Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Mbaye (translation)

Document Number
094-20021010-JUD-01-08-EN
Parent Document Number
094-20021010-JUD-01-00-EN
Document File
Bilingual Document File

SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE MBAYE

[Translation]

General cons ide ratio,^^deemed helpfulfor a better hnderstanding of the dis-
pute - Applicability of the Thomson-Marchand Decltrration - Delimitationl
demarcation - Effectivités and legal title - Purpose and value of colonial
treaties - Nature of treaties of protection - Legal value of Maroua Declara-
tion - Court'sjurisprudence on maritime delimitation, application - Repara-

tion adjudged sufficient for injury suffered and rendering it unnecessary to
determine re~ponsibiiitjitherefor.

1. 1 share the findings reached by the Court; it is absolutely correct:

(a) in concluding, in respect of the Lake Chad region, having deter-
mined the endploint of the lake boundary ;it the "mouth of the
Ebeji", that

- "as regards the settlements situated to tlie east of the frontier
confirmed in the Henderson-Fleuriau Exchange of Notes of

1931, sovereignty has continued to lie with Cameroon" ;and
(b) in confirming, a:sregards Bakassi, that "sovereignty over the penin-
sula lies with Cameroon".

In so doing, the Court has made the law prevail over the fait accompli.
2. The proceeding:~have thus drawn to a close after passing through

numerous phases whiich,although costing a great deal of time, did at
least have the merit of clarifying the substantive issue before the Court.
This has enabled the Court to achieve a comprehensive and definitive
settlement of a border dispute which for some 19 years has divided

two brother countries of Africa: Cameroon and Nigeria. This dispute, in
the form that it was referred to the Court, concerned the entire course of
the boundary, both terrestrial and maritime, sep,irating the areas over
which each State has jurisdiction.

3. Like the Parties, the Court divided the boundary into a number of
sectors :

- the Lake Chad region,
- the land boundary between Lake Chad and B.ikassi,
- Bakassi,
- the maritime boundary.

4. Apart from the preliminary objection that tlie Court joined to the LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP. OP. MBAYE) 507

merits by its Judgment of 11June 1998,three furthcbrissues were added to
the matters arising from the points mentioned above. Those issues were:

- the intervention of Equatorial Guinea,
- Cameroon's responsibility claim,
- Nigeria's counter-claim.

5. Although 1voted in favour of the entire dispositifof the Judgment,
1felt that it would be appropriate to draft a separate opinion setting out
a number of considerations emphasizing certain points that 1 regard
as being of particular significance, or addressiné issues on which my

responses may be son~ewhatdifferent to those given by the Court. In the
present opinion 1will confine myself to brief comm-nts on the Lake Chud
region and Ruku.ssi, after saying a few words about the principle of the
intangibility of colonial frontiers, before going on to make a number of
observations on muritime delimitation and on the issue of'responsibility.

6. But first, it seeris to me that a few preliminary remarks of a general
nature would be helpful.

7. 1propose to make a number of observation: linked to the context
of the dispute which may help to make it more rcadily understandable.

1. The States in Question

8. The dispute submitted to the Court invo1vr:d two States of sub-
Saharan Africa, on the one hand Cameroon and cm the other Nigeria, a
country regarded on ithatcontinent as, relatively speaking, a great Power.
The Agent of Nigeria said as much in guarded ierms on 28 February
2002 in opening the jîrst round of his country's oral argument. He gave

an impressive list of the substantial roles which Nigeria has played and
continues to play in .4frica.
It is a fact that, in Africa, Nigeria is perceived 21saPower not only in
demographic terms (120 million inhabitants), but also in economic, social
and military terms. VVithinthe sub-region where it is situated, that State
is both respected and, feared, and those feelings extend over a good part

of western and centriil Africa. It is not impossible that Nigeria seeks, to
some extent and indeed quite legitimately, to derive advantage from that
fear which it inspire:,. The circumstances and events of the present dis-
pute would certainly not contradict such an observation.

2. The Means Chosen hy the Parties to Deferzd Their Positions

9. Each of the Parties to the present dispute chose the ground on
which it wished to position itself in order to argui: its case. Thus in this case, from the filing of the Application right up to the end
of the oral pleadings, one had the impression thiit there was one Party
which clung for al1it was worth to the letter of the law, and one which
relied more on facts, albeit dressed up in a legal guise.
10. On the one side we had Cameroon, which had placed the matter
before the OAU, then the United Nations, and then the Court, and on
the other there was Nigeria, which had criticized Cameroon for each of
these initiatives concerning an issue which, accorcling to Nigeria's repre-
sentatives, could have been settled by dialogue ar d negotiation.
11. Cameroon reliiedon the principle of uti po,lsidetisjuris and gener-

ally on legal titles founded essentially on treatie:,, agreements, declara-
tions, and decisions of the League of Nations and of the United Nations.

12. Nigeria, for its part, sought out weakne:ses capable of under-
mining the validity of the legal titles relied upon b!, Cameroon, and based
the essence of itspoisition before the Court on ehëctivités.
13. This situation cannot have escaped the Coiirt's notice and neither
the written pleadings nor the argument of the Parties' counsel have been
able to efface the impression produced by it.
Where Cameroon invoked a legal title, Nigeria spoke of history, of
geography, of ethnology and of the "historical coiisolidation of title". Of
course, this is not a criticism, simply an observation. Each party to pro-
ceedings is free to choose the terrain on which it viishesto place the judi-
cial debate.

3. The Raison d'Être for Respect for Colcnial Boundaries

14. Many countries of sub-Saharan Africa, and more particularly
those of western and central Africa, have been trsubled since independ-
ence by an instabiliiy which precludes a serious and continuous search
for true solutions to underdevelopment. Such inslability fosters poverty.

15. The founding fathers of the African nations, who sought to dis-
prove the forecast that Africa had "got off to a bad start", had decided,
as theChaniber pointed out in the Frontier Dispute (Burkina FasolRepub-
lic oj Mali) case, "at their first summit conferen1:eafter the creation of
the Organization of African Unity", in resoluticln AGHIRes.16 (l), to
adopt the principle of uti possidetis juris(1C.J. Reports 1986, p. 565,
para. 22). At al1 costs they wanted to avoid laving the boundaries
bequeathed by the colonial Powers (however ab;urd, illogical or badly
drawn, and even where they divided ethnic grours or tribes), called into
question. This is clear from the fact that, at the conference of African

peoples held in Accra in December 1958(thus les than six years before
the Cairo conferenci:), African leaders stated in a resolution on frontiers
that: "the artificial barriers and boundaries drxwn by imperialists to
divide the African peoples to the detriment of Afr cans must be abolished
or adjusted .. ." (cited by Zidane Mériboute in L,z codijîcation de la suc-cession d'Etats aux traités - Décolonisation, sécession, uniJication,
p. 119).
The African nations thus had to choose between two routes. They were
well aware of the evils which could follow from a rc:jectionof the colonial
frontiers in terms of the stability of the new States. They chose to opt for
the intangibility of those frontiers.
16. That is why both Parties in the present case have paid particular
attention to the issue of respect for colonial boundaries. That is a further
reason why 1 feel 1 sliould return to that issue.

17. One of Nigeri,a'scounsel stated at the hearing of 6 March 2002
that this is an important case and that the Cour 's decision "will have
serious consequences". He was absolutely right.
Indeed the whole of Africa has been awaiting he Court's Judgment,
fearing any impugnment of the principle of the "iiitangibility of colonial
frontiers".
18. That is also why 1 regret that the Court, ahile not rejecting that
principle (farfrom it)and applying it in practice, did not find it necessary
to discuss the issue further, merely stating, in rela,ion to Bakassi in par-
ticular, that it "has riot found it necessary to proriounce upon the argu-
ments of uti possidetis".
19. Respect for colonial boundaries is a principle of exceptional sig-

nificance in Africa. The strict application of such respect is a prerequisite
for peace and securit:yon that continent. The dispute between Cameroon
and Nigeria has raised new questions as to the principle's specific scope.
It was the Court's duty forcibly to reaffirm the obligation of uncondi-
tional respect incumbent upon every African Statc:.
The reason for this was set out by the Court i 1 the Frontier Dispute
(Burkina FczsolRepuiilicof'Mali) case :

"In fact, however, the maintenance of the trrritorial status quo in
Africa is often seen as the wisest course, to Freserve what has been
achieved by peoples who have struggled for tlieir independence, and
to avoid a disruption which would deprive the continent of the gains
achieved by much sacrifice. The essential reqiiirement of stability in
order to survive.,to develop and gradually to consolidate their inde-
pendence in al1fields, has induced African States judiciously to con-
sent to the respecting of colonial frontiers, and to take account of it
in the interpretation of the principle of self-determination of
peoples." (I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 567, para. 25.)

4. Nationality and Ethnicity in Africa

20. In relation to the Lake Chad region, the Court encountered the
issue of nationalitylethnicity conflicts that are so liequent in Africa.
We should never lose sight of the fact that, in .\frics,the majority of
countries were attributed their nationality only some 50 years ago.

By contrast, ethnii: groups have existed, and hzve often straddledthe LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP.CIPMBAYE) 510

international bound;rries between the new States, since time immemo-
rial.
As a result certain1authors have written that iii Africa, "contrary to
what occurred in Eu:rope, the State preceded the Iuation", although this
may not always be the case.
21. Whatever the truth of the matter, a natio,lality which has been

superimposed on ethnic groupings is, without tlie intervention of the
public authorities, felt much less strongly than ethiiicity. It may very well
be that two Kanuris (an ethnic group in the Lak: Chad region) of dif-
ferent nationalities fe:elmuch closer to one another than a Kanuri and a
Hausa (another ethnic group in that region) of the same nationality. Cer-

tain serious problerris of the African continent Ire explicable on this
basis. One can thus be easily led astray in good faith, attributing to
nationality what is solely a matter of ethnicity. Such a proposition might
be applied in the present case to the Lake Chad r1:gion and to the argu-
ments of Nigeria in this respect as regards thegerian villages.
It was this situation in Africa that impelled P~:lissierto writLesn

Paysans du SSbnkgal,on page 23: "National consciousness has not erased
the rich diversity aflong past . . . Deeply Senegillese for a few decades
only, our regions have been since time immemoi.ial . . . Wolof, Serer,
Toucouleur. Manding, Diola, Balant, etc. . . ."
22. Throughout the length of the boundary br:tween Cameroon and

Nigeria, it would seein that, for a very long time aiid notwithstanding the
various political statiuses enjoyed by these regions in the course of their
history (German, British or French possessions, iridependence), the indi-
genous populations lnave settled according to their ethnic affinities and
their economic needs in total disregard of territorial boundariesand

nationality, and that Governments have subseqlently sought to take
advantage of the particular situationsus createtl. This context did not
escape the attention of the Court in the present cL.se(see p67aof the
Judgment). That is why Africa's salvation lies in respect for colonial
boundaries, expressed unequivocally and without recourse to subtle dis-
tinctions. Later on we will considcr the two exceptil~nsto this proposition.

SECTION 2. DETERMINATI OFNTHE COURSE OF THE LAKE AND LAND
BCIUNDAR BYTWEEN THE TWOSTATES

23. The Court, as always in disputes like the present case, has deter-
mined the boundary between the two countries with precision, without
assuming the role ofademarcation authority (pam. 84 of the Jndgment).

24. 1 deliberately use the word "determination" and am employing it
in a general sense which encompasses the terms "rlelimitation", "demar-

cation" and "indicatiion". 1find it particularly appropriate in the present
case, with "determirie" meaning here: to indica e with precision. The
Court uses an equivalent term, in particular in pa -agr85hof its Judg-ment when it States the purpose of its task as beinl"to specijy dejinitively
the course of the . . . boundary . . ."(emphasis added by the Court). It

nevertheless defines and distinguishes between the two terms deliinitation
and denzarc-ation,as we shall see later.

1. Th'eBoundary in the Lake Chad Region

A. The instruinents applicable

25. When we address the question of whether or not there exists a
boundary between (lameroon and Nigeria in Lake Chad, we find our-
selves dealing mainly with the 1919 Milner-Sirrzon Declaration. That
Declaration was clarified in 1930by the Thomson-Marclîand Declaration,
which was confirmed and incorporated in tk~e Henderson-Fleuriau
Exchange of Notes between France and Great Britain on 9 January 193 1.
Those instrument:; had never been challenged wtil quite recently. They
describe the boundary in some detail from the "jiinction of the three old

British, French and German boundaries at a point in Lake Chad 13"05"
latitude north and approximately 14" 05" longitiide east of Greenwich"
to the Atlantic Ocean (Preamble to the Thomson-Marchand Declaration).

26. The Thomso11-Marchand Declaration coritains 138 paragraphs.
Signed on behalf of (Great Britain by the Governor of the Colony and the
Protectorates of Nig,eria and on behalf of France by the Governor of the

French Cameroons, it is, in my view, together jvith the Notes and the
accompanying Moisel map, a legally valid agreement which binds the
two Parties in the present case.
27. Nigeria and Cameroon agree on this point. The Court clearly
stated that:

"the Thomson-Marchand Declaration, as approved and incorpo-
rated in the Henderson-Fleuriau Exchange of Notes, has the status
of an international agreement. The Court acknowledges that the
Declaration does have some technical imperf:ctions and that certain
details remained to be specified. However, it finds that the Declara-

tion provided for a delimitation that was sufficient in general for
demarcation." (Para. 50 of the Judgment.)
28. However, as Nigeria had levied a certain lumber of criticisms at

the Declaration, it would not be unhelpful to address that one of those
criticisms which seems to me to carry the most weight for the Respon-
dent, notwithstanding the clear demonstration b:/ the Court in reaching
the conclusion cited above.

B. Legal force and significance of the Thonzson-Marchand Declaration

29. For Nigeria, the Exchange of Notes whick might give the Thom-

son-Marchand Declaration the appearance of an igreement in reality did LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP.OP. MBAYE) 512

not fix the boundary between its territory and that of Cameroon. Nigeria
based its argument on the following provision of ihe Notes exchanged by
the French and British authorities, in which we read in almost identical
terms that :

"The Declaration is not the product of a boundary commission
constituted for the purpose of carrying sut the provisions of
Article 1of the Mandate, but only the result of a preliminary survey
conducted in order to determine more evactly than was done
in the Milner-Slimon Declaration of 1919 ttie line ultimately to be
followed by the boundary Commission."

30. 1would first clfal1observe that in the ''Notvs" from the representa-
tives of France and Great Britain, the above-citec passage is followed by
this passage :

"nonetheless the Declaration does in substance define the frontier;
and . .it is therefore desirable that the agreement embodied therein
shall be confirnied by the two Governments in order that the actual
delimitation of the boundary may then be eltrusted to a boundary
commission, appointed for the purpose in accordance with the pro-
visions of Article 1 of the Mandate".

This passage is particularly helpful in shedding ight on the intention of
the signatory parties.
31. Nigeria argued that the Thomson-March,ind Declaration repre-
sented only an announcement of the procedure to be followed and of a
programme to be iniplemented.
32. Cameroon, 011 the other hand, accorded it the binding force of a
valid legal instrumeiît.
33. It is readily apparent simply from reading paragraph 3 of the two
Notes that there was a willon the part of both parties, Great Britain on the

one hand, France ori the other, to resolve the protilem of the boundary of
their "possessions", as they were called at that peri,)d. Thus in paragraph 3
the word "confirm" appears twice as does the word "agreement". It seems
to me not unhelpful to quote paragraph 3, which reads as follows:
"His Majesty's Government note that the French Government by
their note under reference confirm, for their part, the agreement

embodied in the Declaration; and 1 have the honour in reply to
inform Your Excellency hereby that His Majesty's Government
similarly confirimthis agreement."
There was certainly an agreement, as the Court found.
34. In the course of oral argument, Nigeria eventually recognized that
the Declaration wa:; an instrument which both Parties accepted. How-

ever, it noted that the Declaration contained defects which required more
than a simple process of demarcation. Nigeria enuinerated 22 such defects,
which the Court examined in detail in paragraphs 86 to 192 of its Judg-
ment. 1will not dwell on that. 35. One of Nigeria's counsel claimedthat the texts delimiting the fron-
tier were so badly drafted in a number of places that they could not be
regarded as instruments of delimitation, and ~hat such delimitation
remained to be effected. Nigeria's counselstated that "the colonial bound-
ary agreements of the period 1906to 1931did nct produce a conclusive
delimitation in the Lake Chad region". Counsel tlien listed 33 villages in
the Lake Chad region which he claimed were Nigerian, with the apparent
exception of one, said to be inhabited by Malian nationals.
The Court did noitaccept his claim.

C. Delimitcztion- ~Zemarcation
(i) General considerations

36. The Parties stressed the distinction between delimitation and
demarcation (para. 134of the Judgment). This debate, looked at from a
viewpoint contemporary with the instruments applicable in the present
case, was rightly approached by the Court with caution. It gave a clear
definition (inthe pa:ragraph cited) of delimitatiori on the one hand and

demarcation on the other. But the important thing was to determine the
boundary between the two States. TheCourt did so without overstepping
itsjudicial role, conifining itself to interpreting rlnd applying the legal
instruments which delimit that boundary.
37. Thus it was for the Court in this case to interpret the Fleuriau-
Henderson Exchangt: of Notes and the Thomson-Marchand Declaration.
It performed that taijk successfully.
38. In my view, when the two authorities representing Great Britain
and France speak in their respective Notes of: "the actual delimitation
[délimitations proprement dites]", what they meiln is what in this case
the Parties finally agreed tocal1"demarcation".
1believe that, on studying the abundance of tietail contained in the
Thomson-Marchand Declaration, one is bound to reach that conclusion,
subject to the defects or "defective delimitations" cited by Nigeria.
39. Nigeria enumerated a number of such defective delimitations, as 1
have already pointed out. The Court examined each of them and, through
reasoning based on law or on findings of fact, reai:hed conclusions that 1

will not venture to cliscusshere, even though sonie of them do not pre-
cisely correspond to those which 1myself had reached. Once applied on
the ground, the consequence of choosing one solution rather than another
will, in any event,be:relatively minimal.

(ii) The LCBC

40. As regards demarcation, according to Canieroon the Lake Chad
Basin Commission (LCBC) was charged with the task of undertaking the
demarcation of the boundary, although the Commission itself spoke of
delimitation (see Lagos Declaration of 21 June 1571). LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP. OP. MBAYE) 514

41. According to Nigeria, the LCBC also undertook a true delimita-
tion, which of course, in logical terms, justified th(:Respondent's position

that there had been no prior delimitation. And Nigeria stressed the fact
that the demarcation works did not bind it, sinc: it had never accepted
their conclusions.
42. In its 1998 Judgment on the Preliminary Objections, the Court
described the LCBC:'stask. In this regard, it speaks of demarcution.

43. Created in 1964, the LCBC became involvi-d with the delimitation
of the boundary following incidents between Cameroon and Nigeria in
1983 in the Lake Chad region. The States concerned agreed to adopt as
working documents dealing with the "delimitation" of the boundaries in
Lake Chad "various bilateral treaties and agreemc:nts concluded between

Germany and Great Britain between 1906 and 1913". The experts pro-
posed that the boundary as thus delimited "be dcmarcated".

Thus the LCBC'r; task was one of demarcation as the Court found
(I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 305, 307 and 308, paras 65 and 70) in its Judg-
ment on Nigeria's preliminary objections. This is reiterated by the Court

in paragraph 55 of the present Judgment, where ic indicates: "The Court
observes that the LCBC had engaged for seven yc:arsin a technical exer-
cise of demarcation. on the basis of instruments that were agreed to be
the instruments deliimiting the frontier in Lake Chad."

D. Cartography

44. In the present case, there has been an outright battle of maps.
The old maps, in particular those used in the pr:paration of the Thom-

son-Marchand Declaration (especially the Moi:el map), were heavily
criticized by Nigeria. One of its counsel charged that they contained
approximations and even errors, as well as gaps and contradictions.

45. Naturally, maps dating from 1919, 1930 2r 1931 will inevitably

reflect the weaknesses of the contemporary techn~ques employed in their
preparation. But that is not a sufficient reason to reject en bloc the infor-
mation which they provide. Moreover, we should not forget what the
Court has said on niaps in general:

"maps merely constitute information which \iaries in accuracy from
case to case; of themselves, and by virtue solely of their existence,
they cannot constitute a territorial title, that is, a document endowed
by international law with intrinsic legal foice for the purpose of
establishing territorial rights. Of course, in some cases maps may
acquire such legal force, but where this is so the legal force does not

arise solely frorn their intrinsic merits:t is because such maps fall
into the category of physical expressions of the will of the State or
States concerned. This is the case, for example, when maps are
annexed to an official text of which they form an integral part. Except in this clearly defined case, maps are snly extrinsic evidence
of varying reliability or unreliability which may be used, along with

other evidence of a circumstantial kind, to establish or reconstitute
the real facts." [(FrontierDispute (Burkina FasolRepublic of Mali)
I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 582, para. 54; see also KasikililSedudu Island
(Botsi.i~anulNumibia), I.C. J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1098, para. 84.)

However, in the present case, the Anglo-Germ.in Agreement of 1913
does accord a certain importance to the maps (see final provisions of that

Agreement).

E. Effectivitésand legal title

46. The debate in the present case largely focused on the opposition
between legal title anid effectivités.

(i) General considerations

47. In order to make good the alleged absence cf delimitation, Nigeria
invoked efictivités -- effectivités which confirmed its historie title. To
illustrate its argumeint, it cited the occupation of Darak and the sur-
rounding villages by Nigerians, together with a whole series of other facts
which, according to Nigeria, clearly demonstrated the exercise of its sov-

ereignty in the part of the Lake Chad area which if claimed. Nigeria even
contended that there had been acquiescence on thz part of Cameroon.
48. The Court addresses this issue at length in p~ragraphs 64 et seq. of
its Judgment, stating clearly that: "any Nigerian ejfiectivitésare indeed to
be evaluated for theii-legal consequences as acts cmtru legem" (para. 64
of the Judgment).

The Court moreover rejected Nigeria's argument as to alleged acqui-
escence on the part of Cameroon.
49. 1 can only approve such conclusions; in particular, the absence of
any acquiescence by Cameroon in the present caschis quite clear. Acqui-
escence to an extension of sovereignty over a portion of the national ter-

ritory of a State requires a long period and a c.lear and unequivocal
voluntary acceptance, which is not the situation ir the present case. The
circumstances in the Temple of Preah Villeur and El SalvadorlHonduras
cases were different from those in the Cameroon \ . Nigeria case.

50. Neither during the colonial period, nor duriiig the periods of Man-

date and Trusteeship, nor since independence, h,is there occurred any
consent by Cameroon which would enable those areas to be considered
as forming part of Nigeria.
51. Evidence of the absence of acquiescence is indeed provided by thevery existence of the LCBC, of its work and of the way in which the two
Parties continuously collaborated in the exercise of the functions con-
ferred upon it by the countries involved. In this regard, it makes no dif-
ference that Nigeria subsequently refused to as:,ociate itself with the
LCBC's conclusions.

52. In any event, the Court rightly affirmed tha where there is a legal
title (and in this case there is a legal title), that title must prevail over
ejfictivités.The Chainber in the Frontier Dispute 'Burkina FasolRepub-
lie of Muli) case forcibly restated this in regard tctuti possidetis juris.

53. In this connection, note should be taken of the very interesting
passages of the Court's Judgment (paras. 65 et seq.)in which it addresses
the highly controvers.ial theory of the "historical (,onsolidation of title",
observing that :

"nothing in the ~~isheriesJudgment suggests tliat the 'historical con-
solidation' referred to, in connection with the zxternal boundaries of
the territorial sea, allows land occupation to prevail over an estab-

lished treaty title:".

54. 1 consider it unnecessary to add to the 1enl:thof this opinion by
enlarging on what the Chamber said in the Frontier Dispute (Burkina
FasolRepublic uf Mali) case. 1 agree with the Co~rt that the ejfectivités
in the present case cannot prevail over legal title. In this regard, the
Chamber took up a position which permits of no ambiguity:

"Where the act corresponds exactly to law, ~whereeffective admin-
istration is additional to the uti possidetis juris,the only role of
qffectivittis to confirm the exercise of the riglit derived from a legal
title. Where the iict does not correspond to the law, where the terri-
tory which is the subject of the dispute is effectively administered by
a State other than the one possessing the legal title, preference
should be given to the holder of the title." (I.C.J. Reports 1986,

pp. 586 and 587. para. 63.)

55. The Court has adopted the same position iri the present case.
In my view, as regards frontier disputes, the lzctuul continuous and
peuceful displrrl,qf Sl'atefunctions (which is not the case here) can serve
as the sound and natural criterion of territorial soi~ereignty.
That principle only holds good, however, on ccndition that "no con-
ventional line of sufficient topographical precisiorr exists or if there are
gaps in the frontiers otherwise established, or if a conventional line leaves
room for doubt" (Reports of International ArbitLrulAwards (RIAA),
Vol. II, p. 840; Revuclgénérale de droitinternationalpublic, pp. 165-166,
cited in I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), separate opinior of Judge Kooijmans,
p. 1146,para. 14). (ii) The Xigerian villages in Lake Chad

56. 1now come to the question of the so-called "Nigerian" villages in
the Lake Chad region. I will not go back over ~vhatcounsel for Cam-
eroon have already said about these villages, in particular their relatively
recent character, moreover emphasized by the Co ~rtin the present Judg-
ment (para. 65), anid their establishment folloaing the retreat of the
shores of Lake Chatl.
57. 1would simply mention an issue, already rzferred to in passing in

my general considerutions, on which the Parties clidnot enlarge, namely
that of the nationality of villagers settled besidO,-straddling, an African
boundary. This is a phenomenon that we find al1over the continent. In
settling under such circumstances, the villagers in question have no sense
at al1of doing so in pursuance of a national identity, with which efforts
have only been made to imbue them for just over 10years, but because it
is a custom in Africa to ignore linear boundarics, which are a foreign
importation, especially when men and women of the same ethnie origin
live on the other sicle. Moreover, as counsel for Nigeria pointed out in
oral argument, "the villages move with the water '.

This is in al1likelihood what has occurred in tlie case of the Nigerian
villages along the shore of Lake Chad, whose surface has varied consid-
erably over the yeai-s in the form of a marked ~.ecessionof the waters
(para. 58 of the Judgment).
58. By the same token, we find in Gambia v llages of Wolofs from
Senegal and vice versa. Often what counts is ethr~icityand not national-
ity, which is a recenit notion in Africa. One of Nigeria's counsel recog-
nized that among the Lake Chad villages thr~re is one said to be
Malian - a point which speaks for itself.
59. In the case concerning KasikililSedudu Island (Botswana1

Numibia), the Court had to deal with the problern of the Masubia, who
had settled on the island in dispute, and of whcm the Court said "the
activities of theMaijubia on the Island were an independent issue from
that of title to the1r;land"(1.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1106,para. 98).
The existence of a colony of Nigerians in Lake C'had,to the east of the
border, has no bearing on the sovereignty of th(, territories where they
have been living. That is also n separate issue to that of the title to the
territory where thosi:Nigerians are living.

F. Determination oj-the mouth oj'the Ebeji

60. The course of the boundary in Lake Chad iaised a problem which
Nigeria opportunely highlighted. This problem represented an example
of the work of interpretation which Nigeria inviteclthe Court to carry out
and which Cameroon accepted that it should do.
61. According to the Thomson-Marchand Decl;~ration,the lake bound-
ary starts from a tripoint with CO-ordinates 13"05" latitude north and
approximately 14"05" longitude east. It is also stated that the boundary runs in a stiaight line.

62. The problem arises in regard to the endpoint of that straight line.
The Declaration places this at the "mouth of the Ebeji" without indicat-
ing the exact co-ordinates. Unfortunately, this river now flows into Lake
Chad dowii two channels and not from a single mouth. Each Party
endeavoured to show that the mouth contemplited by the applicable

instrument now takes or should take the form oi-the channel that sup-
ported its respective arguments. Cameroon opted Forthe western channel
and Nigeria for the eastern one. The LCBC had found a compromise
solution which Nigeria did not accept.
63. The Court had to settle the problem thus 1)osedand it did so.

The Court had to ascertain the intentions of the parties to the Declara-
tion and at the same time seek to place itself at tlie time when that Dec-
laration was signed. Such a solution was not totally adapted to the
present case. Eventuially, based on the relevant fictors, the Court found

itself with three choices:
- to choose one oj'the two channels,

- to adopt the proposa1 of the LCBC, or
- to interpret the IDeclaration itself.

The Court favoured the latter solution. For my part, 1would certainly
agree with that.
64. Addressing the concerns of Nigeria, which had spoken of the fate
and conduct of the "Nigerian" inhabitants if the territories which it

claimed were to be recognized as belonging to Cameroon, the Court
acknowledged the undertaking by the Agent of Cameroon on behalf of
his country that the Nigerians remaining in Came(-oon would continue to
live there under the same conditions as other per:;ons of other nationali-
ties, just as occurs in other parts of Africa ancl indeed elsewhere. By

doing so the Court gave legal weight to this unilateral undertaking
invoked in the judicial debate. It was entitled to do so. It thus recorded
that undertaking as follows in the clispositif of the Judgment:

"Take~ note of the commitment undertaken by the Republic of
Cameroon at the hearings that, 'faithful to ts traditional policy of
hospitality and tolerance', it 'will continue ro afford protection to
Nigerians living in the [Bakassi] Peninsula and in the Lake Chad

area"' (para. V (C)).
On this point we c:anobserve that what is true for Lake Chad is equally

so for Baküssi.

2. Bakassi

65. Nigeria's essential argument on the issue of Bakassi was that Great

Britain could not cede to Germany what did not belong to it. And
Nigeria then enlarged upon the theory of the existence in this region ofKings and Chiefs whose territory could not be disposed of without their
consent. Nigeria recognized that these Kings ancl Chiefs inhabited the
territory of an "acephalous federation" rather thaii any form of regional
political subdivision. It nonetheless accorded themiinternational person-
ality and relied for this purpose on a colonial treat) of 1884(see C below)
and on a number of other arguments, including the nemo dut quod non
hahet principle, which the Court examined in detail and to which 1will

not return.
66. Nigeria's argument against the 1913 Franco-German Agreement
further relied on its alleged non-opposability; but any such non-oppos-
ability would since have been made good by the <,onductof the parties,
following that of the colonial Powers. But 1 sh;ill return later to the
matter of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar (sce D below).
Moreover, on the siubjectof whether Bakassi beionged to one Party or
the other, a number of key questions were raised that cannot be addressed,
in my view, without first considering the validity of colonial treaties.

A. Colonial treaties

(i) The validity of colonial treatie.~in general
67. Various treatie:~were signed in Africa betwesn the colonial Powers

and the "kinglets" of the time, as they were called in the history books of
school children of m:ygeneration, not without a cxtain contempt which
numbers of Africans have remarked upon and deplored. In the Bakassi
Peninsula alone, the ,4gent of Nigeria counted 17'uch treaties, on one of
which he focused as 'beinga treaty under internatianal law. This was the
Treaty of 1884 between Great Britain and the Kings and Chiefs of Old
Calabar. Such treaties were concluded by the dozen in the course of the
colonization from which Africa has so greatly siiffered. This historical
reality is emphasizecl by the Court in paragraph 203 of its Judgment.
Their purpose was si:mplyto serve the "dismembeiment" decreed against
Africa at the Berlin Conference or earlier.
68. In sub-Sahara11Africa, the sole purpose of the protectorates which
resulted from the colonial treaties was to creatt. a system of indirect
administration. They could be distinguished frorr treaties of protection
which were international in character. The kings aiid chiefs in the admin-
istrative divisions formed by the villages, districis and provinces took

over the duties of the colonizers. Such situations were not unusual and
could hardly be said to attribute any real persona1 power to these local
authorities.Thus in Senegal such kings and chiefs rollected taxes, admin-
istered justice, took censuses, etc. They still exist ir certain countries with
or without power. Iri Senegal a statute gave them their quietus.
69. Such "colonial treaties" protected the inhabitants and the territory
where they lived against other colonial Powers, basically, and quite
simply for the benefit of the European signatory. In the present case thetreaties involved weri: indeed coloniul protectorate treaties or treaties of
protection.
70. The Court des~rribedthem as having been 'entered into not with
States, but rather with important indigenous rule~sexercising local rule
over identifiable areas of territory" (para. 205 of the Judgment).
This is a disguised way of saying that they were "colonial treaties".
71. What view should be taken of colonial treaiies?
Thus the agreements or treaties signed in sub-Saliaran Africa before or
after the Berlin Conference by the colonizing States with the numerous
"kinglets" (as they were called) were simply inten~ledto warn the other
colonial Powers that specificparts of the black con inent were now a pos-
session falling within the zone of influence of a given European State.

Thus, the General Act of the Berlin Conference (Chap. VI, Art. 34) pro-
vides: "The Power which henceforth shall take pcssession of a territory
upon the Coast of the African continent situated outside of its present
possessions . . .shall accompany the respective zct with a notification
addressed to the other . . Powers . . ."
That is true not only of Nigeria and Cameroon but of everywhere else
in Africa. Such treaties of protection of the kincl cited by counsel for
Nigeria were signed by the dozen. The Court itself has pointed this out in
its Judgment. They had no validity in international law. To accord them
such validity now would be to open a Pandora's box. The chiefs them-
selveshad no precise idea of the territorial boundaries of the areas which
they g0vernt.d.
72. The problem here is not to make a value jucgment today concern-
ing those rules and practices but rather, in the corltext of intertemporal
law, to take note of them. The Court does not have the authority to
revise international liiw. It is not entitled to assesi the practices of past

times, still less to rely onsuch assessment in support of a decision. The
Court should simply, where necessary, note the cf aracteristics and rules
of the various phases in the development of interniitional law in order to
interpret it and apply it to the facts of the period in question.
73. It should be recalled that the notion of a liiear frontier is not an
African one. It was imported into the continent by the colonial Powers.
That does not mean to say that human groupings in pre-colonial Africa
placed no reliance ori boundaries. But these were natural: rivers, moun-
iains, forests, etc. Thr:black African concept was one of tribes and ethnic
groups with their chir:fs,"wherever they [were]to tie found", as Nigeria's
Agent put it. The power of the chief was exercise~lover subjects and to
some extent over villages or townships. When histcrians speak of African
kingdoms or empires what is very often actually meant is groupings of
settlements whose inhabitants acknowledged the s lzerainty of a particu-
lar king or chief.
74. Moreover, the colonial treaties in question were rarely signed by

the duly authorized representatives of the colonial State. Often, those
who signed them were explorers, merchants, ~iavigators, sometimes
junior military officers. But these treaties which tliey signed enabled thecolonial State whose nationals they were to dispose of the areas con-
quered, explored or simply visited pending their unnexation pure and
simple. This word "annexation", with its ambiguous meaning given the
distance froin the coiintries in question, was a convenient way of reflect-
ing the colonizers' right to dispose of the territor:~concerned, the terri-
tory in their "possession" (to employ the term found in the General Act
of the Berlin Conference). It is on this basis that Professor Pierre-
François Gonidec st,ates in the Encyclopédiejuridique de l'Afrique on
page 24 of Volume II :"the annexed territories became an integral part of

the territory of the colonial State. IIIconsequencc, the latter had a free
right of disposal over them and could cede them to foreign States accord-
ing to its political needs". And Gonidec continues by giving an example:
"thus we have the 1Çl11Agreement involving a swap between Germany
and France in Equatorial Africa and Morocco".
This statement by one of the greatest experts in African law applies
very well to Ourcase. Gonidec adds, moreover: "thzre was only one Gov-
ernment left, that of the metropole, subject to some form of delegation to
local representatives of the central Power or to the use of traditional
chiefs as auxiliaries of the colonial Power".
It was this situation that Nigeria invoked in siipport of its position.
The system of indirect rule, for which there were many reasons, was
employed everywhere:in Africa.
75. Finally, 1 canriot resist the temptation to cite one more passage
from Gonidec :

"In international terms, the annexed countries lost al1personality.
In truth, they viere considered never to hay~ebeen legal persons
(since they were not recognized as having the status of States). How-
ever, those carry,ingout colonial conquest agrced to enter into agree-
ments called 'treaties' with African authoritie; . . .and this implied
that African coiuntries did have internationail personality. Subse-
quently, howevei-,some legal experts maintained that in reality these

were not genuin~etreaties but mere agreements under interna1 law,
basing this argument on the fact that they had not been concluded
between indepenident States. This enabled t11osepseudo-protector-
ates to be easily annexed (generally by meri: decree)." (Emphasis
added.)
Colonial delimitation treaties were subsequently rehabilitated.

(ii)Specijic value of colonial delimitation treatics

76. 1wish to returi~once more to the question of the respect for colo-
nial boundaries.
77. As has already been said, the countries of Aiiica, meeting in Cairo
in 1964,adopted resolution AGHIRes. 16 (l), under which :"al1Member
States [ofthe Organization of African Unity] pledg~:themselves to respect
the frontiers existing on their achievement of national independence". LAND ANI) MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP. OP. MBAYE) 522

78. The Parties agreed that this principle, which they called uti possi-
detisjuris, was applicable to the present case. The Court did not see fit to
have recourse to it. 1regret that.
This principle clearly means that Nigeria could lot challenge today a
boundary which existed for 47 years before its independence and which
Nigeria itself unequivocally accepted as the bouncary between its terri-

tory and that of Cameroon from 1960 to 1977.

If one were not to accept this, what would be thi: purpose of the prin-
ciple of respect for colonial boundaries? If we refer to paragraphs 19
to 26 of the Court's Judgment in the Frontier Dispute case, we can clearly
see the importance attached by Africa, and by the (:ourt too, to the prin-
ciple.
The Chamber stated:

"Although theireis no need, for the purposcs of the present case,
to show that this is a firmly established principie of international law
where decolonization is concerned, the Chamter nonetheless wishes
to emphasize its general scope, in view of its ezceptional importance
for the African continent and for the two Parties" (I.C.J. Reports

1986, p. 565, para. 20);

and continued :
"It is a genera.1principle, which is logicall;~connected with the
phenornenon of the obtaining of independence, wherever it occurs.

Its obvious purpose is to prevent the independence and stability of
new States being irndangered by fratricidal stru2gles provoked by the
challenging of frontiers following the withdraival of the administer-
ing power." (Ibicl.)

79. When African States speak of uti possidetis Juristhey employ the
phrase "intangihility c.lf'colonifrontiers". These mords best reflect their
common view. Of course it would be unreasonable to conclude from this
that frontiers are iminutable. They can certainly be modified, not by
invoking their technical defects but only in accordance with the rules of
international law - in other words, by mutual agreement or by judicial
decisions. In the latter case, the forum seised of thv matter must confine
itself to interpretingthe instruments determining the boundary and must

not rewrite them. In other words, it may remedy material defects but not
alleged legal errors.T\NOcases illustrate this point. ?'hecase of the mouth
of the Ebeji (a material defect) and the case of the "Nigerian" villages of
Lake Chad (an alleged legal error). This second case would involve a
legal rectification. The same applies to the historical consolidation
invoked by Nigeria in respect of Bakassi. The Court does not have a
power of rectification. A court cannot change a clear provision. That
would exceed its powi:r.
80. My general coriclusion on the dispute is the same as that of the LAND AND MARITIME BOLINDARY (SEP.ClP.MBAYE) 523

Court: there is indeetl a boundary between Nigeria and Cameroon. That
boundary derives from the following instruments:

- the Thomson-Marchand Declaration,
- the 1913 Agreemitnts,
- the Order in Council of 1946.

Any other decision would have represented an a-tempt by the Court to
change the law so as to make it coincide with whxt it regarded as being
normal and fair ancl consistent with the reality on the ground. That

approach is possible in intellectual and political terms. But the Court
States the law. It has a jurisprudence, which it is bound to respect and
which it is not entitletl to change save in case of ab:.olute necessity and on
the basis of sound legal reasoning. That is not the case here.
81. In this respect, it will be recalled that, in relation to an alleged

"clash" of new declarations of acceptance of the compulsory jurisdiction
of the Court with declarations already existing, Nig,eriawas perfectly well
aware of the Court's iestablishedjurisprudence on this question; but what
Nigeria wanted was in essence that the Court sho lld change what actu-
ally existed. The Court did not agree to follow tliat route. It remained

firm to its jurisprudence. The Court's mission is to contribute to the
establishment of peac:eby applying the law. That law must be applied in
al1cases.
82. Returning to my general conclusion in tlie present dispute, it
should be noted that in the Encyclopédie juridiqul. de l'Afrique, in Vol-

ume II dealing with "international law and interna- ional relations", there
is a chapter devoted to "national territory". That chapter was written by
Professor Chemillier-'Gendreau and Mr. Dominique Rosenberg. In para-
graph (2), entitled "the case-by-case situation between African States",
there is a subheading "C" entitled "the boundarit:~ between Cameroon

and Nigeria".
1should like to quote what the Encyclopaedia Ilas to say:
"On 12July 1i384,the territories of Camercbon became a German

Protectorate and that was notified to the othcr Powers on 15 Octo-
ber 1883. On 5 June 1885 a British Protector;lte, initially called the
Oil Rivers Protectorate and then the Niger Coast Protectorate, was
established to th(: West of that of Cameroon . . . [These two posses-
sions] were defiriitively delimited by the Agriements of 11 March

and 12 April 1913." (Encyclopédiejuridique dr ['Afrique, p. 76.)

Later in the same text we read the following:

"Thus the bouildary runs from Lake Chad ul)to the River Gamana
on the basis of the above-mentioned agreements of 1931, with the

subsequent transverse section of the bountlary from the River
Gamana to Mount Kombon being a British colonial boundary
which became the international boundary aier the plebiscites of
1961 ." (Ibid,p. 77.) The authors then ijummarized the situation as follows: "Thus from the
River Gamana to the Cross River, then to the sea, the boundary is that
laid down by the Anglo-German Agreements of II March 1913." (Ency-
clopédiejuridique del'Afrique, p. 76.)
83. This is the lake and land boundary as derited from the law rather
than from faits accomplis. The conclusion reached by the Court confirms
this. As it says, "Bakassi is Cameroonian". And this is indeed what
was said by one of Africa's greatest jurists- who also happens to be
Nigerian. The letter produced to the Court in which he states that

Bakassi belongs to Cameroon is a fact which the Court had in its
possession, even tholugh it refrained from relying on it.
Having discussed the colonial treaties, 1 will t lrn now to two issues
related to such treaties: the 1884 Treaty and the question of the Kings
and Chiefs of Old Calabar.

B. Legal Jorcr of the1884 Treaty

84. The Treaty of Protection of 1884between Great Britain and the
Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar resembles a grzat many other agree-
ments establishing a colonialprotectorate of the kind described below by
Sibert. Its legal forci: is theme, as can be seen from a reading of the
extract provided by counsel for Nigeria.
85. Great Britain was not bound, in terms of the contemporary prac-
tice, by the adage ne~nodut quod non habet, for the good reason that the
territory whose boundaries it had agreed to determinejointly with another
colonial Power had been "annexed" by it. HO~V could it have been

required to be bound by this adage, given that Ge -many itself was under
no obligation to comply with the terms of a "treat y" of whose very exis-
tence it may well have been entirely unaware. Inary event, Germany was
protected by the viell-known rule regarding ihe relative effect of
treaties (res inter alios ucta).
86. The Parties did not place any emphasis or the treatment of this
question in the Arbitral Award concerning the I,;land of Palmas (non-
opposability to the Dutch Government of the Spanish-American Peace
Treaty of 10December 1898ceding to the United States the Philippines
and its dependencies, including the Island ofPalmxs, occupied since 1677
by the Netherlands (IPIAA, Vol. V,pp. 471-473)),clespitethe fact that the
Award was quoted Nzextenso by counsel for Nigeria.
87. The Court co~lldnot simply place a parent lesis around that part
of the 1913Agreement which relates to Bakassi, on the sole ground that
the "City States beloiiging to the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar" were
covered by it.
It followed that Nigeria's argument based on "historical consolidation

of title" was bound to fail here, as it did in the Lake Chad region.
Thus it was to the instruments of 1913that the Court had to look in
order to determine the course of the boundary in he present case, inter-
preting or clarifying them as required. LAND AN13 MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP.OP.MBAYE) 525

88. Moreover, as 1 have already indicated, 1 believe we should avoid
involving ourselves too much in the semantic controversy as between
"delimitation" and "tiemarcation". The essential 1es in what the Parties
asked of the Court in pursuance of its task of adjudication: to determine
the boundary between the two States concerned, n accordance with its

Statute.

C. The question of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar
89. There werea certain number of us, in particular before the accession
of African States to independence,who fought againrt thedoctrinal notions
of "terra nullius" or "absence of sovereignty" whichhad served as a pre-

text for colonization. Our struggle was a political one. African historians
came to the rescue of'the politicians in order to re:,tore the dignity of the
African kings and chiefs and to re-establish the truth about the past.
90. African kings and chiefs were indeed the lawful representatives of
their subjects. However "they governed not the land but the people"
(Encyclopédie juridique de l'Afrique, Vol. 2, pp 68-69). Counsel for
Nigeria stated as muirh.
91. Before the act:sof independence of the 1960s (and still today) it
was and is necessary i:ocorrect the mistakes of a betrayal of history. Afri-
can leaders were very well aware of this when their countries acceded to

independence; they iirged it. But in 1964 they pr':ferred to align them-
selvesnot with historiicaltruth but with the law, in decreeing that colonial
boundaries should not be touched. They thus closed the road to any
secessionist notions. That is why, when Biafra tlefied the principle in
1967,they united behind Nigeria in order to fight the secessionists.
92. What of the colonial protectorates?
According to Max Huber (Island of Palmas case):

"it is not an agreement between equals; it is rather a form of interna1
organisation of elcolonial territory, on the basis of autonomy for the
natives. . . And thus suzerainty over the native State becomes the
basis of territorial sovereignty as towards other members of the com-
munity of nations" (RZAA, Vol. II, p. 858; lievue générale dedroit
international public, Vol. XLII, 1935,p. 187).

Once again, it is not a matter of casting a value -udgment on rules that
prevailed in the late riineteenth and early twentieth century, but of noting
with due objectivity l~hat they meant at the time. Colonial protectorates
do not generally meet the criteria of statehood (set Bengt Brons in Inter-
national Laiv - Achievements and Prospects, Vol. 1, p. 54).
Colonial protectorates are described by Marcel Sibert as follows: "a
Power sought to extend its exclusive right of action over 'non-civilized'
countries . . .which it did not wish to annex iminediately as colonies"
(Traité de droit inter,nationalpublic, Vol. 1, p. 157,para. 111).
One is entitled to disagree with such a practice -- as 1 do personally -
and above al1with the terms used. 93. The fact remaiiis that this was legally true O 'entire territories and
even more so of townships under the influence of kings or chiefs, as well

as of other rules of which we disapprove today. Tliis form of protection
had a purely persona1 value. The individual protected was the chief, even
if, through the misuse of language, the word "terril ory" was to be found
in the agreements. He was protected against his local rivals, against slav-
ery and against other disasters and above al1his territory was protected,
and carefully delimited (sometimes on the basis of gunshot range as in

Gambia), against other colonizers. When the Gencral Act of the Berlin
Conference speaks of the "possessions" of the "signatory Powers", it
makes no distinction between those Powers which had acquired posses-
sions and those whicli had taken on protectorates.
The foregoing remarks apply to the Kings and (:biefsof Old Calabar.

The questions poseldby Judge Kooijmans in regard to these Kings and
Chiefs produced replies which were ambiguous, nclt to Say embarrassed,
and which confirm the above remarks, which havt: had a decisive effect
on the identification of the point where the bound,ary reaches the sea.

D. Terminal point of the boundary on the coast

94. The land boundary terminates at the sea.
It is surprising that Nigeria should have located this terminal point on
the Rio del Rey.
95. Cameroon pointed out that Nigeria sought to rely on prior nego-
tiations in order to make the Akwayafe disappear from the definition of

the boundary (despite more recent negotiations) an'i to replace it with the
Rio del Rey. But Nigeria could not do otherwise as long as it sought to
shelter behind the fragile screen of the Kings and izhiefs of Old Calabar
in order to protect its position in regard to Bakassi. It fortified this screen
with the notion of "historical consolidation", which could have no effect
on the legal title of C'ameroon.

96. The boundary is clearly defined by the 191:. Agreements (the last
instruments accepted by the Parties and concluded by their colonial pre-
decessors). Both Parties agreed on this, if we lea-deout of account the
matter of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar. Following the thalweg of
the River Akwayafe, it terminates at the midpoint of a line joining

Bakassi Point to King Point and it is from here thst the maritime delimi-
tation must start.
97. This is a reply to Nigeria's eighth prelimi~iary objection, which
moreover lost much of its force once it was accepted that the boundary
had been clearly delirnited and that its endpoint oii the coast was indeed
that indicated by the 1913 Agreement. This objection was also weakened

as regards its second limb by the fact that Equatorial Guinea intervened
in the case, even if it did so, as was made clear by the Court, "without
being a party", as it was perfectly entitled to do. 98. It is true that Nigeria contended that the Yaoundé II and Maroua
Agreements did not iiidicate the starting point of the dividing line between
the two States' maritime areas as being situated ;it the "mouth" of the
Akwayafe.

99. But this argument is contradicted by the negotiations between the
two countries, which referred to the 1913 Agreement, and by British
Admiralty Chart No. 3433, which served as the 13asisfor those Agree-
ments, and on which the Heads of State of Cimeroon and Nigeria
marked a line and appended their signatures.

100. As regards the maritime boundary, the Court had to address the
request by Cameroon "for the tracing of a prt:cise line of maritime
delimitation". In support of that request, Cameroon had produced an
equitahle line.
101. The most imlportant issue in regard to th(: determination of the
maritime boundary concerned the Maroua Declaration, whose validity

was challenged by Nigeria, its importance being eniphasized by the Court
in the following termis:
"If the Maroua Declaration represents an international agreement
binding on both parties, it necessarily follows that the line contained
in the Yaoundé II Declaration, including the CO-ordinatesas agreed
at the June 1971meeting of the Joint Boundary Commission, is also
binding on therri." (Para. 262 of the Judgmer t.)

1. The Maroua Declaration

A. Identijication of the problem

102. As regards the question of whether or not legotiations had taken
place, and as the Court had already pointed out when examining
[Nigeria's] seventh pi-eliminaryobjection,

"it ha[d] not been seised on the basis of Article 36, paragraph 1, of
the Statute, and, in pursuance of it, in accortlance with Part XV of
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea relating to the
settlement of disputes arising between the parties to the Convention
with respect to its interpretation or application" (1.C.J. Reports
1998, pp. 321-322, para. 109).
The Court explained that

"[ilt ha[d] been seised on the basis of declarations made under
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute, whic:hdeclarations do not
contain any condition relating to prior negotiations to be con-
ducted within a reasonable time period" (ibi~'.p. 322, para. 109). LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP.OP. MBAYE) 528

The Court did nonetheless state that: "Camerocn and Nigeria entered
into negotiations wiith a view to determining the whole of the maritime
boundary" (1.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 322, para. 110) and that "[ilt was

during these negotiations that the Maroua Declaration relating to the
course of the maritime boundary up to point G \vas drawn up" (ihid.).
We may conclude from these passages that the1.ewere indeed negotia-
tions between the two Parties with an undetermiced geographical objec-
tive and that these negotiations resulted, up to pointG, in an agreement
known as the "Maroua Declaration".

That Declaration ,wasregarded by Cameroon a:;legally binding on the
two Parties, whereas Nigeria took the contrary view.

103. It should be recalled that Nigeria had raised an eighth prelimi-
nary objection. The Court joined that objection to the merits. Before

dealing with the maritime delimitation, it was necc:ssaryto settle the inci-
dental point raised by this eighth Nigerian objzction. 1 have already
stated the Court's firiding above in respect of the irst limb of that objec-
tion.
104. Nigeria also argued that the question of the maritime delimita-
tion between its territory and that of Cameroon lecessarily affected the

rights and interests of third States and that Caineroon's claim in this
regard was accordinply inadmissible.
105. The Court had stated in its 1998Judgmen that this eighth objec-
tion "d[id] not have, in the circumstances of the case an exclusively pre-
liminary character" (I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 326, operative para. 118 (2))
and took the view that it was thus required to (lecide how far beyond

point G it could extend the line separating the two Parties' respective
maritime areas.
In very clear terms, the Court stated (para. 29; of the Judgment) and
repeated that "it [clould] take no decision that might affect rights of
Equatorial Guinea, which [was] not a party to the proceedings" (para. 307
of the Judgment). 011this point 1will make (infra, para. 136)an observa-

tion that 1consider to be logical and fair.
106. The Court tl~us had to determine whethr-r or not there was an
existing delimitation as far as point G. 1think it i: unnecessary for me to
emphasize the need to effect this delimitation without disassociating it
from the land delimitation, that is to say, to determine the starting point
on the coast for the maritime delimitation (see Rigeria's eighth prelimi-

nary objection). The answer is obvious.

107. Nigeria insisted that this delimitation mLst take place after the
determination of its starting point on the coast. It subsequently moved
this point to the easitto the Rio del Rey. But for over five years Nigeria

negotiated on the balsisof a different point, situa-.ed further to the West,
on the River Akwayafe.
108. In any event, the incidental issue was sett1t:d.The Court held that
the starting point for the maritime delimitationw;~sthe terminal point ofthe 1913boundary on the linejoining Bakassi Point and King Point. This
conclusion follows frlomwhat the Court decided as to the validity of the
19 13 Agreement.
109. From that starting point as far as point 12, he agreement between
the Heads of States which gave rise to the so-called "compromise line"
(Yaoundé II Agreement) had to be treated as having been definitively
accepted by the Partiies.The compromise line was extended by a line as
far as point G. The Court regarded the line starting from the Coast and
ending at point G as a legally established maritime delimitation.

From point 12 to point G, the delimitation is governed by a decision

known as the "Maroua Declaration". That decision, as 1 have already
said, was regarded by Cameroon as an agreement binding on both
Parties, whereas Nigeria took the contrary view.
110. The Court seitled the issue as to whether the Maroua Declaration
of 1June 1975was binding on both Cameroon and Nigeria. In its view:

"the Maroua Declaration constitutes an international agreement
concluded between States in written form and tracing a boundary ; it

isthus governed by international law and coristitutes a treaty in the
sense of the Vieiîna Convention on the Law of Treaties (see Art. 2,
para. l), to which Nigeria has been a party since 1969 and Cam-
eroon since 19911a ,nd which in any case reflects customary interna-
tional law in this respect" (para. 263 of the Judgment).
111. This conclusion, as pointed out earlier, applies ipso jure to the
Yaoundé II Declaration.
112. Nigeria considered that the Maroua Dec1;lration was tainted by

two defects and that it was not bound by it. It seems to me to be helpful
to return to this point.
113. First, Nigeria contended that President Gowon, who signed the
Agreement, could not bind his country withoiit the consent of the
"Supreme Military Council".
114.Secondly, Nigeria contended that the allegcd agreement had been
neither ratified norpublished.
1should like to adldressfirst the issue of ratification.

B. The que.~tion uf theratification of the Maroua Declaration

115. Nigeria took the view that the interna1 legal requirements in
regard to the ratification of the Declaration were not satisfied.
116. From a pure'lyforma1point of view, one ij entitled to discuss, as
Nigeria did, the issue of whether or not the Maroua Declaration is a
treaty in the strictsense of the term. The Court settled that point.
117. But is it necessary for a declaration of the type in question to be
a treaty in the forma1sense of the term in order to produce effects in the

circumstances of the present case? TheCourt has always answered such aquestion in the negative. If the Maroua Declaration were to be dis-

regarded, that woulclbe a serious precedent, which would certainly under-
mine the legal security which should govern relations between States,
in particular where ihose relations are established at the highest levels of
State authority. Uncler Article 7,paragraph 2 (a). of the Vienna Conven-
tion on the Law of Treaties, Heads of State are included among those
State authorities wkio are entitled to represent tlieir countries "without
having to produce full powers".

118. That is why 1wholeheartedly agree with tlie Court's decision that
"the Maroua Declaration, as well as the Yaoundé II Declaration, have to
be considered as binding and as establishinga legai obligation on Nigeria"
(para. 268 of the Judgment) as a result of the ciicumstances in which it
was ado~ted.
119. Many writers consider generally, without even relying on a cat-

egory of "agreemenits in simplified form", as one of Cameroon's counsel
did, that theratification of treaties is not always necessary. In the present
case the Court, considering that "[bloth customary international law and
the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties leave it completely up to
States which procedure they want to follow", observed that here the two
Heads of State had come to an agreement and fu~ther concluded that the
"Declaration entered into force immediately upon itssignature" (para. 264

of the Judgment). A prime concern of writers, ;lnd with reason, is the
question of legal security in international relations. In this regard Mar-
cel Sibert writes in his Traitéde droit international public that:

"in the interest of morality and sincerity in international relations, in
the interest also of the effectiveness that one is entitled to expect of
States' treaty-making activities, it is desirable that the Law of Nations
should continue to evolve in regard to ratification and finally to
abandon its extreme positions and to adopt the doctrine of the Juste

milieu' that we have felt entitled to advozate" (Vol. II, p. 230,
para. 904).
120. And what Sibert specificallyrecommends 1sto apply Nicolas Poli-

tis's proposition (qiloted by Sibert) that: "under the new international
order . . a tendency seems to be developing no longer to regard as abso-
lute and unconditional the right to refuse to ratity" (op. cit., p. 230).

C. The question of the powers of the Nigerian s;gnatory of the Maroua
Declaration

121. The second defect alleged by Nigeria against the Maroua Decla-
ration is that Presidient Gowon had no power to sign it, which amounts
to saying that the P~greementwas void.
122. In the event of conflict between international law and domestic
law, it is the former which must prevail. And lhis is what the ViennaConvention on the Law of Treaties does (see Sir Robert Jennings, in

International Law - Achievements and Prospects, pp. 65 and 166).
123. According to Article 27 of the Conventi!m, "a party may not
invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to
perform a treaty".
This provision continues as follows: "this rule is without prejudice to
Article 46".
Counsel for Cameroon accordingly drew attention to the pertinence of
Article 46 of the Convention in the present case.
He recalled that:

"1. A State niay not invoke the fact that i-s consent to be bound
by a treaty has been expressed in violation of a provision of itsinter-
na1law regarding competence to conclude treaties as invalidating its
consent unless that violation was manifest alid concerned a rule of
its internal law of fundamental importance.

2. A violation is manifest if it would be objectively evident to any
State conducting itself in the matter in accordance with normal prac-
tice and in goocl faith."

Counsel drew attention to the fact that any violation capable of invali-
dating the competence of President Gowon at the time must be "mani-
fest", as Article 46,lparagraph 2, cited above pro.iides.

Counsel, after discussing the point at length, reached the conclusion
that President Gowon did indeed have the power to bind his country.

He added that, in any event, the alleged violation of the provision of
Nigeria's internal law by President Gowon (if there was one) was far
from being "manifest", given al1the constitution,il legislative or admin-
istrative changes thiit had taken place in regarc to the powers of the
Head of the Nigerian State, particularly between 1966 and 1978. He

emphasized that the complexity of the legislatioii in question was such
that it was unreasonable to expect President Ahidjo, co-signatory of the
Agreement. to be aware that his interlocutor, in siqing the Maroua Dec-
laration and the final communiquéwhich accomp inied it, was manifestly
violating a provision of internal Nigerian law.

124.As the Court noted: "there is no general legal obligation for States
to keep themselves informed of legislative and ronstitutional develop-
ments in other States which are or may become important for the inter-
national relations of these States" (para. 266 of the Judgment).
125. It follows from this that, without even ,iddressing the issue of
ratification, the Court was entitled to hold that tlie Maroua Declaration
represented an obligation undertaken by both Parties and was accord-
ingly opposable to both of them. It duly did so, idding that: "while in international practice a two-step procedure consisting of
signature and ratification is frequently provided for in provisions
regarding entry into force of a treaty, there are also cases where a
treaty enters into force immediately upon signature. Both customary
international law and the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

leave it completely up to States which procecure they want to fol-
low" (para. 264 of the Judgrnent).

126. In the Court's view, as we have already seen, what applies in

regard to the Maroua Declaration applies equally mutatis mutandis to
the Yaoundé II Declaration.

2. The IMaritime Delimitation beyond Point G

A. The Court'sjzlrisprzldenre

127. As regards tht: maritime delimitation beyond point G, each of the
Parties expressed itself at length, as did Equatorial Guinea as intervener.
Cameroon even proposed a line separating the mai itime areas of the two
Parties.
128. Nigeria and Equatorial Guinea criticized that line for various

reasons.
129. The Court applied the well-established principle that it has devel-
oped over the years.
130. As regards maritime delimitation for States with adjacent or
opposing coasts, "the legal rule is now clear". This statement comes from
the speech given by the President of this Court on :il October 2001 to the

Sixth Committee of the United Nations General Assembly. The rule,
which has emerged after a long period of maturation, applies both to the
territorial sea and tcithe continental shelf and tlie exclusive economic
zone.
131. The Parties in the Dresent case wanted t11eboundaries of their
respective sovereignty or sovereign rights to be determined by a single

line.
Of course, as the Piresident pointed out, "each case nonetheless remains
an individual one, in which the different circumsiances invoked by the
parties must be weighed with care" (see the abov1:-mentioned speech of
31 October 2001). The legal rule to which the Pre;ident refers is the fol-
lowing

"The Court rnust first determine provisionally the equidistance
line. It must then ask itself whether there zre special or relevant
circumstances requiring this line to be adj~sted with a view to
achieving equitable results." (Ibid.)

B. Special rircumstances

132. As regards special circumstances, the COLrt considered whether
there were any such circumstances "that might make it necessary toadjust [the] equidistance line" that it had drawn ' in order to achieve an
equitable result" (para. 293 of the Judgment). What first comes to mind
in the present case i:;the concavity of the Gulf of Guinea and of Cam-
eroon's coastline. Bioko Island is also a factor here. As the Court stated
in the Continental Sizelf (Libyan Arah Jamahiriyl~lMalta) case:

"the equidistance method is not the only method applicable to the
present dispute, and it does not even have th<:benefit of a presump-
tion in its favou:r.Thus, under existing law, it must be demonstrated
that the equidistance method leads to an equitable result in the case
in question." (I.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 47, para. 63.)

The Court referreclto "the concavity of the Gulf of Guinea in general,
and of Cameroon's coastline in particular" (para. 296 of the Judgment).
Cameroon, in the words of the Court:

"contends that the concavity of the Gulf of (3uinea in general, and
of Cameroon's coastline in particular, creates a virtual enclavement
of Cameroon, which constitutes a special ciri:umstance to be taken
into account in the delimitation process.
Nigeria argues that it is not for the Cour to compensate Cam-
eroon for any disadvantages suffered by it as a direct consequence of
the geography of the area. It stresses that it is not the purpose of
international lavvto refashion geography."

As regards the presence of Bioko Island (para. 298 of the Judgment),
the Court stated:

"Cameroon further contends that the presence of Bioko Island
constitutes a relevant circumstance which jhould be taken into
account by the Court for purposes of the delimitation. It argues that
Bioko Island substantially reduces the seaward projection of Cam-
eroon's coastline.
Here again Nigeria takes the view that it is not for the Court to
compensate Carneroon for any disadvantages suffered by it as a
direct consequerice of the geography of the a -ea."

However, the Court refrained from affording any effect to these two
circumstances.
133. For my part, 1 regret this. It is desirable in maritime delimitation
(the result of which has to be equitable) that any circumstance capable of
contributing to that goal should be regarded as relevant.
134. The Court stiressesthat: "delimiting with ,iconcern to achieving
an equitable result, as required by current internitional law, is not the
same as delimiting in1equity" (para. 294 of the Juigment).
This principle cannot be disputed. even though it differs slightly from
what the Court stateti with a certain subtlety in the North Sea Continen-

tal Shelfcases (I. C.J! Reports 1969, p. 22, para. 18).
135. For my own part, subject to the above-mentioned observation, 1believe that the Court has applied its jurispruaence. Up to a certain
point, the Court has confined itself, as it had already done in the Tunisial
Libya case, to indicating a direction rather than llrawing a finished line.
This was required iri view of the rights of third States.
136. In this respect, it should however be noteil that, in promulgating
a decree determining the limits of its sovereign rights, Equatorial Guinea

gave an indication of its legal interests. In so doini:, it was well aware that
the maritime area in this part of the Gulf of Gbinea belonged to three
States, Nigeria, Carrieroon and itself, since it had already recognized that
between these three countries' respective areas thme was a tripoint (even
if the location of that point had not yet been determined). That decree
could have been amended by Equatorial Guinea by the same unilateral

means. It preferred to have recourse to a treaty .aith Nigeria. The legal
result is the same. That treaty thus amended the ciecree. Some protection
is admittedly affordird by the relative effect of trcaties. Nonetheless, the
treaty does have the effect of modifying the claims of Equatorial Guinea
in the same way as an interna1 act of that State would have done. In con-

sequence, Equatorial Guinea was not entitled to argue before the Court
that in relation to another State its claims remained those which had been
indicated by decree. Such a position is illogical ir my view.
It follows from this that, as regards the coursc: of the line, the Court
was not circumscribed by the limit laid down t'y Equatorial Guinea's
decree but rather by the treaty signed by Equatorial Guinea with Nigeria

in the year 2000.
137. As regards the relevant circumstances, it is quite clear that Cam-
eroon has not been blessed by nature and that it is not for the Court to
rectify that. But that should not prevent the Court from pursuing the aim
of achieving an equitable result in the delimitation to be effected by it.
Achieving an equitable result is not the same as delimiting in equity. That

is not at issue. But the notion of an equitable result is only a legal one
inasmuch as it is used in international law. The rejult of its application is
no different for a dlrlimited area rather than "a previously undelimited
area" (1.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 22, para. 18).This means that after it has
carried out the delimitation, the Court is required to ask itself: "is the
result we have reachied equitable"? The rest is sirnply a matter of subtle

reasoning.
And in response to that question, 1 do not helieve, in view of the
circumstances that for my part 1 regard as relevint but that the Court
preferred to ignore, that the answer must inevital~lybe "yes".

138. The issue of responsibility was considered by the Court under
the twin heads of Cameroon's reparation claim and Nigeria's counter-
claim.

139. In its submi:ssions at the close of its oral argument, Cameroonrequested the Court to find that Nigeria had violated the fundamental
principle of uti possidetis, as well as its legal obligations regarding the
non-use of force against Cameroon and compli,ince with the Court's
Order of 15 March 1996 indicating provisional rneasures. It asked the
Court to find that Nigeria's responsibility was engaged by these wrongful
acts and that reparation was due to it on this account.
140. On the basis of those allegations, Cameroon requested inter aliaa
declaration that Nigeria must put an end to its presence, both civil and
military, on Cameroonian territory, and in particiilar that it must forth-
with and unconditioinally evacuate its troops froni the occupied area of
Lake Chad and the Bakassi Peninsula and that it inust refrain from such
actions in the future.
Cameroon further pleaded the absence of any cilcumstancescapable of
precluding the wrongfulness of the acts imputed tly it to Nigeria.

141. Nigeria did not accept Cameroon's positicn on responsibility. In
its finalubmissions, Nigeria argued that Cameroon's State responsibility
claims, even if admissible, were in any event unfo~nded and must be dis-
missed.
Nigeria did not confine itself to rebutting Cameroon's charges against
it. It considered that Cameroon bore responsibilit!, for the acts set out in
its Counter-Memorial and Rejoinder, and claimcd reparations on that
account.
142. The Parties' formal submissions give a mo -eprecise indication of
their claims and defences in terms of responsibilit and reparations.

1will simply confiiie myself here to a few observations.
143. It is for the Court to verify the merits of claims for reparation.
Availing itself of thir;power, the Court consideretl that its order for the
withdrawal of the administration and of military or police forces suffi-

ciently addressed the injury caused by the Nigerian occupation and that
in consequence it would "not therefore seek to ascertain whether and to
what extent Nigeria's responsibility to Cameroon ha[d] been engaged as a
result of that occupation" (para. 319 of the Judgnient). By this decision,
the Court did not slate that Nigeria was not re5ponsible. It moreover
indicated (para. 64 of the Judgment previously cited): "any Nigerian
efictivités are indeetf to be evaluated for their legal consequences as acts
contra legem".
144. Moreover. iri accordance with a well-esiablished rule of Dro-
cedure, it is of course for each party to prove the facts which it alleges.
The Court therefore had to ensure that this requirernent had been properly
met. The Court did so with regard to the incident Tfor which the Parties
held each other responsible. It was entitled to do so. Nigeria contended
that, in any event, ifs actions were covered by self-defence or by other
circumstances preclulding any wrongfulness (para. 321 of the Judgment).

145. Cameroon considered that its territory l-ad been invaded and
occupied and that such occupation had occurred b:~force without its con-
sent, which constituti:d a violation of Nigeria's international obligations. 146. Nigeria contended that it was present in good faith in areas which
it regarded as forming part of its territory and thiit, on the contrary, it
was Cameroon which had made incursions and created incidents, thus

rendering itself responsible for a certain number of acts which had
injured Nigeria and on account of which it claimeci reparation.
147. It is appropriate to recall the view of Eduardo Jiménez
de Aréchaga and Attila Tanzi (in International LUM I Achievements and
Prospects, Vol. 1,p. 369) that, once there has been a breach of an inter-

national obligation and consequent injury to a Siate, the State having
suffered the injury is entitled to claim reparation from the State respon-
sible.
148. The Court preferred to dismiss any claim f~r reparation, consid-
ering that "Nigeria iisunder an obligation in the present case expedi-

tiously and without condition to withdraw its admi~iistration and its mili-
tary and police forceis from that area of Lake Chad which falls within
Cameroon's sovereigrity and from the Bakassi Periinsula" (para. 314 of
the Judgment). It addls:

"In the circumstances of the case, the Cou1.t considers moreover
that, by the very fact of the present Judgment and of the evacuation
of the Camerooriian territory occupied by Nigeria, the injury suf-
fered by Cameroon by reason of the occupation of its territory will

in al1 events have been sufficiently addressed. The Court will not
therefore seek to ascertain whether and to lvhat extent Nigeria's
responsibility to Cameroon has been engaged as a result of that
occupation." (Para. 319 of the Judgment.)

149. With regard Io the other facts invoked by the Parties, it con-
cludes :

"The Court finds that. here againu ,either of the Parties suffi-
ciently proves the facts which it alleges, or thcir imputability to the
other Partv. The Court is therefore unable to uvhold either Cam-

eroon's submissions or Nigeria's counter-claiins based on the inci-
dents cited." (Pal-a. 324 of the Judgrnent.)
While this solution is certainly correct in law for the reasons that 1

have set out above, yet, when the facts of the case are examined, one can
only conclude that Ni,geriadid indeed commit unlawful acts. For this rea-
son 1find it somewhat regrettable that Cameroon's claims for reparation
have not been satisfied, precisely because it has been granted exclusive
sovereignty over certain areas of the Lake Chad region and of Bakassi

that Nigeria has been occupying, notwithstanding the protests of the
egitimate sovereign arid in full awareness of the law governing its borders
with Cameroon, since it disputed the titles on which that law is founded
by invoking effectivittls bearing the hallmark of fa ts accomplis.
150. Al1 that remains to be said, in my humble opinion, is that the

Court has rendered a Judgment based on sound ieasoning which 1 am
sure will alleviate the concerns aroused in Africa b~ this dispute between LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP. OP. MBAYE) 537

Cameroon and Nigeria, familiar even to the man in the street as the
Bakassi case. The Judgment will contribute to the establishment of peace
between two brother countries of Africa and throughouthe region.

(Si;:ned)Kéba MBAYE.

Bilingual Content

OPINION INDIVIDUELLE DE M. LE JUGE MBAYE

Considérations généraleju sgées utiles a la compréhensiondu diSfGrend -
Applicabilitéde la d6claration Thomson-Marchand - Délimitationldimarca-
tion - Effectivités et titre juridique- But et valeur des traités coloniaux -
Nature des traités de protectorat - Valeur juridique de la diclaration de
Maroua - Jurisprudence de la Cour en matière de délinlitutionmaritime;
application - Réparationjugée sufjsante d'un préjudice et dispensant de

reclzercher laresponsabilitécorrespondante.

1. Je partage les conclusions auxquelles est arrivée laCour. Celle-ci a
parfaitement raison :

a) en ce qui concerne la régiondu lac Tchad, après avoir déterminéle
point d'aboutissement de la frontière lacustre sur ((l'embouchure de
l'Ebedji», d'affirmer que:

- «les localités situées à l'estde la frontièreconfirméedans l'échange
de notes Henderson-Fleuriau de 1931 sont demeuréessous sou-
veraineté camerounaise)),

6) et, en ce qui concerne Bakassi, de confirmer ((que la souveraineté sur
la presqu'île estcamerounaise)).

Ce faisant, la Cour fait valoir le droit sur le fait accompli.
2. La procédureest ainsi arrivée a son terme après êtrepasséepar de
nombreuses phases qui ont accumuléles pertes de temps mais au moins

ont eu le mérite d'avoir clarifiéle problème de fond soumis à la Cour.
Cela a permis à la haute juridiction de régler définitivement et entière-
ment le différendfrontalier qui, depuis prèsde dix-neuf ans, oppose deux
pays africains frères: le Cameroun et le Nigéria. Ce différend,tel qu'il a

étéporté devant la Cour, concerne l'ensemble de la frontière tant ter-
restre que maritime séparant les domaines relevant de la juridiction de
chacun des Etats.
3. Tout comme les Parties, la Cour a divisé lafrontière en plusieurs
secteurs :

- la régiondu lac Tchad,
- la frontière terrestre entre le lac Tchad et Bakassi,

- Bakassi,
- la frontière maritime.

4. Outre l'exception préliminaireque la Cour avait liéeau fond dans sa SEPARATE OPINION OF JUDGE MBAYE

[Translation]

General cons ide ratio,^^deemed helpfulfor a better hnderstanding of the dis-
pute - Applicability of the Thomson-Marchand Decltrration - Delimitationl
demarcation - Effectivités and legal title - Purpose and value of colonial
treaties - Nature of treaties of protection - Legal value of Maroua Declara-
tion - Court'sjurisprudence on maritime delimitation, application - Repara-

tion adjudged sufficient for injury suffered and rendering it unnecessary to
determine re~ponsibiiitjitherefor.

1. 1 share the findings reached by the Court; it is absolutely correct:

(a) in concluding, in respect of the Lake Chad region, having deter-
mined the endploint of the lake boundary ;it the "mouth of the
Ebeji", that

- "as regards the settlements situated to tlie east of the frontier
confirmed in the Henderson-Fleuriau Exchange of Notes of

1931, sovereignty has continued to lie with Cameroon" ;and
(b) in confirming, a:sregards Bakassi, that "sovereignty over the penin-
sula lies with Cameroon".

In so doing, the Court has made the law prevail over the fait accompli.
2. The proceeding:~have thus drawn to a close after passing through

numerous phases whiich,although costing a great deal of time, did at
least have the merit of clarifying the substantive issue before the Court.
This has enabled the Court to achieve a comprehensive and definitive
settlement of a border dispute which for some 19 years has divided

two brother countries of Africa: Cameroon and Nigeria. This dispute, in
the form that it was referred to the Court, concerned the entire course of
the boundary, both terrestrial and maritime, sep,irating the areas over
which each State has jurisdiction.

3. Like the Parties, the Court divided the boundary into a number of
sectors :

- the Lake Chad region,
- the land boundary between Lake Chad and B.ikassi,
- Bakassi,
- the maritime boundary.

4. Apart from the preliminary objection that tlie Court joined to the507 FRONTIÈRE TERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP. IND. MBAYE)

décision du Il juin 1998, trois autres questions s'ajoutaient aux pro-

blèmesliésaux points ci-dessus spécifiésC . es questions sont relatives à:
- l'intervention de la Guinée équatoriale,
- la responsabilité soulevée par le Cameroun,
- la demande reconventionnelle du Nigéria.

5. Bien qu'ayant votépour l'adoption de l'ensemble du dispositif de
l'arrêt,il m'est apparu utile de produire une opinion individuelle pour
livrer quelques réflexionsmettant l'accent sur certains points que je consi-
dère comme étant d'une importance particulière ou sur des questions à

propos desquelles mes réponsespourraient être quelquepeu différentes
de celles donnéespar la Cour. Je me contenterai dans cette opinion de
parler brièvement du secteur du lac Tchad et de Bakassi, après avoir dit
quelques mots du principe de l'intangibilité desfrontières coloniales et
avant de mentionner quelques remarques au sujet de la délimitation mari-
time et de la question & lu responsabilité.
6. Mais avant tout je crois utile de mentionner un certain nombre de
considérations générales.

7. 11s'agit d'observations liéesau contexte du différendet qui peuvent
aider à mieux le comprendre.

1. Les Etats en cause

8. Le différendsoumis à la Cour a mis en cause en Afrique, au sud du
Sahara, d'un côté,le Cameroun et, de l'autre, le Nigériaconsidéré surce
continent, toutes proportions gardées, comme une grande puissance.
L'agent du Nigéria l'adit en termes pudiques le 28 février 2002 en
ouvrant le premier tour de plaidoiries de son pays. Il a en effet fait I'énu-
mération impressionnante des rôles considérablesqu'a jouéset que joue

le Nigériaen Afrique.
Il est de fait que, en Afrique, le Nigéria est perçucomme une puissance
non seulement sur le plan démographique (cent vingt millions d'habi-
tants), mais aussi sur le plan économique, social et militaire. Dans la
sous-région ouil est situé, cetEtat inspire a la fois respect et crainte, et
ces sentiments se répandent sur une bonne partie de l'Afrique de l'Ouest
et de l'Afrique centrale. Il n'est pas impossible que le Nigéria cherche,
dans une certaine mesure et somme toute fort légitimement, à tirer profit

de cette crainte qu'il inspire.Les circonstances et les péripétiesdu présent
différend nesont certainement pas pour démentirune telle observation.

2. Les choix des Parties pour défendreleur cause

9. Chaque Partie au différend a choisi le terrain sur lequel elle a
entendu se placer pour défendresa cause. LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP. OP. MBAYE) 507

merits by its Judgment of 11June 1998,three furthcbrissues were added to
the matters arising from the points mentioned above. Those issues were:

- the intervention of Equatorial Guinea,
- Cameroon's responsibility claim,
- Nigeria's counter-claim.

5. Although 1voted in favour of the entire dispositifof the Judgment,
1felt that it would be appropriate to draft a separate opinion setting out
a number of considerations emphasizing certain points that 1 regard
as being of particular significance, or addressiné issues on which my

responses may be son~ewhatdifferent to those given by the Court. In the
present opinion 1will confine myself to brief comm-nts on the Lake Chud
region and Ruku.ssi, after saying a few words about the principle of the
intangibility of colonial frontiers, before going on to make a number of
observations on muritime delimitation and on the issue of'responsibility.

6. But first, it seeris to me that a few preliminary remarks of a general
nature would be helpful.

7. 1propose to make a number of observation: linked to the context
of the dispute which may help to make it more rcadily understandable.

1. The States in Question

8. The dispute submitted to the Court invo1vr:d two States of sub-
Saharan Africa, on the one hand Cameroon and cm the other Nigeria, a
country regarded on ithatcontinent as, relatively speaking, a great Power.
The Agent of Nigeria said as much in guarded ierms on 28 February
2002 in opening the jîrst round of his country's oral argument. He gave

an impressive list of the substantial roles which Nigeria has played and
continues to play in .4frica.
It is a fact that, in Africa, Nigeria is perceived 21saPower not only in
demographic terms (120 million inhabitants), but also in economic, social
and military terms. VVithinthe sub-region where it is situated, that State
is both respected and, feared, and those feelings extend over a good part

of western and centriil Africa. It is not impossible that Nigeria seeks, to
some extent and indeed quite legitimately, to derive advantage from that
fear which it inspire:,. The circumstances and events of the present dis-
pute would certainly not contradict such an observation.

2. The Means Chosen hy the Parties to Deferzd Their Positions

9. Each of the Parties to the present dispute chose the ground on
which it wished to position itself in order to argui: its case.508 FRONTIÈRE TERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP.IND. MBAYE)

En effet, dans cette affaire, depuis l'introduction de la requêtejusqu'a
la fin des plaidoiries orales, on a l'impression qu'il y a une Partie qui
s'accroche au droit de toutes ses forces, et une autre qui invoque plutôt
des faits avec un habillage juridique.
10. D'un côté,il y a le Cameroun qui a saisi l'OUA, puis l'ONU, puis
la Cour, et de l'autre il a le Nigériaqui a reprochéau Cameroun toutes
cesdémarchessur un problème qui, selon sesreprésentants, pouvait trou-
dialogue et la négociation.
ver une solution dans-le

11. Le Cameroun a évoquéle principe de I'utipossidetis juris et d'une
façon générale des titresjuridiques fondésessentiellement sur des traités,
des accords, des déclarations, des décisionsde la Société desNations et
de l'organisation des Nations Unies.
12. Le Nigéria,quant a lui, a cherché,dans les titres juridiques invo-
quéspar le Cameroun, des faiblesses qui ruinent leur validité eta fondé
l'essentielde sa position devant la Cour sur des effectivités.
13. Cette situation n'a pas pu échapper à la Cour et ni lesécrits niles
plaidoiries des conseils des Parties n'ont réussi a effacer l'impression
qu'elle produit.
Quand le Cameroun invoquait un titre juridique, le Nigéria parlait
d'histoire, de géographie,d'ethnologie et de la «consolidation historique

du titre)). Bien entendu, il ne s'agit pas d'un reproche, mais d'une cons-
tatation. Chaque partie a un procès est libre de choisir le terrain sur
lequel elle souhaite placer le débatjudiciaire.

3. La raison d'êtredu respect desfrontières coloniales

14. Beaucoup de pays africains au sud du Sahara et plus particulière-
ment ceux de l'Afrique de l'Ouest et de l'Afrique centrale sont affectés
depuis leur indépendancepar une instabilitéqui éloignede la recherche
sérieuseet continue des vraies solutions au sous-développement. Cette
instabilitéfavorise la misère.
15. Les pères desnations africaines qui voulaient démentirla prévision
selon laquelle l'Afrique était mal partie avaient, comme l'a soulignéla

Chambre dans l'affaire du Diffërend frontalier (Burkina FasolRépublique
du Mali) et «dèsla première conférenceau sommet qui suivit la création
de l'organisation de l'unitéafricaine)), décidépar la résolution AGHI
Res.16 (1) d'adopter le principe de I'uti possidetis juris (C.1.J. Recueil
1986, p. 565,par. 22). Ils ne voulaientà aucun prix que lesfrontièreslais-
séespar lescolonisateurs (seraient-elles absurdes, illogiques ou mal faites,
auraient-elles coupédes ethnies ou des tribus) puissent êtreremises en
cause. La preuve en est que, lors de la conférence des peuples africains
tenue a Accra en décembre1958(donc moins de six ans avant la confé-
rence du Caire), des dirigeants africains ont déclarédans une résolution
relative aux frontières:«les barrières et frontières artificielles tracéespar
les impérialistespour diviser les peuples africains au détrimentdes Afri-
cains doivent ...êtreabolies ou ajustées...))(citépar Zidane Mériboute Thus in this case, from the filing of the Application right up to the end
of the oral pleadings, one had the impression thiit there was one Party
which clung for al1it was worth to the letter of the law, and one which
relied more on facts, albeit dressed up in a legal guise.
10. On the one side we had Cameroon, which had placed the matter
before the OAU, then the United Nations, and then the Court, and on
the other there was Nigeria, which had criticized Cameroon for each of
these initiatives concerning an issue which, accorcling to Nigeria's repre-
sentatives, could have been settled by dialogue ar d negotiation.
11. Cameroon reliiedon the principle of uti po,lsidetisjuris and gener-

ally on legal titles founded essentially on treatie:,, agreements, declara-
tions, and decisions of the League of Nations and of the United Nations.

12. Nigeria, for its part, sought out weakne:ses capable of under-
mining the validity of the legal titles relied upon b!, Cameroon, and based
the essence of itspoisition before the Court on ehëctivités.
13. This situation cannot have escaped the Coiirt's notice and neither
the written pleadings nor the argument of the Parties' counsel have been
able to efface the impression produced by it.
Where Cameroon invoked a legal title, Nigeria spoke of history, of
geography, of ethnology and of the "historical coiisolidation of title". Of
course, this is not a criticism, simply an observation. Each party to pro-
ceedings is free to choose the terrain on which it viishesto place the judi-
cial debate.

3. The Raison d'Être for Respect for Colcnial Boundaries

14. Many countries of sub-Saharan Africa, and more particularly
those of western and central Africa, have been trsubled since independ-
ence by an instabiliiy which precludes a serious and continuous search
for true solutions to underdevelopment. Such inslability fosters poverty.

15. The founding fathers of the African nations, who sought to dis-
prove the forecast that Africa had "got off to a bad start", had decided,
as theChaniber pointed out in the Frontier Dispute (Burkina FasolRepub-
lic oj Mali) case, "at their first summit conferen1:eafter the creation of
the Organization of African Unity", in resoluticln AGHIRes.16 (l), to
adopt the principle of uti possidetis juris(1C.J. Reports 1986, p. 565,
para. 22). At al1 costs they wanted to avoid laving the boundaries
bequeathed by the colonial Powers (however ab;urd, illogical or badly
drawn, and even where they divided ethnic grours or tribes), called into
question. This is clear from the fact that, at the conference of African

peoples held in Accra in December 1958(thus les than six years before
the Cairo conferenci:), African leaders stated in a resolution on frontiers
that: "the artificial barriers and boundaries drxwn by imperialists to
divide the African peoples to the detriment of Afr cans must be abolished
or adjusted .. ." (cited by Zidane Mériboute in L,z codijîcation de la suc-509 FRONTIÈRE TERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP.IND.MBAYE)

dans La codijïcation de la succession d'Etats aux truités- Décolonisa-
tion, sécession,unijîcation, p. 119).
Les Africains avaient donc un choix à faire entre deux voies. Ils
savaient le mal qui pourrait résulterdu rejet des frontières coloniales en
ce qui concerne la stabilité des nouveaux Etats. Ils ont choisi d'opter
pour leur intangibilité.
16. Voilà pourquoi lesdeux Parties dansla présenteaffaire ont accordé
a la question du respect des frontières coloniales une attention toute par-
ticulière. C'estlà une raison supplémentaire qui me pousse à y revenir.

17. Un conseil du Nigéria a dit à l'audience du 6 mars 2002 que
l'affaire est importante et que la décisionde la Cour «sera lourde de
conséquences». Il ne pouvait pas si bien dire.
C'est en effet toute l'Afrique qui attend l'arrêt dela Cour, dans la
crainte d'une remise en cause du principe de l'intangibilitédesfrontières
coloniales.
18. C'est aussi pourquoi j'ai regrettéque la Cour, tout en ne rejetant
pas le principe (loin s'en faut) et en l'appliquant en fait, n'ait pas cru
devoir aborder sa discussion, se contentant de dire en ce qui concerne
Bakassi notamment qu'elle «n'a pas jugé utilede se prononcer sur les
arguments relatifs à l'utipossidetis)).
19. Le respect des frontières coloniales est un principe d'une impor-
tance exceptionnelle en Afrique. Son application stricte conditionne la

paix et la sécuritésur le continent. Le différendqui a opposé le Came-
roun et le Nigéria estun nouveau questionnement quant aux modalités
de son acception. Il fallait réaffirmer avec forcel'obligation de son res-
pect pur et simple qui pèsesur chaque Etat africain.
La Cour dans l'affaire du Différendfrontalier (Burkina FasolRépu-
blique du Mali) a donnéla raison:
«Mais en réalitéle maintien du statu quo territorial en Afrique

apparaît souvent comme une solution de sagesse visant à préserver
les acquis des peuples qui ont luttépour leur indépendanceet àévi-
ter la rupture d'un équilibrequiferait perdre au continent africain le
bénéficede tant de sacrifices. C'est le besoin vital de stabilitépour
survivre, se développer etconsolider progressivement leur indépen-
dance dans tous les domaines qui a amené les Etats africains à
consentir au respect des frontières coloniales, eà en tenir compte
dans l'interprétation du principe de l'autodétermination des
peuples.» (C.1J. Recueil 1986, p. 567, par. 25.)

4. Nationalitéet ethnie en Afrique

20. La Cour a rencontré,dans la régiondu lac Tchad, le problèmedes
conflits nationalitélethnie fréquentsen Afrique.
Il ne faut jamais perdre de vue que la nationalité d'un pays donnéen
Afrique n'a étéattribuée, dans la plupart des cas, qu'il a seulement un
demi-siècleenviron.
En revanche les ethnies existent et chevauchent souvent les frontièrescession d'Etats aux traités - Décolonisation, sécession, uniJication,
p. 119).
The African nations thus had to choose between two routes. They were
well aware of the evils which could follow from a rc:jectionof the colonial
frontiers in terms of the stability of the new States. They chose to opt for
the intangibility of those frontiers.
16. That is why both Parties in the present case have paid particular
attention to the issue of respect for colonial boundaries. That is a further
reason why 1 feel 1 sliould return to that issue.

17. One of Nigeri,a'scounsel stated at the hearing of 6 March 2002
that this is an important case and that the Cour 's decision "will have
serious consequences". He was absolutely right.
Indeed the whole of Africa has been awaiting he Court's Judgment,
fearing any impugnment of the principle of the "iiitangibility of colonial
frontiers".
18. That is also why 1 regret that the Court, ahile not rejecting that
principle (farfrom it)and applying it in practice, did not find it necessary
to discuss the issue further, merely stating, in rela,ion to Bakassi in par-
ticular, that it "has riot found it necessary to proriounce upon the argu-
ments of uti possidetis".
19. Respect for colonial boundaries is a principle of exceptional sig-

nificance in Africa. The strict application of such respect is a prerequisite
for peace and securit:yon that continent. The dispute between Cameroon
and Nigeria has raised new questions as to the principle's specific scope.
It was the Court's duty forcibly to reaffirm the obligation of uncondi-
tional respect incumbent upon every African Statc:.
The reason for this was set out by the Court i 1 the Frontier Dispute
(Burkina FczsolRepuiilicof'Mali) case :

"In fact, however, the maintenance of the trrritorial status quo in
Africa is often seen as the wisest course, to Freserve what has been
achieved by peoples who have struggled for tlieir independence, and
to avoid a disruption which would deprive the continent of the gains
achieved by much sacrifice. The essential reqiiirement of stability in
order to survive.,to develop and gradually to consolidate their inde-
pendence in al1fields, has induced African States judiciously to con-
sent to the respecting of colonial frontiers, and to take account of it
in the interpretation of the principle of self-determination of
peoples." (I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 567, para. 25.)

4. Nationality and Ethnicity in Africa

20. In relation to the Lake Chad region, the Court encountered the
issue of nationalitylethnicity conflicts that are so liequent in Africa.
We should never lose sight of the fact that, in .\frics,the majority of
countries were attributed their nationality only some 50 years ago.

By contrast, ethnii: groups have existed, and hzve often straddledtheinternationales qui séparent, depuis des temps immémoriaux, les nou-
veaux Etats.
Cela a fait dire a certains auteurs qu'en Afrique, ((contrairementà ce
qui s'est passéen Europe, 1'Etata précédé lnaation)), ce qui du reste n'est
Das touiours exact.
21. Quoi qu'il en soit, la nationalité venue se surimprimer sur les

groupes ancestraux est, sans l'intervention des pouvoirs publics, bien
moins ressentie que l'ethnie. 11se peut fort bien que deux Kanuri (ethnie
de la région du lac Tchad) de nationalités différentes se sentent plus
proches l'un de l'autre qu'un Kanuri et un Haussa (autre ethnie de
cette même région) ayant la mêmenationalité. Certains problèmes graves
du continent africain s'expliquent par ce fait. On peut dès lors s'y
tromper de bonne foi et attribuer à la nationalité ce qui appartienà la
seule ethnie. Cette réflexionpeut s'appliquer dans la présente affaiàela
régiondu lac Tchad et aux développements que le Nigéria a ce propos
consacre aux villages nigérians.
C'est cette situation en Afrique qui fait écriàePélissierdansLespay-

sans du Sénégal a la page 23 :«La conscience nationale n'a pas effacé la
riche diversitéd'un long passé ...Profondément sénégalaisdepuis seule-
ment quelques décennies,nos pays sont depuis des temps immémoriaux
...wolof, sérère,toucouleur, manding, diola, balant, etc))
22. Tout au long de la frontière entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria, il
semble que, depuis fort longtemps et en dépitdes statuts politiques que
ces régionsont connus au cours de l'histoire (possessions allemandes, bri-
tanniques ou françaises, indépendance), les populations autochtones se
soient installéesau gréde leurs affinitésethniques et de leurs besoins éco-
nomiques en méconnaissance totale des limites territoriales de la natio-
nalité, etque les gouvernements par la suite aient essayéde tirer profit de

telle ou telle situation ainsi créée. Cephénomènen'a pas échappé à la
Cour dans la présenteaffaire (voir paragraphe 67 de l'arrêt).C'est pour-
quoi le salut pour l'Afrique résidedans le respect sans équivoque et sans
subtils commentaires des frontiérescoloniales. Nous verrons plus loin les
deux exceptions à cette recommandation.

SECTION 2. DÉTERMINATIO DNU TRACÉ DE LA FRONTIERE LACUSTRE ET
TERRESTRE ENTRE LES DEUX PAYS

23. La Cour, comme toujours dans les différendsde la mêmenature

que celui-ci, a opéréla détermination de la frontière entre les deux pays
avec précision,sans se transformer en organe de démarcation (par. 84 de
l'arrêt).
24. J'emploie àdessein le mot détermination auquel je donne un sens
généralqui englobe les mots déliinitationdémarcation et indicationJe le
trouve singulièrementappropriédans la présente affaire,déterminer signi-
fiant ici: indiquer avec précision. La Cour emploie un terme équivalent,
notamment au paragraphe 85 de son arrêt, quand elle annonce le but de LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP.CIPMBAYE) 510

international bound;rries between the new States, since time immemo-
rial.
As a result certain1authors have written that iii Africa, "contrary to
what occurred in Eu:rope, the State preceded the Iuation", although this
may not always be the case.
21. Whatever the truth of the matter, a natio,lality which has been

superimposed on ethnic groupings is, without tlie intervention of the
public authorities, felt much less strongly than ethiiicity. It may very well
be that two Kanuris (an ethnic group in the Lak: Chad region) of dif-
ferent nationalities fe:elmuch closer to one another than a Kanuri and a
Hausa (another ethnic group in that region) of the same nationality. Cer-

tain serious problerris of the African continent Ire explicable on this
basis. One can thus be easily led astray in good faith, attributing to
nationality what is solely a matter of ethnicity. Such a proposition might
be applied in the present case to the Lake Chad r1:gion and to the argu-
ments of Nigeria in this respect as regards thegerian villages.
It was this situation in Africa that impelled P~:lissierto writLesn

Paysans du SSbnkgal,on page 23: "National consciousness has not erased
the rich diversity aflong past . . . Deeply Senegillese for a few decades
only, our regions have been since time immemoi.ial . . . Wolof, Serer,
Toucouleur. Manding, Diola, Balant, etc. . . ."
22. Throughout the length of the boundary br:tween Cameroon and

Nigeria, it would seein that, for a very long time aiid notwithstanding the
various political statiuses enjoyed by these regions in the course of their
history (German, British or French possessions, iridependence), the indi-
genous populations lnave settled according to their ethnic affinities and
their economic needs in total disregard of territorial boundariesand

nationality, and that Governments have subseqlently sought to take
advantage of the particular situationsus createtl. This context did not
escape the attention of the Court in the present cL.se(see p67aof the
Judgment). That is why Africa's salvation lies in respect for colonial
boundaries, expressed unequivocally and without recourse to subtle dis-
tinctions. Later on we will considcr the two exceptil~nsto this proposition.

SECTION 2. DETERMINATI OFNTHE COURSE OF THE LAKE AND LAND
BCIUNDAR BYTWEEN THE TWOSTATES

23. The Court, as always in disputes like the present case, has deter-
mined the boundary between the two countries with precision, without
assuming the role ofademarcation authority (pam. 84 of the Jndgment).

24. 1 deliberately use the word "determination" and am employing it
in a general sense which encompasses the terms "rlelimitation", "demar-

cation" and "indicatiion". 1find it particularly appropriate in the present
case, with "determirie" meaning here: to indica e with precision. The
Court uses an equivalent term, in particular in pa -agr85hof its Judg-511 FRONTIÈRE TERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP. IND. MBAYE)

sa tâche qui consisteà((préciserdkjïnitivernent))le tracé dela frontière.».
(les italiques sont de la Cour). Pourtant elle définit et distingue chacun
des deux termes délimitation etdémarcation, comme nous le verrons plus
loin.

1. La,frontiére duns la régiondu lac Tchad

A. Les instruments applicables

25. Quand on s'interroge sur l'existence ou non d'une frontière entre le
Cameroun et le Nigériadans le lac Tchad, on découvre principalement la
déclaration Milner-Simon de 1919. Cette déclaration a étépréciséeen
1930 par la déclaration Tlzornsorz-Marchand, laquelle a étéconfortée et
incorporke par un échange de notes dit Henderson-Fleuriau entre la
France et la Grande-Bretagne le 9janvier 1931.
Ces instruments n'ont jamais été mis en causejusqu'à tout récemment.

Ils décrivent la frontière avec une certaine minutie depuis le ((point de
rencontre des trois anciennes frontières britannique, française et alle-
mande situédans le lac Tchad par 13"05'de latitude nord et approxima-
tivement 14'05' de longitude est de Greenwich ..))jusqu'à l'océanAtlan-
tique (préambule de la déclaration Thomson-Marchand).
26. La déclaration Thomson-Marchand comporte cent trente-huit
paragraphes. Signéeau nom de la Grande-Bretagne par le Governor of
the Colony und the Protectorates of'Nigeria et au nom de la France par
le gouverneur de la République française au Cameroun, elle est, à mon

avis, avec la note et la carte Moisel qui l'accompagnent, un accord juri-
diquement valable qui lie les deux Parties dans la présenteaffaire.
27. Le Nigéria comme le Cameroun sont d'accord sur ce point. La
Cour a indiqué sans équivoqueque:
«La déclaration Thomson-Marchand, telle qu'approuvéeet incor-

porée dans l'échange de notes Henderson-Fleuriau, a le statut
d'accord international. La Cour reconnaît certes que cette déclara-
tion présentait quelques imperfections techniques et que certains
détails restaientà préciser. Elle n'en estime pas moins que ladite
déclaration établissaitune délimitation qui suffisait de manière géné-
raleà la démarcation. )>(Par. 50 de l'arrêt.)

28. Mais, comme le Nigériaavait soulevécontre la déclaration un cer-
tain nombre de critiques, il n'est pas inutile d'examiner celle d'entre ces
critiques qui nous semble êtrela plus forte pour la Partie défenderesse, et
bien que la Cour ait fait une démonstration claire avant d'aboutir à la
conclusion ci-dessus citée.

B. Valeurjuridique et signification de la déclarationThomson-Marchand

29. Le Nigériaavait soutenu que l'échangede notes, qui pourrait don-
ner à la déclaration Thomson-Marchand les apparences d'un accord, enment when it States the purpose of its task as beinl"to specijy dejinitively
the course of the . . . boundary . . ."(emphasis added by the Court). It

nevertheless defines and distinguishes between the two terms deliinitation
and denzarc-ation,as we shall see later.

1. Th'eBoundary in the Lake Chad Region

A. The instruinents applicable

25. When we address the question of whether or not there exists a
boundary between (lameroon and Nigeria in Lake Chad, we find our-
selves dealing mainly with the 1919 Milner-Sirrzon Declaration. That
Declaration was clarified in 1930by the Thomson-Marclîand Declaration,
which was confirmed and incorporated in tk~e Henderson-Fleuriau
Exchange of Notes between France and Great Britain on 9 January 193 1.
Those instrument:; had never been challenged wtil quite recently. They
describe the boundary in some detail from the "jiinction of the three old

British, French and German boundaries at a point in Lake Chad 13"05"
latitude north and approximately 14" 05" longitiide east of Greenwich"
to the Atlantic Ocean (Preamble to the Thomson-Marchand Declaration).

26. The Thomso11-Marchand Declaration coritains 138 paragraphs.
Signed on behalf of (Great Britain by the Governor of the Colony and the
Protectorates of Nig,eria and on behalf of France by the Governor of the

French Cameroons, it is, in my view, together jvith the Notes and the
accompanying Moisel map, a legally valid agreement which binds the
two Parties in the present case.
27. Nigeria and Cameroon agree on this point. The Court clearly
stated that:

"the Thomson-Marchand Declaration, as approved and incorpo-
rated in the Henderson-Fleuriau Exchange of Notes, has the status
of an international agreement. The Court acknowledges that the
Declaration does have some technical imperf:ctions and that certain
details remained to be specified. However, it finds that the Declara-

tion provided for a delimitation that was sufficient in general for
demarcation." (Para. 50 of the Judgment.)
28. However, as Nigeria had levied a certain lumber of criticisms at

the Declaration, it would not be unhelpful to address that one of those
criticisms which seems to me to carry the most weight for the Respon-
dent, notwithstanding the clear demonstration b:/ the Court in reaching
the conclusion cited above.

B. Legal force and significance of the Thonzson-Marchand Declaration

29. For Nigeria, the Exchange of Notes whick might give the Thom-

son-Marchand Declaration the appearance of an igreement in reality didréalité nefixe pas la frontière entre son territoire et celui du Cameroun.

Le Nigéria avait tiré son argumentation des dispositions ci-après des
notes échangéespar les deux autorités française et britannique, notes
dans lesquelles on lit a peu près dans les mêmestermes que:
«[La] déclaration n'est pas le produit des travaux d'une commis-
sion de délimitation constituée aux fins de l'application des disposi-
tions de l'article 1du mandat et ne résulteque d'une enquêtepréli-
minaire menée envue de déterminer, de façon plus préciseque cela
n'avait étéfait dans la déclaration Milner-Simon de 1919, la ligne

que la commission de délimitation devra suivre en fin de compte ..»
30. Il convient tout d'abord de faire observer que, dans les notes des
représentants de la France et de la Grande-Bretagne, le membre de
phrase ci-dessus cité est suivipar les mots:

((néanmoins,la déclaration définitla frontière pour l'essentiel et ...il
est donc souhaitable que I'accord qui y est contenu soit confirmépar
les deux gouvernements afin que la délimitation effective de la fron-
tière puisseêtreconfiéeà une commission de délimitation nommée à
cet effet conformément aux dispositions de l'article 1 du mandat)).

Ces mots sont particulièrement éclairants sur l'intention des Parties
signataires.
31. Le Nigéria avait plaidé que la déclaration Thomson-Marchand
n'est que l'annonce d'une procédure a suivre et d'un programme à exé-
cuter.
32. Le Cameroun par contre, lui, reconnaissait la force obligatoire
d'un instrument juridique valable.
33. Rien qu'a la lecture du paragraphe 3 des deux notes, on peut aisé-
ment appréhender la volontédes deux parties, la Grande-Bretagne d'une
part, la France de l'autre, de résoudre le problème de la frontière de leurs
possessions comme on disait à l'époque.En effet, dans ce paragraphe 3, le
mot conjirme apparaît deux fois et il en est de mêmepour le mot accord.
Il ne me semble pas inutile de citer ce paragraphe 3 qui se lit ainsi:

«Le Gouvernement de Sa Majesté note que le Gouvernement
français, par la note susmentionnée,confirme, pour sa part, I'accord
incorporé dans la déclaration; et j'ai l'honneur, en réponse,d'infor-
mer Votre Excellence par la présentenote que le Gouvernement de
Sa Majesté confirmede son côté cet accord.))

Il y a bien eu accord, comme l'a dit la Cour.
34. Au cours des plaidoiries orales, le Nigériaavait finalement reconnu
que la déclaration est un instrument que les deux Parties acceptent. Mais
il avait relevéqu'elle recèledes défectuosités quiappellent plus qu'une
simple entreprise de démarcation. Le Nigéria ena dénombrévingt-deux
que la Cour a examinées avec minutie dans les paragraphes 86 a 192 de
son arrêt.Je n'y reviendrai pas. LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP.OP. MBAYE) 512

not fix the boundary between its territory and that of Cameroon. Nigeria
based its argument on the following provision of ihe Notes exchanged by
the French and British authorities, in which we read in almost identical
terms that :

"The Declaration is not the product of a boundary commission
constituted for the purpose of carrying sut the provisions of
Article 1of the Mandate, but only the result of a preliminary survey
conducted in order to determine more evactly than was done
in the Milner-Slimon Declaration of 1919 ttie line ultimately to be
followed by the boundary Commission."

30. 1would first clfal1observe that in the ''Notvs" from the representa-
tives of France and Great Britain, the above-citec passage is followed by
this passage :

"nonetheless the Declaration does in substance define the frontier;
and . .it is therefore desirable that the agreement embodied therein
shall be confirnied by the two Governments in order that the actual
delimitation of the boundary may then be eltrusted to a boundary
commission, appointed for the purpose in accordance with the pro-
visions of Article 1 of the Mandate".

This passage is particularly helpful in shedding ight on the intention of
the signatory parties.
31. Nigeria argued that the Thomson-March,ind Declaration repre-
sented only an announcement of the procedure to be followed and of a
programme to be iniplemented.
32. Cameroon, 011 the other hand, accorded it the binding force of a
valid legal instrumeiît.
33. It is readily apparent simply from reading paragraph 3 of the two
Notes that there was a willon the part of both parties, Great Britain on the

one hand, France ori the other, to resolve the protilem of the boundary of
their "possessions", as they were called at that peri,)d. Thus in paragraph 3
the word "confirm" appears twice as does the word "agreement". It seems
to me not unhelpful to quote paragraph 3, which reads as follows:
"His Majesty's Government note that the French Government by
their note under reference confirm, for their part, the agreement

embodied in the Declaration; and 1 have the honour in reply to
inform Your Excellency hereby that His Majesty's Government
similarly confirimthis agreement."
There was certainly an agreement, as the Court found.
34. In the course of oral argument, Nigeria eventually recognized that
the Declaration wa:; an instrument which both Parties accepted. How-

ever, it noted that the Declaration contained defects which required more
than a simple process of demarcation. Nigeria enuinerated 22 such defects,
which the Court examined in detail in paragraphs 86 to 192 of its Judg-
ment. 1will not dwell on that.513 FRONTIÈRE TERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP. IND.MBAYE)

35. Un des conseilsdu Nigériaavait soutenu que lestextes délimitantla
frontiere sont si mal faits sur plusieurs points qu'ils ne peuvent êtreregar-
dés comme desinstruments de délimitation etque cette délimitationétait
toujours a faire. Le conseil du Nigériaavait dit que «les accords de fron-
tièrecoloniaux datant de la périodeallant de 1906a 1931n'ont pas établi

de délimitation définitivedans la région du lac Tchad)). Et le conseil
d'énumérer trente-troisvillages dans la régiondu lac Tchad dont il dit
qu'ils sont nigérians, sauf un, semble-t-il,qui serait peupléde Maliens.
La Cour ne l'a pas suivi.

C. Délimitation - démarcation

i) Généralités

36. Les Parties ont insistésur les notions de délimitation et de démar-
cation (par. 84 de l'arrêt).Ce débat,placé a l'époqueou des instruments
applicables a la présente affaire ont été pris,a appeléde la part de la
Cour beaucoup de circonspection. Elle a donnéde la délimitation, d'une
part, et de la démarcation, d'autre part (dans le mêmeparagraphe pré-
cité), une définition claire. Maisce qui importait c'était ladétermination
de la frontiere entre les deux Etats. Elle a procédétout en restant dans
sa fonction juridictionnelle, se contentant d'interpréteret d'appliquer les
instruments juridiques délimitant la frontière.

37. En l'espèce, c'est en effeta la Cour qu'il appartenait d'interpréter
l'échangede notes Henderson-Fleuriau et la déclaration Thomson-Mar-
chand. Elle s'est acquittée de cette tâche avec succès.
38. A mon avis, lorsque, dans leur note respective, les deux autorités
représentant la Grande-Bretagne et la France écrivent: ((délimitations
proprement dites)), elles veulent parler de ce que dans la présente affaire
les Parties se sont en définitive accordées appeler démarcation.
Je crois que, en parcourant le luxe de détailsqu'ily a dans la déclara-
tion Thomson-Marchand, on ne peut qu'arriver àcette conclusion, réserve
faite des défectuositésou délimitationsfautives qu'évoquele Nigéria.

39. Ces délimitations fautives, le Nigéria en a dénombréplusieurs
comme je l'ai souligné.La Cour a examinéchacune d'entre elles et est
arrivée,après un raisonnement basésur le droit ou des constatations, à
des conclusions que je ne me permets pas de discuter, mêmesi certaines
d'entre elles ne coïncident pas avec celles auxquelles j'étais moi-même
parvenu. Les différencesentre telle ou telle solution, une fois reportées
sur le terrain, n'ont finalement d'ailleurs qu'une conséquence relative-
ment minime.

ii) La commission du bassin du lac Tchad

40. A propos de démarcation, la commission du bassin du lac Tchad
(CBLT) aurait reçu, d'après le Cameroun, la mission de procéder a la
démarcation de la frontière, bien que la commission elle-mêmeait eu à
parler de délimitation (voir déclaration de Lagos du 21juin 1971). 35. One of Nigeria's counsel claimedthat the texts delimiting the fron-
tier were so badly drafted in a number of places that they could not be
regarded as instruments of delimitation, and ~hat such delimitation
remained to be effected. Nigeria's counselstated that "the colonial bound-
ary agreements of the period 1906to 1931did nct produce a conclusive
delimitation in the Lake Chad region". Counsel tlien listed 33 villages in
the Lake Chad region which he claimed were Nigerian, with the apparent
exception of one, said to be inhabited by Malian nationals.
The Court did noitaccept his claim.

C. Delimitcztion- ~Zemarcation
(i) General considerations

36. The Parties stressed the distinction between delimitation and
demarcation (para. 134of the Judgment). This debate, looked at from a
viewpoint contemporary with the instruments applicable in the present
case, was rightly approached by the Court with caution. It gave a clear
definition (inthe pa:ragraph cited) of delimitatiori on the one hand and

demarcation on the other. But the important thing was to determine the
boundary between the two States. TheCourt did so without overstepping
itsjudicial role, conifining itself to interpreting rlnd applying the legal
instruments which delimit that boundary.
37. Thus it was for the Court in this case to interpret the Fleuriau-
Henderson Exchangt: of Notes and the Thomson-Marchand Declaration.
It performed that taijk successfully.
38. In my view, when the two authorities representing Great Britain
and France speak in their respective Notes of: "the actual delimitation
[délimitations proprement dites]", what they meiln is what in this case
the Parties finally agreed tocal1"demarcation".
1believe that, on studying the abundance of tietail contained in the
Thomson-Marchand Declaration, one is bound to reach that conclusion,
subject to the defects or "defective delimitations" cited by Nigeria.
39. Nigeria enumerated a number of such defective delimitations, as 1
have already pointed out. The Court examined each of them and, through
reasoning based on law or on findings of fact, reai:hed conclusions that 1

will not venture to cliscusshere, even though sonie of them do not pre-
cisely correspond to those which 1myself had reached. Once applied on
the ground, the consequence of choosing one solution rather than another
will, in any event,be:relatively minimal.

(ii) The LCBC

40. As regards demarcation, according to Canieroon the Lake Chad
Basin Commission (LCBC) was charged with the task of undertaking the
demarcation of the boundary, although the Commission itself spoke of
delimitation (see Lagos Declaration of 21 June 1571). 41. Pour le Nigéria, la CBLT s'est livrée également à une véritable
délimitation, ce qui, bien entendu, sur le plan de la logique, rejoint la
position du défendeur selon laquelle il n'y a pas eu de délimitation
auparavant. Et le Nigériaa insistésur le fait que les travaux de démar-
cation ne le lient paspuisqu'il n'en a jamais acceptéles conclusions.

42. La Cour, dans son arrêtde 1998sur les exceptions préliminaires,a
décrit la missionde la CBLT. A propos de cette mission, elle parle de
démarcation.
43. Créée en1964,la CBLT eut un rôle à jouer au sujet de la détermi-
nation de la frontièreà la suite d'incidents ayant opposéle Cameroun et
le Nigéria en 1983 dans la régiondu lac Tchad. Les Etats concernésse
mirent d'accord pour retenir, comme documents de travail traitant de la
dklimitationdes frontièresdans lelacTchad, diversconventions et accords
bilatérauxconclus entre l'Allemagneet la Grande-Bretagne entre 1906et
1931.Les experts proposèrent que la frontière ainsi délimitée soit démar-
quée.

La CBLT avait donc une mission de démarcation, comme la Cour l'a
constaté (C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 305, 307-308, par. 65 et 70) dans son
arrêtsur les exceptions préliminairesdu Nigéria. Ellel'a répété au para-
graphe 55 du présentarrêten indiquant: «La Cour observe que la CBLT
mena pendant sept ans des travaux techniques de démarcation, en se
fondant sur des instruments dont il était convenu qu'ils délimitaient la
frontière dans le lac Tchad.»

D. Cartographie

44. Dans la présente affaire,il y a eu une véritableguerre des cartes.
Les anciennes cartes, notamment cellesqui ont servi à la confection de
la déclarationThomson-Marchand (la carte Moisel notamment), ont été
sévèrement critiquées par le Nigéria. Un conseil du Nigéria leura repro-
ché certainesapproximations et même deserreurs, des lacunes et des non-

sens.
45. Evidemment, les cartes de 1919, 1930ou 1931portent obligatoire-
ment lesstigmates des techniques qui ont servi à l'époquepour lesconfec-
tionner. Mais cela n'est pasune raison suffisante pour rejeter en bloc les
informations qu'elles fournissent. Du reste, il faut se souvenir de l'appré-
ciation que la Cour porte sur les cartes d'une façon générale:
<<lescartes ne sont que de simples indications, plus ou moins

exactes selon lescas; ellesne constituent jamais- àellesseuleset du
seul fait de leur existence un titre territorial, c'est-à-dire un docu-
ment auquel ledroit international confère une valeurjuridique intrin-
sèqueaux fins de l'établissement desdroits territoriaux. Certes, dans
quelques cas, les cartes peuvent acquérirune telle valeur juridique,
mais cette valeur ne découlepas alors de leurs seules qualités intrin-
sèques; elle résulte dece que ces cartes ont été intégrée psarmi les
éléments quiconstituent l'expression de la volonté de 1'Etatou des
Etats concernés. Ainsi en va-t-il, par exemple, lorsque des cartes LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP. OP. MBAYE) 514

41. According to Nigeria, the LCBC also undertook a true delimita-
tion, which of course, in logical terms, justified th(:Respondent's position

that there had been no prior delimitation. And Nigeria stressed the fact
that the demarcation works did not bind it, sinc: it had never accepted
their conclusions.
42. In its 1998 Judgment on the Preliminary Objections, the Court
described the LCBC:'stask. In this regard, it speaks of demarcution.

43. Created in 1964, the LCBC became involvi-d with the delimitation
of the boundary following incidents between Cameroon and Nigeria in
1983 in the Lake Chad region. The States concerned agreed to adopt as
working documents dealing with the "delimitation" of the boundaries in
Lake Chad "various bilateral treaties and agreemc:nts concluded between

Germany and Great Britain between 1906 and 1913". The experts pro-
posed that the boundary as thus delimited "be dcmarcated".

Thus the LCBC'r; task was one of demarcation as the Court found
(I.C.J. Reports 1998, pp. 305, 307 and 308, paras 65 and 70) in its Judg-
ment on Nigeria's preliminary objections. This is reiterated by the Court

in paragraph 55 of the present Judgment, where ic indicates: "The Court
observes that the LCBC had engaged for seven yc:arsin a technical exer-
cise of demarcation. on the basis of instruments that were agreed to be
the instruments deliimiting the frontier in Lake Chad."

D. Cartography

44. In the present case, there has been an outright battle of maps.
The old maps, in particular those used in the pr:paration of the Thom-

son-Marchand Declaration (especially the Moi:el map), were heavily
criticized by Nigeria. One of its counsel charged that they contained
approximations and even errors, as well as gaps and contradictions.

45. Naturally, maps dating from 1919, 1930 2r 1931 will inevitably

reflect the weaknesses of the contemporary techn~ques employed in their
preparation. But that is not a sufficient reason to reject en bloc the infor-
mation which they provide. Moreover, we should not forget what the
Court has said on niaps in general:

"maps merely constitute information which \iaries in accuracy from
case to case; of themselves, and by virtue solely of their existence,
they cannot constitute a territorial title, that is, a document endowed
by international law with intrinsic legal foice for the purpose of
establishing territorial rights. Of course, in some cases maps may
acquire such legal force, but where this is so the legal force does not

arise solely frorn their intrinsic merits:t is because such maps fall
into the category of physical expressions of the will of the State or
States concerned. This is the case, for example, when maps are
annexed to an official text of which they form an integral part. sont annexéesa un texte officiel dont elles font partie intégrante.
En dehors de cette hypothèse clairement définie,les cartes ne sont
que des élémentsde preuve extrinsèques, plusou moins fiables, plus

ou moins suspects, auxquels il peut être fait appel, parmi d'autres
élémentsde preuve de nature circonstancielle, pour établirou recons-
tituer la matérialitédes faits.Affaire du Diffërend frontalier (Bur-
kina FasolRépublique du Mali), urrgt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 582,
par. 54; voir aussi affaire del'lle de KusikililSedudu (Bots~vanuINa-
mibie), C.I.J. Recueil 1999 (II), p. 1098,par. 84.)
Toutefois, dans la présente affaire, l'accordanglo-allemand de 1913

donne aux cartes une certaine importance (dispositions finales dudit
accord).

E. Effectivités et titre juridique

46. L'opposition entre titre juridique et effectivités aoccupéle centre
des débatsdans cette affaire.

i)Généralités

47. Pour pallier la prétendue absence de délimitationqu'il a soulevée,
le Nigéria avait invoqué les effectivités; effectivitésqui confirment son
titre historique.Il avait cité,pour illustrer son propos, l'occupation de
Darak et des villagesenvironnants par des Nigérians et bien d'autres faits
encore qui, selon le Nigéria,démontrentbien l'exercicede sa souveraineté
dans la partie de la régiondu lac Tchad qu'il revendique. Le Nigériaa
mêmesoutenu qu'il y a eu acquiescement de la part du Cameroun.
48. Traitant amplement de cette question dans les paragraphes 64 et

suivants de son arrêt, laCour a dit clairement que: «les éventuelleseffec-
tivités nigérianesdoivent bien êtreconsidérées,du point de vue de leurs
conséquencesjuridiques, comme des actes contra legern)) (par. 64 de
l'arrêt).
Elle a au passage rejetéle moyen du Nigéria selon lequelil y aurait
acquiescement du Cameroun.
49. Je ne peux qu'approuver de telles conclusions; en particulier
l'absence d'acquiescement du Cameroun en la présente espèceest mani-
feste. L'acquiescement a une extension de souveraineté sur une portion
du territoire national d'un Etat exige une longue période et uneaccepta-
tion volontaire sans équivoque, ce qui n'est pas le cas dans la présente
affaire. Les circonstances des affaires du Temple de Préuh Vihéar et
El SalvadorlHondurus étaient différentes de celles de l'affaire Came-

roun c. Nigéria.
50. Ni pendant la colonisation, ni pendant les périodesde mandat et
de tutelle, ni depuis l'indépendance, aucun consentement du Cameroun
n'est intervenu pour considérer lesrégions en causecomme faisant partie
du Nigéria.
51. Une des démonstrations de l'absence d'acquiescement estcertaine- Except in this clearly defined case, maps are snly extrinsic evidence
of varying reliability or unreliability which may be used, along with

other evidence of a circumstantial kind, to establish or reconstitute
the real facts." [(FrontierDispute (Burkina FasolRepublic of Mali)
I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 582, para. 54; see also KasikililSedudu Island
(Botsi.i~anulNumibia), I.C. J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1098, para. 84.)

However, in the present case, the Anglo-Germ.in Agreement of 1913
does accord a certain importance to the maps (see final provisions of that

Agreement).

E. Effectivitésand legal title

46. The debate in the present case largely focused on the opposition
between legal title anid effectivités.

(i) General considerations

47. In order to make good the alleged absence cf delimitation, Nigeria
invoked efictivités -- effectivités which confirmed its historie title. To
illustrate its argumeint, it cited the occupation of Darak and the sur-
rounding villages by Nigerians, together with a whole series of other facts
which, according to Nigeria, clearly demonstrated the exercise of its sov-

ereignty in the part of the Lake Chad area which if claimed. Nigeria even
contended that there had been acquiescence on thz part of Cameroon.
48. The Court addresses this issue at length in p~ragraphs 64 et seq. of
its Judgment, stating clearly that: "any Nigerian ejfiectivitésare indeed to
be evaluated for theii-legal consequences as acts cmtru legem" (para. 64
of the Judgment).

The Court moreover rejected Nigeria's argument as to alleged acqui-
escence on the part of Cameroon.
49. 1 can only approve such conclusions; in particular, the absence of
any acquiescence by Cameroon in the present caschis quite clear. Acqui-
escence to an extension of sovereignty over a portion of the national ter-

ritory of a State requires a long period and a c.lear and unequivocal
voluntary acceptance, which is not the situation ir the present case. The
circumstances in the Temple of Preah Villeur and El SalvadorlHonduras
cases were different from those in the Cameroon \ . Nigeria case.

50. Neither during the colonial period, nor duriiig the periods of Man-

date and Trusteeship, nor since independence, h,is there occurred any
consent by Cameroon which would enable those areas to be considered
as forming part of Nigeria.
51. Evidence of the absence of acquiescence is indeed provided by thement l'existence mêmede la CBLT, de son travail et de la collaboration
continue que les deux Parties lui ont toujours apportée dans l'exercice des
fonctions qui lui ont été confiéepsar les pays concernés.A cet égard,peu

importe que le Nigéria n'aitpas adhéré aprèscoup aux conclusions de la
CBLT.
52. En tout étatde cause, la Cour a affirméà bon droit que, s'ily a un
titre juridique (et il y a en la présente espèce untitre juridique), ce titre
doit l'emporter sur les effectivités.C'est ce que la Chambre dans le Dif-
férendfrontalier Burkina FasolRépuhlique du Mali affirme avec force a
-propos de l'uti possidetis juris.

53. Il faut noter à ce propos les très intéressants développements que
la Cour, dans les paragraphes 65 et suivants de son arrêt,consacre à la
théoriefort controversée de la «consolidation historique du titre)),d'ou il
résulteque:

«rien dans l'arrêt rendu en l'affaire des Pêclzeriesne donne à
entendre que la «consolidation historique)) dont il est fait état en
ce qui concerne les limites extérieures de la mer territoriale autorise-

rait à faire prévaloir l'occupation d'un territoire terrestre sur un
titre conventionnel établi)).

54. Je ne crois pas qu'il soit nécessaire d'allonger cette opinion, en
insistant davantage que ne l'a fait la Chambre, dans I'affaire du Différend
frontalier (Burkina FasolRépublique du Mali) pour accepter avec la
Cour que les effectivités de la présente espècene peuvent pas l'emporter
sur un titre juridiqueA ce propos, la Chambre a pris une position sans

ambiguïté:

«Dans le cas où le fait correspond exactement au droit, ou une
administration effectives'ajoute à l'utipossidetis juris, l'<(effectivité»
n'intervient en réalitéque pour confirmer l'exercice du droit néd'un
titre juridique. Dans le cas où le fait ne correspond pas au droit, où
le territoire objet du différend est administré effectivement par un
Etat autre que celui qui possède le titre juridique, il y a lieu de

préférerle titulaire du titre.)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 586 et 587,
par. 63.)

55. La Cour a eu la même position dans la présente affaire.
A mon avis, en matière de frontières, l'exercice réel, continu et
paczfique des fonctions étatiques (ce qui n'est pas le cas ici) peut servir
de critériumcorrect et naturel de la souverainetéterritoriale.
Toutefois, pour qu'il en soit ainsi, il faut qu': «il n'existe cependant
aucune ligne conventionnelle d'une précisiontopographique suffisante ou

... [que]des lacunes dans les frontières autrement établies, ou ... [qu']une
ligne conventionnelle donne lieu a des doutes...)) (Revue généralede
droit international public (RGDIP) , p. 165-166,citéedans C.I.J.Recueil
1999 (II), opinion individuelle de M. Kooijmans, p. 1146, par. 14).very existence of the LCBC, of its work and of the way in which the two
Parties continuously collaborated in the exercise of the functions con-
ferred upon it by the countries involved. In this regard, it makes no dif-
ference that Nigeria subsequently refused to as:,ociate itself with the
LCBC's conclusions.

52. In any event, the Court rightly affirmed tha where there is a legal
title (and in this case there is a legal title), that title must prevail over
ejfictivités.The Chainber in the Frontier Dispute 'Burkina FasolRepub-
lie of Muli) case forcibly restated this in regard tctuti possidetis juris.

53. In this connection, note should be taken of the very interesting
passages of the Court's Judgment (paras. 65 et seq.)in which it addresses
the highly controvers.ial theory of the "historical (,onsolidation of title",
observing that :

"nothing in the ~~isheriesJudgment suggests tliat the 'historical con-
solidation' referred to, in connection with the zxternal boundaries of
the territorial sea, allows land occupation to prevail over an estab-

lished treaty title:".

54. 1 consider it unnecessary to add to the 1enl:thof this opinion by
enlarging on what the Chamber said in the Frontier Dispute (Burkina
FasolRepublic uf Mali) case. 1 agree with the Co~rt that the ejfectivités
in the present case cannot prevail over legal title. In this regard, the
Chamber took up a position which permits of no ambiguity:

"Where the act corresponds exactly to law, ~whereeffective admin-
istration is additional to the uti possidetis juris,the only role of
qffectivittis to confirm the exercise of the riglit derived from a legal
title. Where the iict does not correspond to the law, where the terri-
tory which is the subject of the dispute is effectively administered by
a State other than the one possessing the legal title, preference
should be given to the holder of the title." (I.C.J. Reports 1986,

pp. 586 and 587. para. 63.)

55. The Court has adopted the same position iri the present case.
In my view, as regards frontier disputes, the lzctuul continuous and
peuceful displrrl,qf Sl'atefunctions (which is not the case here) can serve
as the sound and natural criterion of territorial soi~ereignty.
That principle only holds good, however, on ccndition that "no con-
ventional line of sufficient topographical precisiorr exists or if there are
gaps in the frontiers otherwise established, or if a conventional line leaves
room for doubt" (Reports of International ArbitLrulAwards (RIAA),
Vol. II, p. 840; Revuclgénérale de droitinternationalpublic, pp. 165-166,
cited in I.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), separate opinior of Judge Kooijmans,
p. 1146,para. 14). ii) Les villages nigériansdu lac Tchad

56. Il me faut parler des villages dits nigérians se trouvant dans la
régiondu lac Tchad. Je ne reviendrai pas sur ce que lesconseils du Came-
roun ont déjàdit de ces villages, et notamment de leur caractère relative-
ment récent d'ailleurs soulignépar la Cour dans le présentarrêt (par.65)
et leur installation la suite du retrait des rives du lac Tchad.

57. Je tiens seulement i évoquer une notion sur laquelle les Parties
n'ont pas insistéoutre mesure et quej'ai effleuréedans mes considérations
générales. Il s'agitde la nationalité devillageoisinstalliscôtéou de part
et d'autre d'une frontière en Afrique. C'est un phénomène que l'on ren-
contre partout sur ce continent. En s'installant dans de telles conditions,

les villageois en question n'ont point le sentiment de le faire en raison
d'une identité nationale, qu'on s'efforce de leur inculquer depuis un peu
plus de quarante ans seulement, mais parce que c'est une coutume en
Afrique d'ignorer les frontières linéairesqui sont une importation étran-
gère,surtout lorsque sur l'autre côtévivent des hommes et des femmes de
la mêmeethnie. Par ailleurs, comme l'a dit un conseil du Nigérialors des
plaidoiries orales:((lesvillages se déploientau fil de l'eau».
C'est vraisemblablement ce qui s'est produit pour les villagesnigérians
des bords du lac Tchad dont la superficie a beaucoup variéau cours des
années,ces variations ayant pris la forme d'un recul marqué des eaux
(par. 58 de l'arrêt).
58. C'est ainsi qu'on trouve en Gambie des villages wolof venant du
Sénégal et inversement.Souvent, ce qui compte pour les villageois en

Afrique, c'est l'ethnie etnon la nationalitéqui est une notion récente.Un
conseil du Nigériaa reconnu que, parmi les villagesdu lac Tchad, il y en
a un qui serait malien. C'est éloquent.
59. Dans l'affaire de l'lle de KasikililSedudu (BotswanalNumibie), la
Cour avait rencontré le problème desMasubia qui s'étaientfixéssur l'île,
objet du différend,et elle avait dit que «les activités desMasubia sur l'île
était une question indépendante de celle du titre sur celle-ci))
(C.Z.J. Recueil 1999 (II),p. 1106,par. 98). L'existenced'une colonie de
Nigérians au lac Tchad à l'est de la frontière n'est pas làéla souverai-
netédes territoires où ils vivent. C'est aussine question indépenduntede
celle du titresur le territoire où vivent ceNigériuns.

F. La détermination de l'embouchure de I'Ebedji

60. Le tracé dela frontière dans le lac Tchad soulevait un problème
sur lequel le Nigériaavait opportunément mis le doigt. Ce problèmeétait
une indication de l'Œuvred'interprétation quele Nigériainvitait la Cour
à accomplir et que le Cameroun avait acceptée.
61. D'après la déclaration Thomson-Marchand, la frontière lacustre
part d'un point triple de coordonnées 13'05' de latitude nord et 14'05'

environ de longitude est. (ii) The Xigerian villages in Lake Chad

56. 1now come to the question of the so-called "Nigerian" villages in
the Lake Chad region. I will not go back over ~vhatcounsel for Cam-
eroon have already said about these villages, in particular their relatively
recent character, moreover emphasized by the Co ~rtin the present Judg-
ment (para. 65), anid their establishment folloaing the retreat of the
shores of Lake Chatl.
57. 1would simply mention an issue, already rzferred to in passing in

my general considerutions, on which the Parties clidnot enlarge, namely
that of the nationality of villagers settled besidO,-straddling, an African
boundary. This is a phenomenon that we find al1over the continent. In
settling under such circumstances, the villagers in question have no sense
at al1of doing so in pursuance of a national identity, with which efforts
have only been made to imbue them for just over 10years, but because it
is a custom in Africa to ignore linear boundarics, which are a foreign
importation, especially when men and women of the same ethnie origin
live on the other sicle. Moreover, as counsel for Nigeria pointed out in
oral argument, "the villages move with the water '.

This is in al1likelihood what has occurred in tlie case of the Nigerian
villages along the shore of Lake Chad, whose surface has varied consid-
erably over the yeai-s in the form of a marked ~.ecessionof the waters
(para. 58 of the Judgment).
58. By the same token, we find in Gambia v llages of Wolofs from
Senegal and vice versa. Often what counts is ethr~icityand not national-
ity, which is a recenit notion in Africa. One of Nigeria's counsel recog-
nized that among the Lake Chad villages thr~re is one said to be
Malian - a point which speaks for itself.
59. In the case concerning KasikililSedudu Island (Botswana1

Numibia), the Court had to deal with the problern of the Masubia, who
had settled on the island in dispute, and of whcm the Court said "the
activities of theMaijubia on the Island were an independent issue from
that of title to the1r;land"(1.C.J. Reports 1999 (II), p. 1106,para. 98).
The existence of a colony of Nigerians in Lake C'had,to the east of the
border, has no bearing on the sovereignty of th(, territories where they
have been living. That is also n separate issue to that of the title to the
territory where thosi:Nigerians are living.

F. Determination oj-the mouth oj'the Ebeji

60. The course of the boundary in Lake Chad iaised a problem which
Nigeria opportunely highlighted. This problem represented an example
of the work of interpretation which Nigeria inviteclthe Court to carry out
and which Cameroon accepted that it should do.
61. According to the Thomson-Marchand Decl;~ration,the lake bound-
ary starts from a tripoint with CO-ordinates 13"05" latitude north and
approximately 14"05" longitude east. Il est également précisé qu'il s'agidt'une droite.
62. Le problème survient dès lors qu'il s'agit de l'aboutissement de
cette droite. La déclaration place son point d'arrivée à l'embouchure de
I'Ebedji sans indiquer les coordonnées du point. Malheureusement,

aujourd'hui, ce fleuve se jette dans le lac Tchad par deux chenaux et non
par une seule embouchure. Chacune des Parties a essayéde démontrer
que c'est le bras qui favorise sa thèse qui est ou qui doit êtrel'embou-
chure viséepar le texte applicable. Le Cameroun a choisi le chenal ouest
et le Nigéria le chenal est. La CBLT avait trouvé une solution de ccorîz-
promis que le Nigéria n'apas acceptée.
63. La Cour devait trancher le problème qui se posait ainsi à elle. Elle
l'a fait.
11lui revenait de rechercher la volonté desparties àla déclaration et en

mêmetemps d'essayer de se placer à l'époque où cettedéclaration a été
souscrite. Une telle entreprise n'étaitpas toutà fait adaptée à la présente
espèce. Finalement, en partant des facteurs pertinents, la Cour pouvait
opter entre

- choisir un des deux chenaux,
- adopter la proposition de la CBLT,
- donner de la déclaration sa propre interprétation
C'est cette dernière solution qui a eu la faveur de la Cour. Pour ma

part, je ne peux qu'y souscrire.
64. Rejoignant les préoccupations du Nigériaqui avait parlédu sort et
du comportement des populations niggrianes, si les territoires que ce pays
revendiquait étaient reconnus comme appartenant au Cameroun, la Cour
a pris acte de l'engagement pris par l'agent du Cameroun, au nom de son
pays, et selon lequel les Nigérians demeurant au Cameroun continue-
raient à y vivre comme y vivent les autres personnes relevant d'autres
nationalités et comme cela se passe dans d'autres parties de l'Afrique et
même ailleurs.Ce faisant, la Cour a donnéun poids juridique à son enga-

gement unilatéral versédans le débatjudiciaire. C'était son droit. Elle
l'énoncedans le dispositif de son arrêten ces termes:
((Prend acte de l'engagement pris à l'audience par la République
du Cameroun, par lequel celle-ci affirme que, ((fidèle à sa politique
traditionnellement accueillante et tolérante)),elle((continueraa assu-

rer sa protection aux Nigérianshabitant la péninsule [de Bakassi]et
[a]ceux vivant dans la région du lacTchad».» (Par. V. C).)
Cette énonciation, comme on peut le constater, s'applique aussi à
Bakassi.

2. Bakassi

65. L'argument essentiel du Nigéria ence qui concerne Bakassi était
que la Grande-Bretagne ne pouvait pas céder a l'Allemagne ce qui ne lui
appartenait pas. Et le Nigériade développer lathéoriede l'existencedans It is also stated that the boundary runs in a stiaight line.

62. The problem arises in regard to the endpoint of that straight line.
The Declaration places this at the "mouth of the Ebeji" without indicat-
ing the exact co-ordinates. Unfortunately, this river now flows into Lake
Chad dowii two channels and not from a single mouth. Each Party
endeavoured to show that the mouth contemplited by the applicable

instrument now takes or should take the form oi-the channel that sup-
ported its respective arguments. Cameroon opted Forthe western channel
and Nigeria for the eastern one. The LCBC had found a compromise
solution which Nigeria did not accept.
63. The Court had to settle the problem thus 1)osedand it did so.

The Court had to ascertain the intentions of the parties to the Declara-
tion and at the same time seek to place itself at tlie time when that Dec-
laration was signed. Such a solution was not totally adapted to the
present case. Eventuially, based on the relevant fictors, the Court found

itself with three choices:
- to choose one oj'the two channels,

- to adopt the proposa1 of the LCBC, or
- to interpret the IDeclaration itself.

The Court favoured the latter solution. For my part, 1would certainly
agree with that.
64. Addressing the concerns of Nigeria, which had spoken of the fate
and conduct of the "Nigerian" inhabitants if the territories which it

claimed were to be recognized as belonging to Cameroon, the Court
acknowledged the undertaking by the Agent of Cameroon on behalf of
his country that the Nigerians remaining in Came(-oon would continue to
live there under the same conditions as other per:;ons of other nationali-
ties, just as occurs in other parts of Africa ancl indeed elsewhere. By

doing so the Court gave legal weight to this unilateral undertaking
invoked in the judicial debate. It was entitled to do so. It thus recorded
that undertaking as follows in the clispositif of the Judgment:

"Take~ note of the commitment undertaken by the Republic of
Cameroon at the hearings that, 'faithful to ts traditional policy of
hospitality and tolerance', it 'will continue ro afford protection to
Nigerians living in the [Bakassi] Peninsula and in the Lake Chad

area"' (para. V (C)).
On this point we c:anobserve that what is true for Lake Chad is equally

so for Baküssi.

2. Bakassi

65. Nigeria's essential argument on the issue of Bakassi was that Great

Britain could not cede to Germany what did not belong to it. And
Nigeria then enlarged upon the theory of the existence in this region ofcette régionde rois et chefs dont on ne pouvait disposer du territoire sans
leur consentement. Le Nigériareconnaît que ces rois et chefs vivaient sur
le territoire d'uneédération acéphal et non sur une circonscription poli-
tique régionale.II leur prête néanmoinsune personnalité internationale
et, a cet effet, s'est prévalud'un traité colonial de 1884 (voir le para-
graphe C ci-dessous) et de plusieurs autres arguments, dont le principe
nemo dut quod non habet, que la Cour a examinés en détailet sur lesquels
je ne reviendrai pas.
66. Au plus, l'argument du Nigériacontre l'accord franco-allemand de
1913 reposait sur une inopposabilité; or celle-ciaurait été purgéd eepuis

par le comportement des parties, après celui des colonisateurs. Mais je
reviendrai sur le sujet des rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar (voir le para-
graphe D ci-dessous).
Par ailleurs, au sujet de l'appartenance de Bakassi à l'une ou à l'autre
Partie, se sont poséesun certain nombre de questions capitales que l'on
ne peut aborder, àmon avis, sans seprononcer sur la question des traités
coloniaux.

A. Les traités coloniaux

i) Valeur des traités coloniaux en général

67. Le colonisateur avait signé destraitésen Afrique avec des roitelets
de l'époque,comme on les appelait dans les livres d'histoire des élèvesde
ma génération,non sans un dédainqu'a évoquéet déploréplus d'un Afri-

cain. Dans la seule péninsulede Bakassi, l'agent du Nigériaa dénombré
dix-sept traités de ce type, dont un sur lequel il a mis l'accent comme
étant un traitéde droit international. Il s'agit de celui de 1884 entre la
Grande-Bretagne et lesrois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar. Des traités comme
celui-là, il y en a eu des dizaines durant la colonisation dont l'Afrique a
tant souffert. Cette réalitéhistorique est soulignéepar la Cour dans le
paragraphe 203 de son arrêt.Ils n'avaient pasd'autre but que de servir le
dessein de la curée décidéecontre l'Afrique à la Conférencede Berlin ou
avant.
68. En Afrique noire, les protectorats qui résultaient destraités colo-
niaux avaient pour seul résultat de créer un système d'administration
indirecte. Ils sedistinguaient des traités deprotectorat ayant un caractère
international. Les rois et chefs, dans les circonscriptions administratives
que formaient les villages, les cantons et les provinces, prenaient le relais
des colonisateurs. Cette situation n'avait rien d'exceptionnel et netradui-
saitguère le moindre pouvoir propre de ces autorités locales. Ainsi, au

Sénégalc ,es rois et chefs percevaient les impôts, rendaient la justice, pro-
cédaientaux recensements, etc. On les retrouve encore dans certains pays
avec ou sans pouvoir. Au Sénégal,la loi a mis fin a leur existence.
69. Ces «traités coloniaux))protégeaientleshommes et le territoire sur
lequel ils vivaient contre d'autres colonisateurs, essentiellement et au pro-
fit du cocontractant européentout simplement. Dans la présente affaire,Kings and Chiefs whose territory could not be disposed of without their
consent. Nigeria recognized that these Kings ancl Chiefs inhabited the
territory of an "acephalous federation" rather thaii any form of regional
political subdivision. It nonetheless accorded themiinternational person-
ality and relied for this purpose on a colonial treat) of 1884(see C below)
and on a number of other arguments, including the nemo dut quod non
hahet principle, which the Court examined in detail and to which 1will

not return.
66. Nigeria's argument against the 1913 Franco-German Agreement
further relied on its alleged non-opposability; but any such non-oppos-
ability would since have been made good by the <,onductof the parties,
following that of the colonial Powers. But 1 sh;ill return later to the
matter of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar (sce D below).
Moreover, on the siubjectof whether Bakassi beionged to one Party or
the other, a number of key questions were raised that cannot be addressed,
in my view, without first considering the validity of colonial treaties.

A. Colonial treaties

(i) The validity of colonial treatie.~in general
67. Various treatie:~were signed in Africa betwesn the colonial Powers

and the "kinglets" of the time, as they were called in the history books of
school children of m:ygeneration, not without a cxtain contempt which
numbers of Africans have remarked upon and deplored. In the Bakassi
Peninsula alone, the ,4gent of Nigeria counted 17'uch treaties, on one of
which he focused as 'beinga treaty under internatianal law. This was the
Treaty of 1884 between Great Britain and the Kings and Chiefs of Old
Calabar. Such treaties were concluded by the dozen in the course of the
colonization from which Africa has so greatly siiffered. This historical
reality is emphasizecl by the Court in paragraph 203 of its Judgment.
Their purpose was si:mplyto serve the "dismembeiment" decreed against
Africa at the Berlin Conference or earlier.
68. In sub-Sahara11Africa, the sole purpose of the protectorates which
resulted from the colonial treaties was to creatt. a system of indirect
administration. They could be distinguished frorr treaties of protection
which were international in character. The kings aiid chiefs in the admin-
istrative divisions formed by the villages, districis and provinces took

over the duties of the colonizers. Such situations were not unusual and
could hardly be said to attribute any real persona1 power to these local
authorities.Thus in Senegal such kings and chiefs rollected taxes, admin-
istered justice, took censuses, etc. They still exist ir certain countries with
or without power. Iri Senegal a statute gave them their quietus.
69. Such "colonial treaties" protected the inhabitants and the territory
where they lived against other colonial Powers, basically, and quite
simply for the benefit of the European signatory. In the present case theil s'agissait bien de traités de protectorat coloniaux ou traités de protec-
tion.
70. La Cour en dit qu'ils furent <<conclusnon pas avec des Etats, mais
avec d'importants chefs indigènes exerçant un pouvoir local sur des par-
ties identifiables de territoire))(par. 205 de l'arrêt).

C'est une façon déguiséede dire qu'il s'agissait de ((traitéscoloniaux)).
71. Que faut-il penser des traités coloniaux?
Ainsi les accords ou traités qui ont pu êtresignésen Afrique noire
avant ou après la Conférence de Berlin par les Etats colonisateurs et les
multiples roitelets (comme on les appelait) n'avaient pas d'autre but que
d'avertir les autres puissances coloniales que telle ou telle partie du conti-

nent noir était désormais une possession placéedans la zone d'influence
de tel Etat européen. On peut ainsi lire dans l'Acte généralde la Confé-
rence de Berlin (chap. VI, art. 34):«La puissance qui dorénavant pren-
dra possession d'un territoire sur les côtes du continent africain situéen
dehors de ses possessions actuelles ... accompagnera l'acte réceptifd'une
notification adressée aux autres puissances ..»
Cela est vrai non seulement au Nigéria etau Cameroun, mais partout

ailleurs en Afrique. De tels actes de protectorat, du type de celui citépar
un conseil du Nigéria, ont été signép sar dizaines. La Cour elle-mêmel'a
soulignédans son arrêt.Ils n'avaient pas de valeur en droit international.
Leur en donner aujourd'hui serait ouvrir la boîte de Pandore. Ces chefs
n'avaient même pas eux-mêmes une notion précise des limitesterritoriales
de la zone qu'ils commandaient.

72. Le problème n'est pas de porter aujourd'hui un jugement de valeur
sur de telles règles et de telles pratiques, mais, dans le cadre du droit
intertemporel, d'en faire un constat. La Cour n'a pas le pouvoir de revi-
ser le droit international. Elle n'a pas a porter son appréciation sur les
pratiques d'une époque, encore moins se fonder sur cette appréciation
pour étayer une décision. Elle doit simplement, le cas échéant, constater
les caractéristiques et les règlesdes différentesphases de l'évolutionde ce

droit pour l'interpréter et l'appliquer aux faits de l'époque considérée.
73. On a dit que la notion de frontière linéairen'est pas africaine. Elle
a étéimportée sur ce continent par les puissances coloniales. Cela ne veut
pas dire que les groupes humains de l'Afrique précoloniale ne se réfé-
raient pas à des limites. Mais ces dernières étaient naturelles: fleuves,
montagnes, forêts, etc. L'Afrique noire connaissait des tribus, des ethnies

avec leurs chefs, «ou qu'ils se trouvent)), a dit un agent du Nigéria. Le
pouvoir du chef s'exerçait sur des sujets et rila rigueur sur des villages ou
cités. Les royaumes ou empires africains dont parlent les historiens
étaient très souvent l'idéeque l'on se faisait des agglomérations dont les
habitants avaient pour suzerain tel roi ou tel chef.

74. D'ailleurs, les traités coloniaux en question étaient rarement signés

par les représentants dûment habilitésde 1'Etatcolonisateur. Ceux qui les
passaient étaient souvent des explorateurs, des commerçants, des naviga-
teurs, quelquefois des officiers subalternes. Mais ces traitésqu'ils signaienttreaties involved weri: indeed coloniul protectorate treaties or treaties of
protection.
70. The Court des~rribedthem as having been 'entered into not with
States, but rather with important indigenous rule~sexercising local rule
over identifiable areas of territory" (para. 205 of the Judgment).
This is a disguised way of saying that they were "colonial treaties".
71. What view should be taken of colonial treaiies?
Thus the agreements or treaties signed in sub-Saliaran Africa before or
after the Berlin Conference by the colonizing States with the numerous
"kinglets" (as they were called) were simply inten~ledto warn the other
colonial Powers that specificparts of the black con inent were now a pos-
session falling within the zone of influence of a given European State.

Thus, the General Act of the Berlin Conference (Chap. VI, Art. 34) pro-
vides: "The Power which henceforth shall take pcssession of a territory
upon the Coast of the African continent situated outside of its present
possessions . . .shall accompany the respective zct with a notification
addressed to the other . . Powers . . ."
That is true not only of Nigeria and Cameroon but of everywhere else
in Africa. Such treaties of protection of the kincl cited by counsel for
Nigeria were signed by the dozen. The Court itself has pointed this out in
its Judgment. They had no validity in international law. To accord them
such validity now would be to open a Pandora's box. The chiefs them-
selveshad no precise idea of the territorial boundaries of the areas which
they g0vernt.d.
72. The problem here is not to make a value jucgment today concern-
ing those rules and practices but rather, in the corltext of intertemporal
law, to take note of them. The Court does not have the authority to
revise international liiw. It is not entitled to assesi the practices of past

times, still less to rely onsuch assessment in support of a decision. The
Court should simply, where necessary, note the cf aracteristics and rules
of the various phases in the development of interniitional law in order to
interpret it and apply it to the facts of the period in question.
73. It should be recalled that the notion of a liiear frontier is not an
African one. It was imported into the continent by the colonial Powers.
That does not mean to say that human groupings in pre-colonial Africa
placed no reliance ori boundaries. But these were natural: rivers, moun-
iains, forests, etc. Thr:black African concept was one of tribes and ethnic
groups with their chir:fs,"wherever they [were]to tie found", as Nigeria's
Agent put it. The power of the chief was exercise~lover subjects and to
some extent over villages or townships. When histcrians speak of African
kingdoms or empires what is very often actually meant is groupings of
settlements whose inhabitants acknowledged the s lzerainty of a particu-
lar king or chief.
74. Moreover, the colonial treaties in question were rarely signed by

the duly authorized representatives of the colonial State. Often, those
who signed them were explorers, merchants, ~iavigators, sometimes
junior military officers. But these treaties which tliey signed enabled thepermettaient à1'Etatcolonisateur dont ils étaient ressortissants de dispo-
ser des espaces conquis, explorésou simplement visités,en attendant de
les annexer purement et simplement. Ce mot annexer au sens ambigu,
compte tenu de l'éloignement despays en question, était commode pour
traduire le droit du colonisateur à disposer du territoire concerné,objet
de sa possession (pour reprendre le terme de l'Acte général de laConfé-

rence de Berlin). C'est ce qui a amené M. Pierre-François Gonidec à
écriredans l'Encyclopédie juridiquede l'Afrique, à la page 24 du tome II:
«les territoires annexés faisaientpartie intégrante du territoire de 1'Etat
colonial. Il en résultaitque ce dernier en avait la libre disposition et pou-
vait en faire cession à des Etats étrangers selon les besoins de sa poli-
tique.» Et Gonidec de poursuivre en donnant un exemple :«Ainsi l'accord
de 1911réalisaitun troc entre l'Allemagne et laFrance en Afrique équa-
toriale et au Maroc. ))
Cette affirmation d'un des plus grands spécialistesdu droit africain se
rapporte fort bien à l'affaire qui nous occupe. Gonidec ajoute d'ailleurs:

«Il n'y avait plus qu'un gouvernement, celui de la métropolesauf à délé-
guer sur place des représentantsdu pouvoir central et autiliser éventuel-
lement les chefs traditionnels comme auxiliaires du pouvoir colonial. »
C'est cette situation que le Nigériaa invoquéea l'appui de sa thèse.Le
systèmedu gouvernement indirect, qui s'expliquait pour de multiples rai-
sons, a été employé partout en Afrique.
75. Et enfin je ne peux résisterà la tentation de citer encore Gonidec
quand il écrit:

«Sur le plan international les pays annexés perdaienttoute person-
nalité.A vrai dire on considéraitqu'ils n'avaient jamais été des per-
sonnes du droit (puisqu'on ne leur reconnaissait pas la qualité'Etat).
Cependant, les agents de la conquêtecoloniale avaient accepté de
conclure avec les autorités africaines des accords aualifiésde trai-
tés...ce qui laissait supposer que les pays africains avaient une per-
sonnalité internationale. Mais par la suite, il se trouvera des juristes
pour soutenir qu'en réalitéil ne s'agissait pas de véritablestraités

mais de simplesconventions de droit interne, en se fondant sur le fait
qu'elles n'avaientpas été concluesentre Etats indépendants.Ceci per-
mit de substituer facilement (par simple décreten général) l'annexion
à cespseudo-protectorats. » (Les italiques sont de moi.)
Les traités coloniaux de délimitation furent par la suite réhabilités.

ii) Valetlr spécijiquedes traités coloniaux de délimitation

76. Je tiens à insister encore une fois sur la question du respect des
frontières coloniales.
77. Les pays africains, réunisau Caire en 1964,ont pris, comme cela a
déjà été ditl,a résolutionAGHIRes. 16 (1) selon laquelle:«tous les Etats
membres (de l'organisation de l'unité africaine) s'engagenta respecter les
frontières existant au moment où ils ont accédé à l'indépendance)).colonial State whose nationals they were to dispose of the areas con-
quered, explored or simply visited pending their unnexation pure and
simple. This word "annexation", with its ambiguous meaning given the
distance froin the coiintries in question, was a convenient way of reflect-
ing the colonizers' right to dispose of the territor:~concerned, the terri-
tory in their "possession" (to employ the term found in the General Act
of the Berlin Conference). It is on this basis that Professor Pierre-
François Gonidec st,ates in the Encyclopédiejuridique de l'Afrique on
page 24 of Volume II :"the annexed territories became an integral part of

the territory of the colonial State. IIIconsequencc, the latter had a free
right of disposal over them and could cede them to foreign States accord-
ing to its political needs". And Gonidec continues by giving an example:
"thus we have the 1Çl11Agreement involving a swap between Germany
and France in Equatorial Africa and Morocco".
This statement by one of the greatest experts in African law applies
very well to Ourcase. Gonidec adds, moreover: "thzre was only one Gov-
ernment left, that of the metropole, subject to some form of delegation to
local representatives of the central Power or to the use of traditional
chiefs as auxiliaries of the colonial Power".
It was this situation that Nigeria invoked in siipport of its position.
The system of indirect rule, for which there were many reasons, was
employed everywhere:in Africa.
75. Finally, 1 canriot resist the temptation to cite one more passage
from Gonidec :

"In international terms, the annexed countries lost al1personality.
In truth, they viere considered never to hay~ebeen legal persons
(since they were not recognized as having the status of States). How-
ever, those carry,ingout colonial conquest agrced to enter into agree-
ments called 'treaties' with African authoritie; . . .and this implied
that African coiuntries did have internationail personality. Subse-
quently, howevei-,some legal experts maintained that in reality these

were not genuin~etreaties but mere agreements under interna1 law,
basing this argument on the fact that they had not been concluded
between indepenident States. This enabled t11osepseudo-protector-
ates to be easily annexed (generally by meri: decree)." (Emphasis
added.)
Colonial delimitation treaties were subsequently rehabilitated.

(ii)Specijic value of colonial delimitation treatics

76. 1wish to returi~once more to the question of the respect for colo-
nial boundaries.
77. As has already been said, the countries of Aiiica, meeting in Cairo
in 1964,adopted resolution AGHIRes. 16 (l), under which :"al1Member
States [ofthe Organization of African Unity] pledg~:themselves to respect
the frontiers existing on their achievement of national independence". 78. Les Parties se sont accordéespour dire que ce principe qu'elles ont
appelé utipossidetis juris est applicable a la présenteaffaire. La Cour n'a
pas cru devoir y faire appel. Je le regrette.
Ce principe veut dire clairement que le Nigéria nepouvait pas remettre
en cause aujourd'hui une frontière qui a existépendant quarante-sept ans
avant son indépendance et qu'il a de surcroît lui-même considérés eans

équivoque comme une frontière entre son territoire et celui du Cameroun
de 1960 a 1977.
Si on n'est pas d'accord avec cette énonciation, a quoi donc servirait le
principe du respect des frontières coloniales? Il faut se reporter aux para-
graphes 19a 26 de l'arrêt dela Courdans l'affaire du Différendfrontalier
pour comprendre l'importance que l'Afrique donne à ce principe; la
Cour aussi.
Pour la Cour:

«Bien qu'il ne soit pas nécessaire,aux fins de la présente affaire,
de démontrer qu'il s'agitlà d'un principe bien établien droit inter-
national, en matière de décolonisation, la Chambre désireen sou-
ligner la portée générale,en raison de l'importance exceptionnelle
qu'il revêtpour lecontinent africain ainsi quepour lesdeux Parties. ))
(C.I.J. Recueil 1986, p. 565, par. 20.)

Et la Chambre d'ajouter:

« 11constitue un principe général, logiquementliéau phénomène
de l'accession a I'indépendance,où qu'il se manifeste. Son but évi-
dent est d'éviter que I'indépendance etla stabilité des nouveaux
Etats ne soient mises en danger par des luttes fratricides, néesde la
contestation des frontières à la suite du retrait de la puissance admi-

nistrante. »(Ibid.)
79. Quand les Etats africains parlent d'utipossidetis juris,ils emploient

les mots intangibilitt. desfrontiéres colonialesCes mots traduisent mieux
leur penséecommune. Bien sûr, il serait déraisonnable d'en déduire que
ces frontières sont immuables. On peut bien les modifier, non en invo-
auant leurs défauts techniaue', mais seulement en se conformant aux
prescriptions du droit international, soit ((d'accord parties)), soit par
décision judiciaire. Dans ce dernier cas, la juridiction saisie doit se
contenter d'interpréter les instruments déterminant la frontiére etnon les
réécrire.En d'autres termes. elle Deut rectifier des défectuosités matériel-
les et non de prétendues erreurs juridiques. Deux cas illustrent ce propos:
l'embouchure de 1'Ebedji(pour la défectuosité matériellee )t les villages
nigérians du lac Tchad (pour une prétendue erreur juridique). Dans le
second cas, il s'agit d'une correction juridique. Il en est de mêmede la
consolidation historique invoquéepar le Nigéria a Bakassi. La Cour n'a

pas le pouvoir d'y remédier.Une juridiction ne peut pas changer une dis-
position claire. C'est en dehors de son pouvoir.
80. Ma conclusion généralesur le différend est la même que celle de la LAND ANI) MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP. OP. MBAYE) 522

78. The Parties agreed that this principle, which they called uti possi-
detisjuris, was applicable to the present case. The Court did not see fit to
have recourse to it. 1regret that.
This principle clearly means that Nigeria could lot challenge today a
boundary which existed for 47 years before its independence and which
Nigeria itself unequivocally accepted as the bouncary between its terri-

tory and that of Cameroon from 1960 to 1977.

If one were not to accept this, what would be thi: purpose of the prin-
ciple of respect for colonial boundaries? If we refer to paragraphs 19
to 26 of the Court's Judgment in the Frontier Dispute case, we can clearly
see the importance attached by Africa, and by the (:ourt too, to the prin-
ciple.
The Chamber stated:

"Although theireis no need, for the purposcs of the present case,
to show that this is a firmly established principie of international law
where decolonization is concerned, the Chamter nonetheless wishes
to emphasize its general scope, in view of its ezceptional importance
for the African continent and for the two Parties" (I.C.J. Reports

1986, p. 565, para. 20);

and continued :
"It is a genera.1principle, which is logicall;~connected with the
phenornenon of the obtaining of independence, wherever it occurs.

Its obvious purpose is to prevent the independence and stability of
new States being irndangered by fratricidal stru2gles provoked by the
challenging of frontiers following the withdraival of the administer-
ing power." (Ibicl.)

79. When African States speak of uti possidetis Juristhey employ the
phrase "intangihility c.lf'colonifrontiers". These mords best reflect their
common view. Of course it would be unreasonable to conclude from this
that frontiers are iminutable. They can certainly be modified, not by
invoking their technical defects but only in accordance with the rules of
international law - in other words, by mutual agreement or by judicial
decisions. In the latter case, the forum seised of thv matter must confine
itself to interpretingthe instruments determining the boundary and must

not rewrite them. In other words, it may remedy material defects but not
alleged legal errors.T\NOcases illustrate this point. ?'hecase of the mouth
of the Ebeji (a material defect) and the case of the "Nigerian" villages of
Lake Chad (an alleged legal error). This second case would involve a
legal rectification. The same applies to the historical consolidation
invoked by Nigeria in respect of Bakassi. The Court does not have a
power of rectification. A court cannot change a clear provision. That
would exceed its powi:r.
80. My general coriclusion on the dispute is the same as that of theCour: il y a bien une frontière entre le Nigéria et le Cameroun. Cette
frontière est celle qui résulte des instruments ci-après:
- la déclaration Thomson-Marchand,

- les accords de 191 3,
- l'ordre en conseil de 1946.
Décider autrement aurait été dela part de la Cour changer le droit

pour qu'il coïncide avec ce qu'elle aurait considéré commenormal et
équitable et conforme à la réalitésur le terrain. C'est une démarcheintel-
lectuellement et politiquement possible. Mais la Cour dit le droit. Elle a
une jurisprudence. Elle se doit de respecter cettejurisprudence et de ne la
faire évoluer qu'en cas de nécessitéabsolue et grâce à des raisons juri-
diques solides. Ce n'est pas le cas ici.

81. A ce propos, on se souviendra que s'agissant de l'accrochage des
nouvelles déclarations d'acceptation de la juridiction obligatoire de la
Cour sur les déclarations déjà existantes, le Nigériaconnaissait parfaite-
ment la jurisprudence confirméeà plusieurs reprises par la Cour et rela-
tive à cette question; mais, ce que le Nigéria voulait, c'est en quelque
sorte que la Cour change ce qui existe actuellement. La Cour n'a pas

accepté de suivre cette voie. Elle s'en est tenue à sa jurisprudence. La
Cour est chargée departiciper à l'instauration de la paix par le droit. Ce
droit doit être appliqué a toute cause.
82. Pour revenir à ma conclusion généraledans le présent différend,il
faut relever que dans l'Encyclopédie juridique de l'Afrique, et dans le
tome IIconsacréau droit international et aux relations internationales, il

y a un chapitre qui est consacréà l'espace national. Ce chapitre a été écrit
par Mme Chemillier-Gendreau et par Dominique Rosenberg. Et le para-
graphe 2 intitulé «La situation entre Etats africains concernés cas par
cas» contient un sous-titre «Cn : «Les frontières du Cameroun avec le
Nigéria».
Je tiens à citer ce qu'on y lit:

«Le 12 juillet 1884, les territoires du Cameroun devenaient un
protectorat allemand et cela était notifié aux autres puissances le
15 octobre 1884. Le 5 juin 1885 un protectorat britannique d'abord

désignésous le nom d'Oil Rivers Protectorate, puis de Niger Coast
Protectorate était établià l'ouest de celui du Cameroun ..La délimi-
tation définitive [de ces deux possessions] résulte des accords du
11 mars et du 12 avril 1913.)) (Encyclopédiejuridique de l'Afrique,
p. 76.)

Plus loin, il est indiqué dans le mêmetexte:

«la frontière va donc du lac Tchad jusqu'à la rivière Gamana sur la
base des accords susmentionnés de 1931 puis la frontière transver-
sale qui vient de la rivière Gamana au mont Kombon est le résultat
d'une limite coloniale britannique qui est devenue la frontière inter-
nationale après les plébiscitesde 1961» (ihitl., p.77). LAND AND MARITIME BOLINDARY (SEP.ClP.MBAYE) 523

Court: there is indeetl a boundary between Nigeria and Cameroon. That
boundary derives from the following instruments:

- the Thomson-Marchand Declaration,
- the 1913 Agreemitnts,
- the Order in Council of 1946.

Any other decision would have represented an a-tempt by the Court to
change the law so as to make it coincide with whxt it regarded as being
normal and fair ancl consistent with the reality on the ground. That

approach is possible in intellectual and political terms. But the Court
States the law. It has a jurisprudence, which it is bound to respect and
which it is not entitletl to change save in case of ab:.olute necessity and on
the basis of sound legal reasoning. That is not the case here.
81. In this respect, it will be recalled that, in relation to an alleged

"clash" of new declarations of acceptance of the compulsory jurisdiction
of the Court with declarations already existing, Nig,eriawas perfectly well
aware of the Court's iestablishedjurisprudence on this question; but what
Nigeria wanted was in essence that the Court sho lld change what actu-
ally existed. The Court did not agree to follow tliat route. It remained

firm to its jurisprudence. The Court's mission is to contribute to the
establishment of peac:eby applying the law. That law must be applied in
al1cases.
82. Returning to my general conclusion in tlie present dispute, it
should be noted that in the Encyclopédie juridiqul. de l'Afrique, in Vol-

ume II dealing with "international law and interna- ional relations", there
is a chapter devoted to "national territory". That chapter was written by
Professor Chemillier-'Gendreau and Mr. Dominique Rosenberg. In para-
graph (2), entitled "the case-by-case situation between African States",
there is a subheading "C" entitled "the boundarit:~ between Cameroon

and Nigeria".
1should like to quote what the Encyclopaedia Ilas to say:
"On 12July 1i384,the territories of Camercbon became a German

Protectorate and that was notified to the othcr Powers on 15 Octo-
ber 1883. On 5 June 1885 a British Protector;lte, initially called the
Oil Rivers Protectorate and then the Niger Coast Protectorate, was
established to th(: West of that of Cameroon . . . [These two posses-
sions] were defiriitively delimited by the Agriements of 11 March

and 12 April 1913." (Encyclopédiejuridique dr ['Afrique, p. 76.)

Later in the same text we read the following:

"Thus the bouildary runs from Lake Chad ul)to the River Gamana
on the basis of the above-mentioned agreements of 1931, with the

subsequent transverse section of the bountlary from the River
Gamana to Mount Kombon being a British colonial boundary
which became the international boundary aier the plebiscites of
1961 ." (Ibid,p. 77.) Puis les auteurs précisent: ((Enfin de la rivière Gamana à la rivière
Cross, puis à la mer, la frontière est celle des accords anglo-allemands du

11 mars 1913.» (Encyclopédiejuridique del'Afrique, p. 76.)

83. Voilà la frontière lacustre et terrestre, telle qu'elle résultedu droit
et non de faits accomplis. La conclusion à laquelle la Cour est arrivéela
confirme. Comme elle le dit: Bukassi est camerounaise. C'est ce qu'a dit
un des plus grands juristes d'Afrique et qui se trouve êtrenigérian. La
lettre de ce juriste, qui a étéproduite, et dans laquelle il déclare que

Bakassi appartient au Cameroun, est un fait portéà la connaissance de la
Cour mêmesi celle-ci s'est abstenue de s'y appuyer.
Après avoir parlédes traités coloniaux, il me faut maintenant traiter de
deux problèmes qui sont liésà ces traités: le traité de 1884 et la question
des rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar.

B. Valeurjuridique du truitéde 1884

84. L'accord de protectorat de 1884 entre la Grande-Bretagne et les
rois et les chefs du Vieux-Calabar ressemble à beaucoup d'autres accords
instituant un protectorat colonial du genre décrit ci-dessouspar Sibert. Sa
valeur juridique est la même,quand on lit l'extrait qui en a étéfourni par
un conseil du Nigéria.
85. La Grande-Bretagne n'était pas tenue, si on se réfèreà la pratique
en vigueur a l'époque, au respect de l'adage nemo dut quod non habet

pour la bonne raison que le territoire dont elle avait acceptéde détermi-
ner les limites en accord avec une autre puissance coloniale avait été
annexé par elle. Aurait-elle été tenue de se soumettre à cet adage que
l'Allemagne, quant à elle, n'aurait eu aucune obligation de respecter un
traitédont elle ignorait peut-être même l'existence. Entout état de cause,
elle étaitprotégéepar la règlebien connue de la relativité destraités (res
inter alios actu).

86. Les Parties ne se sont pas appesanties sur cette question relatée
dans la sentence relative à l'Ile de Palmas (inopposabilité au Gouverne-
ment néerlandais du traitéde paix hispano-américain portant cession aux
Etats-Unis d'Amériquedes Philippines et de leurs dépendances dont l'île
de Palmas occupée depuis 1677 par les Pays-Bas, Recueil des sentences
arbitrales (RSA), vol. V, p. 471-473) qui pourtant a été largement citée
par les conseils du Nigéria.
87. La Cour ne pouvait pas mettre entre parenthèses une partie de

l'accord de 1913 relative à Bakassi pour la seule raison que des «cités-
Etats appartenant a des rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar)) y étaient
incluses.
Dès lors, l'argument de la consolidation historique du titredéfendupar
le Nigéria nepouvait ici comme dans la région du Tchad que tomber.
C'est donc aux instruments de 1913 qu'il a fallu recourir pour déter-
miner la frontière dans le cadre de cette affaire et les interpréter ou pré-

ciser ce qui devait l'être. The authors then ijummarized the situation as follows: "Thus from the
River Gamana to the Cross River, then to the sea, the boundary is that
laid down by the Anglo-German Agreements of II March 1913." (Ency-
clopédiejuridique del'Afrique, p. 76.)
83. This is the lake and land boundary as derited from the law rather
than from faits accomplis. The conclusion reached by the Court confirms
this. As it says, "Bakassi is Cameroonian". And this is indeed what
was said by one of Africa's greatest jurists- who also happens to be
Nigerian. The letter produced to the Court in which he states that

Bakassi belongs to Cameroon is a fact which the Court had in its
possession, even tholugh it refrained from relying on it.
Having discussed the colonial treaties, 1 will t lrn now to two issues
related to such treaties: the 1884 Treaty and the question of the Kings
and Chiefs of Old Calabar.

B. Legal Jorcr of the1884 Treaty

84. The Treaty of Protection of 1884between Great Britain and the
Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar resembles a grzat many other agree-
ments establishing a colonialprotectorate of the kind described below by
Sibert. Its legal forci: is theme, as can be seen from a reading of the
extract provided by counsel for Nigeria.
85. Great Britain was not bound, in terms of the contemporary prac-
tice, by the adage ne~nodut quod non habet, for the good reason that the
territory whose boundaries it had agreed to determinejointly with another
colonial Power had been "annexed" by it. HO~V could it have been

required to be bound by this adage, given that Ge -many itself was under
no obligation to comply with the terms of a "treat y" of whose very exis-
tence it may well have been entirely unaware. Inary event, Germany was
protected by the viell-known rule regarding ihe relative effect of
treaties (res inter alios ucta).
86. The Parties did not place any emphasis or the treatment of this
question in the Arbitral Award concerning the I,;land of Palmas (non-
opposability to the Dutch Government of the Spanish-American Peace
Treaty of 10December 1898ceding to the United States the Philippines
and its dependencies, including the Island ofPalmxs, occupied since 1677
by the Netherlands (IPIAA, Vol. V,pp. 471-473)),clespitethe fact that the
Award was quoted Nzextenso by counsel for Nigeria.
87. The Court co~lldnot simply place a parent lesis around that part
of the 1913Agreement which relates to Bakassi, on the sole ground that
the "City States beloiiging to the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar" were
covered by it.
It followed that Nigeria's argument based on "historical consolidation

of title" was bound to fail here, as it did in the Lake Chad region.
Thus it was to the instruments of 1913that the Court had to look in
order to determine the course of the boundary in he present case, inter-
preting or clarifying them as required.525 FRONTIÈRE TERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP.IND.MBAYE)

88. Par ailleurs et comme je l'ai déjàsignalé,il faut éviterde prendre
part à la querelle sémantique délimitation-démarcution. L'essentiel est
dans ce que les Parties demandent à la Cour de faire dans le cadre de sa
mission de juger: déterminerla frontière entre les deux Etats concernés,
conformément à son Statut.

C. La question des rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar
89. Nous avons été uncertain nombre, notamment avant les indépen-
dances des Etats africains,à combattre la doctrine qui se fondait sur les
notions de biens vacants et sans maître ou d'absence de souveraineté qui

ont servi de prétexteà la colonisation. Notre combat était politique.Les
historiens africains ont voléau secours des politiques pour restaurer la
dignitédes rois et chefs africains et pour rétablirla véritédu passé.
90. Les rois et chefs africains avaient bien une représentativité Iégi-
time. Toutefois, «ils ne commandaient pas à la terre mais aux hommes»
(Encyclopédiejuridique de l'Afrique, t. 2, p. 68 et 69). Un conseil du
Nigéria l'a dit.
91. Avant lesindépendances des annéessoixante (et encore aujourd'hui),
il fallait et il faut corriger les erreurs d'uneoire trahieLes dirigeants
africains le savaient bien quand leurs pays ont accédé l'indépendance. Ils
l'ont prôné.Mais ils ont préféré en1964se placer non au plan de la vérité

historique, mais sur le terrain du droit en décrétant qule fallait pas tou-
cher aux frontières coloniales.Ils ont ainsirréla route toute velléité de
sécession.C'est pourquoi, quand le Biafra a défiéle principe en 1967,ils se
sont unis derrièrele Nigériapour combattre les sécessionnistes.
92. Quid des protectorats coloniaux?
Selon Max Huber (affaire de l'[le de Palmas),
«Il n'y a pas là d'accord entre égaux; c'est plutôt une forme
d'organisation intérieured'un territoire colonial, sur la base deuto-

nomie des indigènes...Et c'est[ainsi]la suzerainetéexercéesur 1'Etat
indigènequi devient la base de la souverainetéterritoriale à l'égard
des autres membres de la communautédes Nations. » (Nations Unies,
Recueil des sentences arbitrales (RSA), vol. II, p. 858-859;Revue
généralede droit international public,t. XLII, 1935,p. 187.)
Encore une fois, il ne s'agit pas de porter un jugement de valeur sur les
règlesqui avaient cours àla findu XIX"et au débutdu XX' siècle, mais
de noter objectivement ce qu'elles signifiaientl'époque.Les protectorats

coloniaux ne satisfont généralementpas aux critères de 1'Etat (Bengt
Brons, Droit international: bilan et perspectivest. 1,p. 54).
Les protectorats coloniaux sont décritspar Marcel Sibert comme suit:
«une puissance visait à étendre son action exclusivesur des pays non civi-
lisés..qu'elle nevoulait pas s'annexer immédiatement iititre de colonie))
(Traité de droit international publict. 1,p. 157,par. 111).
On peut ne pas être d'accordavec cette pratique et surtout pas avec les
expressions utilisées. Jene le suis pas pour ma part. LAND AN13 MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP.OP.MBAYE) 525

88. Moreover, as 1 have already indicated, 1 believe we should avoid
involving ourselves too much in the semantic controversy as between
"delimitation" and "tiemarcation". The essential 1es in what the Parties
asked of the Court in pursuance of its task of adjudication: to determine
the boundary between the two States concerned, n accordance with its

Statute.

C. The question of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar
89. There werea certain number of us, in particular before the accession
of African States to independence,who fought againrt thedoctrinal notions
of "terra nullius" or "absence of sovereignty" whichhad served as a pre-

text for colonization. Our struggle was a political one. African historians
came to the rescue of'the politicians in order to re:,tore the dignity of the
African kings and chiefs and to re-establish the truth about the past.
90. African kings and chiefs were indeed the lawful representatives of
their subjects. However "they governed not the land but the people"
(Encyclopédie juridique de l'Afrique, Vol. 2, pp 68-69). Counsel for
Nigeria stated as muirh.
91. Before the act:sof independence of the 1960s (and still today) it
was and is necessary i:ocorrect the mistakes of a betrayal of history. Afri-
can leaders were very well aware of this when their countries acceded to

independence; they iirged it. But in 1964 they pr':ferred to align them-
selvesnot with historiicaltruth but with the law, in decreeing that colonial
boundaries should not be touched. They thus closed the road to any
secessionist notions. That is why, when Biafra tlefied the principle in
1967,they united behind Nigeria in order to fight the secessionists.
92. What of the colonial protectorates?
According to Max Huber (Island of Palmas case):

"it is not an agreement between equals; it is rather a form of interna1
organisation of elcolonial territory, on the basis of autonomy for the
natives. . . And thus suzerainty over the native State becomes the
basis of territorial sovereignty as towards other members of the com-
munity of nations" (RZAA, Vol. II, p. 858; lievue générale dedroit
international public, Vol. XLII, 1935,p. 187).

Once again, it is not a matter of casting a value -udgment on rules that
prevailed in the late riineteenth and early twentieth century, but of noting
with due objectivity l~hat they meant at the time. Colonial protectorates
do not generally meet the criteria of statehood (set Bengt Brons in Inter-
national Laiv - Achievements and Prospects, Vol. 1, p. 54).
Colonial protectorates are described by Marcel Sibert as follows: "a
Power sought to extend its exclusive right of action over 'non-civilized'
countries . . .which it did not wish to annex iminediately as colonies"
(Traité de droit inter,nationalpublic, Vol. 1, p. 157,para. 111).
One is entitled to disagree with such a practice -- as 1 do personally -
and above al1with the terms used. 93. Il reste que cela étaitjuridiquement vrai pour des territoires entiers
et encore plus pour des citéssous influence de rois ou chefs comme
l'étaientd'autres règlesque nous réprouvonsaujourd'hui. Cette forme de
protection avait une valeur purement personnelle. Celui que l'on proté-
geait c'étaitle chef, mêmesi par abus de langage le mot territoire se
retrouvait dans les accords. On le protégeait contre ses rivaux locaux,
contre l'esclavage etautres calamités, eton protégeaitsurtout le territoire
que l'onavait soigneusement délimité (parfois par portéedecanon comme
en Gambie) contre les autres colonisateurs. Quand l'Acte généralde la
Conférence de Berlin parle des «possessions» des ((puissances signa-
taires)), il ne fait aucune différenceentre celles de ces puissances qui
avaient acquis cespossessions et cellesqui avaient assumé unprotectorat.

Les remarques qui précèdents'appliquent aux rois et chefs du Vieux-
Calabar.
Les questions poséespar M. Kooijmans sur ces rois et chefs ont eu
pour résultatdes réponses ambiguës, gênéem s ême,qui ont confirméces
remarques, lesquelles ont eu un effet décisifsur la situation du point
d'arrivée dela frontière vers la mer.

D. Point d'arrivéede lafrontière sur la côte

94. La frontière terrestre aboutità la mer.
Il est étonnant que, s'agissant du point d'arrivéà la mer de la fron-
tièreterrestre, le Nigéria l'ait sisur le Rio del Rey.
95. Le Cameroun a soulignéle retour du Nigéria a des négociations
précédentespour faire disparaître 1'Akwayafé(malgré des négociations
plus récentes)de la définitionde la frontière et de faire apparaître le Rio
del Rey. Mais le Nigéria nepouvait pas faire autrement tant qu'il tentait

de dresser le mur des rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar pour protéger sa
position sur Bakassi. Il a fortifiéce mur par la consolidation historique
qui est sans effet sur le titre juridique du Cameroun.

96. La frontière est bien définiepar les accords de 1913(derniers ins-
truments acceptéspar les Parties et passéspar leurs prédécesseurscolo-
niaux). Les deux Parties en sont convenues, àl'exceptionde l'épisode des
rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar. Suivant le thalweg de la rivièreAkwayafé,
la frontière aboutit sur la médiatriced'une lignejoignant Bakassi Pointà
King Point et c'est de cette dernière coordonnée que doit partir la déli-
mitation maritime.
97. C'est là une façonde répondre à la huitième exception préliminaire
du Nigéria, qui a d'ailleurs perdu une partie de sa force à partir du
moment où l'on admet que la frontière a étébien délimitée etque son
point d'arrivée sur la côte est bien celui indiqué par l'accord de 1913.
Cette exception perd aussi de sa force, s'agissant de sa deuxièmebranche,

du fait que la Guinée équatorialeest intervenue dans l'affaire, mêmesi
ellel'a fait comme cela a été préciséar la Cour«sans êtrepartie)), ce qui
est parfaitement son droit. 93. The fact remaiiis that this was legally true O 'entire territories and
even more so of townships under the influence of kings or chiefs, as well

as of other rules of which we disapprove today. Tliis form of protection
had a purely persona1 value. The individual protected was the chief, even
if, through the misuse of language, the word "terril ory" was to be found
in the agreements. He was protected against his local rivals, against slav-
ery and against other disasters and above al1his territory was protected,
and carefully delimited (sometimes on the basis of gunshot range as in

Gambia), against other colonizers. When the Gencral Act of the Berlin
Conference speaks of the "possessions" of the "signatory Powers", it
makes no distinction between those Powers which had acquired posses-
sions and those whicli had taken on protectorates.
The foregoing remarks apply to the Kings and (:biefsof Old Calabar.

The questions poseldby Judge Kooijmans in regard to these Kings and
Chiefs produced replies which were ambiguous, nclt to Say embarrassed,
and which confirm the above remarks, which havt: had a decisive effect
on the identification of the point where the bound,ary reaches the sea.

D. Terminal point of the boundary on the coast

94. The land boundary terminates at the sea.
It is surprising that Nigeria should have located this terminal point on
the Rio del Rey.
95. Cameroon pointed out that Nigeria sought to rely on prior nego-
tiations in order to make the Akwayafe disappear from the definition of

the boundary (despite more recent negotiations) an'i to replace it with the
Rio del Rey. But Nigeria could not do otherwise as long as it sought to
shelter behind the fragile screen of the Kings and izhiefs of Old Calabar
in order to protect its position in regard to Bakassi. It fortified this screen
with the notion of "historical consolidation", which could have no effect
on the legal title of C'ameroon.

96. The boundary is clearly defined by the 191:. Agreements (the last
instruments accepted by the Parties and concluded by their colonial pre-
decessors). Both Parties agreed on this, if we lea-deout of account the
matter of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar. Following the thalweg of
the River Akwayafe, it terminates at the midpoint of a line joining

Bakassi Point to King Point and it is from here thst the maritime delimi-
tation must start.
97. This is a reply to Nigeria's eighth prelimi~iary objection, which
moreover lost much of its force once it was accepted that the boundary
had been clearly delirnited and that its endpoint oii the coast was indeed
that indicated by the 1913 Agreement. This objection was also weakened

as regards its second limb by the fact that Equatorial Guinea intervened
in the case, even if it did so, as was made clear by the Court, "without
being a party", as it was perfectly entitled to do. 98. Certes le Nigériaa soutenu que les accords de Yaoundé II et de
Maroua n'indiquent pas le point de départ de la ligne de partage des
domaines maritimes des deux Etats comme étant situésur l'embouchure
de 1'Akwayafé.
99. Mais cette argumentation est contredite par les négociationsentre
les deux pays qui se référaientà l'accord de 1913et par la carte marine

britannique no 3433qui a servi de support auxdits accords et sur laquelle
leschefs d'Etat du Cameroun et du Nigériaont indiquéun croquis et ont
signé.

100. S'agissant de la frontière maritime, la Cour fait face à une
demande du Cameroun ((visant le tracéd'une ligne précisede délimita-
tion maritime)). A l'appui de sa demande, le Cameroun a produit une
ligne équitable.
101. Le problème le plus important pour la détermination de la fron-
tièremaritime est relatif la déclaration deMaroua, dont la validitéétait
contestéepar le Nigéria,d'autant plus que comme le dit la Cour:

«Si la déclaration de Maroua constitue un accord international
liant les deux parties, il s'ensuit nécessairementque la ligne définie
dans la déclarationde Yaoundé II, y compris les coordonnéesayant
fait l'objet d'un accord lors de la réunion dejuin 1971de la commis-
sion mixte de délimitation, les lie également.))(Par. 262 de l'arrêt.)

1. La déclaration de Maroua

A. Position du problème

102. S'agissant de la question de l'existenceou non de négociationset,
comme la Cour l'a déjàconstatéen examinant la septième exception pré-
liminaire du Cameroun,
«elle n'a pas étsaisie sur la base du paragraphe 1de l'article 36 du
Statut et, par application de cet article, conformémànla partiXV
de la convention des Nations Unies sur le droit de la mer, relative au

règlement des différendssurgissant entre les partiesa conventionà
propos de l'interprétation ou de l'application de cette dernière))
(C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 321-322, par. 109).
La Cour a préciséque:

«Elle a été saisiesur la base de déclarations faites en vertu
du paragraphe 2 de l'article 36 du Statut, déclarations qui ne
contiennent aucune condition relative à des négociations préalables
menéesdans un délairaisonnable. » (Zbid.,p. 322, par. 109.) 98. It is true that Nigeria contended that the Yaoundé II and Maroua
Agreements did not iiidicate the starting point of the dividing line between
the two States' maritime areas as being situated ;it the "mouth" of the
Akwayafe.

99. But this argument is contradicted by the negotiations between the
two countries, which referred to the 1913 Agreement, and by British
Admiralty Chart No. 3433, which served as the 13asisfor those Agree-
ments, and on which the Heads of State of Cimeroon and Nigeria
marked a line and appended their signatures.

100. As regards the maritime boundary, the Court had to address the
request by Cameroon "for the tracing of a prt:cise line of maritime
delimitation". In support of that request, Cameroon had produced an
equitahle line.
101. The most imlportant issue in regard to th(: determination of the
maritime boundary concerned the Maroua Declaration, whose validity

was challenged by Nigeria, its importance being eniphasized by the Court
in the following termis:
"If the Maroua Declaration represents an international agreement
binding on both parties, it necessarily follows that the line contained
in the Yaoundé II Declaration, including the CO-ordinatesas agreed
at the June 1971meeting of the Joint Boundary Commission, is also
binding on therri." (Para. 262 of the Judgmer t.)

1. The Maroua Declaration

A. Identijication of the problem

102. As regards the question of whether or not legotiations had taken
place, and as the Court had already pointed out when examining
[Nigeria's] seventh pi-eliminaryobjection,

"it ha[d] not been seised on the basis of Article 36, paragraph 1, of
the Statute, and, in pursuance of it, in accortlance with Part XV of
the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea relating to the
settlement of disputes arising between the parties to the Convention
with respect to its interpretation or application" (1.C.J. Reports
1998, pp. 321-322, para. 109).
The Court explained that

"[ilt ha[d] been seised on the basis of declarations made under
Article 36, paragraph 2, of the Statute, whic:hdeclarations do not
contain any condition relating to prior negotiations to be con-
ducted within a reasonable time period" (ibi~'.p. 322, para. 109).Pourtant la Cour a néanmoins dit que: «le Cameroun et le Nigéria ont
entamé des négociations en vue de la fixation de l'ensemble de leur fron-
tière maritime)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 322, par. 110)et que: «[c]'est au

cours de ces négociations que la déclaration de Maroua, relative au tracé
de la frontière maritime jusqu'au point G, avait étéarrêtée)) (ibid.).
On peut déduire de ces énonciations qu'en tout état de cause il y a bien
eu entre les Parties des négociations au but géographique indéterminé et
que ces négociations ont abouti, jusqu'au point G, à un accord connu
sous le nom de ((déclaration de Maroua)).
Cette déclaration a étéjugée par le Cameroun comme étant un enga-

gement juridique liant les deux Parties alors que le Nigéria n'estpas de
cet avis.
103. 11faut rappeler que le Nigéria avait soulevé une huitième excep-
tion préliminaire. La Cour avait joint cette exception au fond. Avant de
procéder à la délimitation maritime, la Cour a vidé l'incident créé par
cette huitième exception du Nigéria. Sa position est relatée ci-dessusence

qui concerne la première branche de cette exception.

104. Le Nigéria faisait aussi valoir que la question de la délimitation
maritime entre son territoire et celui du Cameroun met nécessairement en
cause les droits et intérêtd'Etats tiers et que la demande correspondante
est pour ce motif irrecevable.

105. La Cour avait décidédans son arrêtde 1998 que cette huitième
exception «n'a pas, dans les circonstances de l'espèce,un caractère exclu-
sivement préliminaire)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1998, p. 326, par. 118 2) du dis-
positif de l'arrêt)et avait déclaré qu'illui appartenait donc de décider
jusqu'ou elle peut prolonger la ligne séparant le domaine maritime rele-
vant des deux Parties, au-deli du point G.
Très nettement, la Cour a déclaré(par. 292 de l'arrêt) et répété:

«qu'elle ne pouvait pas prendre de décision qui puisse affecter les droits
de la Guinée équatoriale, qui n'est pas partie à l'instance)) (par. 307 de
l'arrêt).Sur ce point, j'exprime ci-dessous (par. 136)une observation que
j'estime logique et juste.
106. Ainsi la Cour devait donc se prononcer sur l'existence ou non
d'une délimitation allant jusqu'au point G. Je ne crois pas qu'il faille

s'appesantir sur la question de la nécessité qu'ily a à procéder à cette
délimitation sans la disjoindre de la délimitation terrestre, a savoir de la
détermination du point sur la côte d'où doit partir cette délimitation
maritime (voir huitième exception préliminaire du Nigéria). La réponse
est évidente.
107. Le Nigéria tenait à ce que cette délimitation intervienne après la
détermination de son point de départ sur la côte. 11a par la suite situéce

point vers l'est sur le Rio del Rey. Mais, pendant plus de cinq ans, le
Nigériaavait négociésur la base d'un autre point situé, plusà l'ouest, sur
la rivière Akwayafé.
108. En tout état de cause, l'incident est purgé. La Cour a estiméque
le point de départ de la délimitation maritime est l'aboutissement de la LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP.OP. MBAYE) 528

The Court did nonetheless state that: "Camerocn and Nigeria entered
into negotiations wiith a view to determining the whole of the maritime
boundary" (1.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 322, para. 110) and that "[ilt was

during these negotiations that the Maroua Declaration relating to the
course of the maritime boundary up to point G \vas drawn up" (ihid.).
We may conclude from these passages that the1.ewere indeed negotia-
tions between the two Parties with an undetermiced geographical objec-
tive and that these negotiations resulted, up to pointG, in an agreement
known as the "Maroua Declaration".

That Declaration ,wasregarded by Cameroon a:;legally binding on the
two Parties, whereas Nigeria took the contrary view.

103. It should be recalled that Nigeria had raised an eighth prelimi-
nary objection. The Court joined that objection to the merits. Before

dealing with the maritime delimitation, it was necc:ssaryto settle the inci-
dental point raised by this eighth Nigerian objzction. 1 have already
stated the Court's firiding above in respect of the irst limb of that objec-
tion.
104. Nigeria also argued that the question of the maritime delimita-
tion between its territory and that of Cameroon lecessarily affected the

rights and interests of third States and that Caineroon's claim in this
regard was accordinply inadmissible.
105. The Court had stated in its 1998Judgmen that this eighth objec-
tion "d[id] not have, in the circumstances of the case an exclusively pre-
liminary character" (I.C.J. Reports 1998, p. 326, operative para. 118 (2))
and took the view that it was thus required to (lecide how far beyond

point G it could extend the line separating the two Parties' respective
maritime areas.
In very clear terms, the Court stated (para. 29; of the Judgment) and
repeated that "it [clould] take no decision that might affect rights of
Equatorial Guinea, which [was] not a party to the proceedings" (para. 307
of the Judgment). 011this point 1will make (infra, para. 136)an observa-

tion that 1consider to be logical and fair.
106. The Court tl~us had to determine whethr-r or not there was an
existing delimitation as far as point G. 1think it i: unnecessary for me to
emphasize the need to effect this delimitation without disassociating it
from the land delimitation, that is to say, to determine the starting point
on the coast for the maritime delimitation (see Rigeria's eighth prelimi-

nary objection). The answer is obvious.

107. Nigeria insisted that this delimitation mLst take place after the
determination of its starting point on the coast. It subsequently moved
this point to the easitto the Rio del Rey. But for over five years Nigeria

negotiated on the balsisof a different point, situa-.ed further to the West,
on the River Akwayafe.
108. In any event, the incidental issue was sett1t:d.The Court held that
the starting point for the maritime delimitationw;~sthe terminal point offrontière de 1913 à la ligne joignant Bakassi Point et King Point. Cette
conclusion découlede ce que la Cour a décidéquant à la validité de
I'accord de 1913.
109. A partir du point de départde la délimitationetjusqu'au point 12,
I'accord intervenu entre les chefs d7Etat et dont le résultat a été appelé
ligne de compromis (accord de Yaoundé II) devait être tenupour défini-
tivement acceptépar les Parties. La ligne de compromis a été complétée
par une ligne atteignant le pointG. La Cour a considéré la lignepartant
de la côte et aboutissant au point G comme une délimitation maritime

légalementétablie.
Du point 12au point G, la délimitationest régiepar une décisionappe-
lée((déclarationde Maroua)). Cette décision,comme cela a été déjà dit,
est considéréepar le Cameroun comme étantun accord obligatoire pour
les deux Parties, alors que le Nigéria estd'un avis contraire.
110. La Cour a tranchéle point de savoir si la déclaration deMaroua
du le*juin 1975 a pour le Cameroun et pour le Nigériala valeur d'une
décisioncontraignante. Selon elle:

«la déclarationde Maroua constitue un accord international conclu
par écritentre Etats et traçant une frontière; elleest donc régiepar le
droit international et constitue un traitéau sens de la convention de
Vienne sur le droit des traités(voir art., par. l)à laquelle le Nigé-
ria est partie depuis 1969et le Cameroun depuis 1991,et qui en tout
état de cause reflètele droit international coutumier à cet égard))
(par. 263 de l'arrêt).

111. Cette conclusion, on l'a rappeléplus haut, s'applique ipsojure à
la déclaration deYaoundé II.
112. Le Nigériaconsidérait que la déclaration de Maroua est affectée
de deux vices et qu'elle nele lie pas. II me semble utile d'y revenir.

113. En premier lieu, le Nigéria soutenait que le président Gowon,
signataire de I'accord, nepouvait pas engager son pays sans l'assentiment
du «conseil militaire suprême».
114. En second lieu, pour le Nigéria,ce prétendu accordn'a été nirati-
fiéni publié.
Je voudrais d'abord traiter du problème de la ratification.

B. La question de la ratijîcation de l'accordde Maroua

115.Pour le Nigéria,lesexigencesjuridiques internes relatives àla rati-
fication de la déclaration n'ont pas été remplies.

116. Du point de vue purement formel, on peut discuter, comme l'a
fait le Nigéria,sur le point de savoir si la déclaration de Maroua est ou
non un traité au sens strict du terme. La Cour a tranchéce point.
117. Mais est-il nécessairequ'une déclaration du type de celle dont
nous parlons soit ou non un traitéau sens formel du terme pour produire
un effet sur les circonstances de la présenteaffaire? A une telle question,the 1913boundary on the linejoining Bakassi Point and King Point. This
conclusion follows frlomwhat the Court decided as to the validity of the
19 13 Agreement.
109. From that starting point as far as point 12, he agreement between
the Heads of States which gave rise to the so-called "compromise line"
(Yaoundé II Agreement) had to be treated as having been definitively
accepted by the Partiies.The compromise line was extended by a line as
far as point G. The Court regarded the line starting from the Coast and
ending at point G as a legally established maritime delimitation.

From point 12 to point G, the delimitation is governed by a decision

known as the "Maroua Declaration". That decision, as 1 have already
said, was regarded by Cameroon as an agreement binding on both
Parties, whereas Nigeria took the contrary view.
110. The Court seitled the issue as to whether the Maroua Declaration
of 1June 1975was binding on both Cameroon and Nigeria. In its view:

"the Maroua Declaration constitutes an international agreement
concluded between States in written form and tracing a boundary ; it

isthus governed by international law and coristitutes a treaty in the
sense of the Vieiîna Convention on the Law of Treaties (see Art. 2,
para. l), to which Nigeria has been a party since 1969 and Cam-
eroon since 19911a ,nd which in any case reflects customary interna-
tional law in this respect" (para. 263 of the Judgment).
111. This conclusion, as pointed out earlier, applies ipso jure to the
Yaoundé II Declaration.
112. Nigeria considered that the Maroua Dec1;lration was tainted by

two defects and that it was not bound by it. It seems to me to be helpful
to return to this point.
113. First, Nigeria contended that President Gowon, who signed the
Agreement, could not bind his country withoiit the consent of the
"Supreme Military Council".
114.Secondly, Nigeria contended that the allegcd agreement had been
neither ratified norpublished.
1should like to adldressfirst the issue of ratification.

B. The que.~tion uf theratification of the Maroua Declaration

115. Nigeria took the view that the interna1 legal requirements in
regard to the ratification of the Declaration were not satisfied.
116. From a pure'lyforma1point of view, one ij entitled to discuss, as
Nigeria did, the issue of whether or not the Maroua Declaration is a
treaty in the strictsense of the term. The Court settled that point.
117. But is it necessary for a declaration of the type in question to be
a treaty in the forma1sense of the term in order to produce effects in the

circumstances of the present case? TheCourt has always answered such ala Cour a toujours répondu par la négative. Ignorer la déclaration de
Maroua serait un précédent gravequi saperait à coup sûr la sécuritéjuri-
dique qui doit présideraux rapports entre Etats, en particulier lorsque ces
rapports s'établissent au niveau le plus élevédes autorités étatiques.
Selon l'article7, paragraphe 2, alinéaa), de la convention de Vienne sur
le droit des traités,les chefs7Etat font partie des autoritésétatiques qui
peuvent représenter leurs pays ((sans avoir à produire de pleins pou-
voirs».

118. Voilà pourquoi je souscris sans réserve à la décisionde la Cour
selon laquelle«la déclaration deMaroua aussi bien que la déclaration de
Yaoundé II doivent êtreconsidéréescomme des instruments contrai-
gnants qui imposent une obligation juridique au Nigéria» (par. 268 de
l'arrêt)en raison des circonstances dans lesquelles elle a étéadoptée.
119. Beaucoup d'auteurs estiment d'une façon générale,sans même
avoir recours à la catégoriedes ((accords en forme simplifiée)),omme l'a
fait un conseil du Cameroun, que la ratification des traitésn'est pas tou-
jours nécessaire. Dans la présente affaire, la Cour, estimant que «[l]e
droit international coutumier aussi bien que la convention de Vienne sur
le droit des traitéslaissent les Etats entièrement libresd'adopter la pro-
cédure de leur choix)), a constaté qu'en l'espèce lesdeux chefs d'Etat
s'étaient misd'accord, et a décidéque la ((déclarationentrait en vigueur
immédiatement à la date de sa signature)) (par. 264 de l'arrêt).Au pre-

mier chef, les auteurs sont généralement préoccupés avec raisop nar la
sécuritéjuridique dans les rapports internationaux. A cet égard,Marcel
Sibert écritdans son Traitéde droit international public que:
«dans l'intérêdte la moralitéet de la sincéritéau sein des rapports
internationaux, dans l'intérêt aussdie l'efficacitéqu'on est en droit
d'attendre de l'activitéconventionnelle des Etats, il est a souhaiter
que, poursuivant son Œuvre, l'évolutiondu droit des gens en matière

de ratification quitte enfin les positions extrêmes ets'arrête à la
doctrine du juste milieu que nous avons cru pouvoir préconiser))
(t.II, p. 230, par. 904).
120. Et précisément, ceque préconiseSibert, c'est de donner force a
l'idéede Nicolas Politis (citéepar Sibert) selon laquelle: «dans la nou-
velle organisation internationale ... la tendance semble se dessiner de ne

plus tenir pour absolu et inconditionné le droit du refus de ratifier))
(op. cit.p. 230).

C. La question des pouvoirs du signataire nigérian de l'accord de
Maroua

121. Le deuxième vice qui, selon le Nigéria, entachait l'accord de
Maroua était que le président Gowon n'avait pas le pouvoir de signer.
Cela revenait à dire que l'accord était nul.
122. En cas de conflit entre le droit international et le droit interne, il
faut accorder la préférenceau premier. C'est ce que fait la convention dequestion in the negative. If the Maroua Declaration were to be dis-

regarded, that woulclbe a serious precedent, which would certainly under-
mine the legal security which should govern relations between States,
in particular where ihose relations are established at the highest levels of
State authority. Uncler Article 7,paragraph 2 (a). of the Vienna Conven-
tion on the Law of Treaties, Heads of State are included among those
State authorities wkio are entitled to represent tlieir countries "without
having to produce full powers".

118. That is why 1wholeheartedly agree with tlie Court's decision that
"the Maroua Declaration, as well as the Yaoundé II Declaration, have to
be considered as binding and as establishinga legai obligation on Nigeria"
(para. 268 of the Judgment) as a result of the ciicumstances in which it
was ado~ted.
119. Many writers consider generally, without even relying on a cat-

egory of "agreemenits in simplified form", as one of Cameroon's counsel
did, that theratification of treaties is not always necessary. In the present
case the Court, considering that "[bloth customary international law and
the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties leave it completely up to
States which procedure they want to follow", observed that here the two
Heads of State had come to an agreement and fu~ther concluded that the
"Declaration entered into force immediately upon itssignature" (para. 264

of the Judgment). A prime concern of writers, ;lnd with reason, is the
question of legal security in international relations. In this regard Mar-
cel Sibert writes in his Traitéde droit international public that:

"in the interest of morality and sincerity in international relations, in
the interest also of the effectiveness that one is entitled to expect of
States' treaty-making activities, it is desirable that the Law of Nations
should continue to evolve in regard to ratification and finally to
abandon its extreme positions and to adopt the doctrine of the Juste

milieu' that we have felt entitled to advozate" (Vol. II, p. 230,
para. 904).
120. And what Sibert specificallyrecommends 1sto apply Nicolas Poli-

tis's proposition (qiloted by Sibert) that: "under the new international
order . . a tendency seems to be developing no longer to regard as abso-
lute and unconditional the right to refuse to ratity" (op. cit., p. 230).

C. The question of the powers of the Nigerian s;gnatory of the Maroua
Declaration

121. The second defect alleged by Nigeria against the Maroua Decla-
ration is that Presidient Gowon had no power to sign it, which amounts
to saying that the P~greementwas void.
122. In the event of conflict between international law and domestic
law, it is the former which must prevail. And lhis is what the Vienna531 FRONTIÈRE TERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP.IND. MBAYE)

Vienne sur le droit des traités(voir sir Robert Jennings, Droit internatio-
nal: bilan et perspectives, p. 65 et 166).
123. Selon l'article 27 de la convention,une partie ne peut invoquer
les dispositions de son droit interne comme justifiant la non-exécution
d'un traité».
Cette disposition continue comme suit: ((cette règleest sans préjudice
de l'article6)).
Aussi, un conseil du Cameroun a-t-il fait valoir la pertinence de

l'article 46de la convention en l'espèce.
Il a rappeléque:

« 1. Le fait que le consentement d'un Etatà êtreliépar un traité a
été exprimé en violationd'une disposition de son droit interne
concernant la compétence pour conclure des traités ne peut être
invoquépar cet Etat comme viciant son consentement, à moins que
cette violation n'ait été manifesteet ne concerne une règlede son
droit interne d'importance fondamentale.
2. Une violation est manifeste si elle est objectivement évidente
pour tout Etat se comportant en la matière conformément a la pra-
tique habituelle et de bonne foi.)

Le conseil a attiré l'attention sur le fait que la violation qui est suscep-
tible de vicier la compétencedu président Gowon a l'époque devaitêtre
«manifeste», comme le prescrit le paragraphe 2 de l'article 46 cité ci-des-
sus.
Le même conseil,aprèsavoir procédé à une longue démonstration, est
arrivé à la conclusion que le président Gowon avait bien le pouvoir
d'engager son pays.
Il a ajoutéque, en tout état de cause, la prétendueviolation d'une dis-
position du droit interne du Nigéria par le président Gowon (si elle
existe) étaitloin d'êtreanifeste, compte tenu de toutes les modifications

constitutionnelles, législatives ou réglementaires intervenues dans le
domaine des pouvoirs du chef de 1'Etat du Nigéria, notamment entre
1966et 1978. Il n'a pas manquéde souligner que la complexitéde la légis-
lation en cause étaittelle qu'il est déraisonnable de penser que le prési-
dent Ahidjo, cosignataire de l'accord, devait savoir que son interlocuteur,
en signant la déclaration deMaroua et le communiquéfinal qui l'accom-
pagne, violait d'une manière manifeste une disposition du droit interne
nigérian.
124. Comme l'a dit la Cour: «[U]n Etat n'est pas juridiquement tenu
de s'informer des mesures d'ordre législatif ou constitutionnel que
prennent d'autres Etats et qui sont, ou peuvent devenir, importantespour

les relations internationales de ces dernier».(Par. 266 de l'arrêt.)
125. Il résultede tout ce qui précèdeque, sans mêmeaborder le pro-
blème de la ratification, la Cour pouvait dire que la déclaration de
Maroua est un engagement pris par les deux Parties et, de fait, leur est
opposable à toutes deux. Elle l'a fait et a ajoutéque:Convention on the Law of Treaties does (see Sir Robert Jennings, in

International Law - Achievements and Prospects, pp. 65 and 166).
123. According to Article 27 of the Conventi!m, "a party may not
invoke the provisions of its internal law as justification for its failure to
perform a treaty".
This provision continues as follows: "this rule is without prejudice to
Article 46".
Counsel for Cameroon accordingly drew attention to the pertinence of
Article 46 of the Convention in the present case.
He recalled that:

"1. A State niay not invoke the fact that i-s consent to be bound
by a treaty has been expressed in violation of a provision of itsinter-
na1law regarding competence to conclude treaties as invalidating its
consent unless that violation was manifest alid concerned a rule of
its internal law of fundamental importance.

2. A violation is manifest if it would be objectively evident to any
State conducting itself in the matter in accordance with normal prac-
tice and in goocl faith."

Counsel drew attention to the fact that any violation capable of invali-
dating the competence of President Gowon at the time must be "mani-
fest", as Article 46,lparagraph 2, cited above pro.iides.

Counsel, after discussing the point at length, reached the conclusion
that President Gowon did indeed have the power to bind his country.

He added that, in any event, the alleged violation of the provision of
Nigeria's internal law by President Gowon (if there was one) was far
from being "manifest", given al1the constitution,il legislative or admin-
istrative changes thiit had taken place in regarc to the powers of the
Head of the Nigerian State, particularly between 1966 and 1978. He

emphasized that the complexity of the legislatioii in question was such
that it was unreasonable to expect President Ahidjo, co-signatory of the
Agreement. to be aware that his interlocutor, in siqing the Maroua Dec-
laration and the final communiquéwhich accomp inied it, was manifestly
violating a provision of internal Nigerian law.

124.As the Court noted: "there is no general legal obligation for States
to keep themselves informed of legislative and ronstitutional develop-
ments in other States which are or may become important for the inter-
national relations of these States" (para. 266 of the Judgment).
125. It follows from this that, without even ,iddressing the issue of
ratification, the Court was entitled to hold that tlie Maroua Declaration
represented an obligation undertaken by both Parties and was accord-
ingly opposable to both of them. It duly did so, idding that:532 FRONTIÈRE TERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP.IND. MBAYE)

«mêmesi, dans la pratique internationale, les dispositions relatives
aux modalités d'entréeen vigueur d'un traitéprévoientsouvent une
procédure en deux étapes consistant à signer puis à ratifier I'instru-
ment, il est également descas dans lesquelsun traitéentre en vigueur
dès sa signature. Le droit international coutumier aussi bien que la
convention de Vienne sur le droit des traitéslaissent les Etats entiè-
rement libres d'adopter la procédure de leur choix.))(Par. 264 de
l'arrêt.)

126. Pour la Cour, on le sait, ce qui vaut pour la déclaration de
Maroua vaut aussi mututis mutandis pour la déclaration de Yaoundé II.

2. La délimitation maritime au-delà du point G

A. La jurisprudence de la Cour

127. En ce qui concerne la délimitation maritime au-delà du point G,
chacune des deux Parties s'est largement expliquée et laGuinéeéquato-
riale aussi comme Etat intervenant. Le Cameroun a mêmeproposé une
ligne séparant les domaines maritimes relevant des deux Parties en cause.
128. Le Nigériaet la Guinée équatorialeont critiquécette ligne pour
des raisons différentes.
129. La Cour a appliqué la pratique bien établiequ'elle a dégagéeau
fil des ans.
130. En matièrede délimitation maritime pour des Etats dont les côtes
sont adjacentes ou se font face, ((la règlede droit est aujourd'hui claire».
Cette expression vient du discours qui a étéprononcé par le présidentde

cette Cour le31 octobre 2001 devant la SixièmeCommission de 1'Assem-
blée générale desNations Unies. La règle, dégagéeaprès une longue
maturation, s'applique à la mer territoriale, comme au plateau continen-
tal età la zone économique exclusive.
131. Les Parties en la présente espècesouhaitaient que les limites de
leurs souverainetés ou de leurs droits souverains soient déterminéespar
une ligne unique.
Bien sûr, comme l'a soulignéle présidentde la Cour, ((chaque cas n'en
demeure pas moins un cas particulier dans lequel les diverses circons-
tances invoquéespar les parties doivent êtrepeséesavec soin» (voir dis-
cours précitédu 31 octobre 2001). La règlede droit à laquelle le président

fait allusion est la suivante:
((La Cour doit ...d'abord déterminer à titre provisoire ce qu'est la
ligne d'équidistance.Puis elledoit se demander s'il existe des circons-
tances spécialesou pertinentes qui conduisent à rectifier cette ligne
en vue de parvenir à des résultats équitables.))(Ihid.)

B. Les circonstances spéciales

132. S'agissant des circonstances spéciales, la Cour a examiné s'il
existe de telles circonstances,«qui pourraient rendre nécessaired'ajuster "while in international practice a two-step procedure consisting of
signature and ratification is frequently provided for in provisions
regarding entry into force of a treaty, there are also cases where a
treaty enters into force immediately upon signature. Both customary
international law and the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties

leave it completely up to States which procecure they want to fol-
low" (para. 264 of the Judgrnent).

126. In the Court's view, as we have already seen, what applies in

regard to the Maroua Declaration applies equally mutatis mutandis to
the Yaoundé II Declaration.

2. The IMaritime Delimitation beyond Point G

A. The Court'sjzlrisprzldenre

127. As regards tht: maritime delimitation beyond point G, each of the
Parties expressed itself at length, as did Equatorial Guinea as intervener.
Cameroon even proposed a line separating the mai itime areas of the two
Parties.
128. Nigeria and Equatorial Guinea criticized that line for various

reasons.
129. The Court applied the well-established principle that it has devel-
oped over the years.
130. As regards maritime delimitation for States with adjacent or
opposing coasts, "the legal rule is now clear". This statement comes from
the speech given by the President of this Court on :il October 2001 to the

Sixth Committee of the United Nations General Assembly. The rule,
which has emerged after a long period of maturation, applies both to the
territorial sea and tcithe continental shelf and tlie exclusive economic
zone.
131. The Parties in the Dresent case wanted t11eboundaries of their
respective sovereignty or sovereign rights to be determined by a single

line.
Of course, as the Piresident pointed out, "each case nonetheless remains
an individual one, in which the different circumsiances invoked by the
parties must be weighed with care" (see the abov1:-mentioned speech of
31 October 2001). The legal rule to which the Pre;ident refers is the fol-
lowing

"The Court rnust first determine provisionally the equidistance
line. It must then ask itself whether there zre special or relevant
circumstances requiring this line to be adj~sted with a view to
achieving equitable results." (Ibid.)

B. Special rircumstances

132. As regards special circumstances, the COLrt considered whether
there were any such circumstances "that might make it necessary to533 FRONTIÈRE TERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP. IND. MBAYE)

[la] ligne d'équidistance))qu'elle a tracée «afin d'aboutirà un résultat
équitable))(par. 293 de l'arrêt).On peut de prime abord penser, dans la
présenteespèce, àla concavitédu golfe de Guinéeet des côtes du Came-
roun. Il en est de mêmede I'îlede Bioko. Comme la Cour l'a déclarédans
l'affaire duPlateau continental (Jamalziriya arabe IibyenneIMalte) :

«la méthode de l'équidistance n'estpas la méthode unique appli-
cable au présent différend, et elle ne bénéficiemêmepas d'une
présomption en sa faveur. Selon le droit actuel il doit donc être dé-
montréque la méthode del'équidistanceaboutit, dans le cas consi-
déré,à un résultatéquitable.))(C.I.J. Recueil 1985, p. 47, par. 63.)

La Cour cite «la concavitédu golfe de Guinéeen généralet des côtes
camerounaises en particulier)) (par. 296 de l'arrêt).Le Cameroun, selon
elle,
((soutient, tout d'abord, que la concavité du golfe de Guinée en

général et descôtes camerounaises en particulier créeun effet d'en-
clavement du Cameroun qui constitue une circonstance spéciale à
prendre en compte dans le processus de délimitation.
Le Nigéria conteste qu'il revienne à la Cour de compenser le
Cameroun pour les désavantagesdont il pourrait souffrir en consé-
quence directe de la situation naturelle dans le secteur.insiste sur
le fait que l'objet du droit international n'est pas de remodeler la
géographie.

S'agissant de la présencede I'îlede Bioko (par. 298 de l'arrêt),la Cour
indique :
Le Cameroun affirme égalementque la présence deI'îlede Bioko
constitue une circonstance pertinente qui doit êtreprise en compte
par la Cour aux fins de délimitation. L'îlede Bioko réduiraiten effet

sensiblement la projection des côtes du Cameroun vers le large.

Le Nigéria estime,ici encore, qu'il n'appartient pas àla Cour de
compenser le Cameroun pour les désavantagesdont il pourrait souf-
frir en conséquence directede la situation naturelle dans le secteur.
Mais la Cour ne reconnaît pas d'effet à ces deux circonstances.

133. Pour ma part, je le regrette. Je souhaite que, dans une délimita-
tion maritime (le résultatdevant être équitable),toute circonstance sus-
ceptible de faire atteindre ce but soit tenu pour pertinente.
134. La Cour souligne «que délimiter avecle souci d'aboutir a un
résultat équitable...n'équivaut pas à délimiter enéquité))(par. 294 de
I'arrêt).
Cette formule est incontestable, bien qu'elle diffère légèremente celle
que la Cour avait énoncée avec subtilité dans des affaires du Plateau
continental de la mer du Nord (C.Z.J. Recueil 1969, p. 22, par. 18).
135. En ce qui me concerne, sous réservede l'observation ci-dessus,jeadjust [the] equidistance line" that it had drawn ' in order to achieve an
equitable result" (para. 293 of the Judgment). What first comes to mind
in the present case i:;the concavity of the Gulf of Guinea and of Cam-
eroon's coastline. Bioko Island is also a factor here. As the Court stated
in the Continental Sizelf (Libyan Arah Jamahiriyl~lMalta) case:

"the equidistance method is not the only method applicable to the
present dispute, and it does not even have th<:benefit of a presump-
tion in its favou:r.Thus, under existing law, it must be demonstrated
that the equidistance method leads to an equitable result in the case
in question." (I.C.J. Reports 1985, p. 47, para. 63.)

The Court referreclto "the concavity of the Gulf of Guinea in general,
and of Cameroon's coastline in particular" (para. 296 of the Judgment).
Cameroon, in the words of the Court:

"contends that the concavity of the Gulf of (3uinea in general, and
of Cameroon's coastline in particular, creates a virtual enclavement
of Cameroon, which constitutes a special ciri:umstance to be taken
into account in the delimitation process.
Nigeria argues that it is not for the Cour to compensate Cam-
eroon for any disadvantages suffered by it as a direct consequence of
the geography of the area. It stresses that it is not the purpose of
international lavvto refashion geography."

As regards the presence of Bioko Island (para. 298 of the Judgment),
the Court stated:

"Cameroon further contends that the presence of Bioko Island
constitutes a relevant circumstance which jhould be taken into
account by the Court for purposes of the delimitation. It argues that
Bioko Island substantially reduces the seaward projection of Cam-
eroon's coastline.
Here again Nigeria takes the view that it is not for the Court to
compensate Carneroon for any disadvantages suffered by it as a
direct consequerice of the geography of the a -ea."

However, the Court refrained from affording any effect to these two
circumstances.
133. For my part, 1 regret this. It is desirable in maritime delimitation
(the result of which has to be equitable) that any circumstance capable of
contributing to that goal should be regarded as relevant.
134. The Court stiressesthat: "delimiting with ,iconcern to achieving
an equitable result, as required by current internitional law, is not the
same as delimiting in1equity" (para. 294 of the Juigment).
This principle cannot be disputed. even though it differs slightly from
what the Court stateti with a certain subtlety in the North Sea Continen-

tal Shelfcases (I. C.J! Reports 1969, p. 22, para. 18).
135. For my own part, subject to the above-mentioned observation, 1534 FRONTIÈRE TERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP. IND.MBAYE)

pense que la Cour a appliqué sajurisprudence. A une certaine limite, elle
s'est contentée, comme elle l'a déjà fait dans l'affaire TunisielLibye,
d'indiquer une direction plutôt que de tracer une ligne achevée.Les droits
des Etats tiers l'y invitaient.
136. A cet égard,je crois cependant devoir souligner que, en prenant
un décret pour déterminer la limite de ses droits souverains, la Guinée
équatoriale a donnéune indication sur ses intérêts juridiques. En le fai-

sant, elle savait très bienque l'espace maritime dans cette partie du golfe
de Guinée appartenait à trois Etats: le Nigéria, le Cameroun et elle-
même,puisqu'elle avait déjà reconnu que, entre les domaines relevant de
ces trois pays, il y avait un point triple (mêmesi la situation de ce point
n'est pas encore déterminée).Ce décret, laGuinée équatoriale pouvait le
modifier par la même voieunilatérale. Elle a préféré recourir à un traité
avec le Nigéria. Le résultat juridique est le même.Ce traité adonc opéré
une modification du décret. Certes ilest protégépar l'effetrelatif des trai-
tés; mais il a pour conséquencede modifier les prétentions de la Guinée
équatoriale, comme l'aurait fait un acte interne de cet Etat. En consé-
quence, la Guinée équatoriale ne peut pas devant la Cour et à l'égard
d'un autre Etat soutenir que ses prétentions restent celles qui avaient été
indiquéespar décret. Cette position est à mon avis illogique.

La conséquencede cette constatation est que, pour le tracéde la ligne,
la Cour ne devait pas avoir pour limite celle déterminéepar le décret
équato-guinéenmais plutôt par le traité quela Guinée équatoriale asigné
avec le Nigériaen 2000.
137. S'agissant des circonstances pertinentes, il est manifeste que le
Cameroun a été mal lotipar la nature, ce que la Cour n'est pas chargée
de corriger. Cela ne devrait pas empêcherla Cour de poursuivre le but
d'aboutir à un résultat équitabledans la délimitation à laquelle elle doit
procéder. Rechercher un résultat équitablen'est pas décider enéquité.
C'est une affaire entendue. Mais la notion de résultat équitablen'estjuri-
dique que parce qu'elle est utiliséepar le droit international. La consé-
quence de son application n'est pas différentequand il s'agit non «d'une
zone non encore délimitée)) (C.I.J. Recueil 1969, p. 22, par. 18), mais

d'une délimitation terminée. Cela veut dire que, après la délimitation à
laquelle il a été opéré , Cour doit se demander: «le résultat auquel je
suis parvenue est-il équitable?))Le reste est pure subtilité.
or,en réponse à laquestion ci-dessus, je ne crois pas, compte tenu des
circonstances que pour ma part je considère comme pertinentes mais que
la Cour a préféré ignorer, que la réponsepuisse être à coup sûr «oui».

138. La question de la responsabilité a été examinée par la Cour au
double titre de la demande de réparation du Cameroun et de la demande
reconventionnelle du Nigéria.

139. Dans ses conclusions terminant ses plaidoiries, le Camerounbelieve that the Court has applied its jurispruaence. Up to a certain
point, the Court has confined itself, as it had already done in the Tunisial
Libya case, to indicating a direction rather than llrawing a finished line.
This was required iri view of the rights of third States.
136. In this respect, it should however be noteil that, in promulgating
a decree determining the limits of its sovereign rights, Equatorial Guinea

gave an indication of its legal interests. In so doini:, it was well aware that
the maritime area in this part of the Gulf of Gbinea belonged to three
States, Nigeria, Carrieroon and itself, since it had already recognized that
between these three countries' respective areas thme was a tripoint (even
if the location of that point had not yet been determined). That decree
could have been amended by Equatorial Guinea by the same unilateral

means. It preferred to have recourse to a treaty .aith Nigeria. The legal
result is the same. That treaty thus amended the ciecree. Some protection
is admittedly affordird by the relative effect of trcaties. Nonetheless, the
treaty does have the effect of modifying the claims of Equatorial Guinea
in the same way as an interna1 act of that State would have done. In con-

sequence, Equatorial Guinea was not entitled to argue before the Court
that in relation to another State its claims remained those which had been
indicated by decree. Such a position is illogical ir my view.
It follows from this that, as regards the coursc: of the line, the Court
was not circumscribed by the limit laid down t'y Equatorial Guinea's
decree but rather by the treaty signed by Equatorial Guinea with Nigeria

in the year 2000.
137. As regards the relevant circumstances, it is quite clear that Cam-
eroon has not been blessed by nature and that it is not for the Court to
rectify that. But that should not prevent the Court from pursuing the aim
of achieving an equitable result in the delimitation to be effected by it.
Achieving an equitable result is not the same as delimiting in equity. That

is not at issue. But the notion of an equitable result is only a legal one
inasmuch as it is used in international law. The rejult of its application is
no different for a dlrlimited area rather than "a previously undelimited
area" (1.C.J. Reports 1969, p. 22, para. 18).This means that after it has
carried out the delimitation, the Court is required to ask itself: "is the
result we have reachied equitable"? The rest is sirnply a matter of subtle

reasoning.
And in response to that question, 1 do not helieve, in view of the
circumstances that for my part 1 regard as relevint but that the Court
preferred to ignore, that the answer must inevital~lybe "yes".

138. The issue of responsibility was considered by the Court under
the twin heads of Cameroon's reparation claim and Nigeria's counter-
claim.

139. In its submi:ssions at the close of its oral argument, Cameroon535 FRONTIÈRE TERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP.IND. MBAYE)

demandait à la Cour de constater que le Nigériaa violéle principe fon-
damental de I'uti possidetis, de mêmeque ses engagements juridiques
relatifsà la non-utilisation de la force contre le Cameroun et au respect
de l'ordonnance du 15 mars 1996édictant des mesures conservatoires. Il
a demandé que la Cour dise que la responsabilité du Nigéria est engagée
par ces faits illicites et que réparation lui est àce titre.
140. Sur la base de ces reproches, le Cameroun demandait notamment
qu'il soit jugéque le Nigériadoit mettre fin àsa présencetant civile que
militaire sur le territoire camerounais et qu'en particulier il doit évacuer
sans délaiet sans condition ses troupes de la zone occupéedu lac Tchad
et de la péninsulede Bakassi, et qu'il doit s'abstenir de tels àl'avenir.

En outre, le Cameroun plaidait l'absence de circonstances pouvant
exclure I'illicéides faits qu'il impute au Nigéria.
141. Le Nigéria n'apas accepté la thèsedu Cameroun sur la respon-
sabilité. Dans ses conclusions finales, le Nigéria soutient que les de-
mandes du Cameroun relatives à la responsabilité d'Etat, si elles étaient
recevables, ne sont en tout cas pas fondées etdoivent êtrerejetées.
Le Nigéria nese contentait pas de réfuterles accusations portées par le
Cameroun contre lui. Il a estiméque le Cameroun endosse la responsa-
bilité desfaits énumérés dans son contre-mémoire et sa duplique, et àce
titre lui doit des réparations.
142. On trouvera, dans les conclusions formelles des Parties, une
expression plus précisede leurs demandes et défenses enmatière de res-

ponsabilité et de réparations.
Ici, je me contente de faire quelques remarques.
143. C'est à la Cour qu'il appartient de vérifier le bien-fondé des
demandes en réparation. Usant de ce pouvoir, la Cour a estiméque le
retrait des administrations ou des forces armées ou de police qu'elle a
ordonné est suffisant pour porter remède aux conséquencesde l'occupa-
tion nigériane etque, de ce fait, ellene recherchera donc pas si et dans
quelle mesure la responsabilité du Nigéria est engagéeà l'égarddu Came-
roun du fait de cette occupation)) (par. 319de l'arrêt).Ce faisant, la Cour
ne dit pas que le Nigéria n'estpas responsable. Elle a d'ailleurs indiqué
(par. 64 de l'arrêt déjà cité):«les éventuelles effectivités nigérianes
doivent bien êtreconsidérées,du point de vue de leurs conséquences
juridiques, comme des actes contra legem ».

144. Par ailleurs, selon une règlede procédure bien établie,il appar-
tient bien sûr à chaque partie de rapporter la preuve des faits qu'elle
allègue.Il fallait donc s'assurer que cette règlea étébien appliquée.C'est
ce que la Cour a fait en ce qui concerne les incidents dont les Parties se
rejettent la responsabilité. C'estson droit. Le Nigéria a soutenu que, en
tout état de cause, il est couvert par la légitime défenseou par d'autres
circonstances excluant toute illicéité éventuel(par. 321 de l'arrêt).
145. Pour le Cameroun, son territoire est occupéaprès avoir étéenvahi
et cette occupation s'est faite par la force sans son consentement, ce qui
constitue une violation des obligations internationales du Nigéria.requested the Court to find that Nigeria had violated the fundamental
principle of uti possidetis, as well as its legal obligations regarding the
non-use of force against Cameroon and compli,ince with the Court's
Order of 15 March 1996 indicating provisional rneasures. It asked the
Court to find that Nigeria's responsibility was engaged by these wrongful
acts and that reparation was due to it on this account.
140. On the basis of those allegations, Cameroon requested inter aliaa
declaration that Nigeria must put an end to its presence, both civil and
military, on Cameroonian territory, and in particiilar that it must forth-
with and unconditioinally evacuate its troops froni the occupied area of
Lake Chad and the Bakassi Peninsula and that it inust refrain from such
actions in the future.
Cameroon further pleaded the absence of any cilcumstancescapable of
precluding the wrongfulness of the acts imputed tly it to Nigeria.

141. Nigeria did not accept Cameroon's positicn on responsibility. In
its finalubmissions, Nigeria argued that Cameroon's State responsibility
claims, even if admissible, were in any event unfo~nded and must be dis-
missed.
Nigeria did not confine itself to rebutting Cameroon's charges against
it. It considered that Cameroon bore responsibilit!, for the acts set out in
its Counter-Memorial and Rejoinder, and claimcd reparations on that
account.
142. The Parties' formal submissions give a mo -eprecise indication of
their claims and defences in terms of responsibilit and reparations.

1will simply confiiie myself here to a few observations.
143. It is for the Court to verify the merits of claims for reparation.
Availing itself of thir;power, the Court consideretl that its order for the
withdrawal of the administration and of military or police forces suffi-

ciently addressed the injury caused by the Nigerian occupation and that
in consequence it would "not therefore seek to ascertain whether and to
what extent Nigeria's responsibility to Cameroon ha[d] been engaged as a
result of that occupation" (para. 319 of the Judgnient). By this decision,
the Court did not slate that Nigeria was not re5ponsible. It moreover
indicated (para. 64 of the Judgment previously cited): "any Nigerian
efictivités are indeetf to be evaluated for their legal consequences as acts
contra legem".
144. Moreover. iri accordance with a well-esiablished rule of Dro-
cedure, it is of course for each party to prove the facts which it alleges.
The Court therefore had to ensure that this requirernent had been properly
met. The Court did so with regard to the incident Tfor which the Parties
held each other responsible. It was entitled to do so. Nigeria contended
that, in any event, ifs actions were covered by self-defence or by other
circumstances preclulding any wrongfulness (para. 321 of the Judgment).

145. Cameroon considered that its territory l-ad been invaded and
occupied and that such occupation had occurred b:~force without its con-
sent, which constituti:d a violation of Nigeria's international obligations. 146. Pour le Nigéria, c'estde bonne foi qu'il se trouve sur des endroits

qu'il considère comme faisant partie de son territoire et que c'est au
contraire le Cameroun qui a procédé à des incursions, créé des incidents
et s'est ainsi rendu responsable d'un certain nombre de faits qui lui sont
préjudiciables et dont il demande la réparation.
147. Il convient de rappeler qu'il résulte del'opinion d'Eduardo Jimé-
nez de Aréchaga et d'Attila Tanzi (Droit international: bilan et perspec-
tives, t. 1, p. 369) que, dès lors qu'il y a manquement à une obligation

internationale et dommage subi par un Etat comme conséquence de ce
manquement, 1'Etat ayant subi ledit dommage est en droit de demander
réparation à 1'Etat responsable.
148. La Cour a préféré écarter toute demande de réparation, estimant
que: «dans la présente affaire ... le Nigéria est tenu de retirer dans les
plus brefs délais et sans condition son administration et ses forces armées

et de police du secteur du lac Tchad relevant de la souverainetédu Came-
roun ainsi que de la presqu'île de Bakassi)) (par. 314 de I'arrêt).Elle
ajoute :

«Dans les circonstances de l'espèce, laCour estime de plus que, du
fait mêmedu présent arrêt etde l'évacuation du territoire camerou-
nais occupépar le Nigéria, le préjudice subipar le Cameroun en rai-
son de l'occupation de son territoire aura en tout état de cause été
suffisamment pris en compte. La Cour ne recherchera donc pas si et
dans quelle mesure la responsabilité du Nigéria est engagéeà l'égard

du Cameroun du fait de cette occupation.)) (Par. 319 de I'arrêt.)

149. S'agissant des autres faits invoqués par les Parties, elle conclut:

«La Cour constate que, làencore, aucune des Parties n'apporte de

preuves suffisantes des faits qu'elle avance ou de leur imputabilité à
l'autre Partie. Elle ne saurait par suite accueillir ni lesconclusions du
Cameroun ni les demandes reconventionnelles du Nigéria fondées
sur les incidents invoqués.))(Par. 324 de l'arrêt.)

Certes cette solution est juridiquement correcte pour les raisons que j'ai
évoquées plushaut. Mais, quand on examine les faits de la cause, on est
bien obligé de se rendre compte que le Nigéria a bien commis des actes
illicites. C'est pourquoi j'éprouve un certain regret que les demandes en
réparation du Cameroun n'aient pas été satisfaites enraison précisément

de l'attribution à sa seule souveraineté de certains territoires du lac Tchad
et de Bakassi que le Nigériaoccupe en dépitdes protestations du légitime
souverain et en pleine connaissance de cause du droit régissant ses fron-
tières avecle Cameroun, puisqu'il a contestéles titres qui fondent ce droit
au profit d'effectivitésaux allures de fait accompli.
150. Il reste que, à mon humble avis, la Cour a rendu un arrêtsolide-
ment motivéqui apaisera, j'en suis sûr, les inquiétudes africaines qu'avait

soulevéesle différend entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria, connu mêmede 146. Nigeria contended that it was present in good faith in areas which
it regarded as forming part of its territory and thiit, on the contrary, it
was Cameroon which had made incursions and created incidents, thus

rendering itself responsible for a certain number of acts which had
injured Nigeria and on account of which it claimeci reparation.
147. It is appropriate to recall the view of Eduardo Jiménez
de Aréchaga and Attila Tanzi (in International LUM I Achievements and
Prospects, Vol. 1,p. 369) that, once there has been a breach of an inter-

national obligation and consequent injury to a Siate, the State having
suffered the injury is entitled to claim reparation from the State respon-
sible.
148. The Court preferred to dismiss any claim f~r reparation, consid-
ering that "Nigeria iisunder an obligation in the present case expedi-

tiously and without condition to withdraw its admi~iistration and its mili-
tary and police forceis from that area of Lake Chad which falls within
Cameroon's sovereigrity and from the Bakassi Periinsula" (para. 314 of
the Judgment). It addls:

"In the circumstances of the case, the Cou1.t considers moreover
that, by the very fact of the present Judgment and of the evacuation
of the Camerooriian territory occupied by Nigeria, the injury suf-
fered by Cameroon by reason of the occupation of its territory will

in al1 events have been sufficiently addressed. The Court will not
therefore seek to ascertain whether and to lvhat extent Nigeria's
responsibility to Cameroon has been engaged as a result of that
occupation." (Para. 319 of the Judgment.)

149. With regard Io the other facts invoked by the Parties, it con-
cludes :

"The Court finds that. here againu ,either of the Parties suffi-
ciently proves the facts which it alleges, or thcir imputability to the
other Partv. The Court is therefore unable to uvhold either Cam-

eroon's submissions or Nigeria's counter-claiins based on the inci-
dents cited." (Pal-a. 324 of the Judgrnent.)
While this solution is certainly correct in law for the reasons that 1

have set out above, yet, when the facts of the case are examined, one can
only conclude that Ni,geriadid indeed commit unlawful acts. For this rea-
son 1find it somewhat regrettable that Cameroon's claims for reparation
have not been satisfied, precisely because it has been granted exclusive
sovereignty over certain areas of the Lake Chad region and of Bakassi

that Nigeria has been occupying, notwithstanding the protests of the
egitimate sovereign arid in full awareness of the law governing its borders
with Cameroon, since it disputed the titles on which that law is founded
by invoking effectivittls bearing the hallmark of fa ts accomplis.
150. Al1 that remains to be said, in my humble opinion, is that the

Court has rendered a Judgment based on sound ieasoning which 1 am
sure will alleviate the concerns aroused in Africa b~ this dispute between537 FRONTIÈRE TERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP. IND. MBAYE)

l'homme dela rue sous lenom de l'affairede Bakassi. L'arrêt contribuera
a instaurer la paix entre deux pays frèresd'Afrique et dans la région.

(Signé) KébaMBAYE. LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (SEP. OP. MBAYE) 537

Cameroon and Nigeria, familiar even to the man in the street as the
Bakassi case. The Judgment will contribute to the establishment of peace
between two brother countries of Africa and throughouthe region.

(Si;:ned)Kéba MBAYE.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Separate opinion of Judge ad hoc Mbaye (translation)

Links