément à sa Constitution » (les italiques sont de moi). Il a, pour l’essen -

tiel, dit la même chose au terme de la procédure, dans sa réponsse à une
question posée par l’un des membres de la Cour. de même, pour démon -
trer qu’il possédait un intérêt d’ordre juridique, le Honsduras a affirmé
— ainsi que le relève la Cour dans son arrêt — avoir des droits souve -
rains et une juridiction à faire valoir sur une zone maritime donnée (arrêst,
par. 16 et 18).

9. Cette étroite association entre intérêts d’ordre juridique est droits
découlant du droit international n’est d’ailleurs pas récentse:

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7 CIJ1019.indb 97 13/06/13 16:02 395 territorial and maristime dispute (decl. keisth)

— In the S.S. “Wimbledon” case, poland referred to “violations of the
rights and material advantages guaranteed to poland by Article 380

of The Treaty of Versailles” ; it changed its request to one under Arti -
cle 63 and the Court accepted it (S.S. “Wimbledon”, Judgments, 1923,
P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 1 (Question of Intervention by poland), p. 13).

— In the Nuclear Tests cases, Fiji in its request having referred to the
claims made by Australia and New Zealand — respectively, that the
testing was not consistent with applicable rules of international law ors
constituted a violation of New Zealand rights under international

law — contended that “[I]t will be evident from the facts set out above
that Fiji is affected by French conduct at least as much as [Australia] s
New Zealand and that similar legal considerations affect its position.”
(I.C.J. Pleadings, Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Applica -
tion for permission to Intervene Submitted by the government of

Fiji, p. 91.) The Court did not rule on the substance of this request
(Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Application for Permission to
Intervene, Order of 20 December 1974, I.C.J. Reports 1974, p. 536.

— While malta in the Tunisia/Libya case used the terms of Article 62 in
its request it at once defined its “interest of a legal nature” sas rights
under the law :

“There can be no doubt that malta’s interest in her continental
shelf boundaries is of a legal character since the continental shelf
rights of States are derived from law, as are also the principles and

rules on the basis of which such areas are to be defined and delimiteds.
In other words these rights are created and protected by law, and
the question of the proper spatial extent of the regions over which
they can be exercised by any given State is also a matter of law.”
(I.C.J. Pleadings, Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jama ‑

hiriya), Application for permission to Intervene by the government
of the Republic of malta, p. 258, para. 7.)

— Italy in its request in the Libya/Malta case under the heading l’intérêt
d’ordre juridique similarly referred to its rights and legal title, as it saw
them, in areas of continental shelf off its coast, the relevant areas
being within 400 nautical miles of the relevant coasts (I.C.J. Plead ‑

ings, Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Vol. II,
Application for permission to Intervene, pp. 422-424, paras. 6-13).

— Nicaragua in the El Salvador/Honduras case stated two objects for its

intervention :
“First, generally to protect the legal rights of the Republic of Nica-

ragua in the gulf of Fonseca and the adjacent maritime areas by all
legal means available.

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— dans l’affaire du Vapeur Wimbledon, la pologne avait ainsi dans un

premier temps allégué «la violation … des droits et des intérêts [qui lui
étaient] garantis … par l’article 380 du traité [de Versailles] »; ayant
ensuite modifié sa demande pour pouvoir se prévaloir de l’artsicle 63, elle
fut admise à intervenir (Vapeur Wimbledon, arrêts, 1923, C.P.J.I. série
o
A n 1 (question de l’intervention de la pologne), p. 13).
— dans sa requête à fin d’intervention dans les affaires des Essais nucléaires,
Fidji, ayant fait état des demandes formulées par l’Australie et la
Nouvelle-Zélande — qui affirmaient, l’une, que les essais n’étaient pas

compatibles avec les règles applicables du droit international et, l’sautre,
qu’ils constituaient une violation de ses droits au regard du droit
international —, soutenait que «les faits … exposés montr[aient] que le
comportement de la France [l’]affectait pour le moins autant que la

Nouvelle-Zélande [ou l’Australie] et que des considérations juridiques
analogues s’appliqu[aient] à l’un et l’autre pays » (Essais nucléaires
(Nouvelle‑Zélande c. France), requête de Fidji à fin d’intervention, p. 10).
La Cour ne s’est toutefois pas prononcée sur le fond de cette demasnde

(Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle‑Zélande c. France), requête à fin d’interven ‑
tion, ordonnance du 20 décembre 1974, C.I.J. Recueil 1974, p. 536).
— dans l’affaire Tunisie/Libye, malte, bien qu’ayant utilisé les termes de
l’article 62, spécifiait d’emblée que son « intérêt d’ordre juridique »

était constitué par des droits ou « titres» dérivés du droit :
«Il est hors de doute que l’intérêt de malte quant aux limites de

son plateau continental est de nature juridique, puisque les titres des s
Etats sur le plateau continental dérivent du droit, de même que less
principes et règles d’après lesquels les zones dont il s’agist sont défi -
nies et délimitées. En d’autres termes, ces titres sont crééss et proté -

gés par le droit, et la question de la juste étendue spatiale des srégions
où ils peuvent être exercés par un Etat déterminé est ésgalement une
question juridique.» (Plateau continental (Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe
libyenne), requête de malte à fin d’intervention, p. 5, par. 7.)

— dans l’affaire Libye/Malte, l’Italie, dans sa requête à fin d’intervention,

se référait de même, sous l’intitulé « L’«intérêt d’ordre juridique »», à
ce qu’elle considérait comme ses droits et son titre juridique surs des
portions de plateau continental au large de ses côtes, les zones
pertinentes se trouvant à moins de 400 milles marins de celles-ci

(Plateau continental (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte), requête de
l’Italie à fin d’intervention, p. 5-9, par. 6-13).
— dans l’affaire El Salvador/Honduras, le Nicaragua présentait son
intervention comme ayant un objet double :

«Premièrement, … protéger généralement, par tous les moyens
juridiques possibles, les droits de la République du Nicaragua dans

le golfe de Fonseca et dans les espaces maritimes contigus.

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7 CIJ1019.indb 99 13/06/13 16:02 396 territorial and maristime dispute (decl. keisth)

Secondly, to intervene in the proceedings in order to inform the
Court of the nature of the legal rights of Nicaragua which are in

issue in the dispute. This form of intervention would have the con -
servative purpose of seeking to ensure that the determinations of the
Chamber did not trench upon the legal rights and interests of the
Republic of Nicaragua, and Nicaragua intends to subject itself to
the binding effect of the decision to be given.” (Land, Island and

Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras : Nicaragua inter ‑
vening), Application for permission to Intervene by the government
of Nicaragua, p. 4, paras. 5-6.)

— In Cameroon v. Nigeria, Equatorial guinea, again under a heading
using the terms of Article 62, recalled what the Court had said in its
judgment on preliminary objections in that case and continued by ref -
erence to the law :

“In fact, Equatorial guinea has claimed an exclusive economic
zone and territorial sea under its own domestic law, in terms which
it believes consistent with its entitlements under international law.

The maritime area thus claimed would produce a boundary in the
north-east corner of the gulf of guinea, based upon median line
principles, which would be both an exclusive economic zone bound -
ary and — in some circumstances — a territorial sea boundary with
Cameroon for a limited distance.” (Land and Maritime Boundary

between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria : Equatorial
Guinea intervening), Application for permission to Intervene by the
government of Equatorial guinea, pp. 6-8.)

It further developed this position by reference to the detail of its
national law and said this :

“in accordance with its national law, Equatorial guinea claims the
sovereign rights and jurisdiction which pertain to it under interna -
tional law up to the median line between Equatorial guinea and
Nigeria on the one hand, and between Equatorial guinea and Cam -
eroon on the other hand. It is these legal rights and interests which

Equatorial guinea seeks to protect.” (Ibid., p. 8.)
— In the Request for an Examination of the Situation in Accordance with

Paragraph 63 of the Court’s Judgment of 20 December 1974 in the
Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France) Case, Australia, also under a
heading based on Article 62, began with two New Zealand claims :

“If, as New Zealand claims, the rights . . . are of an erga omnes
character in the sense described above, it necessarily follows that the s
New Zealand claim against France puts in issue the rights of all
States, including Australia. Assuming that France is subject to the

corres pondingerga omnes obligations invoked by New Zealand (a
matter which will fall to be determined by the Court at the merits

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Deuxièmement, … intervenir dans l’instance pour informer la
Cour de la nature des droits du Nicaragua qui sont en cause dans le

litige. Cette forme d’intervention aurait un but conservatoire : elle
viserait à garantir que les conclusions de la Chambre ne portent pas
atteinte aux droits et intérêts de la République du Nicaragua, et le
Nicaragua entend reconnaître l’effet obligatoire de la décisions qui
sera rendue. » (Différend frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime

(El Salvador/Honduras; Nicaragua (intervenant)), requête du Nica -
ragua à fin d’intervention, p. 5, par. 5-6.)

— dans l’affaire Cameroun c. Nigeria, la guinée équatoriale, là encore
sous un intitulé reprenant les termes de l’article 62, rappelait ce que
la Cour avait dit dans son arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires en s
l’affaire, poursuivant ainsi en se référant au droit :

«En fait, de par son droit interne, la guinée équatoriale reven -
dique une zone économique exclusive et une mer territoriale, en des
termes qu’elle considère comme conformes aux droits qu’elle tient du

droit international. La zone maritime qu’elle revendique se traduit
dans l’angle nord-est du golfe de guinée, sur la base du principe des
lignes médianes, par une frontière qui marquerait à la fois la slimite de
sa zone économique exclusive et — dans certaines circonstances — la
limite de sa mer territoriale par rapport au Cameroun sur une dis -

tance limitée.» (Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le
Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria ; Guinée équatoriale (intervenant)),
requête de la guinée équatoriale à fin d’intervention, p. 7-9.)

Ayant précisé sa position en invoquant des dispositions spécifisques de
son droit interne, elle ajoutait :

«conformément à son droit national, la guinée équatoriale reven -
dique les droits souverains et la juridiction que lui confère le droist
international jusqu’à la ligne médiane entre la guinée équatoriale et
le Nigéria, d’une part, et entre la guinée équatoriale et le Came -
roun, d’autre part. Ce sont ces droits et intérêts d’ordre juridique

que la guinée équatoriale cherche à protéger. » (Ibid., p. 9.)
— dans l’affaire de la Demande d’examen de la situation au titre du

paragraphe 63 de l’arrêt rendu par la Cour le 20 décembre 1974 dans
l’affaire des Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), l’Australie
commençait par présenter, également sous un intitulé reprenant les
termes de l’article 62, deux revendications de la Nouvelle-Zélande :

«Si, comme la Nouvelle-Zélande le soutient, les droits … ont le
caractère erga omnes évoqué ci-dessus, l’action intentée par la
Nouvelle-Zélande contre la France met nécessairement en cause les
droits de tous les Etats, Australie comprise. Si la France est liée

par les obligations erga omnes correspondantes invoquées par la
Nouvelle-Zélande (question qu’il appartiendra à la Cour de tran -

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7 CIJ1019.indb 101 13/06/13 16:02 397 territorial and maristime dispute (decl. keisth)

stage of the proceedings), Australia, in common with New Zealand
and all other States, has — in the words of the Court in the Barcelona

Traction case — a ‘legal interest’ in their observance by France.

As indicated above, New Zealand argues that these obligations
‘by their very nature, are owed to the whole of the international
community, and it makes no sense to conceive of them as sets of

obligations owed, on a bilateral basis, to each member of that com -
munity’. If so, it must follow that a decision by the Court on the
merits of the New Zealand claim would not be a decision as to bilat -
eral rights and obligations of France and New Zealand, capable of
being considered in isolation from identical bilateral rights and obli -

gations existing between France and every other member of the
international community.” (Request for an Examination of the Situ ‑
ation in Accordance with Paragraph 63 of the Court’s Judgment of
20 December 1974 in the Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France)

Case, Application for permission to Intervene under the Terms of
Article 62 of the Statute submitted by the government of Australia,
p. 9, paras. 18-19.)

Again the basis for the intervention is rights which Australia claims.
Its reference to “legal interest” from Barcelona Traction may be
noted — a reference relating to the capacity of a State to bring a claim
rather than to the substantive character of the right or interest, a mats -

ter apparently distinct from the “interest of a legal nature” to bse
assessed in determining a request for intervention.

The Solomon Islands, the Federated States of micronesia, the mar -
shall Islands and Samoa made requests in similar terms, invokingArti-

cle 63 as well as Article 62. On the latter, they comment that “disputes
about obligations owed erga omnes have an inherent unity . . .” (Request
for an Examination of the Situation in Accordance with Paragraph 63
of the Court’s Judgment of 20 December 1974 in the Nuclear Tests
(New Zealand v. France) Case : Application for permission to Inter -

vene under Article 62 — declaration of Intervention under Article 63
Submitted by the government of Solomon Islands, p. 6, para. 19 ;
Application for permission to Intervene under Article 62 — declara -
tion of Intervention under Article 63 Submitted by the government of
the Federated States of micronesia, p. 6, para. 19 ; Application for

permission to Intervene under Article 62 — declaration of Interven -
tion under Article 63 Submitted by the government of the marshall
Islands, p. 6, para. 19 ; Application for permission to Intervene under
Article 62 — declaration of Intervention under Article 63 Submitted
by the government of Samoa, p. 6, para. 19).

The Court did not rule on the five requests made in this case (Request
for an Examination of the Situation in Accordance with Paragraph 63

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cher lors de l’examen au fond), l’Australie a, en commun avec la s
Nouvelle-Zélande et tous les autres Etats, un « intérêt juridique »

[pour reprendre l’expression utilisée par la Cour dans l’affairse de
la Barcelona Traction] à ce que la France respecte ces obligations.
Comme on l’a indiqué ci-dessus, la Nouvelle-Zélande soutient
que ces obligations, «par leur nature même, valent à l’égard de l’en -
semble de la communauté internationale, et [qu’]il serait absurde sde

les concevoir comme autant d’obligations qu’il faudrait honorer, às
titre bilatéral, à l’égard de chacun des membres de cette cosmmu -
nauté…». Si tel est le cas, il s’ensuit nécessairement qu’une décision
de la Cour sur le fond n’aurait pas pour objet les droits et devoirs
bilatéraux de la France et de la Nouvelle-Zélande, considérés à part

des droits et devoirs bilatéraux identiques existant entre la France set
chacun des membres de la communauté internationale. » (Demande
d’examen de la situation au titre du paragraphe 63 de l’arrêt rendu par
la Cour le 20 décembre 1974 dans l’affaire des Essais nucléaires
(Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), requête de l’Australie à fin d’interven -

tion en vertu de l’article 62, p. 9, par. 18-19.)

Ici aussi, c’est sur des droits, tels que revendiqués par l’Australie,
qu’est fondée la demande d’intervention. L’on notera la résférence à
l’«intérêt juridique », expression qui figure dans l’arrêt rendu en l’af -
faire de la Barcelona Traction; elle renvoie à la faculté qu’a un Etat de
présenter une demande et non à la nature profonde du droit ou de

l’intérêt revendiqué, question apparemment distincte de l’s« intérêt
d’ordre juridique » devant être apprécié dans le cadre de l’examen
d’une demande d’intervention.
Les Iles Salomon, les Etats fédérés de micronésie, les Iles marshall et
le Samoa avaient présenté des demandes d’intervention en des tesrmes

similaires, invoquant l’article 63 ainsi que l’article 62. dans le cadre
de ce dernier, ils faisaient valoir que « les différends relatifs à des
obligations erga omnes [avaient] une unité intrinsèque » (Demande
d’examen de la situation au titre du paragraphe 63 de l’arrêt rendu
par la Cour le 20 décembre 1974 dans l’affaire des Essais nucléaires

(Nouvelle-Zélande c. France): requête à fin d’intervention en vertu de
l’article 62 et déclaration d’intervention en vertu de l’article 63 pré-
sentées par les Iles Salomon, p. 6, par. 19 ; requête à fin d’interven-
tion en vertu de l’article 62 et déclaration d’intervention en vertu
de l’article 63 présentées par les Etats fédérés de micronésie, p. 6,

par. 19; requête à fin d’intervention en vertu de l’article 62 et déclara -
tion d’intervention en vertu de l’article 63 présentées par les Iles
marshall, p. 6, par. 19 ; requête à fin d’intervention en vertu de l’ar -
ticle 62 et déclaration d’intervention en vertu de l’article 63 présen -
tées par le Samoa, p. 6, par. 19).

La Cour ne s’est prononcée sur aucune des cinq requêtes préssentées en
l’affaire (Demande d’examen de la situation au titre du paragraphe 63

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7 CIJ1019.indb 103 13/06/13 16:02 398 territorial and maristime dispute (decl. keisth)

of the Court’s Judgment of 20 December 1974 in the Nuclear Tests
(New Zealand v. France) Case, Order of 22 September 1995,

I.C.J. Reports 1995, pp. 306-307, para. 67).
— In Sovereignty over Pulau Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan the philippines
stated the following objects for its request :

“(a)First, to preserve and safeguard the historical and legal rights
of the government of the Republic of the philippines arising
from its claim to dominion and sovereignty over the territory
of North Borneo, to the extent that these rights are affected, or

may be affected, by a determination of the Court of the ques -
tion of sovereignty over pulau Ligitan and pulau Sipadan.

(b)Second, to intervene in the proceedings in order to inform the
Honourable Court of the nature and extent of the historical

and legal rights of the Republic of the philippines which may
be affected by the Court’s decision.” (Sovereignty over Pulau
Ligitan and Pulau Sipadan (Indonesia/Malaysia), Application
for permission to Intervene by the government of the philip -
pines, p. 4, para. 5.)

10. I now turn to the Court’s decisions on intervention under Article 62,
beginning with one of the two cases in which the application was granteds.

In that case, Nicaragua was successful in respect of the legal régimes of the
waters of the gulf of Fonseca. Honduras was not opposed to that part of
its request, saying that a special legal regime was called for in terms sof the
community of interest of the coastal states ; the Chamber of the Court,
noting that El Salvador had claimed by the time of the proceedings that
the waters were subject to a condominium of the three coastal states,

allowed the request for intervention in that respect (Land, Island and
Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras), Application for
Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990, pp. 120-122,
paras. 69-72). It did not however allow the Application in respect of mari -
time delimitation within the gulf and outside it (ibid., pp. 123-128,

paras. 74-84). Those refusals are the significant findings for the purpose
of the present cases. Along with the other two failed delimitation inters -
vention requests (Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya),
Application for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1981,
p. 20, para. 37 ; Continental Shelf (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta),

Application for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1984,
pp. 26-28, paras. 42-43, 47), those refusals may be related to two common
features of the Court’s decisions in maritime delimitation cases. Ones was
recalled by the Chamber in its decision on Nicaragua’s request (Land,
Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras), Applica ‑
tion for Permission to Intervene, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1990, p. 124,

para. 77): delimitations between two States, I would add by treaty as well
as by third-party decision, often take account of the coasts of one or

54

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de l’arrêt rendu par la Cour le 20 décembre 1974 dans l’affaire des
Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France), ordonnance du

22 septembre 1995, C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 306-307, par. 67).
— dans l’affaire relative à la Souveraineté sur Pulau Ligitan et Pulau
Sipadan, les philippines indiquaient que leur requête avait pour objet :

«a) premièrement, de préserver et sauvegarder les droits d’ordre
historique et juridique du gouvernement de la République des
philippines qui découlent de la revendication de possession et
de souveraineté que ce gouvernement forme sur le territoire du

Bornéo septentrional dans la mesure où ces droits sont ou
pourraient être mis en cause par une décision de la Cour rela -
tive à la question de la souveraineté sur pulau Ligitan et pulau
Sipadan.
b) deuxièmement, d’intervenir dans l’instance pour informer la
Cour de la nature et de la portée des droits d’ordre historique

et juridique de la République des philippines qui pourraient être
mis en cause par la décision de la Cour.» (Souveraineté sur Pulau
Ligitan et Pulau Sipadan (Indonésie/Malaisie), requête des phi -
lippines à fin d’intervention, p. 5, par. 5.)

10. J’en viens maintenant aux décisions de la Cour sur les demandes
d’intervention présentées en vertu de l’article 62, en commençant par

l’une des deux affaires en lesquelles la requête a été admise. dans l’affaire
en question, le Nicaragua fut autorisé à intervenir pour ce qui concernait
le régime juridique des eaux du golfe de Fonseca. Le Honduras ne s’était
pas opposé à cet aspect de sa demande, considérant qu’un résgime juri -
dique spécial était nécessaire en raison de la communauté d’sintérêts entre
les Etats côtiers. La Chambre de la Cour, notant qu’El Salvador avait fait

valoir, dans le cadre de la procédure, que les eaux étaient soumisses à un
condominium des trois Etats côtiers, admit la demande d’interventison
sur ce point (Différend frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El Salva ‑
dor/Honduras), requête à fin d’intervention, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1990,
p. 120-122, par. 69-72). Elle ne fit en revanche pas droit à la demande

relative à la délimitation maritime à l’intérieur et en dsehors du golfe (ibid.,
p. 123-128, par. 74-84). Ce sont ces rejets qui sont significatifs aux fins des
présentes procédures. de même que dans les deux autres cas où des
demandes d’intervention n’ont pas été admises dans une affaisre de délimi -
tation (Plateau continental (Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe libyenne), requête à▯

fin d’intervention, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1981, p. 20, par. 37 ; Plateau conti ‑
nental (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte), requête à fin d’intervention,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1984, p. 26-28, par. 42-43 et 47), ces rejets sont à rat -
tacher à deux caractéristiques des décisions de la Cour en matisère de déli-
mitation maritime. La première a été rappelée par la Chambres de la Cour
dans sa décision sur la demande d’intervention du Nicaragua (Différend

frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El Salvador/Honduras), requête
à fin d’intervention, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1990, p. 124, par. 77) : les délimi -

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7 CIJ1019.indb 105 13/06/13 16:02 399 territorial and maristime dispute (decl. keisth)

more States. The second feature is that the Court in drawing delimitation
lines takes care to ensure that they stop short of the rights or interessts of

third States (e.g., Continental Shelf (Tunisia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1982, pp. 93-94, para. 133 ; Continental Shelf
(Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Malta), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1985,
pp. 25-28, paras. 21-22 ; Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions
between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Merits, Judgment,

I.C.J. Reports 2001, pp. 115-117, paras. 250-252 ; Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria : Equato ‑
rial Guinea intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 448,
paras. 306-307 ; Territorial and Maritime Dispute between Nicaragua and
Honduras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II), pp. 756-759, paras. 312-319; Maritime Delimita ‑

tion in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2009, p. 131, para. 219). As this practice suggests, the parties do appear
to provide the Court with the necessary information about the interests sof
third States. That information has sometimes indeed been invoked in
support of an objection to jurisdiction or admissibility based on the

Monetary Gold principle ; see the submissions of Nigeria in Cam eroon v.
Nigeria (I.C.J. Pleadings, Land and Maritime Boundary between Came ‑
roon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria : Equatorial Guinea inter vening),
preliminary Objections of the Federal Republic of Nigeria,
paras. 4.1-4.11, 8.11-8.17) and of Nicaragua in El Salvador/Honduras

(I.C.J. Pleadings, Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salva ‑
dor/Honduras: Nicaragua intervening), Vol. III, pp. 737-738, paras. 9-12 ;
ibid., Vol. VI, pp. 3-27).

11. The one successful application for intervention in respect of mari -

time delimitation was that by Equatorial guinea in Land and Maritime
Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Applica ‑
tion for Permission to Intervene, Order of 21 October 1999, I.C.J. Reports
1999 (II), p. 1029. Several features of that decision lessen its significance
for today’s cases : the Court in its jurisdictional judgment had suggested,

when rejecting a Monetary Gold argument, that certain third States may
wish to intervene (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon
and Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 323-324, paras. 115-116); only one of them,
Equatorial guinea, in fact applied to intervene ; that application was not

opposed and was accepted by way of an order, not a judgment, of the
Court; and the Court, in the judgment in the main proceeding, said that
in fixing the maritime boundary it must ensure that it did not adopt asny
position which might affect the rights of Equatorial guinea and Sao
Tome and principe (Land and Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and
Nigeria (Cameroon v. Nigeria : Equatorial Guinea intervening), Judgment,

I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 421, para. 238). The latter State had not applied to
intervene and obtained exactly the same protection as the State that dids

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tations effectuées entre deux Etats — par voie conventionnelle aussi bien
qu’en vertu d’une décision d’une tierce partie, ajouterais-je — prennent

souvent en compte les côtes d’un ou de plusieurs Etats. La secondes est
que la Cour, lorsqu’elle trace une ligne de délimitation, veille à ce
que celle-ci s’arrête avant de toucher les droits ou intérêts d’sEtats tiers
(voir, par exemple, Plateau continental ( Tunisie/Jamahiriya arabe
libyenne), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1982, p. 93-94, par. 133 ; Plateau continen ‑

tal (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Malte), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1985, p. 25-28,
par. 21-22 ; Délimitation maritime et questions territoriales entre Qatar et
Bahreïn (Qatar c. Bahreïn), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2001, p. 115-117,
par. 250-252 ; Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le
Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria ; Guinée équatoriale (intervenant)), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 448, par. 306-307 ; Différend territorial et maritime

entre le Nicaragua et le Honduras dans la mer des Caraïbes (Nicaragu▯a
c. Honduras), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II), p. 756-759, par. 312-319 ;
Délimitation maritime en mer Noire (Roumanie c. Ukraine), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2009, p. 131, par. 219). Cette pratique semble bien montrer
que les parties communiquent à la Cour les informations pertinentes

concernant les intérêts d’Etats tiers, parfois, d’ailleurs, sà l’appui d’une
exception d’incompétence ou d’irrecevabilité fondée sur le principe énoncé
dans l’affaire de l’Or monétaire (voir les écritures du Nigéria dans l’affaire
Cameroun c. Nigéria (Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun
et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria ; Guinée équatoriale (intervenant)),

exceptions préliminaires de la République fédérale du Nigésria,
par. 4.1-4.11 et 8.11-8.17) et celles du Nicaragua dans l’affaire El Salva ‑
dor/Honduras (Différend frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El Sal ‑
vador/Honduras; Nicaragua (intervenant)), requête, p. 6-7, par. 9-12 ;
ibid., déclaration écrite, p. 3-27)).
11. La seule requête à fin d’intervention admise dans une affaires de déli -

mitation maritime fut celle présentée par la guinée équatoriale en l’affaire
Cameroun c. Nigeria (Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le
Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria), requête à fin d’intervention, ordonnance du
21 octobre 1999, C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II),p. 1029).plusieurs aspects de cette
décision limitent toutefois sa pertinence aux fins des présentess procédures :

en rejetant un argument fondé sur le principe de l’Or monétaire, la Cour
avait laissé entendre, dans son arrêt sur la compétence, que cesrtains Etats
tiers pourraient souhaiter intervenir (Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le
Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria), exceptions préliminaires,
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 323-324, par. 115-116), mais seul l’un d’entre

eux, la guinée équatoriale, présenta une demande en ce sens ; aucune ob-
jection n’y fut faite et la requête fut admise en vertu d’une osrdonnance
de la Cour et non d’un arrêt ; enfin, la Cour déclara, dans l’arrêt rendu
dans la procédure principale, qu’en établissant la frontière maristime elle
devait veiller à ne pas adopter une position susceptible d’affectesr les droits
de la guinée équatoriale et de Sao Tomé-et-principe (Frontière terrestre

et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria (Cameroun c. Nigéria ; Gui‑
née équatoriale (intervenant)), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 421, par. 238).

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7 CIJ1019.indb 107 13/06/13 16:02 400 territorial and maristime dispute (decl. keisth)

apply; and the Court refers to the “rights” and not to the “interests” of
the two States (I.C.J. Reports 2002, p. 421, para. 238).

12. In summary, I have three difficulties with the Court’s elaboration osf
the distinction between “the rights in the case at hand” and “an interest of
a legal nature”. Those terms or concepts are being taken out of contesxt.

The definition given to the second is problematic. And, to the extent sthat
it exists, the distinction does not appear to be useful in practice.

(Signed) Kenneth Keith.

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7 CIJ1019.indb 108 13/06/13 16:02 différend territorisal et maritime (décl. kseith) 400

Sao Tomé-et-principe, qui n’avait pas demandé à intervenir, se vit accorder
la même protection que l’Etat qui avait fait une demande en ce senss ; du
reste, c’est aux «droits» et non aux « intérêts» des deux Etats que la Cour
faisait référence (C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 421, par. 238).
12. pour résumer, la distinction opérée par la Cour entre « droits dans

l’espèce considérée » et « intérêts d’ordre juridique » me pose trois pro -
blèmes: ces expressions ou concepts sont sortis de leur contexte ; la défini-
tion que donne la Cour des seconds est problématique ; et, pour autant
qu’elle existe, la distinction semble dénuée d’utilité prsatique.

(Signé) Kenneth Keith.

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7 CIJ1019.indb 109 13/06/13 16:02

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Declaration of Judge Keith

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