Dissenting opinion of Judge Koroma

Document Number
094-20021010-JUD-01-04-EN
Parent Document Number
094-20021010-JUD-01-00-EN
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Bilingual Document File

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE KOROMA

Role of Court in judicial settlement of territorial and boundary disputes --
Nigeria's claim to Bakassi based on original title and historical consolidation
and to settlements around Lake Chad based on historical consolidation - 1884
Treaty of Protection betit'eenGreat Britain und Kings and Chiefs of Old Cala-
bar - Legal basisfor solving dispute - Invalidity of Anglo-German Agreement
of 11 March 1913 - Failure of Court to properly assess evidence establishing
historical consolidation- Historical consolidationprovides valid basis,for ter-

ritorial title.

1. Perhaps nowhere is the category of the peaceful settlement of dis-
putes more imperative than in territorial and boundary disputes between
neighbouring States, given the potential for such disputes to escalate with

destructive consequences for the States concerned.
2. But this notwithstanding, with reference to the Court's role as an
arm of preventive diplomacy, i.e., being seised of disputes which seem
entirely political but which have a legal component, the President of the

Court told the United Nations General Assembly in 1991that the Court's
mission was to declare and apply the law, and that it would range outside
that task at its peril and at the peril of international law (see Sir Rob-
ert Jennings, "The Role of the International Court of Justice", British

Year Book of International Law (BYBIL), 1997,p. 3). Therefore, even in
performing this role the Court is bound, pursuant to its Statute, to apply
relevant treaties and conventions as well as general principles of law
recognized by the Parties (Statute of the Court, Art. 38). Hence, the
Court cannot allow itself to abdicate this judicial responsibility.

3. 1 am, however, obliged to observe that the conclusion reached by
the Court with respect to the 1884Treaty between Great Britain and the
Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar regarding the Bakassi Peninsula is tan-

tamount to a recognition of political reality rather than to an application
of the treaty and the relevant legal principles. In my view, it is not the
function of the Court to recognize or consecrate political reality but
rather to apply the law in ruling on disputes before it. Nor can 1concur

with the Court's response to the claim of "historical consolidation" by
Nigeria in this case, the implication being that conventional title based on
the 1913 Anglo-German Agreement is the only valid means of acquiring
title or that the mode of territorial acquisition is closed. If the latter were
the case, there would have been no place in the Court's jurisprudence for

prescriptive title, etc. In my view, the approaches taken by the Court to
reach its conclusions on these two issues are both fundamentally flawed.475 LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (DISS . P.KOROMA)

The main purpose of applying the law is to do justice and where the law
is not correctly applied it could lead to an injustice. It is principally
because of my disagreement with the conclusions and findings of the
Court regarding these two issues that 1 have decided to exercise the
faculty to enter this dissenting opinion as provided for by theStatute.

4. In this dispute both Parties maintain that the main focus is the
Bakassi Peninsula, although they expect different results. Inits final sub-
missions with respect to Bakassi, the Republic of Cameroon, inter alia,

requested the Court to adjudge and declare that sovereignty over the
peninsula is Cameroonian. In both its Mernorial and pleadings before the
Court, Cameroon relied mainly for its title on the Anglo-German Agree-
ment of 11 March 1913 and on various eflectiilités.

5. The Republic of Nigeria, for its part, requested the Court to adjudge
and declare that sovereignty over the Bakassi is vested in the Federal
Republic of Nigeria. It based its claim to sovereignty over the peninsula
on original title, as confirmed by the Treaty of Protection which the
Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar signed with Great Britain on 10 Sep-
tember 1884 and mainly on historical consolidation. In this regard,
Nigeria contended that parts of the Anglo-German Agreement of
11March 1913,under which Bakassi was ceded by Great Britain to Ger-

many and subsequently inherited by Cameroon as successor State, were
invalid as Great Britain was not entitled to cede the territory pursuant to
the 1884 Treaty, which was a treaty of protection and in no way trans-
ferred sovereignty to Great Britain over the territories of the Kings and
Chiefs of Old Calabar. Nigeria further argued that the 1913Agreement
was also invalid on grounds of inconsistency with the principle nemo dut
quod non habet. In Nigeria's view, however, such invalidity only applied
to those parts of the Agreement which purport to prescribe the boundary
and which, if effective,would have involved a cession of territory toGer-
many, that is to Say,essentially Articles XVIII to XXII.

6. In paragraph 209 of the Judgment, the Court reached the conclu-
sion that under the applicable law at the time Great Britain was in a posi-
tion in 1913to determine its boundary with Germany, based on the 1913

Agreement. In paragraph 212 of the Judgment, the Court stated that it is
unable to accept that until Nigeria's independence in 1961,and notwith-
standing the Anglo-German Agreement of 11 March 1913, the Bakassi
Peninsula had remained under the sovereignty of the Kings and Chiefs of
Old Calabar. The Court went on to find that Nigeria, at the time,
accepted that Articles XVIII to XXII of the Anglo-German Agreement
of 1913 were valid and in effect, and that it recognized Cameroonian sov-
ereignty over the Bakassi Peninsula (paragraph 214). Based on these find-
ings, the Court, in its operative paragraphs, decided that the boundary
between the Republic of Cameroon and the Federal Republic of Nigeria
in Bakassi is delimited by Articles XVIII to XX of the Anglo-GermanAgreement of 11 March 1913; and that sovereignty over the Bakassi
Peninsula lies with the Republic of Cameroon.
7. This conclusion, with respect, is unsustainable, both in the light of
the 1884 Treaty and in the light of the material evidence which was
before the Court. The findings are in clear violation of the express pro-
visions of the 1884 Treaty and contrary to the intention of one of the
parties to the 1884Treaty - that of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Cala-
bar - and hence to the rule of pacta sunt servandu, Le., the sanctity of
treaties. This finding, in violation of the applicable treaty and clearly in

breach of the principle of pactu sunt servandu, is not only illegal but
unjust.

8. Moreover, 1 am also unable to accept that the categories of legal
title to territory are restricted to what the Court described as the "estab-
lished" modes, in its response to the contention that the principle of his-
torical consolidation was a valid basis for territorial title, that is to say
that proven long use, coupled with a complex of interests and relations,
as in the present case, can have the effect of attaching a territory to a
given State. In my opinion, founded on the jurisprudence of the Court
(Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951,

I.C.J. Reports 1953,nd p. 57;sLand, Island und Maritime Frontier Dispute

(El SalvadorlHonduras: Nicaragua intervening), Judgment, 1.C.J.
Reports 1992, p. 565,para. 349, historical consolidation, if supported by
the requisite evidence, can be a sound and valid means of establishing
territorial title in international law. When, therefore,uch evidenceis pre-
sented to the Court, as in this case, it does not seem legally justified to
reject such evidence because it is categorized under a particular rubric.
Rather than being preoccupied with the "label" of the evidence, the
Court's essential judicial function should be to assess and interpret the
evidence before it objectively, so as to determine whether or not such evi-
dence is sufficient to establish title to the territory in question.

9. As stated earlier, Nigeria's claimto Bakassi is, on the basis of origi-

nal title, vested in the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar, the geographical
extent of which covered south-eastern Nigeria and which in the 1700s
was peopled mainly by the Efiks and the Efiat. Historically, the territorial
authority of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar is said to have extended
as far east as the Rio del Rey. Nigeria pointed out that the limits of the
territorial authority of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar are con-
veniently represented by two inland waterways known as the Archibong
Creek and Ikankau Creek; that the area known as Old Calabar was the
centre of Efik activity and authority and included towns such as Duke
Town, Creek Town, Henshaw Town and Obutong Town; that other Efik
towns further afield included Tom Shott's Town and Arsibon's (now
Archibong); that each of these towns, or virtually city States, had its own
King or Chief from whom, by the early nineteenth century, the para-mount chieftancy or kingship - later the Obongship - of Old Calabar
evolved; that in the nineteenth century Old Calabar and its Efik Houses
had established their authority not only over the area around Old Cala-
bar, but also over al1the lands between Cross River and the Rio del Rey.
Furthermore, through economic, social and cultural links, the Kings and
Chiefs of Old Calabar exercised control over their citizens. In particular,
through the Ekpe shrine, the Kings and Chiefs ensured the effective
administration of justice, the maintenance of peace and security and the
development of the resources within their territory. The material evidence
before the Court thus showed that the activities of Old Calabar included

the founding of settlements of increasing permanence in the Bakassi
Peninsula which were within the dominions of Old Calabar.

10. The Court was also furnished with evidence that the British Con-
sul Hewett, who negotiated the 1884Treaty of Protection between Great
Britain and the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar, described Old Calabar
in the following terms: "This country with its dependencies extends from
Tom Shots . .. to the River Rumby (on the Westof Cameroon Moun-
tains), both inclusive" (Counter-Memorial of Nigeria, Vol. 1,p. 95). "The
Chiefs of Tom Shot country, of Efut . . .the country about the River
Rumby, made declarations that they were subject to Old Calabar"
(CR 200218,p. 45, para. 31),an important and significant statement ema-
nating from an officia1who had direct and first-hand knowledge of the

area and evidencing and confirming the extent of Old Calabar. Later evi-
dence of this was provided in 1890by another British Consul, Johnston,
who stated that "the rule of the Old Calabar Chiefs extended far beyond
the Akpayafé River to the very base of the Cameroons" (Counter-
Memorial of Nigeria, Vol. 1,p. 95), and qualified this by adding that the
"Efik people . . .only went as far east as the right bank of the Ndian
River" (ibid.). According to Johnston, who had travelled the region
extensively :

"[tlhe trade and rule of the Old Calabar Chiefs extended, in 1887,
considerably further to the east than the Ndian River

.............................
The left or eastern bank of the Akpayafé and the land between
that river and the Ndian is under the rule of Asibon or Archibong
Edem III, a big Chief of Old Calabar." (Ibid.)

11. On the basis of this evidence, Nigeria maintained that Bakassi and
the Rio del Rey are demonstrably to the west of the Ndian River, and
Bakassi was part of Old Calabar's outlands. Nigeria maintained that the
1884 Treaty between the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar and Great
Britain extended over this territory and was a treaty of protection and
not one in which the territory was ceded to Great Britain. In the light of
the foregoing, Nigeria complained that parts of the Agreement of 1913which Great Britain concluded with Germany were inconsistent with the
1884 Treaty of Protection and therefore invalid. In Nigeria's view, the
offending Articles were the following:

"XVIII. Thence it follows the thalweg of the Akpakorum
(Akwayafe) River, dividing the Mangrove Islands near Ikang in the

way shown on the aforesaid map T.S.G.S. 2240, sheet 2. It then fol-
lows the thalweg of the Akwayafe as far as a straight line joining
Bakasi Point and King Point.
XIX. Should the thalweg of the Lower Akwayafe, upstream from
the line Bakasi Point-King Point, change its position in such a way
as to affect the relative positions of the thalweg and the Mangrove
Islands, a new adjustment of the boundary shall be made, on the
basis of the new positions, as determined by a map to be made for
the purpose.
XX. Should the lower course of the Akwayafe so change its
mouth as to transfer it to the Rio del Rey, it is agreed that the area
now known as the Bakasi Peninsula shall still remain German terri-
tory. The same condition applies to any portion of territory now
agreed to as being British, which may be cut off in a similar way.

XXI. From the centre of the navigable channel on a line joining
Bakasi Point and King Point, the boundary shall follow the centre of

the navigable channel of the Akwayafe River as far as the 3-mile
limit of territorialjurisdiction. For the purpose of defining this
boundary, the navigable channel of the Akwayafe River shall be
considered to lie wholly to the east of the navigable channel of the
Cross and Calabar Rivers.
XXII. The 3-mile limit shall, as regards the mouth of the estuary,
be taken as a line 3 nautical miles seaward of a line joining Sandy
Point and Tom Shot Point."

Nigeria claims that the effect of this Agreement was that Great Britain
passed title to Bakassi to Cameroon, which it was not entitled to do.
12. Cameroon, on the other hand, contended that it would be inap-
propriate to talk of Old Calabar as if it possessed international person-
ality or as if it was recognized as a Stateuring that period with defined
territorial limits which Nigeria could have inherited.
13. The Court, in paragraph 207 of its Judgment, held that the 1884
Treaty signed with the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar did not establish
an international protectorate and it went on to say that from the outset
Britain regarded itself as administering the territories comprised in the
1884Treaty, and not just protecting them, and that the fact that a dele-
gation was sent to London by the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar in
1913 to discuss matters of land tenure cannot be considered as implying
international personality and simply confirmed the British administration
by indirect rule. According to the Judgment, the Court held that Nigeria480 LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (DISSO. P.KOROMA)

against other European States whenever their interests were in conflict in
the region, Great Britain thus recognized the sovereignty of the Kings
and Chiefs and people of Old Calabar over their territory and this cannot
subsequently be denied. The 1884Treaty thus constitutes evidence of an
acknowledgment by Great Britain that the Kings and Chiefs of Old Cala-
bar were capable of entering into a treaty relationship with a foreign
Power and that they were recognized as capable of acting at an interna-
tional level. Therefore, to argue that the 1884Treaty did not mean what
itsaid would not only be inconsistent with the express provisions of the
Treaty itself, but would also be contrary to the rule ofpacta sunt ser-
vanda (the sanctity of treaties), a rule which forms an integral part of
international law and is as old as international law itself. In other words,
it is impossible for a State to be released by its own unilateral decision

from its obligations under a treaty which it has signed, whatever the rele-
vant method or period. Thus, given that the 1884Treaty was a treaty of
protection and not one of cession involving the alienation of territory, it
follows that Great Britain's authority in relation to the Kings and Chiefs
of Old Calabar did not include the Dower to conclude on their behalf
treaties which entitled the protectingState to alienate the territory of the
protected State; therefore, the relevant parts of the 1913Anglo-German
Agreement, by which Great Britain purportedly ceded the territory of the
Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar to Germany, lay outside the treaty-
making competence of Great Britain, and were not binding on the Kings
and Chiefs of Old Calabar nor ultimately on Nigeria as the successor
State. There is, therefore, no legal basis on which to hold, as the Court
has done in this case, that the protector State was entitled to cede terri-
tory without the consent and in breach of the protective agreement, by
stating that "from the outset Britain regarded itself as administering the

territories comprised in the 1884 Treaty, and not just protecting them"
(para. 207) or that under the law prevalent at the time (in 1913)Great
Britain was entitled "to determine its boundaries" (para. 209),even when
this affected the territory of a protected State without its consent and
inconsistent with the provisions of the relevant Treaty.These conclusions
are totally at variance with the express provisions of the 1884Treaty and
in violation of the principle of pacta sunt servanda. Moreover, by con-
cluding the 1884Treaty, it is clear that the territory of Old Calabar was
not regarded as a terra nulliusbut a politically and socially organized
community which was recognized as such and which entered into a treaty
relationship with Great Britain, a treaty Great Britain felt able to raise
against other European States.

16. The foregoing is the correct conclusion which the Court would

have reached had it taken the proper approach of interpretingthe Treaty
with respect to the territory of Oldalabar. Such examination would have
shown that the Treaty precluded Great Britain from ceding the terri-tory in question. It would also have revealed that Britain was not entitled
to cede Bakassi under the terms of the Treaty. Such a finding would have
been founded in law. It is common knowledge that territorial titles were
acquired by European States in Africa by treaties of cession, but in the
case of a protectorate treaty the sovereignty which inhered in the local
ruler would be split in such a way that the protector State would exercise
rights of external sovereignty in favour of the protected entity whilst the

interna1 sovereignty would continue to be exercised by the local kings and
rulers. In this regard, some African protectorate treaties, such as the 1884
Treaty with the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar, were expressed in nega-
tive clauses, which imposed restrictions on the contracting rulers as far as
exercising their external sovereignty is concerned. Under such a treaty,
the Kings and Chiefs undertook not to enter into treaties with other
Powers, not to maintain relations (including diplornatic intercourse), not to

go to war with such Powers, and, most importantly, not to cede territory.
Thus, the clause prohibiting transfer of territory to "other" European
Powers was considered the most important within the framework of the
protectorate. In the case of the 1884Treaty between the Kings and Chiefs
of Old Calabar and Great Britain, Great Britain was not authorized in
the international relations of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar, or
otherwise, to act in their name and on their behalf, nor did the Kings and

Chiefs give up their right and power to make treaties and agreements
with foreign States, but agreed that they would do so only after having
first informed the British Government and having obtained its approval.

17. In my view, the position with regard to protectorates is correctly
stated in the latest edition of Oppenheim. According to the author:

"An arrangement may be entered into whereby one state, while
retaining to some extent its separate identity as a state, is subject to
a kind of guardianship by another state. The circumstances in which
this occurs and the consequences which result Vary from case to
case, and depend upon the particular provisions of the arrangement
between the two states concerned.

Protectorate is, however, a conception which lacks exact legal
precision, as its real meaning depends very much upon the special
case . ..
The position within the international community of a state under
protection is defined by the treaty of'protection which enurnerates
the reciprocal rights and duties of the protecting and the protected

states. Each case must therefore be treated according to its own
merits . . . But it is characteristic oj'a protectorate thut the pro-
tected state alivays has, and retuins, jur some purposes, u position
of its own as an international person and u subject of international
1aw." (Oppenheim's International Law, Sir Robert Jennings and Sir Arthur Watts (eds.), 9th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 267-269; emphasis
added.)

18. It was against this background and on this basis that the Court
should have looked at the 1884 Treaty, a treaty of protection which
specifiesthe terms of protection and the rights and obligations, which did
not include authority to alienate territory. Bakassi was part of the terri-
torial scope of the 1884 Treaty of Protection and could not have been
changed without the consent of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar.
Thus, to the extent that evidence of such consent was not provided, there
was no basis even under the applicable law at that time for Great Britain
to be able to determine its boundaries with Germany in respect of
Bakassi, and to the extent that such determination was detrimental to the
interests of Old Calabar it should have been declared invalid by the
Court. The Judgment did not make it clear what the Court had in mind
by saying that Great Britain was in a position to determine its boundary
in 1913, because the primary question is whether Great Britain was
entitled to alienate the territory which included Bakassi in 1913. And
since the answer to this question has to be in the negative, the 1913

Anglo-German Agreement could not and cannot be regarded as valid.

19. It follows from the above that 1 cannot agree with the Court's
findings that the maritime boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria lies
to the west of the Bakassi Peninsula and not to the east in the Rio del
Rey. Nor can 1accept that the maritime boundary between the Parties is
"anchored" to the mainland at the intersection of the straight line from
Bakassi Point to King Point with the centre of the navigable channel of
the Akwayafe River in accordance with Articles XVIII and XXI of the
1913Anglo-German Agreement. The Court reached these findings on the
basis of the 1913 Agreement which, as 1 have already demonstrated, is
invalid as far as those of its provisions relating to Bakassi are concerned.
This invalidityalone should have prevented the Court from reaching the
aforementioned conclusions (ex una causa, nullitas) or (ex injuria non
oritus jus).

20. Another aspect of the Judgment which has given me much cause
for legal concern is the Court's refusal to assess Nigeria's evidencerelat-
ing to historical consolidation, which was one of the main grounds of it's
claim to territorial title to Bakassi and with respect to some villages
which had grown up around Lake Chad, and the Court's treatment with

regard to the concept itself. Nigeria claimed that historical consolidation,
which is founded upon proven long use, coupled with a complex of
interests and relations which, in themselves, have the effect of attaching
a territory, constitutes a legal basis of territorial title. 21. With reference to the established villages around Lake Chad,
Nigeria cited various elements of local government administration in sup-
port of its claim of historical consolidation and effectivitésincluding:
legal jurisdiction, taxation, authority of traditional rulers and the fact
that the settlements were populated by Nigerian nationals.

22. With reference to the Anglo-German Agreement of 1913 and
despite its invalidity in relation to the 1884Treaty between Great Britain

and the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar, Nigeria argues that the weight
of evidence suggests that there was no German occupation or adminis-
tration of Bakassi, and no significant pattern of German activities there,
in the period between March 1913 and May 1916.It pointed out that the
realities of administrative development in the peninsula between 1913
and 1916 showed that Bakassi continued to be administered as part of
Nigeria and that the administration and governance of the area came vir-
tually exclusively from Nigeria. Nigeria also stated that, as far as local
government was concerned, the British in 1922 introduced a system of
indirectrule, using "Warrant Chiefs", and that in 1933the system of indi-
rect rule was superseded by a native authority system introduced by the
Native Authorities Ordinance of 1933.Nigeria explained out that in 1950
this overburdened system of local government was rationalized by the
Eastern Region Local Government Ordinance No. 60 of 1950,leading in
1955to the three-tier system of localgovernment which was later replaced
by a two-tier system under the eastern regional local government law.

23. As far as legaljurisdiction was concerned, Nigeria pointed out that
native courts were established in the first years of Britishule under their
system of indirect rule and that the Native Authorities Ordinance of 1933
introduced new native courts organized along similar lines to the local
native councils. The Court was also informed that the people of the
Bakassi region were paying taxes to the Calabar and Eket authorities,
and that these divisions within Nigeria were collecting the taxes. Further
evidence was that a Methodist school was established at Abana on
Bakassi in 1937and that a census was conducted in the area under the
auspices of the Eket Division in 1953.Ties with the traditional authori-
ties of Old Calabar continued uninterrupted and public order was main-
tained with the investigation of crime. There was also evidence of the
exercising of ecclesiasticaljurisdiction as well as the delimitation oflec-
toral wards and the citizens participated in parliamentary elections and
were enumerated in the census. Public works and development adminis-
tration were carried out as well as the exercising of military jurisdiction.

Thus a considerable amount and volume of evidence was presented to
substantiate the claim of historical consolidation including education,
public health, the granting of oil exploration permits and production
agreements, the collection of taxes, the collection of custom duties, the
use of Nigerian passports by residents of the Bakassi Peninsula, the regu-lation of emigration in Bakassi, and that the territory itself had been the
subject of interna1 Nigerian State rivalry.

24. Nigeria maintained that there was acquiescence to al1these activi-

ties, some of which had been carried out over a long period. It contended
that acquiescence in this respect had a threefold role: (1) as a significant
element in the process of historical consolidation of title; (2) that it con-
firms a title on the basis of peaceful possession of the territory concerned;
(3) that it may be characterized as the main component of title. Nigeria
submitted that the Government of Cameroon acquiesced in the long-
established Nigerian administration of the Bakassi region and to most of
the aforementioned activities until 1972onwards when there were various
Cameroonian initiatives, and in particular the project of renaming vil-
lages, which clearly demonstrates the previous absence of Cameroonian
administration. Nigeria submits that at no stage did Cameroon exercise
peaceful possession of the peninsula and that from the time of independ-
ence in 1960until 1972,the Government of Cameroon failed to challenge
the legitimate Nigerian presence in the region.

25. Responding to the claim of title based on historical consolidation,
the Court, in paragraph 65 of the Judgment, stated that apart from in the
Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway) case "[this] notion . ..has never
been used as a basis of title in other territorial disputes, whether in its
own or in other case law" - and that nothing in the FisheriesJudgment
suggested that the "historical consolidation" referred to allowed land
occupation to prevail over an established treaty title. The Court also
stated that "the established modes of acquisition of title . .. take into
account many other important variables of fact and law" (ihid.), which
are not taken into consideration by the "over-generalized" concept of
"historical consolidation".

26. In my view, the categories of legal title to territory cannot be
regarded as finite. The jurisprudence of the Court has never spoken of
"modes of acquisition", which is a creation of doctrine. Just as the Court
has recognized prescriptive rights to territory, so there is a basis for his-
torical consolidation as a means of establishing a territorial claim. Nor
can the concept of historical consolidation as a mode of territorial title be
regarded as "over-generalized" and alien to jurisprudence. Both munici-
pal and international law including the Court's jurisprudence, recognize a
situation of continuous and peaceful display of authority - proven
usage - combined with a complex of interests in and relations to a ter-
ritory, which, when generally known and accepted, expressly or tacitly,
could constitute title based on historical consolidation. The "important
variables" of the so-called established modes of acquisition, which theCourt did not define, are not absent in historical consolidation. If any-
thing, they are even more prevalent - the complex of interests and rela-
tions being continuous and extending over many years plus acquiescence.
Historical consolidationalsocaters for a situation where there has been a
clear loss or absence of title through abandonment or inactivity on the
one side, and an effective exercise of jurisdiction and control, continu-

ously maintained, on the other (see Fitzmaurice, "General Principles of
International Law", Recueil des cours de l'Académie de droit interna-
tional de La Huye, 1957,p. 148).

27. Failure of a State to react to a claim may, under certain condi-
tions, not amount to acquiescence, though in most cases it will. In the
Minquiers and Ecrehos case, France pleaded that it was impossible to
keep under surveillancethe activities of the United Kingdom with respect
to the islets. Responding to this argument, Judge Carneiro replied that
France was obliged to keep the disputed territory under surveillance and
failure to exercisesuch surveillance and ignorance of what was going on
on the islets indicate that France was not exercising sovereignty in the

area (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953, p. 106). In the Anglo-Norwegian
Firheries case, the Court held that Great Britain, being a maritime Power
traditionally concerned with the law of the sea, with an interest in the
fisheries of the North Sea could not have been ignorant of Norwegian
practice and could not rely on an absence of protest, relevant in proving
historic title(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 139). Thus a passive
course of conduct involving failure to protest may be taken into account
in determining acquiescence in a territorial dispute. If the circumstances
are such that some reaction within a reasonable period iscalled for on the
part of a State, the latter, if itils to react, must be said to have acqui-
esced. "Qui tucet consentire videtur si loqui debuisset ac potuisset."

28. Regarding the length of time required to prove title on the basis of
historical consolidation, every material situation calls for its own solu-
tion, based on the balancing of competing claims and depending on the
area. Title may be proved even without reference to the period of time
during which sovereignty had coalesced over the territory in dispute. In
paragraph 65 of the Judgment, the Court stated that "the facts and cir-
cumstances put forward by Nigeria . . . concern a period of some
20 years, which is in any event far too short, even according to the theory
relied on by it". While proven long usage is an important element to con-
solidate title on a historical basis, however, and depending on the area,
that period may sometimes be shorter. What is required is an assessment
of al1the elements to determine whether the facts presented establish the
claim. 29. With reference to the matter at hand, the evidence of original title
on which Nigeria bases its claim to Bakassi can be found in the admin-
istration of Bakassi on the part of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar
before and after the conclusion of the 1884Treaty with Great Britain, the
exercising of authority by traditional rulers, the Efik and Efiat toponymy
of the territory, its ethnic affiliation with Nigeria but not with Cameroon,
the long-established settlement of Nigerians in the territory and the mani-
festation of sovereign acts, such as tax collection, census-taking, the pro-
vision of education-and public health services.The acquiescence of Cam-
eroon in this long-established Nigerian administration of the territory,
the permanent population, the significant affiliations of a Nigerian
character, do substantiate a claim based on historical consolidation and
which in turn militates in favour of territorial title and stability. The

claim to territorial title to Bakassi and to the Nigerian settlements around
Lade Chad was thus adequately substantiated and there is no legaljusti-
fication to cast doubt on its legal basis and integrity.

30. Since the basis of the Court's finding on Bakassi has relied mainly
on its evaluation of the Anglo-German Agreement of 1913,I cannot help
but point out that even in the Court's jurisprudence, conventional title is
only one way of establishing title to territory. The Chamber of the Court
in the Frontier Dispute (Burkina FasolRepublic of Mali) case makes the
following observation :

"The Chamber also feels obliged to dispel a misunderstanding
which might arise from this distinction between 'delimitation dis-
putes' and 'disputes as to attribution of territory'. One of the effects
of this distinction is to contrast 'legaltitles' and 'ejfectivités'.In this
context, the term 'legal title'appears to denote documentary evidence
alone. It is hardly necessary to recall that this is not the only
accepted meaning of the word 'title'. Indeed, the Parties have used
this word in different senses. In fact, the concept of title may also,
and more generally, comprehend both any evidence whichmay estab-
lish the existence of a right, and the actual source of that right. The

Chamber will rule at the appropriate juncture on the relevance of the
evidence produced by the Parties for the purpose of establishing
their respective rights in this case. It will now turn to the question of
the rules applicable to the case; in so doing, it will, inter alia, ascer-
tain the source of the rights claimed by the Parties." (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 564, para. 18 ; emphasis added.)

This position was further confirmed by another Chamber of the Court
in 1992 in the case concerning the Land, Island and Maritime Frontier
Dispute (El SalvadorlHonduras: Nicaragua intervening) :

"The term 'title'has in fact been used at times in these proceedings in such a way as to leave unclear which of several possible meanings
is to be attached toit; some basic distinctions may therefore perhaps
be usefully stated. As the Chamber in the Frontier Dispute case
observed, the word 'title' isenerally not limitedto documentary evi-
dence alone, but comprehends 'both any evidence which may estab-
lish the existence of a right, and the actual source of that riglzt'

(I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 564, para. 18)." (Judgment, 1. C. J. Reports
1992, p. 388, para. 45.)

Notwithstanding the foregoing, it is regrettable for the Court to have
made the 1913 Anglo-German Agreement the main basis of its finding,

since this Agreement, in my view, was patently unjust.

31. To sum up my position, by denying the legal validity of the 1884
Treaty whilst at the same time declaring valid the Anglo-German Agree-
ment of 1913,the Court decided to recognize a political reality over the
express provisions of the 1884 Treaty. The justification for this choice
does not appear legal to me. It would not bejustified for the Court, given
its mission, if it were to be regarded as having consecrated an act which
is evidently anti-legal1regret this situation and it explains my position in
thismatter.

(Signed) Abdul G. KOROMA.

Bilingual Content

DISSENTING OPINION OF JUDGE KOROMA

Role of Court in judicial settlement of territorial and boundary disputes --
Nigeria's claim to Bakassi based on original title and historical consolidation
and to settlements around Lake Chad based on historical consolidation - 1884
Treaty of Protection betit'eenGreat Britain und Kings and Chiefs of Old Cala-
bar - Legal basisfor solving dispute - Invalidity of Anglo-German Agreement
of 11 March 1913 - Failure of Court to properly assess evidence establishing
historical consolidation- Historical consolidationprovides valid basis,for ter-

ritorial title.

1. Perhaps nowhere is the category of the peaceful settlement of dis-
putes more imperative than in territorial and boundary disputes between
neighbouring States, given the potential for such disputes to escalate with

destructive consequences for the States concerned.
2. But this notwithstanding, with reference to the Court's role as an
arm of preventive diplomacy, i.e., being seised of disputes which seem
entirely political but which have a legal component, the President of the

Court told the United Nations General Assembly in 1991that the Court's
mission was to declare and apply the law, and that it would range outside
that task at its peril and at the peril of international law (see Sir Rob-
ert Jennings, "The Role of the International Court of Justice", British

Year Book of International Law (BYBIL), 1997,p. 3). Therefore, even in
performing this role the Court is bound, pursuant to its Statute, to apply
relevant treaties and conventions as well as general principles of law
recognized by the Parties (Statute of the Court, Art. 38). Hence, the
Court cannot allow itself to abdicate this judicial responsibility.

3. 1 am, however, obliged to observe that the conclusion reached by
the Court with respect to the 1884Treaty between Great Britain and the
Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar regarding the Bakassi Peninsula is tan-

tamount to a recognition of political reality rather than to an application
of the treaty and the relevant legal principles. In my view, it is not the
function of the Court to recognize or consecrate political reality but
rather to apply the law in ruling on disputes before it. Nor can 1concur

with the Court's response to the claim of "historical consolidation" by
Nigeria in this case, the implication being that conventional title based on
the 1913 Anglo-German Agreement is the only valid means of acquiring
title or that the mode of territorial acquisition is closed. If the latter were
the case, there would have been no place in the Court's jurisprudence for

prescriptive title, etc. In my view, the approaches taken by the Court to
reach its conclusions on these two issues are both fundamentally flawed. OPINION DISSIDENTE DE M. LE JUGE KOROMA

[Traduction]

Rôle de la Cour da,ns le règlement judiciaire des u'iffërends territoriaux et
frontaliers- Revendication du Nigériufondée sur le iitre originel et la conso-
lidation historique pour Bakassi et sur la consolidatioiz historique pour les vil-
lages des environs du lac Tchad - Traité de prote,:torat de 1884 entre la
Grande-Bretagne et les rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar - Basejuridique pour le
règlement des diffërends - Invalidité de I'acctrd anglo-allemand du
II mars 1913 - Cour ,n'ayantpas examinéadéquatemc~nltes démentsprouvant
la consolidation histori,qu-- Consolidation historique commefondement valide
de titre territorial.

1. Les différendst~erritoriauxet frontaliers entrc:Etats voisins, en tant
qu'ils sont susceptibllesde s'exacerber avec des conséquences tragiques

pour les pays concernés, sont peut-êtreceux qui, plus-que tous autres,
appellent impérativement un règlement pacifique.
2. En 1991,le président dela Cour n'en déclarait pas moins à l7Assem-
bléegénérale desNations Unies, à propos du rôle joué par la Cour en
matière de diplomatie préventive -- c'est-à-dire Icrsqu'elle est appelée à
régler des différendsqui, s'ils semblent entièrement politiques, compor-
tent un élémenjturidique -, que cette juridiction avait pour mission de

dire le droit et que, si elle allait au-delà de cette fonction, c'était à ses
propres risques et ail périldu droit international (sir Robert Jennings,
«The Role of the International Court of Justice)). British Year Book of
International Law (B YBIL), 1997,p. 3). Autremer~tdit, même lorsqu'elle
joue ce rôle, la Cour est tenue, conformément à son Statut (article 38),
d'appliquer les traité:^ et conventions pertinents ainsi que les principes

générauxdu droit reconnus par les Parties concernées. La Cour ne sau-
rait donc se soustraire à cette fonction judiciaire.
3. Or, force m'est de constater que la Cour, dan:; sa conclusion concer-
nant le traité de 1884conclu par la Grande-Bretagne et les rois et chefs
du Vieux-Calabar relativement à la presqu'île dr: Bakassi, a choisi de
reconnaître la réalitépolitique plutôt que d'appliquer l'instrument et les
principes juridiques pertinents. A mon sens, la Coiir, lorsqu'elle règledes

différends.n'a 1>asrLourrôle de reconnaître ou de consacrer une réalité
politique, mais d'appliquer le droit. Je ne puis davantage souscrire à la
conclusion de la Couirconcernantla «consolidatioii historiaue)) invoauée
en l'espècepar le hligéria, car elle suppose que l'acquisition du titre
conventionnel par l'accord anglo-allemand de 191 3 serait la seule valide
ou qu'il n'existerait qu'un nombre limitéde modes d'acquisition territo-
riale. Si tel étaitle c,as,des concepts comme la pl-escription acquisitive,

pour ne citer que celui-là, n'auraient pas trouvé place dans la jurispru-
dence de la Cour. Je pense que les raisonnements suivis par la Cour pour475 LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (DISS . P.KOROMA)

The main purpose of applying the law is to do justice and where the law
is not correctly applied it could lead to an injustice. It is principally
because of my disagreement with the conclusions and findings of the
Court regarding these two issues that 1 have decided to exercise the
faculty to enter this dissenting opinion as provided for by theStatute.

4. In this dispute both Parties maintain that the main focus is the
Bakassi Peninsula, although they expect different results. Inits final sub-
missions with respect to Bakassi, the Republic of Cameroon, inter alia,

requested the Court to adjudge and declare that sovereignty over the
peninsula is Cameroonian. In both its Mernorial and pleadings before the
Court, Cameroon relied mainly for its title on the Anglo-German Agree-
ment of 11 March 1913 and on various eflectiilités.

5. The Republic of Nigeria, for its part, requested the Court to adjudge
and declare that sovereignty over the Bakassi is vested in the Federal
Republic of Nigeria. It based its claim to sovereignty over the peninsula
on original title, as confirmed by the Treaty of Protection which the
Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar signed with Great Britain on 10 Sep-
tember 1884 and mainly on historical consolidation. In this regard,
Nigeria contended that parts of the Anglo-German Agreement of
11March 1913,under which Bakassi was ceded by Great Britain to Ger-

many and subsequently inherited by Cameroon as successor State, were
invalid as Great Britain was not entitled to cede the territory pursuant to
the 1884 Treaty, which was a treaty of protection and in no way trans-
ferred sovereignty to Great Britain over the territories of the Kings and
Chiefs of Old Calabar. Nigeria further argued that the 1913Agreement
was also invalid on grounds of inconsistency with the principle nemo dut
quod non habet. In Nigeria's view, however, such invalidity only applied
to those parts of the Agreement which purport to prescribe the boundary
and which, if effective,would have involved a cession of territory toGer-
many, that is to Say,essentially Articles XVIII to XXII.

6. In paragraph 209 of the Judgment, the Court reached the conclu-
sion that under the applicable law at the time Great Britain was in a posi-
tion in 1913to determine its boundary with Germany, based on the 1913

Agreement. In paragraph 212 of the Judgment, the Court stated that it is
unable to accept that until Nigeria's independence in 1961,and notwith-
standing the Anglo-German Agreement of 11 March 1913, the Bakassi
Peninsula had remained under the sovereignty of the Kings and Chiefs of
Old Calabar. The Court went on to find that Nigeria, at the time,
accepted that Articles XVIII to XXII of the Anglo-German Agreement
of 1913 were valid and in effect, and that it recognized Cameroonian sov-
ereignty over the Bakassi Peninsula (paragraph 214). Based on these find-
ings, the Court, in its operative paragraphs, decided that the boundary
between the Republic of Cameroon and the Federal Republic of Nigeria
in Bakassi is delimited by Articles XVIII to XX of the Anglo-Germanrésoudre ces deux questions étaient l'un et l'autre profondément fautifs.
L'objet essentiel du droit étantde rendre la justice, son application erro-
née peut conduire à une injustice. C'est essentic:llement parce que je
désapprouve les conclusionsde la Cour sur ces deu cpoints que j'ai décidé

d'exprimer la préseniteopinion dissidente, ainsi q le le Statut m'y auto-
rise.
4. Les deux Parties convenaient en l'espèceque Bakassi étaitau cŒur
de leur litige, mêmesi chacune escomptait au su.iet de la presqu'île un
règlement différent. Dans ses conclusions, la réplblique du Cameroun
priait la Cour de dire et juger, entre autres, que la souveraineté sur
Bakassi était camerclunaise. Dans son mémoire c:t dans ses vlaidoiries
devant la Cour, le Cameroun a principalement invoqué, à l'appui de sa
revendication territoriale, l'accord anglo-allemand du 11mars 1913 ainsi

que différentes effectivités.
5. La République fédéraledu Nigéria, quant à elle, priait la Cour de
dire et juger que la souveraineté sur la presqu'île tle Bakassi lui apparte-
nait. Le Nigéria fondait cette revendication de scbuverainetésur le titre
originel tel que confirmé par le traité de protectorat conclu le 10 sep-
tembre 1884 entre les rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar et la Grande-Bre-
tagne, ainsi que sur la consolidation historique. A cet égard,le Nigériasou-
tenait que certaines dispositions de l'accord anglo-allemand du 11 mars
1913 - par lequel la Grande-Bretagne avait cédé Bakassi à 1'Alle-

magne, qui l'avait ensuite transmise à son successeur, le Cameroun -
n'étaient pasvalides ;lu motif que le traité de 1884n'avait pas donné à la
Grande-Bretagne le droit de céderce territoire; il s'agissait en effet d'un
traité de protectorat. qui ne transférait en aucun cas iila Grande-Bre-
tagne la souveraineté sur les territoires des rois et chefs du Vieux-
Calabar. Le Nigéria contestait également la validitéde l'accord de 1913
au motif que celui-ci était contraire au principe nemo dat quod non
habet. Toutefois, cette invalidité se limitait sel011lui aux dispositions
visant à délimiter la frontière - soit essentiellenient les articles XVIII

XXII - et qui, si elles étaient appliquées,aurairtnt signifiéune cession
de territoire en faveur de l'Allemagne.
6. Au paragraphe 209 de l'arrêt, la Courconcliit qu'en 1913, selon le
droit de l'époque, la Grande-Bretagne pouvait déterminer sa frontière
avec l'Allemagne conformément à l'accord de 1913.Au paragraphe 212,
elle déclare qu'elle nepeut accepter la thèse selon1*quelle,jusqu'à l'indé-
pendance du Nigériii en 1961, et malgré 1'accoi.d anglo-allemand du
11 mars 1913, la presqu'île de Bakassi serait demeurée sous la souverai-
neté des rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar. Elle constate en outre qu'à

cette époque le Nigéria avait admis la validité et I'applicabilité des
articles XVIII à XXII de l'accord anglo-allemzlnd de 1913, et qu'il
avait reconnu que la souverainetésur la presqu'île de Bakassi étaitcame-
rounaise (par. 214). C'est sur cette base que la Cour décide,dans son
dispositif, que la froritièreentre la République du Cameroun et la Répu-
blique fédéraledu hligériadans la région de Ballassi est délimitéepar
les articles XVIII à XX de l'accord anglo-allemzlnd du 11 mars 1913,Agreement of 11 March 1913; and that sovereignty over the Bakassi
Peninsula lies with the Republic of Cameroon.
7. This conclusion, with respect, is unsustainable, both in the light of
the 1884 Treaty and in the light of the material evidence which was
before the Court. The findings are in clear violation of the express pro-
visions of the 1884 Treaty and contrary to the intention of one of the
parties to the 1884Treaty - that of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Cala-
bar - and hence to the rule of pacta sunt servandu, Le., the sanctity of
treaties. This finding, in violation of the applicable treaty and clearly in

breach of the principle of pactu sunt servandu, is not only illegal but
unjust.

8. Moreover, 1 am also unable to accept that the categories of legal
title to territory are restricted to what the Court described as the "estab-
lished" modes, in its response to the contention that the principle of his-
torical consolidation was a valid basis for territorial title, that is to say
that proven long use, coupled with a complex of interests and relations,
as in the present case, can have the effect of attaching a territory to a
given State. In my opinion, founded on the jurisprudence of the Court
(Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951,

I.C.J. Reports 1953,nd p. 57;sLand, Island und Maritime Frontier Dispute

(El SalvadorlHonduras: Nicaragua intervening), Judgment, 1.C.J.
Reports 1992, p. 565,para. 349, historical consolidation, if supported by
the requisite evidence, can be a sound and valid means of establishing
territorial title in international law. When, therefore,uch evidenceis pre-
sented to the Court, as in this case, it does not seem legally justified to
reject such evidence because it is categorized under a particular rubric.
Rather than being preoccupied with the "label" of the evidence, the
Court's essential judicial function should be to assess and interpret the
evidence before it objectively, so as to determine whether or not such evi-
dence is sufficient to establish title to the territory in question.

9. As stated earlier, Nigeria's claimto Bakassi is, on the basis of origi-

nal title, vested in the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar, the geographical
extent of which covered south-eastern Nigeria and which in the 1700s
was peopled mainly by the Efiks and the Efiat. Historically, the territorial
authority of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar is said to have extended
as far east as the Rio del Rey. Nigeria pointed out that the limits of the
territorial authority of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar are con-
veniently represented by two inland waterways known as the Archibong
Creek and Ikankau Creek; that the area known as Old Calabar was the
centre of Efik activity and authority and included towns such as Duke
Town, Creek Town, Henshaw Town and Obutong Town; that other Efik
towns further afield included Tom Shott's Town and Arsibon's (now
Archibong); that each of these towns, or virtually city States, had its own
King or Chief from whom, by the early nineteenth century, the para- et que la souveraineté sur la presqu'île de Bakassi est camerounaise.

7. Cette conclusion, malgré tout le respect dû illa Cour, est indéfen-

dable, non seulement a la lumière du traité de 1884,mais égalementau vu
des nombreux élémentsde preuve qui avaient étésoumis. En effet, cette
conclusion est àl'évidenceincompatible avec les di ;positions expresses du
traitéde 1884, de même qu'elleva à l'encontre de 'intention de l'une des
parties a ce traité- les rois et chefs du Vieux-Cal lbar - et, partant, du

principe pucta sunt servanda, selon lequel les traités sont inviolables.
Cette conclusion, qili méconnaît l'instrument a~plicable et bafoue de
manière flagrante le principe de l'inviolabilité des:rait&, n'est pas seule-
ment illéuale.elle est aussi iniaue.
8. Je ne puis non ]plusm'associer à la Cour 1or:;qu'ellelimite les titres

territoriaux juridiques aux titres acquis par ce qu'elle appelle les modes
«reconnus», en réponse a la thèse selon laquelle a consolidation histo-
rique serait un fondement valide de titre territorial, autrement dit, selon
laquelle un long usage établi, conjugué à un enseml)le complexe d'intérêts
et de relations - connme c'étaitle cas en l'espèce --, pourrait avoir pour

effet de rattacher un territoire à un Etat donné. A mon sens, la consoli-
dation historique, si elle est démontrée, peut consrituer en droit interna-
tional un moyen solide et valide d'établir un titre territorial - et je me
fonde à cet égard sur la jurisprudence de la Cour (Pêcheries(Royaume-
Uni c. Norvège), arrêt, C.I. J. Recueil 1951, p. 1Z 9; Minquiers et Ecré-

hous (Royaume-UnilFrance), arrêt, C.I .. Recueil 1953, p. 57; Difrirend
frontalier terrestre, ijasulaireet maritime (El Sal~un'orlHonduras; Nica-
ragua (intervenant)), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 565, par. 345). Par
conséquent, lorsque des élémentsde preuve sont produits devant la Cour,

comme cela a étéle cas en la présente espèce, il ne semble pas juridique-
ment fondéde les rejeter au motif qu'ils relèventd'une catégorie particu-
lière. Dans l'exercice de sa fonction judiciaire essentielle, la Cour doit
apprécier et interprétl~robjectivement de telles preuves, sans se soucier de
«l'étiquette>>qui leur est donnée,et ce afin de détel-minersi elles suffisent

à établir le titre sur l'eterritoire en cause.
9. J'ai dit précédemment que le Nigéria revendiquait Bakassi en se
réclamant du titre orig"nel des rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar. dont le ter-
ritoire occupait le sud-est du Nigéria et était principalement peuplé, au
XVIIIe siècle.d'Efik et d'Efiat. Historiauement. 1';utorité territoriale des

rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar se serait étendue très à l'est, jusqu'au
Rio del Rey. Le Nigéria a indiqué que deux cours d'eau navigables,
Archibong Creek et Ikankan Creek, étaient tout particulièrement indi-
quéspour délimiter l'étenduede cette autorité ter -itoriale, que la région
connue sous le nom cleVieux-Calabar constituait 1t:centre de l'autorité et

de l'activité des Efik, et que l'on y trouvait plusieurs villes telles que
Duke Town, Creek Town, Henshaw Town et Obutclng Town, que d'autres
villes efik plus éloignées,telles que Tom Shott's Tcwn et Arsibon's Town
(aujourd'hui appelée ~rchibon~) -- virtuelleme.it des cités-Etats -,
avaient chacune son propre roi ou chef et que c était à partir de cettemount chieftancy or kingship - later the Obongship - of Old Calabar
evolved; that in the nineteenth century Old Calabar and its Efik Houses
had established their authority not only over the area around Old Cala-
bar, but also over al1the lands between Cross River and the Rio del Rey.
Furthermore, through economic, social and cultural links, the Kings and
Chiefs of Old Calabar exercised control over their citizens. In particular,
through the Ekpe shrine, the Kings and Chiefs ensured the effective
administration of justice, the maintenance of peace and security and the
development of the resources within their territory. The material evidence
before the Court thus showed that the activities of Old Calabar included

the founding of settlements of increasing permanence in the Bakassi
Peninsula which were within the dominions of Old Calabar.

10. The Court was also furnished with evidence that the British Con-
sul Hewett, who negotiated the 1884Treaty of Protection between Great
Britain and the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar, described Old Calabar
in the following terms: "This country with its dependencies extends from
Tom Shots . .. to the River Rumby (on the Westof Cameroon Moun-
tains), both inclusive" (Counter-Memorial of Nigeria, Vol. 1,p. 95). "The
Chiefs of Tom Shot country, of Efut . . .the country about the River
Rumby, made declarations that they were subject to Old Calabar"
(CR 200218,p. 45, para. 31),an important and significant statement ema-
nating from an officia1who had direct and first-hand knowledge of the

area and evidencing and confirming the extent of Old Calabar. Later evi-
dence of this was provided in 1890by another British Consul, Johnston,
who stated that "the rule of the Old Calabar Chiefs extended far beyond
the Akpayafé River to the very base of the Cameroons" (Counter-
Memorial of Nigeria, Vol. 1,p. 95), and qualified this by adding that the
"Efik people . . .only went as far east as the right bank of the Ndian
River" (ibid.). According to Johnston, who had travelled the region
extensively :

"[tlhe trade and rule of the Old Calabar Chiefs extended, in 1887,
considerably further to the east than the Ndian River

.............................
The left or eastern bank of the Akpayafé and the land between
that river and the Ndian is under the rule of Asibon or Archibong
Edem III, a big Chief of Old Calabar." (Ibid.)

11. On the basis of this evidence, Nigeria maintained that Bakassi and
the Rio del Rey are demonstrably to the west of the Ndian River, and
Bakassi was part of Old Calabar's outlands. Nigeria maintained that the
1884 Treaty between the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar and Great
Britain extended over this territory and was a treaty of protection and
not one in which the territory was ceded to Great Britain. In the light of
the foregoing, Nigeria complained that parts of the Agreement of 1913 FRONTIÈRE ITERRESTRE ET MARITIME (OP.DISS. KOROMA) 477

dignité que s'était développéea,u début du XIXe siècle, cellede chef ou
roi suprême(puis Obong) du Vieux-Calabar; que, au XIXe siècle, I'auto-
ritédu Vieux-Calabar et de ses muisons efik s'étendait non seulement sur
la région autour du Vieux-Calabar, mais égalemc:ntsur l'ensemble des

territoires situésentre la Cross River et le Rio del Rey. En outre, les rois
et chefs du Vieux-Callabarexerçaient un contrôle sIr la vie de leurs sujets
à travers des liens économiques, sociaux et cu1tur:ls. C'est ainsi notam-
ment que, par le biais de l'institution des sanctuaires ekpe, ils adminis-
traient la justice, assuraient la paix et la sécuritéet veillaient à l'exploita-
tion des ressources sur leur territoire. Les élémentsde preuve soumis à la

Cour ont montré que les rois et chefs avaient, entre autres activités,fondé
sur la presqu'île de Bakassi des établissements de plus en plus stables, qui
devinrent partie intégrante du territoire du Vieux-Calabar.
10. Il a également été démontréà la Cour comment le consul britan-
nique Hewett, négociateur du traité de protectorat de 1884 entre la

Grande-Bretagne et 11:srois et chefs du Vieux-Calakiar, avait définicomme
suit le Vieux-Calabar: «ce pays, avec ses dépendances, s'étend de
Tom Shot ... jusqu'à la rivière Rumby (à l'ouest (les monts Cameroun),
tous deux étant compris dans cette région))(contre-mémoire du Nigéria,
vol. 1, p. 95); il précisait que «les chefs des rfgions de Tom Shot,

d'Efut ... près de la rivière Rumby, [avaient] dzclaré être soumis au
Vieux-Calabar)) (CR 200218, p. 45, par. 31). Ces propos d'un fonction-
naire qui avait de la région une connaissance acquise sur le terrain sont
d'une grande importance: ils attestent et confirmrnt l'étendue du terri-
toire du Vieux-Calabar. Ces informations furent corroborées en 1890par
un autre consul britannique, Johnston. qui indiqla que ((l'autorité des

chefs du Vieux-Calabar s'étendait bien au-delà cle la rivière Akpayafé
jusqu'aux portes mêmesdu Cameroun)) (contre-mémoire du Nigéria,
vol. 1,p. 93, en précisant toutefois que le peuple eftk n'avait «pas pénétré
plus à l'est que la rive droite de la rivière Ndian)) (ibid). Johnston, qui
avait longuement sillonnéla région,constata que

(([Ilesactivités commerciales et l'autorité des chefs du Vieux-Calabar

s'étendaient en 1887 beaucoup plus à l'est qu: la riviere Ndian

La rive gauche, ou orientale, de I'Akpayifé et les terres entre
cette rivière et la Ndian relèvent de l'autoriti d'Asibon, ou Archi-
bong Edem III, un grand chef du Vieux-Calabar, qui est l'héritier
légitimedu trône du Vieux-Calabar. )) (Ihid)

11. S'appuyant sur ces divers éléments, le Nigéria a souligné que,
Bakassi et le Rio del Rey se trouvant manifest:ment à l'ouest de la

rivièreNdian, Bakassi faisait partie des territoires périphériquesdu Vieux-
Calabar. Selon le Nigéria, ces territoires étaient donc couverts par le
traité de 1884 concllu entre les rois et chefs dit Vieux-Calabar et la
Grande-Bretagne, q~iiétait un traité de protectorat et non un traité de
cession territoriale en faveur de la Grande-Bretagne. Se fondant sur ceswhich Great Britain concluded with Germany were inconsistent with the
1884 Treaty of Protection and therefore invalid. In Nigeria's view, the
offending Articles were the following:

"XVIII. Thence it follows the thalweg of the Akpakorum
(Akwayafe) River, dividing the Mangrove Islands near Ikang in the

way shown on the aforesaid map T.S.G.S. 2240, sheet 2. It then fol-
lows the thalweg of the Akwayafe as far as a straight line joining
Bakasi Point and King Point.
XIX. Should the thalweg of the Lower Akwayafe, upstream from
the line Bakasi Point-King Point, change its position in such a way
as to affect the relative positions of the thalweg and the Mangrove
Islands, a new adjustment of the boundary shall be made, on the
basis of the new positions, as determined by a map to be made for
the purpose.
XX. Should the lower course of the Akwayafe so change its
mouth as to transfer it to the Rio del Rey, it is agreed that the area
now known as the Bakasi Peninsula shall still remain German terri-
tory. The same condition applies to any portion of territory now
agreed to as being British, which may be cut off in a similar way.

XXI. From the centre of the navigable channel on a line joining
Bakasi Point and King Point, the boundary shall follow the centre of

the navigable channel of the Akwayafe River as far as the 3-mile
limit of territorialjurisdiction. For the purpose of defining this
boundary, the navigable channel of the Akwayafe River shall be
considered to lie wholly to the east of the navigable channel of the
Cross and Calabar Rivers.
XXII. The 3-mile limit shall, as regards the mouth of the estuary,
be taken as a line 3 nautical miles seaward of a line joining Sandy
Point and Tom Shot Point."

Nigeria claims that the effect of this Agreement was that Great Britain
passed title to Bakassi to Cameroon, which it was not entitled to do.
12. Cameroon, on the other hand, contended that it would be inap-
propriate to talk of Old Calabar as if it possessed international person-
ality or as if it was recognized as a Stateuring that period with defined
territorial limits which Nigeria could have inherited.
13. The Court, in paragraph 207 of its Judgment, held that the 1884
Treaty signed with the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar did not establish
an international protectorate and it went on to say that from the outset
Britain regarded itself as administering the territories comprised in the
1884Treaty, and not just protecting them, and that the fact that a dele-
gation was sent to London by the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar in
1913 to discuss matters of land tenure cannot be considered as implying
international personality and simply confirmed the British administration
by indirect rule. According to the Judgment, the Court held that Nigeriaéléments,le Nigéria ;afait valoir que certaines parties de l'accord conclu
en 1913 entre la Grande-Bretagne et l'Allemagne étaient contraires
au traité de protectorat de 1884, et donc invalides. Les articles litigieux
selon le Nigériasont les suivants:
((XVIII. A partir de là, la frontière suit k: thalweg de la rivière

Akpakorum (Ak.wayafé),séparant lesîles Ma,lgrove prèsd'Ikang de
la manièreindiquéesur la carte précitéeT.S.G.S. 2240, feuille 2. Puis
elle suit le thalweg de 1'Akwayaféjusqu'à une ligne droite joignant
Bakassi Point et King Point.
XIX. Au cas où le thalweg du cours inférieurde l'Akwayafé,en
amont de la ligne Bakassi Point-King Point, se déplacerait de telle
sorte que les positions relatives du thalweg et des îles Mangrove s'en
trouveraient modifiées, lafrontière fera l'objtt d'un ajustement, sur
la base de ces nouvelles positions, de la manière qui sera indiquée
par une carte dresséea cet effet.
XX. Au cas où le cours inférieur de 17Ak\vayafé déplacerait son
embouchure de telle sorte que celle-ci arrive au Rio del Rey, il est
entendu que la région actuellement appeléepr:squ'île de Bakassi res-
tera néanmoins territoire allemand. La mêmedisposition s'applique
à toute partie di1territoire actuellement recoiinue comme étant bri-

tannique qui pourrait êtreisoléed'une manière analogue.
XXI. A partir de l'intersection du milieu (lu chenal navigable et
d'une ligne joignant Bakassi Point et King Point, la frontière suivra
le milieu du chenal navigable de la rivièreAkwayafèjusqu'à la limite
des eaux territoi-iales, c'est-à-dire 3 milles. Alx fins de la définition
de cette frontière, le chenal navigable de la rivière Akwayafé sera
considérécomme situé entièrement a l'est di1chenal navigable des
rivièresCross et Calabar.
XXII. En ce qui concerne l'embouchure de l'estuaire, la limite des
3 milles sera unir ligne tracéeau large a 3 milles marins d'une ligne
joignant Sandy Point et Tom Shot Point.))

Pour le Nigéria,la Grande-Bretagne a, par cet accord, transmis au Came-
roun le titre sur Bakassi, ce qu'elle n'étaitpas en droit de faire.
12. Pour le Cameroun, au contraire, le Vieux-C'alabar ne pouvait être
considéréà l'époquecomme une entitédotée d'une personnalité interna-
tionale ou reconnue en tant qu'Etat et possédant LInterritoire aux limites
définiesdont le Nigériaaurait pu hériter.
13. Au paragraphe 207 de son arrêt,la Cour fa~tobserver que le traité
de 1884 conclu avec les rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar n'a pas eu pour
effet d'établir un protectorat international, et qiie la Grande-Bretagne
estima d'emblée qu'il luiincombait d'administrer les territoires couverts
par ce traité,et non pas seulement de les prot6ger. La Cour ajoute que le

fait qu'une délégationdes rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar se soit rendue a
Londres en 1913pour y discuter de questions relatives au régimefoncier
ne saurait êtreconsidéré commeimpliquant une personnalité internatio-
nale et confirme au contraire l'exercice par la Grande-Bretagne d'uneadministration indirecte sur les territoires en cause. La Cour constate que
le Nigériaa lui-mêmeétédans l'incapacitéd'indiquer précisémentce qu'il
étaitadvenu de la personnalité juridique internationale des rois et chefs
du Vieux-Calabar après 1885. Cela revient à considérer que le traité
de 1884ne veut pas dire ce qu'il énonceet que la Grande-Bretagneétait

en droit d'aliénerle territoire visépar le traitéde protectorat, au mépris
des dispositions expresses de ce dernier.
14. Malgrétout le respect dû à la Cour, force rr'estde constater que le
raisonnement qui sous-tend cette conclusion éludeen grande partie les
questions juridiques en cause. A mon sens, la Cour se devait de procéder
à un examen approfiondi du traitéafin d'en détenniner le sens et l'inten-
tion sous-jacente. Le traité de 1884dispose que:

((Article 1. Sa Majestéla reine de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande,
etc., donnant suiità la demande des rois, dei chefs et du peuple du
Vieux-Calabar, s'engage par le présent traitc: a accorder à ceux-ci,
ainsi qu'aux territoires relevant de leur autoritéet de leurjuridiction,
ses bonnes grâces et SU bienveillante protection.
Article 2. Les rois et chefs du Vieux-Callbar acceptent et pro-
mettent de s'abstenir de correspondre ou dt.conclure tout accord
ou traitéavec toute nation ou puissance étranj:ère,saufÙ en informer

le Gouvernement britannique et u en obtenir l'agrément.)) (Contre-
mémoiredu Nigéria,vol. 1,p. 109; les italiques sont de moi.)
15. Ce traitéest parfaitement clair. La Grande .Bretagne s'engageait à
accorder «ses bonnes grâces et sa bienveillante pr(7tection)aux rois, aux

chefs et au peuple du Vieux-Calabar. Selon la jilrisprudence, un traité
dont les termes etdiripositionssont clairs n'a pas besoin d'être interprété.
L'interprétation ne peutdavantage êtreun prétextcpour contester le sens
manifeste qui se dégaged'un instrument juridique. Si la Cour choisit
néanmoins d'interpréterun traité, elle doit le faire conformément aux
règlesinternationaleis applicablesà l'époqueoù le traité fut conclu. Puis-
que l'interprétationd'un traitévise à cerner l'intention des parties signa-
taires, le traitéde 1884ne saurait être interpréautrement qu'en fonction
des règlesinternationales en vigueur au moment de sa conclusion, dont
celle del'inviolabilitlbdes traité(pacta sunt servcznda).Par conséquent,
si la Cour avait interprétéle traitéde 1884,même enfonction des critères

d'interprétation qui prévalaient à l'époque,elle en aurait tiré laconclu-
sion qui s'imposait d'un point de vue juridique, f savoir que la reine de
Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande s'était engagée à accorder «ses bonnes
grâces et sa bienveil1,anteprotection)au territoire relevant de l'autoritéet
de la compétence der;rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar. La création du pro-
tectorat par le traité de 1884n'impliquait aucune cession ou transfert de
territoire. Au contraire, le rôle de la puissance prctrice - la Grande-
Bretagne - consistait strictement à protéger las citoyens du Vieux-
Calabar et non à les déposséderde leur territcire. En outre, loin de
conférer à la Grande-Bretagne des droits de soiiveraineté, le traité lui

imposait au contraire une obligation de protectioii, et non au profit d'un480 LAND AND MARITIME BOUNDARY (DISSO. P.KOROMA)

against other European States whenever their interests were in conflict in
the region, Great Britain thus recognized the sovereignty of the Kings
and Chiefs and people of Old Calabar over their territory and this cannot
subsequently be denied. The 1884Treaty thus constitutes evidence of an
acknowledgment by Great Britain that the Kings and Chiefs of Old Cala-
bar were capable of entering into a treaty relationship with a foreign
Power and that they were recognized as capable of acting at an interna-
tional level. Therefore, to argue that the 1884Treaty did not mean what
itsaid would not only be inconsistent with the express provisions of the
Treaty itself, but would also be contrary to the rule ofpacta sunt ser-
vanda (the sanctity of treaties), a rule which forms an integral part of
international law and is as old as international law itself. In other words,
it is impossible for a State to be released by its own unilateral decision

from its obligations under a treaty which it has signed, whatever the rele-
vant method or period. Thus, given that the 1884Treaty was a treaty of
protection and not one of cession involving the alienation of territory, it
follows that Great Britain's authority in relation to the Kings and Chiefs
of Old Calabar did not include the Dower to conclude on their behalf
treaties which entitled the protectingState to alienate the territory of the
protected State; therefore, the relevant parts of the 1913Anglo-German
Agreement, by which Great Britain purportedly ceded the territory of the
Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar to Germany, lay outside the treaty-
making competence of Great Britain, and were not binding on the Kings
and Chiefs of Old Calabar nor ultimately on Nigeria as the successor
State. There is, therefore, no legal basis on which to hold, as the Court
has done in this case, that the protector State was entitled to cede terri-
tory without the consent and in breach of the protective agreement, by
stating that "from the outset Britain regarded itself as administering the

territories comprised in the 1884 Treaty, and not just protecting them"
(para. 207) or that under the law prevalent at the time (in 1913)Great
Britain was entitled "to determine its boundaries" (para. 209),even when
this affected the territory of a protected State without its consent and
inconsistent with the provisions of the relevant Treaty.These conclusions
are totally at variance with the express provisions of the 1884Treaty and
in violation of the principle of pacta sunt servanda. Moreover, by con-
cluding the 1884Treaty, it is clear that the territory of Old Calabar was
not regarded as a terra nulliusbut a politically and socially organized
community which was recognized as such and which entered into a treaty
relationship with Great Britain, a treaty Great Britain felt able to raise
against other European States.

16. The foregoing is the correct conclusion which the Court would

have reached had it taken the proper approach of interpretingthe Treaty
with respect to the territory of Oldalabar. Such examination would have
shown that the Treaty precluded Great Britain from ceding the terri-tiers. Ainsi, de ce que: letraitéfut valablement conc.lu - ce qui n'a pas été

contesté - et que la Grande-Bretagne l'opposa mêmeà d'autres Etats
européens chaque fois qu'il y eut conflit d'intérêtsdans la région, il
découle que la Grande-Bretagne a reconnu la so~lverainetédes rois, des
chefs et du peuple du.Vieux-Calabar sur leur territoire et que cette recon-
naissance ne peut être démentie postérieurement. Le traité de 1884 est

donc la preuve que la Grande-Bretagne reconnaissait aux rois et chefs du
Vieux-Calabar la capacité de conclure un traité avec une puissance étran-
gère, autrement dit la capacité d'agir au plan international. En consé-
quence, faire valoir que le véritable sensdu traité de 1884 n'est pas son

sens manifeste revient non seulement à en mécorinaître les dispositions
expresses, mais également à nier la règle de l'ii~violabilitédes traités
(pacta sunt servand~z),qui fait partie intégrante du droit international
depuis que celui-ci existe. En d'autres termes, un Etat ne peut en aucun
cas décider de se délier de façon unilatérale des obligations découlant

d'un traité qu'il a signé, quelleque soit la période ou la méthode concer-
née. Ainsi, puisque le traité de 1884 était un traiti de protectorat et non
un traité de cession entraînant l'aliénation d'un telritoire, l'autorité exer-
céepar la Grande-Bretagne à l'égard des rois et chefsdu Vieux-Calabar

ne comprenait pas la capacitéde conclure en leur rom des traités permet-
tant a 1'Etat protecteur d'aliéner le territoire de 'Etat protégé;rien ne
l'autorisait donc a faire figurer dans l'accord anglo-allemand de 1913 les
dispositions supposées avoir pour effet la cession l'Allemagne du terri-
toire des rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar; ces dis1)ositions ne pouvaient

dès lors êtreconsidéréescomme contraignantes pour les rois et chefs du
Vieux-Calabar, ni, plus tard, pour le Nigéria en sz qualité d'Etat succes-
seur. II s'ensuit que rien, en droit, ne permet d'affi -mer,comme l'a fait la
Cour en l'espèce,qw: 1'Etat protecteur étaithabilité à céderun territoire

sans le consentement de 1'Etat protégéet en violat on de l'accord de pro-
tectorat, au motif qui: cet Etat protecteur - la Grande-Bretagne - avait
«estim[é]d'emblée qu'il luiincombait d'administrer les territoires cou-
verts par le traitéde 1884,et non pas seulement de les protéger))(par. 207)
ou que, au regard du droit prévalant a l'époque (soiten 1913),il ((pouvait

déterminer sa frontière)) (par. 209) mêmesi, ce faisant, il portait atteinte
au territoire de 1'Etat protégé - sans que celui-ci J consente - et allait à
l'encontre des dispositions du traité concerné. CI:^conclusions sont en
contradiction totale avec les dispositions expresses du traité de 1884 et

avec le principe pacta sunt servanda. En outre, le seul fait que le traité
de 1884 ait été conclumontre que le Vieux-Calabcr n'était pas considéré
comme une terra nul'liusmais comme une comm~nauté organisée sur le
plan social et politique, reconnue comme telle, et capable d'établir une
relation conventionnelle avec la Grande-Bretagne, par un traitéque cette

dernière n'hésitapas a opposer a d'autres Etats eiiropéens.
16. Telle est la conclusion qui s'imposait, celle à laquelle la Cour serait
parvenue si elle avait, comme elle aurait dû le faire, procédéà l'interpré-
tation du traité s'agissant du territoire du Vieux-C ilabar. Semblable exa-

men aurait montré que le traité interdisait à la Grande-Bretagne de cédertory in question. It would also have revealed that Britain was not entitled
to cede Bakassi under the terms of the Treaty. Such a finding would have
been founded in law. It is common knowledge that territorial titles were
acquired by European States in Africa by treaties of cession, but in the
case of a protectorate treaty the sovereignty which inhered in the local
ruler would be split in such a way that the protector State would exercise
rights of external sovereignty in favour of the protected entity whilst the

interna1 sovereignty would continue to be exercised by the local kings and
rulers. In this regard, some African protectorate treaties, such as the 1884
Treaty with the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar, were expressed in nega-
tive clauses, which imposed restrictions on the contracting rulers as far as
exercising their external sovereignty is concerned. Under such a treaty,
the Kings and Chiefs undertook not to enter into treaties with other
Powers, not to maintain relations (including diplornatic intercourse), not to

go to war with such Powers, and, most importantly, not to cede territory.
Thus, the clause prohibiting transfer of territory to "other" European
Powers was considered the most important within the framework of the
protectorate. In the case of the 1884Treaty between the Kings and Chiefs
of Old Calabar and Great Britain, Great Britain was not authorized in
the international relations of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar, or
otherwise, to act in their name and on their behalf, nor did the Kings and

Chiefs give up their right and power to make treaties and agreements
with foreign States, but agreed that they would do so only after having
first informed the British Government and having obtained its approval.

17. In my view, the position with regard to protectorates is correctly
stated in the latest edition of Oppenheim. According to the author:

"An arrangement may be entered into whereby one state, while
retaining to some extent its separate identity as a state, is subject to
a kind of guardianship by another state. The circumstances in which
this occurs and the consequences which result Vary from case to
case, and depend upon the particular provisions of the arrangement
between the two states concerned.

Protectorate is, however, a conception which lacks exact legal
precision, as its real meaning depends very much upon the special
case . ..
The position within the international community of a state under
protection is defined by the treaty of'protection which enurnerates
the reciprocal rights and duties of the protecting and the protected

states. Each case must therefore be treated according to its own
merits . . . But it is characteristic oj'a protectorate thut the pro-
tected state alivays has, and retuins, jur some purposes, u position
of its own as an international person and u subject of international
1aw." (Oppenheim's International Law, Sir Robert Jennings andce territoire. Il aurait égalementmis en évidenceque le traitén'autorisait
pas davantage la Grande-Bretagne à céder Bakassi.Et cette conclusion
aurait étéfondée endroit. Chacun sait que les Etats européens acquirent
des titres territoriaux en Afrique par le biais detiaités de cession, mais,
dans le cas des traité!,de protectorat, laouverainthtéinhérenteau souve-

rain local étaitpartagée de façon que 1'Etatprotecteur exerçât des droits
de souveraineté externe en faveur de l'entitéprotégée tandis queles rois
et souverains locaux continuaient d'exercer la soul~erainetéinterne. C'est
ainsi que certains traités de protectorat conclus en Afrique, comme celui
de 1884avec les rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar, fiirent libellés en termes
restrictifs qui limitaient l'exercicede la souveraineté externe par les sou-
verains locaux contractants. Par ces traités,les roi:,et chefs s'engageaient
à ne pas conclure d'accord avec d'autres puissances, à n'entretenir avec
elles aucune forme de relations (notamment diplomatiques), à ne pas
s'allier avecellespour faire la guerre. et, surtout,à ne pas leur céder de
territoire. Ainsi,'intirrdiction de tout transfert de territoiàed'«autres»
puissances européennesétait-elle considéréc eomme l'aspect leplus impor-
tant du régime de protectorat. Le traité de 1884 n'autorisait pas la

Grande-Bretagne, dans le cadre des relations internationales des rois et
chefs du Vieux-Calabar, ni dans aucun autre contexte, à agir au nom et
pour le compte de ces derniers, pas davantage qle les rois et chefs ne
renonçaient à leur droit età leur pouvoir de concllre des accords ou des
traités avecd'autresE:tatsétrangers - ils s'engageaient seulementà n'exer-
cer ce droit et ce pouvoir qu'après en avoir informé le Gouvernement
britannique et avoir {obtenule consentement de ce dernier.
17. A mon sens, l'interprétation qu'il convient de donner au concept
de protectorat est celle qui figure dans la dernière éditiond'oppenheim:

«Un Etat peut conclure un accord par lequel, tout en conservant
dans une certaine mesure son identité distincte en tant qu'Etat, il se

place en quelque sorte sous la tutelle d'un altre Etat. Le contexte
dans lequel cela1se produit et les conséquences qui en résultent
varient selon les cas et dépendentdes clauses particulières de l'accord
entre les deux Eitatsconcernés.

Cela dit, le protectorat est un concept quimianquede précisiondu
point de vue juridique, puisque son sens réelest très variable selon
les cas...
Le statut d'un Etat sous protection au sein de la communauté
internationale est définipar le traitéde protection, qui énumèreles
droits et obligations réciproques de 1'Etat protecteur et de 1'Etat

protégé.Il faut donc traiter chaque cas selon ses particularités ...
Mais il est caroctéristique d'un protectorat Yue I'Etat protégéait
toujours ù certaines Jins une existence propre en sa qualité de per-
sonne internationale et de sujet de droit international et qu'il la
conserve.» (Oppenheinl's International Law, :,ir Robert Jennings et Sir Arthur Watts (eds.), 9th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 267-269; emphasis
added.)

18. It was against this background and on this basis that the Court
should have looked at the 1884 Treaty, a treaty of protection which
specifiesthe terms of protection and the rights and obligations, which did
not include authority to alienate territory. Bakassi was part of the terri-
torial scope of the 1884 Treaty of Protection and could not have been
changed without the consent of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar.
Thus, to the extent that evidence of such consent was not provided, there
was no basis even under the applicable law at that time for Great Britain
to be able to determine its boundaries with Germany in respect of
Bakassi, and to the extent that such determination was detrimental to the
interests of Old Calabar it should have been declared invalid by the
Court. The Judgment did not make it clear what the Court had in mind
by saying that Great Britain was in a position to determine its boundary
in 1913, because the primary question is whether Great Britain was
entitled to alienate the territory which included Bakassi in 1913. And
since the answer to this question has to be in the negative, the 1913

Anglo-German Agreement could not and cannot be regarded as valid.

19. It follows from the above that 1 cannot agree with the Court's
findings that the maritime boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria lies
to the west of the Bakassi Peninsula and not to the east in the Rio del
Rey. Nor can 1accept that the maritime boundary between the Parties is
"anchored" to the mainland at the intersection of the straight line from
Bakassi Point to King Point with the centre of the navigable channel of
the Akwayafe River in accordance with Articles XVIII and XXI of the
1913Anglo-German Agreement. The Court reached these findings on the
basis of the 1913 Agreement which, as 1 have already demonstrated, is
invalid as far as those of its provisions relating to Bakassi are concerned.
This invalidityalone should have prevented the Court from reaching the
aforementioned conclusions (ex una causa, nullitas) or (ex injuria non
oritus jus).

20. Another aspect of the Judgment which has given me much cause
for legal concern is the Court's refusal to assess Nigeria's evidencerelat-
ing to historical consolidation, which was one of the main grounds of it's
claim to territorial title to Bakassi and with respect to some villages
which had grown up around Lake Chad, and the Court's treatment with

regard to the concept itself. Nigeria claimed that historical consolidation,
which is founded upon proven long use, coupled with a complex of
interests and relations which, in themselves, have the effect of attaching
a territory, constitutes a legal basis of territorial title. sir Arthur Wat1.s(dir. publ.), 9' éd.,vol.1, p. 267-269; les italiques
sont de moi.)

18. C'est dans cette optique, et en tenant compte de ce qui précède,
que la Cour aurait dû examiner le traité de1884, lin traité deprotectorat
qui précisaitles conditions de la protection accordée ainsi que les droits
et obligations en découlant, parmi lesquels ne figurait pas le pouvoir
d'aliéner desterritoires. Bakassi faisait partie di1 territoire visépar le
traité de protectorat de 1884 et cela ne pouvait êtremodifié sans le
consentement des rois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar. Or, puisque l'existence
d'un tel consentement n'a pas été prouvéer,ien ne permet d'affirmer que
la Grande-Bretagne, mêmeau regard du droit pré-ialant à l'époque, pou-

vait déterminersa frontière avec l'Allemagne dan; la régionde Bakassi;
et puisque cette frontière a étédéterminéeau pr5judice des intérêtsdu
Vieux-Calabar, la Cour aurait dû la déclarer inva:ide. Dans son arrêt,la
Cour ne précisepas ce qu'elle entend en affirmant que la Grande-Bre-
tagne pouvait déterminer sa frontière en 1913;or, la question qui se pose
avant tout est cellede savoir si la Grande-Bretagne était en droit d'aliéner
le territoire quiinclilait Bakassi en 1913. Et cor'me la seule réponse à
cette question est négative, l'accordanglo-allemand de 1913 ne pouvait et
ne peut être réputé valide.
19. Au vu de ce qui précède,je ne peux, contrairement a la Cour,
conclure que la frontière maritime entre le Cameroun et le Nigéria passe
à l'ouest de la presclu'île de Bakassi, et non à 1':st de celle-ci, dans le

Rio del Rey. Je ne peux davantage considérer qu: l'«ancrage» terrestre
de la frontière maritime entre les Parties se situià l'intersection de la
ligne droite joignant Bakassi Point et King Point avec le milieu du chenal
navigable de la rivière Akwayafé, conforméme~itaux articles XVIII
et XXI de l'accord ane"o-allemand de 1913.La Cour tire ces conclusions
de l'accord alorsque lesdispositions de ce dernier qui concernent Bakassi
ne sont pas valides, comme je l'ai déjàmontré. Cette invaliditéaurait dû
suffire en soi pour que la Cour ne conclue pas c: qui précède (ex una
causa, nullitas ou ex injuria non oritusjus).

20. Un autre point dans l'arrêtme préoccupesur le plan juridique: le
refus de la Cour d'apprécierles élémentsprésentés à l'appui de la conso-
lidation historique -- l'un des principaux arguments sur lesquels le
Nigéria fondait le titre territorial qu'il revendiquait sur Bakassi et cer-
tains villages formésautour du lac Tchad -, ainsi que l'interprétation
qu'elle donne du concept lui-même.Le Nigériz a fait valoir que la

consolidation historique, qui repose sur un long lsage établi,conjugué
à un ensemble complexe d'intérêts etde relation:, qui tendent par eux-
mêmes a rattacher iin territoire, constitue une tase juridique du titre
territorial. 21. With reference to the established villages around Lake Chad,
Nigeria cited various elements of local government administration in sup-
port of its claim of historical consolidation and effectivitésincluding:
legal jurisdiction, taxation, authority of traditional rulers and the fact
that the settlements were populated by Nigerian nationals.

22. With reference to the Anglo-German Agreement of 1913 and
despite its invalidity in relation to the 1884Treaty between Great Britain

and the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar, Nigeria argues that the weight
of evidence suggests that there was no German occupation or adminis-
tration of Bakassi, and no significant pattern of German activities there,
in the period between March 1913 and May 1916.It pointed out that the
realities of administrative development in the peninsula between 1913
and 1916 showed that Bakassi continued to be administered as part of
Nigeria and that the administration and governance of the area came vir-
tually exclusively from Nigeria. Nigeria also stated that, as far as local
government was concerned, the British in 1922 introduced a system of
indirectrule, using "Warrant Chiefs", and that in 1933the system of indi-
rect rule was superseded by a native authority system introduced by the
Native Authorities Ordinance of 1933.Nigeria explained out that in 1950
this overburdened system of local government was rationalized by the
Eastern Region Local Government Ordinance No. 60 of 1950,leading in
1955to the three-tier system of localgovernment which was later replaced
by a two-tier system under the eastern regional local government law.

23. As far as legaljurisdiction was concerned, Nigeria pointed out that
native courts were established in the first years of Britishule under their
system of indirect rule and that the Native Authorities Ordinance of 1933
introduced new native courts organized along similar lines to the local
native councils. The Court was also informed that the people of the
Bakassi region were paying taxes to the Calabar and Eket authorities,
and that these divisions within Nigeria were collecting the taxes. Further
evidence was that a Methodist school was established at Abana on
Bakassi in 1937and that a census was conducted in the area under the
auspices of the Eket Division in 1953.Ties with the traditional authori-
ties of Old Calabar continued uninterrupted and public order was main-
tained with the investigation of crime. There was also evidence of the
exercising of ecclesiasticaljurisdiction as well as the delimitation oflec-
toral wards and the citizens participated in parliamentary elections and
were enumerated in the census. Public works and development adminis-
tration were carried out as well as the exercising of military jurisdiction.

Thus a considerable amount and volume of evidence was presented to
substantiate the claim of historical consolidation including education,
public health, the granting of oil exploration permits and production
agreements, the collection of taxes, the collection of custom duties, the
use of Nigerian passports by residents of the Bakassi Peninsula, the regu- 21. S'agissant des villages établis autour du lac Tchad, le Nigéria a
énuméré, à l'appui dlea consolidation historique qu'il invoque, différents
éléments d'administi-ation locale et effectivités,comme l'exercice d'une
compétencejudiciaire, l'existenced'une fiscalité, 1exercice d'une autorité
par les chefs traditionnels et le fait que les village; soientplks de res-
sortissants nigérians.
22. S'agissant de l'accord anglo-allemand de 1'113,et bien que celui-ci
ne soit pas valide a la lumièredu traité de 1884conclu entre la Grande-
Bretagne et lesrois et chefs du Vieux-Calabar, le higéria a fait valoir que,
d'après les preuves disponibles, l'Allemagne n'avait jamais, entre
mars 1913et mai 1916,occupéou administréBakassi, ni exercé d'activi-

tés significativessur la presqu'île.l a relevéque 1histoire administrative
de la presqu'île entrt: 1913 et 1916 montrait que Bakassi avait continué
d'être administrée comme faisant partie du Nigériaet que la gestion des
affaires publiques y etait presque exclusivement assuréea partir du Nigé-
ria. Le Nigéria a également indiqué que, en niatière de collectivités
locales, les Britanniques avaient instauré en 1922 un régimed'adminis-
tration indirecte faisant appel auxWarrant Chiefs (souverainslocaux tra-
ditionnels), qui fut remplacé en 1933 par un rigime d'administration
autochtone, en appllication de l'ordonnance sur les autorités autoch-
tones promulguée cette année-la.Le Nigériaa en outre relevéque ce sys-
tème trèslourd avait étérationalisépar l'ordonnance no 60 de 1950 sur
le gouvernement local de la Régionorientale, qui déboucha en 1955sur
la mise en place d'une structure d'administration locale a trois niveaux,
a laauelle fut substitué DIUStard un svstèmeà deiix niveaux en vertu de
la loi relative au gouvernement local de la Régior orientale.
23. En matièrejudliciaire,le Nigériaa relevéque destribunaux autoch-

tones avaient étécréés dès les premières années (lu régimebritannique,
dans le cadre de l'administration indirecte, et qu'en 1933 l'ordonnance
relative aux autorités autochtones avait institué ce nouveaux tribunaux
autochtones organisks sur le modèle des conseils gutochtones locaux. Le
Nigériaa égalementindiqué ala Cour que les autoritésdes circonscrip-
tions de Calabar et d7Eket, qui font partie du Nigéria, percevaient des
impôts auprès de la population de la régionde Bakassi. Il a par ailleurs
démontré qu'uneécoleméthodiste avait été ouvert:en 1937 à Abana, sur
la presqu'île de Bakassi, qu'un recensement avait été réalisé dans la
région en1953, sous les auspices de la circonscription d'Eket et que des
liens avec les autorités traditionnelles s'étaientmaintenus sans interrup-
tion, le Nigériaassurant en outre le maintien de l'ordre et le déroulement
des enquêtesjudiciaires. Le Nigériaa égalementproduit des preuves rela-
tives a l'exercice de la juridiction ecclésiastiquel. a la délimitation des
circonscriptions électorales,montrant notamment que lescitoyens étaient
recenséset participaientaux élections législatives.Enfinl,e Nigéria s'occu-
pait de l'administration des travaux publics et du développement,et exer-

çait une juridictionmilitaire. Le Nigériaa donc pi.ésentéa , l'appui de la
consolidation historique qu'il invoquait, un nombre considérable d'élé-
ments de preuve coricernant la santé et l'enseignement publics, la déli-lation of emigration in Bakassi, and that the territory itself had been the
subject of interna1 Nigerian State rivalry.

24. Nigeria maintained that there was acquiescence to al1these activi-

ties, some of which had been carried out over a long period. It contended
that acquiescence in this respect had a threefold role: (1) as a significant
element in the process of historical consolidation of title; (2) that it con-
firms a title on the basis of peaceful possession of the territory concerned;
(3) that it may be characterized as the main component of title. Nigeria
submitted that the Government of Cameroon acquiesced in the long-
established Nigerian administration of the Bakassi region and to most of
the aforementioned activities until 1972onwards when there were various
Cameroonian initiatives, and in particular the project of renaming vil-
lages, which clearly demonstrates the previous absence of Cameroonian
administration. Nigeria submits that at no stage did Cameroon exercise
peaceful possession of the peninsula and that from the time of independ-
ence in 1960until 1972,the Government of Cameroon failed to challenge
the legitimate Nigerian presence in the region.

25. Responding to the claim of title based on historical consolidation,
the Court, in paragraph 65 of the Judgment, stated that apart from in the
Fisheries (United Kingdom v. Norway) case "[this] notion . ..has never
been used as a basis of title in other territorial disputes, whether in its
own or in other case law" - and that nothing in the FisheriesJudgment
suggested that the "historical consolidation" referred to allowed land
occupation to prevail over an established treaty title. The Court also
stated that "the established modes of acquisition of title . .. take into
account many other important variables of fact and law" (ihid.), which
are not taken into consideration by the "over-generalized" concept of
"historical consolidation".

26. In my view, the categories of legal title to territory cannot be
regarded as finite. The jurisprudence of the Court has never spoken of
"modes of acquisition", which is a creation of doctrine. Just as the Court
has recognized prescriptive rights to territory, so there is a basis for his-
torical consolidation as a means of establishing a territorial claim. Nor
can the concept of historical consolidation as a mode of territorial title be
regarded as "over-generalized" and alien to jurisprudence. Both munici-
pal and international law including the Court's jurisprudence, recognize a
situation of continuous and peaceful display of authority - proven
usage - combined with a complex of interests in and relations to a ter-
ritory, which, when generally known and accepted, expressly or tacitly,
could constitute title based on historical consolidation. The "important
variables" of the so-called established modes of acquisition, which thevrance de permis d'exploration pétroliére et la conclusiond'accords de
production, la perception d'impôts et de droits de douane, l'utilisation de
passeports nigérians par les résidentsde Bakassi r:t la réglementation de
l'immigration dans la presqu'île; il a en outre démontréque cettedernière

avait suscité des rivalitésinternes au sein de 1'Etai nigérian.
24. Le Nigéria a affirmé qu'il y avait eu acquiescement à toutes ces
activités,dont certaines s'étaientétenduessur une longue période. Selon
lui, un tel acquiesceinent joue un triple rôle: 1) il constitue un élément
majeur du processus de consolidation historique 3u titre; 2) il confirme
un titre fondé sur la possession pacifique du territoire contesté; et 3) il
peut être considérécomme le principal élémentdu titre. Le Nigériaa sou-
tenu que le Gouvernement camerounais avait acquiescé à son adminis-
tration exercéede longue date sur la région de Bakassi, ainsi qu'à la
plupart des activitésmentionnées plus haut, jusql'en 1972. A partir de
cette date, le Cameroun a entrepris diverses initiatives, en particulier un

projet visant à rebaptiser les villages, preuve manifeste qu'aucune admi-
nistration camerounaise n'existait antérieurement. Le Nigéria affirmeque
le Cameroun n'a exercé à aucun moment une pcssession paisible de la
presqu'île et que, de l'accession à l'indépendancei:n 1960jusqu'en 1972,
le Gouvernement camerounais n'a pas contesté la légitimitéde la pré-
sence nigérianedans la région.
25. En réponse à la consolidation historique irvoquée par le Nigéria
comme fondement du titre, la Cour, au paragraphe 65 de l'arrêt,reléve
que, hormis dans l'affaire des Pêcheries(Royaume- Unic. Norvège), cette
notion «n'a jamais ittéutiliséecomme fondemert d'un titre territorial

dans [des]affaires contentieuses, que ce soit dans sa propre jurisprudence
ou dans celle d'autres organes juridictionnels)), et que rien dans l'arrêt
rendu en l'affaire des Pêcheriesne donne à enten'ire que la «consolida-
tion historique)) dont il est fait étatautoriseraità faire prévaloir l'occu-
pation d'un territoire terrestre sur un titre convenfionnel établi.La Cour
observe également que les «modes d'acquisition de titre reconnus ...
tiennent compte de nombreux autres facteurs importants de fait et de
droit)) (ihid), qui rie sont pas pris en considération dans le concept
par trop généralde <,(consolidationhistorique)).
26. Les catégories de titres juridiques sur un territoire ne sauraient à
mon sens êtreconsidéréescomme constituant un 1:nsemblefini. Dans sa

jurisprudence, la Coiur n'a jamais parlé des «mo(les d'acquisition)), qui
sont une création de doctrine. Si la Cour a reconnu que des droits terri-
toriaux pouvaient êtreacquis par prescription, la consolidation histo-
rique peut, de la mêmemanière, confirmer une revendication territoriale.
On ne peut affirmer non plus que la notion de consolidation historique,
en tant quemode d'acquisition de titre territorial, soit «surgénéralisée»et
absente de la jurispruidence. Tant le droit interne que- comme il ressort
notamment de lajuriisprudence de la Cour - le droit international recon-
naissent que la manikstation continueet pacifique d'une autorité - c'est-
à-dire un usage établli, conjuguée à un ensemble complexe d'intérêts et
de relations à l'égard d'un territoire, peut, si elle est communémentCourt did not define, are not absent in historical consolidation. If any-
thing, they are even more prevalent - the complex of interests and rela-
tions being continuous and extending over many years plus acquiescence.
Historical consolidationalsocaters for a situation where there has been a
clear loss or absence of title through abandonment or inactivity on the
one side, and an effective exercise of jurisdiction and control, continu-

ously maintained, on the other (see Fitzmaurice, "General Principles of
International Law", Recueil des cours de l'Académie de droit interna-
tional de La Huye, 1957,p. 148).

27. Failure of a State to react to a claim may, under certain condi-
tions, not amount to acquiescence, though in most cases it will. In the
Minquiers and Ecrehos case, France pleaded that it was impossible to
keep under surveillancethe activities of the United Kingdom with respect
to the islets. Responding to this argument, Judge Carneiro replied that
France was obliged to keep the disputed territory under surveillance and
failure to exercisesuch surveillance and ignorance of what was going on
on the islets indicate that France was not exercising sovereignty in the

area (Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953, p. 106). In the Anglo-Norwegian
Firheries case, the Court held that Great Britain, being a maritime Power
traditionally concerned with the law of the sea, with an interest in the
fisheries of the North Sea could not have been ignorant of Norwegian
practice and could not rely on an absence of protest, relevant in proving
historic title(Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1951, p. 139). Thus a passive
course of conduct involving failure to protest may be taken into account
in determining acquiescence in a territorial dispute. If the circumstances
are such that some reaction within a reasonable period iscalled for on the
part of a State, the latter, if itils to react, must be said to have acqui-
esced. "Qui tucet consentire videtur si loqui debuisset ac potuisset."

28. Regarding the length of time required to prove title on the basis of
historical consolidation, every material situation calls for its own solu-
tion, based on the balancing of competing claims and depending on the
area. Title may be proved even without reference to the period of time
during which sovereignty had coalesced over the territory in dispute. In
paragraph 65 of the Judgment, the Court stated that "the facts and cir-
cumstances put forward by Nigeria . . . concern a period of some
20 years, which is in any event far too short, even according to the theory
relied on by it". While proven long usage is an important element to con-
solidate title on a historical basis, however, and depending on the area,
that period may sometimes be shorter. What is required is an assessment
of al1the elements to determine whether the facts presented establish the
claim.connue et acceptée,(quece soit expressémentou tacitement, créer untitre
fondé sur la consolidation historique. Les ((facteurs importants)) des
modes d'acquisition dits reconnus, que la Cour n'a pas définis, nesont

pas absents dans la consolidation historique. Ils y seraient même extrê-
mement présents - sous la forme d'un ensemble complexe et continu
d'intérêtset de relations s'étendant sur plusieurs années,auquel s'ajoute
l'acquiescement. Il y a égalementconsolidation historique lorsqu'un titre
a été manifestementperdu ou est inexistant parce que l'une desparties y
a renoncé ou demeure inactive alors que l'autre exerce sa compétenceet
son contrôle de manière effectiveet continue (voir Fitzmaurice, ((General
Principles of International Law», Recueil des tours de l'Académie de
droit internutionul de La Haye, 1957, p. 148).
27. Si l'absence de réaction d'un Etat face à iine revendication peut,
sous certaines conditions, n'être pas assimilée àun acquiescement, elle le

sera néanmoins dans la plupart des cas. Dans l'affaire des Minquiers et
Ecréhous, la France avait fait valoir qu'il lui étaitimpossible de surveiller
continuellement les activités de laGrande-Bretagne à l'égard des îlots.Le
juge Carneiro répondit à cela qu'il suffisaià la France de surveiller le
territoire litigieux et que l'omission d'une telle sul.veillanceet l'ignorance
de ce qui se passait sur lesîlots équivalaienà une absence d'exercice de la
souveraineté française dans la région (arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1953, p. 106).
Dans l'affaire des Pêcheries(Royaume-Uni c. Norvège), la Cour estima
que la Grande-Bretagne, en tant que puissance rnaritime traditionnelle-
ment attentive au droit de la mer et dont l'intérêptour les pêcheriesde la
mer du Nord étaitavéré,ne pouvait ignorer la pratique norvégienne et ne

pouvait donc exciper d'un défaut deprotestation qui aurait étépertinent
pour justifier un titre historiqu(arrêt,C.I.J.Reczleil1951, p. 139).Ainsi,
une conduite passive qui se traduirait notamment par un défaut de pro-
testation peut être prise en considération pour établir l'existence d'un
acquiescement dans un différend territorial. Si 1c.scirconstances exigent
une quelconque réaction de la part d'un Etat, daiis un délai raisonnable,
l'absence d'une telle réactiondoit êtreassimilée à un acquiescement. Qui
tucet consentire videtur si loyui debuisset uc potukset.
28. S'agissant de la période qui doit s'être écoulépour qu'un titre soit
établi sur la base de:la consolidation historique, chaque cas appelle une
réponsedistincte, qui sera fonction du poids respectif accordé aux reven-

dications concurrentes des parties ainsi que de la zone concernée.II peut
même n'êtrp eas nécessaire,pour démontrer 1'exis;:enced'un titre, de tenir
compte de la période au cours de laquelle il y a eu chevauchement des
souverainetés sur le territoire litigieux. Au paragaphe 65 de l'arrêt,la
Cour déclare que ((les faits et circonstances avancés par le Nigé-
ria ..concernent ...une périoded'une vingtaine (l'annéesen tout état de
cause trop brève au regard mêmede la théorie invoquée. >)Mêmesi un
long usage établiest un élément essentielde la consolidation historique
d'un titre, une périodeplus courte peut, selon laz,ne concernée,êtrepar-
fois suffisante. Ce qui s'impose, c'estd'apprécierla totalité des éléments
disponibles afin d'établir si les faits invoqués justifient la revendication. 29. With reference to the matter at hand, the evidence of original title
on which Nigeria bases its claim to Bakassi can be found in the admin-
istration of Bakassi on the part of the Kings and Chiefs of Old Calabar
before and after the conclusion of the 1884Treaty with Great Britain, the
exercising of authority by traditional rulers, the Efik and Efiat toponymy
of the territory, its ethnic affiliation with Nigeria but not with Cameroon,
the long-established settlement of Nigerians in the territory and the mani-
festation of sovereign acts, such as tax collection, census-taking, the pro-
vision of education-and public health services.The acquiescence of Cam-
eroon in this long-established Nigerian administration of the territory,
the permanent population, the significant affiliations of a Nigerian
character, do substantiate a claim based on historical consolidation and
which in turn militates in favour of territorial title and stability. The

claim to territorial title to Bakassi and to the Nigerian settlements around
Lade Chad was thus adequately substantiated and there is no legaljusti-
fication to cast doubt on its legal basis and integrity.

30. Since the basis of the Court's finding on Bakassi has relied mainly
on its evaluation of the Anglo-German Agreement of 1913,I cannot help
but point out that even in the Court's jurisprudence, conventional title is
only one way of establishing title to territory. The Chamber of the Court
in the Frontier Dispute (Burkina FasolRepublic of Mali) case makes the
following observation :

"The Chamber also feels obliged to dispel a misunderstanding
which might arise from this distinction between 'delimitation dis-
putes' and 'disputes as to attribution of territory'. One of the effects
of this distinction is to contrast 'legaltitles' and 'ejfectivités'.In this
context, the term 'legal title'appears to denote documentary evidence
alone. It is hardly necessary to recall that this is not the only
accepted meaning of the word 'title'. Indeed, the Parties have used
this word in different senses. In fact, the concept of title may also,
and more generally, comprehend both any evidence whichmay estab-
lish the existence of a right, and the actual source of that right. The

Chamber will rule at the appropriate juncture on the relevance of the
evidence produced by the Parties for the purpose of establishing
their respective rights in this case. It will now turn to the question of
the rules applicable to the case; in so doing, it will, inter alia, ascer-
tain the source of the rights claimed by the Parties." (Judgment,
I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 564, para. 18 ; emphasis added.)

This position was further confirmed by another Chamber of the Court
in 1992 in the case concerning the Land, Island and Maritime Frontier
Dispute (El SalvadorlHonduras: Nicaragua intervening) :

"The term 'title'has in fact been used at times in these proceedings 29. En l'espèce, l'existencedu titre originel dorit se réclamele Nigéria
pour fonder sa revendication sur Bakassi est clémontréepar I'admi-
nistration exercée à l'égardde la presqu'île par les rois et chefs, avant et
aprèsla conclusion du traitéde 1884avec la Grade-Bretagne, par l'exer-
cice d'une autorité par les chefs traditionnels, par la toponymie efik et
efiat, par les attache!, ethniques qui lient le territoire au Nigéria etnon au
Cameroun, par l'implantation ancienne de Nigérians sur le territoire en

cause, ainsi que par l'existence d'actes de souveraineté, notamment en
matière de fiscalité,de recensement, d'éducatior et de santé publique.
L'acquiescement du Cameroun à cette administriition nigérianeimplan-
téede longue date sur le territoire en cause, le cai.actere permanent de la
population et les importantes attaches nigérianessont autant d'éléments
qui appuient une revendication fondée sur la cc~nsolidation historique,
laquelle militeà son tour en faveur de l'existence du titre territorial et de
la stabilité. La revlrndication d'un titre territo.-ial sur Bakassi et les
villages nigérians autour du lac Tchad s'appuyai1 donc sur des éléments
parfaitement appropriés et rien, en droit, n'autorisait à en mettre en
doute le fondement juridique et la légitimité.
30. Puisque la coilclusion de la Cour concernarit Bakassi découleprin-
cipalement de son appréciation de l'accord anglo-.illemand de 1913, force

m'est de rappeler qu'un titre conventionnel, mêmedans la jurisprudence
de la Cour, n'est qu'un moyen parmi d'autres d'établir un titre sur un
territoire. Dans l'affaire du Différend frontalier (Burkina FasolRépu-
hlique du Mali), la Chambre de la Cour fit obseiver ce qui suit:

«La Chambre se doit encore de dissiper uii malentendu qui pour-
rait résulterde la distinction susviséeentre ((conflitsde délimitation))
et ((conflitsd'attribution territoriale)). Cette cistinction a entreautres
effets dloppos<:r ((titres juridiques)) et ((effectivités)). Dans ce
contexte, l'expression ((titre juridique)) seml~lese référer exclusive-
ment i l'idéedepreuve documentaire. Il est a peine besoin de rappe-
ler que ce n'estpas lu la seule acception du t~ot «titre».Les Parties
ont d'ailleurs fait usage de ce terme en dessrns divers. En réalitéla
notion de titre peut également et plusgénérdement viser aussi bien
tout moyen de preuve susceptible d'établirl'ilxistence d'un droit que
la source mêmt?de ce droit. La Chambre s? prononcera en temps
opportun sur Irpertinence des moyens de ~euve produits par les
Parties aux fins d'établirleurs droits respect fs en l'espèce.Elle exa-

minera dés à présent quellessont les règlesapplicables aux fins de
l'affaire; ce faisant elle dégageranotamment la source des droits que
les Partiesrevendiquent. »(Arrêt,C.1. J.Recueil 1986, p. 564,par. 18 ;
les italiques sont de moi.)

Une autre Chambre de la Cour confirma ce point de vue en 1992, en
l'affaire duDgféreridfrontalier terrestre, insulaire et maritime (El Sal-
vadorlHonduras; Nicaragua (intervenant) ) :
«Le mot «titre» a en fait, dans la préserite instance, été parfois in such a way as to leave unclear which of several possible meanings
is to be attached toit; some basic distinctions may therefore perhaps
be usefully stated. As the Chamber in the Frontier Dispute case
observed, the word 'title' isenerally not limitedto documentary evi-
dence alone, but comprehends 'both any evidence which may estab-
lish the existence of a right, and the actual source of that riglzt'

(I.C.J. Reports 1986, p. 564, para. 18)." (Judgment, 1. C. J. Reports
1992, p. 388, para. 45.)

Notwithstanding the foregoing, it is regrettable for the Court to have
made the 1913 Anglo-German Agreement the main basis of its finding,

since this Agreement, in my view, was patently unjust.

31. To sum up my position, by denying the legal validity of the 1884
Treaty whilst at the same time declaring valid the Anglo-German Agree-
ment of 1913,the Court decided to recognize a political reality over the
express provisions of the 1884 Treaty. The justification for this choice
does not appear legal to me. It would not bejustified for the Court, given
its mission, if it were to be regarded as having consecrated an act which
is evidently anti-legal1regret this situation and it explains my position in
thismatter.

(Signed) Abdul G. KOROMA. employéde telle manière qu'on ne sait pas tris bien parmi ses divers
sens possibles lequel lui attribuer; il est donc peut-êtreutile de rap-
peler certaines distinctions fondamentales. Co nme l'a fait observer la
Chambre constituéedans l'affaire du Différefidfrontalier, en général

le mot «titre» ne renvoie pas uniquement à uviepreuve documentaire,
mais «peut ...viseraussi bien tout moyen de preuve susceptible d'éta-
blir l'existence d'un droit que lu source mêmede ce droit)) (C.I.J.
Recueil 1986, p 564, par. 18).>) (Arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 388,
par. 45.)

Je trouve regrettable que la Cour, sans tenir compte de ce qui précède,se
soit fondéeprincipallrment sur l'accord anglo-allerland de 1913 pour par-
venir aux conclusions qui sont les siennes, car, àmon sens, cet instrument
est manifestement injuste.
31. En résuméj,'estime que la Cour, en ne recorinaissant pas la validité
juridique du traitéde 1884et en confirmant au CO traire celle de l'accord
anglo-allemand de 1913, a choisi de consacrer la réalitépolitique plutôt
que le contenu des clispositions expresses du traitéde 1884.Ce choix ne
me semble pas fonde en droit. La Cour, eu égard i sa mission, ne saurait
donner a penser qu'elle a consacré un acte manifestement contraire au
droit. Je regrette qu'il en soit ainsi et c'est ce qu explique ma position.

(Signé) Abdul G. KOROMA.

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Dissenting opinion of Judge Koroma

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