Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Mampuya

Document Number
103-20101130-JUD-01-07-EN
Parent Document Number
103-20101130-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC MAMPUYA

[Translation]

Requirement of the existence of an inter-State dispute as a precondition to
any judicial action and novelty of certain claims.
Paragraph 1 (b) of Article 36 of the Vienna Convention — Content and sense

of the obligation to inform — Nature and scope of the obligation contained in
Article 36 to inform the arrested or detained alien in the light of the object and
purpose of the 1963 Convention — Specificity of the rights identified in Arti-
cle 36, paragraph 1, and the interrelationship of the three rights set out in sub-
paragraph (b) — In the absence of material injury, a declaration by the Court of
the wrongful nature of the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s conduct should
have constituted sufficient reparation for the injury suffered.
Lawfulness of the expulsion: Article 13 of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights (the Covenant or ICCPR) merely stipulates that the
decision to expel be taken “in accordance with the law” — Arbitrariness is not
contemplated by Article 13 of the ICCPR: the Court imposes a condition addi-
tional to those laid down in the ICCPR in order for an expulsion to be lawful —
“Arbitrariness” only refers to arrests or detentions in the context of Article 9,
paragraph 1, of the Covenant.
Direct rights as shareholder — Enforceability or opposability of an associé’s
direct rights — Notion of interference in company law — Enforceability or

opposability of an associé’s direct rights — Notion of interference.

The Court’s function is to decide, in accordance with international law, such
disputes as are submitted to it; the Court can exercise its jurisdiction in con-
tentious proceedings only when a dispute genuinely exists between the Parties.
The Court only takes cognizance of the facts through the inter-State dispute in
relation to those facts; an argument expounded during the oral proceedings can-
not be evidence of the existence of a dispute between the Parties.
Subparagraph (b) of paragraph 1 of Article 36 of the Vienna Convention on
Consular Relations contains three separate but interrelated elements. The legal
conclusions to be drawn from that interrelationship necessarily depend upon the
facts of each case. It is necessary to consider the interrelationship of those three
elements in the light of the particular facts and circumstances of the present case.
A purely moral, non-material injury may be redressed by purely moral “satis-
faction”. There is abundant jurisprudence to show that a declaration by the

Court of the wrongful nature of a State’s conduct constitutes sufficient repara-
tion for the injury suffered.
The international instruments applied in the present case are not aimed at
“arbitrary” expulsion; arbitrariness does not derive from the alleged unlawful-
ness of an act. The arbitrary character of a measure falling within a prerogative
of so discretionary a nature on the part of the State as the determination of the
conditions of access or acceptance of foreigners on its territory must therefore,
in respect of expulsion, be proved, and not presumed or deduced from the

196alleged unlawfulness of the measure. The law affords States a certain latitude to
define what, in order to enforce an expulsion measure, is or is not required for
their public order or national security.
Direct rights of the shareholder and interests of the shareholder. The alleged

internationally wrongful acts must have been aimed directly at the associé’s
direct rights as such. The associé’s direct rights are only enforceable against the
company and within the context of its relations with the associés; the actions of
a third party can only be considered as damaging to the direct rights of an asso-
cié “as such” if they represent acts of interference in the operation of the com-
pany or in the relations between the latter and its associés.

It is with real regret that I have found myself unable to concur fully

with the majority of the Court in this case. However, as judge — even
ad hoc — I did not vote against the principal conclusion of the Judgment
finding the Democratic Republic of the Congo guilty of violating certain
obligations in relation to the individual rights of a Guinean national,
thereby demonstrating, just as I did at the preliminary objections stage,

that I have no problem with the universal assertion and safeguarding of
human rights.
The purpose of this opinion is not therefore to dispute the provisions
of the Judgment relating to that important issue, but to express certain

reservations in respect of specific points decided by the Court, while dis-
agreeing with some of the reasoning advanced by the majority or, at times,
with certain of its conclusions.

M Y R ESERVATIONS

1. Having already voiced my dissent to the 24 May 2007 Judgment on
the preliminary objections, I particularly wanted to start by setting out

my reservations on a question which I believe to be of undisputed legal
significance in international judicial law, concerning a Court practice
which has become an established procedural principle — as consistently
confirmed by the Court in its jurisprudence — but which was seemingly

abandoned in its 2007 Judgment in this case. I am referring to the pre-
condition to any seisin of the Court by unilateral application: there must
be, particularly for the exercise of diplomatic protection, a dispute between
the States concerned, that is, the State of origin of the individual whose
rights are alleged to have been violated, and the receiving State, the per-

petrator of the alleged internationally wrongful acts.
2. I was concerned at the time, in a purely legal interest, that this
would mark the start of an unjustified U-turn in the jurisprudence in this
area; the fact that States have since continued to adhere to this require-

ment (see, in particular, paras. 3.17-3.22 of Russia’s preliminary objec-
tions in the case concerning Application of the International Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v.
Russian Federation)), is encouragement for me to recall the merits of the
opinion I expressed at that time. As I had already pointed out in my

197separate opinion to the Judgment on the preliminary objections, the dip-
lomatic practice is well-established: all international litigation, even if it

relates to the facts of a situation covered by a bilateral agreement, is
always preceded by “diplomatic representations”, which are not to be
confused with exhaustion of local remedies. On this point the jurispru-
dence has likewise been well-established since the Judgment of the Per-
manent Court in the Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions case, which

defines a dispute as “a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict
of legal views or of interests” (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 2, p. 11).
A dispute develops when a conflict arises between the arguments

advanced by the parties in respect of an act considered by one of them as
wrongful; legally, it is this dispute, rather than the act itself, which forms
the subject-matter of the proceedings, and it is through the dispute that
the Court will take cognizance of the facts (case concerning Ahmadou
Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),

Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II) , pp. 636-
644).
3. In fact, from the Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions case to that
of Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application:
2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congov. Rwanda), in 2006, the Court’s

position remained unchanged, until the Judgment on the preliminary
objections in the present case. In that Judgment, the Court found that it
was entitled to entertain Guinea’s Application without first having esta-
blished that the acts allegedly suffered by Mr. Diallo at the hands of the
Congo, besides being unlawful, had given rise to an inter-State dispute

between Guinea and the Congo, the only circumstance under which any
such act can be referred to the Court by means of an application. In so
doing, the Court acted as though this requirement would no longer have
to be satisfied, which would have constituted a complete about-turn in a
jurisprudence which had never previously been contested.

4. Fortunately, in its preliminary objections in the case concerning
Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), the
Russian Federation makes it clear, in accordance with jurisprudential
tradition, that this requirement is still a precondition to the proper refer-

ral of any matter to the Court (para. 3.17); in the case concerning the
Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), the Court states the following:

“The Court, as a court of law, is called upon to resolve existing

disputes between States. Thus the existence of a dispute is the pri-
mary condition for the Court to exercise its judicial function; it is
not sufficient for one party to assert that there is a dispute, since
‘whether there exists an international dispute is a matter for objec-

tive determination’ by the Court” (Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v.
France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 476, para. 58, citing

198 Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Rom-
ania, First Phase, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950 , p. 74).

It adds there::

“Article 38 of the Court’s Statute provides that its function is ‘to
decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are sub-

mitted to it’; but not only Article 38 itself but other provisions of the
Statute and Rules also make it clear that the Court can exercise its
jurisdiction in contentious proceedings only when a dispute genu-
inely exists between the parties . . .”( Ibid., p. 477, para. 60; emphasis
added.)

When the Order was made on the indication of provisional measures in
the Georgia v. Russian Federation case, seven judges expressed their
shared view in a joint dissenting opinion. In asserting that the disputed

convention prescribes negotiated settlement ahead of any recourse to the
Court, they confirm the requirement that there must be a dispute between
the parties relating to the interpretation or application of the said con-
vention (case concerning Application of the International Convention on

the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Rus-
sian Federation), Provisional Measures, Order of 15 October 2008 , joint
dissenting opinion of Judges Al-Khasawneh, Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma,
Tomka, Bennouna and Skotnikov, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 401, para. 6).

The Judges object that:
“[m]oreover, . . . unable to find any evidence that the acts alleged
by Georgia fall within the provisions of CERD, [the majority] has

been content to observe merely that a dispute appears to exist as to
the interpretation and application of CERD because the two Parties
have manifested their disagreement over the applicability of Arti-
cles 2 and 5 of the Convention.” (Ibid., p. 402, para. 10.)

Thereby contesting the fact that “an argument expounded during oral
proceedings has mutated into evidence of the existence of a dispute
between the Parties” (ibid., p. 402, para. 10).

The seven judges observe, nevertheless, that
“[t]he Court . . . admits that the questions concerning CERD should

have been raised between the Parties , referring specifically in this
regard to the bilateral contacts between the Parties and certain rep-
resentations made to the Security Council, even though nowhere in
these has Georgia accused Russia of racial discrimination . Thus, in
our opinion, the very substance of CERD was never debated between

the Parties before the filing of a claim before the Court. ”( Ibid.,
p. 402, para. 12; emphasis added.)

Like the authors of that dissenting opinion, I myself find it “very sur-
prising that the Court has chosen to disregard this precondition to any

199judicial action . . .” (I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 402, para. 13) in the present
Judgment, just as it did when it considered the preliminary phase of the

Diallo case, because I still consider it to be a fundamental condition upon
which the Court should have ruled, even in the absence of an objection to
that effect, a preliminary objection or any other cumulative condition
requiring, for example, prior negotiation or arbitration.

5. That said, in respect of the present Judgment on the merits, while I
voted with the majority on the violations of Articles 9 and 13 of the Inter-
national Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Articles 6 and 12 of
the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, I still have reserva-

tions about some of the reasoning, specifically that relating to the con-
duct of the Congolese authorities, which amounts to little more than
suppositions and accusations that, in my view, were unnecessarily mali-
cious, being based on suspicion, or simply redundant. Furthermore, I
was unable to subscribe to either the reasoning or the part of the opera-

tive clause which finds that the Congo violated the obligations incumbent
upon it under Article 36, paragraph 1 (b) of the Vienna Convention on
Consular Relations, while, in respect of the rejection of Guinea’s com-
plaints concerning Mr. Diallo’s direct rights as associé, although I fully
subscribe to the Court’s conclusion, it is nevertheless my modest belief

that the reasoning behind that conclusion fails to take account of the
argument of principle as to why those complaints should be rejected.
6. On the first point, I will confine myself to repeating that, just as the
misplaced reductionist reasoning which led the Court to consider it neces-
sary to imply (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic

Republic of the Congo), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II) , p. 601, para. 46) that the Congo acted out of
deliberate malice, cunning and calculated self-interest in issuing a notice
of refusal of entry[refoulement]rather than a notice of expulsion was, to my
mind, gratuitous and unconvincing (ibid., opinion of Judge ad

hoc Mampuya, p. 645), so too its reiteration in this Judgment pro-
vokes the same reaction on my part. The same is true of the assertion, which
is merely groundless speculation, that a link must have existed “between
Mr. Diallo’s expulsion and the fact that he had attempted to recover
debts . . . bringing cases for this purpose before the civil courts” (para-

graph 82 of the Judgment). While it is understandable that so serious a
charge might lie in the mouth of the Applicant, the World Court can-
not endorse such a charge on the basis of an unfounded presumption.
Furthermore, both of these very serious charges were unnecessary, as
neither was required in order for the Court to reach its principal conclu-

sion on the lawfulness of the expulsion.
7. Thus, having voted with the majority of the Court on certain vio-
lations attributed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, I also voted
in favour of point 7 of the Judgment’s operative clause relating to the

reparation owing to Guinea by the Congo as a result of those violations.
However, in my view, the Court could have usefully made it clear that the

200purely moral and non-material injury found to have been caused by the
Respondent’s purported violation of its obligation under Article 36,

paragraph 1 (b), of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations — a
violation which did not cause any material injury — calls only for
“declaratory” or moral reparation. Fully in line with point 7 of the
operative clause, which provides for reparation only in respect of the vio-
lations of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and

the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, such clarification
would have served to demonstrate the Court’s confirmation of a matter
which, following its established jurisprudence, has become a principle.
Thus, as just one example of this, I cite the following passage from the

Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania) case — where it was in fact
the violation of a State’s sovereignty that was at issue — in which the
Court unanimously finds that:

“by reason of the acts of the British Navy in Albanian waters in the
course of the Operation of November 12th and 13th, 1946, the United
Kingdom violated the sovereignty of the People’s Republic of Alba-
nia, and that this declaration by the Court constitutes in itself appro-

priate satisfaction” (Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 36).
Doctrine fully supports this position, for example:

“A purely moral injury may be redressed by purely moral ‘satis-
faction’. The simplest form of satisfaction is a declaration by the

court of the wrongfulness of a State’s conduct; there is abundant
jurisprudence in support of the proposition that, in the absence of
material injury, a declaration by the court of the wrongful nature of
conduct constituted sufficient reparation for the injury suffered
(Corfu Channel, I.C.J. Reports 1949 , p. 35).” (P. Reuter, Droit inter-

national public, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1983, 6th ed.,
p. 268.) [Translation by the Registry.]

While J. Crawford observes that: “[o]ne of the most common modali-
ties of satisfaction provided in the case of moral or non-material injury to
the State is a declaration of the wrongfulness of the act by a competent
court or tribunal”. (In his commentary on the International Law Com-
mission’s Article 37, paragraph 2, on State responsibility.)

8. Moreover, in order to enhance the Respondent’s responsibility, the
Court believed it indispensable to include an additional characteristic,
and hence a condition further to those laid down in the ICCPR in order
for an expulsion to be lawful: Mr. Diallo’s expulsion was not only
considered unlawful, it was also “arbitrary”. In fact, Article 13 merely

stipulates that the decision to expel be taken “in accordance with the law”
and that the individual concerned be allowed to “submit the reasons
against his expulsion” to “the competent authority or a person or persons
especially designated by the competent authority”. The same is true of

Article 12, paragraph 4, of the African Charter, which states that a
non-national “legally admitted in a territory of a State party to the

201present Charter, may only be expelled from it by virtue of a decision
taken in accordance with the law”. There is no mention anywhere of

“arbitrary” expulsion, unless that “arbitrary” character derives from unlaw-
fulness or is implied by it. For it can only be one or the other. Either arbi-
trariness derives from unlawfulness, but manifestly this cannot be so, or
arbitrariness is distinct from unlawfulness. In the latter case, in the first
place this would impose an additional condition, not contemplated by Arti-

cle 13 of the Covenant. Indeed, the Court’s intent to impose this addi-
tional, unwritten condition is clear when it states:

“[f]irst, the applicable domestic law must itself be compatible with
the other requirements of the Covenant and the African Charter;
second, an expulsion must not be arbitrary in nature . . .” (para-
graph 65 of the Judgment; emphasis added);

or when it observes that “the DRC has never been able to provide
grounds which might constitute a convincing basis for Mr. Diallo’s
expulsion”, or when it refers to “such an expulsion measure, one without

any defensible basis” (paragraph 82 of the Judgment). Secondly, this
additional condition creates a need: a need to clarify and explain what
then, besides unlawfulness, arbitrariness would consist of.

9. There is no mention anywhere in the Judgment of any of these con-

cerns, which to my mind, the Court, in introducing this further condition
relating to arbitrariness, was not entitled to overlook. The Judgment
is content to refer to the “considerable body of interpretative case law”
of the Human Rights Committee, which the Court describes as “quasi-
judicial” and to which it “believes that it should ascribe great weight”.

10. However, the two concepts are distinct and must be distinguished,
because, while arbitrary can cover unlawful, the opposite is not true. If
we confine ourselves to the practice of that same Human Rights Com-
mittee, as Sir N. Rodley states in his separate opinion:

“‘Arbitrary’ in Article 9, paragraph 1, certainly covers unlawful-
ness. It is evident from the very notion of arbitrariness and the pre-
paratory work. But I fail to see how the opposite is also true. Nor is

there anything in the preparatory work to justify it.” (C. v. Aus-
tralia, 2002, Communication No. 900/1999.)

This may explain why an act, such as an arrest, which is perfectly legal,
can be arbitrary, and why every unlawful act is not necessarily arbitrary.
This is how it is understood by the Human Rights Committee when it
states:

“The drafting history of Article 9, paragraph 1, confirms that
‘arbitrariness’ is not to be equated with ‘against the law’, but must
be interpreted more broadly to include elements of inappropriate-

ness, injustice and lack of predictability.” (See Communication
No. 305/1988, Hugo van Alphen v. The Netherlands, views adopted

202 on 23 July 1990, doc. CCPR/C/39/D/305/1988 of 15 August 1990,
para. 5.8.)

11. Moreover, it should be noted that the “interpretative case law” of
the Human Rights Committee, to which this Judgment refers, relates
exclusively to the interpretation of Article 9, paragraph 1, of the Cov-
enant, which makes a distinction between arbitrary arrest or detention (in
the second sentence) and the unlawful deprivation of liberty (third sen-

tence):

“1. Everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. No
one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest or detention. No one shall
be deprived of his liberty except on such grounds and in accordance
with such procedure as are established by law.”

Accordingly, it is only to arrests or detentions in the context of Arti-

cle 9, paragraph 1, of the Covenant that such “arbitrariness” refers. In
support of this assertion, I cite, in particular, the following “case law” of
the Committee: Teófila Casafranca de Gómez v. Peru, 2003, Communi-
cation No. 981/2001; A. v. Australia, Communication No. 560/1993,
views adopted on 3 April 1997; Hugo van Alphen v. The Netherlands,

views adopted on 23 July 1990, doc. CCPR/C/39/D/305/1988 of 15 August
1990; Womah Mukong v. Cameroon, views adopted on 21 July 1994,
doc. CCPR/C/51/D/458/1991; C. v. Australia, Communication No. 900/
1999; Baban et al. v. Australia, Communication No. 1014/2001; Bakhti-
yari et al. v. Australia, Communication No. 1069/2002; Rafael Marques

de Morais v. Angola, 2005, Communication No. 1128/2002.
12. If, therefore, the drafters of the Covenant had wanted to lay down
an additional condition, while already using this concept of “arbitrary”
in Article 9 in respect of arrest and detention, they would have done so
by stating, in Article 13, that an expulsion has to be both in accordance

with the law and not arbitrary. Besides the fact that such a characteristic
— its nature and content — would need to be established, the unden-
iable truth is that, even then, Article 13 of the Covenant, whose alleged
violation is addressed in this Judgment, is not aimed at the arbitrariness of
an expulsion (a concept, moreover, not readily envisageable). Accordingly,

the silence of the Covenant and the African Charter in that respect should
be considered neither an omission which the Court should seek to make
good, nor an error which it should try to correct, because the African
Charter, which postdates the Covenant by 15 years, could have incorpo-
rated that notion of “arbitrary” had its sponsors so desired. The drafters of

the Covenant and, in turn, those of the Charter were guided by common
sense, which does not readily permit the contemplation of a condition such
as this, which would deem arbitrary a decision of so discretionary a nature
on the part of the State as whether or not to allow, under its law, the pres-

ence of foreigners on its territory.
13. As relevant jurisprudence on the subject of expulsion, in support

203of the further condition that an expulsion should “not be arbitrary in
nature”, paragraph 68 of the Judgment cites Article 1 of Protocol No. 7

to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms, entitled “Procedural safeguards relating to
expulsion of aliens”. Cited without examples of specific decisions in
which it has been interpreted in the same way as by the Court in the
present case, this provision stipulates the following:

“1. An alien lawfully resident in the territory of a State shall not
be expelled therefrom except in pursuance of a decision reached in
accordance with law and shall be allowed:

(a) to submit reasons against his expulsion,
(b) to have his case reviewed, and
(c) to be represented for these purposes before the competent
authority or a person or persons designated by that authority.”

In this provision, we indeed not only find the same substance as in
Article 13 of the ICCPR, but also the same question of its interpretation,
without, however, anything to corroborate the fact that the European
Court has interpreted it in the same way as this Judgment.
On the other hand, should we also wish to “make the case for the

defence”, we could find support in paragraph 2 of the same Article, which
provides: “An alien may be expelled before the exercise of his rights under
paragraph 1 (a), (b) and (c) of this Article, when such expulsion is neces-
sary in the interests of public order or is grounded on reasons of
national security.” The use here of a positive formulation (“An alien may

be expelled before the exercise of his rights under . . .” and not “cannot be
expelled before the exercise of his rights under . . . unless . . .”) shows that
territorial authorities are recognized to enjoy a certain latitude in the case,
specifically, of a prerogative of a discretionary nature, which cannot be
implicitly restricted, even by a suggestion that it is “arbitrary”.

Finally, although there are no provisions anywhere for “material safe-
guards”, the title of this same Article 1 of the European Protocol, “Pro-
cedural safeguards relating to expulsion of aliens”, makes it clear that
even the European Convention did not intend for an expulsion measure
to be subject to material, substantive conditions, thus also letting it be

understood that the content of the only condition approximating to a
substantive one, “in the interests of [the] public . . . [and for] reasons of
national security”, is defined at the discretion of the State authority.
Therefore, I do not believe it justified to treat, as the Court does (para-
graph 72 of the Judgment), the requirement to provide reasons for the

decision to expel laid down by Article 15 of the 1983 Legislative Order as
a strictly substantive condition, when only the territorial State is in a
position to say what is and what is not “necessary in the interests of pub-
lic order” or required for its “national security”. This argument,

expounded at length by the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Counter-
Memorial, paras. 1.27-1.28), was not considered by the Court.

204 I will now turn to the source of my disagreement with the majority of
the Court.

M Y D ISAGREEMENT

The Alleged Violation of the Obligation under Article 36. para-
graph 1 (b), of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations:

Content and Sense of the Obligation to Inform

14. Article 36, paragraph 1 (b), provides:
“[I]f he so requests, the competent authorities of the receiving State

shall, without delay, inform the consular post of the sending State if,
within its consular district, a national of that State is arrested or
committed to prison or to custody pending trial or is detained in any
other manner. Any communication addressed to the consular post

by the person arrested, in prison, custody or detention shall be for-
warded by the said authorities without delay. The said authorities
shall inform the person concerned without delay of his rights under
this subparagraph.”

The Congo is criticized in particular for failing to inform directly and
“without delay” the individual concerned, Mr. Diallo, of his right to

request, through the Guinean Embassy in Kinshasa, the intervention of
the Guinean authorities. In the Judgment, the allegation is presented, and
the relevant provision interpreted, in a way which, in my view, fails to
take account of all the pertinent elements as laid down by the Conven-
tion. In that Convention, as the Court itself has interpreted it (LaGrand

(Germany v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001 ,
p. 492, para. 74), the fundamental principle in respect of consular protec-
tion is set out in paragraph 1 (a), which concerns the right of consular
employees to communicate with and have access to nationals of the send-

ing State. I believe this is important to a full understanding of the scope
of the receiving State’s obligation laid down in subparagraph (b) of the
same paragraph.
15. The obligation itself is split into three elements: first, the compe-
tent authorities of the receiving State must, if the person concerned so

requests, notify the arrest to the consular post of the sending State; sec-
ond, they must transmit any communication addressed to the consular
post by the arrested person; and, finally, they must inform “without
delay” the individual concerned of his rights. According to the Court’s

interpretation, this third element — the final element laid down by para-
graph 1 (b) — is in fact an indispensable precondition to the fulfillment
of the other two elements: the person concerned must be informed of his
right, as set out in the last sentence of paragraph 1 (b), in order for the
first two elements to be realized.

205 16. Thus, the obligation to inform the consular authorities codified in
the Convention is considered as an obligation to inform the person

detained of his right to request consular assistance, as well as — only if he
so requests — his right to contact his consular post. It is a positive obliga-
tion incumbent upon the State in whose territory a foreign national is
detained. This is how the Court interprets it in the Avena case:

“the clear duty to provide consular information under Article 36,
paragraph 1 (b), does not invite assumptions as to what the arrested

person might prefer, as a ground for not informing him. It rather
gives the arrested person, once informed, the right to say he none-
theless does not wish his consular post to be notified.” (Avena and
Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 46, para. 76.)

However, the Court states prior to this that:

“Article 36, paragraph 1 (b), contains three separate but inter-
related elements: the right of the individual concerned to be informed

without delay of his rights under Article 36, paragraph 1 (b); the
right of the consular post to be notified without delay of the indi-
vidual’s detention, if he so requests; and the obligation of the receiv-
ing State to forward without delay any communication addressed to
the consular post by the detained person.” (Ibid., p. 43, para. 61;

emphasis added.)

Nature and Scope of the Obligation Contained in Article 36 to Inform
the Arrested or Detained Alien in the Light of the Object and Purpose
of the 1963 Convention

17. It is true that in the LaGrand case the Court concludes that, in

view of the wording of its provisions, Article 36, paragraph 1, creates
individual rights, stating that “[t]he clarity of these provisions, viewed in
their context, admits of no doubt” (LaGrand (Germany v. United States
of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001 , p. 494, para. 77).
And, logically, it is on account of this supposed “clarity” that the

Court chose not to have recourse to the classical rules of interpretation,
as set forth in Article 31 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Trea-
ties.
18. In this respect, and without wishing to dispute that conclusion, I
do have some doubts about that categorical statement by the Court.

When the relevant provision of Article 36 is placed in the general context
of the Convention, far from being “clear”, its sense and scope need rather
to be sought out.
We observe, first, that the purpose and object of concluding an inter-

national convention on consular relations, as the preamble indicates, is to
“contribute to the development of friendly relations among nations”.

206Second, Article 36, which is entitled “Communication and contact with
nationals of the sending State”, opens with the phrase: “With a view to

facilitating the exercise of consular functions relating to nationals of the
sending State”. This phrase clearly limits the scope of Article 36 to that
of a provision aimed solely at facilitating the exercise of consular func-
tions relating to the nationals of the sending State. Third, in accordance
with Article 5 (a) of the Convention, consular functions primarily con-

sist of “protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending State
and of its nationals, both individuals and bodies corporate, within the
limits permitted by international law”. From this context of consular
functions, it is clear that, here, the principle of interpretation according

to the natural and ordinary meaning of the words used cannot be abso-
lute. The interpretation should not disregard the purpose and object of
the conclusion of an international convention on consular relations,
which, as the preamble indicates, is to “contribute to the development of
friendly relations among nations” and, in particular, to enable the send-

ing State to exercise its consular functions.

19. Thus, on the one hand, the language of the Convention itself does
not seem to corroborate the trend initiated by the interpretation given in
2001 in the LaGrand case, making the right of the arrested or detained

alien to be informed an exclusively individual right, a trend which purely
and simply treats the issue as a human rights one, detaching it completely
from the field of diplomatic or consular protection.

Therefore, the United States was not entirely unjustified in seeking to

interpret Article 36, in the context and light of the object and purpose of
the Convention, in order to argue that:

“the position of the individual under the Convention derives from
the right of the State party to the Convention, acting through its
consular officer, to communicate with its nationals. The treatment
due to individuals is inextricably linked to and derived from the

right of the State.” (Counter-Memorial of the United States, p. 84,
para. 100.)

20. An examination of thetravaux préparatoires confirms this reading:
it is important to recall the debate which took place on whether mention
should be made of the rights accorded to individuals and, in particular,
the way in which Article 36, paragraph 1 (a) should address the question

of a foreign national being able to communicate with a consular officer.

The original text proposed by the ILC was drafted as follows:

“The competent authorities shall, without undue delay, inform the
competent consulate of the sending State, if within its district, a

national of that State is committed to prison or to custody pending
trial or is detained in any other manner.” (A/CONF.25/6, United

207 Nations Conference on Consular Relations, Vol. II, A/CONF.25/16/
Add.1, p. 24.)

That text made no mention of individual rights, and the commentary
which accompanied it clearly stated that what mattered was that consular

officers were able to carry out their functions.
21. A certain number of delegations took the view that the Conven-
tion should recognize the personal right of a foreign national to commu-
nicate with the consular officers of his country, but this matter gave rise
to a great deal of controversy, from which a clear consensus could not be

found. During the negotiating sessions on Article 36, the Venezuelan del-
egation objected to the opening statement of paragraph 1 (a) of the ILC
draft, which concerned the rights of nationals of the sending State to
communicate with and have access to the competent consulate, arguing

that this statement had no place in a convention on consular relations,
and stating that:

“foreign nationals in the receiving State should be under the jurisdic-
tion of that State and should not come within the scope of a conven-
tion on consular relations” (United Nations Conference on Consular
Relations, Vol. I, Summary records of plenary meetings and of the
meetings of the First and Second Committees, A/CONF.25/16,

p. 358, para. 32 (meeting of 14 March 1963 of the Second Commit-
tee)).

22. This led to the order of the elements of Article 36, paragraph 1 (a)
being reversed, in such a way that the consul’s right to communicate with
the individual is mentioned first, and then the individual’s right to com-
municate with the consul (ibid., p. 361, para. 2, amendment proposed by
Venezuela and other States).

What this underscores, therefore, is that the individual’s position in
respect of the Convention derives from the right accorded to the State
party to the Convention, acting through its consular officers, to commu-
nicate with its nationals; the treatment of individuals is inextricably
linked to and derived from the right of the State.

Specificity of the Rights Identified in Article 36, Paragraph 1, and the
Interrelationship of the Three Rights Set Out in Subparagraph (b)

23. As we have seen, in the Avena case the Court established a link

between the three elements of Article 36, paragraph 1 (b), even though it
asserted that they were distinct. It is worth pointing out that the Court
had already done this in the LaGrand case, in very clear terms which
described this link as an interrelationship (I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 492,

para. 74). However, in the Avena case the Court made one very impor-
tant addition:

“The legal conclusions to be drawn from that interrelationship nec-
essarily depend upon the facts of each case . . . It is necessary to

208 revisit the interrelationship of the three subparagraphs of Article 36,
paragraph 1, in the light of the particular facts and circumstances of

the present case.” (Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v.
United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
p. 52, paras. 99-100; emphasis added.)

In that connection, we know that the Democratic Republic of the

Congo has argued that it follows from the interrelated link between the
right to information of the sending State or State of nationality and the
right to information of the arrested or detained alien that, “if that right
has not been violated in respect of the State — here, Guinea — it cannot

have been so in respect of its national, Mr. Diallo” (response of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo to a question put by a judge; see
doc. Guinea-DRC 2010/15, 27 April 2010).
Thus the Respondent’s position is that Article 36, paragraph 1 (b) of
the Vienna Convention does indeed create “individual rights” (LaGrand

(Germany v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001 ,
p. 494, para. 77), but rights which are inextricably linked to the sending
State’s right to communicate with its nationals through consular agents.
Accordingly, it asserts that, in spite of its individual dimension, this right
remains closely tied to the rights of the State itself. Finally, the Demo-

cratic Republic of the Congo argues that the right to information is a
mutual right of the individual and his sending State (doc. Guinea-
DRC 2010/15, 27 April 2010, p. 1). This argument enables it to highlight
the fact that the purpose of this right to information is to facilitate the
exercise of consular functions relating to nationals of the sending State,

which confirms that this individual right is closely linked to the rights of
the State itself, and that the treatment of individuals is inextricably linked
to and derived from the rights of the State.
24. As in the Avena case, the Court, rather than making an interpreta-
tion based first and foremost on a “clarity” which, when examined, is

doubtful to say the least, could have usefully interpreted Article 36, para-
graph 1 (b), in relation both to its context and to the interrelationship of
the rights set out therein, in the light of the particular facts and circum-
stances of the case between Guinea and the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, as the Court itself recommends in its Avena Judgment. Not doing

so led the Court to apply purely theoretical considerations. In this con-
nection, it should be pointed out that Guinea defends its position on the
basis of the Court’s interpretation of this treaty provision in the LaGrand
and Avena cases, even though the legal problems posed in, and the cir-
cumstances of, those cases are markedly different from those of the

present case.

The facts and circumstances of the present case show that, in contrast
to both of the above-mentioned cases, the Democratic Republic of the

Congo’s failure to inform Mr. Diallo of his rights did not prevent Guinea
from exercising the right accorded to it under Article 36, paragraph 1. It is

209true that informing Mr. Diallo of his rights might well have “facilitate[d]

the implementation of the system of consular protection” (see para. 74 of
the LaGrand Judgment), but, considering the object of the obligation
incumbent upon the receiving State, it is impossible to be indifferent to
the fact that the Guinean authorities were undeniably informed or, indeed,

that they were able, as they themselves acknowledge, to exercise their con-
sular function. Accordingly, the failure to inform could not have had the
effect of preventing Guinea from exercising its rights of consular protec-
tion in respect of its national. In fact, in this instance, Mr. Diallo’s situa-

tion was certainly not unknown to the Guinean authorities, who became
aware within a period sufficiently “timely” for them to have been able to
act, while remaining entitled to take the Congolese authorities to task,
were it indeed the case, for not having complied with the relevant proce-

dure. Thus, this case is not the same as that of the LaGrand brothers,
whose situation was, as it were, hidden from the German authorities and
remained unknown to them throughout the period when diplomatic action
was still possible; Germany was prevented from acting by the American

failure to inform the LaGrand brothers of their rights. It is therefore not
entirely justified to summarily dismiss the Congolese claim that Mr. Diallo
was orally informed. In relation to an information process which can, in
practice, only be carried out orally, it is unrealistic to talk of a lack of “the

slightest evidence” which would prove that an oral action had been car-
ried out. The Court should have attached no weight whatever to the state-
ment of the individual concerned, Mr. Diallo, questioned 13 years after
the event, alleging for the first time that the Congolese authorities had not

informed him of his right to request the protection of his country’s
embassy (Reply of the Republic of Guinea, Vol. II, Annex I: Transcript
of hearing of Mr. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, drawn up on 29 October 2008
by Maîtres Boubacar Télimélé Sylla and Aboubacar Camara). All the

more so since there was no evidence to the contrary — which, in any
event, would be impossible to produce — and since the alleged violation
by the Congo of Article 36, paragraph 1(b), of the Convention in ques-
tion did not cause any injury to Guinea, since it did not prevent it from

learning of Mr. Diallo’s imprisonment and, later, of his expulsion, or,
therefore, from protecting him.

M Y POSITION ON THEA LLEGED VIOLATIONS OF M R.D IALLOS
D IRECTR IGHTS ASA SSOCIÉ

25. According to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the question

which arises is whether “Mr. Diallo’s expulsion from the Congo resulted
in a violation of his direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and Afri-
containers” (Counter-Memorial of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, para. 2.02; Rejoinder of the Democratic Republic of the Congo,

para. 2.05). It observes in this respect that, in ordering Mr. Diallo’s
expulsion in 1996, it did not infringe any of his direct rights as associé.

210Therefore, what must be determined is whether or not the Democratic
Republic of the Congo carried out acts specifically aimed at Mr. Diallo’s

direct rights.

Enforceability or Opposability of an Associé’s Direct Rights

26. Guinea treats an attack on company rights, resulting in injury to

shareholders, as a violation of their direct rights; in other words, it treats
a violation of the rights of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire as a
violation of the rights of Mr. Diallo. However, to conflate the rights in
this way is to misrepresent the general régime of diplomatic protection,

which, for its part, always subjects the admissibility of a claim on behalf
of shareholders of a foreign company to there having been a violation of
the “direct rights” of such shareholders “as such”.
In this connection, Guinea has claimed, as it did for the Judgment of
24 May 2007, that Mr. Diallo’s arrest, detention and expulsion not only

had the effect “of preventing him from continuing to administer, manage
and control any of the operations of the companies Africom-Zaire and
Africontainers-Zaire”, but were specifically motivated by the intent to
prevent him from exercising these rights, from pursuing the legal proceed-
ings brought on behalf of the companies, and thereby from recovering

their debts.
27. Expulsion is indeed a measure which, when taken against an indi-
vidual, could have an effect on his status as associé. But, as the Court
ruled in the Barcelona Traction case, this is not sufficient to engage the
responsibility of a State. It would need to be determined whether the

measures taken by the Democratic Republic of the Congo were aimed
directly at Mr. Diallo’s rights as associé or whether, on the contrary, they
were aimed at him as an individual and, collaterally, affected his rights as
associé and their exercise.
28. In order to reject Guinea’s claims, however, the Court relies solely

on the reasoning previously followed by it in the Barcelona Traction
case: that in principle it is possible for a State to bring proceedings where
the acts complained of were aimed at the “direct rights of the sharehold-
ers as such”. Accordingly, it proceeded to verify each of the rights
invoked by the Applicant, so as to ascertain whether the Congo had

taken actions “aimed at [those] rights . . . as such” and found that the
allegation was unfounded, because the right claimed to be enjoyed by
Mr. Diallo in fact belongs to the company (paragraph 119 of the Judg-
ment), and because the decisions taken by the Congo did not violate the
right invoked (paragraphs 134, 137, 138 and 148 of the Judgment). The

Court also had a duty to respond to Guinea’s allegations on the intuitu
personae character of the companies in question. The Applicant contends
that, in sociétés privées à responsabilité limitée [private limited liability
companies] (hereinafter “SPRLs”), the parts sociales are not freely trans-

ferable, which greatly accentuates the intuitu personae character of these
companies, making them very different in this respect from public limited

211companies. It argues that this characteristic is even more marked in the
case of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, since Mr. Diallo was

their sole gérant and sole associé. According to Guinea, “in fact and in
law it was virtually impossible to distinguish Mr. Diallo from his com-
panies” (Guinea’s Reply, para. 2.90; case concerning Ahmadou Sadio
Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Pre-
liminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II) , p. 604, para. 56).

In support of its argument, Guinea cites what it calls “the acts of inter-
ference” by the Democratic Republic of the Congo “with Mr. Diallo’s
property rights in the parts sociales”, the “interference” through the
“arrests and detentions” and through the arrests and expulsion, the

“interference” through the expropriation of the companies, which it has
made no attempt whatsoever to prove, as well as the “judicial interfer-
ence”.
The Court responds to those allegations (in particular, in para-
graphs 155-157) by remaining faithful to the solutions developed and

adopted by it in the Barcelona Traction case.
29. In my view, however, this was its opportunity to reaffirm the prin-
ciple, implied in that approach, that the direct rights of an associé,
whether “functional” or “property” rights, are only enforceable or oppos-
able against the company itself, because they are born, and are deployed

and exercised, within the context of the relations between the company
and its associés or shareholders; they can thus be seen as entitlements
held by the associés or shareholders vis-à-vis the company. That is why,
when those entitlements are violated by actions aimed at the company’s
rights, the associé can only seek redress from the latter. It is also the rea-

son why a claim against a third party will only lie if its actions were
aimed at those rights as such.

Notion of Interference in Company Law

30. The other fundamental principle is that of the notion of interfer-
ence liable to infringe the direct rights of an associé. Guinea cites this
principle, but applies it incorrectly when it alleges “interference with
[Mr. Diallo’s] property rights”, in the form, in particular, of his arrest,
detention and expulsion, measures which prevented Mr. Diallo “from

managing his companies and from any participation in the activities of
their corporate organs, and . . . deprived [him] of any possibility of con-
trolling and using his parts sociales” (Guinea’s Reply, paras. 2.86-2.88).
Guinea further cites the acts of interference which led to “the Congolese
authorities’ decision . . . to stay enforcement of the judgment for the

plaintiff handed down in Africontainers v. Zaire Shell”( ibid., and para-
graph 150 of the Judgment). However, these “acts of interference”, if
established, would not have been aimed at the associé’s rights “as such”,
although they might, at best, be evidence of a possible denial of justice, a

claim which Guinea has not sought to pursue.
However, the “acts of interference” capable of infringing the direct

212rights of an associé “as such” are those which obstruct the operation of
the company or the relations between the company and its associés.In

practice, since the direct rights of the associé are only enforceable against
the company and in the context of its relations with the associés, the
actions of a third party can only be considered as damaging to the direct
rights of an associé “as such” if they represent acts of interference as thus

defined. No logical process can transform acts aimed at an associé as an
individual, in his personal capacity, such as the arrest, detention and
expulsion of Mr. Diallo, into interference, as defined above and aimed at
the rights of the associé “as such”, in the operation of the company, or in
the relations between the company and its associés.

31. The Congo gives a good example of such interference when
responding to those arguments advanced by Guinea, stating that Guinea
“has not demonstrated that the Democratic Republic of the Congo gave

the order to Africontainers not to permit Mr. Diallo to control its opera-
tions” (CR 2010/4, p. 8, para. 15).
This reasoning is that developed in the Salvador Commercial Company
case, cited by both Parties, and in particular by the Democratic Republic
of the Congo in its preliminary objections (para. 2.35). Although that

case seems to be in the nature of an equitable judgment, it is a perfectly
good illustration of the notion of interference. Thus the tribunal states
that the Salvadoran authorities had adopted measures directly aimed at
the direct rights of the shareholders vis-à-vis their company. The arbitral

award, referring to those acts of interference, cites the arbitrary replace-
ment of the directors of the Salvadoran company by other directors
— apparently in the pay of the State — the calling of meetings of the
company’s governing bodies without notifying the American majority
shareholders, the refusal to allow those shareholders to examine certain

company documents, etc. (Reports of International Arbitral Awards
(RIAA), Vol. XV, pp. 474-475), and finds that, by undertaking those
measures, Salvador had directly prevented shareholders from exercising
their rights in relation to their company.

32. By contrast, there is nothing in the circumstances of the present
case to suggest that the Congolese authorities interfered in this way with
the internal operation of Africom-Zaire or Africontainers-Zaire. The
Court reaches the same conclusion, but I felt that this conclusion required
better reasoning than the somewhat elliptical reasoning offered in the

Judgment.

(Signed) Auguste M AMPUYA .

213

Bilingual Content

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGEAD HOC MAMPUYA

Exigence de l’existence d’un différend interétatique comme condition préala-
ble à tout recours judiciaire et nouveauté de certaines réclamations.
L’alinéa b) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 de la convention de

Vienne — Contenu et sens de l’obligation d’informer — Nature et portée de
l’obligation d’informer l’étranger arrêté ou détenu contenue dans l’article 36 à la
lumière de l’objet et du but de la convention de 1963 — La spécificité des droits
énoncés à l’article 36, paragraphe 1, et l’interdépendance des trois droits énon-
cés à l’alinéa b) — En l’absence d’un préjudice matériel, la déclaration par la
Cour du caractère illicite du comportement de la République démocratique du
Congo aurait dû constituer une réparation suffisante du préjudice subi.
Régularité de l’expulsion: l’article 13 du Pacte international relatif aux droits
civils et politiques (le Pacte ou PIDC) exige seulement que l’expulsion doit être
décidée «conformément à la loi» — Le caractère arbitraire n’est pas prévu par
l’article 13 du PIDC: la Cour ajoute une condition supplémentaire à celles
qu’énumère le PIDC pour la régularité d’une expulsion — Le caractère «arbi-
traire» se rapporte seulement aux arrestations ou détentions dans le cadre du
paragraphe 1 de l’article 9 du Pacte.
Droits propres d’actionnaire — Exigibilité ou opposabilité des droits propres
d’associé — Notion d’ingérence dans le droit des sociétés — Exigibilité ou oppo-

sabilité des droits propres d’associé — Notion d’ingérence.

La mission de la Cour est de régler conformément au droit international les
différends qui lui sont soumis; la Cour ne peut exercer sa compétence conten-
tieuse que s’il existe réellement un différend entre les Parties. La Cour ne
connaît des faits qu’à travers le différend interétatique né à propos de ces faits;
une argumentation développée à l’audience ne peut être la preuve de l’existence
d’un différend entre les Parties.
L’alinéa b) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 de la convention de Vienne sur les
relations consulaires contient trois éléments distincts mais liés entre eux. Les
conclusions à tirer en droit de cette interdépendance dépendent nécessairement
des faits de l’espèce. Il faut examiner l’interdépendance de ces trois éléments à
la lumière des faits et circonstances particuliers de la présente espèce.
Un dommage purement moral et immatériel peut être réparé par des «satis-
factions» purement morales. Selon une jurisprudence abondante, la déclaration

par le juge du caractère illicite du comportement d’un Etat constitue une répa-
ration suffisante du préjudice subi.
Les instruments internationaux appliqués dans la présente espèce ne visent
pas une expulsion «arbitraire»; la notion d’arbitraire ne découle pas de l’illé-
galité alléguée d’un acte. Le caractère arbitraire d’une mesure relevant d’une
prérogative aussi discrétionnaire pour un Etat que la détermination des condi-
tions d’accès ou d’acceptation des étrangers sur son territoire, donc en matière
d’expulsion, doit être établi et non présumé ou déduit de l’illégalité prétendue

196 SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE AD HOC MAMPUYA

[Translation]

Requirement of the existence of an inter-State dispute as a precondition to
any judicial action and novelty of certain claims.
Paragraph 1 (b) of Article 36 of the Vienna Convention — Content and sense

of the obligation to inform — Nature and scope of the obligation contained in
Article 36 to inform the arrested or detained alien in the light of the object and
purpose of the 1963 Convention — Specificity of the rights identified in Arti-
cle 36, paragraph 1, and the interrelationship of the three rights set out in sub-
paragraph (b) — In the absence of material injury, a declaration by the Court of
the wrongful nature of the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s conduct should
have constituted sufficient reparation for the injury suffered.
Lawfulness of the expulsion: Article 13 of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights (the Covenant or ICCPR) merely stipulates that the
decision to expel be taken “in accordance with the law” — Arbitrariness is not
contemplated by Article 13 of the ICCPR: the Court imposes a condition addi-
tional to those laid down in the ICCPR in order for an expulsion to be lawful —
“Arbitrariness” only refers to arrests or detentions in the context of Article 9,
paragraph 1, of the Covenant.
Direct rights as shareholder — Enforceability or opposability of an associé’s
direct rights — Notion of interference in company law — Enforceability or

opposability of an associé’s direct rights — Notion of interference.

The Court’s function is to decide, in accordance with international law, such
disputes as are submitted to it; the Court can exercise its jurisdiction in con-
tentious proceedings only when a dispute genuinely exists between the Parties.
The Court only takes cognizance of the facts through the inter-State dispute in
relation to those facts; an argument expounded during the oral proceedings can-
not be evidence of the existence of a dispute between the Parties.
Subparagraph (b) of paragraph 1 of Article 36 of the Vienna Convention on
Consular Relations contains three separate but interrelated elements. The legal
conclusions to be drawn from that interrelationship necessarily depend upon the
facts of each case. It is necessary to consider the interrelationship of those three
elements in the light of the particular facts and circumstances of the present case.
A purely moral, non-material injury may be redressed by purely moral “satis-
faction”. There is abundant jurisprudence to show that a declaration by the

Court of the wrongful nature of a State’s conduct constitutes sufficient repara-
tion for the injury suffered.
The international instruments applied in the present case are not aimed at
“arbitrary” expulsion; arbitrariness does not derive from the alleged unlawful-
ness of an act. The arbitrary character of a measure falling within a prerogative
of so discretionary a nature on the part of the State as the determination of the
conditions of access or acceptance of foreigners on its territory must therefore,
in respect of expulsion, be proved, and not presumed or deduced from the

196de la mesure. Le droit laisse aux Etats une latitude certaine pour définir ce qui,
pour appliquer une mesure d’expulsion, correspond ou non aux exigences de leur
ordre public ou de leur sécurité nationale.
Droits propres de l’actionnaire et intérêts de l’actionnaire. Les prétendus faits
internationalement illicites doivent avoir été dirigés directement contre les droits

propres de l’associé comme tels. Les droits propres d’associé ne sont exigibles
qu’à l’égard de la société et dans le cadre de ses rapports avec les associés, les
actes d’un tiers ne peuvent être considérés comme attentatoires aux droits pro-
pres d’associé «comme tels» que s’ils représentent des actes d’ingérence dans le
fonctionnement de la société ou dans les rapports entre cette dernière et ses
associés.

C’est avec un réel regret que je n’ai pu, dans cette affaire, suivre en tout
la majorité de la Cour. Mais comme juge, même ad hoc, je n’ai pas voté

contre la conclusion principale de l’arrêt condamnant la République
démocratique du Congo pour violation de certaines obligations à l’égard
des droits individuels du ressortissant guinéen, montrant par là que,
tout comme lors de l’examen des exceptions préliminaires, je n’ai aucun
problème avec l’affirmation et la sauvegarde universelles des droits de

l’homme.
Il ne s’agit donc pas ici de contester les dispositions de l’arrêt relatives
à cette importante question, mais d’exprimer quelques réserves sur cer-
tains points tranchés par la Cour, tandis que je ne suis pas d’accord avec
la majorité en certains de ses raisonnements et, parfois, en certaines de ses

conclusions.

M ES RÉSERVES

1. Il me tenait à cŒur de, avant toute autre chose, exposer mes réserves,
après mon désaccord déjà exprimé lors de l’arrêt du 24 mai 2007 sur les
exceptions préliminaires, concernant une question qui me paraît avoir une
importance juridique incontestable en droit judiciaire international, en rap-

port avec une pratique de la Cour devenue un véritable principe procédu-
ral, confirmé par une jurisprudence constante de la Cour mais qui a semblé
avoir été abandonné dans son arrêt de 2007 dans cette même affaire. Il
s’agit de la condition préalable à toute saisine de la Cour par requête uni-
latérale: le fait qu’il doit exister, en particulier pour l’exercice de la pro-

tection diplomatique, un différend entre les Etats concernés, l’Etat d’ori-
gine de la personne dont il est prétendu que les droits ont été violés et
l’Etat de sa résidence auteur des faits prétendus internationalement illicites.
2. J’avais alors la crainte, dans un intérêt purement juridique, de voir
ainsi naître un revirement injustifié de jurisprudence en la matière; le fait

que, depuis, les Etats n’ont pas abandonné cette exigence (voir en parti-
culier les exceptions préliminaires de la Russie dans l’affaire relative à
l’Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les
formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie) , excep-

tions préliminaires de la Fédération de Russie, par. 3.17-3.22) m’encou-
rage à rappeler le bien-fondé de l’opinion que j’exprimais à cette époque.

197alleged unlawfulness of the measure. The law affords States a certain latitude to
define what, in order to enforce an expulsion measure, is or is not required for
their public order or national security.
Direct rights of the shareholder and interests of the shareholder. The alleged

internationally wrongful acts must have been aimed directly at the associé’s
direct rights as such. The associé’s direct rights are only enforceable against the
company and within the context of its relations with the associés; the actions of
a third party can only be considered as damaging to the direct rights of an asso-
cié “as such” if they represent acts of interference in the operation of the com-
pany or in the relations between the latter and its associés.

It is with real regret that I have found myself unable to concur fully

with the majority of the Court in this case. However, as judge — even
ad hoc — I did not vote against the principal conclusion of the Judgment
finding the Democratic Republic of the Congo guilty of violating certain
obligations in relation to the individual rights of a Guinean national,
thereby demonstrating, just as I did at the preliminary objections stage,

that I have no problem with the universal assertion and safeguarding of
human rights.
The purpose of this opinion is not therefore to dispute the provisions
of the Judgment relating to that important issue, but to express certain

reservations in respect of specific points decided by the Court, while dis-
agreeing with some of the reasoning advanced by the majority or, at times,
with certain of its conclusions.

M Y R ESERVATIONS

1. Having already voiced my dissent to the 24 May 2007 Judgment on
the preliminary objections, I particularly wanted to start by setting out

my reservations on a question which I believe to be of undisputed legal
significance in international judicial law, concerning a Court practice
which has become an established procedural principle — as consistently
confirmed by the Court in its jurisprudence — but which was seemingly

abandoned in its 2007 Judgment in this case. I am referring to the pre-
condition to any seisin of the Court by unilateral application: there must
be, particularly for the exercise of diplomatic protection, a dispute between
the States concerned, that is, the State of origin of the individual whose
rights are alleged to have been violated, and the receiving State, the per-

petrator of the alleged internationally wrongful acts.
2. I was concerned at the time, in a purely legal interest, that this
would mark the start of an unjustified U-turn in the jurisprudence in this
area; the fact that States have since continued to adhere to this require-

ment (see, in particular, paras. 3.17-3.22 of Russia’s preliminary objec-
tions in the case concerning Application of the International Convention
on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v.
Russian Federation)), is encouragement for me to recall the merits of the
opinion I expressed at that time. As I had already pointed out in my

197 Ainsi que je l’avais déjà indiqué dans mon opinion individuelle lors de
l’arrêt sur les exceptions préliminaires, la pratique diplomatique est cons-

tante: toute action internationale, même si elle porte sur des faits relatifs
à une situation conventionnelle bilatérale, est toujours précédée de «repré-
sentations diplomatiques», qui ne se confondent pas avec l’épuisement
des recours internes. Sur ce point, la jurisprudence est également cons-

tante depuis l’arrêt de la Cour permanente dans l’affaire des Concessions
Mavrommatis en Palestine , qui définit le différend comme «un désaccord
sur un point de droit ou de fait, une contradiction, une opposition de thè-
ses juridiques ou d’intérêts» (arrêt n 2, 1924, C.P.J.I. série A n 2, p. 11).
Le différend naît lorsqu’un désaccord surgit entre les thèses soutenues

par les parties en rapport avec un fait jugé par l’une d’elles comme illi-
cite; juridiquement, c’est ce différend, plus que le fait lui-même, qui fait
l’objet de l’instance, et c’est à travers le différend que la Cour va connaî-
tre des faits (affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. Répu-

blique démocratique du Congo), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J.
Recueil 2007 (II), p. 636-644).

3. De fait, de l’affaire des Concessions Mavrommatis en Palestine à
celle des Activités armées sur le territoire du Congo (nouvelle requête:

2002) (République démocratique du Congo c. Rwanda) , en 2006,
la position de la Cour n’avait pas varié, jusqu’à cet arrêt sur les
exceptions préliminaires dans la présente affaire. En effet, dans cette déci-
sion, la Cour avait cru fondé de connaître de la requête guinéenne sans

au préalable avoir établi que, au-delà des faits dont M. Diallo aurait été
victime de la part du Congo, ces derniers, par ailleurs illicites, avaient fait
naître un différend interétatique entre la Guinée et le Congo, la seule
qualification sous laquelle la Cour peut être saisie de tel ou de tel fait par
voie de requête. Ce faisant, elle s’est comportée comme si dorénavant

cette condition ne devrait plus être exigée; ce qui aurait constitué un véri-
table revirement d’une jurisprudence jamais auparavant démentie.
4. Heureusement, dans ses exceptions préliminaires en l’affaire relative
àl’ Application de la convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes

les formes de discrimination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie) ,la
Fédération de Russie indique bien, dans le respect de la tradition juris-
prudentielle, que cette exigence figure toujours comme la condition préa-
lable de la régularité de toute saisine de la Cour (par. 3.17); en l’affaire
relative aux Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c. France) , la Cour dit

ce qui suit:

«La Cour, comme organe juridictionnel, a pour tâche de résoudre
des différends existant entre Etats. L’existence d’un différend est

donc la condition première de l’exercice de sa fonction judiciaire; on
ne peut se contenter à cet égard des affirmations d’une partie car
«l’existence d’un différend international demande à être établie objec-
tivement» par la Cour.» (Essais nucléaires (Nouvelle-Zélande c.
France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 476, par. 58, citant Interpréta-

198separate opinion to the Judgment on the preliminary objections, the dip-
lomatic practice is well-established: all international litigation, even if it

relates to the facts of a situation covered by a bilateral agreement, is
always preceded by “diplomatic representations”, which are not to be
confused with exhaustion of local remedies. On this point the jurispru-
dence has likewise been well-established since the Judgment of the Per-
manent Court in the Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions case, which

defines a dispute as “a disagreement on a point of law or fact, a conflict
of legal views or of interests” (Judgment No. 2, 1924, P.C.I.J., Series A,
No. 2, p. 11).
A dispute develops when a conflict arises between the arguments

advanced by the parties in respect of an act considered by one of them as
wrongful; legally, it is this dispute, rather than the act itself, which forms
the subject-matter of the proceedings, and it is through the dispute that
the Court will take cognizance of the facts (case concerning Ahmadou
Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo),

Preliminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II) , pp. 636-
644).
3. In fact, from the Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions case to that
of Armed Activities on the Territory of the Congo (New Application:
2002) (Democratic Republic of the Congov. Rwanda), in 2006, the Court’s

position remained unchanged, until the Judgment on the preliminary
objections in the present case. In that Judgment, the Court found that it
was entitled to entertain Guinea’s Application without first having esta-
blished that the acts allegedly suffered by Mr. Diallo at the hands of the
Congo, besides being unlawful, had given rise to an inter-State dispute

between Guinea and the Congo, the only circumstance under which any
such act can be referred to the Court by means of an application. In so
doing, the Court acted as though this requirement would no longer have
to be satisfied, which would have constituted a complete about-turn in a
jurisprudence which had never previously been contested.

4. Fortunately, in its preliminary objections in the case concerning
Application of the International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Russian Federation), the
Russian Federation makes it clear, in accordance with jurisprudential
tradition, that this requirement is still a precondition to the proper refer-

ral of any matter to the Court (para. 3.17); in the case concerning the
Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), the Court states the following:

“The Court, as a court of law, is called upon to resolve existing

disputes between States. Thus the existence of a dispute is the pri-
mary condition for the Court to exercise its judicial function; it is
not sufficient for one party to assert that there is a dispute, since
‘whether there exists an international dispute is a matter for objec-

tive determination’ by the Court” (Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v.
France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 476, para. 58, citing

198 tion des traités de paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la
Roumanie, première phase, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950 ,

p. 74.)
Elle y ajoute:

«L’article 38 du Statut dispose que la mission de la Cour est «de
régler conformément au droit international les différends qui lui sont

soumis»; en dehors de l’article 38 lui-même, d’autres dispositions du
Statut et du Règlement indiquent aussi que la Cour ne peut exercer
sa compétence contentieuse que s’il existe réellement un différend
entre les parties...» (Ibid., p. 477, par. 60; les italiques sont de moi.)

A l’occasion de l’ordonnance rendue en indication de mesures conser-
vatoires en l’affaire Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie , dans une opinion
dissidente commune, sept juges se sont prononcés dans le même sens. En

effet, en affirmant que la convention querellée impose un règlement négo-
cié préalable à toute saisine de la Cour, ils confirment la condition qu’il
doit exister un différend entre les Parties touchant l’interprétation ou
l’application de ladite convention (affaire relative à l’Application de la

convention internationale sur l’élimination de toutes les formes de discri-
mination raciale (Géorgie c. Fédération de Russie), mesures conservatoi-
res, ordonnance du 15 octobre 2008 , opinion dissidente commune des
juges Al-Khasawneh, Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma, Tomka, Bennouna et Skot-
nikov, C.I.J. Recueil 2008, p. 401, par. 6).

Ils dénoncent que:
«D’ailleurs ..., ne pouvant trouver aucune preuve que les actes
allégués par la Géorgie entraient dans les prévisions de la CIEDR,

[la majorité] s’est contentée de constater qu’un différend paraît exis-
ter sur l’interprétation et l’application de la CIEDR parce que les
deux Parties ont montré leur désaccord sur l’applicabilité des arti-
cles 2 et 5 de la Convention.» (Ibid., p. 402, par. 10.),

contestant par là le fait qu’«une argumentation développée à l’audience
devient la preuve de l’existence d’un différend entre les Parties» (ibid.,
p. 402, par. 10).

Les sept juges constatent que, néanmoins,
«La Cour en vient ... à admettre que les questions relevant de la

CIEDR devaient être soulevées entre les Parties et elle invoque à ce
sujet les contacts bilatéraux entre les Parties et des représentations
adressées au Conseil de sécurité ..., mais la Géorgie n’a à aucun
moment accusé la Russie de discrimination raciale. Par conséquent, à
notre avis, la substance même de la CIEDR n’a jamais fait débat

entre les Parties jusqu’au dépôt d’un recours devant la Cour .» ( Ibid.,
p. 402, par. 12; les italiques sont de moi.)

Comme les auteurs de cette opinion dissidente, je conclus moi-même
que, ici, comme alors quand elle a examiné la phase préliminaire de cette

199 Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Rom-
ania, First Phase, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950 , p. 74).

It adds there::

“Article 38 of the Court’s Statute provides that its function is ‘to
decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are sub-

mitted to it’; but not only Article 38 itself but other provisions of the
Statute and Rules also make it clear that the Court can exercise its
jurisdiction in contentious proceedings only when a dispute genu-
inely exists between the parties . . .”( Ibid., p. 477, para. 60; emphasis
added.)

When the Order was made on the indication of provisional measures in
the Georgia v. Russian Federation case, seven judges expressed their
shared view in a joint dissenting opinion. In asserting that the disputed

convention prescribes negotiated settlement ahead of any recourse to the
Court, they confirm the requirement that there must be a dispute between
the parties relating to the interpretation or application of the said con-
vention (case concerning Application of the International Convention on

the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Georgia v. Rus-
sian Federation), Provisional Measures, Order of 15 October 2008 , joint
dissenting opinion of Judges Al-Khasawneh, Ranjeva, Shi, Koroma,
Tomka, Bennouna and Skotnikov, I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 401, para. 6).

The Judges object that:
“[m]oreover, . . . unable to find any evidence that the acts alleged
by Georgia fall within the provisions of CERD, [the majority] has

been content to observe merely that a dispute appears to exist as to
the interpretation and application of CERD because the two Parties
have manifested their disagreement over the applicability of Arti-
cles 2 and 5 of the Convention.” (Ibid., p. 402, para. 10.)

Thereby contesting the fact that “an argument expounded during oral
proceedings has mutated into evidence of the existence of a dispute
between the Parties” (ibid., p. 402, para. 10).

The seven judges observe, nevertheless, that
“[t]he Court . . . admits that the questions concerning CERD should

have been raised between the Parties , referring specifically in this
regard to the bilateral contacts between the Parties and certain rep-
resentations made to the Security Council, even though nowhere in
these has Georgia accused Russia of racial discrimination . Thus, in
our opinion, the very substance of CERD was never debated between

the Parties before the filing of a claim before the Court. ”( Ibid.,
p. 402, para. 12; emphasis added.)

Like the authors of that dissenting opinion, I myself find it “very sur-
prising that the Court has chosen to disregard this precondition to any

199affaire Diallo, «[i]l est très surprenant que la Cour se soit ainsi débarras-
sée de cette condition préalable à tout recours judiciaire ...» (C.I.J.

Recueil 2008, p. 402, par. 13), tandis que je continue par ailleurs de pen-
ser qu’il s’agit d’une condition de principe sur laquelle la Cour aurait dû
se prononcer même en l’absence d’une objection dans ce sens, d’une
exception préliminaire ou de toute autre condition cumulative portant
par exemple sur la nécessité de négociation ou d’arbitrage préalable.

5. Cela dit, par rapport au présent arrêt sur le fond, tout en ayant voté
avec la majorité sur les violations des articles 9 et 13 du Pacte internatio-
nal relatif aux droits civils et politiques, ainsi que des articles 6 et 12 de la
Charte africaine des droits de l’homme et des peuples, je demeure réservé

sur certains développements: ceux relatifs aux comportements des auto-
rités congolaises, développements qui reviennent à des procès d’intention
ou à des imputations qui m’ont semblé inutilement malveillantes parce
que suspicieuses ou simplement superfétatoires. Par ailleurs, je n’ai pu
souscrire ni au raisonnement ni à la partie du dispositif concluant à la

violation par le Congo des obligations lui incombant en vertu de l’ali-
néa b) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 de la convention de Vienne sur les
relations consulaires, tandis que, en rapport avec le rejet des griefs gui-
néens sur les droits propres de M. Diallo en tant qu’associé, souscrivant
pleinement à la conclusion de la Cour, j’estime modestement, cependant,

que le raisonnement de cette dernière néglige l’argument de principe pour
lequel ses griefs devaient être rejetés.
6. Sur le premier point, je me contenterai de redire que, de même que
la malheureuse réduction par laquelle la Cour avait cru devoir laisser
entendre (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée c. République

démocratique du Congo), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2007 (II), p. 601, par. 46) que c’est par malveillance, astuce et calcul déli-
bérés que le Congo aurait délivré un procès-verbal de «refoulement» plu-
tôt qu’un procès-verbal d’expulsion m’avait paru gratuite et ne m’avait
pas convaincu (ibid., opinion du juge ad hoc Mampuya, p. 645), de

même, reprise aujourd’hui, elle provoque la même réaction de ma part. Il
en est de même de l’affirmation, qui n’est qu’une conjecture non fondée,
selon laquelle il doit être établi «un lien entre l’expulsion de M. Diallo et
le fait qu’il ait tenté d’obtenir le recouvrement des créances ... en saisis-
sant à cette fin les juridictions civiles» (paragraphe 82 de l’arrêt). Si une

accusation aussi grave peut se comprendre dans la bouche de la deman-
deresse, la Cour mondiale ne saurait l’assumer sous forme d’une pré-
somption sans fondement.
Ces deux lourdes imputations étaient d’autant moins nécessaires que la
conclusion principale de la Cour quant à la régularité ou non de la

mesure d’expulsion n’en avait nullement besoin.
7. Ayant ainsi voté avec la majorité de la Cour sur certaines violations
attribuées à la République démocratique du Congo, j’ai également adhéré
au point 7 du dispositif de l’arrêt sur la réparation due en conséquence à

la Guinée par le Congo. Néanmoins, il me semble que la Cour aurait pu
utilement préciser que le préjudice, purement moral et immatériel, retenu

200judicial action . . .” (I.C.J. Reports 2008, p. 402, para. 13) in the present
Judgment, just as it did when it considered the preliminary phase of the

Diallo case, because I still consider it to be a fundamental condition upon
which the Court should have ruled, even in the absence of an objection to
that effect, a preliminary objection or any other cumulative condition
requiring, for example, prior negotiation or arbitration.

5. That said, in respect of the present Judgment on the merits, while I
voted with the majority on the violations of Articles 9 and 13 of the Inter-
national Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Articles 6 and 12 of
the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, I still have reserva-

tions about some of the reasoning, specifically that relating to the con-
duct of the Congolese authorities, which amounts to little more than
suppositions and accusations that, in my view, were unnecessarily mali-
cious, being based on suspicion, or simply redundant. Furthermore, I
was unable to subscribe to either the reasoning or the part of the opera-

tive clause which finds that the Congo violated the obligations incumbent
upon it under Article 36, paragraph 1 (b) of the Vienna Convention on
Consular Relations, while, in respect of the rejection of Guinea’s com-
plaints concerning Mr. Diallo’s direct rights as associé, although I fully
subscribe to the Court’s conclusion, it is nevertheless my modest belief

that the reasoning behind that conclusion fails to take account of the
argument of principle as to why those complaints should be rejected.
6. On the first point, I will confine myself to repeating that, just as the
misplaced reductionist reasoning which led the Court to consider it neces-
sary to imply (Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic

Republic of the Congo), Preliminary Objections, Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II) , p. 601, para. 46) that the Congo acted out of
deliberate malice, cunning and calculated self-interest in issuing a notice
of refusal of entry[refoulement]rather than a notice of expulsion was, to my
mind, gratuitous and unconvincing (ibid., opinion of Judge ad

hoc Mampuya, p. 645), so too its reiteration in this Judgment pro-
vokes the same reaction on my part. The same is true of the assertion, which
is merely groundless speculation, that a link must have existed “between
Mr. Diallo’s expulsion and the fact that he had attempted to recover
debts . . . bringing cases for this purpose before the civil courts” (para-

graph 82 of the Judgment). While it is understandable that so serious a
charge might lie in the mouth of the Applicant, the World Court can-
not endorse such a charge on the basis of an unfounded presumption.
Furthermore, both of these very serious charges were unnecessary, as
neither was required in order for the Court to reach its principal conclu-

sion on the lawfulness of the expulsion.
7. Thus, having voted with the majority of the Court on certain vio-
lations attributed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, I also voted
in favour of point 7 of the Judgment’s operative clause relating to the

reparation owing to Guinea by the Congo as a result of those violations.
However, in my view, the Court could have usefully made it clear that the

200en ce qui concerne la prétendue violation par le défendeur de l’obligation
du point b) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 de la convention de Vienne

sur les relations consulaires, violation qui n’a pas produit de dommage
matériel, n’appelle qu’une réparation «déclaratoire», morale. En parfaite
concordance avec le point 7 du dispositif, qui ne prescrit la réparation
que pour les violations retenues du Pacte international relatif aux droits

civils et politiques et de la Charte africaine des droits de l’homme et des
peuples, cette précision aurait servi à montrer que la Cour confirme ce
qui, à la suite de sa jurisprudence constante, est devenu un principe.
Ainsi, pour ne prendre que le seul exemple suivant dans l’affaire du
Détroit de Corfou (Royaume-Uni c. Albanie) , où il était pourtant ques-

tion de la violation de la souveraineté d’un Etat, lorsque la Cour, à l’una-
nimité, dit que:

«par les actions de sa marine de guerre dans les eaux albanaises au
cours de l’opération des 12 et 13 novembre 1946, le Royaume-Uni a
violé la souveraineté de la République populaire d’Albanie, cette

constatation par la Cour constituant en elle-même une satisfaction
appropriée» (fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1949 , p. 36).

La doctrine confirme unanimement cette position, par exemple:

«Un dommage purement moral peut être réparé par des «satisfac-
tions» purement morales. La plus simple est la proclamation par le
juge du caractère illicite du comportement d’un Etat; une jurispru-
dence abondante a déclaré qu’en l’absence d’un préjudice matériel,
la déclaration par le juge du caractère illicite d’un comportement

constituait une réparation suffisante du préjudice subi (Détroit de
Corfou, C.I.J. Recueil 1949 , p. 35).» (P. Reuter, Droit international
public, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1983, 6 éd., p. 268.)

Tandis que J. Crawford commente que: «Une des formes de satisfac-
tion les plus fréquentes pour dommage moral ou immatériel est la décla-

ration d’illicéité faite par une cour ou un tribunal compétent.» (Dans son
commentaire à l’article 37, paragraphe 2, de la CDI sur la responsabilité
de l’Etat.)
8. Par ailleurs, en vue d’alourdir la responsabilité de la défenderesse,
la Cour a cru indispensable d’ajouter une caractéristique et, donc, une

condition supplémentaire à celles qu’énumère le PIDC pour la régularité
d’une expulsion: le caractère «arbitraire» de l’expulsion de M. Diallo,
outre qu’elle est jugée illégale. En effet, l’article 13 exige seulement que
l’expulsion doit être décidée «conformément à la loi» et l’intéressé doit

pouvoir «faire valoir les raisons qui militent contre son expulsion»
devant «l’autorité compétente ou [par] une ou plusieurs personnes spé-
cialement désignées par ladite autorité». Il en est de même du paragra-
phe 4 de l’article 12 de la Charte africaine, qui dit que l’étranger «léga-
lement admis sur le territoire d’un Etat partie à la présente Charte ne

201purely moral and non-material injury found to have been caused by the
Respondent’s purported violation of its obligation under Article 36,

paragraph 1 (b), of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations — a
violation which did not cause any material injury — calls only for
“declaratory” or moral reparation. Fully in line with point 7 of the
operative clause, which provides for reparation only in respect of the vio-
lations of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and

the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, such clarification
would have served to demonstrate the Court’s confirmation of a matter
which, following its established jurisprudence, has become a principle.
Thus, as just one example of this, I cite the following passage from the

Corfu Channel (United Kingdom v. Albania) case — where it was in fact
the violation of a State’s sovereignty that was at issue — in which the
Court unanimously finds that:

“by reason of the acts of the British Navy in Albanian waters in the
course of the Operation of November 12th and 13th, 1946, the United
Kingdom violated the sovereignty of the People’s Republic of Alba-
nia, and that this declaration by the Court constitutes in itself appro-

priate satisfaction” (Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1949, p. 36).
Doctrine fully supports this position, for example:

“A purely moral injury may be redressed by purely moral ‘satis-
faction’. The simplest form of satisfaction is a declaration by the

court of the wrongfulness of a State’s conduct; there is abundant
jurisprudence in support of the proposition that, in the absence of
material injury, a declaration by the court of the wrongful nature of
conduct constituted sufficient reparation for the injury suffered
(Corfu Channel, I.C.J. Reports 1949 , p. 35).” (P. Reuter, Droit inter-

national public, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1983, 6th ed.,
p. 268.) [Translation by the Registry.]

While J. Crawford observes that: “[o]ne of the most common modali-
ties of satisfaction provided in the case of moral or non-material injury to
the State is a declaration of the wrongfulness of the act by a competent
court or tribunal”. (In his commentary on the International Law Com-
mission’s Article 37, paragraph 2, on State responsibility.)

8. Moreover, in order to enhance the Respondent’s responsibility, the
Court believed it indispensable to include an additional characteristic,
and hence a condition further to those laid down in the ICCPR in order
for an expulsion to be lawful: Mr. Diallo’s expulsion was not only
considered unlawful, it was also “arbitrary”. In fact, Article 13 merely

stipulates that the decision to expel be taken “in accordance with the law”
and that the individual concerned be allowed to “submit the reasons
against his expulsion” to “the competent authority or a person or persons
especially designated by the competent authority”. The same is true of

Article 12, paragraph 4, of the African Charter, which states that a
non-national “legally admitted in a territory of a State party to the

201pourra être expulsé qu’en vertu d’une décision conforme à la loi». Nulle
part il n’y est question d’expulsion «arbitraire», à moins que ce caractère

«arbitraire» ne découle de l’illégalité ou ne soit impliqué par elle. Car des
deux choses, l’une. Soit l’arbitraire découle de l’illégalité, or manifeste-
ment il ne peut en être ainsi; soit l’arbitraire est différent de l’illégalité.
Dans ce dernier cas, d’une part, il s’ajouterait une condition supplémen-

taire mais non prévue par l’article 13 du Pacte. En effet, la Cour a bien
entendu ajouter cette condition supplémentaire non prévue lorsqu’elle
dit:

«D’une part, il faut que la loi nationale applicable soit elle-même
compatible avec les autres exigences du Pacte et de la Charte afri-
caine; d’autre part, une expulsion ne doit pas revêtir un caractère
arbitraire ...» (paragraphe 65 de l’arrêt; les italiques sont de moi),

ou lorsqu’elle dit que «la RDC n’a jamais été à même ... de fournir des
motifs qui puissent être de nature à donner un fondement convaincant à

l’expulsion de M. Diallo» ou qu’elle parle «d’une telle mesure d’expul-
sion, qui ne repose sur aucun fondement défendable» (paragraphe 82 de
l’arrêt). D’autre part, cette condition supplémentaire induit une exigence:
celle d’expliquer et de préciser en quoi consisterait alors, en dehors de
l’illégalité, le caractère arbitraire.

9. On ne trouve, nulle part dans l’arrêt, une de ces préoccupations
dont, me semble-t-il, en introduisant cette autre condition liée au carac-
tère arbitraire, la Cour ne pouvait faire l’économie. Notre arrêt se contente
de renvoyer à la «jurisprudence interprétative considérable» du Comité

des droits de l’homme, dont la Cour proclame le caractère «quasi judi-
ciaire» et à laquelle elle «estime devoir accorder une grande considération».
10. Toutefois, les deux notions sont distinctes et doivent être distin-
guées, car, si l’arbitraire peut recouvrir l’illégal, l’inverse n’est pas vrai.
Pour ne retenir que la pratique du même Comité des droits de l’homme,

ainsi que le dit dans son opinion individuelle sir N. Rodley:
«La notion de caractère «arbitraire» évoquée au paragraphe 1 de

l’article 9 englobe certes la notion d’illégalité. Ce fait ressort à l’évi-
dence du concept même de l’arbitraire et des travaux préparatoires.
Je ne vois pas toutefois comment l’inverse serait également vrai.
Rien dans les travaux préparatoires ne le justifie non plus.» (Affaire
C. c. Australie, 2002, communication n 900/1999.)

Ceci peut expliquer pourquoi un acte, par exemple une arrestation,
parfaitement légal peut être arbitraire et que tout acte illégal n’est pas

nécessairement arbitraire. C’est ainsi que le Comité des droits de l’homme
le conçoit lorsqu’il dit:

«L’historique de la rédaction du paragraphe 1 de l’article 9
confirme qu’il ne faut pas donner au mot «arbitraire» le sens de
«contraire à la loi», mais plutôt l’interpréter plus largement du point
de vue de ce qui est inapproprié, injuste et non prévisible.» («Ele-
ments of inappropriateness, injustice and lack of predictability»,

202present Charter, may only be expelled from it by virtue of a decision
taken in accordance with the law”. There is no mention anywhere of

“arbitrary” expulsion, unless that “arbitrary” character derives from unlaw-
fulness or is implied by it. For it can only be one or the other. Either arbi-
trariness derives from unlawfulness, but manifestly this cannot be so, or
arbitrariness is distinct from unlawfulness. In the latter case, in the first
place this would impose an additional condition, not contemplated by Arti-

cle 13 of the Covenant. Indeed, the Court’s intent to impose this addi-
tional, unwritten condition is clear when it states:

“[f]irst, the applicable domestic law must itself be compatible with
the other requirements of the Covenant and the African Charter;
second, an expulsion must not be arbitrary in nature . . .” (para-
graph 65 of the Judgment; emphasis added);

or when it observes that “the DRC has never been able to provide
grounds which might constitute a convincing basis for Mr. Diallo’s
expulsion”, or when it refers to “such an expulsion measure, one without

any defensible basis” (paragraph 82 of the Judgment). Secondly, this
additional condition creates a need: a need to clarify and explain what
then, besides unlawfulness, arbitrariness would consist of.

9. There is no mention anywhere in the Judgment of any of these con-

cerns, which to my mind, the Court, in introducing this further condition
relating to arbitrariness, was not entitled to overlook. The Judgment
is content to refer to the “considerable body of interpretative case law”
of the Human Rights Committee, which the Court describes as “quasi-
judicial” and to which it “believes that it should ascribe great weight”.

10. However, the two concepts are distinct and must be distinguished,
because, while arbitrary can cover unlawful, the opposite is not true. If
we confine ourselves to the practice of that same Human Rights Com-
mittee, as Sir N. Rodley states in his separate opinion:

“‘Arbitrary’ in Article 9, paragraph 1, certainly covers unlawful-
ness. It is evident from the very notion of arbitrariness and the pre-
paratory work. But I fail to see how the opposite is also true. Nor is

there anything in the preparatory work to justify it.” (C. v. Aus-
tralia, 2002, Communication No. 900/1999.)

This may explain why an act, such as an arrest, which is perfectly legal,
can be arbitrary, and why every unlawful act is not necessarily arbitrary.
This is how it is understood by the Human Rights Committee when it
states:

“The drafting history of Article 9, paragraph 1, confirms that
‘arbitrariness’ is not to be equated with ‘against the law’, but must
be interpreted more broadly to include elements of inappropriate-

ness, injustice and lack of predictability.” (See Communication
No. 305/1988, Hugo van Alphen v. The Netherlands, views adopted

202 voir communication n o 305/1988, Hugo van Alphen c. Pays-Bas ,

constatations adoptées le 23 juillet 1990, doc. CCPR/C/39/D/305/
1988 du 15 août 1990, par. 5.8.)

11. Du reste, il faut remarquer que la «jurisprudence interprétative»
du Comité des droits de l’homme à laquelle notre arrêt fait allusion est
relative exclusivement à l’interprétation du paragraphe 1 de l’article 9 du

Pacte, qui distingue l’arrestation ou la détention arbitraire (dans la
deuxième phrase) et la privation de liberté non conforme à la loi (troi-
sième phrase):

«1. Tout individu a droit à la liberté et à la sécurité de sa per-

sonne. Nul ne peut faire l’objet d’une arrestation ou d’une détention
arbitraire. Nul ne peut être privé de sa liberté, si ce n’est pour des
motifs et conformément à la procédure prévue par la loi.»

C’est donc aux seules arrestations ou détentions, dans le cadre du para-

graphe 1 de l’article 9 du Pacte, que se rapporte ce caractère «arbitraire».
Je citerai, à l’appui de cette affirmation, entre autres, les «jurisprudences»
suivantes du Comité:Teófila Gómez Casafranca c. Péro,u2003, communi-
cation n 981/2001; A. c. Australie, communication n 560/1993, avis

adoptés le 3 avril 1997; Hugo van Alphen c. Pays-Bas , constatations
adoptées le 23 juillet 1990, doc. CCPR/C/39/D/305/1988 du 15 août 1990;
Womah Mukong c. Cameroun , constatations adoptées le 21 juillet 1994,
doc. CCPR/C/51/D/458/1991; C. c. Australie, communication n 900/ o
o
1999; Baban et al. c. Australie, communication n 1014/2001; Bakhtiyari
et al. c. Australie, communication n o 1069/2002; Rafael Marques de
Morais c. Angola, 2005, communication n 1128/2002.

12. Si, donc, les auteurs du Pacte avaient voulu prescrire une condition
supplémentaire, alors qu’ils utilisaient déjà cette notion d’arbitraire à
l’article 9 concernant l’arrestation et la détention, ils l’auraient fait en
parlant, à l’article 13, d’une expulsion devant être à la fois conforme à la

loi et non arbitraire. Outre qu’un tel caractère, sa nature et son contenu
demanderaient à être établis, force est de constater que, même alors,
l’article 13 du Pacte dont la prétendue violation est examinée ici ne vise
pas le caractère arbitraire d’une expulsion (du reste difficile à concevoir).

Pour autant, ce silence du Pacte et de la Charte africaine ne saurait être
considéré ainsi qu’une omission que la Cour s’emploierait à combler ni
qu’une erreur qu’elle chercherait à corriger, tandis que la Charte afri-

caine, postérieure de quinze ans au Pacte, aurait pu mentionner cette no-
tion d’arbitraire si telle était la volonté de ses promoteurs. Les auteurs du
Pacte et, à leur suite, ceux de la Charte ont suivi le bon sens, qui ne per-
met pas d’envisager aussi facilement une telle condition qui jugerait arbi-

traire une décision aussi discrétionnaire pour un Etat que celle d’admettre
ou non, conformément à sa législation, la présence d’étrangers sur son
territoire.

13. Quant à la jurisprudence propre à la matière de l’expulsion, à

203 on 23 July 1990, doc. CCPR/C/39/D/305/1988 of 15 August 1990,
para. 5.8.)

11. Moreover, it should be noted that the “interpretative case law” of
the Human Rights Committee, to which this Judgment refers, relates
exclusively to the interpretation of Article 9, paragraph 1, of the Cov-
enant, which makes a distinction between arbitrary arrest or detention (in
the second sentence) and the unlawful deprivation of liberty (third sen-

tence):

“1. Everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. No
one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest or detention. No one shall
be deprived of his liberty except on such grounds and in accordance
with such procedure as are established by law.”

Accordingly, it is only to arrests or detentions in the context of Arti-

cle 9, paragraph 1, of the Covenant that such “arbitrariness” refers. In
support of this assertion, I cite, in particular, the following “case law” of
the Committee: Teófila Casafranca de Gómez v. Peru, 2003, Communi-
cation No. 981/2001; A. v. Australia, Communication No. 560/1993,
views adopted on 3 April 1997; Hugo van Alphen v. The Netherlands,

views adopted on 23 July 1990, doc. CCPR/C/39/D/305/1988 of 15 August
1990; Womah Mukong v. Cameroon, views adopted on 21 July 1994,
doc. CCPR/C/51/D/458/1991; C. v. Australia, Communication No. 900/
1999; Baban et al. v. Australia, Communication No. 1014/2001; Bakhti-
yari et al. v. Australia, Communication No. 1069/2002; Rafael Marques

de Morais v. Angola, 2005, Communication No. 1128/2002.
12. If, therefore, the drafters of the Covenant had wanted to lay down
an additional condition, while already using this concept of “arbitrary”
in Article 9 in respect of arrest and detention, they would have done so
by stating, in Article 13, that an expulsion has to be both in accordance

with the law and not arbitrary. Besides the fact that such a characteristic
— its nature and content — would need to be established, the unden-
iable truth is that, even then, Article 13 of the Covenant, whose alleged
violation is addressed in this Judgment, is not aimed at the arbitrariness of
an expulsion (a concept, moreover, not readily envisageable). Accordingly,

the silence of the Covenant and the African Charter in that respect should
be considered neither an omission which the Court should seek to make
good, nor an error which it should try to correct, because the African
Charter, which postdates the Covenant by 15 years, could have incorpo-
rated that notion of “arbitrary” had its sponsors so desired. The drafters of

the Covenant and, in turn, those of the Charter were guided by common
sense, which does not readily permit the contemplation of a condition such
as this, which would deem arbitrary a decision of so discretionary a nature
on the part of the State as whether or not to allow, under its law, the pres-

ence of foreigners on its territory.
13. As relevant jurisprudence on the subject of expulsion, in support

203l’appui de la condition supplémentaire pour une expulsion de «ne pas
avoir un caractère arbitraire», le paragraphe 68 de notre arrêt cite l’arti-
o
cle premier du protocole n 7 de la convention européenne de sauvegarde
des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales, intitulé «Garanties
procédurales en cas d’expulsion d’étrangers». Citée sans exemples de
décisions précises l’interprétant dans le sens retenu par la Cour dans la

présente instance, cette disposition stipule ce qui suit:

«1. Un étranger résidant régulièrement sur le territoire d’un Etat
ne peut en être expulsé qu’en exécution d’une décision prise confor-
mément à la loi et doit pouvoir:

a) faire valoir les raisons qui militent contre son expulsion,
b) faire examiner son cas, et
c) se faire représenter à ces fins devant l’autorité compétente ou une

ou plusieurs personnes désignées par cette autorité.»

Nous retrouvons dans cette disposition certes la même substance que
l’article 13 du PIDC mais aussi la même question de son interprétation,
sans toutefois que rien ne corrobore le fait que la Cour européenne l’ait
interprétée comme le fait notre arrêt.

Par contre, si l’on voulait également «instruire à décharge», on pour-
rait tirer profit du paragraphe 2 du même article qui dispose que: «Un
étranger peut être expulsé avant l’exercice des droits énumérés au para-
graphe 1 a), b) et c) de cet article lorsque cette expulsion est nécessaire

dans l’intérêt de l’ordre public ou est basée sur des motifs de sécurité
nationale.» Il y a là un élément qui montre, dans une formule affirmative
(«un étranger peut être expulsé avant l’exercice des droits énumérés ...»
et non «ne peut être expulsé avant l’exercice des droits énumérés que ...»),
qu’une latitude certaine est reconnue aux autorités territoriales, s’agis-

sant, justement, d’une prérogative discrétionnaire que l’on ne saurait,
implicitement, limiter même en insinuant son caractère «arbitraire».
Enfin, alors qu’il n’est prévu nulle part ailleurs des «garanties maté-
rielles», l’intitulé de cet article premier du protocole européen, «Garan-

ties procédurales en cas d’expulsion d’étrangers», renseigne clairement
que même la convention européenne n’a pas entendu soumettre la mesure
d’expulsion à des conditions matérielles, de fond, laissant également com-
prendre que le contenu de la seule condition proche du fond, «l’intérêt de
l’ordre public et des motifs de sécurité nationale», est défini discrétion-

nairement par l’autorité de l’Etat. Il ne me semble pas, dès lors, fondé
d’assimiler, comme le fait la Cour (paragraphe 72 de l’arrêt), à une condi-
tion stricte de fond l’exigence de motivation de la décision d’expulsion
prévue par l’article 15 de l’ordonnance-loi de 1983, dès le moment où seul

l’Etat territorial peut définir ce qui est ou non «nécessaire dans l’intérêt
de l’ordre public» ou ce qu’est l’exigence de sa «sécurité nationale». Cet
argument abondamment exposé par la République démocratique du
Congo (contre-mémoire, par. 1.27-1.28) n’a pas retenu l’attention de la
Cour.

204of the further condition that an expulsion should “not be arbitrary in
nature”, paragraph 68 of the Judgment cites Article 1 of Protocol No. 7

to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms, entitled “Procedural safeguards relating to
expulsion of aliens”. Cited without examples of specific decisions in
which it has been interpreted in the same way as by the Court in the
present case, this provision stipulates the following:

“1. An alien lawfully resident in the territory of a State shall not
be expelled therefrom except in pursuance of a decision reached in
accordance with law and shall be allowed:

(a) to submit reasons against his expulsion,
(b) to have his case reviewed, and
(c) to be represented for these purposes before the competent
authority or a person or persons designated by that authority.”

In this provision, we indeed not only find the same substance as in
Article 13 of the ICCPR, but also the same question of its interpretation,
without, however, anything to corroborate the fact that the European
Court has interpreted it in the same way as this Judgment.
On the other hand, should we also wish to “make the case for the

defence”, we could find support in paragraph 2 of the same Article, which
provides: “An alien may be expelled before the exercise of his rights under
paragraph 1 (a), (b) and (c) of this Article, when such expulsion is neces-
sary in the interests of public order or is grounded on reasons of
national security.” The use here of a positive formulation (“An alien may

be expelled before the exercise of his rights under . . .” and not “cannot be
expelled before the exercise of his rights under . . . unless . . .”) shows that
territorial authorities are recognized to enjoy a certain latitude in the case,
specifically, of a prerogative of a discretionary nature, which cannot be
implicitly restricted, even by a suggestion that it is “arbitrary”.

Finally, although there are no provisions anywhere for “material safe-
guards”, the title of this same Article 1 of the European Protocol, “Pro-
cedural safeguards relating to expulsion of aliens”, makes it clear that
even the European Convention did not intend for an expulsion measure
to be subject to material, substantive conditions, thus also letting it be

understood that the content of the only condition approximating to a
substantive one, “in the interests of [the] public . . . [and for] reasons of
national security”, is defined at the discretion of the State authority.
Therefore, I do not believe it justified to treat, as the Court does (para-
graph 72 of the Judgment), the requirement to provide reasons for the

decision to expel laid down by Article 15 of the 1983 Legislative Order as
a strictly substantive condition, when only the territorial State is in a
position to say what is and what is not “necessary in the interests of pub-
lic order” or required for its “national security”. This argument,

expounded at length by the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Counter-
Memorial, paras. 1.27-1.28), was not considered by the Court.

204 A présent, j’aborde le point sur lequel porte mon désaccord avec la
majorité de la Cour.

M ON DÉSACCORD

La prétendue violation de l’obligation en vertu de l’alinéb) du paragra-
phe 1 de l’article 36 de la convention de Vienne sur les relations consulaires.

Contenu et sens de l’obligation d’informer

14. L’article 36, à l’alinéa b) de son paragraphe 1, stipule:
«Si l’intéressé en fait la demande, les autorités compétentes de

l’Etat de résidence doivent avertir sans retard le poste consulaire de
l’Etat d’envoi lorsque, dans sa circonscription consulaire, un ressor-
tissant de cet Etat est arrêté, incarcéré ou mis en état de détention
préventive ou toute autre forme de détention. Toute communication

adressée au poste consulaire par la personne arrêtée, incarcérée ou
mise en état de détention préventive ou toute autre forme de déten-
tion doit également être transmise sans retard par lesdites autorités.
Celles-ci doivent sans retard informer l’intéressé de ses droits aux
termes du présent alinéa.»

Ce qui est spécialement reproché au Congo, c’est de ne pas avoir
informé directement et «sans tarder» la personne concernée, M. Diallo,

de son droit de solliciter, à travers l’ambassade de Guinée à Kinshasa,
l’intervention des autorités de son pays. Dans notre arrêt, l’allégation est
présentée et la disposition pertinente interprétée dans des termes qui ne
me semblent pas tenir compte de tous les éléments pertinents tels que les
prescrit la convention. Dans cette dernière, en effet, ainsi que l’a inter-

prétée la Cour (affaire LaGrand (Allemagne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique),
arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2001 , p. 492, par. 74), le principe de base en matière
de protection consulaire est énoncé à l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 1, qui
concerne le droit de communication et d’accès des fonctionnaires consu-

laires avec et auprès des ressortissants de l’Etat d’envoi. Ceci me semble
important aux fins de la bonne compréhension de la portée de l’obliga-
tion de l’Etat de résidence déclinée à l’alinéa b) du même paragraphe.
15. Quant à cette obligation elle-même, elle se présente en trois élé-
ments: les autorités compétentes de l’Etat de résidence doivent nécessai-

rement, d’une part, si l’intéressé en fait la demande, notifier l’arrestation
au poste consulaire de l’Etat d’envoi, d’autre part, transmettre toute
communication adressée au poste consulaire par la personne incarcérée
et, enfin, informer «sans retard» l’intéressé de ses droits. L’interprétation

de la Cour étant que le troisième élément, énoncé en dernier dans l’alinéa,
est en fait le préalable indispensable à la réalisation des deux autres,
l’intéressé devant être informé de son droit, ici énoncé en fin du paragra-
phe, afin que les deux autres éléments se concrétisent.

205 I will now turn to the source of my disagreement with the majority of
the Court.

M Y D ISAGREEMENT

The Alleged Violation of the Obligation under Article 36. para-
graph 1 (b), of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations:

Content and Sense of the Obligation to Inform

14. Article 36, paragraph 1 (b), provides:
“[I]f he so requests, the competent authorities of the receiving State

shall, without delay, inform the consular post of the sending State if,
within its consular district, a national of that State is arrested or
committed to prison or to custody pending trial or is detained in any
other manner. Any communication addressed to the consular post

by the person arrested, in prison, custody or detention shall be for-
warded by the said authorities without delay. The said authorities
shall inform the person concerned without delay of his rights under
this subparagraph.”

The Congo is criticized in particular for failing to inform directly and
“without delay” the individual concerned, Mr. Diallo, of his right to

request, through the Guinean Embassy in Kinshasa, the intervention of
the Guinean authorities. In the Judgment, the allegation is presented, and
the relevant provision interpreted, in a way which, in my view, fails to
take account of all the pertinent elements as laid down by the Conven-
tion. In that Convention, as the Court itself has interpreted it (LaGrand

(Germany v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001 ,
p. 492, para. 74), the fundamental principle in respect of consular protec-
tion is set out in paragraph 1 (a), which concerns the right of consular
employees to communicate with and have access to nationals of the send-

ing State. I believe this is important to a full understanding of the scope
of the receiving State’s obligation laid down in subparagraph (b) of the
same paragraph.
15. The obligation itself is split into three elements: first, the compe-
tent authorities of the receiving State must, if the person concerned so

requests, notify the arrest to the consular post of the sending State; sec-
ond, they must transmit any communication addressed to the consular
post by the arrested person; and, finally, they must inform “without
delay” the individual concerned of his rights. According to the Court’s

interpretation, this third element — the final element laid down by para-
graph 1 (b) — is in fact an indispensable precondition to the fulfillment
of the other two elements: the person concerned must be informed of his
right, as set out in the last sentence of paragraph 1 (b), in order for the
first two elements to be realized.

205 16. De la sorte, l’obligation d’informer les autorités consulaires codi-
fiée dans la convention est considérée comme une obligation d’informer

le détenu de son droit de demander une assistance consulaire ainsi que de
son droit de contacter, seulement s’il en fait la demande, son poste consu-
laire. Il s’agit d’une obligation positive à la charge de l’Etat dans lequel
un ressortissant étranger est détenu. La Cour le juge ainsi, en effet, dans
l’affaire Avena:

«l’obligation sans équivoque de fournir l’information consulaire en
vertu de l’alinéa b) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 n’appelle pas de

conjectures sur les préférences de la personne arrêtée, qui pourraient
justifier de ne pas l’informer. Elle donne plutôt à la personne arrêtée
le droit, une fois informée, de dire qu’elle ne souhaite néanmoins pas
que son poste consulaire reçoive une notification.» (Avena et autres
ressortissants mexicains (Mexique c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 46, par. 76.)
Toutefois, la Cour précise au préalable que

«[c]et alinéa [alinéa b) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 36] contient
trois éléments distincts mais liés entre eux: le droit de l’intéressé

d’être informé sans retard des droits qui lui sont reconnus par ledit
alinéa; le droit du poste consulaire de recevoir sans retard notifica-
tion de la mise en détention de l’intéressé, si ce dernier en fait la
demande; et l’obligation de l’Etat de résidence de transmettre sans
retard toute communication adressée au poste consulaire par la per-

sonne détenue.» (Ibid., p. 43, par. 61; les italiques sont de moi.)

Nature et portée de l’obligation d’informer l’étranger arrêté
ou détenu contenue dans l’article 36 à la lumière de l’objet
et du but de la convention de 1963

17. Certes, dans l’affaire LaGrand, la Cour conclut que, compte tenu

du libellé de ces dispositions, le paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 crée des
droits individuels, estimant que «la clarté de ces dispositions, lues dans
leur contexte, ne laisse en rien à désirer» (affaire LaGrand (Allemagne
c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2001 , p. 494, par. 77).
Et c’est, logiquement, à cause de cette supposée «clarté» que la Cour

a choisi de ne pas recourir aux règles classiques d’interprétation telles
que reprises dans l’article 31 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit des
traités.
18. A cet égard, et sans vouloir remettre en cause cette conclusion, je
me permets de douter de cette affirmation catégorique de la Cour. Lors-

que l’on place la disposition concernée de l’article 36 dans le contexte
général de la convention, loin d’être «clairs», son sens et sa portée
seraient plutôt à rechercher.
On observe, premièrement, que le but et l’objet de la conclusion d’une

convention internationale sur les relations consulaires, comme l’indique
le préambule, sont de «contribuer ... à favoriser les relations d’amitié

206 16. Thus, the obligation to inform the consular authorities codified in
the Convention is considered as an obligation to inform the person

detained of his right to request consular assistance, as well as — only if he
so requests — his right to contact his consular post. It is a positive obliga-
tion incumbent upon the State in whose territory a foreign national is
detained. This is how the Court interprets it in the Avena case:

“the clear duty to provide consular information under Article 36,
paragraph 1 (b), does not invite assumptions as to what the arrested

person might prefer, as a ground for not informing him. It rather
gives the arrested person, once informed, the right to say he none-
theless does not wish his consular post to be notified.” (Avena and
Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v. United States of America),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 46, para. 76.)

However, the Court states prior to this that:

“Article 36, paragraph 1 (b), contains three separate but inter-
related elements: the right of the individual concerned to be informed

without delay of his rights under Article 36, paragraph 1 (b); the
right of the consular post to be notified without delay of the indi-
vidual’s detention, if he so requests; and the obligation of the receiv-
ing State to forward without delay any communication addressed to
the consular post by the detained person.” (Ibid., p. 43, para. 61;

emphasis added.)

Nature and Scope of the Obligation Contained in Article 36 to Inform
the Arrested or Detained Alien in the Light of the Object and Purpose
of the 1963 Convention

17. It is true that in the LaGrand case the Court concludes that, in

view of the wording of its provisions, Article 36, paragraph 1, creates
individual rights, stating that “[t]he clarity of these provisions, viewed in
their context, admits of no doubt” (LaGrand (Germany v. United States
of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001 , p. 494, para. 77).
And, logically, it is on account of this supposed “clarity” that the

Court chose not to have recourse to the classical rules of interpretation,
as set forth in Article 31 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Trea-
ties.
18. In this respect, and without wishing to dispute that conclusion, I
do have some doubts about that categorical statement by the Court.

When the relevant provision of Article 36 is placed in the general context
of the Convention, far from being “clear”, its sense and scope need rather
to be sought out.
We observe, first, that the purpose and object of concluding an inter-

national convention on consular relations, as the preamble indicates, is to
“contribute to the development of friendly relations among nations”.

206entre les pays». Deuxièmement, l’article 36, qui est intitulé «Communica-
tion avec les ressortissants de l’Etat d’envoi», commence par la phrase

«afin que l’exercice des fonctions consulaires relatives aux ressortissants
de l’Etat d’envoi soit facilité». Il est clair que cette clause ramène la
portée de l’article 36 à celle d’une disposition destinée uniquement à
faciliter l’exercice des fonctions consulaires relatives aux ressortissants de
l’Etat d’envoi. Troisièmement, en vertu de l’alinéa a) de l’article 5 de la

convention, les fonctions consulaires consistent notamment à «protéger
dans l’Etat de résidence les intérêts de l’Etat d’envoi et de ses ressortis-
sants, personnes physiques et morales, dans les limites admises par le
droit international». Par ce contexte des fonctions consulaires, on se rend

bien compte que, ici, la règle de l’interprétation selon le sens naturel et
ordinaire des termes employés ne peut être absolue. L’interprétation ne
devrait pas mettre de côté le but et l’objet de la conclusion d’une conven-
tion internationale sur les relations consulaires qui, comme l’indique
le préambule, sont de «contribuer ... à favoriser les relations d’amitié

entre les pays» et, spécialement, de permettre à l’Etat d’envoi d’exercer
ses fonctions consulaires.
19. Ainsi, d’une part, les indications de la convention elles-mêmes ne
semblent pas corroborer la tendance inaugurée par l’interprétation don-
née dès 2001 dans l’affaire LaGrand, faisant du droit d’être informé

reconnu à l’étranger arrêté ou détenu un droit de l’individu exclusive-
ment, tendance qui assimile purement et simplement cette matière à celle
des droits de l’homme pour la soustraire totalement à celle de la protec-
tion diplomatique ou consulaire.
Ce n’est donc pas tout à fait sans raison que les Etats-Unis pouvaient

interpréter l’article 36, dans le contexte et à la lumière de l’objet et du but
de la convention, en en concluant que:

«La situation de l’individu au regard de la convention découle du
droit reconnu à l’Etat partie à celle-ci, agissant par l’intermédiaire de
ses fonctionnaires consulaires, de communiquer avec ses ressortis-
sants. Le traitement réservé aux individus est indissociablement lié

au droit de l’Etat et en découle.» (Contre-mémoire des Etats-Unis,
p. 84, par. 100.)

20. L’examen des travaux préparatoires confirme cette manière de pro-
céder: il est important de rappeler le débat qui a eu lieu sur l’utilité de
mentionner les droits reconnus aux individus, le débat portant surtout
sur la façon dont l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 devrait abor-

der la question de la capacité du ressortissant étranger à communiquer
avec un fonctionnaire consulaire.
Le texte initial proposé par la CDI était ainsi rédigé:

«Les autorités compétentes doivent avertir, sans retard injustifié,
le consulat compétent de l’Etat d’envoi, lorsque, dans les limites de

sa circonscription, un ressortissant de cet Etat est incarcéré ou mis
en état de détention préventive ou toute autre forme de détention.»

207Second, Article 36, which is entitled “Communication and contact with
nationals of the sending State”, opens with the phrase: “With a view to

facilitating the exercise of consular functions relating to nationals of the
sending State”. This phrase clearly limits the scope of Article 36 to that
of a provision aimed solely at facilitating the exercise of consular func-
tions relating to the nationals of the sending State. Third, in accordance
with Article 5 (a) of the Convention, consular functions primarily con-

sist of “protecting in the receiving State the interests of the sending State
and of its nationals, both individuals and bodies corporate, within the
limits permitted by international law”. From this context of consular
functions, it is clear that, here, the principle of interpretation according

to the natural and ordinary meaning of the words used cannot be abso-
lute. The interpretation should not disregard the purpose and object of
the conclusion of an international convention on consular relations,
which, as the preamble indicates, is to “contribute to the development of
friendly relations among nations” and, in particular, to enable the send-

ing State to exercise its consular functions.

19. Thus, on the one hand, the language of the Convention itself does
not seem to corroborate the trend initiated by the interpretation given in
2001 in the LaGrand case, making the right of the arrested or detained

alien to be informed an exclusively individual right, a trend which purely
and simply treats the issue as a human rights one, detaching it completely
from the field of diplomatic or consular protection.

Therefore, the United States was not entirely unjustified in seeking to

interpret Article 36, in the context and light of the object and purpose of
the Convention, in order to argue that:

“the position of the individual under the Convention derives from
the right of the State party to the Convention, acting through its
consular officer, to communicate with its nationals. The treatment
due to individuals is inextricably linked to and derived from the

right of the State.” (Counter-Memorial of the United States, p. 84,
para. 100.)

20. An examination of thetravaux préparatoires confirms this reading:
it is important to recall the debate which took place on whether mention
should be made of the rights accorded to individuals and, in particular,
the way in which Article 36, paragraph 1 (a) should address the question

of a foreign national being able to communicate with a consular officer.

The original text proposed by the ILC was drafted as follows:

“The competent authorities shall, without undue delay, inform the
competent consulate of the sending State, if within its district, a

national of that State is committed to prison or to custody pending
trial or is detained in any other manner.” (A/CONF.25/6, United

207 (A/CONF.25/6, conférence des Nations Unies sur les relations consu-
laires, vol. II, A/CONF.25/16/Add.1, p. 24.)

Ce texte ne faisait pas mention des droits des individus et le commen-
taire qui l’accompagnait indiquait clairement que ce qui comptait c’était

la capacité des fonctionnaires consulaires à accomplir leurs fonctions.
21. Un certain nombre de délégations estimaient que la convention
devrait reconnaître le droit personnel d’un ressortissant étranger de com-
muniquer avec les fonctionnaires consulaires de son pays, mais cette
question a donné lieu à une grande controverse qui n’a pas permis de

dégager un consensus clair. Au cours des négociations sur l’article 36, la
délégation du Venezuela s’est opposée à la première phrase de l’alinéa a)
du paragraphe 1 du projet de la CDI, qui concernait les droits des res-
sortissants de l’Etat d’envoi de communiquer avec le consulat compétent

et de s’y rendre, en soutenant que cette phrase n’était pas à sa place dans
une convention sur les relations consulaires, précisant que:

«les étrangers qui se trouv[aient] dans l’Etat de résidence [devaient]
être soumis à la juridiction de cet Etat et qu’il n’y [avait] pas lieu de
les viser dans une convention sur les relations consulaires» (confé-
rence des Nations Unies sur les relations consulaires, vol. I, comptes
rendus analytiques des séances plénières et des séances de la première

et de la deuxième commission, A/CONF.25/16, p. 358, par. 32
(séance du 14 mars 1963 de la deuxième commission)).

22. C’est ainsi que l’on aboutit à inverser l’ordre de présentation de
l’alinéa a) du paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 de sorte qu’il mentionne
d’abord le droit du consul à communiquer avec l’individu et ensuite le
droit de l’individu à communiquer avec le consul (ibid., p. 361, par. 2,
amendement proposé par le Venezuela et d’autres Etats).

De ce fait, ce qui est mis en relief c’est que la situation de l’individu au
regard de la convention découle du droit reconnu à l’Etat partie à celle-ci,
agissant par l’intermédiaire de ses fonctionnaires consulaires, de commu-
niquer avec ses ressortissants; le traitement réservé aux individus étant
indissociablement lié au droit de l’Etat, il en découle.

La spécificité des droits énoncés à l’article 36, paragraphe 1,
et l’interdépendance des trois droits énoncés à l’alinéa b)

23. Nous avons vu que, dans l’affaire Avena, la Cour établissait un

lien entre les trois éléments énoncés à l’alinéa b) du paragraphe 1 de
l’article 36, même si elle affirmait qu’ils étaient distincts; il faut dire
qu’elle l’avait déjà fait dans l’affaire LaGrand dans des termes très expli-
cites qui qualifiaient ce lien comme une interdépendance (C.I.J. Recueil

2001, p. 492, par. 74). Mais, dans l’affaire Avena, la Cour ajoutait quel-
que chose d’extrêmement important:

«Les conclusions à tirer en droit de cette interdépendance dépen-
dent nécessairement des faits de l’espèce ... Il y a lieu de réexaminer

208 Nations Conference on Consular Relations, Vol. II, A/CONF.25/16/
Add.1, p. 24.)

That text made no mention of individual rights, and the commentary
which accompanied it clearly stated that what mattered was that consular

officers were able to carry out their functions.
21. A certain number of delegations took the view that the Conven-
tion should recognize the personal right of a foreign national to commu-
nicate with the consular officers of his country, but this matter gave rise
to a great deal of controversy, from which a clear consensus could not be

found. During the negotiating sessions on Article 36, the Venezuelan del-
egation objected to the opening statement of paragraph 1 (a) of the ILC
draft, which concerned the rights of nationals of the sending State to
communicate with and have access to the competent consulate, arguing

that this statement had no place in a convention on consular relations,
and stating that:

“foreign nationals in the receiving State should be under the jurisdic-
tion of that State and should not come within the scope of a conven-
tion on consular relations” (United Nations Conference on Consular
Relations, Vol. I, Summary records of plenary meetings and of the
meetings of the First and Second Committees, A/CONF.25/16,

p. 358, para. 32 (meeting of 14 March 1963 of the Second Commit-
tee)).

22. This led to the order of the elements of Article 36, paragraph 1 (a)
being reversed, in such a way that the consul’s right to communicate with
the individual is mentioned first, and then the individual’s right to com-
municate with the consul (ibid., p. 361, para. 2, amendment proposed by
Venezuela and other States).

What this underscores, therefore, is that the individual’s position in
respect of the Convention derives from the right accorded to the State
party to the Convention, acting through its consular officers, to commu-
nicate with its nationals; the treatment of individuals is inextricably
linked to and derived from the right of the State.

Specificity of the Rights Identified in Article 36, Paragraph 1, and the
Interrelationship of the Three Rights Set Out in Subparagraph (b)

23. As we have seen, in the Avena case the Court established a link

between the three elements of Article 36, paragraph 1 (b), even though it
asserted that they were distinct. It is worth pointing out that the Court
had already done this in the LaGrand case, in very clear terms which
described this link as an interrelationship (I.C.J. Reports 2001, p. 492,

para. 74). However, in the Avena case the Court made one very impor-
tant addition:

“The legal conclusions to be drawn from that interrelationship nec-
essarily depend upon the facts of each case . . . It is necessary to

208 l’interdépendance des trois alinéas du paragraphe 1 de l’article 36 à
la lumière des faits et circonstances particuliers de la présente

espèce.» (Avena et autres ressortissants mexicains (Mexique c. Etats-
Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) , p. 52, par. 99-100;
les italiques sont de moi.)

Par rapport à cela, on sait que la République démocratique du Congo

soutenait qu’il découle du lien d’interdépendance entre le droit à l’infor-
mation de l’Etat d’envoi ou de la nationalité et le droit à l’information de
l’étranger incarcéré ou détenu que, «si ce droit n’a pas été violé à l’égard
de la Guinée, il n’a pu l’être à l’égard de M. Diallo» (réponse de la Répu-

blique démocratique du Congo à la question posée par un juge, voir doc.
Guinée-RDC 2010/15, 27 avril 2010).

Pour la défenderesse, en effet, l’alinéa b) du paragraphe 1 de l’arti-
cle 36 de la convention de Vienne crée certes un «droit individuel»

(LaGrand (Allemagne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil
2001, p. 494, par. 77), mais un lien qui est inextricablement lié au droit de
l’Etat d’envoi de communiquer avec ses ressortissants par l’intermédiaire
des agents consulaires. Elle fait valoir, pour cela, que, en dépit de sa
dimension individuelle, ce droit demeure étroitement lié à ceux de l’Etat

lui-même. Finalement, la République démocratique du Congo soutient
que l’individu et son Etat d’envoi sont mutuellement titulaires du droit à
l’information (doc. Guinée-RDC 2010/15, p. 1-2). C’est ce qui lui permet
de mettre en exergue le fait que le but de ce droit à l’information est de
faciliter l’exercice des fonctions consulaires relatives aux ressortissants de

l’Etat d’envoi, ce qui confirme que ce droit individuel est étroitement lié
aux droits de l’Etat lui-même et que le traitement réservé aux individus
est indissociablement lié au droit de l’Etat et en découle.
24. Comme dans l’affaire Avena, la Cour, plutôt que d’en faire une lec-
ture première fondée sur une «clarté» dont l’analyse fait pour tout le

moins douter, aurait pu utilement procéder à une interprétation de l’arti-
cle 36, paragraphe 1, alinéa b), par rapport à son contexte et par rapport
à l’interdépendance des droits qui y sont énoncés, à la lumière des faits et
circonstances particuliers de l’affaire qui oppose la Guinée à la Républi-
que démocratique du Congo, comme le recommande la Cour elle-même

dans son arrêt Avena. Ne pas le faire a conduit la Cour à appliquer des
considérations purement théoriques. A cet égard, il faut souligner que la
Guinée défend sa position en se basant sur l’interprétation que la Cour
a faite de cette disposition conventionnelle dans l’affaire LaGrand et
l’affaire Avena, même si les problèmes juridiques qui s’étaient posés ainsi

que les circonstances desdites affaires diffèrent sensiblement de ceux du
cas d’espèce.
Les faits et circonstances de la présente espèce montrent, au contraire
des deux affaires susmentionnées, que le fait que la République démocra-

tique du Congo n’ait pas informé M. Diallo de ses droits n’a pas empêché
la Guinée d’exercer le droit que lui confère le paragraphe 1 de l’article 36.

209 revisit the interrelationship of the three subparagraphs of Article 36,
paragraph 1, in the light of the particular facts and circumstances of

the present case.” (Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v.
United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
p. 52, paras. 99-100; emphasis added.)

In that connection, we know that the Democratic Republic of the

Congo has argued that it follows from the interrelated link between the
right to information of the sending State or State of nationality and the
right to information of the arrested or detained alien that, “if that right
has not been violated in respect of the State — here, Guinea — it cannot

have been so in respect of its national, Mr. Diallo” (response of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo to a question put by a judge; see
doc. Guinea-DRC 2010/15, 27 April 2010).
Thus the Respondent’s position is that Article 36, paragraph 1 (b) of
the Vienna Convention does indeed create “individual rights” (LaGrand

(Germany v. United States of America), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2001 ,
p. 494, para. 77), but rights which are inextricably linked to the sending
State’s right to communicate with its nationals through consular agents.
Accordingly, it asserts that, in spite of its individual dimension, this right
remains closely tied to the rights of the State itself. Finally, the Demo-

cratic Republic of the Congo argues that the right to information is a
mutual right of the individual and his sending State (doc. Guinea-
DRC 2010/15, 27 April 2010, p. 1). This argument enables it to highlight
the fact that the purpose of this right to information is to facilitate the
exercise of consular functions relating to nationals of the sending State,

which confirms that this individual right is closely linked to the rights of
the State itself, and that the treatment of individuals is inextricably linked
to and derived from the rights of the State.
24. As in the Avena case, the Court, rather than making an interpreta-
tion based first and foremost on a “clarity” which, when examined, is

doubtful to say the least, could have usefully interpreted Article 36, para-
graph 1 (b), in relation both to its context and to the interrelationship of
the rights set out therein, in the light of the particular facts and circum-
stances of the case between Guinea and the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, as the Court itself recommends in its Avena Judgment. Not doing

so led the Court to apply purely theoretical considerations. In this con-
nection, it should be pointed out that Guinea defends its position on the
basis of the Court’s interpretation of this treaty provision in the LaGrand
and Avena cases, even though the legal problems posed in, and the cir-
cumstances of, those cases are markedly different from those of the

present case.

The facts and circumstances of the present case show that, in contrast
to both of the above-mentioned cases, the Democratic Republic of the

Congo’s failure to inform Mr. Diallo of his rights did not prevent Guinea
from exercising the right accorded to it under Article 36, paragraph 1. It is

209Certes, cette information aurait pu «faciliter la mise en Œuvre du système

de protection consulaire» (voir affaire LaGrand, par. 74), mais, dans la
perspective de l’objet de l’obligation pesant sur l’Etat de résidence, on ne
peut être indifférent au fait que les autorités guinéennes soient incontes-
tablement informées ou, surtout, qu’elles aient pu, comme elles le recon-
naissent elles-mêmes, exercer leur fonction consulaire. De telle sorte que

le manque d’information ne pouvait avoir pour effet l’impossibilité pour
la Guinée d’exercer ses droits de protection consulaire de son ressortis-
sant. De fait, nous sommes bien dans un cas où la situation de M. Diallo
n’était certainement pas ignorée des autorités guinéennes, qui en ont été

au courant dans le temps «utile» où elles auraient pu agir, quitte à repro-
cher aux autorités congolaises, si tel était bien le cas, de ne pas avoir res-
pecté la procédure en la matière. Le cas que nous avons ici n’est donc pas
le même que celui des frères LaGrand, dont le sort fut en quelque sorte

caché et est resté ignoré des autorités allemandes tout le temps où une
action diplomatique était encore possible; l’Allemagne a été empêchée
d’agir par l’omission américaine d’informer les frères LaGrand de leurs
droits. Il n’est donc pas totalement fondé de déconsidérer sans autre

forme de procès l’argument congolais selon lequel l’information aurait
été donnée verbalement. Pour une information qui, effectivement, ne
peut être donnée que verbalement, on ne peut parler d’absence de «com-
mencement de preuve» ni de tout autre élément qui étaierait un compor-

tement verbal. On aurait dû considérer comme sans valeur une déclara-
tion de l’intéressé, M. Diallo, interrogé treize ans après les événements,
prétendant pour la première fois que les autorités congolaises ne l’avaient
pas informé de son droit de demander la protection de l’ambassade de
son pays (réplique de la République de Guinée, vol. II, annexe I: procès-

verbal esaudition de M. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, établi le 29 octobre 2008
par M Boubacar Télimélé Sylla et Aboubacar Camara). D’autant plus
qu’il n’y a pas eu de preuve contraire, impossible d’ailleurs à administrer,
et que la prétendue violation de l’article 36, paragraphe 1, alinéa b),de

cette convention par le Congo n’a causé aucun préjudice à la Guinée, ne
l’ayant pas empêchée d’être au courant de l’incarcération et, plus tard, de
l’expulsion de M. Diallo, et donc de le protéger.

M A POSITION SUR LES PRÉTENDUES VIOLATIONS DES DROITS
PROPRES D ’ASSOCIÉ DE M. D IALLO

25. Selon la République démocratique du Congo, la question qui se
pose est celle de savoir si «l’expulsion de M. Diallo du territoire congo-
lais aurait entraîné une violation des droits propres de M. Diallo en tant
qu’associé dans les sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers» (contre-

mémoire de la République démocratique du Congo, par. 2.02; duplique de
la République démocratique du Congo, par. 2.05). Elle fait observer à cet
égard que, en ordonnant l’expulsion de M. Diallo en 1996, elle n’a porté

210true that informing Mr. Diallo of his rights might well have “facilitate[d]

the implementation of the system of consular protection” (see para. 74 of
the LaGrand Judgment), but, considering the object of the obligation
incumbent upon the receiving State, it is impossible to be indifferent to
the fact that the Guinean authorities were undeniably informed or, indeed,

that they were able, as they themselves acknowledge, to exercise their con-
sular function. Accordingly, the failure to inform could not have had the
effect of preventing Guinea from exercising its rights of consular protec-
tion in respect of its national. In fact, in this instance, Mr. Diallo’s situa-

tion was certainly not unknown to the Guinean authorities, who became
aware within a period sufficiently “timely” for them to have been able to
act, while remaining entitled to take the Congolese authorities to task,
were it indeed the case, for not having complied with the relevant proce-

dure. Thus, this case is not the same as that of the LaGrand brothers,
whose situation was, as it were, hidden from the German authorities and
remained unknown to them throughout the period when diplomatic action
was still possible; Germany was prevented from acting by the American

failure to inform the LaGrand brothers of their rights. It is therefore not
entirely justified to summarily dismiss the Congolese claim that Mr. Diallo
was orally informed. In relation to an information process which can, in
practice, only be carried out orally, it is unrealistic to talk of a lack of “the

slightest evidence” which would prove that an oral action had been car-
ried out. The Court should have attached no weight whatever to the state-
ment of the individual concerned, Mr. Diallo, questioned 13 years after
the event, alleging for the first time that the Congolese authorities had not

informed him of his right to request the protection of his country’s
embassy (Reply of the Republic of Guinea, Vol. II, Annex I: Transcript
of hearing of Mr. Ahmadou Sadio Diallo, drawn up on 29 October 2008
by Maîtres Boubacar Télimélé Sylla and Aboubacar Camara). All the

more so since there was no evidence to the contrary — which, in any
event, would be impossible to produce — and since the alleged violation
by the Congo of Article 36, paragraph 1(b), of the Convention in ques-
tion did not cause any injury to Guinea, since it did not prevent it from

learning of Mr. Diallo’s imprisonment and, later, of his expulsion, or,
therefore, from protecting him.

M Y POSITION ON THEA LLEGED VIOLATIONS OF M R.D IALLOS
D IRECTR IGHTS ASA SSOCIÉ

25. According to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the question

which arises is whether “Mr. Diallo’s expulsion from the Congo resulted
in a violation of his direct rights as associé in Africom-Zaire and Afri-
containers” (Counter-Memorial of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo, para. 2.02; Rejoinder of the Democratic Republic of the Congo,

para. 2.05). It observes in this respect that, in ordering Mr. Diallo’s
expulsion in 1996, it did not infringe any of his direct rights as associé.

210atteinte à aucun droit propre de cet individu en tant qu’associé. Il s’agit
donc de savoir si la République démocratique du Congo a posé des actes

visant ou non directement les droits propres de M. Diallo.

Exigibilité ou opposabilité des droits propres d’associé

26. La Guinée assimile une atteinte aux droits de la société, entraînant

un préjudice pour les actionnaires, à la violation de leurs droits propres,
c’est-à-dire qu’elle assimile une violation des droits des sociétés Africom-
Zaïre et Africontainers-Zaïre à une violation des droits de M. Diallo. Par
contre, une telle confusion altère le régime général de la protection diplo-

matique, qui, quant à lui, subordonne toujours la recevabilité d’une récla-
mation en faveur d’actionnaires d’une société étrangère à une violation
des «droits propres» de ces actionnaires «en tant que tels».
A cet égard, la Guinée a prétendu, comme lors de l’arrêt du 24 mai
2007, que l’arrestation, la détention et l’expulsion de M. Diallo ont non

seulement eu pour effet «de l’empêcher de continuer à administrer, à
gérer et à contrôler toutes les opérations des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et
Africontainers-Zaïre», mais ont précisément été motivées par la volonté
de l’empêcher d’exercer ces droits, de poursuivre les actions en justice ini-
tiées pour lesdites sociétés et de récupérer, ce faisant, leurs créances .

27. Certes, l’expulsion est une mesure contre l’individu qui a pu avoir
une incidence dans sa situation d’associé. Cela ne suffit pas, comme la
Cour a statué dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction, pour engager la
responsabilité d’un Etat. Il faudrait examiner si les mesures prises par la

République démocratique du Congo étaient directement dirigées contre
les droits de M. Diallo en tant qu’associé ou si, par contre, elles étaient
dirigées contre l’individu et collatéralement ont pu affecter ses droits
d’associé ou leur exercice.
28. Mais, pour rejeter les réclamations guinéennes, la Cour ne reprend

que ce raisonnement qu’elle avait déjà suivi dans l’affaire de la Barcelona
Traction, la possibilité de principe de déposer une réclamation pour
l’Etat national dans l’hypothèse où les actes incriminés sont dirigés
contre les «droits propres des actionnaires en tant que tels». Elle a ainsi
procédé à la vérification pour chaque droit revendiqué par la demande-

resse, pour voir si le Congo avait pris des actes «dirigés contre [ces] droits
en tant que tels» et constater que l’allégation était fausse, erronée parce
qu’en fait le droit revendiqué au profit de M. Diallo appartenait aux
sociétés (paragraphe 119 de l’arrêt), ou que la décision congolaise n’a pas
porté atteinte au droit évoqué (paragraphes 134, 137, 138 et 148 de

l’arrêt). La Cour se devait également de répondre aux allégations de la
Guinée sur le caractère intuitu personae des sociétés concernées. La
demanderesse fait valoir que, dans les sociétés privées à responsabilité
limitée (SPRL), les parts sociales ne sont pas librement transmissibles, ce

qui accentue considérablement le caractère intuitu personae de ces socié-
tés, très différentes à cet égard des sociétés anonymes. Ce caractère aurait

211Therefore, what must be determined is whether or not the Democratic
Republic of the Congo carried out acts specifically aimed at Mr. Diallo’s

direct rights.

Enforceability or Opposability of an Associé’s Direct Rights

26. Guinea treats an attack on company rights, resulting in injury to

shareholders, as a violation of their direct rights; in other words, it treats
a violation of the rights of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire as a
violation of the rights of Mr. Diallo. However, to conflate the rights in
this way is to misrepresent the general régime of diplomatic protection,

which, for its part, always subjects the admissibility of a claim on behalf
of shareholders of a foreign company to there having been a violation of
the “direct rights” of such shareholders “as such”.
In this connection, Guinea has claimed, as it did for the Judgment of
24 May 2007, that Mr. Diallo’s arrest, detention and expulsion not only

had the effect “of preventing him from continuing to administer, manage
and control any of the operations of the companies Africom-Zaire and
Africontainers-Zaire”, but were specifically motivated by the intent to
prevent him from exercising these rights, from pursuing the legal proceed-
ings brought on behalf of the companies, and thereby from recovering

their debts.
27. Expulsion is indeed a measure which, when taken against an indi-
vidual, could have an effect on his status as associé. But, as the Court
ruled in the Barcelona Traction case, this is not sufficient to engage the
responsibility of a State. It would need to be determined whether the

measures taken by the Democratic Republic of the Congo were aimed
directly at Mr. Diallo’s rights as associé or whether, on the contrary, they
were aimed at him as an individual and, collaterally, affected his rights as
associé and their exercise.
28. In order to reject Guinea’s claims, however, the Court relies solely

on the reasoning previously followed by it in the Barcelona Traction
case: that in principle it is possible for a State to bring proceedings where
the acts complained of were aimed at the “direct rights of the sharehold-
ers as such”. Accordingly, it proceeded to verify each of the rights
invoked by the Applicant, so as to ascertain whether the Congo had

taken actions “aimed at [those] rights . . . as such” and found that the
allegation was unfounded, because the right claimed to be enjoyed by
Mr. Diallo in fact belongs to the company (paragraph 119 of the Judg-
ment), and because the decisions taken by the Congo did not violate the
right invoked (paragraphs 134, 137, 138 and 148 of the Judgment). The

Court also had a duty to respond to Guinea’s allegations on the intuitu
personae character of the companies in question. The Applicant contends
that, in sociétés privées à responsabilité limitée [private limited liability
companies] (hereinafter “SPRLs”), the parts sociales are not freely trans-

ferable, which greatly accentuates the intuitu personae character of these
companies, making them very different in this respect from public limited

211été encore plus marqué pour les sociétés Africom-Zaïre et Africontainers-
Zaïre dans la mesure où M. Diallo se serait retrouvé être l’unique gérant

et le seul associé de celles-ci. Selon la Guinée, «en fait comme en droit, il
était impossible de distinguer M. Diallo de ses sociétés» (réplique de la
Guinée, par. 2.90; affaire Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (République de Guinée
c. République démocratique du Congo), exceptions préliminaires, arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 2007 (II) , p. 604, par. 56).

Aux fins de sa démonstration, la Guinée dénonce ce qu’elle appelle «les
ingérences de la République démocratique du Congo» «dans le droit de
propriété de M. Diallo sur ses parts sociales ...», les «ingérences» par les
«arrestations et détentions», par les arrestations et l’expulsion, les «ingé-

rences» par l’expropriation des sociétés dont il n’est nulle part tenté de
prouver l’existence ainsi que les «ingérences judiciaires».

La Cour répond à ces allégations (particulièrement aux paragra-
phes 155-157) en restant fidèle aux solutions développées et adoptées par

elle dans l’affaire de la Barcelona Traction.
29. Mais il me semble que c’était l’occasion de réaffirmer le principe,
impliqué dans cette démarche, qui est que les droits propres d’associé,
qu’ils soient «fonctionnels» ou «patrimoniaux», ne sont exigibles ou
opposables qu’à la société elle-même parce qu’ils naissent, se déploient et

s’exercent dans le cadre des rapports entre la société et ses associés ou
actionnaires; ils s’analysent ainsi comme des créances de ceux-ci vis-à-vis
de celle-là. C’est à cause de cela que, lorsqu’ils sont atteints par des actes
dirigés contre les droits de la société, l’associé ne peut se retourner que
contre cette dernière. C’est également la raison pour laquelle la respon-

sabilité d’un tiers ne peut être sollicitée que si ses actes ont visé ces droits
en tant que tels.

Notion d’ingérence dans le droit des sociétés

30. L’autre règle de principe est celle de la notion d’ingérence qui
serait susceptible de porter atteinte aux droits propres d’associé. La Gui-
née s’y réfère mais en fait une application mal à propos lorsqu’elle allègue
des «ingérences dans le droit de propriété de M. Diallo», se traduisant en
particulier par les mesures d’arrestation, de détention et d’expulsion,

dans la mesure où ces mesures plaçaient M. Diallo dans l’impossibilité
«de gérer ses sociétés, de participer aux activités de leurs organes, ainsi
que de contrôler ses parts sociales et d’en faire usage» (réplique de la
Guinée, par. 2.86-2.88). Par ailleurs, elle fait allusion à des ingérences par
lesquelles «les autorités congolaises ont décidé de suspendre l’exécution

de l’arrêt rendu en l’affaire Africontainers c. Zaïre Shell en faveur de la
société demanderesse» (ibid., et paragraphe 150 de l’arrêt). Or, ces «ingé-
rences», pour autant qu’elles soient établies, ne seraient pas dirigées
contre les droits d’associé «comme tels», mais pourraient, à la limite,

déterminer un éventuel déni de justice, moyen auquel la Guinée a renoncé.
Mais les «ingérences» susceptibles de porter atteinte aux droits propres

212companies. It argues that this characteristic is even more marked in the
case of Africom-Zaire and Africontainers-Zaire, since Mr. Diallo was

their sole gérant and sole associé. According to Guinea, “in fact and in
law it was virtually impossible to distinguish Mr. Diallo from his com-
panies” (Guinea’s Reply, para. 2.90; case concerning Ahmadou Sadio
Diallo (Republic of Guinea v. Democratic Republic of the Congo), Pre-
liminary Objections, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2007 (II) , p. 604, para. 56).

In support of its argument, Guinea cites what it calls “the acts of inter-
ference” by the Democratic Republic of the Congo “with Mr. Diallo’s
property rights in the parts sociales”, the “interference” through the
“arrests and detentions” and through the arrests and expulsion, the

“interference” through the expropriation of the companies, which it has
made no attempt whatsoever to prove, as well as the “judicial interfer-
ence”.
The Court responds to those allegations (in particular, in para-
graphs 155-157) by remaining faithful to the solutions developed and

adopted by it in the Barcelona Traction case.
29. In my view, however, this was its opportunity to reaffirm the prin-
ciple, implied in that approach, that the direct rights of an associé,
whether “functional” or “property” rights, are only enforceable or oppos-
able against the company itself, because they are born, and are deployed

and exercised, within the context of the relations between the company
and its associés or shareholders; they can thus be seen as entitlements
held by the associés or shareholders vis-à-vis the company. That is why,
when those entitlements are violated by actions aimed at the company’s
rights, the associé can only seek redress from the latter. It is also the rea-

son why a claim against a third party will only lie if its actions were
aimed at those rights as such.

Notion of Interference in Company Law

30. The other fundamental principle is that of the notion of interfer-
ence liable to infringe the direct rights of an associé. Guinea cites this
principle, but applies it incorrectly when it alleges “interference with
[Mr. Diallo’s] property rights”, in the form, in particular, of his arrest,
detention and expulsion, measures which prevented Mr. Diallo “from

managing his companies and from any participation in the activities of
their corporate organs, and . . . deprived [him] of any possibility of con-
trolling and using his parts sociales” (Guinea’s Reply, paras. 2.86-2.88).
Guinea further cites the acts of interference which led to “the Congolese
authorities’ decision . . . to stay enforcement of the judgment for the

plaintiff handed down in Africontainers v. Zaire Shell”( ibid., and para-
graph 150 of the Judgment). However, these “acts of interference”, if
established, would not have been aimed at the associé’s rights “as such”,
although they might, at best, be evidence of a possible denial of justice, a

claim which Guinea has not sought to pursue.
However, the “acts of interference” capable of infringing the direct

212d’associé «en tant que tels» sont celles qui interviennent dans le fonction-
nement de la société ou dans les rapports entre la société et ses associés.

De fait, en tant que les droits propres d’associé ne sont exigibles qu’à
l’égard de la société et dans le cadre de ses rapports avec les associés, les
actes d’un tiers ne peuvent être considérés comme attentatoires aux droits
propres d’associé «comme tels» que s’ils représentent des actes d’ingé-

rence ainsi définis. Aucune logique ne peut faire que des actes visant un
associé comme individu à titre personnel, comme l’arrestation, la déten-
tion ou l’expulsion de M. Diallo, se transforment en ingérences dans le
sens défini ci-dessus et visant les droits d’associé «en tant que tels» dans
le fonctionnement de la société ou dans les rapports entre la société et ses

associés.
31. Le Congo donne un bon exemple de telles ingérences en répondant
à ces arguments de la Guinée en faisant valoir que celle-ci «n’a pas
démontré que la République démocratique du Congo a donné l’ordre à la

société Africontainers de ne pas permettre à M. Diallo de contrôler ses
opérations» (CR 2010/4, p. 14, par. 15).
Cette thèse est celle développée dans l’affaire de la Salvador Commer-
cial Company, évoquée par les deux Parties, en particulier par la République
démocratique du Congo en ses exceptions préliminaires (par. 2.35). Bien

que cette affaire semble relever d’un jugement en équité, elle illustre par-
faitement bien la notion d’ingérence. Le tribunal précise, en effet, que les
autorités salvadoriennes avaient adopté des mesures qui visaient directe-
ment les droits propres des actionnaires vis-à-vis de leur société. La sen-

tence arbitrale, indiquant ces actes d’ingérence, mentionne le remplace-
ment arbitraire d’administrateurs de la société salvadorienne par d’autres
administrateurs apparemment à la solde de l’Etat, la convocation de réu-
nions d’organes dirigeants de la société sans avertir les actionnaires amé-
ricains majoritaires, le refus de laisser consulter certains documents de la

société à ces actionnaires, etc. (Recueil des sentences arbitrales (RSA) ,
vol. XV, p. 474-475), constatant que, par ces mesures, le Salvador avait
entravé directement les droits des actionnaires vis-à-vis de leur société.

32. Par contre, dans les circonstances de la présente espèce, rien ne
laisse penser que les autorités congolaises se soient ingérées de cette
manière dans le fonctionnement interne des sociétés Africom-Zaïre et
Africontainers-Zaïre. La Cour arrive à la même conclusion, mais il
m’avait semblé nécessaire de mieux motiver celle-ci que n’a pu le faire le

raisonnement quelque peu elliptique déployé dans l’arrêt.

(Signé) Auguste M AMPUYA .

213rights of an associé “as such” are those which obstruct the operation of
the company or the relations between the company and its associés.In

practice, since the direct rights of the associé are only enforceable against
the company and in the context of its relations with the associés, the
actions of a third party can only be considered as damaging to the direct
rights of an associé “as such” if they represent acts of interference as thus

defined. No logical process can transform acts aimed at an associé as an
individual, in his personal capacity, such as the arrest, detention and
expulsion of Mr. Diallo, into interference, as defined above and aimed at
the rights of the associé “as such”, in the operation of the company, or in
the relations between the company and its associés.

31. The Congo gives a good example of such interference when
responding to those arguments advanced by Guinea, stating that Guinea
“has not demonstrated that the Democratic Republic of the Congo gave

the order to Africontainers not to permit Mr. Diallo to control its opera-
tions” (CR 2010/4, p. 8, para. 15).
This reasoning is that developed in the Salvador Commercial Company
case, cited by both Parties, and in particular by the Democratic Republic
of the Congo in its preliminary objections (para. 2.35). Although that

case seems to be in the nature of an equitable judgment, it is a perfectly
good illustration of the notion of interference. Thus the tribunal states
that the Salvadoran authorities had adopted measures directly aimed at
the direct rights of the shareholders vis-à-vis their company. The arbitral

award, referring to those acts of interference, cites the arbitrary replace-
ment of the directors of the Salvadoran company by other directors
— apparently in the pay of the State — the calling of meetings of the
company’s governing bodies without notifying the American majority
shareholders, the refusal to allow those shareholders to examine certain

company documents, etc. (Reports of International Arbitral Awards
(RIAA), Vol. XV, pp. 474-475), and finds that, by undertaking those
measures, Salvador had directly prevented shareholders from exercising
their rights in relation to their company.

32. By contrast, there is nothing in the circumstances of the present
case to suggest that the Congolese authorities interfered in this way with
the internal operation of Africom-Zaire or Africontainers-Zaire. The
Court reaches the same conclusion, but I felt that this conclusion required
better reasoning than the somewhat elliptical reasoning offered in the

Judgment.

(Signed) Auguste M AMPUYA .

213

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Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Mampuya

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