Separate opinion of Judge Sepúlveda-Amor

Document Number
133-20090713-JUD-01-01-EN
Parent Document Number
133-20090713-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SEPÚLVEDA-AMOR

I find myself in full agreement with most of the reasoning of the Court
in the present Judgment. The same is true of almost all the conclusions
reached by the Court in the operative clause of the Judgment. However,
as regards the legality of Nicaragua’s imposition of visa requirements, the

Court has, in my opinion, failed to take account of Nicaragua’s legiti-
mate interest in border and immigration control and to clarify accord-
ingly the extent of Nicaragua’s regulatory powers to that effect. I further
consider that the Court’s reasoning as regards Costa Rica’s claim relating
to subsistence fishing is based on a weak legal foundation which might

undermine the acceptance of the Court’s finding by the Parties.

I. B ORDER C ONTROL AS A LEGITIMATE P URPOSE

1. The Court has concluded that “Nicaragua has the power to regulate
the exercise by Costa Rica of its right to freedom of navigation under the

1858 Treaty”. It adds an important qualification: such right “is not
unlimited”; it is subject to the “rights and obligations of the Parties”
(Judgment, para. 87).
2. According to the Court, the exercise of Nicaragua’s regulatory

power must meet certain requirements. Obviously, it must be consistent
with the terms of the Treaty. It further has to be non-discriminatory and
reasonable. The purpose of the regulation must be legitimate and “it
must only subject the activity to certain rules without rendering impossi-
ble or substantially impeding the exercise of the right of free navigation ”

(ibid.; emphasis added).

3. As regards the burden of proof in respect of Costa Rica’s claims of
unlawful action based on the alleged unreasonableness of Nicaragua’s
exercise of its regulatory power, the Court has clearly stated that it is for

Costa Rica to establish points of facts supporting such claims:

“The Court notes that Costa Rica, in support of its claim of un-

lawful action, advances points of fact about unreasonableness by
referring to the allegedly disproportionate impact of the regulations.
The Court recalls that in terms of well established general principle it
is for Costa Rica to establish those points (cf. Maritime Delimitation

in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2009, p. 86, para. 68, and cases cited there). Further, a court exam-

64 ining the reasonableness of a regulation must recognize that the
regulator, in this case the State with sovereignty over the river, has

the primary responsibility for assessing the need for regulation and
for choosing, on the basis of its knowledge of the situation, the
measure that it deems most appropriate to meet that need. It will not
be enough in a challenge to a regulation simply to assert in a general

way that it is unreasonable. Concrete and specific facts will be
required to persuade a court to come to that conclusion.” (Judg-
ment, para. 101.)

4. Nicaragua, as the State entitled to exercise sovereignty over the San
Juan River, has the “primary responsibility for assessing the need for
regulation and for choosing . . . the measure that it deems most appro-

priate to meet that need”. This is a principle which the Court itself has
stated that it must respect when examining the reasonableness of Nica-
ragua’s regulations, taking into account “[c]oncrete and specific facts”
(ibid.). All these issues become particularly relevant for the Judgment at
the section where the Court considers the visa requirement and the power

of Nicaragua to impose immigration controls.

5. On the requirement to stop and identify, the Court has indicated
that “Nicaragua, as sovereign, has the right to know the identity of those

entering its territory and also to know that they have left” (Judgment,
para. 104). The Court also considers that “it has been established that the
number of tourists on the river has increased over the years the require-
ment [to stop and identify] has been in force” (ibid., para. 106). The
Court concludes that the requirement is lawful and that Costa Rica did

not show that it was unreasonable.

6. According to the Court, Nicaragua’s requirement to obtain depar-
ture clearance certificates serves a legitimate purpose. Additionally, it

“does not appear to have imposed any significant impediment on the
exercise of Costa Rica’s freedom of navigation”; Costa Rica has not
shown “a single case where navigation has been impeded by an arbitrary
refusal of a certificate” (ibid., para. 109).
7. The requirement to fly Nicaragua’s flag under certain circumstances

“cannot in any respect be considered an impediment to the exercise of the
freedom of navigation of Costa Rican vessels”. Moreover, the Court
notes that it “has not been presented with any evidence that Costa Rican
vessels have been prevented from navigation on the San Juan River as a

result of Nicaragua’s flag requirement” (ibid., para. 132).

8. From the preceding paragraphs it becomes clear that the Court has
consistently adopted a line of reasoning which closely follows the general
principles outlined in paragraph 101 of the Judgment, i.e., in all of these

65cases the Court has examined whether a requirement imposed by Nica-
ragua entails a substantial impediment to the exercise of Costa Rica’s

right of free navigation, and whether the burden of proof has been met
by Costa Rica. The Court answers both questions in the negative. But
then there is a sudden inconsistency when the Court examines the imposi-
tion of a visa requirement on those persons who may benefit from Costa
Rica’s right of free navigation.

9. First, the Court recognizes that “[t]he power of a State to issue or
refuse visas is a practical expression of the prerogative which each State
has to control entry by non-nationals into its territory” (Judgment,
para. 113).

10. Then the Court itself recalls the “[c]oncrete and specific facts”, that
are “required to persuade a court to come to [the] conclusion” that a
specific regulation is unreasonable (ibid., para. 101). These concrete and
specific facts indicate, according to the Court,

“that in fact the number of tourists travelling on the river in Costa
Rican vessels has increased in the period these requirements have

been in force (see paragraph 99 above). Further, Costa Rica has
provided no evidence of arbitrary refusals of visas to tourists and
Nicaragua points out that it does not require nationals from coun-
tries which are the source of most of the tourists visiting the San
Juan to obtain visas. Furthermore, it makes exceptions for residents

of Costa Rican riparian communities and Costa Rican merchants
who regularly use the river.” (Ibid., para. 116.)

11. It is clear that, in the light of what the Court has stated, these
“[c]oncrete and specific facts” cannot lead to the conclusion that, by

imposing a visa requirement, Nicaragua is rendering impossible or is sub-
stantially impeding the exercise of Costa Rica’s right of free navigation.
The requirement serves a legitimate purpose, notably the purpose of bor-
der and immigration control, and it is not discriminatory. Costa Rica has
not produced any evidence establishing the unreasonable or discrimina-

tory character of Nicaragua’s visa requirement nor does the Court rely
on such evidence in the Judgment.

12. Surprisingly enough, the Court, recalling that “the power of a
State to issue or refuse a visa entails discretion”, reaches the conclusion

that

“Nicaragua may not impose a visa requirement on those persons
who...maybenefitfromCi’rihtoffriin.If
that benefit is denied, the freedom of navigation would be hindered.
In these circumstances, an imposition of a visa requirement is a

breach of the Treaty right.” (Ibid., para. 115.)

66 No explanation is provided by the Court as to why the freedom of
navigation will be hindered if a person benefiting from Costa Rica’s enti-

tlement to free navigation is required to obtain a visa from the State
which has sovereignty over the waters of the San Juan River.
13. The Judgment does not specify why non-Costa Ricans are also
entitled to benefit from free navigation (Judgment, para. 114) without
complying with the requirements established by the State which has

exclusive dominion and full sovereignty over the waters of the San Juan
River. To attribute the benefit of the right of free navigation to all foreign
nationals, whatever may be the purpose of their voyage on the waters of
the San Juan River and whatever may be their State of origin, must be

considered as contrary to the principle the Court itself has established in
the Judgment: “The power of a State to issue or refuse visas is a practical
expression of the prerogative which each State has to control entry by
non-nationals into its territory.” (Ibid., para. 113.) Surely Nicaragua can-
not be barred from exercising its power to regulate the entry of foreign

nationals into its territory.
14. The prohibition to enact any visa requirements for foreign nation-
als traversing the waters of the San Juan River may involve a risk for the
public safety of Nicaragua, since there would be no immigration control
when entering the land territory of Nicaragua from the waters of the San

Juan River.
15. A consequence of extending the right of free navigation to all for-
eign nationals travelling on the San Juan River, without any further
requirements, would be to force Nicaragua to establish a number of
immigration posts all along the left bank of the San Juan River in the

area where Costa Rica exercises its right of free navigation, although
even that measure will not necessarily prevent illegal entries from the
river into Nicaragua’s land territory by non-Costa Ricans benefiting
from a right legally attributed only to Costa Rica and to Costa Rican
nationals.

16. From the Court’s perspective, “Nicaragua may not impose a visa
requirement on those persons who . . . may benefit from Costa Rica’s
right of free navigation. If that benefit is denied, the freedom of naviga-
tion would be hindered.” (Ibid., para. 115.) This finding is not consistent
with the Court’s reasoning in previous paragraphs of the Judgment and it

is certainly not based on the “[c]oncrete and specific facts” which, accord-
ing to the Court, are required to persuade a court to reach such conclu-
sion. The reasoning of the Court does not provide any hard facts which
could endorse its argument that Nicaragua would prohibit free naviga-
tion by exercising its discretionary power to issue visas. In this respect,

the Court should have taken into account that, in its written or oral pro-
ceedings, Costa Rica has not submitted any evidence of cases where free
navigation had been impeded by an arbitrary refusal to grant a visa. Evi-
dence provided by Nicaragua and not contradicted by Costa Rica shows

that

67 “Costa Rica’s tourism traffic on the San Juan River increased by
more than 350 per cent between 1998, when Costa Rica says Nica-

ragua first began to systematically deny her rights on the San Juan
River, and 2004, the year before this lawsuit began” [CR 2009/7,
pp. 45-46, para. 21 (Reichler); see also CR 2009/5, p. 25, para. 44
(Reichler); Rejoinder of Nicaragua, para. 4.33, table 1; and Vol. II,

Ann. 71].

Costa Rica’s allegation that the visa requirement has “practically
destroyed Costa Rican commercial transportation of tourists” on the San
Juan River (Reply of Costa Rica, p. 159, para. 4.12 (iii)) has not been
proven.

17. The Court concludes in its Judgment that Nicaragua “may not
require persons travelling on Costa Rican vessels which are exercising
their freedom of navigation on the river to obtain visas” (Judgment,
para. 117). But Nicaragua can invoke certain conventional rights,
enshrined in regional and multilateral treaties, which provide a legal basis

for the imposition of visa requirements and which will enable Nicaragua
to regulate immigration and border control on the waters of the San Juan
River under certain clearly defined circumstances.

18. The American Convention on Human Rights (1969) and the Inter-
national Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), to which both
Costa Rica and Nicaragua are parties, provide a similar language in
regulating freedom of movement and residence: “Every person lawfully

in the territory of a State party has the right to move about it and to
reside in it subject to the provisions of the law .” These rights may be

“restricted only pursuant to a law to the extent necessary . . . to pre-

vent crime or to protect national security, public safety, public
order, public morals, public health, or the rights or freedoms of
others” (American Convention, Article 22, see also Article 12 of the
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights).

Any of these conditions could give rise to a justified imposition of visas
by Nicaragua.
19. If Nicaragua strictly follows the terms prescribed in the Conven-
tion and in the Covenant, by enacting in a legal instrument the require-

ments for foreign nationals to obtain a visa, determining in which cir-
cumstances it will impose restrictions on the issuing of a visa (national
security, public safety, public order, public morals, public health, etc.), it
will not be in breach of any international obligation.

68 II. LEGAL B ASIS OFS UBSISTENCE F ISHING

20. The Court concludes in its Judgment that Costa Rica has a cus-
tomary right to subsistence fishing. The Court’s reasoning in the present
case is not in accordance with its previous findings on the recognition of
rules of customary international law. It will be difficult to find a pre-

cedent which corresponds with what the Court has determined in the
present case. In paragraph 141 of the Judgment, the Court provides as
follows:

“The Court observes that the practice [of subsistence fishing], by
its very nature, especially given the remoteness of the area and the

small, thinly spread population, is not likely to be documented in
any formal way in any official record. For the Court, the failure of
Nicaragua to deny the existence of a right arising from the practice
which had continued undisturbed and unquestioned over a very long
period, is particularly significant.”

These are the grounds on which the Court concludes that there is a
customary right. An undocumented practice by a community of fisher-
men in a remote area. A practice which in previous times has not been

claimed by Costa Rica as a right to which it is entitled. A practice which
has not been objected to by Nicaragua — “the failure of Nicaragua to
deny the existence of a right” — in circumstances where the existence of
a right has not been claimed, let alone proven.
21. Costa Rica has not presented to the Court, at any time previous to

the submission of its Memorial, evidence of a legal claim by which it
would consider subsistence fishing on the right bank of the San Juan
River as a right appertaining to it. Even Costa Rica’s Application insti-
tuting these proceedings does not include such a claim.

22. Costa Rica is not conclusive in its assertions that there is a cus-
tomary right of subsistence fishing. It says that the practice “has taken on
a patina of custom”, unless the opposite can be shown conclusively
(Reply of Costa Rica, p. 84, para. 3.117). It further argues that the prac-

tice of subsistence fishing “coupled with complete lack of application of
internal regulations with respect to it and the complete absence of any
negative response from Nicaragua, has given rise to a customary local
rule” [CR 2009/3, p. 62, para. 41 (Kohen)]. No need for State practice;

no need for opinio juris, only the lack of protest of Nicaragua to a prac-
tice not previously claimed as a right. However, given the absence of such
a claim, there is little ground to impose on Nicaragua the duty to protest
against the contents of an inexistent claim and, consequently, Costa Rica
is not in a position to provide evidence that Nicaragua accepted subsist-

ence fishing as part of its legal obligations.

23. It may well be that Costa Rica itself is not convinced of its argu-

69ment that the practice of subsistence fishing amounts to a customary rule.
Costa Rica alleges that “it is of little consequence whether we talk about

a local custom, acquiescence, tacit agreement, a territorial régime or even
the survival of a traditional right dating back to the colonial era which
has never been curtailed” [CR 2009/3, p. 62, para. 41 (Kohen)]. It is clear
that Costa Rica’s aim is to obtain recognition from the Court that there
is a right to subsistence fishing, with not too much of a concern as to the

legal basis which supports such a right. It is regrettable that the Court did
not resort to a more solid legal foundation when examining Costa Rica’s
claim to subsistence fishing.

24. Following the Asylum case precedent, Costa Rica must prove that
the customary right of subsistence fishing is established in such a manner
that it has become binding on the other Party and that the practice of
subsistence fishing is the expression of a right appertaining to Costa Rica
and a duty incumbent on Nicaragua (Asylum (Colombia/Peru), Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1950 , pp. 276-277). The principle that the States
concerned must act with the conviction that they are conforming to what
amounts to a legal obligation has been reiterated by the Court on a
number of occasions, one example being the North Sea Continental Shelf
cases ((Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Ger-

many/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969 , p. 44).
25. Time is another important element in the process of creation of
customary international law. In the present case, Costa Rica’s claim
regarding the existence of a customary right of subsistence fishing for the
local riparian community on the Costa Rican bank of the San Juan River

was made for the first time in its Memorial submitted to the Court on
29 August 2006, i.e., less than three years before the delivery of the
Court’s Judgment. To claim the existence of a customary right, created in
such a short span of time, clearly contradicts the Court’s previous juris-
prudence on the matter; in the Right of Passage case, the Court found:

“This practice having continued over a period extending beyond a
century and a quarter . . . the Court is, in view of all the circum-
stances of the case, satisfied that that practice was accepted as law by
the Parties and has given rise to a right and a correlative obligation .”
(Right of Passage over Indian Territory (Portugal v. India), Merits,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1960 , p. 40; emphasis added.)

26. Similarly, in the Nicaragua case, the Court reiterated that in order
to establish a rule of customary international law, it “has to direct its
attention to the practice and opinio juris of States” (Military and Para-
military Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States

of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 , p. 97, para. 183). In
the present case, the practice of a local community of Costa Rican ripar-

70ians cannot be equated with the practice of the Costa Rican State as
invoked by Costa Rica (Judgment, para. 132). The Court has repeatedly

indicated the nature of acts which it will take into account in order to
determine whether a practice exists, acts which may lead to the creation
of a customary right. These acts include administrative measures, legisla-
tion, acts of the judiciary and treaties.

27. As regards the requirements of State practice and opinio juris, the
Court has been subject to criticism in cases where it recognized the exist-
ence of such a practice in its findings without providing sufficient support
for its claim. In the Arrest Warrant case, the Court indicated that it had

“carefully examined State practice, including national legislation and
those few decisions of national higher courts” (Arrest Warrant of 11 April
2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2002, p. 24, para. 58). In her dissenting opinion, Judge ad hoc
Van Den Wyngaert was of the view that

“the International Court of Justice, by deciding that incumbent For-
eign Ministers enjoy full immunity from foreign criminal jurisdiction

(Judgment, para. 54), has reached a conclusion which has no basis in
positive international law. Before reaching this conclusion, the Court
should have satisfied itself of the existence of usus and of opinio juris.
There is neither State practice nor opinio juris establishing an inter-
national custom to this effect. ”( Ibid., p. 151, para. 23; emphasis

added).
28. It follows from the foregoing that subsistence fishing, based on a

customary right as determined by the Court, has no support in law.
Costa Rica’s claim might however be based on other legal foundations
which could provide a better ground for the findings of the Court on this
matter, namely the principle of acquired or vested rights. Already the
Permanent Court had determined that “the principle of respect for vested

rights” is “a principle which . . . forms part of generally accepted inter-
national law” (Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Merits,
Judgment No. 7, 1926, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7 , p. 42).

29. In the Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute case, the Cham-

ber also referred to the concept of acquired rights in the context of the
particular situation that it expected to arise following the delimitation of
the land boundary in some areas where nationals of one Party would,
following the delimitation, find themselves living in the territory of the
other, and property rights established under the laws of the one Party

would be found to have been granted over land which is part of the ter-
ritory of the other. The Chamber indicated that it was confident that
both Parties would carry out the necessary measures “in full respect for
acquired rights, and in a humane and orderly manner” (Land, Island and

Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras; Nicaragua interven-
ing), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992 , pp. 400-401, para. 66).

71 30. Similarly, in the Cameroon v. Nigeria case, the Court determined
that it is up to the Parties to find a solution when a village previously

situated on one side of the boundary has spread beyond it, “with a view
to respecting the rights and interests of the local population” (Land and
Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v.
Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 ,
p. 374, para. 123 and p. 370, para. 107).

31. In the present case, the existence of vested rights or acquired rights
by Costa Rican riparians has not been claimed by Costa Rica. Surely the
Court could have taken the initiative to explore this legal avenue, explain-
ing the reasons why it regards the argument of acquired rights founded or

unfounded. Furthermore, other legal options should have also been
taken into account by the Court, in accordance with the express petitions
and commitments of the Parties.
32. In the oral proceedings, Costa Rica required the following:

“we ask the Court, in its dispositif, respectfully, to record and
give effect to Nicaragua’s stated position that subsistence fishing
by riparians, whether from the Costa Rican bank or from boats

on the river, will not be impeded” [CR 2009/6, p. 63, para. 30
(Crawford)].

33. Nicaragua replied to this petition by indicating that while it “does
not agree that there is a customary right to fish in her territorial waters,
she has absolutely no intention of preventing Costa Rican residents from
engaging in subsistence fishing activities” [CR 2009/5, p. 27, para. 48

(Reichler)].
34. The undertaking made by Nicaragua before the Court must be
regarded as a legal commitment with a binding character. In the Nuclear
Tests Judgment, the Court found that

“[w]hen it is the intention of the State making the declaration that it
should become bound according to its terms, that intention confers
on the declaration the character of a legal undertaking, the State

being henceforth legally required to follow a course of conduct con-
sistent with the declaration. An undertaking of this kind, if given
publicly, and with an intent to be bound . . . is binding.” (Nuclear
Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 267,
para. 43.)

35. Similarly, the Court found in a very recent cas( eBelgiumv. Senegal)
that

“Senegal, both proprio motu and in response to a question put by a
Member of the Court, gave a formal assurance on several occasions
during the hearings that it will not allow Mr. Habré to leave its ter-

ritory before the Court has given its final decision”.

72 Belgium indicated that such a solemn declaration “could be sufficient

for Belgium to consider that its Request for the indication of provisional
measures no longer had any object, provided that certain conditions were
fulfilled”. In the light of these statements, the Court decided that there
was no risk of irreparable prejudice to the rights claimed by Belgium

(Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium
v. Senegal), Provisional Measures, Order of 28 May 2009, I.C.J. Reports
2009, pp. 155-156, paras. 69, 71, 72 and 76).

36. In the present case, the Court could thus have followed its pre-
vious jurisprudence by taking note, in the reasoning and in the operative
clause of the Judgment, of the legal commitment undertaken by Nicara-

gua during the oral proceedings. By following this legal option, by which
it would determine the binding character of the commitment made pub-
licly by Nicaragua before the Court, the Court could have avoided devi-
ating from its own precedents on the nature and substance of customary

international law. But it chose a different route, one that will subject the
decisions of the Court to disagreement and objections.

(Signed) Bernardo S EPÚLVEDA -AMOR .

73

Bilingual Content

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE SEPÚLVEDA-AMOR

I find myself in full agreement with most of the reasoning of the Court
in the present Judgment. The same is true of almost all the conclusions
reached by the Court in the operative clause of the Judgment. However,
as regards the legality of Nicaragua’s imposition of visa requirements, the

Court has, in my opinion, failed to take account of Nicaragua’s legiti-
mate interest in border and immigration control and to clarify accord-
ingly the extent of Nicaragua’s regulatory powers to that effect. I further
consider that the Court’s reasoning as regards Costa Rica’s claim relating
to subsistence fishing is based on a weak legal foundation which might

undermine the acceptance of the Court’s finding by the Parties.

I. B ORDER C ONTROL AS A LEGITIMATE P URPOSE

1. The Court has concluded that “Nicaragua has the power to regulate
the exercise by Costa Rica of its right to freedom of navigation under the

1858 Treaty”. It adds an important qualification: such right “is not
unlimited”; it is subject to the “rights and obligations of the Parties”
(Judgment, para. 87).
2. According to the Court, the exercise of Nicaragua’s regulatory

power must meet certain requirements. Obviously, it must be consistent
with the terms of the Treaty. It further has to be non-discriminatory and
reasonable. The purpose of the regulation must be legitimate and “it
must only subject the activity to certain rules without rendering impossi-
ble or substantially impeding the exercise of the right of free navigation ”

(ibid.; emphasis added).

3. As regards the burden of proof in respect of Costa Rica’s claims of
unlawful action based on the alleged unreasonableness of Nicaragua’s
exercise of its regulatory power, the Court has clearly stated that it is for

Costa Rica to establish points of facts supporting such claims:

“The Court notes that Costa Rica, in support of its claim of un-

lawful action, advances points of fact about unreasonableness by
referring to the allegedly disproportionate impact of the regulations.
The Court recalls that in terms of well established general principle it
is for Costa Rica to establish those points (cf. Maritime Delimitation

in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports
2009, p. 86, para. 68, and cases cited there). Further, a court exam-

64OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE SEPÚLVEDA-AMOR

[Traduction]

J’adhère pleinement à l’essentiel du raisonnement tenu par la Cour
dans le présent arrêt, de même qu’à la quasi-totalité des conclusions aux-
quelles elle est parvenue dans le dispositif. Toutefois, en ce qui concerne
la licéité de l’imposition par le Nicaragua d’une obligation de visa, il me
semble que la Cour a manqué de prendre en compte l’intérêt légitime que

cet Etat pouvait avoir à contrôler ses frontières et l’entrée sur son terri-
toire, et de préciser en conséquence l’étendue de ses pouvoirs de régle-
mentation à cet effet. En outre, son raisonnement concernant l’argument
du Costa Rica relatif à la pêche de subsistance ne me semble pas reposer
sur une base juridique solide, ce qui risque de rendre sa conclusion diffi-
cile à accepter pour les Parties.

I. LE CONTRÔLE DES FRONTIÈRES EN TANT QUE BUT LÉGITIME

1. La Cour a conclu que «le Nicaragua a le pouvoir de réglementer
l’exercice par le Costa Rica du droit de libre navigation qu’il tient du
traité de 1858». Elle ajoute toutefois — précision importante — que
celui-ci «n’est pas illimité», mais subordonné aux «droits et obligations

des Parties» (arrêt, par. 87).
2. De l’avis de la Cour, l’exercice par le Nicaragua de son pouvoir de
réglementation doit satisfaire à certaines conditions. S’il doit naturelle-
ment être compatible avec les termes du traité, il doit en outre n’être ni
discriminatoire ni déraisonnable. La mesure de réglementation en ques-

tion doit poursuivre un but légitime et «seulement assujettir l’activité en
cause à certaines règles, sans rendre impossible ni entraver de façon sub-
stantielle l’exercice du droit de libre navigation »( ibid.; les italiques sont
de moi).
3. Pour ce qui est de la charge de la preuve concernant la thèse du

Costa Rica selon laquelle le Nicaragua exercerait son pouvoir de régle-
mentation de façon déraisonnable et agirait ainsi de façon illicite, la Cour
a clairement affirmé que c’était au Costa Rica qu’il incombait d’établir
les éléments de fait étayant ses griefs:

«La Cour note que le Costa Rica, à l’appui de sa thèse selon
laquelle l’action du Nicaragua est illicite, avance des éléments de fait
visant à en démontrer le caractère déraisonnable en invoquant l’inci-
dence prétendument disproportionnée des mesures en question. La

Cour rappelle que, selon un principe général bien établi, c’est au
Costa Rica qu’il incombe d’établir ces éléments (cf. Délimitation
maritime en mer Noire (Roumanie c. Ukraine), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil

64 ining the reasonableness of a regulation must recognize that the
regulator, in this case the State with sovereignty over the river, has

the primary responsibility for assessing the need for regulation and
for choosing, on the basis of its knowledge of the situation, the
measure that it deems most appropriate to meet that need. It will not
be enough in a challenge to a regulation simply to assert in a general

way that it is unreasonable. Concrete and specific facts will be
required to persuade a court to come to that conclusion.” (Judg-
ment, para. 101.)

4. Nicaragua, as the State entitled to exercise sovereignty over the San
Juan River, has the “primary responsibility for assessing the need for
regulation and for choosing . . . the measure that it deems most appro-

priate to meet that need”. This is a principle which the Court itself has
stated that it must respect when examining the reasonableness of Nica-
ragua’s regulations, taking into account “[c]oncrete and specific facts”
(ibid.). All these issues become particularly relevant for the Judgment at
the section where the Court considers the visa requirement and the power

of Nicaragua to impose immigration controls.

5. On the requirement to stop and identify, the Court has indicated
that “Nicaragua, as sovereign, has the right to know the identity of those

entering its territory and also to know that they have left” (Judgment,
para. 104). The Court also considers that “it has been established that the
number of tourists on the river has increased over the years the require-
ment [to stop and identify] has been in force” (ibid., para. 106). The
Court concludes that the requirement is lawful and that Costa Rica did

not show that it was unreasonable.

6. According to the Court, Nicaragua’s requirement to obtain depar-
ture clearance certificates serves a legitimate purpose. Additionally, it

“does not appear to have imposed any significant impediment on the
exercise of Costa Rica’s freedom of navigation”; Costa Rica has not
shown “a single case where navigation has been impeded by an arbitrary
refusal of a certificate” (ibid., para. 109).
7. The requirement to fly Nicaragua’s flag under certain circumstances

“cannot in any respect be considered an impediment to the exercise of the
freedom of navigation of Costa Rican vessels”. Moreover, the Court
notes that it “has not been presented with any evidence that Costa Rican
vessels have been prevented from navigation on the San Juan River as a

result of Nicaragua’s flag requirement” (ibid., para. 132).

8. From the preceding paragraphs it becomes clear that the Court has
consistently adopted a line of reasoning which closely follows the general
principles outlined in paragraph 101 of the Judgment, i.e., in all of these

65 2009, p. 86, par. 68 et affaires qui y sont citées). En outre, une juri-
diction qui examine le caractère raisonnable d’une réglementation

doit reconnaître que c’est à l’autorité de réglementation, en l’occur-
rence à l’Etat qui jouit de la souveraineté sur le fleuve, que revient la
responsabilité principale d’apprécier la nécessité de réglementer et,
en se fondant sur sa connaissance de la situation, de retenir à cette

fin la mesure qu’il estime la plus appropriée. Il ne suffit pas, pour
contester une réglementation, d’affirmer en termes généraux qu’elle
est déraisonnable; pour qu’une juridiction fasse droit à une telle
contestation, des faits concrets et spécifiques doivent lui être présen-
tés.» (Arrêt, par. 101.)

4. Le Nicaragua, en tant qu’Etat jouissant de la souveraineté sur le
fleuve San Juan, a la «responsabilité principale d’apprécier la nécessité de
réglementer et ... de retenir à cette fin la mesure qu’il estime la plus

appropriée». Il s’agit là d’un principe que la Cour elle-même a déclaré
devoir respecter au moment d’examiner le caractère raisonnable des
mesures de réglementation prises par le Nicaragua, à la lumière de «faits
concrets et spécifiques» (ibid.). Toutes ces questions deviennent particu-
lièrement pertinentes dans la partie de l’arrêt que la Cour consacre à

l’obligation d’obtention d’un visa et au pouvoir du Nicaragua d’imposer
des contrôles à l’entrée sur son territoire.
5. Au sujet de l’obligation de faire halte et de faire connaître son iden-
tité, la Cour a indiqué que «le Nicaragua, en tant que souverain, a[vait] le

droit de connaître l’identité des personnes entrant sur son territoire et de
savoir si elles en [étaient] sorties» (arrêt, par. 104). Elle estime également
«établi que le nombre de touristes empruntant le fleuve a augmenté
dans les années durant lesquelles l’obligation [de faire halte et de faire
connaître son identité] a été en vigueur» (ibid., par. 106). La Cour

conclut que cette obligation est licite et que le Costa Rica n’en a pas
démontré le caractère déraisonnable.
6. Selon la Cour, l’obligation d’obtenir un certificat d’appareillage
imposée par le Nicaragua sert un but légitime. En outre, elle «ne semble

pas avoir constitué une entrave substantielle à l’exercice par le Costa Rica
de sa liberté de navigation», ce dernier n’ayant pas mis en évidence «le
moindre cas où l’un de ses bateaux aurait été empêché de naviguer pour
s’être vu refuser arbitrairement un certificat» (ibid., par. 109).
7. L’obligation d’arborer le pavillon nicaraguayen dans certaines cir-

constances «ne saurait être considérée comme représentant une entrave à
l’exercice de la liberté de navigation garantie aux bateaux costa-riciens».
La Cour note en outre qu’il «ne lui a été présenté aucun élément de
preuve attestant que les bateaux costa-riciens avaient été empêchés de

naviguer sur le San Juan du fait des conditions relatives aux pavillons
imposées par le Nicaragua» (ibid., par. 132).
8. Il ressort clairement des paragraphes précédents que, dans son rai-
sonnement, la Cour s’est systématiquement conformée aux principes
généraux exposés au paragraphe 101 de l’arrêt: dans chacun des cas pré-

65cases the Court has examined whether a requirement imposed by Nica-
ragua entails a substantial impediment to the exercise of Costa Rica’s

right of free navigation, and whether the burden of proof has been met
by Costa Rica. The Court answers both questions in the negative. But
then there is a sudden inconsistency when the Court examines the imposi-
tion of a visa requirement on those persons who may benefit from Costa
Rica’s right of free navigation.

9. First, the Court recognizes that “[t]he power of a State to issue or
refuse visas is a practical expression of the prerogative which each State
has to control entry by non-nationals into its territory” (Judgment,
para. 113).

10. Then the Court itself recalls the “[c]oncrete and specific facts”, that
are “required to persuade a court to come to [the] conclusion” that a
specific regulation is unreasonable (ibid., para. 101). These concrete and
specific facts indicate, according to the Court,

“that in fact the number of tourists travelling on the river in Costa
Rican vessels has increased in the period these requirements have

been in force (see paragraph 99 above). Further, Costa Rica has
provided no evidence of arbitrary refusals of visas to tourists and
Nicaragua points out that it does not require nationals from coun-
tries which are the source of most of the tourists visiting the San
Juan to obtain visas. Furthermore, it makes exceptions for residents

of Costa Rican riparian communities and Costa Rican merchants
who regularly use the river.” (Ibid., para. 116.)

11. It is clear that, in the light of what the Court has stated, these
“[c]oncrete and specific facts” cannot lead to the conclusion that, by

imposing a visa requirement, Nicaragua is rendering impossible or is sub-
stantially impeding the exercise of Costa Rica’s right of free navigation.
The requirement serves a legitimate purpose, notably the purpose of bor-
der and immigration control, and it is not discriminatory. Costa Rica has
not produced any evidence establishing the unreasonable or discrimina-

tory character of Nicaragua’s visa requirement nor does the Court rely
on such evidence in the Judgment.

12. Surprisingly enough, the Court, recalling that “the power of a
State to issue or refuse a visa entails discretion”, reaches the conclusion

that

“Nicaragua may not impose a visa requirement on those persons
who...maybenefitfromCi’rihtoffriin.If
that benefit is denied, the freedom of navigation would be hindered.
In these circumstances, an imposition of a visa requirement is a

breach of the Treaty right.” (Ibid., para. 115.)

66cités, elle a cherché à savoir si l’obligation imposée par le Nicaragua
entravait de façon substantielle l’exercice du droit de libre navigation du

Costa Rica, et si ce dernier s’était acquitté de la charge de la preuve. La
Cour, sur ces deux points, répond par la négative. Toutefois, son raison-
nement prend soudainement de sa cohérence lorsqu’elle en vient à l’obli-
gation faite aux personnes pouvant bénéficier du droit de libre navigation

détenu par le Costa Rica de se procurer un visa.
9. En effet, la Cour reconnaît tout d’abord que «[l]a faculté qu’a
chaque Etat de délivrer ou de refuser des visas est une expression concrète
des prérogatives dont il jouit afin de contrôler l’entrée des non-nationaux
sur son territoire» (arrêt, par. 113).

10. Puis elle revient elle-même sur les «faits concrets et spécifiques»
devant «être présentés» «pour qu’une juridiction fasse droit à une
... contestation» du caractère raisonnable d’une réglementation donnée
(ibid., par. 101). Selon elle, il ressort des faits présentés en l’espèce

«que le nombre de touristes voyageant sur le fleuve à bord de

bateaux costa-riciens a, en réalité, augmenté au cours de la période
pendant laquelle [l’]obligation était en vigueur (voir paragraphe 99
ci-dessus). Par ailleurs, le Costa Rica n’a présenté aucun élément de
preuve attestant que des touristes se seraient vu arbitrairement refu-

ser la délivrance d’un visa, et le Nicaragua précise qu’il n’impose pas
aux ressortissants des pays d’où proviennent la plupart des touristes
empruntant le San Juan d’obtenir des visas. En outre, des déroga-
tions ont été accordées par le Nicaragua aux membres des commu-
nautés costa-riciennes riveraines et à certains commerçants costa-

riciens qui utilisent régulièrement le fleuve.» (Ibid., par. 116.)

11. Or, il apparaît clairement, à la lumière de ce que la Cour a déclaré,
que ces «faits concrets et spécifiques» ne sauraient amener à conclure
que, en exigeant l’obtention d’un visa, le Nicaragua rend impossible ou
entrave de façon substantielle l’exercice du droit de libre navigation du

Costa Rica. L’obligation que le Nicaragua impose sert un but légitime, à
savoir celui d’assurer le contrôle des frontières et de l’entrée sur le terri-
toire, et n’est en rien discriminatoire. Le Costa Rica n’a produit aucune
preuve du caractère déraisonnable ou discriminatoire de l’obligation de
se procurer un visa imposée par le Nicaragua, et la Cour n’en a pas

davantage invoqué dans l’arrêt.
12. C’est donc de manière fort surprenante que la Cour, après avoir
rappelé que «la faculté qu’a chaque Etat de délivrer ou de refuser des
visas est de nature discrétionnaire», parvient à la conclusion suivante:

«le Nicaragua ne saurait imposer l’obligation d’être munies d’un

visa aux personnes qui ... peuvent bénéficier du droit de libre naviga-
tion détenu par le Costa Rica. Si ce bénéfice leur était refusé, la
liberté de navigation serait entravée. Dans ces conditions, l’institu-
tion d’un visa obligatoire est une violation du droit consacré par le
traité.» (Ibid., par. 115.)

66 No explanation is provided by the Court as to why the freedom of
navigation will be hindered if a person benefiting from Costa Rica’s enti-

tlement to free navigation is required to obtain a visa from the State
which has sovereignty over the waters of the San Juan River.
13. The Judgment does not specify why non-Costa Ricans are also
entitled to benefit from free navigation (Judgment, para. 114) without
complying with the requirements established by the State which has

exclusive dominion and full sovereignty over the waters of the San Juan
River. To attribute the benefit of the right of free navigation to all foreign
nationals, whatever may be the purpose of their voyage on the waters of
the San Juan River and whatever may be their State of origin, must be

considered as contrary to the principle the Court itself has established in
the Judgment: “The power of a State to issue or refuse visas is a practical
expression of the prerogative which each State has to control entry by
non-nationals into its territory.” (Ibid., para. 113.) Surely Nicaragua can-
not be barred from exercising its power to regulate the entry of foreign

nationals into its territory.
14. The prohibition to enact any visa requirements for foreign nation-
als traversing the waters of the San Juan River may involve a risk for the
public safety of Nicaragua, since there would be no immigration control
when entering the land territory of Nicaragua from the waters of the San

Juan River.
15. A consequence of extending the right of free navigation to all for-
eign nationals travelling on the San Juan River, without any further
requirements, would be to force Nicaragua to establish a number of
immigration posts all along the left bank of the San Juan River in the

area where Costa Rica exercises its right of free navigation, although
even that measure will not necessarily prevent illegal entries from the
river into Nicaragua’s land territory by non-Costa Ricans benefiting
from a right legally attributed only to Costa Rica and to Costa Rican
nationals.

16. From the Court’s perspective, “Nicaragua may not impose a visa
requirement on those persons who . . . may benefit from Costa Rica’s
right of free navigation. If that benefit is denied, the freedom of naviga-
tion would be hindered.” (Ibid., para. 115.) This finding is not consistent
with the Court’s reasoning in previous paragraphs of the Judgment and it

is certainly not based on the “[c]oncrete and specific facts” which, accord-
ing to the Court, are required to persuade a court to reach such conclu-
sion. The reasoning of the Court does not provide any hard facts which
could endorse its argument that Nicaragua would prohibit free naviga-
tion by exercising its discretionary power to issue visas. In this respect,

the Court should have taken into account that, in its written or oral pro-
ceedings, Costa Rica has not submitted any evidence of cases where free
navigation had been impeded by an arbitrary refusal to grant a visa. Evi-
dence provided by Nicaragua and not contradicted by Costa Rica shows

that

67 La Cour ne précise nullement en quoi la liberté de navigation serait
entravée si une personne bénéficiant du droit de libre navigation du

Costa Rica était tenue d’obtenir un visa de l’Etat ayant souveraineté sur
les eaux du San Juan.
13. L’arrêt n’indique pas pourquoi des personnes qui ne sont pas
costa-riciennes peuvent également bénéficier du droit de libre navigation

(arrêt, par. 114) sans s’acquitter des obligations imposées par l’Etat déte-
nant l’autorité exclusive et la pleine souveraineté sur les eaux du San Juan.
Accorder le bénéfice du droit de libre navigation à tous les ressortissants
étrangers, indépendamment des raisons pour lesquelles ils empruntent le
San Juan et de leur Etat d’origine, ne peut être que contraire au principe

que la Cour a elle-même énoncé dans l’arrêt, selon lequel «[l]a faculté
qu’a chaque Etat de délivrer ou de refuser des visas est une expression
concrète des prérogatives dont il jouit afin de contrôler l’entrée des non-
nationaux sur son territoire» (ibid., par. 113). Assurément, le Nicaragua

ne saurait être empêché d’exercer son pouvoir de réglementer l’entrée des
ressortissants étrangers sur son territoire.
14. Le fait d’interdire l’imposition de toute obligation de se munir
d’un visa aux ressortissants étrangers empruntant le San Juan, et ainsi
d’empêcher le Nicaragua d’exercer un contrôle de l’entrée sur son ter-

ritoire via les eaux du fleuve, peut entraîner un risque pour la sûreté
publique de ce pays.
15. Etendre le droit de libre navigation à tous les ressortissants étran-
gers voyageant sur le San Juan, sans autre condition, aura pour effet de

contraindre le Nicaragua à établir plusieurs postes de police aux fron-
tières tout au long de la rive gauche du fleuve, dans le secteur où le
Costa Rica exerce son droit de libre navigation, mesure qui ne lui per-
mettra sans doute même pas d’empêcher l’entrée clandestine sur son sol,
via le fleuve, de non-Costa-Riciens bénéficiant d’un droit qui, juridique-

ment, n’a été reconnu qu’au Costa Rica et à ses ressortissants.

16. Selon la Cour, «le Nicaragua ne saurait imposer l’obligation d’être
munies d’un visa aux personnes qui ... peuvent bénéficier du droit de libre

navigation détenu par le Costa Rica. Si ce bénéfice leur était refusé, la
liberté de navigation serait entravée.» (Ibid., par. 115.) Cette conclusion
va à l’encontre du raisonnement tenu par la Cour dans de précédents
paragraphes de l’arrêt et n’est certainement pas fondée sur les «faits
concrets et spécifiques» requis, d’après la Cour, pour permettre à une

juridiction de parvenir à un tel constat. Dans le cadre de son raisonne-
ment, la Cour n’expose aucun fait déterminant qui viendrait appuyer
l’argument selon lequel le Nicaragua entraverait la liberté de navigation
en exerçant son pouvoir discrétionnaire de délivrer des visas. En l’occur-

rence, elle aurait dû tenir compte du fait que, dans ses écritures et à
l’audience, le Costa Rica n’a mis en évidence aucun cas d’entrave à la
liberté de navigation du fait d’un refus arbitraire de délivrance de visa. Il
ressort au contraire des éléments de preuve que le Nicaragua a produits,
et que le Costa Rica n’a pas contestés, que

67 “Costa Rica’s tourism traffic on the San Juan River increased by
more than 350 per cent between 1998, when Costa Rica says Nica-

ragua first began to systematically deny her rights on the San Juan
River, and 2004, the year before this lawsuit began” [CR 2009/7,
pp. 45-46, para. 21 (Reichler); see also CR 2009/5, p. 25, para. 44
(Reichler); Rejoinder of Nicaragua, para. 4.33, table 1; and Vol. II,

Ann. 71].

Costa Rica’s allegation that the visa requirement has “practically
destroyed Costa Rican commercial transportation of tourists” on the San
Juan River (Reply of Costa Rica, p. 159, para. 4.12 (iii)) has not been
proven.

17. The Court concludes in its Judgment that Nicaragua “may not
require persons travelling on Costa Rican vessels which are exercising
their freedom of navigation on the river to obtain visas” (Judgment,
para. 117). But Nicaragua can invoke certain conventional rights,
enshrined in regional and multilateral treaties, which provide a legal basis

for the imposition of visa requirements and which will enable Nicaragua
to regulate immigration and border control on the waters of the San Juan
River under certain clearly defined circumstances.

18. The American Convention on Human Rights (1969) and the Inter-
national Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966), to which both
Costa Rica and Nicaragua are parties, provide a similar language in
regulating freedom of movement and residence: “Every person lawfully

in the territory of a State party has the right to move about it and to
reside in it subject to the provisions of the law .” These rights may be

“restricted only pursuant to a law to the extent necessary . . . to pre-

vent crime or to protect national security, public safety, public
order, public morals, public health, or the rights or freedoms of
others” (American Convention, Article 22, see also Article 12 of the
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights).

Any of these conditions could give rise to a justified imposition of visas
by Nicaragua.
19. If Nicaragua strictly follows the terms prescribed in the Conven-
tion and in the Covenant, by enacting in a legal instrument the require-

ments for foreign nationals to obtain a visa, determining in which cir-
cumstances it will impose restrictions on the issuing of a visa (national
security, public safety, public order, public morals, public health, etc.), it
will not be in breach of any international obligation.

68 «la fréquentation touristique costa-ricienne sur le fleuve San Juan a
augmenté de plus de 350% entre 1998 — année où, selon le Costa

Rica, le Nicaragua a commencé à violer ses droits sur le San Juan
de manière systématique — et 2004, année précédant le début de
la présente instance» [CR 2009/7, p. 45-46, par. 21 (Reichler);
voir également CR 2009/5, p. 25, par. 44 (Reichler); duplique du

Nicaragua, par. 4.33, tableau 1, et vol. II, annexe 71].

Le Costa Rica n’a pas prouvé ce qu’il avance, à savoir que l’institution
du visa obligatoire aurait «pratiquement détruit ... le secteur [costa-
ricien] du transport commercial de touristes» sur le San Juan (réplique
du Costa Rica, p. 159, par. 4.12 iii)).

17. La Cour conclut dans son arrêt que le Nicaragua «n’a pas le
droit d’exiger des personnes voyageant à bord de bateaux costa-
riciens qui exercent leur droit de libre navigation sur le fleuve qu’elles
se procurent des visas» (arrêt, par. 117). Le Nicaragua peut toute-
fois invoquer certains droits conventionnels, consacrés dans des

traités régionaux et multilatéraux, qui fondent en droit l’imposi-
tion d’une obligation de visa et lui permettront de réglementer
l’entrée sur son territoire et le contrôle de ses frontières sur les
eaux du San Juan dans certaines circonstances clairement

définies.
18. La convention américaine relative aux droits de l’homme
(1969) et le pacte international relatif aux droits civils et politiques
(1966), auxquels le Costa Rica et le Nicaragua sont tous deux
parties, réglementent le droit de déplacement et de résidence

en des termes similaires: «Quiconque se trouve légalement
sur le territoire d’un Etat a le droit d’y circuler librement et
d’y résider en conformité des lois régissant la matière. » Ces droits ne
peuvent

«faire l’objet d’autres restrictions que celles qui, prévues par la loi,

constituent des mesures indispensables ... à la prévention des
infractions pénales, à la protection de la sécurité nationale, de la
sûreté ou de l’ordre publics, de la moralité ou de la santé pu-
bliques, ou des droits ou libertés d’autrui» (convention américaine,
article 22; voir également l’article 12 du pacte relatif aux droits

civils et politiques).

Autant de conditions qui peuvent chacune justifier l’imposition, par le
Nicaragua, de l’obligation de se procurer un visa.
19. Si le Nicaragua s’en tient strictement aux termes de la conven-
tion et du pacte, il ne manquera à aucune obligation internationale en

adoptant un instrument juridique à l’effet d’obliger les ressortissants
étrangers à se procurer un visa et en déterminant les circonstances
dans lesquelles la délivrance de celui-ci sera soumise à restriction
(sécurité nationale, sûreté ou ordre publics, moralité ou santé
publiques, etc.).

68 II. LEGAL B ASIS OFS UBSISTENCE F ISHING

20. The Court concludes in its Judgment that Costa Rica has a cus-
tomary right to subsistence fishing. The Court’s reasoning in the present
case is not in accordance with its previous findings on the recognition of
rules of customary international law. It will be difficult to find a pre-

cedent which corresponds with what the Court has determined in the
present case. In paragraph 141 of the Judgment, the Court provides as
follows:

“The Court observes that the practice [of subsistence fishing], by
its very nature, especially given the remoteness of the area and the

small, thinly spread population, is not likely to be documented in
any formal way in any official record. For the Court, the failure of
Nicaragua to deny the existence of a right arising from the practice
which had continued undisturbed and unquestioned over a very long
period, is particularly significant.”

These are the grounds on which the Court concludes that there is a
customary right. An undocumented practice by a community of fisher-
men in a remote area. A practice which in previous times has not been

claimed by Costa Rica as a right to which it is entitled. A practice which
has not been objected to by Nicaragua — “the failure of Nicaragua to
deny the existence of a right” — in circumstances where the existence of
a right has not been claimed, let alone proven.
21. Costa Rica has not presented to the Court, at any time previous to

the submission of its Memorial, evidence of a legal claim by which it
would consider subsistence fishing on the right bank of the San Juan
River as a right appertaining to it. Even Costa Rica’s Application insti-
tuting these proceedings does not include such a claim.

22. Costa Rica is not conclusive in its assertions that there is a cus-
tomary right of subsistence fishing. It says that the practice “has taken on
a patina of custom”, unless the opposite can be shown conclusively
(Reply of Costa Rica, p. 84, para. 3.117). It further argues that the prac-

tice of subsistence fishing “coupled with complete lack of application of
internal regulations with respect to it and the complete absence of any
negative response from Nicaragua, has given rise to a customary local
rule” [CR 2009/3, p. 62, para. 41 (Kohen)]. No need for State practice;

no need for opinio juris, only the lack of protest of Nicaragua to a prac-
tice not previously claimed as a right. However, given the absence of such
a claim, there is little ground to impose on Nicaragua the duty to protest
against the contents of an inexistent claim and, consequently, Costa Rica
is not in a position to provide evidence that Nicaragua accepted subsist-

ence fishing as part of its legal obligations.

23. It may well be that Costa Rica itself is not convinced of its argu-

69 II. F ONDEMENT JURIDIQUE DE LA PÊCHE DE SUBSISTANCE

20. La Cour conclut dans son arrêt que le Costa Rica jouit d’un droit
coutumier de pratiquer la pêche de subsistance. Or, son raisonnement en
l’espèce ne s’accorde pas avec les conclusions qu’elle a déjà eu l’occasion
de formuler en matière de reconnaissance des règles du droit internatio-

nal coutumier, et il sera difficile de trouver un précédent allant dans le
sens de sa présente conclusion. Au paragraphe 141 de son arrêt, en effet,
la Cour déclare ce qui suit:

«La Cour relève qu’il ne faut pas s’attendre qu’une telle pratique
[la pêche de subsistance], par sa nature même, et tout particulière-

ment au vu de l’isolement de la région, ainsi que de la faible densité
et du caractère clairsemé de sa population, soit consignée de manière
formelle dans un quelconque compte rendu officiel. De l’avis de la
Cour, le fait que le Nicaragua n’ait pas nié l’existence d’un droit
découlant de cette pratique, qui s’était poursuivie sans être entravée

ni remise en question durant une très longue période, est particuliè-
rement révélateur.»

Telles sont les bases sur lesquelles la Cour conclut à l’existence d’un
droit coutumier: la pratique, jamais consignée, d’une communauté de
pêcheurs dans une région isolée; une pratique qui n’avait jamais été

revendiquée auparavant par le Costa Rica en tant que droit; une pratique
à laquelle le Nicaragua ne s’est pas opposé — «le fait que le Nicaragua
n’ait pas nié l’existence d’un droit» —, alors que l’existence d’un droit n’a
jamais été alléguée ni, a fortiori, prouvée.
21. Le Costa Rica n’a présenté à la Cour aucune preuve d’une reven-

dication juridique antérieure au dépôt de son mémoire et attestant qu’il
ait jamais considéré disposer du droit de pratiquer la pêche de sub-
sistance sur la rive droite du San Juan. Même sa requête introductive
d’instance ne fait pas mention d’une telle revendication.

22. Le Costa Rica n’est guère convaincant lorsqu’il allègue l’existence
d’un droit coutumier de pratiquer la pêche de subsistance. Il déclare que
cette pratique «a revêtu la patine d’une coutume», en l’absence de preuve
du contraire (réplique du Costa Rica, p. 84, par. 3.117). Il affirme en

outre que la pratique de la pêche de subsistance, «doublée de l’inapplica-
tion totale de la réglementation interne à son égard et d’une absence
totale de réaction négative du Nicaragua, a donné naissance à une règle
coutumière locale» [CR 2009/3, p. 62, par. 41 (Kohen)]. Point n’est

besoin de pratique étatique; point n’est besoin d’opinio juris ; il suffit que
le Nicaragua n’ait pas protesté contre une pratique jamais revendiquée en
tant que droit. Mais l’on peut difficilement mettre à la charge du Nica-
ragua l’obligation de contester la teneur d’une revendication qui n’a
jamais été formulée; dès lors, le Costa Rica n’est pas en mesure de

démontrer que le Nicaragua avait accepté le respect de la pratique de la
pêche de subsistance comme l’une de ses obligations juridiques.
23. Il se pourrait fort bien que le Costa Rica ne soit pas lui-même

69ment that the practice of subsistence fishing amounts to a customary rule.
Costa Rica alleges that “it is of little consequence whether we talk about

a local custom, acquiescence, tacit agreement, a territorial régime or even
the survival of a traditional right dating back to the colonial era which
has never been curtailed” [CR 2009/3, p. 62, para. 41 (Kohen)]. It is clear
that Costa Rica’s aim is to obtain recognition from the Court that there
is a right to subsistence fishing, with not too much of a concern as to the

legal basis which supports such a right. It is regrettable that the Court did
not resort to a more solid legal foundation when examining Costa Rica’s
claim to subsistence fishing.

24. Following the Asylum case precedent, Costa Rica must prove that
the customary right of subsistence fishing is established in such a manner
that it has become binding on the other Party and that the practice of
subsistence fishing is the expression of a right appertaining to Costa Rica
and a duty incumbent on Nicaragua (Asylum (Colombia/Peru), Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1950 , pp. 276-277). The principle that the States
concerned must act with the conviction that they are conforming to what
amounts to a legal obligation has been reiterated by the Court on a
number of occasions, one example being the North Sea Continental Shelf
cases ((Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Federal Republic of Ger-

many/Netherlands), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1969 , p. 44).
25. Time is another important element in the process of creation of
customary international law. In the present case, Costa Rica’s claim
regarding the existence of a customary right of subsistence fishing for the
local riparian community on the Costa Rican bank of the San Juan River

was made for the first time in its Memorial submitted to the Court on
29 August 2006, i.e., less than three years before the delivery of the
Court’s Judgment. To claim the existence of a customary right, created in
such a short span of time, clearly contradicts the Court’s previous juris-
prudence on the matter; in the Right of Passage case, the Court found:

“This practice having continued over a period extending beyond a
century and a quarter . . . the Court is, in view of all the circum-
stances of the case, satisfied that that practice was accepted as law by
the Parties and has given rise to a right and a correlative obligation .”
(Right of Passage over Indian Territory (Portugal v. India), Merits,

Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1960 , p. 40; emphasis added.)

26. Similarly, in the Nicaragua case, the Court reiterated that in order
to establish a rule of customary international law, it “has to direct its
attention to the practice and opinio juris of States” (Military and Para-
military Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States

of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 , p. 97, para. 183). In
the present case, the practice of a local community of Costa Rican ripar-

70convaincu par l’argument tendant à faire de la pratique de la pêche de
subsistance une règle coutumière. N’affirme-t-il pas que «[p]eu importe

au fond que l’on parle de coutume locale, d’acquiescement, d’accord
tacite, de régime territorial ou encore de subsistance d’un droit tradi-
tionnel datant de l’époque coloniale auquel il n’a jamais été dérogé»
[CR 2009/3, p. 62, par. 41 (Kohen)]? Il est clair que le Costa Rica veut

faire reconnaître par la Cour l’existence d’un droit de pêcher à des fins de
subsistance, sans guère se soucier de la base juridique sur laquelle asseoir
ce droit. Il est regrettable que la Cour n’ait pas privilégié un fondement
juridique plus solide lorsqu’elle a examiné l’argument du Costa Rica rela-
tif à la pêche de subsistance.

24. Conformément au précédent constitué par l’affaire du Droit d’asile,
le Costa Rica doit prouver que le droit coutumier de pratiquer la pêche
de subsistance s’est constitué de telle manière qu’il est devenu opposable
à l’autre Partie et que cette pratique reflète un droit appartenant au

Costa Rica et un devoir incombant au Nicaragua (Droit d’asile (Colom-
bie/Pérou), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1950 , p. 276-277). Le principe selon
lequel les Etats intéressés doivent agir avec la conviction de se conformer
à ce qui équivaut à une obligation juridique a été réaffirmé par la Cour à
plusieurs reprises, par exemple dans les affaires du Plateau continental de

la mer du Nord ((République fédérale d’Allemagne/Danemark; Républi-
que fédérale d’Allemagne/Pays-Bas), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1969 , p. 44).
25. Le temps constitue un autre élément important dans le processus
de formation du droit international coutumier. En la présente affaire,

c’est dans le mémoire qu’il a soumis à la Cour le 29 août 2006, soit
moins de trois ans avant que celle-ci ne rende son arrêt, que le Costa
Rica a pour la première fois allégué l’existence, pour la communauté
riveraine locale établie sur la rive costa-ricienne du San Juan, d’un droit
coutumier de pêcher à des fins de subsistance. Affirmer l’existence d’un

droit coutumier s’étant constitué sur une période aussi brève va clairement
à l’encontre de la jurisprudence de la Cour en la matière; dans
l’affaire du Droit de passage, en effet, la Cour était parvenue à la conclu-
sion suivante:

«Cette pratique s’étant maintenue sur une période de plus d’un
siècle un quart, ... la Cour considère, eu égard à toutes les circonstances

de l’espèce, que cette pratique a été acceptée par les Parties comme
étant le droit et a donné naissance à un droit et à une obligation cor-
respondante. »( Droit de passage sur territoire indien (Portugal
c. Inde), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1960 , p. 40; les italiques sont de

moi.)
26. De même, dans l’affaire des Activités militaires et paramilitaires ,

la Cour a réaffirmé que, pour établir une règle de droit international cou-
tumier, elle «d[evait] examiner la pratique et l’opinio juris des Etats»
(Activités militaires et paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci
(Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986 ,
p. 97, par. 183). En l’espèce, la pratique d’une communauté locale de

70ians cannot be equated with the practice of the Costa Rican State as
invoked by Costa Rica (Judgment, para. 132). The Court has repeatedly

indicated the nature of acts which it will take into account in order to
determine whether a practice exists, acts which may lead to the creation
of a customary right. These acts include administrative measures, legisla-
tion, acts of the judiciary and treaties.

27. As regards the requirements of State practice and opinio juris, the
Court has been subject to criticism in cases where it recognized the exist-
ence of such a practice in its findings without providing sufficient support
for its claim. In the Arrest Warrant case, the Court indicated that it had

“carefully examined State practice, including national legislation and
those few decisions of national higher courts” (Arrest Warrant of 11 April
2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), Judgment, I.C.J.
Reports 2002, p. 24, para. 58). In her dissenting opinion, Judge ad hoc
Van Den Wyngaert was of the view that

“the International Court of Justice, by deciding that incumbent For-
eign Ministers enjoy full immunity from foreign criminal jurisdiction

(Judgment, para. 54), has reached a conclusion which has no basis in
positive international law. Before reaching this conclusion, the Court
should have satisfied itself of the existence of usus and of opinio juris.
There is neither State practice nor opinio juris establishing an inter-
national custom to this effect. ”( Ibid., p. 151, para. 23; emphasis

added).
28. It follows from the foregoing that subsistence fishing, based on a

customary right as determined by the Court, has no support in law.
Costa Rica’s claim might however be based on other legal foundations
which could provide a better ground for the findings of the Court on this
matter, namely the principle of acquired or vested rights. Already the
Permanent Court had determined that “the principle of respect for vested

rights” is “a principle which . . . forms part of generally accepted inter-
national law” (Certain German Interests in Polish Upper Silesia, Merits,
Judgment No. 7, 1926, P.C.I.J., Series A, No. 7 , p. 42).

29. In the Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute case, the Cham-

ber also referred to the concept of acquired rights in the context of the
particular situation that it expected to arise following the delimitation of
the land boundary in some areas where nationals of one Party would,
following the delimitation, find themselves living in the territory of the
other, and property rights established under the laws of the one Party

would be found to have been granted over land which is part of the ter-
ritory of the other. The Chamber indicated that it was confident that
both Parties would carry out the necessary measures “in full respect for
acquired rights, and in a humane and orderly manner” (Land, Island and

Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras; Nicaragua interven-
ing), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992 , pp. 400-401, para. 66).

71riverains costa-riciens ne peut être assimilée à celle de l’Etat costa-ricien

lui-même, quoi qu’en dise ce dernier (arrêt, par. 132). La Cour a précisé
à plusieurs reprises la nature des actes qu’elle entendait prendre en consi-
dération pour statuer sur l’existence d’une pratique, c’est-à-dire des actes
susceptibles d’aboutir à la création d’un droit coutumier. Il peut notam-
ment s’agir de mesures administratives, de textes législatifs, d’actes judi-

ciaires, ou encore de traités.
27. S’agissant des exigences relatives à la pratique et à l’opinio juris des
Etats, la Cour s’est attiré certaines critiques lorsqu’elle a reconnu l’exis-
tence d’une telle pratique sans étayer suffisamment ses conclusions. Dans

l’affaire du Mandat d’arrêt, elle a ainsi indiqué avoir «examiné avec soin
la pratique des Etats, y compris les législations nationales et les quelques
décisions rendues par de hautes juridictions nationales» (Mandat d’arrêt
du 11 avril 2000 (République démocratique du Congo c. Belgique), arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 24, par. 58). Le juge ad hoc Van den Wyngaert,
dans son opinion dissidente, a toutefois estimé que,

«en jugeant que les ministres des affaires étrangères en exercice
bénéficient d’une immunité totale de juridiction pénale (par. 54 de
l’arrêt), la Cour est parvenue à une conclusion dépourvue de fonde-
ment en droit international positif. Avant d’en arriver à cette conclu-

sion, la Cour aurait dû s’assurer qu’il existait un usus et une opinio
juris établissant une coutume internationale en la matière. Il n’existe
ni usus ni opinio juris établissant l’existence d’une coutume inter-
nationale en ce sens.»( Ibid., p. 151, par. 23; les italiques sont de moi.)

28. De ce qui précède, il découle que la thèse de l’existence d’un droit
qui serait fondé sur une coutume au sens où l’entend la Cour de pratiquer

la pêche de subsistance est dépourvue de tout fondement juridique. Cela
dit, un tel droit revendiqué par le Costa Rica pourrait s’appuyer sur un
autre fondement juridique offrant une assise plus solide aux conclusions
de la Cour en la matière — je songe ici au principe des droits acquis. La

Cour permanente avait en effet déjà indiqué en son temps que le «prin-
cipe du respect des droits acquis» était un «principe qui ... fai[sai]t partie
du droit international commun» (Certains intérêts allemands en Haute-
Silésie polonaise, fond, arrêt n o7, 1926, C.P.J.I. série A n o 7, p. 42).

29. Dans l’affaire du Différend frontalier terrestre, insulaire et mari-
time, la Chambre a également renvoyé à la notion de droits acquis dans
le contexte de la situation particulière qu’elle s’attendait à voir naître
dans certaines régions où, à l’issue de la délimitation de la frontière ter-

restre, des ressortissants de l’une des Parties se trouveraient vivre sur le
territoire de l’autre, les droits de propriété établis en vertu des lois de
l’une des Parties se révélant avoir été accordés sur des terres faisant partie
du territoire de l’autre. La Chambre s’est déclarée convaincue que les
deux Parties prendraient les mesures nécessaires «dans le respect total des

droits acquis comme dans un souci d’ordre et d’humanité» (Différend
frontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El Salvador/Honduras; Nica-
ragua (intervenant)), arrêt , C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 400-401, par. 66).

71 30. Similarly, in the Cameroon v. Nigeria case, the Court determined
that it is up to the Parties to find a solution when a village previously

situated on one side of the boundary has spread beyond it, “with a view
to respecting the rights and interests of the local population” (Land and
Maritime Boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (Cameroon v.
Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea intervening), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2002 ,
p. 374, para. 123 and p. 370, para. 107).

31. In the present case, the existence of vested rights or acquired rights
by Costa Rican riparians has not been claimed by Costa Rica. Surely the
Court could have taken the initiative to explore this legal avenue, explain-
ing the reasons why it regards the argument of acquired rights founded or

unfounded. Furthermore, other legal options should have also been
taken into account by the Court, in accordance with the express petitions
and commitments of the Parties.
32. In the oral proceedings, Costa Rica required the following:

“we ask the Court, in its dispositif, respectfully, to record and
give effect to Nicaragua’s stated position that subsistence fishing
by riparians, whether from the Costa Rican bank or from boats

on the river, will not be impeded” [CR 2009/6, p. 63, para. 30
(Crawford)].

33. Nicaragua replied to this petition by indicating that while it “does
not agree that there is a customary right to fish in her territorial waters,
she has absolutely no intention of preventing Costa Rican residents from
engaging in subsistence fishing activities” [CR 2009/5, p. 27, para. 48

(Reichler)].
34. The undertaking made by Nicaragua before the Court must be
regarded as a legal commitment with a binding character. In the Nuclear
Tests Judgment, the Court found that

“[w]hen it is the intention of the State making the declaration that it
should become bound according to its terms, that intention confers
on the declaration the character of a legal undertaking, the State

being henceforth legally required to follow a course of conduct con-
sistent with the declaration. An undertaking of this kind, if given
publicly, and with an intent to be bound . . . is binding.” (Nuclear
Tests (Australia v. France), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1974 , p. 267,
para. 43.)

35. Similarly, the Court found in a very recent cas( eBelgiumv. Senegal)
that

“Senegal, both proprio motu and in response to a question put by a
Member of the Court, gave a formal assurance on several occasions
during the hearings that it will not allow Mr. Habré to leave its ter-

ritory before the Court has given its final decision”.

72 30. De même, dans l’affaire Cameroun c. Nigéria, la Cour a conclu
que, lorsqu’un village précédemment situé d’un côté de la frontière s’était

étendu au-delà de celle-ci, il appartenait aux Parties de trouver une solu-
tion «aux fins d’assurer le respect des droits et intérêts de la population
locale» (Frontière terrestre et maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria
(Cameroun c. Nigéria; Guinée équatoriale (intervenant)), arrêt,

C.I.J. Recueil 2002, p. 374, par. 123, et p. 370, par. 107).
31. Dans la présente instance, le Costa Rica n’a pas revendiqué l’exis-
tence de droits acquis par les riverains costa-riciens du fleuve. La Cour
n’en aurait pas moins pu explorer cette voie juridique de sa propre ini-
tiative, en exposant les raisons pour lesquelles l’argument des droits

acquis lui semblait fondé ou non. En outre, elle aurait également dû
prendre en considération d’autres possibilités juridiques, conformément
aux demandes et engagements exprès des Parties.
32. Au cours de la procédure orale, le Costa Rica a en effet formulé la

demande suivante:
«nous prions respectueusement la Cour ... de prendre acte, dans

son dispositif, pour suite à donner, de la position affichée par le Nica-
ragua selon laquelle la pêche de subsistance pratiquée par les rive-
rains, que ce soit de la rive costa-ricienne ou à partir de bateaux
naviguant sur le fleuve, ne sera pas entravée» [CR 2009/6, p. 63,
par. 30 (Crawford)].

33. Le Nicaragua a répondu en indiquant que, bien que «ne recon-
n[aissant] pas l’existence d’un droit coutumier de pêche dans ses eaux

territoriales, il n’a[vait] nullement l’intention d’empêcher les résidents
costa-riciens de se livrer à la pêche de subsistance» [CR 2009/5, p. 27,
par. 48 (Reichler)].
34. L’engagement pris par le Nicaragua devant la Cour doit être consi-
déré comme un engagement juridique revêtant un caractère obligatoire.

Dans l’affaire des Essais nucléaires, la Cour a conclu que,
«[q]uand l’Etat auteur de la déclaration entend[ait] être lié confor-

mément à ses termes, cette intention conf[érait] à sa prise de position
le caractère d’un engagement juridique, l’Etat intéressé étant désor-
mais tenu en droit de suivre une ligne de conduite conforme à sa
déclaration. Un engagement de cette nature, exprimé publiquement
et dans l’intention de se lier, ... a un effet obligatoire.» (Essais

nucléaires (Australie c. France), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1974 , p. 267,
par. 43.)

35. Dans une affaire très récente (Belgique c. Sénégal),a l Courade
même déclaré que

«le Sénégal, tant proprio motu qu’en réponse à une question posée
par un membre de la Cour, a formellement et à plusieurs reprises, au
cours des audiences, donné l’assurance qu’il ne permettra[it] pas à
M. Habré de quitter son territoire avant que la Cour ait rendu sa
décision définitive».

72 Belgium indicated that such a solemn declaration “could be sufficient

for Belgium to consider that its Request for the indication of provisional
measures no longer had any object, provided that certain conditions were
fulfilled”. In the light of these statements, the Court decided that there
was no risk of irreparable prejudice to the rights claimed by Belgium

(Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium
v. Senegal), Provisional Measures, Order of 28 May 2009, I.C.J. Reports
2009, pp. 155-156, paras. 69, 71, 72 and 76).

36. In the present case, the Court could thus have followed its pre-
vious jurisprudence by taking note, in the reasoning and in the operative
clause of the Judgment, of the legal commitment undertaken by Nicara-

gua during the oral proceedings. By following this legal option, by which
it would determine the binding character of the commitment made pub-
licly by Nicaragua before the Court, the Court could have avoided devi-
ating from its own precedents on the nature and substance of customary

international law. But it chose a different route, one that will subject the
decisions of the Court to disagreement and objections.

(Signed) Bernardo S EPÚLVEDA -AMOR .

73 La Belgique a pour sa part indiqué qu’une telle déclaration solennelle

«pourrait [lui] suffire ... pour considérer que sa demande en indication de
mesures conservatoires n’aurait plus d’objet, pour autant que certaines
conditions soient remplies». Compte tenu de ces déclarations, la Cour a
conclu à l’absence de tout risque de préjudice irréparable aux droits

revendiqués par la Belgique (Questions concernant l’obligation de pour-
suivre ou d’extrader (Belgique c. Sénégal), mesures conservatoires, ordon-
nance du 28 mai 2009, C.I.J. Recueil 2009 , p. 155-156, par. 69, 71, 72 et

76).
36. Dans la présente affaire, la Cour aurait donc pu suivre sa jurispru-
dence en prenant note, dans son raisonnement et dans le dispositif de son
arrêt, de l’engagement juridique pris par le Nicaragua au cours de la pro-

cédure orale. En optant pour cette solution, consistant à constater le
caractère obligatoire de l’engagement formulé publiquement devant elle
par le Nicaragua, la Cour aurait évité de s’écarter de ses propres précé-

dents concernant la nature et la teneur du droit international coutumier.
Elle a toutefois choisi une autre voie, exposant de ce fait sa décision à des
désaccords et à des objections.

(Signé) Bernardo S EPÚLVEDA -A MOR .

73

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Separate opinion of Judge Sepúlveda-Amor

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